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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:05:59 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:05:59 -0700 |
| commit | e3709c9229f19948bc103e09be88073bf0f72d32 (patch) | |
| tree | f993931343e7d2f314cebe83cbbfe05900b2067b /36520-h | |
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*/ + position: absolute; + left: 94%; + font-size: .8em; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + sup { font-size: .6em; margin-left: 0em;} + sup.low { bottom: 1em; font-size: 1em; margin-left: 0em; } + + sub { top: 0em; font-size: .6em; bottom: -1.2em; } + + .blockquot {font-size: .80em; margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; + margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} + .center {text-align: center; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; } + .center2 {font-size: .85em; text-align: center; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} + + span.center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: normal;} + + img { text-decoration: none; border: none; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-top: 0em;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; } + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: .5em; margin-top: + .5em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + .figleft2 {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: .5em; margin-top: + .5em; margin-right: 2em; padding: 0; text-align:justify;} + + .figright2 {float: right; clear: right; margin-right: 0; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-left: 2em; text-align:justify;} + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.90em; } + .footnote .label {position: absolute; left: 13%; text-align: left; font-size: .9em; text-decoration: none;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; line-height: .5em; font-size: .6em; text-decoration: none;} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation +to Sex, by Charles Darwin</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</p> +<p> Volume II (1st Edition)</p> +<p>Author: Charles Darwin</p> +<p>Release Date: June 25, 2011 [eBook #36520]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCENT OF MAN AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Steven Gibbs, Turgut Dincer,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Project Gutenberg has Volume I of this book. See + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34967"> + http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34967</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h4>THE</h4> +<h1>DESCENT OF MAN,</h1> + +<h5>AND</h5> + +<h2>SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">By</span> CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &<span class="smcap">c.</span></h3> + +<h4>IN TWO VOLUMES.—<span class="smcap">Vol. II.</span></h4> + +<h6>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.</h6> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h4>LONDON:<br /> + +JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.<br /> + +1871.</h4> + +<h6>[<i>The right of Translation is reserved.</i>]</h6> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h3>ERRATA.</h3> +<hr /> +<h4>VOL. I.</h4> + +<table width="85%" summary="errata"> +<tr> +<td class="left25">Page</td> +<td class="left25">line</td> +<td class="left25"><i>For</i></td> +<td class="leftr25"><i>read</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"> <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a></td> +<td class="left25">13</td> +<td class="left25">kaolo</td> +<td class="left25">koala.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"> <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_31">31</a></td> +<td class="left25">6</td> +<td class="left25">prostratica</td> +<td class="left25">prostatica.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"> 59, <i>note</i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></td> +<td class="left25">2</td> +<td class="left25">speech</td> +<td class="left25">species.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"> 74, <i>note</i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></td> +<td class="left25">—</td> +<td class="left25">Browne</td> +<td class="left25">Brown.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25">118, <i>note</i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a></td> +<td class="left25">—</td> +<td class="left25">Vol. I.</td> +<td class="left25">Vol. II.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25">128, <i>note</i><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a></td> +<td class="left25">4</td> +<td class="left25"><i>Before</i> vol. xiv.</td> +<td class="left25"><i>insert</i> ‘Proc. Royal Soc.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a></td> +<td class="left25">2</td> +<td class="left25">prostratica</td> +<td class="left25">prostatica.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a></td> +<td class="left25">5</td> +<td class="left25">Actineæ</td> +<td class="left25">Actiniæ.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a></td> +<td class="left25">30</td> +<td class="left25">land-shells</td> +<td class="left25">land-snails.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_330">330</a></td> +<td class="left25">16</td> +<td class="left25">figs. 4 and 5</td> +<td class="left25">figs. 4, 5, and 6.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_334">334</a></td> +<td class="left25">17</td> +<td class="left25">Birgos</td> +<td class="left25">Birgus.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a></td> +<td class="left25">8</td> +<td class="left25">attractions</td> +<td class="left25">attentions.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a></td> +<td class="left25">3</td> +<td class="left25">dragon-flys</td> +<td class="left25">dragon-flies.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a></td> +<td class="left25">17</td> +<td class="left25">Typhæus</td> +<td class="left25">Typhœus.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a></td> +<td class="left25">31</td> +<td class="left25">tesselatum</td> +<td class="left25">tessellatum.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a></td> +<td class="left25">9</td> +<td class="left25">Hypopira</td> +<td class="left25">Hypopyra.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_405">405</a></td> +<td class="left25">21</td> +<td class="left25">Acrœidæ</td> +<td class="left25">Acræidæ.</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<h4>VOL. II.</h4> +<table width="85%" summary="errata"> +<tr> +<td class="left25"> <a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +<td class="left25">30</td> +<td class="left25">chamelion</td> +<td class="left25">chameleon.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> +<td class="left25">4</td> +<td class="left25">mail</td> +<td class="left25">male.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> +<td class="left25">23</td> +<td class="left25">Chloehaga</td> +<td class="left25">Chloephaga.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25">227, <i>note</i><a href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">281</a></td> +<td class="left25">—</td> +<td class="left25">Ramphaston</td> +<td class="left25">Ramphastos.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25">240, <i>note</i><a href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">289</a></td> +<td class="left25">—</td> +<td class="left25">Mr. H. Brown</td> +<td class="left25">Mr. R. Brown.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25">240, <i>note</i><a href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">290</a></td> +<td class="left25">2</td> +<td class="left25">elephus</td> +<td class="left25">elaphus.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> +<td class="left25">14</td> +<td class="left25">walruses</td> +<td class="left25">narwhals.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left25"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td> +<td class="left25">27</td> +<td class="left25">Durfur</td> +<td class="left25">Darfur.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="contents"> +<tr> +<td class="center"><h2>CONTENTS.</h2></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center"><hr /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center"><h3>PART II.</h3></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2"><h4>SEXUAL SELECTION—<i>continued</i>.</h4></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center">CHAPTER XII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Fishes, Amphibians, +and Reptiles.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85"><span class="smcap">Fishes</span>: Courtship and battles of the males—Larger size of the +females—Males, bright colours and ornamental appendages; +other strange characters—Colours and appendages acquired by +the males during the breeding-season alone—Fishes with both +sexes brilliantly coloured—Protective colours—The less conspicuous +colours of the female cannot be accounted for on the +principle of protection—Male fishes building nests, and taking +charge of the ova and young. <span class="smcap">Amphibians</span>: Differences in +structure and colour between the sexes—Vocal organs. <span class="smcap">Reptiles</span>: +Chelonians—Crocodiles—Snakes, colours in some cases +protective—Lizards, battles of—Ornamental appendages—Strange +differences in structure between the sexes—Colours—Sexual +differences almost as great as with birds</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_1">1-37</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">Sexual differences—Law of battle—Special weapons—Vocal +organs—Instrumental music—Love-antics and dances—Decorations, +permanent and seasonal—Double and single annual +moults—Display of ornaments by the males</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_38">38-98</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span><span class="smcap">Birds</span>—<i>continued</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">Choice exerted by the female—Length of courtship—Unpaired +birds—Mental qualities and taste for the beautiful—Preference +or antipathy shewn by the female for particular males—Variability +of birds—Variations sometimes abrupt—Laws of variation—Formation +of ocelli—Gradations of character—Case of +Peacock, Argus pheasant, and <i>Urosticte</i></td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_99">99-153</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XV.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Birds</span>—<i>continued</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">Discussion why the males alone of some species, and both sexes +of other species, are brightly coloured—On sexually-limited +inheritance, as applied to various structures and to brightly-coloured +plumage—Nidification in relation to colour—Loss of +nuptial plumage during the winter</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_154">154-182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Birds</span>—<i>continued</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">The immature plumage in relation to the character of the plumage +in both sexes when adult—Six classes of cases—Sexual differences +between the males of closely-allied or representative species—The +female assuming the characters of the male—Plumage of +the young in relation to the summer and winter plumage of the +adults—On the increase of beauty in the Birds of the World—Protective +colouring—Conspicuously-coloured birds—Novelty +appreciated—Summary of the four chapters on birds</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_183">183-238</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Mammals.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">The law of battle—Special weapons, confined to the males—Cause +of absence of weapons in the female—Weapons common to both +sexes, yet primarily acquired by the male—Other uses of such +weapons—Their high importance—Greater size of the male—Means +of defence—On the preference shewn by either sex in the +pairing of quadrupeds</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_239">239-273</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Mammals.</span>—<i>continued.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">Voice—Remarkable sexual peculiarities in seals—Odour—Development +of the hair—Colour of the hair and skin—Anomalous +case of the female being more ornamented than the male—Colour +and ornaments due to sexual selection—Colour acquired +for the sake of protection—Colour, though common to both +sexes, often due to sexual selection—On the disappearance of +spots and stripes in adult quadrupeds—On the colours and +ornaments of the Quadrumana—Summary</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_274">274-315</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Mammals.</span>—<i>continued.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">Differences between man and woman—Causes of such differences +and of certain characters common to both sexes—Law of battle—Differences +in mental powers—and voice—On the influence +of beauty in determining the marriages of mankind—Attention +paid by savages to ornaments—Their ideas of beauty in woman—The +tendency to exaggerate each natural peculiarity</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_316">316-354</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XX.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Man</span>—<i>continued</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">On the effects of the continued selection of women according to a +different standard of beauty in each race—On the causes which +interfere with sexual selection in civilised and savage nations—Conditions +favourable to sexual selection during primeval +times—On the manner of action of sexual selection with mankind—On +the women in savage tribes having some power to +choose their husbands—Absence of hair on the body, and development +of the beard—Colour of the skin—Summary</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_355">355-384</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">General Summary and Conclusion.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85">Main conclusion that man is descended from some lower form—Manner +of development—Genealogy of man—Intellectual and +moral faculties—Sexual selection—Concluding remarks</td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_385">385-405</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left85"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> +<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_406">406</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></p> + +<h3>POSTSCRIPT.</h3> + +<hr /> + +<p>Vol. I. pp. 297-299.—I have fallen into a serious and +unfortunate error, in relation to the sexual differences +of animals, in attempting to explain what seemed to +me a singular coincidence in the late period of life +at which the necessary variations have arisen in many +cases, and the late period at which sexual selection +acts. The explanation given is wholly erroneous, as +I have discovered by working out an illustration in +figures. Moreover, the supposed coincidence of period +is far from general, and is not remarkable; for, as I +have elsewhere attempted to show, variations arising +early in life have often been accumulated through +sexual selection, being then commonly transmitted to +both sexes. On the other hand, variations arising late +in life cannot fail to coincide approximately in period +with that of the process of sexual selection. Allusions +to these erroneous views reappear in Vol. II. pp. 161 +and 237.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> + +<h2>SEXUAL SELECTION.</h2> + +<hr /> +<h3>CHAPTER XII.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Fishes, Amphibians, +and Reptiles.</span></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Fishes</span>: Courtship and battles of the males—Larger size of the +females—Males, bright colours and ornamental appendages; +other strange characters—Colours and appendages acquired by +the males during the breeding-season alone—Fishes with both +sexes brilliantly coloured—Protective colours—The less conspicuous +colours of the female cannot be accounted for on the +principle of protection—Male fishes building nests, and taking +charge of the ova and young. <span class="smcap">Amphibians</span>: Differences in +structure and colour between the sexes—Vocal organs. <span class="smcap">Reptiles</span>: +Chelonians—Crocodiles—Snakes, colours in some cases +protective—Lizards, battles of—Ornamental appendages— +Strange differences in structure between the sexes—Colours—Sexual +differences almost as great as with birds.</p></div> + +<p>We have now arrived at the great sub-kingdom of the +Vertebrata, and will commence with the lowest class, +namely Fishes. The males of Plagiostomous fishes +(sharks, rays) and of Chimæroid fishes are provided +with claspers which serve to retain the female, like the +various structures possessed by so many of the lower +animals. Besides the claspers, the males of many rays +have clusters of strong sharp spines on their heads, +and several rows along “the upper outer surface of their +pectoral fins.” These are present in the males of some +species, which have the other parts of their bodies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> +smooth. They are only temporarily developed during +the breeding-season; and Dr. Günther suspects that they +are brought into action as prehensile organs by the +doubling inwards and downwards of the two sides of the +body. It is a remarkable fact that the females and not +the males of some species, as of <i>Raia clavata</i>, have their +backs studded with large hook-formed spines.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> + +<p>Owing to the element which fishes inhabit, little +is known about their courtship, and not much about +their battles. The male stickleback (<i>Gasterosteus leiurus</i>) +has been described as “mad with delight” when +the female comes out of her hiding-place and surveys +the nest which he has made for her. “He darts round +her in every direction, then to his accumulated materials +for the nest, then back again in an instant; +and as she does not advance he endeavours to push +her with his snout, and then tries to pull her by the +tail and side-spine to the nest.”<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> The males are said +to be polygamists;<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> they are extraordinarily bold and +pugnacious, whilst “the females are quite pacific.” +Their battles are at times desperate; “for these puny +combatants fasten tight on each other for several +seconds, tumbling over and over again, until their +strength appears completely exhausted.” With the +rough-tailed stickleback (<i>G. trachurus</i>) the males whilst +fighting swim round and round each other, biting and +endeavouring to pierce each other with their raised lateral +spines. The same writer adds,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> “the bite of these little +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span>furies is very severe. They also use their lateral spines +with such fatal effect, that I have seen one during a +battle absolutely rip his opponent quite open, so that +he sank to the bottom and died.” When a fish is +conquered, “his gallant bearing forsakes him; his gay +colours fade away; and he hides his disgrace among +his peaceable companions, but is for some time the +constant object of his conqueror’s persecution.”</p> + +<p>The male salmon is as pugnacious as the little stickleback; +and so is the male trout, as I hear from Dr. +Günther. Mr. Shaw saw a violent contest between two +male salmons which lasted the whole day; and Mr. R. +Buist, Superintendent of Fisheries, informs me that he +has often watched from the bridge at Perth the males +driving away their rivals whilst the females were spawning. +The males “are constantly fighting and tearing +each other on the spawning-beds, and many so injure +each other as to cause the death of numbers, many +being seen swimming near the banks of the river in +a state of exhaustion, and apparently in a dying +state.”<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The keeper of the Stormontfield breeding-ponds +visited, as Mr. Buist informs me, in June, 1868, +the northern Tyne, and found about 300 dead salmon, +all of which with one exception were males; and he was +convinced that they had lost their lives by fighting.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f26" id="f26"></a><img src="images/fig26.png" width="500" height="631" +alt="Fig. 26. Head of male of common salmon." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 26. Head of male of common salmon (<i>Salmo salar</i>) during the breeding-season.</p> + +<p class="small">[This drawing, as well as all the others in the present chapter, have been executed by +the well-known artist, Mr. G. Ford, under the kind superintendence of Dr. Günther, from +specimens in the British Museum.]</p></div> + +<p>The most curious point about the male salmon is +that during the breeding-season, besides a slight change +in colour, “the lower jaw elongates, and a cartilaginous +projection turns upwards from the point, which, when +the jaws are closed, occupies a deep cavity between +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw.”<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> (Figs. +<a href="#f26">26</a> and <a href="#f27">27</a>.) In our salmon this change of structure +lasts only during the breeding-season; but in the <i>Salmo +lycaodon</i> of N.W. America the change, as Mr. J. K. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span>Lord<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> believes, is permanent and best marked in the +older males which have previously ascended the rivers. +In these old males the jaws become developed into immense +hook-like projections, and the teeth grow into +regular fangs, often more than half an inch in length. +With the European salmon, according to Mr. Lloyd,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span>the temporary hook-like structure serves to strengthen +and protect the jaws, when one male charges another +with wonderful violence; but the greatly developed +teeth of the male American salmon may be compared +with the tusks of many male mammals, and they +indicate an offensive rather than a protective purpose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f27" id="f27"></a><img src="images/fig27.png" width="450" height="539" +alt="Fig. 27. Head of female salmon." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 27. Head of female salmon.</p></div> + +<p>The salmon is not the only fish in which the teeth +differ in the two sexes. This is the case with many +rays. In the thornback (<i>Raia clavata</i>) the adult male +has sharp, pointed teeth, directed backwards, whilst +those of the female are broad and flat, forming a pavement; +so that these teeth differ in the two sexes of the +same species more than is usual in distinct genera of +the same family. The teeth of the male become sharp +only when he is adult: whilst young they are broad and +flat like those of the female. As so frequently occurs +with secondary sexual characters, both sexes of some +species of rays, for instance <i>R. batis</i>, possess, when adult, +sharp, pointed teeth; and here a character, proper to +and primarily gained by the male, appears to have been +transmitted to the offspring of both sexes. The teeth +are likewise pointed in both sexes of <i>R. maculata</i>, but +only when completely adult; the males acquiring them +at an earlier age than the females. We shall hereafter +meet with analogous cases with certain birds, in which +the male acquires the plumage common to both adult +sexes, at a somewhat earlier age than the female. +With other species of rays the males even when old +never possess sharp teeth, and consequently both sexes +when adult are provided with broad, flat teeth like +those of the young, and of the mature females of +the above-mentioned species.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> As the rays are bold, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span>strong and voracious fishes, we may suspect that the +males require their sharp teeth for fighting with their +rivals; but as they possess many parts modified and +adapted for the prehension of the female, it is possible +that their teeth may be used for this purpose.</p> + +<p>In regard to size, M. Carbonnier<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> maintains that +with almost all fishes the female is larger than the male; +and Dr. Günther does not know of a single instance +in which the male is actually larger than the female. +With some Cyprinodonts the male is not even half as +large as the female. As with many kinds of fishes the +males habitually fight together; it is surprising that +they have not generally become through the effects of +sexual selection larger and stronger than the females. +The males suffer from their small size, for according to +M. Carbonnier they are liable to be devoured by the +females of their own species when carnivorous, and no +doubt by other species. Increased size must be in +some manner of more importance to the females, than +strength and size are to the males for fighting with +other males; and this perhaps is to allow of the production +of a vast number of ova.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f28" id="f28"></a><img src="images/fig28.png" width="500" height="381" +alt="Fig. 28. Callionymus lyra. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 28. <i>Callionymus lyra</i>. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.</p></div> + +<p>In many species the male alone is ornamented with +bright colours; or these are much brighter in the male +than the female. The male, also, is sometimes provided +with appendages which appear to be of no more use to +him for the ordinary purposes of life than are the tail-feathers +to the peacock. I am indebted for most of the +following facts to the great kindness of Dr. Günther. +There is reason to suspect that many tropical fishes +differ sexually in colour and structure; and there are +some striking cases with our British fishes. The male +<i>Callionymus lyra</i> has been called the <i>gemmeous dragonet</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>“from its brilliant gem-like colours.” When freshly +taken from the sea the body is yellow of various shades, +striped and spotted with vivid blue on the head; the +dorsal fins are pale brown with dark longitudinal bands; +the ventral, caudal and anal fins being bluish-black. +The female, or sordid dragonet, was considered by Linnæus +and by many subsequent naturalists as a distinct +species; it is of a dingy reddish-brown, with the dorsal +fin brown and the other fins white. The sexes differ also +in the proportional size of the head and mouth, and in +the position of the eyes;<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> but the most striking difference +is the extraordinary elongation in the male (fig. <a href="#f28">28</a>) +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span>of the dorsal fin. The young males resemble in structure +and colour the adult females. Throughout the +genus <i>Callionymus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> the male is generally much more +brightly spotted than the female, and in several species, +not only the dorsal, but the anal fin of the male is much +elongated.</p> + +<p>The male of the <i>Cottus scorpius</i>, or sea-scorpion, is more +slender and smaller than the female. There is also a +great difference in colour between them. It is difficult, +as Mr. Lloyd<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> remarks, “for any one, who has not seen +this fish during the spawning-season, when its hues are +brightest, to conceive the admixture of brilliant colours +with which it, in other respects so ill-favoured, is at +that time adorned.” Both sexes of the <i>Labrus mixtus</i>, +although very different in colour, are beautiful; the male +being orange with bright-blue stripes, and the female +bright-red with some black spots on the back.</p> + +<p>In the very distinct family of the Cyprinodontidæ—inhabitants +of the fresh waters of foreign lands—the +sexes sometimes differ much in various characters. In +the male of the <i>Mollienesia petenensis</i>,<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> the dorsal fin is +greatly developed and is marked with a row of large, +round, ocellated, bright-coloured spots; whilst the same +fin in the female is smaller, of a different shape, and +marked only with irregularly-curved brown spots. In +the male the basal margin of the anal fin is also a little +produced and dark-coloured. In the male of an allied +form, the <i>Xiphophorus Hellerii</i> (fig. <a href="#f29">29</a>), the inferior +margin of the anal fin is developed into a long filament, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>which is striped, as I hear from Dr. Günther, with bright +colours. This filament does not contain any muscles, +and apparently cannot be of any direct use to the fish. +As in the case of the Callionymus, the males whilst +young resemble in colour and structure the adult +females. Sexual differences such as these may be +strictly compared with those which are so frequent +with gallinaceous birds.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f29" id="f29"></a><img src="images/fig29.png" width="500" height="332" +alt="Fig. 29. Xiphophorus Hellerii. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 29. <i>Xiphophorus Hellerii</i>. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f30" id="f30"></a><img src="images/fig30.png" width="500" height="815" +alt="Fig. 30. Plecostomus barbatus. Upper figure, head of male; lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 30. <i>Plecostomus barbatus</i>. Upper figure, head of male; lower figure, female.</p></div> + +<p>In a siluroid fish, inhabiting the fresh waters of South +America, namely the <i>Plecostomus barbatus</i><a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> (fig. <a href="#f30">30</a>), +the male has its mouth and interoperculum fringed with +a beard of stiff hairs, of which the female shews hardly +a trace. These hairs are of the nature of scales. In +another species of the same genus, soft flexible tentacles +project from the front part of the head of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>male, which are absent in the female. These tentacles +are prolongations of the true skin, and therefore are not +homologous with the stiff hairs of the former species; but +it can hardly be doubted that both serve the same +purpose. What this purpose may be it is difficult to +conjecture; ornament does not here seem probable, but +we can hardly suppose that stiff hairs and flexible filaments +can be useful in any ordinary way to the males +alone. The <i>Monacanthus scopas</i>, which was shewn to me +in the British Museum by Dr. Günther, presents a nearly +analogous case. The male has a cluster of stiff, straight +spines, like those of a comb, on the sides of the tail; and +these in a specimen six inches long were nearly an inch +and a half in length; the female has on the same place +a cluster of bristles, which may be compared with those +of a tooth-brush. In another species, the <i>M. peronii</i>, the +male has a brush like that possessed by the female of +the last species, whilst the sides of the tail in the female +are smooth. In some other species the same part of the +tail can be perceived to be a little roughened in the +male and perfectly smooth in the female; and lastly in +others, both sexes have smooth sides. In that strange +monster, the <i>Chimæra monstrosa</i>, the male has a hook-shaped +bone on the top of the head, directed forwards, +with its rounded end covered with sharp spines; in the +female “this crown is altogether absent,” but what its +use may be is utterly unknown.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> + +<p>The structures as yet referred to are permanent in the +male after he has arrived at maturity; but with some +Blennies and in another allied genus<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> a crest is developed +on the head of the male only during the breed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>ing-season, +and their bodies at the same time become +more brightly-coloured. There can be little doubt that +this crest serves as a temporary sexual ornament, for the +female does not exhibit a trace of it. In other species +of the same genus both sexes possess a crest, and in at +least one species neither sex is thus provided. In this +case and in that of the <i>Monacanthus</i>, we have good instances +to how great an extent the sexual characters of +closely-allied forms may differ. In many of the Chromidæ, +for instance in <i>Geophagus</i> and especially in <i>Cichla</i>, +the males, as I hear from Professor Agassiz,<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> have a conspicuous +protuberance on the forehead, which is wholly +wanting in the females and in the young males. Professor +Agassiz adds, “I have often observed these fishes +at the time of spawning when the protuberance is +largest, and at other seasons when it is totally wanting +and the two sexes shew no difference whatever in the +outline of the profile of the head. I never could +ascertain that it subserves any special function, and +the Indians on the Amazon know nothing about its +use.” These protuberances in their periodical appearance +resemble the fleshy caruncles on the heads of certain +birds; but whether they serve as ornaments must +remain at present doubtful.</p> + +<p>The males of those fishes, which differ permanently in +colour from the females, often become more brilliant, as +I hear from Professor Agassiz and Dr. Günther, during +the breeding-season. This is likewise the case with a +multitude of fishes, the sexes of which at all other +seasons of the year are identical in colour. The tench, +roach, and perch may be given as instances. The male +salmon at this season is “marked on the cheeks with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>orange-coloured stripes, which give it the appearance +of a <i>Labrus</i>, and the body partakes of a golden-orange +tinge. The females are dark in colour, and are commonly +called black-fish.”<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> An analogous and even +greater change takes place with the <i>Salmo eriox</i> or bull-trout; +the males of the char (<i>S. umbla</i>) are likewise at +this season rather brighter in colour than the females.<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> +The colours of the pike (<i>Esox reticulatus</i>) of the United +States, especially of the male, become, during the +breeding-season, exceedingly intense, brilliant, and iridescent.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> +Another striking instance out of many is +afforded by the male stickleback (<i>Gasterosteus leiurus</i>), +which is described by Mr. Warington,<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> as being then +“beautiful beyond description.” The back and eyes of +the female are simply brown, and the belly white. The +eyes of the male, on the other hand, are “of the most +splendid green, having a metallic lustre like the +green feathers of some humming-birds. The throat +and belly are of a bright crimson, the back of an +ashy-green, and the whole fish appears as though it +were somewhat translucent and glowed with an internal +incandescence.” After the breeding-season +these colours all change, the throat and belly become +of a paler red, the back more green, and the glowing +tints subside.</p> + +<p>That with fishes there exists some close relation +between their colours and their sexual functions we can +clearly see;—firstly, from the adult males of certain +species being differently coloured from the females, and +often much more brilliantly;—secondly, from these same +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span> +males, whilst immature, resembling the mature females;—and, +lastly, from the males, even of those species +which at all other times of the year are identical in +colour with the females, often acquiring brilliant tints +during the spawning-season. We know that the males +are ardent in their courtship and sometimes fight desperately +together. If we may assume that the females +have the power of exerting a choice and of selecting the +more highly-ornamented males, all the above facts +become intelligible through the principle of sexual +selection. On the other hand, if the females habitually +deposited and left their ova to be fertilised by +the first male which chanced to approach, this fact +would be fatal to the efficiency of sexual selection; for +there could be no choice of a partner. But, as far +as is known, the female never willingly spawns except +in the close presence of a male, and the male never +fertilises the ova except in the close presence of +a female. It is obviously difficult to obtain direct +evidence with respect to female fishes selecting +their partners. An excellent observer,<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> who carefully +watched the spawning of minnows (<i>Cyprinus phoxinus</i>), +remarks that owing to the males, which were ten times +as numerous as the females, crowding closely round +them, he could “speak only doubtfully on their operations. +When a female came among a number of +males they immediately pursued her; if she was not +ready for shedding her spawn, she made a precipitate +retreat; but if she was ready, she came boldly in +among them, and was immediately pressed closely by +a male on each side; and when they had been in that +situation a short time, were superseded by other two, +who wedged themselves in between them and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span>female, who appeared to treat all her lovers with +the same kindness.” Notwithstanding this last statement, +I cannot, from the several previous considerations, +give up the belief that the males which are +the most attractive to the females, from their brighter +colours or other ornaments, are commonly preferred by +them; and that the males have thus been rendered +more beautiful in the course of ages.</p> + +<p>We have next to inquire whether this view can be +extended, through the law of the equal transmission of +characters to both sexes, to those groups in which the +males and females are brilliant in the same or nearly +the same degree and manner. In such a genus as +<i>Labrus</i>, which includes some of the most splendid +fishes in the world, for instance, the Peacock <i>Labrus</i> +(<i>L. pavo</i>), described,<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> with pardonable exaggeration, as +formed of polished scales of gold encrusting lapis-lazuli, +rubies, sapphires, emeralds and amethysts, we +may, with much probability, accept this belief; for we +have seen that the sexes in at least one species differ +greatly in colour. With some fishes, as with many of +the lowest animals, splendid colours may be the direct +result of the nature of their tissues and of the surrounding +conditions, without any aid from selection. The +goldfish (<i>Cyprinus auratus</i>), judging from the analogy +of the golden variety of the common carp, is, perhaps, +a case in point, as it may owe its splendid colours to +a single abrupt variation, due to the conditions to +which this fish has been subjected under confinement. +It is, however, more probable that these colours have +been intensified through artificial selection, as this species +has been carefully bred in China from a remote +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>period.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> Under natural conditions it does not seem +probable that beings so highly organised as fishes, and +which live under such complex relations, should become +brilliantly coloured without suffering some evil or receiving +some benefit from so great a change, and consequently +without the intervention of natural selection.</p> + +<p>What, then, must we conclude in regard to the many +fishes, both sexes of which are splendidly coloured? +Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> believes that the species which frequent +reefs, where corals and other brightly-coloured organisms +abound, are brightly coloured in order to escape detection +by their enemies; but according to my recollection +they were thus rendered highly conspicuous. In the +freshwaters of the Tropics there are no brilliantly-coloured +corals or other organisms for the fishes to +resemble; yet many species in the Amazons are beautifully +coloured, and many of the carnivorous Cyprinidæ +in India are ornamented with “bright longitudinal +lines of various tints.”<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Mr. M’Clelland, in +describing these fishes goes so far as to suppose that +“the peculiar brilliancy of their colours” serves as “a +better mark for kingfishers, terns, and other birds +which are destined to keep the number of these fishes +in check;” but at the present day few naturalists will +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span>admit that any animal has been made conspicuous as an +aid to its own destruction. It is possible that certain +fishes may have been rendered conspicuous in order to +warn birds and beasts of prey (as explained when treating +of caterpillars) that they were unpalatable; but it +is not, I believe, known that any fish, at least any freshwater +fish, is rejected from being distasteful to fish-devouring +animals. On the whole, the most probable +view in regard to the fishes, of which both sexes are +brilliantly coloured, is that their colours have been +acquired by the males as a sexual ornament, and have +been transferred in an equal or nearly equal degree to +the other sex.</p> + +<p>We have now to consider whether, when the male +differs in a marked manner from the female in colour +or in other ornaments, he alone has been modified, +with the variations inherited only by his male offspring; +or whether the female has been specially modified and +rendered inconspicuous for the sake of protection, such +modifications being inherited only by the females. It is +impossible to doubt that colour has been acquired by +many fishes as a protection: no one can behold the +speckled upper surface of a flounder, and overlook its +resemblance to the sandy bed of the sea on which it +lives. One of the most striking instances ever recorded +of an animal gaining protection by its colour (as far +as can be judged in preserved specimens) and by +its form, is that given by Dr. Günther<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> of a pipefish, +which, with its reddish streaming filaments, is +hardly distinguishable from the sea-weed to which it +clings with its prehensile tail. But the question now +under consideration is whether the females alone have +been modified for this object. Fishes offer valuable +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span>evidence on this head. We can see that one sex will +not be modified through natural selection for the sake +of protection more than the other, supposing both to +vary, unless one sex is exposed for a longer period +to danger, or has less power of escaping from such +danger than the other sex; and it does not appear that +with fishes the sexes differ in these respects. As far as +there is any difference, the males, from being generally +of smaller size, and from wandering more about, are +exposed to greater danger than the females; and yet, +when the sexes differ, the males are almost always the +most conspicuously coloured. The ova are fertilised +immediately after being deposited, and when this process +lasts for several days, as in the case of the salmon,<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> +the female, during the whole time, is attended by the +male. After the ova are fertilised they are, in most +cases, left unprotected by both parents, so that the +males and females, as far as oviposition is concerned, +are equally exposed to danger, and both are equally +important for the production of fertile ova; consequently +the more or less brightly-coloured individuals of either +sex would be equally liable to be destroyed or preserved, +and both would have an equal influence on the +colours of their offspring or the race.</p> + +<p>Certain fishes, belonging to several families, make +nests; and some of these fishes take care of their +young when hatched. Both sexes of the brightly-coloured +<i>Crenilabrus massa</i> and <i>melops</i> work together in +building their nests with sea-weed, shells, &c.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> But the +males of certain fishes do all the work, and afterwards +take exclusive charge of the young. This is the case +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>with the dull-coloured gobies,<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> in which the sexes are +not known to differ in colour, and likewise with the +sticklebacks (<i>Gasterosteus</i>), in which the males become +brilliantly coloured during the spawning-season. The +male of the smooth-tailed stickleback (<i>G. leiurus</i>) performs +during a long time the duties of a nurse with +exemplary care and vigilance, and is continually +employed in gently leading back the young to the +nest when they stray too far. He courageously +drives away all enemies, including the females of his +own species. It would indeed be no small relief to the +male if the female, after depositing her eggs, were +immediately devoured by some enemy, for he is forced +incessantly to drive her from the nest.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></p> + +<p>The males of certain other fishes inhabiting South +America and Ceylon, and belonging to two distinct +orders, have the extraordinary habit of hatching the +eggs laid by the females within their mouths or branchial +cavities.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> With the Amazonian species which follow +this habit, the males, as I am informed by the kindness +of Professor Agassiz, “not only are generally brighter +than the females, but the difference is greater at +the spawning-season than at any other time.” The +species of <i>Geophagus</i> act in the same manner; and in +this genus, a conspicuous protuberance becomes developed +on the forehead of the males during the breeding-season. +With the various species of Chromids, as Professor +Agassiz likewise informs me, sexual differences +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>in colour may be observed, “whether they lay their +eggs in the water among aquatic plants, or deposit +them in holes, leaving them to come out without +further care, or build shallow nests in the river-mud, +over which they sit, as our <i>Promotis</i> does. It ought +also to be observed that these sitters are among the +brightest species in their respective families; for +instance, <i>Hygrogonus</i> is bright green, with large +black ocelli, encircled with the most brilliant red.” +Whether with all the species of Chromids it is the male +alone which sits on the eggs is not known. It is, +however, manifest that the fact of the eggs being protected +or unprotected, has had little or no influence on +the differences in colour between the sexes. It is further +manifest, in all the cases in which the males take +exclusive charge of the nests and young, that the +destruction of the brighter-coloured males would be far +more influential on the character of the race, than the +destruction of the brighter-coloured females; for the +death of the male during the period of incubation or +nursing would entail the death of the young, so that +these could not inherit his peculiarities; yet, in many +of these very cases the males are more conspicuously +coloured than the females.</p> + +<p>In most of the Lophobranchii (Pipe-fish, Hippocampi, +&c.) the males have either marsupial sacks or +hemispherical depressions on the abdomen, in which +the ova laid by the female are hatched. The males +also shew great attachment to their young.<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> The +sexes do not commonly differ much in colour; but Dr. +Günther believes that the male Hippocampi are rather +brighter than the females. The genus <i>Solenostoma</i>, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>however, offers a very curious exceptional case,<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> for the +female is much more vividly coloured and spotted than +the male, and she alone has a marsupial sack and +hatches the eggs; so that the female of <i>Solenostoma</i> +differs from all the other Lophobranchii in this latter +respect, and from almost all other fishes, in being more +brightly coloured than the male. It is improbable that +this remarkable double inversion of character in the +female should be an accidental coincidence. As the +males of several fishes which take exclusive charge of +the eggs and young are more brightly coloured than +the females, and as here the female <i>Solenostoma</i> takes +the same charge and is brighter than the male, it might +be argued that the conspicuous colours of the sex which +is the most important of the two for the welfare of the +offspring must serve, in some manner, as a protection. +But from the multitude of fishes, the males of which +are either permanently or periodically brighter than +the females, but whose life is not at all more important +than that of the female for the welfare of the species, +this view can hardly be maintained. When we treat of +birds we shall meet with analogous cases in which +there has been a complete inversion of the usual attributes +of the two sexes, and we shall then give what +appears to be the probable explanation, namely, that +the males have selected the more attractive females, +instead of the latter having selected, in accordance with +the usual rule throughout the animal kingdom, the more +attractive males.</p> + +<p>On the whole we may conclude, that with most fishes, +in which the sexes differ in colour or in other orna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>mental +characters, the males originally varied, with their +variations transmitted to the same sex, and accumulated +through sexual selection by attracting or exciting the +females. In many cases, however, such characters have +been transferred, either partially or completely, to the +females. In other cases, again, both sexes have been +coloured alike for the sake of protection; but in no +instance does it appear that the female alone has had +her colours or other characters specially modified for +this purpose.</p> + +<p>The last point which need be noticed is that in many +parts of the world fishes are known to make peculiar +noises, which are described in some cases as being +musical. Very little has been ascertained with respect +to the means by which such sounds are produced, and +even less about their purpose. The drumming of the +<i>Umbrinas</i> in the European seas is said to be audible +from a depth of twenty fathoms. The fishermen of +Rochelle assert “that the males alone make the noise +during the spawning-time; and that it is possible by +imitating it, to take them without bait.”<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> If this +statement is trustworthy, we have an instance in this, +the lowest class of the Vertebrata, of what we shall +find prevailing throughout the other vertebrate classes, +and which prevails, as we have already seen, with +insects and spiders; namely, that vocal and instrumental +sounds so commonly serve as a love-call or as +a love-charm, that the power of producing them was +probably first developed in connection with the propagation +of the species.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f31" id="f31"></a><img src="images/fig31.png" width="550" height="321" +alt="Fig. 31. Triton cristatus (half natural size, from Bell’s ‘British Reptiles’). +Upper figure, male during the breeding-season; lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<p class="indent2">Fig. 31. <i>Triton cristatus</i> (half natural size, from Bell’s ‘British Reptiles’). +Upper figure, male during the breeding-season; lower figure, female.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Amphibians</span>.</h4> + +<p class="tb"><i>Urodela</i>.—First for the tailed amphibians. The +sexes of salamanders or newts often differ much both +in colour and structure. In some species prehensile +claws are developed on the forelegs of the males +during the breeding-season; and at this season in +the male <i>Triton palmipes</i> the hind-feet are provided +with a swimming web, which is almost completely +absorbed during the winter; so that their feet then +resemble those of the female.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> This structure no doubt +aids the male in his eager search and pursuit of the +female. With our common newts (<i>Triton punctatus</i> +and <i>cristatus</i>) a deep, much-indented crest is developed +along the back and tail of the male during the breeding-season, +being absorbed during the winter. It is +not furnished, as Mr. St. George Mivart informs me, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>with muscles, and therefore cannot be used for locomotion. +As during the season of courtship it becomes +edged with bright colours, it serves, there can hardly +be a doubt, as a masculine ornament. In many species +the body presents strongly contrasted, though lurid +tints; and these become more vivid during the +breeding-season. The male, for instance, of our common +little newt (<i>Triton punctatus</i>) is “brownish-grey +above, passing into yellow beneath, which in the +spring becomes a rich bright orange, marked everywhere +with round dark spots.” The edge of the crest +also is then tipped with bright red or violet. The +female is usually of a yellowish-brown colour with +scattered brown dots; and the lower surface is often +quite plain.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> The young are obscurely tinted. The +ova are fertilised during the act of deposition and +are not subsequently tended by either parent. We +may therefore conclude that the males acquired their +strongly-marked colours and ornamental appendages +through sexual selection; these being transmitted either +to the male offspring alone or to both sexes.</p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Anura</i> or <i>Batrachia.</i>—With many frogs and toads +the colours evidently serve as a protection, such as +the bright green tints of tree-frogs and the obscure +mottled shades of many terrestrial species. The most +conspicuously coloured toad which I ever saw, namely +the <i>Phryniscus nigricans</i><a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> had the whole upper surface +of the body as black as ink, with the soles of the feet +and parts of the abdomen spotted with the brightest +vermilion. It crawled about the bare sandy or open +grassy plains of La Plata under a scorching sun, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span>could not fail to catch the eye of every passing creature. +These colours may be beneficial by making this toad +known to all birds of prey as a nauseous mouthful; +for it is familiar to every one that these animals +emit a poisonous secretion, which causes the mouth +of a dog to froth, as if attacked by hydrophobia. I +was the more struck with the conspicuous colours of +this toad, as close by I found a lizard (<i>Proctotretus +multimaculatus</i>) which, when frightened, flattened its +body, closed its eyes, and then from its mottled tints +could hardly be distinguishable from the surrounding +sand.</p> + +<p>With respect to sexual differences of colour, Dr. Günther +knows of no striking instance with frogs or toads; +yet he can often distinguish the male from the female, +by the tints of the former being a little more intense. +Nor does Dr. Günther know of any striking difference +in external structure between the sexes, excepting the +prominences which become developed during the breeding-season +on the front-legs of the male, by which he +is enabled to hold the female. The <i>Megalophrys montana</i><a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> +(fig. <a href="#f32">32</a>) offers the best case of a certain amount of +structural difference between the sexes; for in the male +the tip of the nose and the eyelids are produced into +triangular flaps of skin, and there is a little black +tubercle on the back—characters which are absent, or +only feebly developed, in the females. It is surprising +that frogs and toads should not have acquired more +strongly-marked sexual differences; for though cold-blooded, +their passions are strong. Dr. Günther informs +me that he has several times found an unfortunate +female toad dead and smothered from having been +so closely embraced by three or four males.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f32" id="f32"></a><img src="images/fig32.png" width="450" height="305" +alt="Fig. 32. Megalophrys montana. The two left-hand figures, the male; the two +right-hand figures, the female." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 32. <i>Megalophrys montana</i>. The two left-hand figures, the male; the two +right-hand figures, the female.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p> + +<p>These animals, however, offer one interesting sexual +difference, namely in the musical powers possessed by +the males; but to speak of music, when applied to the +discordant and overwhelming sounds emitted by male +bull-frogs and some other species, seems, according to +our taste, a singularly inappropriate expression. Nevertheless +certain frogs sing in a decidedly pleasing manner. +Near Rio de Janeiro I used often to sit in the +evening to listen to a number of little Hylæ, which, +perched on blades of grass close to the water, sent +forth sweet chirping notes in harmony. The various +sounds are emitted chiefly by the males during the +breeding-season, as in the case of the croaking of our +common frog.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> In accordance with this fact the vocal +organs of the males are more highly developed than +those of the females. In some genera the males alone +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>are provided with sacs which open into the larynx.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> +For instance, in the edible frog (<i>Rana esculenta</i>) “the +sacs are peculiar to the males, and become, when filled +with air in the act of croaking, large globular bladders, +standing out one on each side of the head, near +the corners of the mouth.” The croak of the male is +thus rendered exceedingly powerful; whilst that of the +female is only a slight groaning noise.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> The vocal +organs differ considerably in structure in the several +genera of the family; and their development in all +cases may be attributed to sexual selection.</p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Reptiles</span>.</h4> + +<p class="tb"><i>Chelonia.</i>—Tortoises and turtles do not offer well-marked +sexual differences. In some species, the tail +of the male is longer than that of the female. In +some, the plastron or lower surface of the shell of the +male is slightly concave in relation to the back of the +female. The male of the mud-turtle of the United +States (<i>Chrysemys picta</i>) has claws on its front-feet twice +as long as those of the female; and these are used when +the sexes unite.<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> With the huge tortoise of the Galapagos +Islands (<i>Testudo nigra</i>) the males are said to +grow to a larger size than the females: during the +pairing-season, and at no other time, the male utters a +hoarse, bellowing noise, which can be heard at the distance +of more than a hundred yards; the female, on +the other hand, never uses her voice.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a></p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Crocodilia.</i>—The sexes apparently do not differ in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span>colour; nor do I know that the males fight together, +though this is probable, for some kinds make a prodigious +display before the females. Bartram<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> describes +the male alligator as striving to win the female by +splashing and roaring in the midst of a lagoon, “swollen +to an extent ready to burst, with his head and tail +lifted up, he spins or twirls round on the surface of +the water, like an Indian chief rehearsing his feats +of war.” During the season of love, a musky odour +is emitted by the submaxillary glands of the crocodile, +and pervades their haunts.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Ophidia.</i>—I have little to say about Snakes. Dr. +Günther informs me that the males are always smaller +than the females, and generally have longer and slenderer +tails; but he knows of no other difference in +external structure. In regard to colour, Dr. Günther +can almost always distinguish the male from the female +by his more strongly-pronounced tints; thus the black +zigzag band on the back of the male English viper is +more distinctly defined than in the female. The difference +is much plainer in the Rattle-snakes of N. America, +the male of which, as the keeper in the Zoological +Gardens shewed me, can instantly be distinguished from +the female by having more lurid yellow about its whole +body. In S. Africa the <i>Bucephalus capensis</i> presents an +analogous difference, for the female “is never so fully +variegated with yellow on the sides, as the male.”<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> +The male of the Indian <i>Dipsas cynodon</i>, on the other +hand, is blackish-brown, with the belly partly black, +whilst the female is reddish or yellowish-olive with the +belly either uniform yellowish or marbled with black.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span></p><p>In the <i>Tragops dispar</i> of the same country, the male is +bright green, and the female bronze-coloured.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> No +doubt the colours of some snakes serve as a protection, +as the green tints of tree-snakes and the various mottled +shades of the species which live in sandy places; but +it is doubtful whether the colours of many kinds, for +instance of the common English snake or viper, serve +to conceal them; and this is still more doubtful with +the many foreign species which are coloured with extreme +elegance.</p> + +<p>During the breeding-season their anal scent-glands +are in active function;<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> and so it is with the same +glands in lizards, and as we have seen with the submaxillary +glands of crocodiles. As the males of most +animals search for the females, these odoriferous glands +probably serve to excite or charm the female, rather +than to guide her to the spot where the male may be +found.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> Male snakes, though appearing so sluggish, +are amorous; for many have been observed crowding +round the same female, and even round the dead body +of a female. They are not known to fight together +from rivalry. Their intellectual powers are higher than +might have been anticipated. An excellent observer +in Ceylon, Mr. E. Layard,<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> saw a Cobra thrust its head +through a narrow hole and swallow a toad. “With +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>this incumbrance he could not withdraw himself; +finding this, he reluctantly disgorged the precious +morsel, which began to move off; this was too much +for snake philosophy to bear, and the toad was again +seized, and again was the snake, after violent efforts +to escape, compelled to part with its prey. This time, +however, a lesson had been learnt, and the toad was +seized by one leg, withdrawn, and then swallowed in +triumph.”</p> + +<p class="tb">It does not, however, follow because snakes have +some reasoning power and strong passions, that they +should likewise be endowed with sufficient taste to +admire brilliant colours in their partners, so as to +lead to the adornment of the species through sexual +selection. Nevertheless it is difficult to account in +any other manner for the extreme beauty of certain +species; for instance, of the coral-snakes of S. America, +which are of a rich red with black and yellow transverse +bands. I well remember how much surprise I felt at +the beauty of the first coral-snake which I saw gliding +across a path in Brazil. Snakes coloured in this peculiar +manner, as Mr. Wallace states on the authority of Dr. +Günther,<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> are found nowhere else in the world except +in S. America, and here no less than four genera occur. +One of these, <i>Elaps</i>, is venomous; a second and widely-distinct +genus is doubtfully venomous, and the two others +are quite harmless. The species belonging to these distinct +genera inhabit the same districts, and are so like +each other, that no one “but a naturalist would distinguish +the harmless from the poisonous kinds.” Hence, +as Mr. Wallace believes, the innocuous kinds have probably +acquired their colours as a protection, on the +principle of imitation; for they would naturally be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>thought dangerous by their enemies. The cause, however, +of the bright colours of the venomous <i>Elaps</i> +remains to be explained, and this may perhaps be +sexual selection.</p> + +<p><i>Lacertilia.</i>—The males of some, probably of many +kinds of lizards fight together from rivalry. Thus the +arboreal <i>Anolis cristatellus</i> of S. America is extremely +pugnacious: “During the spring and early part of the +summer, two adult males rarely meet without a contest. +On first seeing one another, they nod their heads +up and down three or four times, at the same time +expanding the frill or pouch beneath the throat; their +eyes glisten with rage, and after waving their tails +from side to side for a few seconds, as if to gather +energy, they dart at each other furiously, rolling over +and over, and holding firmly with their teeth. The +conflict generally ends in one of the combatants losing +his tail, which is often devoured by the victor.” The +male of this species is considerably larger than the female;<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> +and this, as far as Dr. Günther has been able to +ascertain, is the general rule with lizards of all kinds.</p> + +<p>The sexes often differ greatly in various external +characters. The male of the above-mentioned <i>Anolis</i> +is furnished with a crest, which runs along the back and +tail, and can be erected at pleasure; but of this crest +the female does not exhibit a trace. In the Indian +<i>Cophotis ceylanica</i>, the female possesses a dorsal crest, +though much less developed than in the male; and +so it is, as Dr. Günther informs me, with the females +of many Iguanas, Chameleons and other lizards. In +some species, however, the crest is equally developed in +both sexes, as in the <i>Iguana tuberculata</i>. In the genus +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span><i>Sitana</i>, the males alone are furnished with a large +throat-pouch (fig. <a href="#f33">33</a>), which can be folded up like a +fan, and is coloured blue, black, and red; but these +splendid colours are exhibited only during the pairing-season. +The female does not possess even a rudiment +of this appendage. In the <i>Anolis cristatellus</i>, according +to Mr. Austen, the throat-pouch, which is bright +red marbled with yellow, is present, though in a rudimental +condition, in the female. Again, in certain +other lizards, both sexes are equally well provided with + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f33" id="f33"></a><img src="images/fig33.png" width="300" height="220" alt="Fig. 33. Sitana minor. Male, with the gular +pouch expanded (from Günther’s ‘Reptiles +of India’)." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 33. <i>Sitana minor</i>. Male, with the gular +pouch expanded (from Günther’s ‘Reptiles +of India’).</span></span> + +throat-pouches. Here, as +in so many previous cases, +we see with species belonging +to the same group, +the same character confined +to the males, or more +largely developed in the +males than in the females, +or equally developed in +both sexes. The little lizards +of the genus Draco, +which glide through the air on their rib-supported parachutes, +and which in the beauty of their colours baffle +description, are furnished with skinny appendages to the +throat, “like the wattles of gallinaceous birds.” These +become erected when the animal is excited. They occur +in both sexes, but are best developed in the male when +arrived at maturity, at which age the middle appendage +is sometimes twice as long as the head. Most of the +species likewise have a low crest running along the +neck; and this is much more developed in the full-grown +males, than in the females or young males.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span></p> + +<p>There are other and much more remarkable differences +between the sexes of certain lizards. The +male of <i>Ceratophora aspera</i> bears on the extremity of + +<span class="figleft2" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f34" id="f34"></a><img src="images/fig34.png" width="200" height="232" alt="Fig. 34. Ceratophora Stoddartii. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 34. <i>Ceratophora Stoddartii</i>. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.</span></span> + +his snout an appendage half as long as the head. It +is cylindrical, covered with scales, flexible, and apparently +capable of erection: in the female it is quite +rudimental. In a second species of the same genus a +terminal scale forms a minute horn on the summit +of the flexible appendage; and in a third species (<i>C. +Stoddartii</i>, fig. 34) the whole appendage is converted +into a horn, which is usually +of a white colour, but assumes +a purplish tint when +the animal is excited. In +the adult male of this latter +species the horn is half an +inch in length, but is of quite +minute size in the female and +in the young. These appendages, +as Dr. Günther has +remarked to me, may be +compared with the combs of +gallinaceous birds, and apparently +serve as ornaments.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f35" id="f35"></a><img src="images/fig35.png" width="400" height="468" alt="Fig. 35. Chamæleon bifurcus. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 35. <i>Chamæleon bifurcus</i>. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.</p></div> + +<p>In the genus <i>Chamæleon</i> we come to the climax of +difference between the sexes. The upper part of the +skull of the male <i>C. bifurcus</i> (fig. <a href="#f35">35</a>), an inhabitant of +Madagascar, is produced into two great, solid, bony projections, +covered with scales like the rest of the head; +and of this wonderful modification of structure the female +exhibits only a rudiment. Again, in <i>Chamæleon Owenii</i> +(fig. <a href="#f36">36</a>), from the West Coast of Africa, the male bears +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span>on his snout and forehead three curious horns, of which +the female has not a trace. These horns consist of +an excrescence of bone covered with a smooth sheath, +forming part of the general integuments of the body, +so that they are identical in structure with those of a +bull, goat, or other sheath-horned ruminant. Although +the three horns differ so much in appearance from +the two great prolongations of the skull in <i>C. bifurcus</i>, +we can hardly doubt that they serve the same general +purpose in the economy of these two animals. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> +first conjecture which will occur to every one is that +they are used by the males for fighting together; but +Dr. Günther, to whom I am indebted for the foregoing +details, does not believe that such peaceable creatures +would ever become pugnacious. Hence we are + +<span class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f36" id="f36"></a><img src="images/fig36.png" width="300" height="313" alt="Fig. 36. Chamæleon Owenii. Upper figure, male; +lower figure, female." title="" /> + +<span class="center2">Fig. 36. <i>Chamæleon Owenii</i>. Upper figure, male; +lower figure, female.</span></span> + +driven to infer that +these almost monstrous +deviations +of structure serve +as masculine ornaments.</p> + +<p>With many kinds +of lizards, the sexes +differ slightly in colour, +the tints and +stripes of the males +being brighter and +more distinctly defined +than in the +females. This, for +instance, is the case +with the previously-mentioned <i>Cophotis</i> and with the +<i>Acanthodactylus capensis</i> of S. Africa. In a <i>Cordylus</i> +of the latter country, the male is either much redder or +greener than the female. In the Indian <i>Calotes nigrilabris</i> +there is a greater difference in colour between +the sexes; the lips also of the male are black, whilst +those of the female are green. In our common +little viviparous lizard (<i>Zootoca vivipara</i>) “the under +side of the body and base of the tail in the male are +bright orange, spotted with black; in the female +these parts are pale greyish-green without spots.”<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> +We have seen that the males alone of <i>Sitana</i> possess a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>throat-pouch; and this is splendidly tinted with blue, +black, and red. In the <i>Proctotretus tenuis</i> of Chile the +male alone is marked with spots of blue, green, and +coppery-red.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> I collected in S. America fourteen +species of this genus, and though I neglected to record +the sexes, I observed that certain individuals alone were +marked with emerald-like green spots, whilst others +had orange-coloured gorges; and these in both cases +no doubt were the males.</p> + +<p>In the foregoing species, the males are more brightly +coloured than the females, but with many lizards both +sexes are coloured in the same elegant or even magnificent +manner; and there is no reason to suppose that +such conspicuous colours are protective. With some +lizards, however, the green tints no doubt serve for +concealment; and an instance has already been incidently +given of one species of <i>Proctotretus</i> which +closely resembles the sand on which it lives. On the +whole we may conclude with tolerable safety that the +beautiful colours of many lizards, as well as various +appendages and other strange modifications of structure, +have been gained by the males through sexual selection +for the sake of ornament, and have been transmitted +either to their male offspring alone or to both sexes. +Sexual selection, indeed, seems to have played almost as +important a part with reptiles as with birds. But the +less conspicuous colours of the females in comparison +with those of the males cannot be accounted for, as +Mr. Wallace believes to be the case with birds, by the +exposure of the females to danger during incubation.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds</span>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Sexual differences—Law of battle—Special weapons—Vocal +organs—Instrumental music—Love-antics and dances—Decorations, +permanent and seasonal—Double and single +annual moults—Display of ornaments by the males.</p></div> + +<p>Secondary sexual characters are more diversified and +conspicuous in birds, though not perhaps entailing more +important changes of structure, than in any other class +of animals. I shall, therefore, treat the subject at considerable +length. Male birds sometimes, though rarely, +possess special weapons for fighting with each other. +They charm the females by vocal or instrumental music +of the most varied kinds. They are ornamented by +all sorts of combs, wattles, protuberances, horns, air-distended +sacs, top-knots, naked shafts, plumes and +lengthened feathers gracefully springing from all parts +of the body. The beak and naked skin about the head, +and the feathers are often gorgeously coloured. The +males sometimes pay their court by dancing, or by fantastic +antics performed either on the ground or in the air. +In one instance, at least, the male emits a musky odour +which we may suppose serves to charm or excite the +female; for that excellent observer, Mr. Ramsay,<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> says +of the Australian musk-duck (<i>Biziura lobata</i>) that “the +smell which the male emits during the summer +months is confined to that sex, and in some individuals +is retained throughout the year; I have never +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span>even in the breeding-season, shot a female which had +any smell of musk.” So powerful is this odour during +the pairing-season, that it can be detected long before +the bird can be seen.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> On the whole, birds appear to +be the most æsthetic of all animals, excepting of course +man, and they have nearly the same taste for the beautiful +as we have. This is shewn by our enjoyment of +the singing of birds, and by our women, both civilised +and savage, decking their heads with borrowed plumes, +and using gems which are hardly more brilliantly +coloured than the naked skin and wattles of certain +birds.</p> + +<p>Before treating of the characters with which we are +here more particularly concerned, I may just allude to +certain differences between the sexes which apparently +depend on differences in their habits of life; for such +cases, though common in the lower, are rare in the +higher classes. Two humming-birds belonging to the +genus <i>Eustephanus</i>, which inhabit the island of Juan +Fernandez, were long thought to be specifically distinct, +but are now known, as Mr. Gould informs me, to be the +sexes of the same species, and they differ slightly in the +form of the beak. In another genus of humming-birds +(<i>Grypus</i>), the beak of the male is serrated along the +margin and hooked at the extremity, thus differing +much from that of the female. In the curious <i>Neomorpha</i> +of New Zealand, there is a still wider difference in +the form of the beak; and Mr. Gould has been informed +that the male with his “straight and stout beak” tears +off the bark of trees, in order that the female may +feed on the uncovered larvæ with her weaker and more +curved beak. Something of the same kind may be +observed with our goldfinch (<i>Carduelis elegans</i>), for I +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span>am assured by Mr. J. Jenner Weir that the bird-catchers +can distinguish the males by their slightly +longer beaks. The flocks of males, as an old and trustworthy +bird-catcher asserted, are commonly found feeding +on the seeds of the teazle (<i>Dipsacus</i>) which they +can reach with their elongated beaks, whilst the females +more commonly feed on the seeds of the betony or +<i>Scrophularia</i>. With a slight difference of this nature +as a foundation, we can see how the beaks of the two +sexes might be made to differ greatly through natural +selection. In all these cases, however, especially in +that of the quarrelsome humming-birds, it is possible +that the differences in the beaks may have been first +acquired by the males in relation to their battles, and +afterwards led to slightly changed habits of life.</p> + +<p><i>Law of Battle.</i>—Almost all male birds are extremely +pugnacious, using their beaks, wings, and legs for fighting +together. We see this every spring with our robins and +sparrows. The smallest of all birds, namely the humming-bird, +is one of the most quarrelsome. Mr. Gosse<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> +describes a battle, in which a pair of humming-birds +seized hold of each other’s beaks, and whirled round +and round, till they almost fell to the ground; and M. +Montes de Oca, in speaking of another genus, says that +two males rarely meet without a fierce aerial encounter: +when kept in cages “their fighting has mostly ended +in the splitting of the tongue of one of the two, which +then surely dies from being unable to feed.”<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> With +Waders, the males of the common water-hen (<i>Gallinula +chloropus</i>) “when pairing, fight violently for the females: +they stand nearly upright in the water and strike +with their feet.” Two were seen to be thus engaged +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>for half an hour, until one got hold of the head of the +other which would have been killed, had not the observer +interfered; the female all the time looking on as +a quiet spectator.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> The males of an allied bird (<i>Gallicrex +cristatus</i>), as Mr. Blyth informs me, are one third +larger than the females, and are so pugnacious during +the breeding-season, that they are kept by the natives +of Eastern Bengal for the sake of fighting. Various +other birds are kept in India for the same purpose, for +instance the Bulbuls (<i>Pycnonotus hæmorrhous</i>) which +“fight with great spirit.”<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p> + +<p>The polygamous Ruff (<i>Machetes pugnax</i>, fig. 37) is +notorious for his extreme pugnacity; and in the spring, +the males, which are considerably larger than the +females, congregate day after day at a particular spot, +where the females propose to lay their eggs. The +fowlers discover these spots by the turf being trampled +somewhat bare. Here they fight very much like game-cocks, +seizing each other with their beaks and striking +with their wings. The great ruff of feathers round the +neck is then erected, and according to Col. Montagu +“sweeps the ground as a shield to defend the more +tender parts;” and this is the only instance known +to me in the case of birds, of any structure serving as a +shield. The ruff of feathers, however, from its varied +and rich colours probably serves in chief part as an +ornament. Like most pugnacious birds, they seem +always ready to fight, and when closely confined often +kill each other; but Montagu observed that their +pugnacity becomes greater during the spring, when the +long feathers on their necks are fully developed; and +at this period the least movement by any one bird +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>provokes a general battle.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> Of the pugnacity of web-footed +birds, two instances will suffice: in Guiana “bloody +fights occur during the breeding-season between the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>males of the wild musk-duck (<i>Cairina moschata</i>); +and where these fights have occurred the river +is covered for some distance with feathers.”<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> Birds +which seem ill-adapted for fighting engage in fierce +conflicts; thus with the pelican the stronger males +drive away the weaker ones, snapping with their +huge beaks and giving heavy blows with their wings. +Male snipes fight together, “tugging and pushing each +other with their bills in the most curious manner +imaginable.” Some few species are believed never to +fight; this is the case, according to Audubon, with one +of the woodpeckers of the United States (<i>Picus auratus</i>), +although “the hens are followed by even half a dozen +of their gay suitors.”<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="f37" id="f37"></a><img src="images/fig37.png" width="600" height="487" alt="Fig. 37. The Ruff or Machetes pugnax (from Brehm’s ‘Thierleben’)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 37. The Ruff or <i>Machetes pugnax</i> (from Brehm’s ‘Thierteben’).</p></div> + +<p>The males of many birds are larger than the females, +and this no doubt is an advantage to them in their +battles with their rivals, and has been gained through +sexual selection. The difference in size between the +two sexes is carried to an extreme point in several +Australian species; thus the male musk-duck (<i>Biziura</i>) +and the male <i>Cincloramphus cruralis</i> (allied to our +pipits) are by measurement actually twice as large as +their respective females.<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> With many other birds the +females are larger than the males; and as formerly +remarked, the explanation often given, namely that the +females have most of the work in feeding their young, +will not suffice. In some few cases, as we shall hereafter +see, the females apparently have acquired their +greater size and strength for the sake of conquering +other females and obtaining possession of the males.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span></p><p>The males of many gallinaceous birds, especially +of the polygamous kinds, are furnished with special +weapons for fighting with their rivals, namely spurs, +which can be used with fearful effect. It has been +recorded by a trustworthy writer<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> that in Derbyshire +a kite struck at a game-hen accompanied by her +chickens, when the cock rushed to the rescue and drove +his spur right through the eye and skull of the +aggressor. The spur was with difficulty drawn from +the skull, and as the kite though dead retained his +grasp, the two birds were firmly locked together; but +the cock when disentangled was very little injured. +The invincible courage of the game-cock is notorious: +a gentleman who long ago witnessed the following +brutal scene, told me that a bird had both its legs +broken by some accident in the cock-pit, and the owner +laid a wager that if the legs could be spliced so that +the bird could stand upright, he would continue fighting. +This was effected on the spot, and the bird fought +with undaunted courage until he received his death-stroke. +In Ceylon a closely-allied and wild species, +the <i>Gallus Stanleyi</i>, is known to fight desperately “in +defence of his seraglio,” so that one of the combatants +is frequently found dead.<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> An Indian partridge (<i>Ortygornis +gularis</i>), the male of which is furnished with +strong and sharp spurs, is so quarrelsome, “that the +scars of former fights disfigure the breast of almost +every bird you kill.”<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a></p> + +<p>The males of almost all gallinaceous birds, even those +which are not furnished with spurs, engage during the +breeding-season in fierce conflicts. The Capercailzie and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span>Black-cock (<i>Tetrao urogallus</i> and <i>T. tetrix</i>), which are +both polygamists, have regular appointed places, where +during many weeks they congregate in numbers to +fight together and to display their charms before the +females. M. W. Kowalevsky informs me that in Russia +he has seen the snow all bloody on the arenas where +the Capercailzie have fought; and the Black-cocks +“make the feathers fly in every direction,” when +several “engage in a battle royal.” The elder Brehm +gives a curious account of the Balz, as the love-dance +and love-song of the Black-cock is called in Germany. +The bird utters almost continuously the most strange +noises: “he holds his tail up and spreads it out like a +fan, he lifts up his head and neck with all the feathers +erect, and stretches his wings from the body. Then +he takes a few jumps in different directions, sometimes +in a circle, and presses the under part of his +beak so hard against the ground that the chin-feathers +are rubbed off. During these movements he beats +his wings and turns round and round. The more +ardent he grows the more lively he becomes, until at +last the bird appears like a frantic creature.” At +such times the black-cocks are so absorbed that they +become almost blind and deaf, but less so than the +capercailzie: hence bird after bird may be shot on +the same spot, or even caught by the hand. After +performing these antics the males begin to fight: and +the same black-cock, in order to prove his strength over +several antagonists, will visit in the course of one morning +several Balz-places, which remain the same during +successive years.<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span></p> +<p>The peacock with his long train appears more like a +dandy than a warrior, but he sometimes engages in +fierce contests: the Rev. W. Darwin Fox informs me +that two peacocks became so excited whilst fighting at +some little distance from Chester that they flew over +the whole city, still fighting, until they alighted on the +top of St. John’s tower.</p> + +<p>The spur, in those gallinaceous birds which are thus +provided, is generally single; but <i>Polyplectron</i> (see +fig. <a href="#f51">51</a>, p. 90) has two or more on each leg; and one of +the Blood-pheasants (<i>Ithaginis cruentus</i>) has been seen +with five spurs. The spurs are generally confined to the +male, being represented by mere knobs or rudiments in +the female; but the females of the Java peacock (<i>Pavo +muticus</i>) and, as I am informed by Mr. Blyth, of the small +fire-backed pheasant (<i>Euplocamus erythropthalmus</i>) possess +spurs. In <i>Galloperdix</i> it is usual for the males to +have two spurs, and for the females to have only one +on each leg.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> Hence spurs may safely be considered as +a masculine character, though occasionally transferred +in a greater or less degree to the females. Like most +other secondary sexual characters, the spurs are highly +variable both in number and development in the same +species.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f38" id="f38"></a><img src="images/fig38.png" width="500" height="666" alt="Fig. 38. Palamedea cornuta (from Brehm), shewing the double-wing-spurs, and the +filament on the head." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 38. <i>Palamedea cornuta</i> (from Brehm), shewing the double-wing-spurs, and the +filament on the head.</p></div> + +<p>Various birds have spurs on their wings. But the +Egyptian goose (<i>Chenalopex ægyptiacus</i>) has only “bare +obtuse knobs,” and these probably shew us the first +steps by which true spurs have been developed in other +allied birds. In the spur-winged goose, <i>Plectropterus +gambensis</i>, the males have much larger spurs than the +females; and they use them, as I am informed by Mr. +Bartlett, in fighting together, so that, in this case, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span>wing-spurs serve as sexual weapons; but according to +Livingstone, they are chiefly used in the defence of the +young. The <i>Palamedea</i> (fig. <a href="#f38">38</a>) is armed with a pair of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> +spurs on each wing; and these are such formidable weapons +that a single blow has driven a dog howling away. +But it does not appear that the spurs in this case, or in +that of some of the spur-winged rails, are larger in the +male than in the female.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> In certain plovers, however, +the wing-spurs must be considered as a sexual character. +Thus in the male of our common peewit (<i>Vanellus cristatus</i>) +the tubercle on the shoulder of the wing becomes +more prominent during the breeding-season, and the +males are known to fight together. In some species +of <i>Lobivanellus</i> a similar tubercle becomes developed +during the breeding-season “into a short horny spur.” +In the Australian <i>L. lobatus</i> both sexes have spurs, but +these are much larger in the males than in the females. +In an allied bird, the <i>Hoplopterus armatus</i>, the spurs +do not increase in size during the breeding-season; but +these birds have been seen in Egypt to fight together, +in the same manner as our peewits, by turning suddenly +in the air and striking sideways at each other, sometimes +with a fatal result. Thus also they drive away +other enemies.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></p> + +<p>The season of love is that of battle; but the males +of some birds, as of the game-fowl and ruff, and even +the young males of the wild turkey and grouse,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> are +ready to fight whenever they meet. The presence of +the female is the <i>teterrima belli causa</i>. The Bengali +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span>baboos make the pretty little males of the amadavat +(<i>Estrelda amandava</i>) fight together by placing three +small cages in a row, with a female in the middle; +after a little time the two males are turned loose, and +immediately a desperate battle ensues.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> When many +males congregate at the same appointed spot and fight +together, as in the case of grouse and various other +birds, they are generally attended by the females,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> +which afterwards pair with the victorious combatants. +But in some cases the pairing precedes instead of succeeding +the combat: thus, according to Audubon,<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> +several males of the Virginian goat-sucker (<i>Caprimulgus +Virginianus</i>) “court, in a highly entertaining +manner, the female, and no sooner has she made her +choice, than her approved gives chase to all intruders, +and drives them beyond his dominions.” Generally +the males try with all their power to drive away or kill +their rivals before they pair. It does not, however, +appear that the females invariably prefer the victorious +males. I have indeed been assured by M. W. Kowalevsky +that the female capercailzie sometimes steals +away with a young male who has not dared to enter +the arena with the older cocks; in the same manner as +occasionally happens with the does of the red-deer in +Scotland. When two males contend in presence of a +single female, the victor, no doubt, commonly gains his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>desire; but some of these battles are caused by wandering +males trying to distract the peace of an already +mated pair.<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p> + +<p class="tb">Even with the most pugnacious species it is probable +that the pairing does not depend exclusively on the +mere strength and courage of the male: for such +males are generally decorated with various ornaments, +which often become more brilliant during the breeding-season, +and which are sedulously displayed before the +females. The males also endeavour to charm or excite +their mates by love-notes, songs, and antics; and +the courtship is, in many instances, a prolonged affair. +Hence it is not probable that the females are indifferent +to the charms of the opposite sex, or that they are +invariably compelled to yield to the victorious males. +It is more probable that the females are excited, either +before or after the conflict, by certain males, and thus +unconsciously prefer them. In the case of <i>Tetrao umbellus</i>, +a good observer<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> goes so far as to believe that +the battles of the males “are all a sham, performed +to show themselves to the greatest advantage before +the admiring females who assemble around; for I +have never been able to find a maimed hero, and +seldom more than a broken feather.” I shall have +to recur to this subject, but I may here add that with +the <i>Tetrao cupido</i> of the United States, about a score of +males assemble at a particular spot, and strutting about +make the whole air resound with their extraordinary +noises. At the first answer from a female the males +begin to fight furiously, and the weaker give way; but +then, according to Audubon, both the victors and vanquished +search for the female, so that the females must +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>either then exert a choice, or the battle must be renewed. +So, again, with one of the Field-starlings of +the United States (<i>Sturnella ludoviciana</i>) the males +engage in fierce conflicts, “but at the sight of a female +they all fly after her, as if mad.”<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a></p> + +<p><i>Vocal and instrumental Music.</i>—With birds the voice +serves to express various emotions, such as distress, fear, +anger, triumph, or mere happiness. It is apparently +sometimes used to excite terror, as with the hissing +noise made by some nestling-birds. Audubon<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> relates +that a night-heron (<i>Ardea nycticorax</i>, Linn.) which he +kept tame, used to hide itself when a cat approached, +and then “suddenly start up uttering one of the most +frightful cries, apparently enjoying the cat’s alarm +and flight.” The common domestic cock clucks to +the hen, and the hen to her chickens, when a dainty +morsel is found. The hen, when she has laid an egg, +“repeats the same note very often, and concludes with +the sixth above, which she holds for a longer time;”<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> +and thus she expresses her joy. Some social birds +apparently call to each other for aid; and as they flit +from tree to tree, the flock is kept together by chirp +answering chirp. During the nocturnal migrations of +geese and other water-fowl, sonorous clangs from the +van may be heard in the darkness overhead, answered +by clangs in the rear. Certain cries serve as danger-signals, +which, as the sportsman knows to his cost, are +well understood by the same species and by others. +The domestic cock crows, and the humming-bird chirps, +in triumph over a defeated rival. The true song, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>ever, +of most birds and various strange cries are chiefly +uttered during the breeding-season, and serve as a +charm, or merely as a call-note, to the other sex.</p> + +<p>Naturalists are much divided with respect to the object +of the singing of birds. Few more careful observers ever +lived than Montagu, and he maintained that the “males +of song-birds and of many others do not in general +search for the female, but, on the contrary, their +business in the spring is to perch on some conspicuous +spot breathing out their full and amorous notes, which, +by instinct, the female knows, and repairs to the spot to +choose her mate.”<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> Mr. Jenner Weir informs me that +this is certainly the case with the nightingale. Bechstein, +who kept birds during his whole life, asserts, “that +the female canary always chooses the best singer, and +that in a state of nature the female finch selects that +male out of a hundred whose notes please her most.”<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> +There can be no doubt that birds closely attend to +each other’s song. Mr. Weir has told me of the case of +a bullfinch which had been taught to pipe a German +waltz, and who was so good a performer that he cost +ten guineas; when this bird was first introduced into +a room where other birds were kept and he began to +sing, all the others, consisting of about twenty linnets +and canaries, ranged themselves on the nearest side of +their cages, and listened with the greatest interest to +the new performer. Many naturalists believe that the +singing of birds is almost exclusively “the effect of rivalry +and emulation,” and not for the sake of charming +their mates. This was the opinion of Daines Barrington +and White of Selborne, who both especially attended to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>this subject.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> Barrington, however, admits that “superiority +in song gives to birds an amazing ascendancy +over others, as is well known to bird-catchers.”</p> + +<p>It is certain that there is an intense degree of rivalry +between the males in their singing. Bird-fanciers +match their birds to see which will sing longest; and +I was told by Mr. Yarrell that a first-rate bird will +sometimes sing till he drops down almost dead, or, +according to Bechstein,<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> quite dead from rupturing a +vessel in the lungs. Whatever the cause may be, +male birds, as I hear from Mr. Weir, often die suddenly +during the season of song. That the habit of +singing is sometimes quite independent of love is clear, +for a sterile hybrid canary-bird has been described<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> +as singing whilst viewing itself in a mirror, and then +dashing at its own image; it likewise attacked with +fury a female canary when put into the same cage. +The jealousy excited by the act of singing is constantly +taken advantage of by bird-catchers; a male, in good +song, is hidden and protected, whilst a stuffed bird, surrounded +by limed twigs, is exposed to view. In this +manner a man, as Mr. Weir informs me, has caught, in +the course of a single day, fifty, and in one instance +seventy, male chaffinches. The power and inclination +to sing differ so greatly with birds that although the +price of an ordinary male chaffinch is only sixpence, +Mr. Weir saw one bird for which the bird-catcher asked +three pounds; the test of a really good singer being +that it will continue to sing whilst the cage is swung +round the owner’s head.</p> + +<p>That birds should sing from emulation as well as for +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span>the sake of charming the female, is not at all incompatible; +and, indeed, might have been expected to go +together, like decoration and pugnacity. Some authors, +however, argue that the song of the male cannot serve +to charm the female, because the females of some few +species, such as the canary, robin, lark, and bullfinch, +especially, as Bechstein remarks, when in a state of +widowhood, pour forth fairly melodious strains. In +some of these cases the habit of singing may be in part +attributed to the females having been highly fed and +confined,<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> for this disturbs all the usual functions connected +with the reproduction of the species. Many instances +have already been given of the partial transference +of secondary masculine characters to the female, +so that it is not at all surprising that the females of some +species should possess the power of song. It has also +been argued, that the song of the male cannot serve as +a charm, because the males of certain species, for instance, +of the robin, sing during the autumn.<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> But +nothing is more common than for animals to take pleasure +in practising whatever instinct they follow at other +times for some real good. How often do we see birds +which fly easily, gliding and sailing through the air +obviously for pleasure. The cat plays with the captured +mouse, and the cormorant with the captured fish. +The weaver-bird (<i>Ploceus</i>), when confined in a cage, +amuses itself by neatly weaving blades of grass between +the wires of its cage. Birds which habitually fight +during the breeding-season are generally ready to fight +at all times; and the males of the capercailzie sometimes +hold their <i>balzens</i> or <i>leks</i> at the usual place of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>assemblage during the autumn.<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> Hence it is not at all +surprising that male birds should continue singing for +their own amusement after the season for courtship is +over.</p> + +<p>Singing is to a certain extent, as shewn in a previous +chapter, an art, and is much improved by practice. +Birds can be taught various tunes, and even the unmelodious +sparrow has learnt to sing like a linnet. +They acquire the song of their foster-parents,<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> and +sometimes that of their neighbours.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> All the common +songsters belong to the Order of Insessores, and their +vocal organs are much more complex than those of +most other birds; yet it is a singular fact that some +of the Insessores, such as ravens, crows, and magpies, +possess the proper apparatus,<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> though they never sing, +and do not naturally modulate their voices to any great +extent. Hunter asserts<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> that with the true songsters +the muscles of the larynx are stronger in the males +than in the females; but with this slight exception there +is no difference in the vocal organs of the two sexes, +although the males of most species sing so much better +and more continuously than the females.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that only small birds properly sing. +The Australian genus <i>Menura</i>, however, must be excepted; +for the <i>Menura Alberti</i>, which is about the size +of a half-grown turkey, not only mocks other birds, but +“its own whistle is exceedingly beautiful and varied.” +The males congregate and form “<i>corroborying</i> places,” +where they sing, raising and spreading their tails like +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span>peacocks and drooping their wings.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> It is also remarkable +that the birds which sing are rarely decorated +with brilliant colours or other ornaments. Of our British +birds, excepting the bullfinch and goldfinch, the best +songsters are plain-coloured. The kingfisher, bee-eater, +roller, hoopoe, woodpeckers, &c., utter harsh cries; and +the brilliant birds of the tropics are hardly ever songsters.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> +Hence bright colours and the power of song +seem to replace each other. We can perceive that if the +plumage did not vary in brightness, or if bright colours +were dangerous to the species, other means would have +to be employed to charm the females; and the voice +being rendered melodious would offer one such means.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f39" id="f39"></a><img src="images/fig39.png" width="550" height="426" alt="Fig. 39. Tetrao cupido; male. (From Brehm.)" title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 39. <i>Tetrao cupido</i>; male. (From Brehm.)</p></div> + +<p>In some birds the vocal organs differ greatly in the +two sexes. In the <i>Tetrao cupido</i> (fig. <a href="#f39">39</a>) the male has +two bare, orange-coloured sacks, one on each side of the +neck; and these are largely inflated when the male, +during the breeding-season, makes a curious hollow +sound, audible at a great distance. Audubon proved +that the sound was intimately connected with this apparatus, +which reminds us of the air-sacks on each side +of the mouth of certain male frogs, for he found that +the sound was much diminished when one of the sacks +of a tame bird was pricked, and when both were pricked +it was altogether stopped. The female has “a somewhat +similar, though smaller, naked space of skin on +the neck; but this is not capable of inflation.”<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span>male of another kind of grouse (<i>Tetrao urophasianus</i>), +whilst courting the female, has his “bare yellow œsophagus +inflated to a prodigious size, fully half as large +as the body;” and he then utters various grating,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span> +deep hollow tones. With his neck-feathers erect, his +wings lowered and buzzing on the ground, and his long +pointed tail spread out like a fan, he displays a variety +of grotesque attitudes. The œsophagus of the female +is not in any way remarkable.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a></p> + +<p>It seems now well made out that the great throat-pouch +of the European male bustard (<i>Otis tarda</i>), and +of at least four other species, does not serve, as was +formerly supposed, to hold water, but is connected with +the utterance during the breeding-season of a peculiar +sound resembling “ock.” The bird whilst uttering this +sound throws himself into the most extraordinary attitudes. +It is a singular fact that with the males of the +same species the sack is not developed in all the individuals.<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> +A crow-like bird inhabiting South America +(<i>Cephalopterus ornatus</i>, fig. 40) is called the umbrella-bird, +from its immense top-knot, formed of bare white +quills surmounted by dark-blue plumes, which it can +elevate into a great dome no less than five inches in +diameter, covering the whole head. This bird has on +its neck a long, thin, cylindrical, fleshy appendage, which +is thickly clothed with scale-like blue feathers. It probably +serves in part as an ornament, but likewise as a +resounding apparatus, for Mr. Bates found that it is +connected “with an unusual development of the trachea +and vocal organs.” It is dilated when the bird utters +its singularly deep, loud, and long-sustained fluty note. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>The head-crest and neck-appendage are rudimentary +in the female.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f40" id="f40"></a><img src="images/fig40.png" width="500" height="480" alt="Fig. 40. The Umbrella-bird or Cephalopterus ornatus (male, from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 40. The Umbrella-bird or <i>Cephalopterus ornatus</i> (male, from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p>The vocal organs of various web-footed and wading +birds are extraordinarily complex, and differ to a certain +extent in the two sexes. In some cases the trachea is +convoluted, like a French horn, and is deeply embedded +in the sternum. In the wild swan (<i>Cygnus ferus</i>) it is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>more deeply embedded in the adult male than in the +female or young male. In the male Merganser the +enlarged portion of the trachea is furnished with an +additional pair of muscles.<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> But the meaning of these +differences between the sexes of many Anatidæ is not +at all understood; for the male is not always the more +vociferous; thus with the common duck, the male hisses, +whilst the female utters a loud quack.<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> In both sexes of +one of the cranes (<i>Grus virgo</i>) the trachea penetrates +the sternum, but presents “certain sexual modifications.” +In the male of the black stork there is also a well-marked +sexual difference in the length and curvature of +the bronchi.<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> So that highly important structures have +in these cases been modified according to sex.</p> + +<p>It is often difficult to conjecture whether the many +strange cries and notes, uttered by male birds during +the breeding-season, serve as a charm or merely as a +call to the female. The soft cooing of the turtle-dove +and of many pigeons, it may be presumed, pleases the +female. When the female of the wild turkey utters her +call in the morning, the male answers by a different +note from the gobbling noise which he makes, when +with erected feathers, rustling wings and distended +wattles, he puffs and struts before her.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> The <i>spel</i> of +the black-cock certainly serves as a call to the female, +for it has been known to bring four or five females +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>from a distance to a male under confinement; but as +the black-cock continues his <i>spel</i> for hours during +successive days, and in the case of the capercailzie +“with an agony of passion,” we are led to suppose +that the females which are already present are thus +charmed.<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> The voice of the common rook is known +to alter during the breeding-season, and is therefore in +some way sexual.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> But what shall we say about the +harsh screams of, for instance, some kinds of macaws; +have these birds as bad taste for musical sounds as +they apparently have for colour, judging by the inharmonious +contrast of their bright yellow and blue +plumage? It is indeed possible that the loud voices +of many male birds may be the result, without any +advantage being thus gained, of the inherited effects of +the continued use of their vocal organs, when they are +excited by the strong passions of love, jealousy, and +rage; but to this point we shall recur when we treat of +quadrupeds.</p> + +<p class="tb">We have as yet spoken only of the voice, but the +males of various birds practise, during their courtship, +what may be called instrumental music. Peacocks +and Birds of Paradise rattle their quills together, +and the vibratory movement apparently serves merely +to make a noise, for it can hardly add to the beauty +of their plumage. Turkey-cocks scrape their wings +against the ground, and some kinds of grouse thus +produce a buzzing sound. Another North American +grouse, the <i>Tetrao umbellus</i>, when with his tail erect, +his ruffs displayed, “he shows off his finery to the +females, who lie hid in the neighbourhood,” drums +rapidly with his “lowered wings on the trunk of a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>fallen tree,” or, according to Audubon, against his own +body; the sound thus produced is compared by some to +distant thunder, and by others to the quick roll of a +drum. The female never drums, “but flies directly to +the place where the male is thus engaged.” In the +Himalayas the male of the Kalij pheasant “often makes +a singular drumming noise with his wings, not unlike +the sound produced by shaking a stiff piece of cloth.” +On the west coast of Africa the little black-weavers +(<i>Ploceus</i>?) congregate in a small party on the bushes +round a small open space, and sing and glide through +the air with quivering wings, “which make a rapid +whirring sound like a child’s rattle.” One bird after +another thus performs for hours together, but only during +the courting-season. At this same season the males of +certain nightjars (<i>Caprimulgus</i>) make a most strange +noise with their wings. The various species of woodpeckers +strike a sonorous branch with their beaks, with +so rapid a vibratory movement that “the head appears +to be in two places at once.” The sound thus produced +is audible at a considerable distance, but cannot +be described; and I feel sure that its cause would +never be conjectured by any one who heard it for the +first time. As this jarring sound is made chiefly during +the breeding-season, it has been considered as a love-song; +but it is perhaps more strictly a love-call. The +female, when driven from her nest, has been observed +thus to call her mate, who answered in the same +manner and soon appeared. Lastly the male Hoopoe +(<i>Upupa epops</i>) combines vocal and instrumental music; +for during the breeding-season this bird, as Mr. Swinhoe +saw, first draws in air and then taps the end of its +beak perpendicularly down against a stone or the trunk +of a tree, “when the breath being forced down the +tubular bill produces the correct sound.” When the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> +male utters its cry without striking his beak the sound +is quite different.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f41" id="f41"></a><img src="images/fig41.png" width="400" height="99" alt="Fig. 41. Outer tail-feather of Scolopax gallinago (from Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 41. Outer tail-feather of <i>Scolopax gallinago</i> (from Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858).</p></div> + +<p>In the foregoing cases sounds are made by the aid +of structures already present and otherwise necessary; +but in the following cases certain feathers have been +specially modified for the express purpose of producing +the sounds. The drumming, or bleating, or neighing, or +thundering noise, as expressed by different observers, +which is made by the common snipe (<i>Scolopax gallinago</i>) +must have surprised every one who has ever heard it. +This bird, during the pairing-season, flies to “perhaps a +thousand feet in height,” and after zig-zagging about +for a time descends in a curved line, with outspread tail +and quivering pinions, with surprising velocity to the +earth. The sound is emitted only during this rapid +descent. No one was able to explain the cause, until +M. Meves observed that on each side of the tail the outer +feathers are peculiarly formed (fig. <a href="#f41">41</a>), having a stiff +sabre-shaped shaft, with the oblique barbs of unusual +length, the outer webs being strongly bound together.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span></p> +<p>He found that by blowing on these feathers, or by fastening +them to a long thin stick and waving them rapidly +through the air, he could exactly reproduce the drumming +noise made by the living bird. Both sexes are +furnished with these feathers, but they are generally + +<span class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f42" id="f42"></a><img src="images/fig42.png" width="300" height="64" alt="Fig. 42. Outer tail-feather of Scolopax frenata." title="" /> + +<span class="center2">Fig. 42. Outer tail-feather of <i>Scolopax frenata</i>.</span></span> + +<span class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f43" id="f43"></a><img src="images/fig43.png" width="300" height="65" alt="Fig. 43. Outer tail-feather of Scolopax javensis." title="" /> + +<span class="center2">Fig. 43. Outer tail-feather of <i>Scolopax javensis</i>.</span></span> + +larger in the male than +in the female, and emit +a deeper note. In some +species, as in <i>S. frenata</i> +(fig. <a href="#f42">42</a>), four feathers, +and in <i>S. javensis</i> (fig. +43), no less than eight +on each side of the tail +are greatly modified. Different tones are emitted by +the feathers of the different species when waved through +the air; and the <i>Scolopax Wilsonii</i> of the United States +makes a switching noise whilst descending rapidly to +the earth.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> + +<p>In the male of the <i>Chamæpetes unicolor</i> (a large gallinaceous +bird of America) the first primary wing-feather +is arched towards the tip and is much more attenuated +than in the female. In an allied bird, the <i>Penelope +nigra</i>, Mr. Salvin observed a male, which, whilst it +flew downwards “with outstretched wings, gave forth +a kind of crashing, rushing noise,” like the falling +of a tree.<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> The male alone of one of the Indian +bustards (<i>Sypheotides auritus</i>) has its primary wing-feathers +greatly acuminated; and the male of an allied +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>species is known to make a humming noise whilst +courting the female.<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> In a widely different group of +birds, namely the Humming-birds, the males alone + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f44" id="f44"></a><img src="images/fig44.png" width="250" height="123" alt="Fig. 44. Primary wing-feather of a +Humming-bird, the Selasphorus platycercus +(from a sketch by Mr. Salvin). +Upper figure, that of male; lower +figure, corresponding feather of female." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 44. Primary wing-feather of a +Humming-bird, the <i>Selasphorus platycercus</i> +(from a sketch by Mr. Salvin). +Upper figure, that of male; lower +figure, corresponding feather of female.</span></span> + +of certain kinds have either +the shafts of their primary +wing-feathers broadly dilated, +or the webs abruptly excised +towards the extremity. The +male, for instance, of <i>Selasphorus +platycercus</i>, when adult, +has the first primary wing-feather +(fig. <a href="#f44">44</a>), excised in +this manner. Whilst flying +from flower to flower he +makes “a shrill, almost whistling, noise;”<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> but it +did not appear to Mr. Salvin that the noise was intentionally +made.</p> + +<p>Lastly, in several species of a sub-genus of <i>Pipra</i> or +Manakin, the males have their <i>secondary</i> wing-feathers +modified, as described by Mr. Sclater, in a still more +remarkable manner. In the brilliantly-coloured <i>P. +deliciosa</i> the first three secondaries are thick-stemmed +and curved towards the body; in the fourth and fifth +(fig. 45, <i>a</i>) the change is greater; and in the sixth +and seventh (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) the shaft “is thickened to an +extraordinary degree, forming a solid horny lump.” +The barbs also are greatly changed in shape, in comparison +with the corresponding feathers (<i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>) in the +female. Even the bones of the wing which support +these singular feathers in the male are said by Mr. +Fraser to be much thickened. These little birds make +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span>an extraordinary noise, the first “sharp note being not +unlike the crack of a whip.”<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f45" id="f45"></a><img src="images/fig45.png" width="450" height="518" alt="Fig. 45. Secondary wing-feathers of Pipra deliciosa (from Mr. Sclater, in Proc, Zool. Soc. +1860). The three upper feathers, a, b, c, from the male; the three lower corresponding +feathers, d, e, f, from the female." title="" /> + +<p class="indent2">Fig. 45. Secondary wing-feathers of <i>Pipra deliciosa</i>(from Mr. Sclater, in Proc, Zool. Soc. +1860). The three upper feathers, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, from the male; the three lower corresponding +feathers, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, from the female.</p> + +<p class="indent2"><i>a.</i> and <i>d.</i> Fifth secondary wing-feather of male and female, upper surface. <i>b</i> and <i>e</i>. +Sixth secondary, upper surface. <i>c</i> and <i>f</i>. Seventh secondary, lower surface.</p></div> + +<p>The diversity of the sounds, both vocal and instrumental, +made by the males of many species during the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span>breeding-season, and the diversity of the means for +producing such sounds, are highly remarkable. We +thus gain a high idea of their importance for sexual +purposes, and are reminded of the same conclusion with +respect to insects. It is not difficult to imagine the steps +by which the notes of a bird, primarily used as a mere +call or for some other purpose, might have been improved +into a melodious love-song. This is somewhat +more difficult in the case of the modified feathers, by +which the drumming, whistling, or roaring noises are +produced. But we have seen that some birds during +their courtship flutter, shake, or rattle their unmodified +feathers together; and if the females were led to select +the best performers, the males which possessed the +strongest or thickest, or most attenuated feathers, situated +on any part of the body, would be the most +successful; and thus by slow degrees the feathers might +be modified to almost any extent. The females, of +course, would not notice each slight successive alteration +in shape, but only the sounds thus produced. It is a +curious fact that in the same class of animals, sounds +so different as the drumming of the snipe’s tail, the +tapping of the woodpecker’s beak, the harsh trumpet-like +cry of certain water-fowl, the cooing of the turtle-dove, +and the song of the nightingale, should all be +pleasing to the females of the several species. But +we must not judge the tastes of distinct species by a +uniform standard; nor must we judge by the standard +of man’s taste. Even with man, we should remember +what discordant noises, the beating of tom-toms and +the shrill notes of reeds, please the ears of savages. +Sir S. Baker remarks,<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> that “as the stomach of the +Arab prefers the raw meat and reeking liver taken +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span>hot from the animal, so does his ear prefer his equally +coarse and discordant music to all other.”</p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Love-Antics and Dances.</i>—The curious love-gestures +of various birds, especially of the Gallinaceæ, have +already been incidentally noticed; so that little need +here be added. In Northern America, large numbers +of a grouse, the <i>Tetrao phasianellus</i>, meet every morning +during the breeding-season on a selected level spot, +and here they run round and round in a circle of about +fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, so that the ground +is worn quite bare, like a fairy-ring. In these Partridge-dances, +as they are called by the hunters, the +birds assume the strangest attitudes, and run round, some +to the left and some to the right. Audubon describes +the males of a heron (<i>Ardea herodias</i>) as walking +about on their long legs with great dignity before +the females, bidding defiance to their rivals. With +one of the disgusting carrion-vultures (<i>Cathartes +jota</i>) the same naturalist states that “the gesticulations +and parade of the males at the beginning of the +love-season are extremely ludicrous.” Certain birds +perform their love-antics on the wing, as we have seen +with the black African weaver, instead of on the +ground. During the spring our little whitethroat +(<i>Sylvia cinerea</i>) often rises a few feet or yards in the +air above some bush, and “flutters with a fitful and +fantastic motion, singing all the while, and then drops +to its perch.” The great English bustard throws +himself into indescribably odd attitudes whilst courting +the female, as has been figured by Wolf. An allied +Indian bustard (<i>Otis bengalensis</i>) at such times “rises +perpendicularly into the air with a hurried flapping +of his wings, raising his crest and puffing out the +feathers of his neck and breast, and then drops to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> +ground;” he repeats this manœuvre several times +successively, at the same time humming in a peculiar +tone. Such females as happen to be near “obey this +saltatory summons,” and when they approach he +trails his wings and spreads his tail like a turkey-cock.<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a></p> + +<p>But the most curious case is afforded by three allied +genera of Australian birds, the famous Bower-birds,—no +doubt the co-descendants of some ancient species +which first acquired the strange instinct of constructing +bowers for performing their love-antics. The bowers +(fig. <a href="#f46">46</a>), which, as we shall hereafter see, are highly +decorated with feathers, shells, bones and leaves, are +built on the ground for the sole purpose of courtship, +for their nests are formed in trees. Both sexes assist +in the erection of the bowers, but the male is the principal +workman. So strong is this instinct that it is +practised under confinement, and Mr. Strange has +described<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> the habits of some Satin Bower-birds, +which he kept in his aviary in New South Wales. “At +times the male will chase the female all over the +aviary, then go to the bower, pick up a gay feather +or a large leaf, utter a curious kind of note, set all +his feathers erect, run round the bower and become +so excited that his eyes appear ready to start from +his head; he continues opening first one wing, and +then the other, uttering a low, whistling note, and, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span>like the domestic cock, seems to be picking up something +from the ground, until at last the female goes +gently towards him.” Captain Stokes has described +the habits and “play-houses” of another species, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>Great Bower-bird, which was seen “amusing itself by +flying backwards and forwards, taking a shell alternately +from each side, and carrying it through the +archway in its mouth.” These curious structures, +formed solely as halls of assemblages, where both sexes +amuse themselves and pay their court, must cost the +birds much labour. The bower, for instance, of the +fawn-breasted species, is nearly four feet in length, +eighteen inches in height, and is raised on a thick +platform of sticks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="f46" id="f46"></a><img src="images/fig46.png" width="600" height="485" alt="Fig. 46 Tetrao cupido: male. (From Brehm.)" title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 46. Bower-bird, Chlamydera maculata, with bower (from +Brehm).</p></div> + +<p class="tb"><i>Decoration.</i>—I will first discuss the cases in which the +males are ornamented either exclusively or in a much +higher degree than the females; and in a succeeding +chapter those in which both sexes are equally ornamented, +and finally the rare cases in which the female is +somewhat more brightly-coloured than the male. As with +the artificial ornaments used by savage and civilised men, +so with the natural ornaments of birds, the head is the +chief seat of decoration.<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> The ornaments, as mentioned +at the commencement of this chapter, are wonderfully +diversified. The plumes on the front or back of the +head consist of variously-shaped feathers, sometimes +capable of erection or expansion, by which their beautiful +colours are fully displayed. Elegant ear-tufts (see +fig. <a href="#f39">39</a> ante) are occasionally present. The head is +sometimes covered with velvety down like that of the +pheasant; or is naked and vividly coloured; or supports +fleshy appendages, filaments, and solid protuberances. +The throat, also, is sometimes ornamented with a beard, +or with wattles or caruncles. Such appendages are +generally brightly coloured, and no doubt serve as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span>ornaments, though not always ornamental in our eyes; +for whilst the male is in the act of courting the female, +they often swell and assume more vivid tints, as in the +case of the male turkey. At such times the fleshy appendages +about the head of the male Tragopan pheasant +(<i>Ceriornis temminckii</i>) swell into a large lappet +on the throat and into two horns, one on each side of +the splendid top-knot; and these are then coloured of +the most intense blue which I have ever beheld. The +African hornbill (<i>Bucorax abyssinicus</i>) inflates the +scarlet bladder-like wattle on its neck, and with its +wings drooping and tail expanded “makes quite a grand +appearance.”<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> Even the iris of the eye is sometimes +more brightly coloured in the male than in the female; +and this is frequently the case with the beak, for +instance, in our common blackbird. In <i>Buceros corrugatus</i>, +the whole beak and immense casque are +coloured more conspicuously in the male than in the +female; and “the oblique grooves upon the sides of +the lower mandible are peculiar to the male sex.”<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p> + +<p>The males are often ornamented with elongated feathers +or plumes springing from almost every part of the +body. The feathers on the throat and breast are sometimes +developed into beautiful ruffs and collars. The +tail-feathers are frequently increased in length; as we +see in the tail-coverts of the peacock, and in the tail of +the Argus pheasant. The body of this latter bird is not +larger than that of a fowl; yet the length from the end +of the beak to the extremity of the tail is no less than +five feet three inches.<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> The wing-feathers are not +elongated nearly so often as the tail-feathers; for their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>elongation would impede the act of flight. Yet the +beautifully ocellated secondary wing-feathers of the +male Argus pheasant are nearly three feet in length; +and in a small African nightjar (<i>Cosmetornis vexillarius</i>) +one of the primary wing-feathers, during the +breeding-season, attains a length of twenty-six inches, +whilst the bird itself is only ten inches in length. +In another closely-allied genus of nightjars, the shafts +of the elongated wing-feathers are naked, except at +the extremity, where there is a disc.<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> Again, in +another genus of nightjars, the tail-feathers are even +still more prodigiously developed; so that we see the +same kind of ornament gained by the males of closely-allied +birds, through the development of widely different +feathers.</p> + +<p>It is a curious fact that the feathers of birds belonging +to distinct groups have been modified in almost exactly +the same peculiar manner. Thus the wing-feathers +in one of the above-mentioned nightjars are bare +along the shaft and terminate in a disc; or are, as +they are sometimes called, spoon or racket-shaped. +Feathers of this kind occur in the tail of a motmot +(<i>Eumomota superciliaris</i>), of a kingfisher, finch, humming-bird, +parrot, several Indian drongos (<i>Dicrurus</i> +and <i>Edolius</i>, in one of which the disc stands vertically), +and in the tail of certain Birds of Paradise. In these +latter birds, similar feathers, beautifully ocellated, +ornament the head, as is likewise the case with some +gallinaceous birds. In an Indian bustard (<i>Sypheotides +auritus</i>) the feathers forming the ear-tufts, which are +about four inches in length, also terminate in discs.<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>The barbs of the feathers in various widely-distinct +birds are filamentous or plumose, as with some Herons, +Ibises, Birds of Paradise and Gallinaceæ. In other +cases the barbs disappear, leaving the shafts bare; and +these in the tail of the <i>Paradisea apoda</i> attain a length +of thirty-four inches.<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> Smaller feathers when thus +denuded appear like bristles, as on the breast of the +turkey-cock. As any fleeting fashion in dress comes +to be admired by man, so with birds a change of +almost any kind in the structure or colouring of the +feathers in the male appears to have been admired by +the female. The fact of the feathers in widely distinct +groups, having been modified in an analogous +manner, no doubt depends primarily on all the feathers +having nearly the same structure and manner of development, +and consequently tending to vary in the same +manner. We often see a tendency to analogous variability +in the plumage of our domestic breeds belonging +to distinct species. Thus top-knots have appeared in +several species. In an extinct variety of the turkey, +the top-knot consisted of bare quills surmounted with +plumes of down, so that they resembled, to a certain +extent, the racket-shaped feathers above described. In +certain breeds of the pigeon and fowl the feathers are +plumose, with some tendency in the shafts to be naked. +In the Sebastopol goose the scapular feathers are greatly +elongated, curled, or even spirally twisted, with the +margins plumose.<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f47" id="f47"></a><img src="images/fig47.png" width="550" height="425" alt="Fig. 47. Paradisea rubra, male (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 47. <i>Paradisea rubra</i>, male (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f48" id="f48"></a><img src="images/fig48.png" width="500" height="660" alt="Fig. 48. Lophornis ornatus, male and female (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 48. <i>Lophornis ornatus</i>, male and female (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p>In regard to colour hardly anything need here be +said; for every one knows how splendid are the tints +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>of birds, and how harmoniously they are combined. +The colours are often metallic and iridescent. Circular +spots are sometimes surrounded by one or more differently +shaded zones, and are thus converted into ocelli. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> +Nor need much be said on the wonderful differences +between the sexes, or of the extreme beauty of the +males of many birds. The common peacock offers a +striking instance. Female Birds of Paradise are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>obscurely coloured and destitute of all ornaments, whilst +the males are probably the most highly decorated of +all birds, and in so many ways, that they must be +seen to be appreciated. The elongated and golden-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span>orange +plumes which spring from beneath the wings +of the <i>Paradisea apoda</i> (see fig. <a href="#f47">47</a> of <i>P. rubra</i>, a much +less beautiful species), when vertically erected and made +to vibrate, are described as forming a sort of halo, in +the centre of which the head “looks like a little +emerald sun with its rays formed by the two plumes.”<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> +In another most beautiful species the head is bald, +“and of a rich cobalt blue, crossed by several lines of +black velvety feathers.”<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f49" id="f49"></a><img src="images/fig49.png" width="500" height="674" alt="Fig. 49. Spathura underwoodi, male and female (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 49. <i>Spathura underwoodi</i>, male and female (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p>Male humming-birds (figs. 48 and 49) almost vie +with Birds of Paradise in their beauty, as every one will +admit who has seen Mr. Gould’s splendid volumes or his +rich collection. It is very remarkable in how many +different ways these birds are ornamented. Almost every +part of the plumage has been taken advantage of and +modified; and the modifications have been carried, as +Mr. Gould shewed me, to a wonderful extreme in some +species belonging to nearly every subgroup. Such cases +are curiously like those which we see in our fancy +breeds, reared by man for the sake of ornament: certain +individuals originally varied in one character, and other +individuals belonging to the same species in other +characters; and these have been seized on by man and +augmented to an extreme point—as the tail of the +fantail-pigeon, the hood of the jacobin, the beak and +wattle of the carrier, and so forth. The sole difference +between these cases is that in the one the result is due +to man’s selection, whilst in the other, as with Humming-birds, +Birds of Paradise, &c., it is due to sexual +selection,—that is to the selection by the females of the +more beautiful males.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span></p><p>I will mention only one other bird, remarkable from +the extreme contrast in colour between the sexes, +namely the famous Bell-bird (<i>Chasmorhynchus niveus</i>) of +S. America, the note of which can be distinguished at +the distance of nearly three miles, and astonishes every +one who first hears it. The male is pure white, whilst +the female is dusky-green; and the former colour with +terrestrial species of moderate size and inoffensive +habits is very rare. The male, also, as described by +Waterton, has a spiral tube, nearly three inches in +length, which rises from the base of the beak. It is jet-black, +dotted over with minute downy feathers. This +tube can be inflated with air, through a communication +with the palate; and when not inflated hangs down on +one side. The genus consists of four species, the males +of which are very distinct, whilst the females, as described +by Mr. Sclater in a most interesting paper, +closely resemble each other, thus offering an excellent +instance of the common rule that within the same +group the males differ much more from each other than +do the females. In a second species (<i>C. nudicollis</i>) the +male is likewise snow-white, with the exception of a +large space of naked skin on the throat and round the +eyes, which during the breeding-season is of a fine green +colour. In a third species (<i>C. tricarunculatus</i>) the head +and neck alone of the male are white, the rest of the +body being chesnut-brown, and the male of this species +is provided with three filamentous projections half as +long as the body—one rising from the base of the beak +and the two others from the corners of the mouth.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a></p> + +<p>The coloured plumage and certain other ornaments of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span>the males when adult are either retained for life or are +periodically renewed during the summer and breeding-season. +At this season the beak and naked skin about +the head frequently change colour, as with some herons, +ibises, gulls, one of the bell-birds just noticed, &c. In +the white ibis, the cheeks, the inflatable skin of the +throat, and the basal portion of the beak, then become +crimson.<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> In one of the rails, <i>Gallicrex cristatus</i> a large +red caruncle is developed during this same period on +the head of the male. So it is with a thin horny crest +on the beak of one of the pelicans, <i>P. erythrorhynchus</i>; +for after the breeding-season, these horny crests are +shed, like horns from the heads of stags, and the shore +of an island in a lake in Nevada was found covered +with these curious exuviæ.<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a></p> + +<p>Changes of colour in the plumage according to the +season depend firstly on a double annual moult, secondly +on an actual change of colour in the feathers themselves, +and thirdly on their dull-coloured margins being periodically +shed, or on these three processes more or less +combined. The shedding of the deciduary margins may +be compared with the shedding by very young birds +of their down; for the down in most cases arises from +the summits of the first true feathers.<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></p> + +<p>With respect to the birds which annually undergo a +double moult, there are, firstly, some kinds, for instance +snipes, swallow-plovers (Glareolæ), and curlews, in +which the two sexes resemble each other and do not +change colour at any season. I do not know whether +the winter-plumage is thicker and warmer than the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span>summer-plumage, which seems, when there is no change +of colour, the most probable cause of a double moult. +Secondly, there are birds, for instance certain species of +<i>Totanus</i> and other grallatores, the sexes of which resemble +each other, but have a slightly different summer +and winter plumage. The difference, however, in colour +in these cases is so slight that it can hardly be an +advantage to them; and it may, perhaps, be attributed +to the direct action of the different conditions to which +the birds are exposed during the two seasons. Thirdly, +there are many other birds the sexes of which are +alike, but which are widely different in their summer +and winter plumage. Fourthly, there are birds, the +sexes of which differ from each other in colour; but +the females, though moulting twice, retain the same +colours throughout the year, whilst the males undergo +a change, sometimes, as with certain bustards, a great +change of colour. Fifthly and lastly, there are birds +the sexes of which differ from each other in both +their summer and winter plumage, but the male undergoes +a greater amount of change at each recurrent +season than the female—of which the Ruff (<i>Machetes +pugnax</i>) offers a good instance.</p> + +<p>With respect to the cause or purpose of the differences +in colour between the summer and winter plumage, this +may in some instances, as with the ptarmigan,<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> serve +during both seasons as a protection. When the difference +between the two plumages is slight it may +perhaps be attributed, as already remarked, to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>direct action of the conditions of life. But with many +birds there can hardly be a doubt that the summer +plumage is ornamental, even when both sexes are alike. +We may conclude that this is the case with many +herons, egrets, &c., for they acquire their beautiful +plumes only during the breeding-season. Moreover, +such plumes, top-knots, &c., though possessed by both +sexes, are occasionally a little more highly developed in +the male than in the female; and they resemble the +plumes and ornaments possessed by the males alone +of other birds. It is also known that confinement, by +affecting the reproductive system of male birds, frequently +checks the development of their secondary +sexual characters, but has no immediate influence on +any other characters; and I am informed by Mr. +Bartlett that eight or nine specimens of the Knot +(<i>Tringa canutus</i>) retained their unadorned winter plumage +in the Zoological Gardens throughout the year, +from which fact we may infer that the summer plumage +though common to both sexes partakes of the nature +of the exclusively masculine plumage of many other +birds.<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a></p> + +<p>From the foregoing facts, more especially from +neither sex of certain birds changing colour during +either annual moult, or changing so slightly that the +change can hardly be of any service to them, and from +the females of other species moulting twice yet retaining +the same colours throughout the year, we may conclude +that the habit of moulting twice in the year has +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span>not been acquired in order that the male should assume +during the breeding-season an ornamental character; +but that the double moult, having been originally +acquired for some distinct purpose, has subsequently +been taken advantage of in certain cases for gaining a +nuptial plumage.</p> + +<p>It appears at first sight a surprising circumstance +that with closely-allied birds, some species should regularly +undergo a double annual moult, and others only a +single one. The ptarmigan, for instance, moults twice +or even thrice in the year, and the black-cock only +once: some of the splendidly-coloured honey-suckers +(Nectariniæ) of India and some sub-genera of obscurely-coloured +pipits (<i>Anthus</i>) have a double, whilst others +have only a single annual moult.<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> But the gradations +in the manner of moulting, which are known to +occur with various birds, shew us how species, or whole +groups of species, might have originally acquired their +double annual moult, or having once gained the habit, +have again lost it. With certain bustards and plovers +the vernal moult is far from complete, some feathers +being renewed, and some changed in colour. There is +also reason to believe that with certain bustards and +rail-like birds, which properly undergo a double moult, +some of the older males retain their nuptial plumage +throughout the year. A few highly modified feathers +may alone be added during the spring to the plumage, +as occurs with the disc-formed tail-feathers of certain +drongos (<i>Bhringa</i>) in India, and with the elongated +feathers on the back, neck, and crest of certain herons. +By such steps as these, the vernal moult might be ren<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span>dered +more and more complete, until a perfect double +moult was acquired. A gradation can also be shewn to +exist in the length of time during which either +annual plumage is retained; so that the one might +come to be retained for the whole year, the other being +completely lost. Thus the <i>Machetes pugnax</i> retains +his ruff in the spring for barely two months. The +male widow-bird (<i>Chera progne</i>) acquires in Natal his +fine plumage and long tail-feathers in December or +January and loses them in March; so that they are +retained during only about three months. Most species +which undergo a double moult keep their ornamental +feathers for about six months. The male, however, of +the wild <i>Gallus bankiva</i> retains his neck-hackles for +nine or ten months; and when these are cast off, the +underlying black feathers on the neck are fully exposed +to view. But with the domesticated descendant of this +species, the neck-hackles of the male are immediately +replaced by new ones; so that we here see, with respect +to part of the plumage, a double moult changed under +domestication into a single moult.<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p> + +<p>The common drake (<i>Anas boschas</i>) is well known after +the breeding-season to lose his male plumage for a +period of three months, during which time he assumes +that of the female. The male pintail-duck (<i>Anas +acuta</i>) loses his plumage for the shorter period of +six weeks or two months; and Montagu remarks that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span>“this double moult within so short a time is a most +extraordinary circumstance, that seems to bid defiance +to all human reasoning.” But he who believes in the +gradual modification of species will be far from feeling +surprise at finding gradations of all kinds. If the male +pintail were to acquire his new plumage within a still +shorter period, the new male feathers would almost +necessarily be mingled with the old, and both with +some proper to the female; and this apparently is the +case with the male of a not distantly-allied bird, namely +the <i>Merganser serrator</i>, for the males are said to +“undergo a change of plumage, which assimilates them +in some measure to the female.” By a little further +acceleration in the process, the double moult would be +completely lost.<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a></p> + +<p>Some male birds, as before stated, become more +brightly coloured in the spring, not by a vernal moult, +but either by an actual change of colour in the feathers, +or by their obscurely-coloured deciduary margins being +shed. Changes of colour thus caused may last for a +longer or shorter time. With the <i>Pelecanus onocrotalus</i> +a beautiful rosy tint, with lemon-coloured marks on the +breast, overspreads the whole plumage in the spring; but +these tints, as Mr. Sclater states, “do not last long, disappearing +generally in about six weeks or two months +after they have been attained.” Certain finches shed +the margins of their feathers in the spring, and then become +brighter-coloured, while other finches undergo no +such change. Thus the <i>Fringilla tristis</i> of the United +States (as well as many other American species), exhibits +its bright colours only when the winter is past, +whilst our goldfinch, which exactly represents this bird +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>in habits, and our siskin, which represents it still more +closely in structure, undergo no such annual change. +But a difference of this kind in the plumage of allied +species is not surprising, for with the common linnet, +which belongs to the same family, the crimson forehead +and breast are displayed only during the summer in +England, whilst in Madeira these colours are retained +throughout the year.<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Display by Male Birds of their Plumage.</i>—Ornaments +of all kinds, whether permanently or temporarily gained, +are sedulously displayed by the males, and apparently +serve to excite, or attract, or charm the females. But +the males will sometimes display their ornaments, when +not in the presence of the females, as occasionally occurs +with grouse at their balz-places, and as may be noticed +with the peacock; this latter bird, however, evidently +wishes for a spectator of some kind, and will shew off +his finery, as I have often seen, before poultry or even +pigs.<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> All naturalists who have closely attended to the +habits of birds, whether in a state of nature or under +confinement, are unanimously of opinion that the males +delight to display their beauty. Audubon frequently +speaks of the male as endeavouring in various ways to +charm the female. Mr. Gould, after describing some +peculiarities in a male humming-bird, says he has no +doubt that it has the power of displaying them to the +greatest advantage before the female. Dr. Jerdon<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>insists that the beautiful plumage of the male serves +“to fascinate and attract the female.” Mr. Bartlett, at +the Zoological Gardens, expressed himself to me in the +strongest terms to the same effect.</p> + +<p>It must be a grand sight in the forests of India “to +come suddenly on twenty or thirty peafowl, the males +displaying their gorgeous trains, and strutting about +in all the pomp of pride before the gratified females.” +The wild turkey-cock erects his glittering plumage, +expands his finely-zoned tail and barred wing-feathers, +and altogether, with his gorged crimson and blue wattles, +makes a superb, though, to our eyes, grotesque +appearance. Similar facts have already been given +with respect to grouse of various kinds. Turning to +another Order. The male <i>Rupicola crocea</i> (fig. <a href="#f50">50</a>) is +one of the most beautiful birds in the world, being of +a splendid orange, with some of the feathers curiously +truncated and plumose. The female is brownish-green, +shaded with red, and has a much smaller +crest. Sir R. Schomburgk has described their courtship; +he found one of their meeting-places where ten +males and two females were present. The space was +from four to five feet in diameter, and appeared to have +been cleared of every blade of grass and smoothed as +if by human hands. A male “was capering to the +apparent delight of several others. Now spreading +its wings, throwing up its head, or opening its tail +like a fan; now strutting about with a hopping gait +until tired, when it gabbled some kind of note, and +was relieved by another. Thus three of them successively +took the field, and then, with self-approbation, +withdrew to rest.” The Indians, in order to +obtain their skins, wait at one of the meeting-places +till the birds are eagerly engaged in dancing, and then +are able to kill, with their poisoned arrows, four or five<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> +males, one after the other.<a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> With Birds of Paradise +a dozen or more full-plumaged males congregate in a +tree to hold a dancing-party, as it is called by the +natives; and here flying about, raising their wings, +elevating their exquisite plumes, and making them +vibrate, the whole tree seems, as Mr. Wallace re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>marks, +to be filled with waving plumes. When thus +engaged, they become so absorbed that a skilful archer +may shoot nearly the whole party. These birds, when +kept in confinement in the Malay Archipelago, are said +to take much care in keeping their feathers clean; often +spreading them out, examining them, and removing +every speck of dirt. One observer, who kept several +pairs alive, did not doubt that the display of the male +was intended to please the female.<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f50" id="f50"></a><img src="images/fig50.png" width="500" height="535" alt="Fig. 50. Rupicola crocea, male (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 50. <i>Rupicola crocea</i>, male (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p>The gold pheasant (<i>Thaumalea picta</i>) during his courtship +not only expands and raises his splendid frill, but +turns it, as I have myself seen, obliquely towards the +female on whichever side she may be standing, obviously +in order that a large surface may be displayed before +her.<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> Mr. Bartlett has observed a male <i>Polyplectron</i> +(fig. <a href="#f51">51</a>) in the act of courtship, and has shewn me a +specimen stuffed in the attitude then assumed. The +tail and wing-feathers of this bird are ornamented with +beautiful ocelli, like those on the peacock’s train. Now +when the peacock displays himself, he expands and +erects his tail transversely to his body, for he stands in +front of the female, and has to shew off, at the same +time, his rich blue throat and breast. But the breast +of the <i>Polyplectron</i> is obscurely coloured, and the ocelli +are not confined to the tail-feathers. Consequently the +<i>Polyplectron</i> does not stand in front of the female; but +he erects and expands his tail-feathers a little obliquely, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>lowering the expanded wing on the same side, and +raising that on the opposite side. In this attitude the +ocelli over the whole body are exposed before the eyes +of the admiring female in one grand bespangled ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span>panse. +To whichever side she may turn, the expanded +wings and the obliquely-held tail are turned towards +her. The male Tragopan pheasant acts in nearly the +same manner, for he raises the feathers of the body, +though not the wing itself, on the side which is opposite +to the female, and which would otherwise be concealed, +so that nearly all the beautifully-spotted feathers are +exhibited at the same time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="f51" id="f51"></a><img src="images/fig51.png" width="600" height="502" alt="Fig. 51. Polyplectron chinquis, male (from Brehm)" title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 51. <i>Polyplectron chinquis</i>. male (from Brehm.)</p></div> + +<p>The case of the Argus pheasant is still more striking. +The immensely developed secondary wing-feathers, which +are confined to the male, are ornamented with a row of +from twenty to twenty-three ocelli, each above an inch in +diameter. The feathers are also elegantly marked with +oblique dark stripes and rows of spots, like those on the +skin of a tiger and leopard combined. The ocelli are +so beautifully shaded that, as the Duke of Argyll remarks,<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> +they stand out like a ball lying loosely within +a socket. But when I looked at the specimen in the +British Museum, which is mounted with the wings expanded +and trailing downwards, I was greatly disappointed, +for the ocelli appeared flat or even concave. +Mr. Gould, however, soon made the case clear to me, +for he had made a drawing of a male whilst he was displaying +himself. At such times the long secondary +feathers in both wings are vertically erected and expanded; +and these, together with the enormously elongated +tail-feathers, make a grand semicircular upright +fan. Now as soon as the wing-feathers are held in this +position, and the light shines on them from above, the +full effect of the shading comes out, and each ocellus at +once resembles the ornament called a ball and socket. +These feathers have been shewn to several artists, and all +have expressed their admiration at the perfect shading.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span></p> +<p>It may well be asked, could such artistically-shaded +ornaments have been formed by means of sexual selection? +But it will be convenient to defer giving an +answer to this question until we treat in the next +chapter of the principle of gradation.</p> + +<p>The primary wing-feathers, which in most gallinaceous +birds are uniformly coloured, are in the Argus +pheasant not less wonderful objects than the secondary +wing-feathers. They are of a soft brown tint with +numerous dark spots, each of which consists of two or +three black dots with a surrounding dark zone. But +the chief ornament is a space parallel to the dark-blue +shaft, which in outline forms a perfect second feather +lying within the true feather. This inner part is +coloured of a lighter chesnut, and is thickly dotted +with minute white points. I have shewn this feather to +several persons, and many have admired it even more +than the ball-and-socket feathers, and have declared +that it was more like a work of art than of nature. +Now these feathers are quite hidden on all ordinary +occasions, but are fully displayed when the long secondary +feathers are erected, though in a widely different +manner; for they are expanded in front like two little +fans or shields, one on each side of the breast near the +ground.</p> + +<p>The case of the male Argus pheasant is eminently +interesting, because it affords good evidence that the +most refined beauty may serve as a charm for the +female, and for no other purpose. We must conclude +that this is the case, as the primary wing-feathers are +never displayed, and the ball-and-socket ornaments are +not exhibited in full perfection, except when the male +assumes the attitude of courtship. The Argus pheasant +does not possess brilliant colours, so that his success in +courtship appears to have depended on the great size of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> +his plumes, and on the elaboration of the most elegant +patterns. Many will declare that it is utterly incredible +that a female bird should be able to appreciate fine +shading and exquisite patterns. It is undoubtedly a +marvellous fact that she should possess this almost +human degree of taste, though perhaps she admires +the general effect rather than each separate detail. +He who thinks that he can safely gauge the discrimination +and taste of the lower animals, may deny that +the female Argus pheasant can appreciate such refined +beauty; but he will then be compelled to admit that +the extraordinary attitudes assumed by the male during +the act of courtship, by which the wonderful beauty of +his plumage is fully displayed, are purposeless; and +this is a conclusion which I for one will never admit.</p> + +<p>Although so many pheasants and allied gallinaceous +birds carefully display their beautiful plumage before +the females, it is remarkable, as Mr. Bartlett informs +me, that this is not the case with the dull-coloured +Eared and Cheer pheasants (<i>Crossoptilon auritum</i> and +<i>Phasianus Wallichii</i>); so that these birds seem conscious +that they have little beauty to display. Mr. +Bartlett has never seen the males of either of these +species fighting together, though he has not had such +good opportunities for observing the Cheer as the +Eared pheasant. Mr. Jenner Weir, also, finds that +all male birds with rich or strongly-characterised +plumage are more quarrelsome than the dull-coloured +species belonging to the same groups. The goldfinch, +for instance, is far more pugnacious than the +linnet, and the blackbird than the thrush. Those birds +which undergo a seasonal change of plumage likewise +become much more pugnacious at the period when +they are most gaily ornamented. No doubt the males +of some obscurely-coloured birds fight desperately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> +together, but it appears that when sexual selection +has been highly influential, and has given bright +colours to the males of any species, it has also very +often given a strong tendency to pugnacity. We +shall meet with nearly analogous cases when we treat +of mammals. On the other hand, with birds the power +of song and brilliant colours have rarely been both +acquired by the males of the same species; but in this +case, the advantage gained would have been identically +the same, namely success in charming the female. +Nevertheless it must be owned that the males of several +brilliantly-coloured birds have had their feathers specially +modified for the sake of producing instrumental +music, though the beauty of this cannot be compared, +at least according to our taste, with that of the vocal +music of many songsters.</p> + +<p>We will now turn to male birds which are not +ornamented in any very high degree, but which +nevertheless display, during their courtship, whatever +attractions they may possess. These cases are in some +respects more curious than the foregoing, and have been +but little noticed. I owe the following facts, selected +from a large body of valuable notes, sent to me by Mr. +Jenner Weir, who has long kept birds of many kinds, including +all the British Fringillidæ and Emberizidæ. The +bullfinch makes his advances in front of the female, +and then puffs out his breast, so that many more of the +crimson feathers are seen at once than otherwise would +be the case. At the same time he twists and bows his +black tail from side to side in a ludicrous manner. The +male chaffinch also stands in front of the female, thus +shewing his red breast, and “blue bell,” as the fanciers +call his head; the wings at the same time being slightly +expanded, with the pure white bands on the shoulders +thus rendered conspicuous. The common linnet distends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> +his rosy breast, slightly expands his brown wings and +tail, so as to make the best of them by exhibiting their +white edgings. We must, however, be cautious in concluding +that the wings are spread out solely for display, +as some birds act thus whose wings are not beautiful. +This is the case with the domestic cock, but it is always +the wing on the side opposite to the female which is +expanded, and at the same time scraped on the ground. +The male goldfinch behaves differently from all other +finches: his wings are beautiful, the shoulders being +black, with the dark-tipped wing-feathers spotted with +white and edged with golden yellow. When he courts +the female, he sways his body from side to side, and +quickly turns his slightly expanded wings first to +one side then to the other, with a golden flashing effect. +No other British finch, as Mr. Weir informs me, turns +during his courtship from side to side in this manner; +not even the closely-allied male siskin, for he would not +thus add to his beauty.</p> + +<p>Most of the British Buntings are plain-coloured birds; +but in the spring the feathers on the head of the male +reed-bunting (<i>Emberiza schœniculus</i>) acquire a fine black +colour by the abrasion of the dusky tips; and these are +erected during the act of courtship. Mr. Weir has kept +two species of <i>Amadina</i> from Australia: the <i>A. castanotis</i> +is a very small and chastely-coloured finch, with +a dark tail, white rump, and jet-black upper tail-coverts, +each of the latter being marked with three large +conspicuous oval spots of white.<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> This species, when +courting the female, slightly spreads out and vibrates +these parti-coloured tail-coverts in a very peculiar +manner. The male <i>Amadina Lathami</i> behaves very +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>differently, exhibiting before the female his brilliantly-spotted +breast and scarlet rump and scarlet upper tail-coverts. +I may here add from Dr. Jerdon, that the Indian +Bulbul (<i>Pycnonotus hæmorrhous</i>) has crimson <i>under</i> +tail-coverts, and the beauty of these feathers, it might +be thought, could never be well exhibited; but the +bird “when excited often spreads them out laterally, +so that they can be seen even from above.”<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> The +common pigeon has iridescent feathers on the breast, +and every one must have seen how the male inflates his +breast whilst courting the female, thus showing off these +feathers to the best advantage. One of the beautiful +bronze-winged pigeons of Australia (<i>Ocyphaps lophotes</i>) +behaves, as described to me by Mr. Weir, very differently: +the male, whilst standing before the female, +lowers his head almost to the ground, spreads out and +raises perpendicularly his tail, and half expands his +wings. He then alternately and slowly raises and depresses +his body, so that the iridescent metallic feathers +are all seen at once, and glitter in the sun.</p> + +<p>Sufficient facts have now been given to shew with +what care male birds display their various charms, and +this they do with the utmost skill. Whilst preening +their feathers, they have frequent opportunities for admiring +themselves and of studying how best to exhibit +their beauty. But as all the males of the same species +display themselves in exactly the same manner, it +appears that actions, at first perhaps intentional, have +become instinctive. If so, we ought not to accuse birds +of conscious vanity; yet when we see a peacock strutting +about, with expanded and quivering tail-feathers, he +seems the very emblem of pride and vanity.</p> + +<p>The various ornaments possessed by the males are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>certainly of the highest importance to them, for they +have been acquired in some cases at the expense of +greatly impeded powers of flight or of running. The +African nightjar (<i>Cosmetornis</i>), which during the pairing-season +has one of its primary wing-feathers developed +into a streamer of extreme length, is thus much +retarded in its flight, although at other times remarkable +for its swiftness. The “unwieldy size” of the +secondary wing-feathers of the male Argus pheasant +are said “almost entirely to deprive the bird of flight.” +The fine plumes of male Birds of Paradise trouble them +during a high wind. The extremely long tail-feathers +of the male widow-birds (<i>Vidua</i>) of Southern Africa +render “their flight heavy;” but as soon as these are +cast off they fly as well as the females. As birds always +breed when food is abundant, the males probably do +not suffer much inconvenience in searching for food +from their impeded powers of movement; but there can +hardly be a doubt that they must be much more liable +to be struck down by birds of prey. Nor can we doubt +that the long train of the peacock and the long tail +and wing-feathers of the Argus pheasant must render +them a more easy prey to any prowling tiger-cat than +would otherwise be the case. Even the bright colours +of many male birds cannot fail to make them conspicuous +to their enemies of all kinds. Hence it probably +is, as Mr. Gould has remarked, that such birds are +generally of a shy disposition, as if conscious that their +beauty was a source of danger, and are much more difficult +to discover or approach, than the sombre-coloured +and comparatively tame females, or than the young +and as yet unadorned males.<a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span></p> +<p>It is a more curious fact that the males of some birds +which are provided with special weapons for battle, and +which in a state of nature are so pugnacious that they +often kill each other, suffer from possessing certain +ornaments. Cock-fighters trim the hackles and cut off +the comb and gills of their cocks; and the birds are +then said to be dubbed. An undubbed bird, as Mr. +Tegetmeier insists, “is at a fearful disadvantage: the +comb and gills offer an easy hold to his adversary’s +beak, and as a cock always strikes where he holds, +when once he has seized his foe, he has him entirely +in his power. Even supposing that the bird is not +killed, the loss of blood suffered by an undubbed cock +is much greater than that sustained by one that has +been trimmed.”<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> Young turkey-cocks in fighting +always seize hold of each other’s wattles; and I presume +that the old birds fight in the same manner. It +may perhaps be objected that the comb and wattles are +not ornamental, and cannot be of service to the birds +in this way; but even to our eyes, the beauty of +the glossy black Spanish cock is much enhanced by his +white face and crimson comb; and no one who has ever +seen the splendid blue wattles of the male Tragopan +pheasant, when distended during the act of courtship, +can for a moment doubt that beauty is the object gained. +From the foregoing facts we clearly see that the plumes +and other ornaments of the male must be of the highest +importance to him; and we further see that beauty in +some cases is even more important than success in battle.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XIV.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Birds</span>—<i>continued</i>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Choice exerted by the female—Length of courtship—Unpaired +birds—Mental qualities and taste for the beautiful—Preference +or antipathy shewn by the female for particular males—Variability +of birds—Variations sometimes abrupt—Laws of variation—Formation +of ocelli—Gradations of character—Case of +Peacock, Argus pheasant, and <i>Urosticte</i>.</p></div> + +<p>When the sexes differ in beauty, in the power of +singing, or in producing what I have called instrumental +music, it is almost invariably the male which +excels the female. These qualities, as we have just +seen, are evidently of high importance to the male. +When they are gained for only a part of the year, this +is always shortly before the breeding-season. It is the +male alone who elaborately displays his varied attractions, +and often performs strange antics on the ground +or in the air, in the presence of the female. Each +male drives away or, if he can, kills all his rivals. +Hence we may conclude, that it is the object of the +male to induce the female to pair with him, and for +this purpose he tries to excite or charm her in various +ways; and this is the opinion of all those who have +carefully studied the habits of living birds. But there +remains a question which has an all important bearing +on sexual selection, namely, does every male of the +same species equally excite and attract the female? or +does she exert a choice, and prefer certain males? This +question can be answered in the affirmative by much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> +direct and indirect evidence. It is much more difficult +to decide what qualities determine the choice of the +females; but here again we have some direct and indirect +evidence that it is to a large extent the external +attractions of the male, though no doubt his vigour, +courage, and other mental qualities come into play. +We will begin with the indirect evidence.</p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Length of Courtship.</i>—The lengthened period during +which both sexes of certain birds meet day after day +at an appointed place, probably depends partly on the +courtship being a prolonged affair, and partly on the reiteration +of the act of pairing. Thus in Germany and +Scandinavia the balzens or leks of the Black-cocks, +last from the middle of March, all through April into +May. As many as forty or fifty, or even more birds +congregate at the leks; and the same place is often frequented +during successive years. The lek of the Capercailzie +lasts from the end of March to the middle or +even end of May. In North America “the partridge +dances” of the <i>Tetrao phasianellus</i> “last for a month +or more.” Other kinds of grouse both in North America +and Eastern Siberia<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> follow nearly the same habits. +The fowlers discover the hillocks where the Ruffs congregate +by the grass being trampled bare, and this shews +that the same spot is long frequented. The Indians of +Guiana are well acquainted with the cleared arenas, +where they expect to find the beautiful Cocks of the +Rock; and the natives of New Guinea know the trees +where from ten to twenty full-plumaged male Birds of</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p> +<p>Paradise congregate. In this latter case it is not expressly +stated that the females meet on the same trees, +but the hunters, if not specially asked, would not probably +mention their presence, as their skins are valueless. +Small parties of an African weaver (<i>Ploceus</i>) congregate, +during the breeding-season, and perform for +hours their graceful evolutions. Large numbers of the +Solitary snipe (<i>Scolopax major</i>) assemble during the +dusk in a morass; and the same place is frequented for +the same purpose during successive years; here they +may be seen running about “like so many large rats,” +puffing out their feathers, flapping their wings, and +uttering the strangest cries.<a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a></p> + +<p>Some of the above-mentioned birds, namely, the +black-cock, capercailzie, pheasant-grouse, the ruff, the +Solitary snipe, and perhaps some others, are, as it is +believed, polygamists. With such birds it might have +been thought that the stronger males would simply +have driven away the weaker, and then at once have +taken possession of as many females as possible; but if +it be indispensable for the male to excite or please the +female, we can understand the length of the courtship +and the congregation of so many individuals of both +sexes at the same spot. Certain species which are +strictly monogamous likewise hold nuptial assemblages; +this seems to be the case in Scandinavia with one of +the ptarmigans, and their leks last from the middle +of March to the middle of May. In Australia the lyre-bird +or <i>Menura superba</i> forms “small round hillocks,” +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span>and the <i>M. Alberti</i> scratches for itself shallow holes, or, +as they are called by the natives, <i>corroborying places</i>, +where it is believed both sexes assemble. The meetings +of the <i>M. superba</i> are sometimes very large; and +an account has lately been published<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> by a traveller, +who heard in a valley beneath him, thickly covered +with scrub, “a din which completely astonished” him; +on crawling onwards he beheld to his amazement about +one hundred and fifty of the magnificent lyre-cocks, +“ranged in order of battle, and fighting with indescribable +fury.” The bowers of the Bower-birds are +the resort of both sexes during the breeding-season; +and “here the males meet and contend with each other +“for the favours of the female, and here the latter +assemble and coquet with the males.” With two of +the genera, the same bower is resorted to during many +years.<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a></p> + +<p>The common magpie (<i>Corvus pica</i>, Linn.), as I have +been informed by the Rev. W. Darwin Fox, used to +assemble from all parts of Delamere Forest, in order +to celebrate the “great magpie marriage.” Some +years ago these birds abounded in extraordinary numbers, +so that a gamekeeper killed in one morning +nineteen males, and another killed by a single shot +seven birds at roost together. Whilst they were so +numerous, they had the habit very early in the spring +of assembling at particular spots, where they could be +seen in flocks, chattering, sometimes fighting, bustling +and flying about the trees. The whole affair was +evidently considered by the birds as of the highest +importance. Shortly after the meeting they all separated, +and were then observed by Mr. Fox and others +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>to be paired for the season. In any district in which +a species does not exist in large numbers, great assemblages +cannot, of course, be held, and the same species +may have different habits in different countries. For +instance, I have never met with any account of regular +assemblages of black game in Scotland, yet these assemblages +are so well known in Germany and Scandinavia +that they have special names.</p> + +<p><i>Unpaired Birds.</i>—From the facts now given, we +may conclude that with birds belonging to widely-different +groups their courtship is often a prolonged, delicate, +and troublesome affair. There is even reason to +suspect, improbable as this will at first appear, that +some males and females of the same species, inhabiting +the same district, do not always please each other and +in consequence do not pair. Many accounts have been +published of either the male or female of a pair having +been shot, and quickly replaced by another. This has +been observed more frequently with the magpie than +with any other bird, owing perhaps to its conspicuous +appearance and nest. The illustrious Jenner states +that in Wiltshire one of a pair was daily shot no less +than seven times successively, “but all to no purpose, +for the remaining magpie soon found another mate;” +and the last pair reared their young. A new partner +is generally found on the succeeding day; but Mr. +Thompson gives the case of one being replaced on the +evening of the same day. Even after the eggs are +hatched, if one of the old birds is destroyed a mate +will often be found; this occurred after an interval +of two days, in a case recently observed by one of +Sir J. Lubbock’s keepers.<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> The first and most obvious +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>conjecture is that male magpies must be much more +numerous than the females; and that in the above cases, +as well in many others which could be given, the males +alone had been killed. This apparently holds good in +some instances, for the gamekeepers in Delamere Forest +assured Mr. Fox that the magpies and carrion-crows +which they formerly killed in succession in large numbers +near their nests were all males; and they accounted +for this fact by the males being easily killed +whilst bringing food to the sitting females. Macgillivray, +however, gives, on the authority of an excellent +observer, an instance of three magpies successively +killed on the same nest which were all females; and +another case of six magpies successively killed whilst +sitting on the same eggs, which renders it probable +that most of them were females, though the male will +sit on the eggs, as I hear from Mr. Fox, when the +female is killed.</p> + +<p>Sir J. Lubbock’s gamekeeper has repeatedly shot, but +how many times he could not say, one of a pair of jays +(<i>Garrulus glandarius</i>), and has never failed shortly +afterwards to find the survivor rematched. The Rev. +W. D. Fox, Mr. F. Bond, and others, have shot one of a +pair of carrion-crows (<i>Corvus corone</i>), but the nest was +soon again tenanted by a pair. These birds are rather +common; but the peregrine falcon (<i>Falco peregrinus</i>) +is rare, yet Mr. Thompson states that in Ireland “if +either an old male or female be killed in the breeding-season +(not an uncommon circumstance), another +mate is found within a very few days, so that the +eyries, notwithstanding such casualties, are sure to +turn out their complement of young.” Mr. Jenner +Weir has known the same thing to occur with the peregrine +falcons at Beachy Head. The same observer +informs me that three kestrels, all males (<i>Falco tinnunculus</i>),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> +were killed one after the other whilst attending +the same nest; two of these were in mature plumage, +and the third in the plumage of the previous year. +Even with the rare golden eagle (<i>Aquila chrysaëtos</i>), +Mr. Birkbeck was assured by a trustworthy gamekeeper +in Scotland, that if one is killed, another is soon found. +So with the white owl (<i>Strix flammea</i>), it has been +observed that “the survivor readily found a mate, and +the mischief went on.”</p> + +<p>White of Selborne, who gives the case of the owl, +adds that he knew a man, who from believing that +partridges when paired were disturbed by the males +fighting, used to shoot them; and though he had +widowed the same female several times she was always +soon provided with a fresh partner. This same naturalist +ordered the sparrows, which deprived the house-martins +of their nests, to be shot: but the one which +was left, “be it cock or hen, presently procured a mate, +and so for several times following.” I could add analogous +cases relating to the chaffinch, nightingale, and +redstart. With respect to the latter bird (<i>Phœnicura +ruticilla</i>), the writer remarks that it was by no means +common in the neighbourhood, and he expresses much +surprise how the sitting female could so soon give effectual +notice that she was a widow. Mr. Jenner Weir has +mentioned to me a nearly similar case: at Blackheath +he never sees or hears the note of the wild bullfinch, yet +when one of his caged males has died, a wild one in the +course of a few days has generally come and perched +near the widowed female, whose call-note is far from +loud. I will give only one other fact, on the authority +of this same observer; one of a pair of starlings (<i>Sturnus +vulgaris</i>) was shot in the morning; by noon a new mate +was found; this was again shot, but before night the +pair was complete; so that the disconsolate widow or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> +widower was thrice consoled during the same day. Mr. +Engleheart also informs me that he used during several +years to shoot one of a pair of starlings which built in a +hole in a house at Blackheath; but the loss was always +immediately repaired. During one season he kept an +account and found that he had shot thirty-five birds from +the same nest; these consisted of both males and females, +but in what proportion he could not say: nevertheless +after all this destruction, a brood was reared.<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p> + +<p>These facts are certainly remarkable. How is it that +so many birds are ready immediately to replace a lost +mate? Magpies, jays, carrion-crows, partridges, and +some other birds, are never seen during the spring by +themselves, and these offer at first sight the most +perplexing case. But birds of the same sex, although +of course not truly paired, sometimes live in pairs or in +small parties, as is known to be the case with pigeons +and partridges. Birds also sometimes live in triplets, +as has been observed with starlings, carrion-crows, parrots, +and partridges. With partridges two females have +been known to live with one male, and two males with +one female. In all such cases it is probable that the +union would be easily broken. The males of certain +birds may occasionally be heard pouring forth their +love-song long after the proper time, shewing that they +have either lost or never gained a mate. Death from +accident or disease of either one of a pair, would leave +the other bird free and single; and there is reason to +believe that female birds during the breeding-season +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>are especially liable to premature death. Again, birds +which have had their nests destroyed, or barren pairs, or +retarded individuals, would easily be induced to desert +their mates, and would probably be glad to take what +share they could of the pleasures and duties of rearing +offspring, although not their own.<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> Such contingencies +as these probably explain most of the foregoing cases.<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> +Nevertheless it is a strange fact that within the same +district, during the height of the breeding-season, +there should be so many males and females always +ready to repair the loss of a mated bird. Why do not +such spare birds immediately pair together? Have +we not some reason to suspect, and the suspicion has +occurred to Mr. Jenner Weir, that inasmuch as the +act of courtship appears to be with many birds a prolonged +and tedious affair, so it occasionally happens +that certain males and females do not succeed during +the proper season, in exciting each other’s love, and +consequently do not pair? This suspicion will appear +somewhat less improbable after we have seen what +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>strong antipathies and preferences female birds occasionally +evince towards particular males.</p> + +<p><i>Mental Qualities of Birds, and their taste for the +beautiful.</i>—Before we discuss any further the question +whether the females select the more attractive males +or accept the first whom they may encounter, it will be +advisable briefly to consider the mental powers of birds. +Their reason is generally, and perhaps justly, ranked +as low; yet some facts could be given<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> leading to an +opposite conclusion. Low powers of reasoning, however, +are compatible, as we see with mankind, with +strong affections, acute perception, and a taste for the +beautiful; and it is with these latter qualities that we +are here concerned. It has often been said that parrots +become so deeply attached to each other that when +one dies the other for a long time pines; but Mr. +Jenner Weir thinks that with most birds the strength +of their affection has been much exaggerated. Nevertheless +when one of a pair in a state of nature has +been shot, the survivor has been heard for days afterwards +uttering a plaintive call; and Mr. St. John +gives<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> various facts proving the attachment of mated +birds. Starlings, however, as we have seen, may be +consoled thrice in the same day for the loss of their +mates. In the Zoological Gardens parrots have clearly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>recognised their former masters after an interval of +some months. Pigeons have such excellent local memories +that they have been known to return to their +former homes after an interval of nine months, yet, as +I hear from Mr. Harrison Weir, if a pair which would +naturally remain mated for life be separated for a few +weeks during the winter and matched with other birds, +the two, when brought together again, rarely, if ever, +recognise each other.</p> + +<p>Birds sometimes exhibit benevolent feelings; they +will feed the deserted young even of distinct species, +but this perhaps ought to be considered as a mistaken +instinct. They will also feed, as shewn in an earlier +part of this work, adult birds of their own species +which have become blind. Mr. Buxton gives a curious +account of a parrot which took care of a frost-bitten and +crippled bird of a distinct species, cleansed her feathers +and defended her from the attacks of the other parrots +which roamed freely about his garden. It is a still +more curious fact that these birds apparently evince +some sympathy for the pleasures of their fellows. When +a pair of cockatoos made a nest in an acacia tree, “it +was ridiculous to see the extravagant interest taken +in the matter by the others of the same species.” +These parrots, also, evinced unbounded curiosity, and +clearly had “the idea of property and possession.”<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a></p> + +<p>Birds possess acute powers of observation. Every +mated bird, of course, recognises its fellow. Audubon +states that with the mocking-thrushes of the United +States (<i>Mimus polyglottus</i>) a certain number remain all +the year round in Louisiana, whilst the others migrate +to the Eastern States; these latter, on their return, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span>are instantly recognised, and always attacked, by their +Southern brethren. Birds under confinement distinguish +different persons, as is proved by the strong and +permanent antipathy or affection which they shew, +without any apparent cause, towards certain individuals. +I have heard of numerous instances with jays, +partridges, canaries, and especially bullfinches. Mr. +Hussey has described in how extraordinary a manner +a tamed partridge recognised everybody; and its likes +and dislikes were very strong. This bird seemed “fond +of gay colours, and no new gown or cap could be put +on without catching his attention.”<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> Mr. Hewitt +has carefully described the habits of some ducks (recently +descended from wild birds), which, at the approach +of a strange dog or cat, would rush headlong into +the water, and exhaust themselves in their attempts +to escape; but they knew so well Mr. Hewitt’s own +dogs and cats that they would lie down and bask in the +sun close to them. They always moved away from a +strange man, and so they would from the lady who +attended them, if she made any great change in her +dress. Audubon relates that he reared and tamed a +wild turkey which always ran away from any strange +dog; this bird escaped into the woods, and some days +afterwards Audubon saw, as he thought, a wild turkey, +and made his dog chase it; but to his astonishment, +the bird did not run away, and the dog, when he came +up, did not attack the bird, for they mutually recognised +each other as old friends.<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a></p> + +<p>Mr. Jenner Weir is convinced that birds pay particular +attention to the colours of other birds, sometimes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>out of jealousy, and sometimes as a sign of kinship. +Thus he turned a reed-bunting (<i>Emberiza schœniculus</i>), +which had acquired its black head, into his aviary, +and the new-comer was not noticed by any bird, except +by a bullfinch, which is likewise black-headed. This +bullfinch was a very quiet bird, and had never before +quarrelled with any of its comrades, including another +reed-bunting, which had not as yet become black-headed: +but the reed-bunting with a black head was +so unmercifully treated, that it had to be removed. +Mr. Weir was also obliged to turn out a robin, as it +fiercely attacked all birds with any red in their plumage, +but no other kinds; it actually killed a red-breasted +crossbill, and nearly killed a goldfinch. On +the other hand, he has observed that some birds, when +first introduced into his aviary, fly towards the species +which resemble them most in colour, and settle by +their sides.</p> + +<p>As male birds display with so much care their fine +plumage and other ornaments in the presence of the +females, it is obviously probable that these appreciate +the beauty of their suitors. It is, however, difficult to +obtain direct evidence of their capacity to appreciate +beauty. When birds gaze at themselves in a looking-glass +(of which many instances have been recorded) we +cannot feel sure that it is not from jealousy at a supposed +rival, though this is not the conclusion of some +observers. In other cases it is difficult to distinguish +between mere curiosity and admiration. It is perhaps +the former feeling which, as stated by Lord Lilford,<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> +attracts the Ruff strongly towards any bright object, +so that, in the Ionian Islands, it “will dart down to a +bright-coloured handkerchief, regardless of repeated +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>shots.” The common lark is drawn down from the +sky, and is caught in large numbers, by a small mirror +made to move and glitter in the sun. Is it admiration +or curiosity which leads the magpie, raven, and some +other birds to steal and secrete bright objects, such as +silver articles or jewels?</p> + +<p class="tb">Mr. Gould states that certain humming-birds decorate +the outside of their nests, “with the utmost taste; +they instinctively fasten thereon beautiful pieces of +flat lichen, the larger pieces in the middle, and the +smaller on the part attached to the branch. Now +and then a pretty feather is intertwined or fastened +to the outer sides, the stem being always so placed, +that the feather stands out beyond the surface.” The +best evidence, however, of a taste for the beautiful is +afforded by the three genera of Australian bower-birds +already mentioned. Their bowers (see fig. <a href="#f46">46</a>, p. 70), +where the sexes congregate and play strange antics, are +differently constructed, but what most concerns us is, that +they are decorated in a different manner by the several +species. The Satin bower-bird collects gaily-coloured +articles, such as the blue tail-feathers of parrakeets, +bleached bones and shells, which it sticks between the +twigs, or arranges at the entrance. Mr. Gould found +in one bower a neatly-worked stone tomahawk and a +slip of blue cotton, evidently procured from a native +encampment. These objects are continually rearranged, +and carried about by the birds whilst at play. The +bower of the Spotted bower-bird “is beautifully lined +with tall grasses, so disposed that the heads nearly +meet, and the decorations are very profuse.” Round +stones are used to keep the grass-stems in their proper +places, and to make divergent paths leading to the +bower. The stones and shells are often brought from +a great distance. The Regent bird, as described by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> +Mr. Ramsay, ornaments its short bower with bleached +land-shells belonging to five or six species, and with +“berries of various colours, blue, red, and black, which +give it when fresh a very pretty appearance. Besides +these there were several newly-picked leaves and +young shoots of a pinkish colour, the whole shewing a +decided taste for the beautiful.” Well may Mr. Gould +say “these highly decorated halls of assembly must be +regarded as the most wonderful instances of bird-architecture +yet discovered;” and the taste, as we see, of +the several species certainly differs.<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a></p> + +<p><i>Preference for particular Males by the Females.</i>—Having +made these preliminary remarks on the discrimination +and taste of birds, I will give all the facts known +to me, which bear on the preference shewn by the female +for particular males. It is certain that distinct species of +birds occasionally pair in a state of nature and produce +hybrids. Many instances could be given: thus Macgillivray +relates how a male blackbird and female thrush +“fell in love with each other,” and produced offspring.<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> +Several years ago eighteen cases had been recorded of +the occurrence in Great Britain of hybrids between the +black grouse and pheasant;<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> but most of these cases +may perhaps be accounted for by solitary birds not +finding one of their own species to pair with. With +other birds, as Mr. Jenner Weir has reason to believe, +hybrids are sometimes the result of the casual intercourse +of birds building in close proximity. But these +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>remarks do not apply to the many recorded instances of +tamed or domestic birds, belonging to distinct species, +which have become absolutely fascinated with each +other, although living with their own species. Thus +Waterton<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> states that out of a flock of twenty-three +Canada geese, a female paired with a solitary Bernicle +gander, although so different in appearance and size; +and they produced hybrid offspring. A male Wigeon +(<i>Mareca penelope</i>), living with females of the same +species, has been known to pair with a Pintail duck, +<i>Querquedula acuta</i>. Lloyd describes the remarkable +attachment between a shield-drake (<i>Tadorna vulpanser</i>) +and a common duck. Many additional instances could +be given; and the Rev. E. S. Dixon remarks that “Those +who have kept many different species of geese together, +well know what unaccountable attachments +they are frequently forming, and that they are quite +as likely to pair and rear young with individuals of a +race (species) apparently the most alien to themselves, +as with their own stock.”</p> + +<p>The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that he possessed at +the same time a pair of Chinese geese (<i>Anser cygnoides</i>), +and a common gander with three geese. The two lots +kept quite separate, until the Chinese gander seduced +one of the common geese to live with him. Moreover, +of the young birds hatched from the eggs of the common +geese, only four were pure, the other eighteen proving +hybrids; so that the Chinese gander seems to have +had prepotent charms over the common gander. I will +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>give only one other case; Mr. Hewitt states that a wild +duck, reared in captivity, “after breeding a couple of +seasons with her own mallard, at once shook him off +on my placing a male Pintail on the water. It was +evidently a case of love at first sight, for she swam +about the new-comer caressingly, though he appeared +evidently alarmed and averse to her overtures of +affection. From that hour she forgot her old partner. +Winter passed by, and the next spring the Pintail +seemed to have become a convert to her blandishments, +for they nested and produced seven or eight +young ones.”</p> + +<p>What the charm may have been in these several +cases, beyond mere novelty, we cannot even conjecture. +Colour, however, sometimes comes into play; for in +order to raise hybrids from the siskin (<i>Fringilla spinus</i>) +and the canary, it is much the best plan, according to +Bechstein, to place birds of the same tint together. +Mr. Jenner Weir turned a female canary into his aviary, +where there were male linnets, goldfinches, siskins, +greenfinches, chaffinches, and other birds, in order to +see which she would choose; but there never was any +doubt, and the greenfinch carried the day. They paired +and produced hybrid offspring.</p> + +<p>With the members of the same species the fact of the +female preferring to pair with one male rather than +with another is not so likely to excite attention, as +when this occurs between distinct species. Such cases +can best be observed with domesticated or confined +birds; but these are often pampered by high feeding, +and sometimes have their instincts vitiated to an extreme +degree. Of this latter fact I could give sufficient +proofs with pigeons, and especially with fowls, but they +cannot be here related. Vitiated instincts may also +account for some of the hybrid unions above referred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> +to; but in many of these cases the birds were allowed +to range freely over large ponds, and there is no reason +to suppose that they were unnaturally stimulated by +high feeding.</p> + +<p>With respect to birds in a state of nature, the first +and most obvious supposition which will occur to everyone +is that the female at the proper season accepts the +first male whom she may encounter; but she has at +least the opportunity for exerting a choice, as she is +almost invariably pursued by many males. Audubon—and +we must remember that he spent a long life in +prowling about the forests of the United States and +observing the birds—does not doubt that the female +deliberately chooses her mate; thus, speaking of a woodpecker, +he says the hen is followed by half-a-dozen gay +suitors, who continue performing strange antics, “until +a marked preference is shewn for one.” The female of +the red-winged starling (<i>Agelæus phœniceus</i>) is likewise +pursued by several males, “until, becoming fatigued, +she alights, receives their addresses, and soon makes +a choice.” He describes also how several male nightjars +repeatedly plunge through the air with astonishing +rapidity, suddenly turning, and thus making a +singular noise; “but no sooner has the female made +her choice, than the other males are driven away.” +With one of the vultures (<i>Cathartes aura</i>) of the United +States, parties of eight or ten or more males and females +assemble on fallen logs, “exhibiting the strongest desire +to please mutually,” and after many caresses, each male +leads off his partner on the wing. Audubon likewise +carefully observed the wild flocks of Canada geese (<i>Anser +Canadensis</i>), and gives a graphic description of their +love-antics; he says that the birds which had been previously +mated “renewed their courtship as early as the +month of January, while the others would be contend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span>ing +or coquetting for hours every day, until all seemed +satisfied with the choice they had made, after which, +although they remained together, any person could +easily perceive that they were careful to keep in pairs. +I have observed also that the older the birds, the +shorter were the preliminaries of their courtship. +The bachelors and old maids, whether in regret, or +not caring to be disturbed by the bustle, quietly +moved aside and lay down at some distance from the +rest.”<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> Many similar statements with respect to other +birds could be cited from this same observer.</p> + +<p>Turning now to domesticated and confined birds, I +will commence by giving what little I have learnt respecting +the courtship of fowls. I have received long +letters on this subject from Messrs. Hewitt and Tegetmeier, +and almost an essay from the late Mr. Brent. +It will be admitted by every one that these gentlemen, +so well known from their published works, are careful +and experienced observers. They do not believe that the +females prefer certain males on account of the beauty of +their plumage; but some allowance must be made for +the artificial state under which they have long been +kept. Mr. Tegetmeier is convinced that a game-cock, +though disfigured by being dubbed with his hackles +trimmed, would be accepted as readily as a male retaining +all his natural ornaments. Mr. Brent, however, +admits that the beauty of the male probably aids in +exciting the female; and her acquiescence is necessary. +Mr. Hewitt is convinced that the union is by no means +left to mere chance, for the female almost invariably +prefers the most vigorous, defiant, and mettlesome male; +hence it is almost useless, as he remarks, “to attempt +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span>true breeding if a game-cock in good health and condition +runs the locality, for almost every hen on leaving +the roosting-place will resort to the game-cock, even +though that bird may not actually drive away the male +of her own variety.” Under ordinary circumstances the +males and females of the fowl seem to come to a mutual +understanding by means of certain gestures, described +to me by Mr. Brent. But hens will often avoid the +officious attentions of young males. Old hens, and +hens of a pugnacious disposition, as the same writer +informs me, dislike strange males, and will not yield +until well beaten into compliance. Ferguson, however, +describes how a quarrelsome hen was subdued by the +gentle courtship of a Shanghai cock.<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a></p> + +<p>There is reason to believe that pigeons of both sexes +prefer pairing with birds of the same breed; and dovecot-pigeons +dislike all the highly improved breeds.<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> Mr. +Harrison Weir has lately heard from a trustworthy +observer, who keeps blue pigeons, that these drive +away all other coloured varieties, such as white, red, +and yellow; and from another observer, that a female +dun carrier could not be matched, after repeated trials, +with a black male, but immediately paired with a dun. +Generally colour alone appears to have little influence +on the pairing of pigeons. Mr. Tegetmeier, at my request, +stained some of his birds with magenta, but they +were not much noticed by the others.</p> + +<p>Female pigeons occasionally feel a strong antipathy +towards certain males, without any assignable cause. +Thus MM. Boitard and Corbié, whose experience extended +over forty-five years, state: “Quand une femelle +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span>éprouve de l’antipathie pour un mâle avec lequel on +veut l’accoupler, malgré tous les feux de l’amour, +malgré l’alpiste et le chènevis dont on la nourrit +pour augmenter son ardeur, malgré un emprisonnement +de six mois et même d’un an, elle refuse constamment +ses caresses; les avances empressées, les +agaceries, les tournoiemens, les tendres roucoulemens, +rien ne peut lui plaire ni l’émouvoir; gonflée, boudeuse, +blottie dans un coin de sa prison, elle n’en sort +que pour boire et manger, ou pour repousser avec une +espèce de rage des caresses devenues trop pressantes.”<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> +On the other hand, Mr. Harrison Weir has himself +observed, and has heard from, several breeders, that a +female pigeon will occasionally take a strong fancy for +a particular male, and will desert her own mate for +him. Some females, according to another experienced +observer, Riedel,<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> are of a profligate disposition, and +prefer almost any stranger to their own mate. Some +amorous males, called by our English fanciers “gay +birds,” are so successful in their gallantries, that, as +Mr. H. Weir informs me, they must be shut up, on +account of the mischief which they cause.</p> + +<p>Wild turkeys in the United States, according to +Audubon, “sometimes pay their addresses to the domesticated +females, and are generally received by them +with great pleasure.” So that these females apparently +prefer the wild to their own males.<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a></p> + +<p>Here is a more curious case. Sir R. Heron during +many years kept an account of the habits of the peafowl, +which he bred in large numbers. He states that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>“the hens have frequently great preference to a particular +peacock. They were all so fond of an old pied +cock, that one year, when he was confined though +still in view, they were constantly assembled close +to the trellice-walls of his prison, and would not suffer +a japanned peacock to touch them. On his being let +out in the autumn, the oldest of the hens instantly +courted him, and was successful in her courtship. +The next year he was shut up in a stable, and then +the hens all courted his rival.”<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> This rival was a +japanned or black-winged peacock, which to our eyes +is a more beautiful bird than the common kind.</p> + +<p>Lichtenstein, who was a good observer and had +excellent opportunities of observation at the Cape of +Good Hope, assured Rudolphi that the female widow-bird +(<i>Chera progne</i>) disowns the male, when robbed of +the long tail-feathers with which he is ornamented +during the breeding-season. I presume that this observation +must have been made on birds under confinement.<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> +Here is another striking case; Dr. Jaeger,<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> +director of the Zoological Gardens of Vienna, states +that a male silver pheasant, who had been triumphant +over the other males and was the accepted lover of the +females, had his ornamental plumage spoiled. He +was then immediately superseded by a rival, who got +the upper hand and afterwards led the flock.</p> + +<p>Not only does the female exert a choice, but in some +few cases she courts the male, or even fights for his +possession. Sir R. Heron states that with peafowl, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>first advances are always made by the female; something +of the same kind takes place, according to +Audubon, with the older females of the wild turkey. +With the capercailzie, the females flit round the male, +whilst he is parading at one of the places of assemblage, +and solicit his attention.<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> We have seen that a tame +wild-duck seduced after a long courtship an unwilling +Pintail drake. Mr. Bartlett believes that the <i>Lophophorus</i>, +like many other gallinaceous birds, is naturally +polygamous, but two females cannot be placed in the +same cage with a male, as they fight so much together. +The following instance of rivalry is more surprising as +it relates to bullfinches, which usually pair for life. +Mr. Jenner Weir introduced a dull-coloured and ugly +female into his aviary, and she immediately attacked +another mated female so unmercifully that the latter +had to be separated. The new female did all the courtship, +and was at last successful, for she paired with the +male; but after a time she met with a just retribution, +for, ceasing to be pugnacious, Mr. Weir replaced the +old female, and the male then deserted his new and +returned to his old love.</p> + +<p>In all ordinary cases the male is so eager that he will +accept any female, and does not, as far as we can judge, +prefer one to the other; but exceptions to this rule, as +we shall hereafter see, apparently occur in some few +groups. With domesticated birds, I have heard of only +one case in which the males shew any preference for +particular females, namely, that of the domestic cock, +who, according to the high authority of Mr. Hewitt, +prefers the younger to the older hens. On the other +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>hand, in effecting hybrid unions between the male +pheasant and common hens, Mr. Hewitt is convinced +that the pheasant invariably prefers the older birds. +He does not appear to be in the least influenced by +their colour, but “is most capricious in his attachments.”<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> +From some inexplicable cause he shews the +most determined aversion to certain hens, which no +care on the part of the breeder can overcome. Some +hens, as Mr. Hewitt informs me, are quite unattractive +even to the males of their own species, so that they +may be kept with several cocks during a whole season, +and not one egg out of forty or fifty will prove +fertile. On the other hand with the Long-tailed duck +(<i>Harelda glacialis</i>), “it has been remarked,” says +M. Ekström, “that certain females are much more +courted than the rest. Frequently, indeed, one sees +an individual surrounded by six or eight amorous +males.” Whether this statement is credible, I know +not; but the native sportsmen shoot these females in +order to stuff them as decoys.<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a></p> + +<p>With respect to female birds feeling a preference for +particular males, we must bear in mind that we can +judge of choice being exerted, only by placing ourselves +in imagination in the same position. If an +inhabitant of another planet were to behold a number +of young rustics at a fair, courting and quarrelling +over a pretty girl, like birds at one of their places of +assemblage, he would be able to infer that she had the +power of choice only by observing the eagerness of the +wooers to please her, and to display their finery. Now +with birds, the evidence stands thus; they have acute +powers of observation, and they seem to have some +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>taste for the beautiful both in colour and sound. It +is certain that the females occasionally exhibit, from +unknown causes, the strongest antipathies and preferences +for particular males. When the sexes differ in +colour or in other ornaments, the males with rare exceptions +are the most highly decorated, either permanently +or temporarily during the breeding-season. They +sedulously display their various ornaments, exert their +voices, and perform strange antics in the presence of the +females. Even well-armed males, who, it might have +been thought, would have altogether depended for +success on the law of battle, are in most cases highly +ornamented; and their ornaments have been acquired +at the expense of some loss of power. In other cases +ornaments have been acquired, at the cost of increased +risk from birds and beasts of prey. With various species +many individuals of both sexes congregate at the +same spot, and their courtship is a prolonged affair. +There is even reason to suspect that the males and +females within the same district do not always succeed +in pleasing each other and pairing.</p> + +<p>What then are we to conclude from these facts and +considerations? Does the male parade his charms with +so much pomp and rivalry for no purpose? Are we not +justified in believing that the female exerts a choice, +and that she receives the addresses of the male who +pleases her most? It is not probable that she consciously +deliberates; but she is most excited or attracted +by the most beautiful, or melodious, or gallant +males. Nor need it be supposed that the female +studies each stripe or spot of colour; that the peahen, +for instance, admires each detail in the gorgeous train of +the peacock—she is probably struck only by the general +effect. Nevertheless after hearing how carefully the +male Argus pheasant displays his elegant primary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> +wing-feathers, and erects his ocellated plumes in the +right position for their full effect; or again, how the +male goldfinch alternately displays his gold-bespangled +wings, we ought not to feel too sure that the female +does not attend to each detail of beauty. We can +judge, as already remarked, of choice being exerted, +only from the analogy of our own minds; and the +mental powers of birds, if reason be excluded, do not +fundamentally differ from ours. From these various +considerations we may conclude that the pairing of +birds is not left to chance; but that those males, which +are best able by their various charms to please or excite +the female, are under ordinary circumstances accepted. +If this be admitted, there is not much difficulty in +understanding how male birds have gradually acquired +their ornamental characters. All animals present individual +differences, and as man can modify his domesticated +birds by selecting the individuals which appear +to him the most beautiful, so the habitual or even occasional +preference by the female of the more attractive +males would almost certainly lead to their modification; +and such modifications might in the course of time be +augmented to almost any extent, compatible with the +existence of the species.</p> + +<p><i>Variability of Birds, and especially of their secondary +Sexual Characters.</i>—Variability and inheritance are the +foundations for the work of selection. That domesticated +birds have varied greatly, their variations being +inherited, is certain. That birds in a state of nature +present individual differences is admitted by every +one; and that they have sometimes been modified into +distinct races, is generally admitted.<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> Variations are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>of two kinds, which insensibly graduate into each other, +namely, slight differences between all the members of +the same species, and more strongly-marked deviations +which occur only occasionally. These latter are rare +with birds in a state of nature, and it is very doubtful +whether they have often been preserved through selection, +and then transmitted to succeeding generations.<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> +Nevertheless, it may be worth while to give the few +cases relating chiefly to colour (simple albinism and +melanism being excluded), which I have been able to +collect.</p> + +<p>Mr. Gould is well known rarely to admit the existence +of varieties, for he esteems very slight differences as +specific; now he states<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a> that near Bogota certain humming-birds +belonging to the genus <i>Cynanthus</i> are +divided into two or three races or varieties, which differ +from each other in the colouring of the tail,—“some +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>having the whole of the feathers blue, while others +have the eight central ones tipped with beautiful +green.” It does not appear that intermediate gradations +have been observed in this or the following +cases. In the males alone of one of the Australian +parrakeets “the thighs in some are scarlet, in others +grass-green.” In another parrakeet of the same +country “some individuals have the band across the +wing-coverts bright-yellow, while in others the same +part is tinged with red.”<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> In the United States +some few of the males of the Scarlet Tanager (<i>Tanagra +rubra</i>) have “a beautiful transverse band of glowing +red on the smaller wing-coverts;”<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> but this variation +seems to be somewhat rare, so that its preservation +through sexual selection would follow only under +unusually favourable circumstances. In Bengal the +Honey buzzard (<i>Pernis cristata</i>) has either a small +rudimental crest on its head, or none at all; so slight a +difference however would not have been worth notice, +had not this same species possessed in Southern India +“a well-marked occipital crest formed of several graduated +feathers.”<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a></p> + +<p>The following case is in some respects more interesting. +A pied variety of the raven, with the head, breast, +abdomen, and parts of the wings and tail-feathers white, +is confined to the Feroe Islands. It is not very rare +there, for Graba saw during his visit from eight to +ten living specimens. Although the characters of this +variety are not quite constant, yet it has been named +by several distinguished ornithologists as a distinct +species. The fact of the pied birds being pursued and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>persecuted with much clamour by the other ravens of +the island was the chief cause which led Brünnich to +conclude that it was specifically distinct; but this is +now known to be an error.<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a></p> + +<p>In various parts of the northern seas a remarkable +variety of the common Guillemot (<i>Uria troile</i>) is found; +and in Feroe, one out of every five birds, according to +Graba’s estimation, consists of this variety. It is characterised<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> +by a pure white ring round the eye, with +a curved narrow white line, an inch and a half in +length, extending back from the ring. This conspicuous +character has caused the bird to be ranked by +several ornithologists as a distinct species under the +name of <i>U. lacrymans</i>, but it is now known to be merely +a variety. It often pairs with the common kind, yet +intermediate gradations have never been seen; nor is +this surprising, for variations which appear suddenly +are often, as I have elsewhere shewn,<a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> transmitted +either unaltered or not at all. We thus see that two +distinct forms of the same species may co-exist in the +same district, and we cannot doubt that if the one had +possessed any great advantage over the other, it would +soon have been multiplied to the exclusion of the latter. +If, for instance, the male pied ravens, instead of being +persecuted and driven away by their comrades, had +been highly attractive, like the pied peacock before +mentioned, to the common black females, their numbers +would have rapidly increased. And this would have +been a case of sexual selection.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span></p><p>With respect to the slight individual differences which +are common, in a greater or less degree, to all the +members of the same species, we have every reason +to believe that they are by far the most important +for the work of selection. Secondary sexual characters +are eminently liable to vary, both with animals in a +state of nature and under domestication.<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> There is +also reason to believe, as we have seen in our eighth +chapter, that variations are more apt to occur in the +male than in the female sex. All these contingencies +are highly favourable for sexual selection. Whether +characters thus acquired are transmitted to one sex +or to both sexes, depends exclusively in most cases, +as I hope to shew in the following chapter, on the +form of inheritance which prevails in the groups in +question.</p> + +<p>It is sometimes difficult to form any opinion whether +certain slight differences between the sexes of birds +are simply the result of variability with sexually-limited +inheritance, without the aid of sexual selection, +or whether they have been augmented through this +latter process. I do not here refer to the innumerable +instances in which the male displays splendid colours +or other ornaments, of which the female partakes only +to a slight degree; for these cases are almost certainly +due to characters primarily acquired by the male, +having been transferred, in a greater or less degree, to +the female. But what are we to conclude with respect +to certain birds in which, for instance, the eyes differ +slightly in colour in the two sexes?<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> In some cases +the eyes differ conspicuously; thus with the storks +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>of the genus <i>Xenorhynchus</i> those of the male are +blackish-hazel, whilst those of the females are gamboge-yellow; +with many hornbills (Buceros), as I hear +from Mr. Blyth,<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> the males have intense crimson, and +the females white eyes. In the <i>Buceros bicornis</i>, the +hind margin of the casque and a stripe on the crest of +the beak are black in the male, but not so in the female. +Are we to suppose that these black marks and the +crimson colour of the eyes have been preserved or augmented +through sexual selection in the males? This +is very doubtful; for Mr. Bartlett shewed me in the +Zoological Gardens that the inside of the mouth of this +Buceros is black in the male and flesh-coloured in the +female; and their external appearance or beauty would +not be thus affected. I observed in Chili<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> that the +iris in the condor, when about a year old, is dark-brown, +but changes at maturity into yellowish-brown in the +male, and into bright red in the female. The male +has also a small, longitudinal, leaden-coloured, fleshy +crest or comb. With many gallinaceous birds the +comb is highly ornamental, and assumes vivid colours +during the act of courtship; but what are we to think +of the dull-coloured comb of the condor, which does +not appear to us in the least ornamental? The same +question may be asked in regard to various other +characters, such as the knob on the base of the beak of +the Chinese goose (<i>Anser cygnoides</i>), which is much +larger in the male than in the female. No certain +answer can be given to these questions; but we ought +to be cautious in assuming that knobs and various +fleshy appendages cannot be attractive to the female, +when we remember that with savage races of man +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>various hideous deformities=-deep scars on the face +with the flesh raised into protuberances, the septum +of the nose pierced by sticks or bones, holes in the ears +and lips stretched widely open—are all admired as +ornamental.</p> + +<p>Whether or not unimportant differences between the +sexes, such as those just specified, have been preserved +through sexual selection, these differences, as well as +all others, must primarily depend on the laws of variation. +On the principle of correlated development, the +plumage often varies on different parts of the body, or +over the whole body, in the same manner. We see +this well illustrated in certain breeds of the fowl. In +all the breeds the feathers on the neck and loins of +the males are elongated, and are called hackles; now +when both sexes acquire a top-knot, which is a new +character in the genus, the feathers on the head of the +male become hackle-shaped, evidently on the principle +of correlation; whilst those on the head of the female +are of the ordinary shape. The colour also of the +hackles forming the top-knot of the male, is often correlated +with that of the hackles on the neck and loins, +as may be seen by comparing these feathers in the +Golden and Silver-spangled Polish, the Houdans, and +Crève-cœur breeds. In some natural species we may +observe exactly the same correlation in the colours of +these same feathers, as in the males of the splendid +Golden and Amherst pheasants.</p> + +<p>The structure of each individual feather generally +causes any change in its colouring to be symmetrical; +we see this in the various laced, spangled, and pencilled +breeds of the fowl; and on the principle of +correlation the feathers over the whole body are often +modified in the same manner. We are thus enabled +without much trouble to rear breeds with their plum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span>age +marked and coloured almost as symmetrically +as in natural species. In laced and spangled fowls +the coloured margins of the feathers are abruptly +defined; but in a mongrel raised by me from a black +Spanish cock glossed with green and a white game +hen, all the feathers were greenish-black, excepting +towards their extremities, which were yellowish-white; +but between the white extremities and the black +bases, there was on each feather a symmetrical, curved +zone of dark-brown. In some instances the shaft of +the feather determines the distribution of the tints; +thus with the body-feathers of a mongrel from the +same black Spanish cock and a silver-spangled Polish +hen, the shaft, together with a narrow space on each +side, was greenish-black, and this was surrounded by +a regular zone of dark-brown, edged with brownish-white. +In these cases we see feathers becoming symmetrically +shaded, like those which give so much +elegance to the plumage of many natural species. I +have also noticed a variety of the common pigeon +with the wing-bars symmetrically zoned with three +bright shades, instead of being simply black on a slaty-blue +ground, as in the parent-species.</p> + +<p>In many large groups of birds it may be observed +that the plumage is differently coloured in each species, +yet that certain spots, marks, or stripes, though likewise +differently coloured, are retained by all the species. +Analogous cases occur with the breeds of the pigeon, +which usually retain the two wing-bars, though they +may be coloured red, yellow, white, black, or blue, the +rest of the plumage being of some wholly different tint. +Here is a more curious case, in which certain marks +are retained, though coloured in almost an exactly +reversed manner to what is natural; the aboriginal +pigeon has a blue tail, with the terminal halves of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> +outer webs of the two outer tail-feathers white; now +there is a sub-variety having a white instead of a blue +tail, with precisely that small part black which is white +in the parent-species.<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a></p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Formation and variability of the Ocelli or eye-like +Spots on the Plumage of Birds.</i>—As no ornaments are +more beautiful than the ocelli on the feathers of various +birds, on the hairy coats of some mammals, on the +scales of reptiles and fishes, on the skin of amphibians, +on the wings of many Lepidoptera and other insects, +they deserve to be especially noticed. An ocellus consists +of a spot within a ring of another colour, like the +pupil within the iris, but the central spot is often surrounded +by additional concentric zones. The ocelli on +the tail-coverts of the peacock offer a familiar example, +as well as those on the wings of the peacock-butterfly +(Vanessa). Mr. Trimen has given me a description of +a S. African moth (<i>Gynanisa Isis</i>), allied to our Emperor +moth, in which a magnificent ocellus occupies nearly the +whole surface of each hinder wing; it consists of a black +centre, including a semi-transparent crescent-shaped +mark, surrounded by successive ochre-yellow, black, +ochre-yellow, pink, white, pink, brown, and whitish zones. +Although we do not know the steps by which these +wonderfully beautiful and complex ornaments have been +developed, the process at least with insects has probably +been a simple one; for, as Mr. Trimen writes to me, +“no characters of mere marking or coloration are so +unstable in the Lepidoptera as the ocelli, both in +number and size.” Mr. Wallace, who first called my +attention to this subject, shewed me a series of specimens +of our common meadow-brown butterfly (<i>Hip<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>parchia Janira</i>) exhibiting numerous gradations from +a simple minute black spot to an elegantly-shaded +ocellus. In a S. African butterfly (<i>Cyllo Leda</i> +belonging to the same family, the ocelli are even still +more variable. In some specimens (A, fig. 52) large +spaces on the upper surface of the wings are coloured +black, and include irregular white marks; and from +this state a complete gradation can be traced into a +tolerably perfect (A<sup>1</sup>) ocellus, and this results from the +contraction of the irregular blotches of colour. In +another series of specimens a gradation can be followed +from excessively minute white dots, surrounded by a +scarcely visible black line (B), into perfectly symmetrical +and large ocelli (B<sup>1</sup>).<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> In cases like these, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>development of a perfect ocellus does not require a +long course of variation and selection.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f52" id="f52"></a><img src="images/fig52.png" width="450" height="307" alt="Fig. 52. Cyllo leda, Linn., from a drawing by Mr. Trimen, shewing the extreme range +of variation in the ocelli." title="" /> +</div> +<p class="center2">Fig. 52. <i>Cyllo leda</i>, Linn., from a drawing by Mr. Trimen, shewing the extreme range +of variation in the ocelli.</p> + +<table width="100%" summary="Cyllo leda"> +<tr> +<td class="left50">A. Specimen, from Mauritius, upper surface of fore-wing</td> +<td class="left50">B. Specimen, from Java, upper surface of hind-wing.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left50">A<sup>1</sup>. Specimen, from Natal, ditto.</td> +<td class="left50">B<sup>1</sup>. Specimen, from Mauritius, ditto.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="tb">With birds and many other animals it seems, from +the comparison of allied species, to follow, that circular +spots are often generated by the breaking up +and contraction of stripes. In the Tragopan pheasant +faint white lines in the female represent the beautiful +white spots in the male;<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> and something of the +same kind may be observed in the two sexes of the +Argus pheasant. However this may be, appearances +strongly favour the belief that, on the one hand, a dark +spot is often formed by the colouring-matter being +drawn towards a central point from a surrounding +zone, which is thus rendered lighter. And, on the other +hand, that a white spot is often formed by the colour +being driven away from a central point, so that it accumulates +in a surrounding darker zone. In either case +an ocellus is the result. The colouring matter seems +to be a nearly constant quantity, but is redistributed, +either centripetally or centrifugally. The feathers of +the common guinea-fowl offer a good instance of white +spots surrounded by darker zones; and wherever the +white spots are large and stand near each other, the +surrounding dark zones become confluent. In the same +wing-feather of the Argus pheasant dark spots may +be seen surrounded by a pale zone, and white spots +by a dark zone. Thus the formation of an ocellus +in its simplest state appears to be a simple affair. +By what further steps the more complex ocelli, which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>are surrounded by many successive zones of colour, +have been generated, I will not pretend to say. But +bearing in mind the zoned feathers of the mongrel +offspring from differently-coloured fowls, and the extraordinary +variability of the ocelli in many Lepidoptera, +the formation of these beautiful ornaments can hardly +be a highly complex process, and probably depends on +some slight and graduated change in the nature of the +tissues.</p> + +<p><i>Gradation of Secondary Sexual Characters.</i>—Cases +of gradation are important for us, as they shew that +it is at least possible that highly complex ornaments +may have been acquired by small successive steps. +In order to discover the actual steps by which the +male of any existing bird has acquired his magnificent +colours or other ornaments, we ought to behold +the long line of his ancient and extinct progenitors; +but this is obviously impossible. We may, however, +generally gain a clue by comparing all the species of +a group, if it be a large one; for some of them will +probably retain, at least in a partial manner, traces of +their former characters. Instead of entering on tedious +details respecting various groups, in which striking +instances of gradation could be given, it seems the best +plan to take some one or two strongly-characterised +cases, for instance that of the peacock, in order to discover +if any light can thus be thrown on the steps by +which this bird has become so splendidly decorated. +The peacock is chiefly remarkable from the extraordinary +length of his tail-coverts; the tail itself not +being much elongated. The barbs along nearly the +whole length of these feathers stand separate or are +decomposed; but this is the case with the feathers +of many species, and with some varieties of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> +domestic fowl and pigeon. The barbs coalesce towards +the extremity of the shaft to form the oval disc or +ocellus, which is certainly one of the most beautiful +objects in the world. This consists of an iridescent, +intensely blue, indented centre, surrounded by a rich +green zone, and this by a broad coppery-brown zone, +and this by five other narrow zones of slightly-different +iridescent shades. A trifling character in the disc perhaps +deserves notice; the barbs, for a space along one +of the concentric zones are destitute, to a greater or +less degree, of their barbules, so that a part of the disc +is surrounded by an almost transparent zone, which +gives to it a highly-finished aspect. But I have elsewhere +described<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> an exactly analogous variation in the +hackles of a sub-variety of the game-cock, in which +the tips, having a metallic lustre, “are separated from +the lower part of the feather by a symmetrically-shaped +transparent zone, composed of the naked portions +of the barbs.” The lower margin or base of +the dark-blue centre of the ocellus is deeply indented +on the line of the shaft. The surrounding zones likewise +shew traces, as may be seen in the drawing +(fig. <a href="#f53">53</a>), of indentations, or rather breaks. These indentations +are common to the Indian and Javan peacocks +(<i>Pavo cristatus</i> and <i>P. muticus</i>); and they seemed +to me to deserve particular attention, as probably connected +with the development of the ocellus; but for a +long time I could not conjecture their meaning.</p> + +<p>If we admit the principle of gradual evolution, there +must formerly have existed many species which presented +every successive step between the wonderfully +elongated tail-coverts of the peacock and the short tail-coverts +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>of all ordinary birds; and again between the +magnificent ocelli of the former, and the simpler ocelli +or mere coloured spots of other birds; and so with +all the other characters of the peacock. Let us look +to the allied Gallinaceæ for any still-existing gradations. +The species and sub-species of <i>Polyplectron</i> +inhabit countries adjacent to the native land of the +peacock; and they so far resemble this bird that they +are sometimes called peacock-pheasants. I am also +informed by Mr. Bartlett that they resemble the peacock +in their voice and in some of their habits. During +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span>the spring the males, as previously described, strut +about before the comparatively plain-coloured females, +expanding and erecting their tail and wing-feathers, +which are ornamented with numerous ocelli. I request +the reader to turn back to the drawing (fig. 51, p. 90) +of a <i>Polyplectron</i>. In <i>P. Napoleonis</i> the ocelli are +confined to the tail, and the back is of a rich metallic +blue, in which respects this species approaches +the Java peacock. <i>P. Hardwickii</i> possesses a peculiar +top-knot, somewhat like that of this same kind +of peacock. The ocelli on the wings and tail of the +several species of <i>Polyplectron</i> are either circular +or oval, and consist of a beautiful, iridescent, greenish-blue +or greenish-purple disc, with a black border. +This border in <i>P. chinquis</i> shades into brown which +is edged with cream-colour, so that the ocellus is +here surrounded with differently, though not brightly, +shaded concentric zones. The unusual length of the +tail-coverts is another highly remarkable character +in <i>Polyplectron</i>; for in some of the species they are +half as long, and in others two-thirds of the length +of the true tail-feathers. The tail-coverts are ocellated, +as in the peacock. Thus the several species +of <i>Polyplectron</i> manifestly make a graduated approach +in the length of their tail-coverts, in the zoning +of the ocelli, and in some other characters, to the +peacock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="f53" id="f53"></a><img src="images/fig53.png" width="600" height="587" alt="Fig. 53. Feather of Peacock, about two-thirds of natural size, carefully drawn by Mr. +Ford. The transparent zone is represented by the outermost white zone, confined to +the upper end of the disc." title="" /> + +<p class="indent2">Fig. 53. Feather of Peacock, about two-thirds of natural size, carefully drawn by Mr. +Ford. The transparent zone is represented by the outermost white zone, confined to +the upper end of the disc.</p></div> + +<p>Notwithstanding this approach, the first species of +<i>Polyplectron</i> which I happened to examine almost made +me give up the search; for I found not only that the +true tail-feathers, which in the peacock are quite plain, +were ornamented with ocelli, but that the ocelli on +all the feathers differed fundamentally from those of +the peacock, in there being two on the same feather, +(fig. <a href="#f54">54</a>), one on each side of the shaft. Hence I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> +concluded that the early progenitors of the peacock + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f54" id="f54"></a><img src="images/fig54.png" width="200" height="313" alt="Fig. 54. Part of a tail-covert of Polyplectron +chinquis, with two oval ocelli +of nat. size." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 54. Part of a tail-covert of <i>Polyplectron +chinquis</i>, with two oval ocelli +of nat. size.</span></span> + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f55" id="f55"></a><img src="images/fig55.png" width="200" height="217" alt="Fig. 55. Part of a tail-covert of Polyplectron +malaccense, with the two +oval ocelli, partially confluent, of nat. size." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 55. Part of a tail-covert of <i>Polyplectron +malaccense</i>, with the two +oval ocelli, partially confluent, of nat. size.</span></span> + +could not have resembled in +any degree a <i>Polyplectron</i>. +But on continuing my search, +I observed that in some of +the species the two ocelli +stood very near each other; +that in the tail-feathers of +<i>P. Hardwickii</i> they touched +each other; and, finally, that +in the tail-coverts of this same +species as well as of <i>P. malaccense</i> +(fig. <a href="#f55">55</a>) they were +actually confluent. As the +central part alone is confluent, +an indentation is left at both +the upper and lower ends; +and the surrounding coloured zones +zones are likewise indented.</p> + +<p>A single ocellus is thus +formed on each tail-covert, +though still plainly betraying +its double origin. These confluent +ocelli differ from the +single ocelli of the peacock +in having an indentation at +both ends, instead of at the +lower or basal end alone. The +explanation, however, of this +difference is not difficult; in +some species of <i>Polyplectron</i> +the two oval ocelli on the +same feather stand parallel +to each other; in other species (as in <i>P. chinquis</i>) they +converge towards one end; now the partial confluence +of two convergent ocelli would manifestly leave a much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> +deeper indentation at the divergent than at the convergent +end. It is also manifest that if the convergence +were strongly pronounced and the confluence complete, +the indentation at the convergent end would tend to be +quite obliterated.</p> + +<p>The tail-feathers in both species of peacock are entirely +destitute of ocelli, and this apparently is related +to their being covered up and concealed by the long +tail-coverts. In this respect they differ remarkably from +the tail-feathers of <i>Polyplectron</i>, which in most of the +species are ornamented with larger ocelli than those on +the tail-coverts. Hence I was led carefully to examine +the tail-feathers of the several species of <i>Polyplectron</i> +in order to discover whether the ocelli in any of them +shewed any tendency to disappear, and, to my great +satisfaction, I was successful. The central tail-feathers +of <i>P. Napoleonis</i> have the two ocelli on each side of the +shaft perfectly developed; but the inner ocellus becomes +less and less conspicuous on the more exterior tail-feathers, +until a mere shadow or rudimentary vestige is +left on the inner side of the outermost feather. Again, +in <i>P. malaccense</i>, the ocelli on the tail-coverts are, as we +have seen, confluent; and these feathers are of unusual +length, being two-thirds of the length of the tail-feathers, +so that in both these respects they resemble the +tail-coverts of the peacock. Now in this species the two +central tail-feathers alone are ornamented, each with two +brightly-coloured ocelli, the ocelli having completely +disappeared from the inner sides of all the other tail-feathers. +Consequently the tail-coverts and tail-feathers +of this species of <i>Polyplectron</i> make a near approach +in structure and ornamentation to the corresponding +feathers of the peacock.</p> + +<p>As far, then, as the principle of gradation throws +light on the steps by which the magnificent train of +the peacock has been acquired, hardly anything more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> +is needed. We may picture to ourselves a progenitor +of the peacock in an almost exactly intermediate condition +between the existing peacock, with his enormously +elongated tail-coverts, ornamented with single +ocelli, and an ordinary gallinaceous bird with short +tail-coverts, merely spotted with some colour; and we +shall then see in our mind’s eye, a bird possessing +tail-coverts, capable of erection and expansion, ornamented +with two partially confluent ocelli, and long +enough almost to conceal the tail-feathers,—the latter +having already partially lost their ocelli; we shall +see in short, a <i>Polyplectron</i>. The indentation of the +central disc and surrounding zones of the ocellus in both +species of peacock, seems to me to speak plainly in +favour of this view; and this structure is otherwise inexplicable. +The males of <i>Polyplectron</i> are no doubt very +beautiful birds, but their beauty, when viewed from a +little distance, cannot be compared, as I formerly saw +in the Zoological Gardens, with that of the peacock. +Many female progenitors of the peacock must, during +a long line of descent, have appreciated this superiority; +for they have unconsciously, by the continued preference +of the most beautiful males, rendered the peacock +the most splendid of living birds.</p> + +<p class="tb"><i>Argus pheasant.</i>—Another excellent case for investigation +is offered by the ocelli on the wing-feathers of +the Argus pheasant, which are shaded in so wonderful a +manner as to resemble balls lying within sockets, and +which consequently differ from ordinary ocelli. No one, +I presume, will attribute the shading, which has excited +the admiration of many experienced artists, to chance—to +the fortuitous concourse of atoms of colouring +matter. That these ornaments should have been formed +through the selection of many successive variations, not +one of which was originally intended to produce the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span> +ball-and-socket effect, seems as incredible, as that one +of Raphael’s Madonnas should have been formed by +the selection of chance daubs of paint made by a +long succession of young artists, not one of whom intended +at first to draw the human figure. In order to +discover how the ocelli have been developed, we cannot +look to a long line of progenitors, nor to various +closely-allied forms, for such do not now exist. But +fortunately the several feathers on the wing suffice +to give us a clue to the problem, and they prove to +demonstration that a gradation is at least possible from +a mere spot to a finished ball-and-socket ocellus.</p> + +<p>The wing-feathers, bearing the ocelli, are covered with +dark stripes or rows of dark spots, each stripe or row +running obliquely down the outer side of the shaft to +an ocellus. The spots are generally elongated in a +transverse line to the row in which they stand. They +often become confluent, either in the line of the row—and +then they form a longitudinal stripe—or transversely, +that is, with the spots in the adjoining rows, +and then they form transverse stripes. A spot sometimes +breaks up into smaller spots, which still stand in +their proper places.</p> + +<p>It will be convenient first to describe a perfect ball-and-socket +ocellus. This consists of an intensely black +circular ring, surrounding a space shaded so as exactly +to resemble a ball. The figure here given has been +admirably drawn by Mr. Ford, and engraved, but a woodcut +cannot exhibit the exquisite shading of the original. +The ring is almost always slightly broken or interrupted +(see fig. <a href="#f56">56</a>) at a point in the upper half, a little to the +right of and above the white shade on the enclosed +ball; it is also sometimes broken towards the base on +the right hand. These little breaks have an important +meaning. The ring is always much thickened, with the +edges ill-defined towards the left-hand upper corner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> +the feather being held erect, in the position in which it + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f56" id="f56"></a><img src="images/fig56.png" width="300" height="513" alt="Fig. 56. Part of Secondary wing-feather of Argus +pheasant, shewing two, a and b, perfect ocelli. +A, B, C, &c., dark stripes running obliquely down, +each to an ocellus." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 56. Part of Secondary wing-feather of Argus +pheasant, shewing two, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, perfect ocelli. +A, B, C, &c., dark stripes running obliquely down, +each to an ocellus.<br /></span> + +<span class="indent2">[Much of the web on both sides, especially to the +left of the shaft, has been cut off.]</span></span> + +is here drawn. Beneath +this thickened +part there is on the +surface of the ball an +oblique almost pure-white +mark, which +shades off downwards +into a pale-leaden hue, +and this into yellowish +and brown tints, +which insensibly become +darker and darker +towards the lower +part of the ball. It +is this shading which +gives so admirably the +effect of light shining +on a convex surface. +If one of the balls be +examined, it will be +seen that the lower +part is of a browner +tint and is indistinctly +separated by a curved +oblique line from the +upper part, which is +yellower and more leaden; this oblique line runs at +right angles to the longer axis of the white patch of +light, and indeed of all the shading; but this difference +in the tints, which cannot of course be shewn in the +woodcut, does not in the least interfere with the perfect +shading of the ball.<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> It should be particularly ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>served +that each ocellus stands in obvious connection +with a dark stripe, or row of dark spots, for both occur +indifferently on the same feather. Thus in fig. 56 stripe +A runs to ocellus <i>a</i>; B runs to ocellus <i>b</i>; stripe C is +broken in the upper part, and runs down to the next +succeeding ocellus, not represented in the woodcut; D +to the next lower one, and so with the stripes E and F. + +<span class="figleft2" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f57" id="f57"></a><img src="images/fig57.png" width="300" height="469" alt="Fig. 57. Basal part of the Secondary wing-feather, +nearest to the body." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 57. Basal part of the Secondary wing-feather, +nearest to the body.</span></span> + +Lastly, the several ocelli +are separated from each +other by a pale surface +bearing irregular black +marks.</p> + +<p>I will next describe +the other extreme of the +series, namely the first +trace of an ocellus. The +short secondary wing-feather +(fig. <a href="#f57">57</a>), nearest +to the body, is marked +like the other feathers, +with oblique, longitudinal, +rather irregular, rows +of spots. The lowest spot, +or that nearest the shaft, +in the five lower rows (excluding +the basal row) is +a little larger than the +other spots in the same row, and a little more elon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>gated +in a transverse direction. It differs also from +the other spots by being bordered on its upper side +with some dull fulvous shading. But this spot is not in +any way more remarkable than those on the plumage +of many birds, and might easily be quite overlooked. +The next higher spot in each row does not differ at all +from the upper ones in the same row, although in +the following series it becomes, as we shall see, greatly +modified. The larger spots occupy exactly the same +relative position on this feather as those occupied by the +perfect ocelli on the longer wing-feathers.</p> + +<p>By looking to the next two or three succeeding +secondary wing-feathers, an absolutely insensible gradation +can be traced from one of the above-described +lower spots, together with the next higher one in the +same row, to a curious ornament, which cannot be called +an ocellus, and which I will name, from the want of a +better term, an “elliptic ornament.” These are shewn +in the accompanying figure (fig. <a href="#f58">58</a>). We here see +several oblique rows, A, B, C, D (see the lettered diagram), +&c., of dark spots of the usual character. Each +row of spots runs down to and is connected with one of +the elliptic ornaments, in exactly the same manner as +each stripe in fig. 56 runs down to, and is connected with, +one of the ball-and-socket ocelli. Looking to any one +row, for instance, B, the lowest spot or mark (<i>b</i>) is +thicker and considerably longer than the upper spots, +and has its left extremity pointed and curved upwards. +This black mark is abruptly bordered on its upper side +by a rather broad space of richly-shaded tints, beginning +with a narrow brown zone, which passes into orange, +and this into a pale leaden tint, with the end towards +the shaft much paler. This mark corresponds in every +respect with the larger, shaded spot, described in the +last paragraph (fig. <a href="#f57">57</a>), but is more highly deve<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>loped +and more brightly coloured. To the right and +above this spot (<i>b</i>), with its bright shading, there is a +long, narrow, black mark (<i>c</i>), belonging to the same +row, and which is arched a little downwards so as to +face (<i>b</i>). It is also narrowly edged on the lower side +with a fulvous tint. To the left of and above <i>c</i>, in the +same oblique direction, but always more or less distinct +from it, there is another black mark (<i>d</i>). This mark is +generally sub-triangular and irregular in shape, but in +the one lettered in the diagram is unusually narrow, +elongated, and regular. It apparently consists of a +lateral and broken prolongation of the mark (<i>c</i>), as I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> +infer from traces of similar prolongations from the +succeeding upper spots; but I do not feel sure of this. +These three marks, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>d</i>, with the intervening +bright shades, form together the so-called elliptic ornament. +These ornaments stand in a line parallel to +the shaft, and manifestly correspond in position with the +ball-and-socket ocelli. Their extremely elegant appearance +cannot be appreciated in the drawing, as the orange +and leaden tints, contrasting so well with the black +marks, cannot be shewn.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f58" id="f58"></a><img src="images/fig58.png" width="450" height="379" alt="Fig. 58. Portion of one of the Secondary wing-feathers near to the body; shewing the +so-called elliptic ornaments." title="" /> +</div> +<p class="indent2">Fig. 58. Portion of one of the Secondary wing-feathers near to the body; shewing the +so-called elliptic ornaments. The right-hand figure is given merely as a diagram +for the sake of the letters of reference.</p> + +<table width="100%" summary="Cyllo leda"> +<tr> +<td class="left50">A, B, C, &c. Rows of spots running down +to and forming the elliptic ornaments.</td> +<td class="left50"><i>c</i>. The next succeeding spot or mark in +the same row.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left50"><i>b</i>. Lowest spot or mark in row B.</td> +<td class="left50"><i>d</i>. Apparently a broken prolongation of +the spot <i>c</i> in the same row B.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Between one of the elliptic ornaments and a perfect +ball-and-socket ocellus, the gradation is so perfect that +it is scarcely possible to decide when the latter term +ought to be used. I regret that I have not given an +additional drawing, besides fig. 58, which stands about +half-way in the series between one of the simple spots +and a perfect ocellus. The passage from the elliptic +ornament into an ocellus is effected by the elongation +and greater curvature in opposed directions of the lower +black mark (<i>b</i>), and more especially of the upper one +(<i>c</i>), together with the contraction of the irregular sub-triangular +or narrow mark (<i>d</i>), so that at last these +three marks become confluent, forming an irregular +elliptic ring. This ring is gradually rendered more +and more circular and regular, at the same time increasing +in diameter. Traces of the junction of all +three elongated spots or marks, especially of the two +upper ones, can still be observed in many of the most +perfect ocelli. The broken state of the black ring on +the upper side of the ocellus in fig. 56 was pointed +out. The irregular sub-triangular or narrow mark +(<i>d</i>) manifestly forms, by its contraction and equalisation, +the thickened portion of the ring on the left +upper side of the perfect ball-and-socket ocellus. The +lower part of the ring is invariably a little thicker than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> +the other parts (see fig. <a href="#f56">56</a>), and this follows from the +lower black mark of the elliptic ornament (<i>b</i>) having +been originally thicker than the upper mark (<i>c</i>). Every +step can be followed in the process of confluence and +modification; and the black ring which surrounds the ball +of the ocellus is unquestionably formed by the union +and modification of the three black marks, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, of the +elliptic ornament. The irregular zigzag black marks +between the successive ocelli (see again fig. <a href="#f56">56</a>) are +plainly due to the breaking up of the somewhat more +regular but similar marks between the elliptic ornaments.</p> + +<p>The successive steps in the shading of the ball-and-socket +ocelli can be followed out with equal clearness. +The brown, orange, and pale-leaden narrow zones which +border the lower black mark of the elliptic ornament +can be seen gradually to become more and more softened +and shaded into each other, with the upper lighter part +towards the left-hand corner rendered still lighter, so as +to become almost white. But even in the most perfect +ball-and-socket ocelli a slight difference in the tints, +though not in the shading, between the upper and lower +parts of the ball can be perceived (as was before especially +noticed), the line of separation being oblique, +in the same direction with the bright coloured shades +of the elliptic ornaments. Thus almost every minute +detail in the shape and colouring of the ball-and-socket +ocelli can be shewn to follow from gradual changes in +the elliptic ornaments; and the development of the +latter can be traced by equally small steps from the +union of two almost simple spots, the lower one (fig. <a href="#f57">57</a>) +having some dull fulvous shading on the upper side.</p> + +<p>The extremities of the longer secondary feathers +which bear the perfect ball-and-socket ocelli are peculiarly +ornamented. (Fig. 59.) The oblique longitudinal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> +stripes suddenly cease upwards and become confused, +and above this limit the whole upper end of the feather +(<i>a</i>) is covered with white dots, surrounded by little +black rings, standing on a dark ground. Even the + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f59" id="f59"></a><img src="images/fig59.png" width="250" height="559" alt="Fig. 59. Portion near summit of one of +the Secondary wing-feathers, bearing +perfect ball-and-socket ocelli." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 59. Portion near summit of one of +the Secondary wing-feathers, bearing +perfect ball-and-socket ocelli.<br /></span> + +<span class="indent2"><i>a.</i> Ornamented upper part.<br /></span> + +<span class="indent2"><i>b.</i> Uppermost, imperfect ball-and-socket +ocellus. (The shading above the +white mark on the summit of the +ocellus is here a little too dark.)<br /></span> + +<span class="indent2"><i>c.</i> Perfect ocellus.</span></span> + +oblique stripe belonging to +the uppermost ocellus (<i>b</i>) +is represented only by a +very short irregular black +mark with the usual, curved, +transverse base. As this +stripe is thus abruptly cut +off above, we can understand, +from what has gone before, +how it is that the upper +thickened part of the ring is +absent in the uppermost ocellus; +for, as before stated, this +thickened part is apparently +formed by a broken prolongation +of the next higher +spot in the same row. From +the absence of the upper +and thickened part of the +ring, the uppermost ocellus, +though perfect in all other +respects, appears as if its top +had been obliquely sliced off. +It would, I think, perplex +any one, who believes that +the plumage of the Argus pheasant +was created as we +now see it, to account for the +imperfect condition of the +uppermost ocelli. I should add that in the secondary +wing-feather farthest from the body all the ocelli are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span> +smaller and less perfect than on the other feathers, +with the upper parts of the external black rings deficient, +as in the case just mentioned. The imperfection +here seems to be connected with the fact that the +spots on this feather shew less tendency than usual to +become confluent into stripes; on the contrary, they are +often broken up into smaller spots, so that two or three +rows run down to each ocellus.</p> + +<p>We have now seen that a perfect series can be followed, +from two almost simple spots, at first quite +distinct from each other, to one of the wonderful ball-and-socket +ornaments. Mr. Gould, who kindly gave me +some of these feathers, fully agrees with me in the completeness +of the gradation. It is obvious that the stages +in development exhibited by the feathers on the same +bird do not at all necessarily shew us the steps which +have been passed through by the extinct progenitors of +the species; but they probably give us the clue to the +actual steps, and they at least prove to demonstration +that a gradation is possible. Bearing in mind +how carefully the male Argus pheasant displays his +plumes before the female, as well as the many facts +rendering it probable that female birds prefer the more +attractive males, no one who admits the agency of +sexual selection, will deny that a simple dark spot with +some fulvous shading might be converted, through +the approximation and modification of the adjoining +spots, together with some slight increase of colour, +into one of the so-called elliptic ornaments. These +latter ornaments have been shewn to many persons, +and all have admitted that they are extremely pretty, +some thinking them even more beautiful than the +ball-and-socket ocelli. As the secondary plumes became +lengthened through sexual selection, and as +the elliptic ornaments increased in diameter, their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> +colours apparently became less bright; and then the +ornamentation of the plumes had to be gained by +improvements in the pattern and shading; and this +process has been carried on until the wonderful ball-and-socket +ocelli have been finally developed. Thus we +can understand—and in no other way as it seems to +me—the present condition and origin of the ornaments +on the wing-feathers of the Argus pheasant.</p> + +<p class="tb">From the light reflected by the principle of gradation; +from what we know of the laws of variation; +from the changes which have taken place in many +of our domesticated birds; and, lastly, from the character +(as we shall hereafter more clearly see) of the +immature plumage of young birds—we can sometimes +indicate with a certain amount of confidence, the probable +steps by which the males have acquired their +brilliant plumage and various ornaments; yet in many +cases we are involved in darkness. Mr. Gould several +years ago pointed out to me a humming-bird, the +<i>Urosticte benjamini</i>, remarkable from the curious differences +presented by the two sexes. The male, besides +a splendid gorget, has greenish-black tail-feathers, with +the four <i>central</i> ones tipped with white; in the female, +as with most of the allied species, the three <i>outer</i> tail-feathers +on each side are tipped with white, so that the +male has the four central, whilst the female has the six +exterior feathers ornamented with white tips. What +makes the case curious is that, although the colouring +of the tail differs remarkably in both sexes of many +kinds of humming-birds, Mr. Gould does not know a +single species, besides the <i>Urosticte</i>, in which the male +has the four central feathers tipped with white.</p> + +<p>The Duke of Argyll, in commenting on this case,<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>passes over sexual selection, and asks, “What explanation +does the law of natural selection give of such +specific varieties as these?” He answers “none +whatever;” and I quite agree with him. But can +this be so confidently said of sexual selection? Seeing +in how many ways the tail-feathers of humming-birds +differ, why should not the four central feathers have +varied in this one species alone, so as to have acquired +white tips? The variations may have been gradual, or +somewhat abrupt as in the case recently given of the +humming-birds near Bogota, in which certain individuals +alone have the “central tail-feathers tipped +with beautiful green.” In the female of the <i>Urosticte</i> +I noticed extremely minute or rudimental white +tips to the two outer of the four central black tail-feathers; +so that here we have an indication of change +of some kind in the plumage of this species. If we grant +the possibility of the central tail-feathers of the male +varying in whiteness, there is nothing strange in such +variations having been sexually selected. The white +tips, together with the small white ear-tufts, certainly +add, as the Duke of Argyll admits, to the beauty of the +male; and whiteness is apparently appreciated by other +birds, as may be inferred from such cases as the snow-white +male of the Bell-bird. The statement made by +Sir E. Heron should not be forgotten, namely that his +peahens, when debarred from access to the pied peacock, +would not unite with any other male, and during that +season produced no offspring. Nor is it strange that +variations in the tail-feathers of the <i>Urosticte</i> should +have been specially selected for the sake of ornament, +for the next succeeding genus in the family takes its +name of <i>Metallura</i> from the splendour of these feathers. +Mr. Gould, after describing the peculiar plumage of the +<i>Urosticte</i>, adds, “that ornament and variety is the sole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> +object, I have myself but little doubt.”<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> If this be +admitted, we can perceive that the males which were +decked in the most elegant and novel manner would +have gained an advantage, not in the ordinary struggle +for life, but in rivalry with other males, and would +consequently have left a larger number of offspring to +inherit their newly-acquired beauty.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XV.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Birds</span>—<i>continued</i>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Discussion why the males alone of some species, and both sexes of +other species, are brightly coloured—On sexually-limited inheritance, +as applied to various structures and to brightly-coloured +plumage—Nidification in relation to colour—Loss of +nuptial plumage during the winter.</p></div> + +<p>We have in this chapter to consider, why with many +kinds of birds the female has not received the same +ornaments as the male; and why with many others, +both sexes are equally, or almost equally, ornamented? +In the following chapter we shall consider why in some +few rare cases the female is more conspicuously coloured +than the male.</p> + +<p>In my ‘Origin of Species’<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> I briefly suggested that +the long tail of the peacock would be inconvenient, and +the conspicuous black colour of the male capercailzie +dangerous, to the female during the period of incubation; +and consequently that the transmission of these characters +from the male to the female offspring had been +checked through natural selection. I still think that +this may have occurred in some few instances: but after +mature reflection on all the facts which I have been +able to collect, I am now inclined to believe that +when the sexes differ, the successive variations have +generally been from the first limited in their transmission +to the same sex in which they first appeared. Since +my remarks appeared, the subject of sexual coloration +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>has been discussed in some very interesting papers by +Mr. Wallace,<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> who believes that in almost all cases the +successive variations tended at first to be transmitted +equally to both sexes; but that the female was saved, +through natural selection, from acquiring the conspicuous +colours of the male, owing to the danger which she +would thus have incurred during incubation.</p> + +<p>This view necessitates a tedious discussion on a +difficult point, namely whether the transmission of a +character, which is at first inherited by both sexes, can +be subsequently limited in its transmission, by means +of selection, to one sex alone. We must bear in mind, +as shewn in the preliminary chapter on sexual selection, +that characters which are limited in their development +to one sex are always latent in the other. +An imaginary illustration will best aid us in seeing +the difficulty of the case: we may suppose that a +fancier wished to make a breed of pigeons, in which +the males alone should be coloured of a pale blue, +whilst the females retained their former slaty tint. As +with pigeons characters of all kinds are usually transmitted +to both sexes equally, the fancier would have +to try to convert this latter form of inheritance into +sexually-limited transmission. All that he could do +would be to persevere in selecting every male pigeon +which was in the least degree of a paler blue; and the +natural result of this process, if steadily carried on for +a long time, and if the pale variations were strongly +inherited or often recurred, would be to make his whole +stock of a lighter blue. But our fancier would be compelled +to match, generation after generation, his pale +blue males with slaty females, for he wishes to keep the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span>latter of this colour. The result would generally be +the production either of a mongrel piebald lot, or more +probably the speedy and complete loss of the pale-blue +colour, for the primordial slaty tint would be transmitted +with prepotent force. Supposing, however, that +some pale-blue males and slaty females were produced +during each successive generation, and were always +crossed together; then the slaty females would have, +if I may use the expression, much blue blood in their +veins, for their fathers, grandfathers, etc., will all have +been blue birds. Under these circumstances it is conceivable +(though I know of no distinct facts rendering +it probable) that the slaty females might acquire so +strong a latent tendency to pale-blueness, that they +would not destroy this colour in their male offspring, +their female offspring still inheriting the slaty tint. If +so, the desired end of making a breed with the two +sexes permanently different in colour might be gained.</p> + +<p>The extreme importance, or rather necessity, of the +desired character in the above case, namely, pale-blueness, +being present though in a latent state in the +female, so that the male offspring should not be deteriorated, +will be best appreciated as follows: the male +of Sœmmerring’s pheasant has a tail thirty-seven inches +in length, whilst that of the female is only eight inches; +the tail of the male common pheasant is about twenty +inches, and that of the female twelve inches long. Now +if the female Sœmmerring pheasant with her <i>short</i> tail +were crossed with the male common pheasant, there +can be no doubt that the male hybrid offspring would +have a much <i>longer</i> tail than that of the pure offspring of +the common pheasant. On the other hand, if the female +common pheasant, with her tail nearly <i>twice as long</i> as +that of the female Sœmmerring pheasant, were crossed +with the male of the latter, the male hybrid offspring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span> +would have a much <i>shorter</i> tail than that of the pure +offspring of Sœmmerring’s pheasant.<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a></p> + +<p>Our fancier, in order to make his new breed with the +males of a decided pale-blue tint, and the females unchanged, +would have to continue selecting the males +during many generations; and each stage of paleness +would have to be fixed in the males, and rendered +latent in the females. The task would be an extremely +difficult one, and has never been tried, but might possibly +succeed. The chief obstacle would be the early +and complete loss of the pale-blue tint, from the necessity +of reiterated crosses with the slaty female, the +latter not having at first any <i>latent</i> tendency to produce +pale-blue offspring.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if one or two males were to vary +ever so slightly in paleness, and the variations were +from the first limited in their transmission to the male +sex, the task of making a new breed of the desired +kind would be easy, for such males would simply have +to be selected and matched with ordinary females. An +analogous case has actually occurred, for there are +breeds of the pigeon in Belgium<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> in which the males +alone are marked with black striæ. In the case of the +fowl, variations of colour limited in their transmission to +the male sex habitually occur. Even when this form of +inheritance prevails, it might well happen that some +of the successive steps in the process of variation might +be transferred to the female, who would then come to +resemble in a slight degree the male, as occurs in some +breeds of the fowl. Or again, the greater number, but +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span>not all, of the successive steps might be transferred to +both sexes, and the female would then closely resemble +the male. There can hardly be a doubt that this is +the cause of the male pouter pigeon having a somewhat +larger crop, and of the male carrier pigeon having somewhat +larger wattles, than their respective females; for +fanciers have not selected one sex more than the other, +and have had no wish that these characters should be +more strongly displayed in the male than in the female, +yet this is the case with both breeds.</p> + +<p>The same process would have to be followed, and the +same difficulties would be encountered, if it were desired +to make a breed with the females alone of some new +colour.</p> + +<p>Lastly, our fancier might wish to make a breed with +the two sexes differing from each other, and both from +the parent-species. Here the difficulty would be extreme, +unless the successive variations were from the +first sexually limited on both sides, and then there would +be no difficulty. We see this with the fowl; thus the +two sexes of the pencilled Hamburghs differ greatly +from each other, and from the two sexes of the aboriginal +<i>Gallus bankiva</i>; and both are now kept constant +to their standard of excellence by continued selection, +which would be impossible unless the distinctive characters +of both were limited in their transmission. The +Spanish fowl offers a more curious case; the male has +an immense comb, but some of the successive variations, +by the accumulation of which it was acquired, appear +to have been transferred to the female; for she has a +comb many times larger than that of the females of the +parent-species. But the comb of the female differs in +one respect from that of the male, for it is apt to lop +over; and within a recent period it has been ordered +by the fancy that this should always be the case, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> +success has quickly followed the order. Now the lopping +of the comb must be sexually limited in its transmission, +otherwise it would prevent the comb of the +male from being perfectly upright, which would be +abhorrent to every fancier. On the other hand the +uprightness of the comb in the male must likewise be +a sexually-limited character, otherwise it would prevent +the comb of the female from lopping over.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing illustrations, we see that even +with almost unlimited time at command, it would be +an extremely difficult and complex process, though +perhaps not impossible, to change through selection +one form of transmission into the other. Therefore, +without distinct evidence in each case, I am unwilling +to admit that this has often been effected with natural +species. On the other hand by means of successive +variations, which were from the first sexually limited +in their transmission, there would not be the least +difficulty in rendering a male bird widely different in +colour or in any other character from the female; the +latter being left unaltered, or slightly altered, or specially +modified for the sake of protection.</p> + +<p>As bright colours are of service to the males in their +rivalry with other males, such colours would be selected, +whether or not they were transmitted exclusively to the +same sex. Consequently the females might be expected +often to partake of the brightness of the males to a +greater or less degree; and this occurs with a host of +species. If all the successive variations were transmitted +equally to both sexes, the females would be +undistinguishable from the males; and this likewise +occurs with many birds. If, however, dull colours were +of high importance for the safety of the female during +incubation, as with many ground birds, the females +which varied in brightness, or which received through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> +inheritance from the males any marked accession of +brightness, would sooner or later be destroyed. But +the tendency in the males to continue for an indefinite +period transmitting to their female offspring their own +brightness, would have to be eliminated by a change in +the form of inheritance; and this, as shewn by our +previous illustration, would be extremely difficult. The +more probable result of the long-continued destruction +of the more brightly-coloured females, supposing the +equal form of transmission to prevail, would be the lessening +or annihilation of the bright colours of the males, +owing to their continually crossing with the duller +females. It would be tedious to follow out all the +other possible results; but I may remind the reader, as +shewn in the eighth chapter, that if sexually-limited +variations in brightness occurred in the females, even if +they were not in the least injurious to them and consequently +were not eliminated, yet they would not be +favoured or selected, for the male usually accepts any +female, and does not select the more attractive individuals; +consequently these variations would be liable +to be lost, and would have little influence on the +character of the race; and this will aid in accounting +for the females being commonly less brightly-coloured +than the males.</p> + +<p>In the chapter just referred to, instances were given, +and any number might have been added, of variations +occurring at different ages, and inherited at the same +age. It was also shewn that variations which occur late +in life are commonly transmitted to the same sex in +which they first appeared; whilst variations occurring +early in life are apt to be transmitted to both sexes; +not that all the cases of sexually-limited transmission +can thus be accounted for. It was further shewn that +if a male bird varied by becoming brighter whilst<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> +young, such variations would be of no service until +the age for reproduction had arrived, and there was +competition between rival males. If we suppose that +three-fourths of the young males of any species are +on an average destroyed by various enemies; then the +chances would be as three to one against any one individual +more brightly-coloured than usual surviving to +propagate its kind. But in the case of birds which +live on the ground and which commonly need the +protection of dull colours, bright tints would be far +more dangerous to the young and inexperienced than +to the adult males. Consequently the males which +varied in brightness whilst young would suffer much +destruction and be eliminated through natural selection; +on the other hand the males which varied in +this manner when nearly mature, notwithstanding that +they were exposed to some additional danger, might survive, +and from being favoured through sexual selection, +would procreate their kind. The brightly-coloured young +males being destroyed and the mature ones being successful +in their courtship, may account, on the principle +of a relation existing between the period of variation +and the form of transmission, for the males alone of +many birds, having acquired and transmitted brilliant +colours to their male offspring alone. But I by no means +wish to maintain that the influence of age on the form +of transmission is indirectly the sole cause of the great +difference in brilliancy between the sexes of many birds.</p> + +<p>As with all birds in which the sexes differ in colour, it +is an interesting question whether the males alone have +been modified through sexual selection, the females +being left, as far as this agency is concerned, unchanged +or only partially changed; or whether the females have +been specially modified through natural selection for the +sake of protection, I will discuss this question at con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>siderable +length, even at greater length than its intrinsic +importance deserves; for various curious collateral points +may thus be conveniently considered.</p> + +<p>Before we enter on the subject of colour, more +especially in reference to Mr. Wallace’s conclusions, +it may be useful to discuss under a similar point of +view some other differences between the sexes. A +breed of fowls formerly existed in Germany<a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> in which +the hens were furnished with spurs; they were good +layers, but they so greatly disturbed their nests with +their spurs that they could not be allowed to sit on their +own eggs. Hence at one time it appeared to me probable +that with the females of the wild Gallinaceæ +the development of spurs had been checked through +natural selection, from the injury thus caused to their +nests. This seemed all the more probable as the wing-spurs, +which could not be injurious during nidification, +are often as well developed in the female as in the +male; though in not a few cases they are rather larger +in the male. When the male is furnished with leg-spurs +the female almost always exhibits rudiments of +them,—the rudiment sometimes consisting of a mere +scale, as with the species of <i>Gallus</i>. Hence it might +be argued that the females had aboriginally been furnished +with well-developed spurs, but that these had +subsequently been lost either through disuse or natural +selection. But if this view be admitted, it would have +to be extended to innumerable other cases; and it implies +that the female progenitors of the existing spur-bearing +species were once encumbered with an injurious +appendage.</p> + +<p>In some few genera and species, as in <i>Galloperdix</i>, +<i>Acomus</i>, and the Javan peacock (<i>Pavo muticus</i>), the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>females, as well as the males, possess well-developed +spurs. Are we to infer from this fact that they construct +a different sort of nest, not liable to be injured +by their spurs, from that made by their nearest allies, +so that there has been no need for the removal of their +spurs? Or are we to suppose that these females especially +require spurs for their defence? It is a more probable +conclusion that both the presence and absence of +spurs in the females result from different laws of inheritance +having prevailed, independently of natural selection. +With the many females in which spurs appear +as rudiments, we may conclude that some few of the +successive variations, through which they were developed +in the males, occurred very early in life, and were +as a consequence transferred to the females. In the +other and much rarer cases, in which the females possess +fully developed spurs, we may conclude that all +the successive variations were transferred to them; and +that they gradually acquired the inherited habit of not +disturbing their nests.</p> + +<p>The vocal organs and the variously-modified feathers +for producing sound, as well as the proper instincts +for using them, often differ in the two sexes, but are +sometimes the same in both. Can such differences be +accounted for by the males having acquired these organs +and instincts, whilst the females have been saved from +inheriting them, on account of the danger to which +they would have been exposed by attracting the attention +of birds or beasts of prey? This does not +seem to me probable, when we think of the multitude +of birds which with impunity gladden the country with +their voices during the spring.<a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> It is a safer conclu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>sion +that as vocal and instrumental organs are of special +service only to the males during their courtship, these +organs were developed through sexual selection and +continued use in this sex alone—the successive variations +and the effects of use having been from the first +limited in their transmission in a greater or less degree +to the male offspring.</p> + +<p>Many analogous cases could be advanced; for instance +the plumes on the head, which are generally +longer in the male than in the female, sometimes of +equal length in both sexes, and occasionally absent in +the female,—these several cases sometimes occurring +in the same group of birds. It would be difficult to +account for a difference of this kind between the sexes +on the principle of the female having been benefited by +possessing a slightly shorter crest than the male, and its +consequent diminution or complete suppression through +natural selection. But I will take a more favourable +case, namely, the length of the tail. The long train +of the peacock would have been not only inconvenient +but dangerous to the peahen during the period of incubation +and whilst accompanying her young. Hence +there is not the least <i>à priori</i> improbability in the +development of her tail having been checked through +natural selection. But the females of various pheasants, +which apparently are exposed on their open nests +to as much danger as the peahen, have tails of considerable +length. The females as well as the males +of the <i>Menura superba</i> have long tails, and they build +a domed nest, which is a great anomaly in so large a +bird. Naturalists have wondered how the female <i>Menura</i> +could manage her tail during incubation; but it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span>is now known<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a> that she “enters the nest head first, +and then turns round with her tail sometimes over +her back, but more often bent round by her side. +Thus in time the tail becomes quite askew, and is a +tolerable guide to the length of time the bird has +been sitting.” Both sexes of an Australian kingfisher +(<i>Tanysiptera sylvia</i>) have the middle tail-feathers greatly +lengthened; and as the female makes her nest in a +hole, these feathers become, as I am informed by Mr. +R. B. Sharpe, much crumpled during nidification.</p> + +<p>In these two cases the great length of the tail-feathers +must be in some degree inconvenient to the female; +and as in both species the tail-feathers of the female +are somewhat shorter than those of the male, it might +be argued that their full development had been prevented +through natural selection. Judging from these +cases, if with the peahen, the development of the tail +had been checked only when it became inconveniently +or dangerously long, she would have acquired a much +longer tail than she actually possesses; for her tail is +not nearly so long, relatively to the size of her body, +as that of many female pheasants, nor longer than that +of the female turkey. It must also be borne in mind, +that in accordance with this view as soon as the tail of +the peahen became dangerously long, and its development +was consequently checked, she would have continually +reacted on her male progeny, and thus have +prevented the peacock from acquiring his present magnificent +train. We may therefore infer that the length +of the tail in the peacock and its shortness in the peahen +are the result of the requisite variations in the +male having been from the first transmitted to the male +offspring alone.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> + +<p>We are led to a nearly similar conclusion with +respect to the length of the tail in the various species +of pheasants. In the Eared pheasant (<i>Crossoptilon +auritum</i>) the tail is of equal length in both sexes, +namely, sixteen or seventeen inches; in the common +pheasant it is about twenty inches long in the male, +and twelve in the female; in Sœmmerring’s pheasant, +thirty-seven inches in the male, and only eight in the +female; and lastly in Reeve’s pheasant it is sometimes +actually seventy-two inches long in the male and sixteen +in the female. Thus in the several species, the +tail of the female differs much in length, irrespectively +of that of the male; and this can be accounted for +as it seems to me, with much more probability, by the +laws of inheritance,—that is by the successive variations +having been from the first more or less closely +limited in their transmission to the male sex,—than by +the agency of natural selection, owing to the length of +tail having been injurious in a greater or less degree +to the females of the several species.</p> + +<p class="tb">We may now consider Mr. Wallace’s arguments, in +regard to the sexual coloration of birds. He believes +that the bright tints originally acquired through sexual +selection by the males, would in all or almost all cases +have been transmitted to the females, unless the transference +had been checked through natural selection. +I may here remind the reader that various facts +bearing on this view have already been given under +reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and lepidoptera. Mr. +Wallace rests his belief chiefly, but not exclusively, as +we shall see in the next chapter, on the following statement,<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> +that when both sexes are coloured in a strikingly-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>conspicuous +manner the nest is of such a nature as to +conceal the sitting bird; but when there is a marked +contrast of colour between the sexes, the male being +gay and the female dull-coloured, the nest is open and +exposes the sitting bird to view. This coincidence, +as far as it goes, certainly supports the belief that the +females which sit on open nests have been specially +modified for the sake of protection. Mr. Wallace +admits that there are, as might have been expected, +some exceptions to his two rules, but it is a question +whether the exceptions are not so numerous as seriously +to invalidate them.</p> + +<p>There is in the first place much truth in the Duke +of Argyll’s remark<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a> that a large domed nest is more +conspicuous to an enemy, especially to all tree-haunting +carnivorous animals, than a smaller open nest. Nor +must we forget that with many birds which build open +nests the males sit on the eggs and aid in feeding the +young as well as the females: this is the case, for instance, +with <i>Pyranga æstiva</i>,<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a> one of the most splendid +birds in the United States, the male being vermilion, +and the female light brownish-green. Now if brilliant +colours had been extremely dangerous to birds whilst +sitting on their open nests, the males in these cases +would have suffered greatly. It might, however, be of +such paramount importance to the male to be brilliantly +coloured, in order to beat his rivals, that this +would more than compensate for some additional danger.</p> + +<p>Mr. Wallace admits that with the King-crows (<i>Dicrurus</i>), +Orioles, and Pittidæ, the females are conspicuously +coloured, yet they build open nests; but he +urges that the birds of the first group are highly pug<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>nacious +and could defend themselves; that those of the +second group take extreme care in concealing their +open nests, but this does not invariably hold good;<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a> +and that with the birds of the third group the females +are brightly coloured chiefly on the under surface. Besides +these cases the whole great family of pigeons, +which are sometimes brightly, and almost always conspicuously +coloured, and which are notoriously liable to +the attacks of birds of prey, offers a serious exception +to the rule, for pigeons almost always build open and +exposed nests. In another large family, that of the +Humming-birds, all the species build open nests, yet +with some of the most gorgeous species the sexes are +alike; and in the majority, the females, though less +brilliant than the males, are very brightly coloured. +Nor can it be maintained that all female humming-birds, +which are brightly coloured, escape detection by +their tints being green, for some display on their upper +surfaces red, blue, and other colours.<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a></p> + +<p>In regard to birds which build in holes or construct +domed nests, other advantages, as Mr. Wallace remarks, +besides concealment are gained, such as shelter from +the rain, greater warmth, and in hot countries protection +from the rays of the sun;<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> so that it is no valid +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>objection to his view that many birds having both sexes +obscurely coloured build concealed nests.<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> The female +Hornbills (<i>Buceros</i>), for instance, of India and Africa +are protected, during nidification, with extraordinary +care, for the male plaisters up the hole in which the +female sits on her eggs, and leaves only a small orifice +through which he feeds her; she is thus kept a close +prisoner during the whole period of incubation;<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> yet +female hornbills are not more conspicuously coloured +than many other birds of equal size which build open +nests. It is a more serious objection to Mr. Wallace’s +view, as is admitted by him, that in some few groups the +males are brilliantly coloured and the females obscure, +and yet the latter hatch their eggs in domed nests. +This is the case with the Grallinæ of Australia, the +Superb Warblers (Maluridæ) of the same country, +the Sun-birds (Nectariniæ), and with several of the +Australian Honey-suckers or Meliphagidæ.<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a></p> + +<p>If we look to the birds of England we shall see that +there is no close and general relation between the +colours of the female and the nature of the nest constructed +by her. About forty of our British birds (excluding +those of large size which could defend themselves) +build in holes in banks, rocks, or trees, or construct +domed nests. If we take the colours of the +female goldfinch, bullfinch, or blackbird, as a standard +of the degree of conspicuousness, which is not highly +dangerous to the sitting female, then out of the above +forty birds, the females of only twelve can be considered +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>as conspicuous to a dangerous degree, the remaining +twenty-eight being inconspicuous.<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> Nor is there any +close relation between a well-pronounced difference in +colour between the two sexes, and the nature of the +nest constructed. Thus the male house-sparrow (<i>Passer +domesticus</i>) differs much from the female, the male +tree-sparrow (<i>P. montanus</i>) differs hardly at all, and yet +both build well-concealed nests. The two sexes of the +common fly-catcher (<i>Muscicapa grisola</i>) can hardly be +distinguished, whilst the sexes of the pied fly-catcher +(<i>M. luctuosa</i>) differ considerably, and both build in holes. +The female blackbird (<i>Turdus merula</i>) differs much, +the female ring-ouzel (<i>T. torquatus</i>) differs less, +and the female common thrush (<i>T. musicus</i>) hardly +at all from their respective males; yet all build open +nests. On the other hand, the not very distantly-allied +water-ouzel (<i>Cinclus aquaticus</i>) builds a domed +nest, and the sexes differ about as much as in the case +of the ring-ouzel. The black and red grouse (<i>Tetrao +tetrix</i> and <i>T. Scoticus</i>) build open nests, in equally well-concealed +spots, but in the one species the sexes differ +greatly, and in the other very little.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the foregoing objections, I cannot +doubt, after reading Mr. Wallace’s excellent essay, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span>that looking to the birds of the world, a large majority +of the species in which the females are conspicuously +coloured (and in this case the males with rare exceptions +are equally conspicuous), build concealed nests for the +sake of protection. Mr. Wallace enumerates<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a> a long +series of groups in which this rule holds good; but it +will suffice here to give, as instances, the more familiar +groups of kingfishers, toucans, trogons, puff-birds (Capitonidæ), +plaintain-eaters (Musophagæ), woodpeckers, and +parrots. Mr. Wallace believes that in these groups, +as the males gradually acquired through sexual selection +their brilliant colours, these were transferred to +the females and were not eliminated by natural selection, +owing to the protection which they already enjoyed +from their manner of nidification. According to this +view, their present manner of nesting was acquired +before their present colours. But it seems to me +much more probable that in most cases as the females +were gradually rendered more and more brilliant from +partaking of the colours of the male, they were gradually +led to change their instincts (supposing that they +originally built open nests), and to seek protection by +building domed or concealed nests. No one who studies, +for instance, Audubon’s account of the differences in the +nests of the same species in the Northern and Southern +United States,<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> will feel any great difficulty in admitting +that birds, either by a change (in the strict sense +of the word) of their habits, or through the natural +selection of so-called spontaneous variations of instinct, +might readily be led to modify their manner of +nesting.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span></p><p>This way of viewing the relation, as far as it holds +good, between the bright colours of female birds and +their manner of nesting, receives some support from +certain analogous cases occurring in the Sahara Desert. +Here, as in most other deserts, various birds, and many +other animals, have had their colours adapted in a wonderful +manner to the tints of the surrounding surface. +Nevertheless there are, as I am informed by the Rev. +Mr. Tristram, some curious exceptions to the rule; thus +the male of the <i>Monticola cyanea</i> is conspicuous from +his bright blue colour, and the female almost equally +conspicuous from her mottled brown and white plumage; +both sexes of two species of Dromolæa are of a lustrous +black; so that these three birds are far from receiving +protection from their colours, yet they are able to survive, +for they have acquired the habit, when in danger, +of taking refuge in holes or crevices in the rocks.</p> + +<p>With respect to the above-specified groups of birds, +in which the females are conspicuously coloured and +build concealed nests, it is not necessary to suppose +that each separate species had its nidifying instinct +specially modified; but only that the early progenitors +of each group were gradually led to build domed or +concealed nests; and afterwards transmitted this instinct, +together with their bright colours, to their modified +descendants. This conclusion, as far as it can be +trusted, is interesting, namely, that sexual selection, +together with equal or nearly equal inheritance by both +sexes, have indirectly determined the manner of nidification +of whole groups of birds.</p> + +<p>Even in the groups in which, according to Mr. Wallace, +the females from being protected during nidification, +have not had their bright colours eliminated +through natural selection, the males often differ in a +slight, and occasionally in a considerable degree, from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> +the females. This is a significant fact, for such differences +in colour must be accounted for on the principle +of some of the variations in the males having been from +the first limited in their transmission to the same sex; +as it can hardly be maintained that these differences, +especially when very slight, serve as a protection to +the female. Thus all the species in the splendid group +of the Trogons build in holes; and Mr. Gould gives +figures<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> of both sexes of twenty-five species, in all of +which, with one partial exception, the sexes differ sometimes +slightly, sometimes conspicuously, in colour,—the +males being always more beautiful than the females, +though the latter are likewise beautiful. All the +species of kingfisher build in holes, and with most of +the species the sexes are equally brilliant, and thus far +Mr. Wallace’s rule holds good; but in some of the +Australian species the colours of the females are rather +less vivid than those of the male; and in one splendidly-coloured +species, the sexes differ so much that +they were at first thought to be specifically distinct.<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">218</a> +Mr. R. B. Sharpe, who has especially studied this +group, has shewn me some American species (<i>Ceryle</i>) +in which the breast of the male is belted with +black. Again, in <i>Carcineutes</i>, the difference between +the sexes is conspicuous: in the male the upper surface +is dull-blue banded with black, the lower surface +being partly fawn-coloured, and there is much red +about the head; in the female the upper surface is +reddish-brown banded with black, and the lower surface +white with black markings. It is an interesting fact, +as shewing how the same peculiar style of sexual +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>colouring often characterises allied forms, that in three +species of <i>Dacelo</i> the male differs from the female only +in the tail being dull-blue banded with black, whilst +that of the female is brown with blackish bars; so that +here the tail differs in colour in the two sexes in exactly +the same manner as the whole upper surface in the +sexes of <i>Carcineutes</i>.</p> + +<p>With parrots, which likewise build in holes, we find +analogous cases: in most of the species both sexes are +brilliantly coloured and undistinguishable, but in not a +few species the males are coloured rather more vividly +than the females, or even very differently from them. +Thus, besides other strongly-marked differences, the +whole under surface of the male King Lory (<i>Aprosmictus +scapulatus</i>) is scarlet, whilst the throat and chest of the +female is green tinged with red: in the <i>Euphema splendida</i> +there is a similar difference, the face and wing-coverts +moreover of the female being of a paler blue +than in the male.<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">219</a> In the family of the tits (PARINÆ), +which build concealed nests, the female of our common +blue tomtit (<i>Parus cæruleus</i>) is “much less brightly +coloured” than the male; and in the magnificent Sultan +yellow tit of India the difference is greater.<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">220</a></p> + +<p>Again in the great group of the woodpeckers,<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> the +sexes are generally nearly alike, but in the <i>Megapicus +validus</i> all those parts of the head, neck, and +breast, which are crimson in the male are pale brown +in the female. As in several woodpeckers the head of +the male is bright crimson, whilst that of the female is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>plain, it occurred to me that this colour might possibly +make the female dangerously conspicuous, whenever +she put her head out of the hole containing her nest, +and consequently that this colour, in accordance with +Mr. Wallace’s belief, had been eliminated. This view is +strengthened by what Malherbe states with respect to +<i>Indopicus carlotta</i>; namely, that the young females, +like the young males, have some crimson about their +heads, but that this colour disappears in the adult +female, whilst it is intensified in the adult male. Nevertheless +the following considerations render this view +extremely doubtful: the male takes a fair share in +incubation,<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> and would be thus far almost equally +exposed to danger; both sexes of many species have +their heads of an equally bright crimson; in other +species the difference between the sexes in the amount +of scarlet is so slight that it can hardly make any +appreciable difference in the danger incurred; and +lastly, the colouring of the head in the two sexes +often differs slightly in other ways.</p> + +<p>The cases, as yet given, of slight and graduated +differences in colour between the males and females +in the groups, in which as a general rule the sexes +resemble each other, all relate to species which build +domed or concealed nests. But similar gradations may +likewise be observed in groups in which the sexes +as a general rule resemble each other, but which build +open nests. As I have before instanced the Australian +parrots, so I may here instance, without giving any +details, the Australian pigeons.<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">223</a> It deserves especial +notice that in all these cases the slight differences in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>plumage between the sexes are of the same general +nature as the occasionally greater differences. A good +illustration of this fact has already been afforded by +those kingfishers in which either the tail alone or +the whole upper surface of the plumage differs in the +same manner in the two sexes. Similar cases may be +observed with parrots and pigeons. The differences in +colour between the sexes of the same species are, also, +of the same general nature as the differences in colour +between the distinct species of the same group. For +when in a group in which the sexes are usually alike, +the male differs considerably from the female, he is +not coloured in a quite new style. Hence we may +infer that within the same group the special colours of +both sexes when they are alike, and the colours of the +male, when he differs slightly or even considerably from +the female, have in most cases been determined by the +same general cause; this being sexual selection.</p> + +<p>It is not probable, as has already been remarked, +that differences in colour between the sexes, when very +slight, can be of service to the female as a protection. +Assuming, however, that they are of service, they might +be thought to be cases of transition; but we have no +reason to believe that many species at any one time +are undergoing change. Therefore we can hardly +admit that the numerous females which differ very +slightly in colour from their males are now all commencing +to become obscure for the sake of protection. +Even if we consider somewhat more marked sexual differences, +is it probable, for instance, that the head of the +female chaffinch, the crimson on the breast of the female +bullfinch,—the green of the female greenfinch,—the +crest of the female golden-crested wren, have all been +rendered less bright by the slow process of selection for +the sake of protection? I cannot think so; and still less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> +with the slight differences between the sexes of those +birds which build concealed nests. On the other hand, +the differences in colour between the sexes, whether +great or small, may to a large extent be explained +on the principle of the successive variations, acquired +by the males through sexual selection, having been +from the first more or less limited in their transmission +to the females. That the degree of limitation should +differ in different species of the same group will not +surprise any one who has studied the laws of inheritance, +for they are so complex that they appear to us in our +ignorance to be capricious in their action.<a name="FNanchor_224" id="FNanchor_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">224</a></p> + +<p>As far as I can discover there are very few groups +of birds containing a considerable number of species, +in which all have both sexes brilliantly coloured +and alike; but this appears to be the case, as I hear +from Mr. Sclater, with the Musophagæ or plaintain-eaters. +Nor do I believe that any large group +exists in which the sexes of all the species are widely +dissimilar in colour: Mr. Wallace informs me that +the chatterers of S. America (COTINGIDÆ) offer one of +the best instances; but with some of the species, in +which the male has a splendid red breast, the female +exhibits some red on her breast; and the females of +other species shew traces of the green and other colours +of the males. Nevertheless we have a near approach +to close sexual similarity or dissimilarity throughout +several groups: and this, from what has just been said +of the fluctuating nature of inheritance, is a somewhat +surprising circumstance. But that the same +laws should largely prevail with allied animals is +not surprising. The domestic fowl has produced a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>great number of breeds and sub-breeds, and in these +the sexes generally differ in plumage; so that it has +been noticed as a remarkable circumstance when in +certain sub-breeds they resemble each other. On the +other hand, the domestic pigeon has likewise produced +a vast number of distinct breeds and sub-breeds, and +in these, with rare exceptions, the two sexes are identically +alike. Therefore if other species of <i>Gallus</i> and +Columba were domesticated and varied, it would not be +rash to predict that the same general rules of sexual +similarity and dissimilarity, depending on the form of +transmission, would, in both cases, hold good. In a +similar manner the same form of transmission has generally +prevailed throughout the same natural groups, +although marked exceptions to this rule occur. Within +the same family or even genus, the sexes may be +identically alike or very different in colour. Instances +have already been given relating to the same genus, +as with sparrows, fly-catchers, thrushes and grouse. In +the family of pheasants the males and females of almost +all the species are wonderfully dissimilar, but are quite +similar in the eared pheasant or <i>Crossoptilon auritum</i>. +In two species of Chloephaga, a genus of geese, the +males cannot be distinguished from the females, except +by size; whilst in two others, the sexes are so unlike +that they might easily be mistaken for distinct species.<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">225</a></p> + +<p>The laws of inheritance can alone account for the +following cases, in which the female by acquiring at +a late period of life certain characters proper to the +male, ultimately comes to resemble him in a more or +less complete manner. Here protection can hardly +have come into play. Mr. Blyth informs me that +the females of <i>Oriolus melanocephalus</i> and of some +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>allied species, when sufficiently mature to breed, differ +considerably in plumage from the adult males; but +after the second or third moults they differ only in +their beaks having a slight greenish tinge. In the +dwarf bitterns (Ardetta), according to the same authority, +“the male acquires his final livery at the +first moult, the female not before the third or fourth +moult; in the meanwhile she presents an intermediate +garb, which is ultimately exchanged for the +same livery as that of the male.” So again the +female <i>Falco peregrinus</i> acquires her blue plumage +more slowly than the male. Mr. Swinhoe states that +with one of the Drongo shrikes (<i>Dicrurus macrocercus</i>) +the male whilst almost a nestling, moults his soft +brown plumage and becomes of a uniform glossy +greenish-black; but the female retains for a long time +the white striæ and spots on the axillary feathers; +and does not completely assume the uniform black +colour of the male for the first three years. The same +excellent observer remarks that in the spring of the +second year the female spoonbill (Platalea) of China resembles +the male of the first year, and that apparently +it is not until the third spring that she acquires the +same adult plumage as that possessed by the male at a +much earlier age. The female <i>Bombycilla carolinensis</i> +differs very little from the male, but the appendages, +which like beads of red sealing-wax ornament the wing-feathers, +are not developed in her so early in life as in +the male. The upper mandible in the male of an Indian +parrakeet (<i>Palæornis Javanicus</i>) is coral-red from his +earliest youth, but in the female, as Mr. Blyth has +observed with caged and wild birds, it is at first black +and does not become red until the bird is at least a year +old, at which age the sexes resemble each other in all +respects. Both sexes of the wild turkey are ultimately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span> +furnished with a tuft of bristles on the breast, but in +two-year-old birds the tuft is about four inches long in +the male and hardly apparent in the female; when, +however, the latter has reached her fourth year, it is +from four to five inches in length.<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">226</a></p> + +<p>In these cases, the females follow a normal course of +development in ultimately becoming like the males; and +such cases must not be confounded with those in which +diseased or old females assume masculine characters, +or with those in which perfectly fertile females, whilst +young, acquire through variation or some unknown cause +the characters of the male.<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> But all these cases have +so much in common that they depend, according to the +hypothesis of pangenesis, on gemmules derived from each +part of the male being present, though latent, in the female; +their development following on some slight change +in the elective affinities of her constituent tissues.</p> + +<p class="tb">A few words must be added on changes of plumage +in relation to the season of the year. From reasons +formerly assigned there can be little doubt that the +elegant plumes, long pendant feathers, crests, &c., of +egrets, herons, and many other birds, which are developed +and retained only during the summer, serve +exclusively for ornamental or nuptial purposes, though +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span>common to both sexes. The female is thus rendered +more conspicuous during the period of incubation than +during the winter; but such birds as herons and egrets +would be able to defend themselves. As, however, +plumes would probably be inconvenient and certainly +of no use during the winter, it is possible that the +habit of moulting twice in the year may have been +gradually acquired through natural selection for the +sake of casting off inconvenient ornaments during the +winter. But this view cannot be extended to the many +waders, in which the summer and winter plumages +differ very little in colour. With defenceless species, +in which either both sexes or the males alone become +extremely conspicuous during the breeding-season,—or +when the males acquire at this season such long +wing or tail-feathers as to impede their flight, as with +Cosmetornis and <i>Vidua</i>,—it certainly at first appears +highly probable that the second moult has been gained +for the special purpose of throwing off these ornaments. +We must, however, remember that many birds, such as +Birds of Paradise, the Argus pheasant and peacock, do +not cast their plumes during the winter; and it can +hardly be maintained that there is something in the +constitution of these birds, at least of the Gallinaceæ, +rendering a double moult impossible, for the ptarmigan +moults thrice in the year.<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> Hence it must be considered +as doubtful whether the many species which +moult their ornamental plumes or lose their bright +colours during the winter, have acquired this habit on +account of the inconvenience or danger which they would +otherwise have suffered.</p> + +<p>I conclude, therefore, that the habit of moulting +twice in the year was in most or all cases first acquired +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span>for some distinct purpose, perhaps for gaining a warmer +winter covering; and that variations in the plumage +occurring during the summer were accumulated through +sexual selection, and transmitted to the offspring at the +same season of the year. Such variations being inherited +either by both sexes or by the males alone, according +to the form of inheritance which prevailed. This +appears more probable than that these species in all +cases originally tended to retain their ornamental +plumage during the winter, but were saved from this +through natural selection, owing to the inconvenience +or danger thus caused.</p> + +<p class="tb">I have endeavoured in this chapter to shew that the +arguments are not trustworthy in favour of the view +that weapons, bright colours, and various ornaments, +are now confined to the males owing to the conversion, +by means of natural selection, of a tendency to the equal +transmission of characters to both sexes into transmission +to the male sex alone. It is also doubtful whether +the colours of many female birds are due to the preservation, +for the sake of protection, of variations which +were from the first limited in their transmission to the +female sex. But it will be convenient to defer any +further discussion on this subject until I treat, in the +following chapter, on the differences in plumage between +the young and old.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI.</h3> + +<h4>Birds—<i>concluded</i>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The immature plumage in relation to the character of the plumage +in both sexes when adult—Six classes of cases—Sexual differences +between the males of closely-allied or representative species—The +female assuming the characters of the male—Plumage of +the young in relation to the summer and winter plumage of the +adults—On the increase of beauty in the Birds of the World—Protective +colouring—Conspicuously-coloured birds—Novelty +appreciated—Summary of the four chapters on Birds.</p></div> + +<p>We must now consider the transmission of characters +as limited by age in reference to sexual selection. +The truth and importance of the principle of inheritance +at corresponding ages need not here be discussed, +as enough has already been said on the subject. Before +giving the several rather complex rules or classes of +cases, under which all the differences in plumage +between the young and the old, as far as known to +me, may be included, it will be well to make a few +preliminary remarks.</p> + +<p>With animals of all kinds when the young differ in +colour from the adults, and the colours of the former are +not, as far as we can see, of any special service, they +may generally be attributed, like various embryological +structures, to the retention by the young of the character +of an early progenitor. But this view can be maintained +with confidence, only when the young of several species +closely resemble each other, and likewise resemble +other adult species belonging to the same group; for +the latter are the living proofs that such a state of +things was formerly possible. Young lions and pumas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> +are marked with feeble stripes or rows of spots, and as +many allied species both young and old are similarly +marked, no naturalist, who believes in the gradual +evolution of species, will doubt that the progenitor of +the lion and puma was a striped animal, the young +having retained vestiges of the stripes, like the kittens +of black cats, which when grown up are not in the least +striped. Many species of deer, which when mature are +not spotted, are whilst young covered with white spots, +as are likewise some few species in their adult state. +So again the young in the whole family of pigs (Suidæ), +and in certain rather distantly-allied animals, such as +the tapir, are marked with dark longitudinal stripes; +but here we have a character apparently derived from +an extinct progenitor, and now preserved by the young +alone. In all such cases the old have had their colours +changed in the course of time, whilst the young have +remained but little altered, and this has been effected +through the principle of inheritance at corresponding +ages.</p> + +<p>This same principle applies to many birds belonging +to various groups, in which the young closely resemble +each other, and differ much from their respective adult +parents. The young of almost all the Gallinaceæ, and +of some distantly-allied birds such as ostriches, are +whilst covered with down longitudinally striped; but +this character points back to a state of things so remote +that it hardly concerns us. Young crossbills +(Loxia) have at first straight beaks like those of other +finches, and in their immature striated plumage they +resemble the mature redpole and female siskin, as well +as the young of the goldfinch, greenfinch, and some +other allied species. The young of many kinds of +buntings (Emberiza) resemble each other, and likewise +the adult state of the common bunting, <i>E. miliaria</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span> +In almost the whole large group of thrushes +the young have their breasts spotted—a character +which is retained by many species throughout life, +but is quite lost by others, as by the <i>Turdus migratorius</i>. +So again with many thrushes, the feathers on +the back are mottled before they are moulted for the +first time, and this character is retained for life by +certain eastern species. The young of many species of +shrikes (Lanius), of some woodpeckers, and of an Indian +pigeon (<i>Chalcophaps indicus</i>), are transversely striped +on the under surface; and certain allied species or +genera when adult are similarly marked. In some +closely-allied and resplendent Indian cuckoos (Chrysococcyx), +the species when mature differ considerably +from each other in colour, but the young cannot be distinguished. +The young of an Indian goose (<i>Sarkidiornis +melanonotus</i>) closely resemble in plumage an allied +genus, Dendrocygna, when mature.<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> Similar facts will +hereafter be given in regard to certain herons. Young +black grouse (<i>Tetrao tetrix</i>) resemble the young as well +as the old of certain other species, for instance the red +grouse or <i>T. scoticus</i>. Finally, as Mr. Blyth, who has +attended closely to this subject, has well remarked, the +natural affinities of many species are best exhibited in +their immature plumage; and as the true affinities of +all organic beings depend on their descent from a +common progenitor, this remark strongly confirms the +belief that the immature plumage approximately shews +us the former or ancestral condition of the species.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span></p> +<p>Although many young birds belonging to various +orders thus give us a glimpse of the plumage of their +remote progenitors, yet there are many other birds, both +dull-coloured and bright-coloured, in which the young +closely resemble their parents. With such species the +young of the different species cannot resemble each other +more closely than do the parents; nor can they present +striking resemblances to allied forms in their adult +state. They give us but little insight into the plumage +of their progenitors, excepting in so far that when the +young and the old are coloured in the same general +manner throughout a whole group of species, it is probable +that their progenitors were similarly coloured.</p> + +<p>We may now consider the classes of cases or rules +under which the differences and resemblances, between +the plumage of the young and the old, of both sexes or +of one sex alone, may be grouped. Rules of this kind +were first enounced by Cuvier; but with the progress +of knowledge they require some modification and amplification. +This I have attempted to do, as far as the +extreme complexity of the subject permits, from information +derived from various sources; but a full essay +on this subject by some competent ornithologist is +much needed. In order to ascertain to what extent +each rule prevails, I have tabulated the facts given in +four great works, namely, by Macgillivray on the birds +of Britain, Audubon on those of North America, Jerdon +on those of India, and Gould on those of Australia. I +may here premise, firstly, that the several cases or rules +graduate into each other; and secondly, that when the +young are said to resemble their parents, it is not +meant that they are identically alike, for their colours +are almost always rather less vivid, and the feathers +are softer and often of a different shape.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span></p> + +<h4>RULES OR CLASSES OF CASES.</h4> + +<p>I. When the adult male is more beautiful or conspicuous +than the adult female, the young of both sexes +in their first plumage closely resemble the adult female, +as with the common fowl and peacock; or, as occasionally +occurs, they resemble her much more closely than +they do the adult male.</p> + +<p>II. When the adult female is more conspicuous than +the adult male, as sometimes though rarely occurs, the +young of both sexes in their first plumage resemble +the adult male.</p> + +<p>III. When the adult male resembles the adult female, +the young of both sexes have a peculiar first plumage +of their own, as with the robin.</p> + +<p>IV. When the adult male resembles the adult female, +the young of both sexes in their first plumage resemble +the adults, as with the kingfisher, many parrots, crows, +hedge-warblers.</p> + +<p>V. When the adults of both sexes have a distinct +winter and summer plumage, whether or not the male +differs from the female, the young resemble the adults +of both sexes in their winter dress, or much more rarely +in their summer dress, or they resemble the females +alone; or the young may have an intermediate character; +or again they may differ greatly from the adults +in both their seasonal plumages.</p> + +<p>VI. In some few cases the young in their first plumage +differ from each other according to sex; the young +males resembling more or less closely the adult males, +and the young females more or less closely the adult +females.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class I.</span>—In this class, the young of both sexes +resemble, more or less closely, the adult female, whilst +the adult male differs, often in the most conspicuous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> +manner, from the adult female. Innumerable instances +in all Orders could be given; it will suffice to call to +mind the common pheasant, duck, and house-sparrow. +The cases under this class graduate into others. Thus +the two sexes when adult may differ so slightly, and the +young so slightly from the adults, that it is doubtful +whether such cases ought to come under the present, or +under the third or fourth classes. So again the young +of both sexes, instead of being quite alike, may differ +in a slight degree from each other, as in our sixth class. +These transitional cases, however, are few in number, +or at least are not strongly pronounced, in comparison +with those which come strictly under the present class.</p> + +<p>The force of the present law is well shewn in those +groups, in which, as a general rule, the two sexes and +the young are all alike; for when the male in these +groups does differ from the female, as with certain parrots, +kingfishers, pigeons, &c., the young of both sexes +resemble the adult female.<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> We see the same fact exhibited +still more clearly in certain anomalous cases; +thus the male of <i>Heliothrix auriculata</i> (one of the humming-birds) +differs conspicuously from the female in +having a splendid gorget and fine ear-tufts, but the +female is remarkable from having a much longer tail +than that of the male; now the young of both sexes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span>resemble (with the exception of the breast being spotted +with bronze) the adult female in all respects including +the length of her tail, so that the tail of the male +actually becomes shorter as he reaches maturity, which +is a most unusual circumstance.<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> Again, the plumage +of the male goosander (<i>Mergus merganser</i>) is more conspicuously +coloured, with the scapular and secondary +wing-feathers much longer than in the female, but differently +from what occurs, as far as I know, in any other +bird, the crest of the adult male, though broader than +that of the female, is considerably shorter, being only a +little above an inch in length; the crest of the female +being two and a half inches long. Now the young of +both sexes resemble in all respects the adult female, +so that their crests are actually of greater length though +narrower than in the adult male.<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">232</a></p> + +<p>When the young and the females closely resemble +each other and both differ from the male, the most obvious +conclusion is that the male alone has been modified. +Even in the anomalous cases of the Heliothrix +and Mergus, it is probable that originally both adult +sexes were furnished, the one species with a much elongated +tail, and the other with a much elongated crest, +these characters having since been partially lost by the +adult males from some unexplained cause, and transmitted +in their diminished state to their male offspring +alone, when arrived at the corresponding age of maturity. +The belief that in the present class the male +alone has been modified, as far as the differences between +the male and the female together with her +young are concerned, is strongly supported by some +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>remarkable facts recorded by Mr. Blyth,<a name="FNanchor_233" id="FNanchor_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> with respect +to closely-allied species which represent each other in +distinct countries. For with several of these representative +species the adult males have undergone a certain +amount of change and can be distinguished; the +females and the young being undistinguishable, and +therefore absolutely unchanged. This is the case with +certain Indian chats (Thamnobia), with certain honey-suckers +(Nectarinia), shrikes (Tephrodornis), certain +kingfishers (Tanysiptera), Kallij pheasants (Gallophasis), +and tree-partridges (Arboricola).</p> + +<p>In some analogous cases, namely with birds having +a distinct summer and winter plumage, but with the +two sexes nearly alike, certain closely-allied species +can easily be distinguished in their summer or nuptial +plumage, yet are undistinguishable in their winter as +well as in their immature plumage. This is the case +with some of the closely-allied Indian wagtails or Motacillæ. +Mr. Swinhoe<a name="FNanchor_234" id="FNanchor_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> informs me that three species of +Ardeola, a genus of herons, which represent each other +on separate continents, are “most strikingly different” +when ornamented with their summer plumes, but are +hardly, if at all, distinguishable during the winter. The +young also of these three species in their immature +plumage closely resemble the adults in their winter +dress. This case is all the more interesting because +with two other species of Ardeola both sexes retain, +during the winter and summer, nearly the same plum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>age +as that possessed by the three first species during +the winter and in their immature state; and this plumage, +which is common to several distinct species at +different ages and seasons, probably shews us how the +progenitor of the genus was coloured. In all these +cases, the nuptial plumage which we may assume was +originally acquired by the adult males during the breeding-season, +and transmitted to the adults of both sexes +at the corresponding season, has been modified, whilst +the winter and immature plumages have been left unchanged.</p> + +<p>The question naturally arises, how is it that in these +latter cases the winter plumage of both sexes, and in +the former cases the plumage of the adult females, as +well as the immature plumage of the young, have not +been at all affected? The species which represent each +other in distinct countries will almost always have +been exposed to somewhat different conditions, but we +can hardly attribute the modification of the plumage +in the males alone to this action, seeing that the +females and the young, though similarly exposed, have +not been affected. Hardly any fact in nature shews +us more clearly how subordinate in importance is the +direct action of the conditions of life, in comparison +with the accumulation through selection of indefinite +variations, than the surprising difference between the +sexes of many birds; for both sexes must have consumed +the same food and have been exposed to the +same climate. Nevertheless we are not precluded from +believing that in the course of time new conditions +may produce some direct effect; we see only that this +is subordinate in importance to the accumulated results +of selection. When, however, a species migrates into +a new country, and this must precede the formation of +representative species, the changed conditions to which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> +they will almost always have been exposed will cause +them to undergo, judging from a widely-spread analogy, +a certain amount of fluctuating variability. In this +case sexual selection, which depends on an element +eminently liable to change—namely the taste or admiration +of the female—will have had new shades of colour +or other differences to act on and accumulate; and as +sexual selection is always at work, it would (judging +from what we know of the results on domestic animals +of man’s unintentional selection), be a surprising fact if +animals inhabiting separate districts, which can never +cross and thus blend their newly-acquired characters, +were not, after a sufficient lapse of time, differently +modified. These remarks likewise apply to the nuptial +or summer plumage, whether confined to the males or +common to both sexes.</p> + +<p>Although the females of the above closely-allied +species, together with their young, differ hardly at all +from each other, so that the males alone can be distinguished, +yet in most cases the females of the species +within the same genus obviously differ from each other. +The differences, however, are rarely as great as between +the males. We see this clearly in the whole family of +the Gallinaceæ: the females, for instance, of the common +and Japan pheasant, and especially of the gold and +Amherst pheasant—of the silver pheasant and the wild +fowl—resemble each other very closely in colour, whilst +the males differ to an extraordinary degree. So it is +with the females of most of the Cotingidæ, Fringillidæ, +and many other families. There can indeed be no doubt +that, as a general rule, the females have been modified +to a less extent than the males. Some few birds, +however, offer a singular and inexplicable exception; +thus the females of <i>Paradisea apoda</i> and <i>P. papuana</i> +differ from each other more than do their respective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> +males;<a name="FNanchor_235" id="FNanchor_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> the female of the latter species having the +under surface pure white, whilst the female <i>P. apoda</i> is +deep brown beneath. So, again, as I hear from Professor +Newton, the males of two species of Oxynotus (shrikes), +which represent each other in the islands of Mauritius +and Bourbon,<a name="FNanchor_236" id="FNanchor_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> differ but little in colour, whilst the +females differ much. In the Bourbon species the female +appears to have partially retained an immature condition +of plumage, for at first sight she “might be taken for +the young of the Mauritian species.” These differences +may be compared with those which occur, independently +of selection by man, and which we cannot explain, in +certain sub-breeds of the game-fowl, in which the females +are very different, whilst the males can hardly be distinguished.<a name="FNanchor_237" id="FNanchor_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">237</a></p> + +<p>As I account so largely by sexual selection for the +differences between the males of allied species, how can +the differences between the females be accounted for +in all ordinary cases? We need not here consider the +species which belong to distinct genera; for with these, +adaptation to different habits of life, and other agencies, +will have come into play. In regard to the differences +between the females within the same genus, it appears to +me almost certain, after looking through various large +groups, that the chief agent has been the transference, +in a greater or less degree, to the female of the characters +acquired by the males through sexual selection. +In the several British finches, the two sexes differ either +very slightly or considerably; and if we compare the +females of the greenfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, bullfinch, +crossbill, sparrow, &c., we shall see that they +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>differ from each other chiefly in the points in which +they partially resemble their respective males; and the +colours of the males may safely be attributed to sexual +selection. With many gallinaceous species the sexes +differ to an extreme degree, as with the peacock, pheasant, +and fowl, whilst with other species there has been a +partial or even complete transference of character from +the male to the female. The females of the several +species of <i>Polyplectron</i> exhibit in a dim condition, and +chiefly on the tail, the splendid ocelli of their males. +The female partridge differs from the male only in the +red mark on her breast being smaller; and the female +wild turkey only in her colours being much duller. In +the guinea-fowl the two sexes are undistinguishable. +There is no improbability in the plain, though peculiar +spotted plumage of this latter bird having been +acquired through sexual selection by the males, and +then transmitted to both sexes; for it is not essentially +different from the much more beautifully-spotted +plumage, characteristic of the males alone of the Tragopan +pheasants.</p> + +<p>It should be observed that, in some instances, the +transference of characters from the male to the female +has been effected apparently at a remote period, the +male having subsequently undergone great changes, +without transferring to the female any of his later-gained +characters. For instance, the female and the +young of the black-grouse (<i>Tetrao tetrix</i>) resemble +pretty closely both sexes and the young of the red-grouse +<i>T. Scoticus</i>; and we may consequently infer +that the black-grouse is descended from some ancient +species, of which both sexes were coloured in nearly +the same manner as the red-grouse. As both sexes of +this latter species are more plainly barred during the +breeding-season than at any other time, and as the male<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> +differs slightly from the female in his more strongly-pronounced +red and brown tints,<a name="FNanchor_238" id="FNanchor_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> we may conclude +that his plumage has been, at least to a certain extent, +influenced by sexual selection. If so, we may further +infer that the nearly similar plumage of the female +black-grouse was similarly produced at some former +period. But since this period the male black-grouse +has acquired his fine black plumage, with his forked and +outwardly-curled tail-feathers; but of these characters +there has hardly been any transference to the female, +excepting that she shews in her tail a trace of the curved +fork.</p> + +<p>We may therefore conclude that the females of distinct +though allied species have often had their plumage +rendered more or less different by the transference in +various degrees, of characters acquired, both during +former and recent times, by the males through sexual +selection. But it deserves especial attention that +brilliant colours have been transferred much more +rarely than other tints. For instance, the male of +the red-throated bluebreast (<i>Cyanecula suecica</i>) has +a rich blue breast, including a sub-triangular red +mark; now marks of approximately the same shape +have been transferred to the female, but the central +space is fulvous instead of red, and is surrounded by +mottled instead of blue feathers. The Gallinaceæ offer +many analogous cases; for none of the species, such as +partridges, quails, guinea-fowls, &c., in which the colours +of the plumage have been largely transferred from the +male to the female, are brilliantly coloured. This is +well exemplified with the pheasants, in which the male +is generally so much more brilliant than the female; +but with the Eared and Cheer pheasants (<i>Crossoptilon</i> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span> +<i>auritum</i> and <i>Phasianus Wallichii</i>) the two sexes closely +resemble each other and their colours are dull. We +may go so far as to believe that if any part of the +plumage in the males of these two pheasants had been +brilliantly coloured, this would not have been transferred +to the females. These facts strongly support Mr. +Wallace’s view that with birds which are exposed to +much danger during nidification, the transference of +bright colours from the male to the female has been +checked through natural selection. We must not, +however, forget that another explanation, before given, +is possible; namely, that the males which varied and +became bright, whilst they were young and inexperienced, +would have been exposed to much danger, +and would generally have been destroyed; the older +and more cautious males, on the other hand, if they +varied in a like manner, would not only have been able +to survive, but would have been favoured in their +rivalry with other males. Now variations occurring +late in life tend to be transmitted exclusively to the +same sex, so that in this case extremely bright tints +would not have been transmitted to the females. On +the other hand, ornaments of a less conspicuous kind, +such as those possessed by the Eared and Cheer pheasants, +would not have been dangerous, and if they appeared +during early youth, would generally have been +transmitted to both sexes.</p> + +<p>In addition to the effects of the partial transference +of characters from the males to the females, some of the +differences between the females of closely-allied species +may be attributed to the direct or definite action of +the conditions of life.<a name="FNanchor_239" id="FNanchor_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> With the males any such +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>action would generally have been masked by the +brilliant colours gained through sexual selection; but +not so with the females. Each of the endless diversities +in plumage, which we see in our domesticated +birds is, of course, the result of some definite cause; +and under natural and more uniform conditions, some +one tint, assuming that it was in no way injurious, would +almost certainly sooner or later prevail. The free +intercrossing of the many individuals belonging to the +same species would ultimately tend to make any change +of colour, thus induced, uniform in character.</p> + +<p>No one doubts that both sexes of many birds have +had their colours adapted for the sake of protection; +and it is possible that the females alone of some species +may have been thus modified. Although it would be a +difficult, perhaps an impossible process, as shewn in the +last chapter, to convert through selection one form of +transmission into another, there would not be the least +difficulty in adapting the colours of the female, independently +of those of the male, to surrounding objects, +through the accumulation of variations which were from +the first limited in their transmission to the female sex. +If the variations were not thus limited, the bright tints of +the male would be deteriorated or destroyed. Whether +the females alone of many species have been thus +specially modified, is at present very doubtful. I wish +I could follow Mr. Wallace to the full extent; for the +admission would remove some difficulties. Any variations +which were of no service to the female as a protection +would be at once obliterated, instead of being lost +simply by not being selected, or from free intercrossing, +or from being eliminated when transferred to the male +and in any way injurious to him. Thus the plumage of +the female would be kept constant in character. It +would also be a relief if we could admit that the obscure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +tints of both sexes of many birds had been acquired and +preserved for the sake of protection,—for example, of +the hedge-warbler or kitty-wren (<i>Accentor modularis</i> and +<i>Troglodytes vulgaris</i>), with respect to which we have no +sufficient evidence of the action of sexual selection. +We ought, however, to be cautious in concluding that +colours which appear to us dull, are not attractive to the +females of certain species; we should bear in mind such +cases as that of the common house-sparrow, in which +the male differs much from the female, but does not +exhibit any bright tints. No one probably will dispute +that many gallinaceous birds which live on the open +ground have acquired their present colours, at least in +part, for the sake of protection. We know how well they +are thus concealed; we know that ptarmigans, whilst +changing from their winter to their summer plumage, +both of which are protective, suffer greatly from birds +of prey. But can we believe that the very slight differences +in tints and markings between, for instance, +the female black and red-grouse serve as a protection? +Are partridges, as they are now coloured, better protected +than if they had resembled quails? Do the +slight differences between the females of the common +pheasant, the Japan and golden pheasants, serve as a +protection, or might not their plumages have been +interchanged with impunity? From what Mr. Wallace +has observed of the habits of certain gallinaceous +birds in the East he thinks that such slight differences +are beneficial. For myself, I will only say that I am +not convinced.</p> + +<p>Formerly when I was inclined to lay much stress on +the principle of protection, as accounting for the less +bright colours of female birds, it occurred to me that +possibly both sexes and the young might aboriginally +have been brightly coloured in an equal degree; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> +that subsequently, the females from the danger incurred +during incubation, and the young from being +inexperienced, had been rendered dull as a protection. +But this view is not supported by any evidence, and is +not probable; for we thus in imagination expose during +past times the females and the young to danger, from +which it has subsequently been necessary to shield their +modified descendants. We have, also, to reduce, through +a gradual process of selection, the females and the young +to almost exactly the same tints and markings, and to +transmit them to the corresponding sex and period of +life. It is also a somewhat strange fact, on the supposition +that the females and the young have partaken +during each stage of the process of modification of a +tendency to be as brightly coloured as the males, that the +females have never been rendered dull-coloured without +the young participating in the same change; for there +are no instances, as far as I can discover, of species with the +females dull-coloured and the young bright-coloured. A +partial exception, however, is offered by the young of certain +woodpeckers, for they have “the whole upper part +of the head tinged with red,” which afterwards either +decreases into a mere circular red line in the adults of +both sexes, or quite disappears in the adult females.<a name="FNanchor_240" id="FNanchor_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">240</a></p> + +<p>Finally, with respect to our present class of cases, +the most probable view appears to be that successive +variations in brightness or in other ornamental characters, +occurring in the males at a rather late period of +life have alone been preserved; and that most or all +of these variations owing to the late period of life at +which they appeared, have been from the first transmitted +only to the adult male offspring. Any varia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>tions +in brightness which occurred in the females or in +the young would have been of no service to them, and +would not have been selected; moreover, if dangerous, +would have been eliminated. Thus the females and the +young will either have been left unmodified, or, and +this has much more commonly occurred, will have been +partially modified by receiving through transference from +the males some of the successive variations. Both sexes +have perhaps been directly acted on by the conditions +of life to which they have long been exposed; but the +females from not being otherwise much modified will +best exhibit any such effects. These changes and all +others will have been kept uniform by the free intercrossing +of many individuals. In some cases, especially +with ground birds, the females and the young may possibly +have been modified, independently of the males, +for the sake of protection, so as to have acquired the +same dull-coloured plumage.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class II.</span> <i>When the adult female is more conspicuous +than the adult male, the young of both sexes in their first +plumage resemble the adult male.</i>—This class is exactly +the reverse of the last, for the females are here more +brightly coloured or more conspicuous than the males; +and the young, as far as they are known, resemble +the adult males instead of the adult females. But the +difference between the sexes is never nearly so great +as occurs with many birds in the first class, and the +cases are comparatively rare. Mr. Wallace who first +called attention to the singular relation which exists +between the less bright colours of the males and their +performing the duties of incubation, lays great stress on +this point,<a name="FNanchor_241" id="FNanchor_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">241</a> as a crucial test that obscure colours have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>been acquired for the sake of protection during the +period of nesting. A different view seems to me more +probable. As the cases are curious and not numerous, +I will briefly give all that I have been able to find.</p> + +<p>In one section of the genus Turnix, quail-like birds, +the female is invariably larger than the male (being +nearly twice as large in one of the Australian species) +and this is an unusual circumstance with the Gallinaceæ. +In most of the species the female is more distinctly +coloured and brighter than the male,<a name="FNanchor_242" id="FNanchor_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> but in some +few species the sexes are alike. In <i>Turnix taigoor</i> of +India the male “wants the black on the throat and neck, +and the whole tone of the plumage is lighter and less +pronounced than that of the female.” The female +appears to be more vociferous, and is certainly much +more pugnacious than the male; so that the females +and not the males are often kept by the natives for +fighting, like game-cocks. As male birds are exposed +by the English bird-catchers for a decoy near a trap, +in order to catch other males by exciting their rivalry, +so the females of this Turnix are employed in India. +When thus exposed the females soon begin their “loud +purring call, which can be heard a long way off, +and any females within ear-shot run rapidly to the +spot, and commence fighting with the caged bird.” +In this way from twelve to twenty birds, all breeding-females, +may be caught in the course of a single +day. The natives assert that the females after laying +their eggs associate in flocks, and leave the males to +sit on them. There is no reason to doubt the truth +of this assertion, which is supported by some observa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>tions +made in China by Mr. Swinhoe.<a name="FNanchor_243" id="FNanchor_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> Mr. Blyth +believes, that the young of both sexes resemble the +adult male.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f60" id="f60"></a><img src="images/fig60.png" width="550" height="525" alt="Fig. 60. Rhynchæa capensis (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 60. Rhynchæa capensis (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p>The females of the three species of Painted Snipes +(Rhynchæa) “are not only larger, but much more richly +coloured than the males.”<a name="FNanchor_244" id="FNanchor_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> With all other birds, in +which the trachea differs in structure in the two sexes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>it is more developed and complex in the male than in +the female; but in the <i>Rhynchæa Australis</i> it is simple +in the male, whilst in the female it makes four distinct +convolutions before entering the lungs.<a name="FNanchor_245" id="FNanchor_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> The female +therefore of this species has acquired an eminently +masculine character. Mr. Blyth ascertained, by examining +many specimens, that the trachea is not convoluted +in either sex of <i>R. Bengalensis</i>, which species +so closely resembles <i>R. Australis</i> that it can hardly be +distinguished except by its shorter toes. This fact is +another striking instance of the law that secondary +sexual characters are often widely different in closely-allied +forms; though it is a very rare circumstance +when such differences relate to the female sex. The +young of both sexes of <i>R. Bengalensis</i> in their first +plumage are said to resemble the mature male.<a name="FNanchor_246" id="FNanchor_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> +There is also reason to believe that the male undertakes +the duty of incubation, for Mr. Swinhoe<a name="FNanchor_247" id="FNanchor_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> found the +females before the close of the summer associated in +flocks, as occurs with the females of the Turnix.</p> + +<p>The females of <i>Phalaropus fulicarius</i> and <i>P. hyperboreus</i> +are larger, and in their summer plumage “more gaily +attired than the males.” But the difference in colour +between the sexes is far from conspicuous. The male +alone of <i>P. fulicarius</i> undertakes, according to Professor +Steenstrup, the duty of incubation, as is likewise shewn +by the state of his breast-feathers during the breeding-season. +The female of the dotterel plover (<i>Eudromias +morinellus</i>) is larger than the male, and has the red +and black tints on the lower surface, the white crescent +on the breast, and the stripes over the eyes, more +strongly pronounced. The male also takes at least a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>share in hatching the eggs; but the female likewise +attends to the young.<a name="FNanchor_248" id="FNanchor_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> I have not been able to discover +whether with these species the young resemble the +adult males more closely than the adult females; for +the comparison is somewhat difficult to make on account +of the double moult.</p> + +<p>Turning now to the Ostrich order: the male of the common +cassowary (<i>Casuarius galeatus</i>) would be thought +by any one to be the female, from his smaller size and +from the appendages and naked skin about his head +being much less brightly coloured; and I am informed +by Mr. Bartlett that in the Zoological Gardens it is +certainly the male alone who sits on the eggs and takes +care of the young.<a name="FNanchor_249" id="FNanchor_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">249</a> The female is said by Mr. T. W. +Wood<a name="FNanchor_250" id="FNanchor_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> to exhibit during the breeding-season a most +pugnacious disposition; and her wattles then become +enlarged and more brilliantly coloured. So again the +female of one of the emus (<i>Dromœus irroratus</i>) is considerably +larger than the male, and she possesses a +slight top-knot, but is otherwise undistinguishable in +plumage. She appears, however, “to have greater +power, when angry or otherwise excited, of erecting, +like a turkey-cock, the feathers of her neck and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>breast. She is usually the more courageous and +pugilistic. She makes a deep hollow guttural boom, +especially at night, sounding like a small gong. The +male has a slenderer frame and is more docile, with +no voice beyond a suppressed hiss when angry, or a +croak.” He not only performs the whole duty of +incubation, but has to defend the young from their +mother; “for as soon as she catches sight of her progeny +she becomes violently agitated, and notwithstanding +the resistance of the father appears to use +her utmost endeavours to destroy them. For months +afterwards it is unsafe to put the parents together, +violent quarrels being the inevitable result, in which +the female generally comes off conqueror.”<a name="FNanchor_251" id="FNanchor_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> So +that with this emu we have a complete reversal not +only of the parental and incubating instincts, but of +the usual moral qualities of the two sexes; the females +being savage, quarrelsome and noisy, the males gentle +and good. The case is very different with the African +ostrich, for the male is somewhat larger than the female +and has finer plumes with more strongly contrasted +colours; nevertheless he undertakes the whole +duty of incubation.<a name="FNanchor_252" id="FNanchor_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">252</a></p> + +<p>I will specify the few other cases known to me, in +which the female is more conspicuously coloured than +the male, although nothing is known about their manner +of incubation. With the carrion-hawk of the Falkland +Islands (<i>Milvago leucurus</i>) I was much surprised +to find by dissection that the individuals, which had +all their tints strongly pronounced, with the cere and +legs orange-coloured, were the adult females; whilst +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span>those with duller plumage and grey legs were the males +or the young. In an Australian tree-creeper (<i>Climacteris +erythrops</i>) the female differs from the male in +“being adorned with beautiful, radiated, rufous markings +on the throat, the male having this part quite +plain.” Lastly in an Australian nightjar “the female +always exceeds the male in size and in the brilliance +of her tints; the males, on the other hand, have two +white spots on the primaries more conspicuous than +in the female.”<a name="FNanchor_253" id="FNanchor_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">253</a></p> + +<p>We thus see that the cases in which female birds are +more conspicuously coloured than the males, with the +young in their immature plumage resembling the adult +males instead of the adult females, as in the previous +class, are not numerous, though they are distributed in +various Orders. The amount of difference, also, between +the sexes is incomparably less than that which frequently +occurs in the last class; so that the cause of the difference, +whatever it may have been, has acted on the females +in the present class either less energetically or less +persistently than on the males in the last class. Mr. +Wallace believes that the males have had their colours +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>rendered less conspicuous for the sake of protection +during the period of incubation; but the difference +between the sexes in hardly any of the foregoing cases +appears sufficiently great for this view to be safely accepted. +In some of the cases the brighter tints of the +female are almost confined to the lower surface, and the +males, if thus coloured, would not have been exposed to +danger whilst sitting on the eggs. It should also be +borne in mind that the males are not only in a slight +degree less conspicuously coloured than the females, but +are of less size, and have less strength. They have, moreover, +not only acquired the maternal instinct of incubation, +but are less pugnacious and vociferous than the +females, and in one instance have simpler vocal organs. +Thus an almost complete transposition of the instincts, +habits, disposition, colour, size, and of some points of +structure, has been effected between the two sexes.</p> + +<p>Now if we might assume that the males in the present +class have lost some of that ardour which is usual to +their sex, so that they no longer search eagerly for the +females; or, if we might assume that the females have +become much more numerous than the males—and in +the case of one Indian Turnix the females are said to be +“much more commonly met with than the males”<a name="FNanchor_254" id="FNanchor_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">254</a>—then +it is not improbable that the females would have +been led to court the males, instead of being courted by +them. This indeed is the case to a certain extent, with +some birds, as we have seen with the peahen, wild turkey, +and certain kinds of grouse. Taking as our guide the +habits of most male birds, the greater size and strength +and the extraordinary pugnacity of the females of the +Turnix and Emu, must mean that they endeavour to +drive away rival females, in order to gain possession of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>the male; and on this view, all the facts become clear; +for the males would probably be most charmed or excited +by the females which were the most attractive to +them by their brighter colours, other ornaments, or +vocal powers. Sexual selection would then soon do its +work, steadily adding to the attractions of the females; +the males and the young being left not at all, or but +little modified.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class III</span>. <i>When the adult male resembles the adult +female, the young of both sexes have a peculiar first plumage +of their own.</i>—In this class both sexes when adult +resemble each other, and differ from the young. This +occurs with many birds of many kinds. The male robin +can hardly be distinguished from the female, but the +young are widely different with their mottled dusky-olive +and brown plumage. The male and female of the +splendid scarlet Ibis are alike, whilst the young are +brown; and the scarlet-colour, though common to both +sexes, is apparently a sexual character, for it is not well +developed with birds under confinement, in the same +manner as often occurs in the case of brilliantly coloured +male birds. With many species of herons the +young differ greatly from the adults, and their summer +plumage, though common to both sexes, clearly has +a nuptial character. Young swans are slate-coloured, +whilst the mature birds are pure white; but it would be +superfluous to give additional instances. These differences +between the young and the old apparently depend, +as in the two last classes, on the young having +retained a former or ancient state of plumage, which has +been exchanged for a new plumage by the old of both +sexes. When the adults are brightly coloured, we may +conclude from the remarks just made in relation to the +scarlet ibis and to many herons, and from the analogy of +the species in the first class, that such colours have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> +acquired through sexual selection by the nearly mature +males; but that, differently from what occurs in the +two first classes, the transmission, though limited to the +same age, has not been limited to the same sex. Consequently +both sexes when mature resemble each other +and differ from the young.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class IV</span>. <i>When the adult male resembles the adult +female, the young of both sexes in their first plumage +resemble the adults.</i>—In this class the young and the +adults of both sexes, whether brilliantly or obscurely +coloured, resemble each other. Such cases are, I think, +more common than those in the last class. We have +in England instances in the kingfisher, some woodpeckers, +the jay, magpie, crow, and many small dull-coloured +birds, such as the hedge-warbler or kitty-wren. +But the similarity in plumage between the young and +the old is never absolutely complete, and graduates away +into dissimilarity. Thus the young of some members of +the kingfisher family are not only less vividly coloured +than the adults, but many of the feathers on the lower +surface are edged with brown,<a name="FNanchor_255" id="FNanchor_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">255</a>—a vestige probably of +a former state of the plumage. Frequently in the same +group of birds, even within the same genus, for instance +in an Australian genus of parrakeets (Platycercus), the +young of some species closely resemble, whilst the +young of other species differ considerably from their +parents of both sexes, which are alike.<a name="FNanchor_256" id="FNanchor_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> Both sexes +and the young of the common jay are closely similar; +but in the Canada jay (<i>Perisoreus canadensis</i>) the young +differ so much from their parents that they were formerly +described as distinct species.<a name="FNanchor_257" id="FNanchor_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">257</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span></p><p>Before proceeding, I may remark that under the +present and two next classes of cases the facts are so +complex, and the conclusions so doubtful, that any one +who feels no especial interest in the subject had better +pass them over.</p> + +<p>The brilliant or conspicuous colours which characterise +many birds in the present class, can rarely +or never be of service to them as a protection; +so that they have probably been gained by the males +through sexual selection, and then transferred to the +females and the young. It is, however, possible that +the males may have selected the more attractive females; +and if these transmitted their characters to +their offspring of both sexes, the same results would +follow as from the selection of the more attractive +males by the females. But there is some evidence that +this contingency has rarely, if ever, occurred in any of +those groups of birds, in which the sexes are generally +alike; for if even a few of the successive variations had +failed to be transmitted to both sexes, the females +would have exceeded to a slight degree the males +in beauty. Exactly the reverse occurs under nature; +for in almost every large group, in which the sexes +generally resemble each other, the males of some few +species are in a slight degree more brightly coloured +than the females. It is again possible that the females +may have selected the more beautiful males, these males +having reciprocally selected the more beautiful females; +but it is doubtful whether this double process of selection +would be likely to occur, owing to the greater +eagerness of one sex than the other, and whether it +would be more efficient than selection on one side +alone. It is, therefore, the most probable view that +sexual selection has acted, in the present class, as far +as ornamental characters are concerned, in accordance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span> +with the general rule throughout the animal kingdom, +that is, on the males; and that these have +transmitted their gradually-acquired colours, either +equally or almost equally, to their offspring of both +sexes.</p> + +<p>Another point is more doubtful, namely, whether the +successive variations first appeared in the males after +they had become nearly mature, or whilst quite young. +In either case sexual selection must have acted on +the male when he had to compete with rivals for +the possession of the female; and in both cases the +characters thus acquired have been transmitted to both +sexes and all ages. But these characters, if acquired +by the males when adult, may have been transmitted +at first to the adults alone, and at some subsequent +period transferred to the young. For it is known that +when the law of inheritance at corresponding ages +fails, the offspring often inherit characters at an +earlier age than that at which they first appeared +in their parents.<a name="FNanchor_258" id="FNanchor_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> Cases apparently of this kind have +been observed with birds in a state of nature. For +instance Mr. Blyth has seen specimens of <i>Lanius +rufus</i> and of <i>Colymbus glacialis</i> which had assumed +whilst young, in a quite anomalous manner, the adult +plumage of their parents.<a name="FNanchor_259" id="FNanchor_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> Again, the young of the +common swan (<i>Cygnus olor</i>) do not cast off their dark +feathers and become white until eighteen months or +two years old; but Dr. F. Forel has described the case +of three vigorous young birds, out of a brood of four, +which were born pure white. These young birds were +not albinoes, as shewn by the colour of their beaks +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>and legs, which nearly resembled the same parts in +the adults.<a name="FNanchor_260" id="FNanchor_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">260</a></p> + +<p>It may be worth while to illustrate the above three +modes by which, in the present class, the two sexes +and the young may have come to resemble each other, +by the curious case of the genus Passer.<a name="FNanchor_261" id="FNanchor_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> In the +house-sparrow (<i>P. domesticus</i>) the male differs much +from the female and from the young. These resemble +each other, and likewise to a large extent both sexes +and the young of the sparrow of Palestine (<i>P. brachydactylus</i>), +as well as of some allied species. We may +therefore assume that the female and young of the +house-sparrow approximately shew us the plumage of +the progenitor of the genus. Now with the tree-sparrow +(<i>P. montanus</i>) both sexes and the young closely resemble +the male of the house-sparrow; so that they have all +been modified in the same manner, and all depart from +the typical colouring of their early progenitor. This +may have been effected by a male ancestor of the tree-sparrow +having varied, firstly, when nearly mature, or, +secondly, whilst quite young, having in either case transmitted +his modified plumage to the females and the +young; or, thirdly, he may have varied when adult and +transmitted his plumage to both adult sexes, and, owing +to the failure of the law of inheritance at corresponding +ages, at some subsequent period to his young.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to decide which of these three modes +has generally prevailed throughout the present class of +cases. The belief that the males varied whilst young, +and transmitted their variations to their offspring of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>both sexes is perhaps the most probable. I may here +add that I have endeavoured, with little success, by +consulting various works, to decide how far with birds +the period of variation has generally determined the +transmission of characters to one sex or to both. The +two rules, often referred to (namely, that variations +occurring late in life are transmitted to one and the +same sex, whilst those which occur early in life are +transmitted to both sexes), apparently hold good in +the first,<a name="FNanchor_262" id="FNanchor_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">262</a> second, and fourth classes of cases; but +they fail in an equal number, namely, in the third, +often in the fifth,<a name="FNanchor_263" id="FNanchor_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> and in the sixth small class. +They hold good, however, as far as I can judge, with a +considerable majority of the species of birds. Whether +or not this be so, we may conclude from the facts +given in the eighth chapter that the period of variation +has been one important element in determining the +form of transmission.</p> + +<p>With birds it is difficult to decide by what standard +we ought to judge of the earliness or lateness of the +period of variation, whether by the age in reference to +the duration of life, or to the power of reproduction, +or to the number of moults through which the species +passes. The moulting of birds, even within the same +family, sometimes differs much without any assignable +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span>cause. Some birds moult so early, that nearly all +the body-feathers are cast off before the first wing-feathers +are fully grown; and we cannot believe that +this was the primordial state of things. When the period +of moulting has been accelerated, the age at which +the colours of the adult plumage were first developed +would falsely appear to us to have been earlier than +it really was. This may be illustrated by the practice +followed by some bird-fanciers, who pull out a few +feathers from the breast of nestling bullfinches, and +from the head or neck of young gold pheasants, in +order to ascertain their sex; for in the males these +feathers are immediately replaced by coloured ones.<a name="FNanchor_264" id="FNanchor_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> +The actual duration of life is known in but few birds, so +that we can hardly judge by this standard. And with +reference to the period at which the powers of reproduction +are gained, it is a remarkable fact that various +birds occasionally breed whilst retaining their immature +plumage.<a name="FNanchor_265" id="FNanchor_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">265</a></p> + +<p>The fact of birds breeding in their immature plumage +seems opposed to the belief that sexual selection has +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>played as important a part, as I believe it has, in +giving ornamental colours, plumes, &c., to the males, +and, by means of equal transmission, to the females of +many species. The objection would be a valid one, if +the younger and less ornamented males were as successful +in winning females and propagating their kind, +as the older and more beautiful males. But we have +no reason to suppose that this is the case. Audubon +speaks of the breeding of the immature males of <i>Ibis +tantalus</i> as a rare event, as does Mr. Swinhoe, in regard +to the immature males of Oriolus.<a name="FNanchor_266" id="FNanchor_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> If the young +of any species in their immature plumage were more +successful in winning partners than the adults, the +adult plumage would probably soon be lost, as the +males which retained their immature dress for the +longest period would prevail, and thus the character of +the species would ultimately be modified.<a name="FNanchor_267" id="FNanchor_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">267</a> If, on the +other hand, the young never succeeded in obtaining a +female, the habit of early reproduction would perhaps +be sooner or later quite eliminated, from being superfluous +and entailing waste of power.</p> + +<p>The plumage of certain birds goes on increasing in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>beauty during many years after they are fully mature; +this is the case with the train of the peacock, and with +the crest and plumes of certain herons; for instance, the +<i>Ardea Ludovicana</i>;<a name="FNanchor_268" id="FNanchor_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> but it is very doubtful whether +the continued development of such feathers is the +result of the selection of successive beneficial variations, +or merely of continuous growth. Most fishes continue +increasing in size, as long as they are in good health +and have plenty of food; and a somewhat similar law +may prevail with the plumes of birds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class V</span>. <i>When the adults of both sexes have a distinct +winter and summer plumage, whether or not the male +differs from the female, the young resemble the adults of +both sexes in their winter dress, or much more rarely in +their summer dress, or they resemble the females alone; +or the young may have an intermediate character; or +again, they may differ greatly from the adults in both +their seasonal plumages.</i>—The cases in this class are +singularly complex; nor is this surprising, as they +depend on inheritance, limited in a greater or less +degree in three different ways, namely by sex, age, +and the season of the year. In some cases the individuals +of the same species pass through at least five +distinct states of plumage. With the species, in which +the male differs from the female during the summer +season alone, or, which is rarer, during both seasons,<a name="FNanchor_269" id="FNanchor_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> +the young generally resemble the females,—as with +the so-called goldfinch of North America, and apparently +with the splendid Maluri of Australia.<a name="FNanchor_270" id="FNanchor_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> With +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>the species, the sexes of which are alike during both +the summer and winter, the young may resemble +the adults, firstly, in their winter dress; secondly, +which occurs much more rarely, in their summer +dress; thirdly, they may be intermediate between +these two states; and, fourthly, they may differ greatly +from the adults at all seasons. We have an instance +of the first of these four cases in one of the egrets +of India (<i>Buphus coromandus</i>), in which the young and +the adults of both sexes are white during the winter, +the adults becoming golden-buff during the summer. +With the Gaper (<i>Anastomus oscitans</i>) of India we +have a similar case, but the colours are reversed; +for the young and the adults of both sexes are grey +and black during the winter, the adults becoming white +during the summer.<a name="FNanchor_271" id="FNanchor_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> As an instance of the second +case, the young of the razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>, Linn.), +in an early state of plumage, are coloured like the +adults during the summer; and the young of the +white-crowned sparrow of North America (<i>Fringilla +leucophrys</i>), as soon as fledged, have elegant white +stripes on their heads, which are lost by the young and +the old during the winter.<a name="FNanchor_272" id="FNanchor_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> With respect to the third +case, namely, that of the young having an intermediate +character between the summer and winter adult plumages, +Yarrell<a name="FNanchor_273" id="FNanchor_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> insists that this occurs with many +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>waders. Lastly, in regard to the young differing +greatly from both sexes in their adult summer and +winter plumages, this occurs with some herons and +egrets of North America and India,—the young alone +being white.</p> + +<p>I will make only a few remarks on these complicated +cases. When the young resemble the female in her +summer dress, or the adults of both sexes in their winter +dress, the cases differ from those given under Classes I. +and III. only in the characters originally acquired by +the males during the breeding-season, having been +limited in their transmission to the corresponding season. +When the adults have a distinct summer and winter +plumage, and the young differ from both, the case is +more difficult to understand. We may admit as probable +that the young have retained an ancient state +of plumage; we can account through sexual selection +for the summer or nuptial plumage of the adults, but +how are we to account for their distinct winter plumage? +If we could admit that this plumage serves in all cases +as a protection, its acquirement would be a simple +affair; but there seems no good reason for this admission. +It may be suggested that the widely different +conditions of life during the winter and summer have +acted in a direct manner on the plumage; this may +have had some effect, but I have not much confidence +in so great a difference, as we sometimes see, between +the two plumages having been thus caused. A more +probable explanation is, that an ancient style of plumage, +partially modified through the transference of some +characters from the summer plumage, has been retained +by the adults during the winter. Finally, all the cases +in our present class apparently depend on characters +acquired by the adult males, having been variously +limited in their transmission according to age, season,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> +and sex; but it would not be worth while to attempt to +follow out these complex relations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Class VI</span>. <i>The young in their first plumage differ +from each other according to sex; the young males +resembling more or less closely the adult males, and the +young females more or less closely the adult females.</i>—The +cases in the present class, though occurring in +various groups, are not numerous; yet, if experience +had not taught us to the contrary, it seems the most +natural thing that the young should at first always +resemble to a certain extent, and gradually become +more and more like, the adults of the same sex. The +adult male blackcap (<i>Sylvia atricapilla</i>) has a black +head, that of the female being reddish-brown; and I +am informed by Mr. Blyth, that the young of both sexes +can be distinguished by this character even as nestlings. +In the family of thrushes an unusual number of similar +cases have been noticed; the male blackbird (<i>Turdus +merula</i>) can be distinguished in the nest from the female, +as the main wing-feathers, which are not moulted so +soon as the body-feathers, retain a brownish tint until the +second general moult.<a name="FNanchor_274" id="FNanchor_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">274</a> The two sexes of the mocking +bird (<i>Turdus polyglottus</i>, Linn.) differ very little +from each other, yet the males can easily be distinguished +at a very early age from the females by shewing +more pure white.<a name="FNanchor_275" id="FNanchor_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">275</a> The males of a forest-thrush +and of a rock-thrush (viz. <i>Orocetes erythrogastra</i> and +<i>Petrocincla cyanea</i>) have much of their plumage of a +fine blue, whilst the females are brown; and the nestling +males of both species have their main wing and tail-feathers +edged with blue, whilst those of the female are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>edged with brown.<a name="FNanchor_276" id="FNanchor_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">276</a> So that the very same feathers +which in the young blackbird assume their mature character +and become black after the others, in these two +species assume this character and become blue before +the others. The most probable view with reference to +these cases is that the males, differently from what +occurs in Class I., have transmitted their colours to +their male offspring at an earlier age than that at +which they themselves first acquired them; for if they +had varied whilst quite young, they would probably +have transmitted all their characters to their offspring +of both sexes.<a name="FNanchor_277" id="FNanchor_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">277</a></p> + +<p>In <i>Aïthurus polytmus</i> (one of the humming-birds) +the male is splendidly coloured black and green, and +two of the tail-feathers are immensely lengthened; the +female has an ordinary tail and inconspicuous colours; +now the young males, instead of resembling the adult +female, in accordance with the common rule, begin +from the first to assume the colours proper to their +sex, and their tail-feathers soon become elongated. +I owe this information to Mr. Gould, who has given +me the following more striking and as yet unpublished +case. Two humming-birds belonging to the +genus <i>Eustephanus</i>, both beautifully coloured, inhabit +the small island of Juan Fernandez, and have always +been ranked as specifically distinct. But it has lately +been ascertained that the one, which is of a rich ches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>nut-brown +colour with a golden-red head, is the male, +whilst the other, which is elegantly variegated with +green and white with a metallic-green head, is the female. +Now the young from the first resemble to a +certain extent the adults of the corresponding sex, the +resemblance gradually becoming more and more complete.</p> + +<p class="tb">In considering this last case, if as before we take the +plumage of the young as our guide, it would appear +that both sexes have been independently rendered +beautiful; and not that the one sex has partially transferred +its beauty to the other. The male apparently +has acquired his bright colours through sexual selection +in the same manner as, for instance, the peacock or +pheasant in our first class of cases; and the female in +the same manner as the female Rhynchæa or Turnix +in our second class of cases. But there is much difficulty +in understanding how this could have been +effected at the same time with the two sexes of the +same species. Mr. Salvin states, as we have seen in +the eighth chapter, that with certain humming-birds +the males greatly exceed in number the females, whilst +with other species inhabiting the same country the +females greatly exceed the males. If, then, we might +assume that during some former lengthened period the +males of the Juan Fernandez species had greatly exceeded +the females in number, but that during another +lengthened period the females had greatly exceeded +the males, we could understand how the males at one +time, and the females at another time, might have been +rendered beautiful by the selection of the brighter-coloured +individuals of either sex; both sexes transmitting +their characters to their young at a rather earlier +age than usual. Whether this is the true explanation I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span> +will not pretend to say; but the case is too remarkable +to be passed over without notice.</p> + +<p>We have now seen in numerous instances under all +six classes, that an intimate relation exists between the +plumage of the young and that of the adults, either of +one sex or both sexes. These relations are fairly well +explained on the principle that one sex—this being in +the great majority of cases the male—first acquired +through variation and sexual selection bright colours +or other ornaments, and transmitted them in various +ways, in accordance with the recognised laws of inheritance. +Why variations have occurred at different +periods of life, even sometimes with the species of the +same group, we do not know; but with respect to +the form of transmission, one important determining +cause seems to have been the age at which the variations +first appeared.</p> + +<p class="tb">From the principle of inheritance at corresponding +ages, and from any variations in colour which occurred +in the males at an early age not being then selected, on +the contrary being often eliminated as dangerous, whilst +similar variations occurring at or near the period of +reproduction have been preserved, it follows that the +plumage of the young will often have been left unmodified, +or but little modified. We thus get some insight +into the colouring of the progenitors of our existing +species. In a vast number of species in five out of our +six classes of cases, the adults of one sex or both are +brightly coloured, at least during the breeding-season, +whilst the young are invariably less brightly coloured +than the adults, or are quite dull-coloured; for no instance +is known, as far as I can discover, of the young +of dull-coloured species displaying bright colours, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> +of the young of brightly-coloured species being more +brilliantly coloured than their parents. In the fourth +class, however, in which the young and the old resemble +each other, there are many species (though by no means +all) brightly-coloured, and as these form whole groups, +we may infer that their early progenitors were likewise +brightly-coloured. With this exception, if we look to +the birds of the world, it appears that their beauty +has been greatly increased since that period, of which +we have a partial record in their immature plumage.</p> + +<p><i>On the Colour of the Plumage in relation to Protection.</i>—It +will have been seen that I cannot follow +Mr. Wallace in the belief that dull colours when confined +to the females have been in most cases specially +gained for the sake of protection. There can, however, +be no doubt, as formerly remarked, that both sexes of +many birds have had their colours modified for this +purpose, so as to escape the notice of their enemies; or, +in some instances, so as to approach their prey unobserved, +in the same manner as owls have had their +plumage rendered soft, that their flight may not be +overheard. Mr. Wallace remarks<a name="FNanchor_278" id="FNanchor_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">278</a> that “it is only +in the tropics, among forests which never lose their +foliage, that we find whole groups of birds, whose +chief colour is green.” It will be admitted by every +one, who has ever tried, how difficult it is to distinguish +parrots in a leaf-covered tree. Nevertheless, we must remember +that many parrots are ornamented with crimson, +blue, and orange tints, which can hardly be protective. +Woodpeckers are eminently arboreal, but, besides green +species, there are many black, and black-and-white +kinds—all the species being apparently exposed to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>nearly the same dangers. It is therefore probable +that strongly-pronounced colours have been acquired +by tree-haunting birds through sexual selection, but +that green tints have had an advantage through +natural selection over other colours for the sake of +protection.</p> + +<p>In regard to birds which live on the ground, everyone +admits that they are coloured so as to imitate the +surrounding surface. How difficult it is to see a partridge, +snipe, woodcock, certain plovers, larks, and +nightjars when crouched on the ground. Animals inhabiting +deserts offer the most striking instances, for the +bare surface affords no concealment, and all the smaller +quadrupeds, reptiles, and birds depend for safety on +their colours. As Mr. Tristram has remarked,<a name="FNanchor_279" id="FNanchor_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">279</a> in +regard to the inhabitants of the Sahara, all are protected +by their “isabelline or sand-colour.” Calling to +my recollection the desert-birds which I had seen in +South America, as well as most of the ground-birds +in Great Britain, it appeared to me that both sexes +in such cases are generally coloured nearly alike. Accordingly +I applied to Mr. Tristram, with respect to the +birds of the Sahara, and he has kindly given me the +following information. There are twenty-six species, +belonging to fifteen genera, which manifestly have had +their plumage coloured in a protective manner; and +this colouring is all the more striking, as with most +of these birds it is different from that of their congeners. +Both sexes of thirteen out of the twenty-six +species are coloured in the same manner; but these +belong to genera in which this rule commonly prevails, +so that they tell us nothing about the protective +colours being the same in both sexes of desert-birds. Of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span>the other thirteen species, three belong to genera in +which the sexes usually differ from each other, yet they +have the sexes alike. In the remaining ten species, +the male differs from the female; but the difference is +confined chiefly to the under surface of the plumage, +which is concealed when the bird crouches on the +ground; the head and back being of the same sand-coloured +hue in both sexes. So that in these ten +species the upper surfaces of both sexes have been +acted on and rendered alike, through natural selection, +for the sake of protection; whilst the lower surfaces of +the males alone have been diversified through sexual +selection, for the sake of ornament. Here, as both +sexes are equally well protected, we clearly see that the +females have not been prevented through natural selection +from inheriting the colours of their male parents: +we must look to the law of sexually limited transmission, +as before explained.</p> + +<p>In all parts of the world both sexes of many soft-billed +birds, especially those which frequent reeds or +sedges, are obscurely coloured. No doubt if their +colours had been brilliant, they would have been +much more conspicuous to their enemies; but whether +their dull tints have been specially gained for the +sake of protection seems, as far as I can judge, rather +doubtful. It is still more doubtful whether such +dull tints can have been gained for the sake of ornament. +We must, however, bear in mind that male +birds, though dull-coloured, often differ much from +their females, as with the common sparrow, and this +leads to the belief that such colours have been gained +through sexual selection, from being attractive. Many +of the soft-billed birds are songsters; and a discussion +in a former chapter should not be forgotten, in which +it was shewn that the best songsters are rarely orna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span>mented +with bright tints. It would appear that female +birds, as a general rule, have selected their mates +either for their sweet voices or gay colours, but not +for both charms combined. Some species which are +manifestly coloured for the sake of protection, such +as the jack-snipe, woodcock, and nightjar, are likewise +marked and shaded, according to our standard +of taste, with extreme elegance. In such cases we +may conclude that both natural and sexual selection +have acted conjointly for protection and ornament. +Whether any bird exists which does not possess some +special attraction, by which to charm the opposite sex, +may be doubted. When both sexes are so obscurely +coloured, that it would be rash to assume the agency +of sexual selection, and when no direct evidence can +be advanced shewing that such colours serve as a protection, +it is best to own complete ignorance of the +cause, or, which comes to nearly the same thing, to +attribute the result to the direct action of the conditions +of life.</p> + +<p>There are many birds both sexes of which are conspicuously, +though not brilliantly coloured, such as +the numerous black, white, or piebald species; and +these colours, are probably the result of sexual selection. +With the common blackbird, capercailzie, black-cock, +black Scoter-duck (Oidemia), and even with one +of the Birds of Paradise (<i>Lophorina atra</i>), the males +alone are black, whilst the females are brown or mottled; +and there can hardly be a doubt that blackness +in these cases has been a sexually selected character. +Therefore it is in some degree probable that the complete +or partial blackness of both sexes in such birds +as crows, certain cockatoos, storks, and swans, and many +marine birds, is likewise the result of sexual selection, +accompanied by equal transmission to both sexes;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> +for blackness can hardly serve in any case as a protection. +With several birds, in which the male alone +is black, and in others in which both sexes are black, +the beak or skin about the head is brightly coloured, +and the contrast thus afforded adds greatly to their +beauty; we see this in the bright yellow beak of the +male blackbird, in the crimson skin over the eyes of +the black-cock and capercailzie, in the variously and +brightly-coloured beak of the Scoter-drake (Oidemia), +in the red beak of the chough (<i>Corvus graculus</i>, Linn.), +of the black swan, and black stork. This leads me to +remark that it is not at all incredible that toucans may +owe the enormous size of their beaks to sexual selection, +for the sake of displaying the diversified and vivid +stripes of colour, with which these organs are ornamented.<a name="FNanchor_280" id="FNanchor_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">280</a> +The naked skin at the base of the beak and +round the eyes is likewise often brilliantly coloured; +and Mr. Gould, in speaking of one species,<a name="FNanchor_281" id="FNanchor_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">281</a> says that +the colours of the beak “are doubtless in the finest +and most brilliant state during the time of pairing.” +There is no greater improbability in toucans being +encumbered with immense beaks, though rendered as +light as possible by their cancellated structure, for +an object falsely appearing to us unimportant, namely, +the display of fine colours, than that the male Argus +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>pheasant and some other birds should be encumbered +with plumes so long as to impede their flight.</p> + +<p>In the same manner, as the males alone of various +species are black, the females being dull-coloured; +so in a few cases the males alone are either wholly +or partially white, as with the several Bell-birds +of South America (Chasmorhynchus), the Antarctic +goose (<i>Bernicla antarctica</i>), the silver pheasant, &c., +whilst the females are brown or obscurely mottled. +Therefore, on the same principle as before, it is probable +that both sexes of many birds, such as white +cockatoos, several egrets with their beautiful plumes, +certain ibises, gulls, terns, &c., have acquired their +more or less completely white plumage through sexual +selection. The species which inhabit snowy regions of +course come under a different head. The white plumage +of some of the above-named birds appears in +both sexes only when they are mature. This is +likewise the case with certain gannets, tropic-birds, +&c., and with the snow-goose (<i>Anser hyperboreus</i>). As +the latter breeds on the “barren grounds,” when not +covered with snow, and as it migrates southward during +the winter, there is no reason to suppose that its snow-white +adult plumage serves as a protection. In the +case of the <i>Anastomus oscitans</i> previously alluded to, +we have still better evidence that the white plumage +is a nuptial character, for it is developed only during +the summer; the young in their immature state, and +the adults in their winter dress, being grey and black. +With many kinds of gulls (Larus), the head and neck +become pure white during the summer, being grey +or mottled during the winter and in the young state. +On the other hand, with the smaller gulls, or sea-mews +(Gavia), and with some terns (Sterna), exactly the reverse +occurs; for the heads of the young birds during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> +the first year, and of the adults during the winter, are +either pure white, or much paler-coloured than during +the breeding-season. These latter cases offer another +instance of the capricious manner in which sexual selection +appears often to have acted.<a name="FNanchor_282" id="FNanchor_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">282</a></p> + +<p>The cause of aquatic birds having acquired a white +plumage so much more frequently than terrestrial birds, +probably depends on their large size and strong powers +of flight, so that they can easily defend themselves or +escape from birds of prey, to which moreover they are +not much exposed. Consequently sexual selection has +not here been interfered with or guided for the sake of +protection. No doubt, with birds which roam over the +open ocean, the males and females could find each +other much more easily when made conspicuous either +by being perfectly white, or intensely black; so that +these colours may possibly serve the same end as the +call-notes of many land-birds. A white or black bird, +when it discovers and flies down to a carcase floating +on the sea or cast up on the beach, will be seen from +a great distance, and will guide other birds of the same +and of distinct species, to the prey; but as this would +be a disadvantage to the first finders, the individuals +which were the whitest or blackest would not thus have +procured more food than the less strongly coloured +individuals. Hence conspicuous colours cannot have +been gradually acquired for this purpose through natural +selection.<a name="FNanchor_283" id="FNanchor_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">283</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span></p><p>As sexual selection depends on so fluctuating an +element as taste, we can understand how it is that within +the same group of birds, with habits of life nearly +the same, there should exist white or nearly white, +as well as black, or nearly black species,—for instance, +white and black cockatoos, storks, ibises, swans, terns, +and petrels. Piebald birds likewise sometimes occur +in the same groups, for instance, the black-necked +swan, certain terns, and the common magpie. That +a strong contrast in colour is agreeable to birds, we +may conclude, by looking through any large collection +of specimens or series of coloured plates, for the sexes +frequently differ from each other in the male having +the pale parts of a purer white, and the variously +coloured dark parts of still darker tints than in the +female.</p> + +<p>It would even appear that mere novelty, or change +for the sake of change, has sometimes acted like a +charm on female birds, in the same manner as changes +of fashion with us. The Duke of Argyll says,<a name="FNanchor_284" id="FNanchor_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">284</a>—and I +am glad to have the unusual satisfaction of following +for even a short distance in his footsteps—“I am more +and more convinced that variety, mere variety, must +be admitted to be an object and an aim in Nature.” +I wish the Duke had explained what he here means by +Nature. Is it meant that the Creator of the universe +ordained diversified results for His own satisfaction, or for +that of man? The former notion seems to me as much +wanting in due reverence as the latter in probability. +Capriciousness of taste in the birds themselves appears +a more fitting explanation. For example; the males +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>of some parrots can hardly be said to be more beautiful, +at least according to our taste, than the females, but +they differ from them in such points, as the male +having a rose-coloured collar instead of, as in the +female, “a bright emeraldine narrow green collar;” or +in the male having a black collar instead of “a yellow +demi-collar in front,” with a pale roseate instead of a +plum-blue head.<a name="FNanchor_285" id="FNanchor_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">285</a> As so many male birds have for +their chief ornament elongated tail-feathers or elongated +crests, the shortened tail, formerly described in the +male of a humming-bird, and the shortened crest of +the male goosander almost seem like one of the many +opposite changes of fashion which we admire in our +own dresses.</p> + +<p class="tb">Some members of the heron family offer a still more +curious case of novelty in colouring having apparently +been appreciated for the sake of novelty. The +young of the <i>Ardea asha</i> are white, the adults being +dark slate-coloured; and not only the young, but the +adults of the allied <i>Buphus coromandus</i> in their winter +plumage are white, this colour changing into a rich +golden-buff during the breeding-season. It is incredible +that the young of these two species, as well as of some +other members of the same family,<a name="FNanchor_286" id="FNanchor_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">286</a> should have been +specially rendered pure white and thus made conspicuous +to their enemies; or that the adults of one of +these two species should have been specially rendered +white during the winter in a country which is never +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span>covered with snow. On the other hand we have reason +to believe that whiteness has been gained by many birds +as a sexual ornament. We may therefore conclude that +an early progenitor of the <i>Ardea asha</i> and the <i>Buphus</i> +acquired a white plumage for nuptial purposes, and +transmitted this colour to their young; so that the +young and the old became white like certain existing +egrets; the whiteness having afterwards been retained +by the young whilst exchanged by the adults for more +strongly pronounced tints. But if we could look still +further backwards in time to the still earlier progenitors +of these two species, we should probably see the adults +dark-coloured. I infer that this would be the case, from +the analogy of many other birds, which are dark whilst +young, and when adult are white; and more especially +from the case of the <i>Ardea gularis</i>, the colours of which +are the reverse of those of <i>A. asha</i>, for the young are +dark-coloured and the adults white, the young having +retained a former state of plumage. It appears therefore +that the progenitors in their adult condition of the +<i>Ardea asha</i>, the <i>Buphus</i>, and of some allies, have undergone, +during a long line of descent, the following changes +of colour: firstly a dark shade, secondly pure white, +and thirdly, owing to another change of fashion (if I +may so express myself), their present slaty, reddish, or +golden-buff tints. These successive changes are intelligible +only on the principle of novelty having been +admired by birds for the sake of novelty.</p> + +<p><i>Summary of the Four Chapters on Birds.</i>—Most male +birds are highly pugnacious during the breeding-season, +and some possess weapons especially adapted for fighting +with their rivals. But the most pugnacious and the +best-armed males rarely or never depend for success +solely on their power to drive away or kill their rivals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span> +but have special means for charming the female. With +some it is the power of song, or of emitting strange +cries, or of producing instrumental music, and the males +in consequence differ from the females in their vocal +organs, or in the structure of certain feathers. From +the curiously diversified means for producing various +sounds we gain a high idea of the importance of this +means of courtship. Many birds endeavour to charm +the females by love-dances or antics, performed on the +ground or in the air, and sometimes at prepared places. +But ornaments of many kinds, the most brilliant tints, +combs and wattles, beautiful plumes, elongated feathers, +top-knots, and so forth, are by far the commonest +means. In some cases mere novelty appears to have +acted as a charm. The ornaments of the males must +be highly important to them, for they have been acquired +in not a few cases at the cost of increased danger +from enemies, and even at some loss of power in fighting +with their rivals. The males of very many species +do not assume their ornamental dress until they +arrive at maturity, or they assume it only during the +breeding-season, or the tints then become more vivid. +Certain ornamental appendages become enlarged, turgid, +and brightly-coloured during the very act of courtship. +The males display their charms with elaborate care and +to the best effect; and this is done in the presence of +the females. The courtship is sometimes a prolonged +affair, and many males and females congregate at an +appointed place. To suppose that the females do not +appreciate the beauty of the males is to admit that +their splendid decorations, all their pomp and display, +are useless; and this is incredible. Birds have fine +powers of discrimination, and in some few instances it +can be shewn that they have a taste for the beautiful. +The females, moreover, are known occasionally to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> +exhibit a marked preference or antipathy for certain +individual males.</p> + +<p>If it be admitted that the females prefer, or are +unconsciously excited by the more beautiful males, then +the males would slowly but surely be rendered more +and more attractive through sexual selection. That it +is this sex which has been chiefly modified we may infer +from the fact that in almost every genus in which the +sexes differ, the males differ much more from each other +than do the females; this is well shewn in certain closely-allied +representative species in which the females can +hardly be distinguished, whilst the males are quite distinct. +Birds in a state of nature offer individual differences +which would amply suffice for the work of sexual +selection; but we have seen that they occasionally present +more strongly-marked variations which recur so +frequently that they would immediately be fixed, if +they served to allure the female. The laws of variation +will have determined the nature of the initial changes, +and largely influenced the final result. The gradations, +which may be observed between the males of +allied species, indicate the nature of the steps which +have been passed through, and explain in the most +interesting manner certain characters, such as the +indented ocelli of the tail-feathers of the peacock, and +the wonderfully-shaded ocelli of the wing-feathers of +the Argus pheasant. It is evident that the brilliant +colours, top-knots, fine plumes, &c., of many male +birds cannot have been acquired as a protection; +indeed they sometimes lead to danger. That they +are not due to the direct and definite action of the +conditions of life, we may feel assured, because the +females have been exposed to the same conditions, and +yet often differ from the males to an extreme degree. +Although it is probable that changed conditions acting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> +during a lengthened period have produced some definite +effect on both sexes, the more important result will have +been an increased tendency to fluctuating variability or +to augmented individual differences; and such differences +will have afforded an excellent groundwork for +the action of sexual selection.</p> + +<p>The laws of inheritance, irrespectively of selection, +appear to have determined whether the characters acquired +by the males for the sake of ornament, for producing +various sounds, and for fighting together, have +been transmitted to the males alone or to both sexes, +either permanently or periodically during certain seasons +of the year. Why various characters should sometimes +have been transmitted in one way and sometimes +in another is, in most cases, not known; but the period +of variability seems often to have been the determining +cause. When the two sexes have inherited all characters +in common they necessarily resemble each other; +but as the successive variations may be differently transmitted, +every possible gradation may be found, even +within the same genus, from the closest similarity to +the widest dissimilarity between the sexes. With many +closely-allied species, following nearly the same habits +of life, the males have come to differ from each other +chiefly through the action of sexual selection; whilst +the females have come to differ chiefly from partaking +in a greater or lesser degree of the characters thus +acquired by the males. The effects, moreover, of the +definite action of the conditions of life, will not have +been masked in the females, as in the case of the males, +by the accumulation through sexual selection of strongly-pronounced +colours and other ornaments. The individuals +of both sexes, however affected, will have been +kept at each successive period nearly uniform by the +free intercrossing of many individuals.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>With the species, in which the sexes differ in colour, +it is possible that at first there existed a tendency to +transmit the successive variations equally to both sexes; +and that the females were prevented from acquiring the +bright colours of the males, on account of the danger to +which they would have been exposed during incubation. +But it would be, as far as I can see, an extremely difficult +process to convert, by means of natural selection, one +form of transmission into another. On the other hand +there would not be the least difficulty in rendering a +female dull-coloured, the male being still kept bright-coloured, +by the selection of successive variations, which +were from the first limited in their transmission to the +same sex. Whether the females of many species have +actually been thus modified, must at present remain +doubtful. When, through the law of the equal transmission +of characters to both sexes, the females have +been rendered as conspicuously coloured as the males, +their instincts have often been modified, and they have +been led to build domed or concealed nests.</p> + +<p>In one small and curious class of cases the characters +and habits of the two sexes have been completely transposed, +for the females are larger, stronger, more vociferous +and brightly-coloured than their males. They +have, also, become so quarrelsome that they often fight +together like the males of the most pugnacious species. +If, as seems probable, they habitually drive away rival +females, and by the display of their bright colours or +other charms endeavour to attract the males, we can +understand how it is that they have gradually been rendered, +by means of sexual selection and sexually-limited +transmission, more beautiful than the males—the latter +being left unmodified or only slightly modified.</p> + +<p>Whenever the law of inheritance at corresponding +ages prevails, but not that of sexually-limited trans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>mission, +then if the parents vary late in life—and we +know that this constantly occurs with our poultry, and +occasionally with other birds—the young will be left +unaffected, whilst the adults of both sexes will be +modified. If both these laws of inheritance prevail and +either sex varies late in life, that sex alone will be +modified, the other sex and the young being left unaffected. +When variations in brightness or in other +conspicuous characters occur early in life, as no doubt +often happens, they will not be acted on through sexual +selection until the period of reproduction arrives; consequently +they will be liable to be lost by the accidental +deaths of the young, and if dangerous will be eliminated +through natural selection. Thus we can understand +how it is that variations arising late in life have chiefly +been preserved for the ornamentation and arming of the +males, the females and the young being left almost unaffected, +and therefore like each other. With species +having a distinct summer and winter plumage, the males +of which either resemble or differ from the females +during both seasons or during the summer alone, the +degrees and kinds of resemblance between the young +and the old are exceedingly complex; and this complexity +apparently depends on characters, first acquired +by the males, being transmitted in various ways and +degrees, as limited by age, sex, and season.</p> + +<p>As the young of so many species have been but little +modified in colour and in other ornaments, we are +enabled to form some judgment with respect to the +plumage of their early progenitors; and we may infer +that the beauty of our existing species, if we look to the +whole class, has been largely increased since that period +of which the immature plumage gives us an indirect +record. Many birds, especially those which live much +on the ground, have undoubtedly been obscurely co<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span>loured +for the sake of protection. In some instances +the upper exposed surface of the plumage has been thus +coloured in both sexes, whilst the lower surface in the +males alone has been variously ornamented through +sexual selection. Finally, from the facts given in these +four chapters, we may conclude that weapons for battle, +organs for producing sound, ornaments of many kinds, +bright and conspicuous colours, have generally been +acquired by the males through variation and sexual +selection, and have been transmitted in various ways +according to the several laws of inheritance—the females +and the young being left comparatively but little +modified.<a name="FNanchor_287" id="FNanchor_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">287</a></p> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Mammals.</span></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The law of battle—Special weapons, confined to the males—Cause +of absence of weapons in the female—Weapons common to both +sexes, yet primarily acquired by the male—Other uses of such +weapons—Their high importance—Greater size of the male—Means +of defence—On the preference shewn by either sex in the +pairing of quadrupeds.</p></div> + +<p>With mammals the male appears to win the female +much more through the law of battle than through the +display of his charms. The most timid animals, not +provided with any special weapons for fighting, engage +in desperate conflicts during the season of love. Two +male hares have been seen to fight together until one +was killed; male moles often fight, and sometimes with +fatal results; male squirrels “engage in frequent contests, +and often wound each other severely;” as do +male beavers, so that “hardly a skin is without scars.”<a name="FNanchor_288" id="FNanchor_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">288</a> +I observed the same fact with the hides of the guanacoes +in Patagonia; and on one occasion several were so +absorbed in fighting that they fearlessly rushed close by +me. Livingstone speaks of the males of the many animals +in Southern Africa as almost invariably shewing +the scars received in former contests.</p> + +<p>The law of battle prevails with aquatic as with ter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>restrial +mammals. It is notorious how desperately male +seals fight, both with their teeth and claws, during the +breeding-season; and their hides are likewise often +covered with scars. Male sperm-whales are very jealous +at this season; and in their battles “they often +lock their jaws together, and turn on their sides and +twist about;” so that it is believed by some naturalists +that the frequently deformed state of their lower jaws is +caused by these struggles.<a name="FNanchor_289" id="FNanchor_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">289</a></p> + +<p>All male animals which are furnished with special +weapons for fighting, are well known to engage in fierce +battles. The courage and the desperate conflicts of stags +have often been described; their skeletons have been +found in various parts of the world, with the horns inextricably +locked together, shewing how miserably the +victor and vanquished had perished.<a name="FNanchor_290" id="FNanchor_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">290</a> No animal in the +world is so dangerous as an elephant in must. Lord +Tankerville has given me a graphic description of the +battles between the wild bulls in Chillingham Park, +the descendants, degenerated in size but not in courage, +of the gigantic <i>Bos primigenius</i>. In 1861 several contended +for mastery; and it was observed that two of +the younger bulls attacked in concert the old leader +of the herd, overthrew and disabled him, so that he was +believed by the keepers to be lying mortally wounded +in a neighbouring wood. But a few days afterwards one +of the young bulls singly approached the wood; and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>then the “monarch of the chase,” who had been lashing +himself up for vengeance, came out and, in a short +time killed his antagonist. He then quietly joined the +herd, and long held undisputed sway. Admiral Sir +B. J. Sulivan informs me that when he resided in the +Falkland Islands he imported a young English stallion, +which, with eight mares, frequented the hills near Port +William. On these hills there were two wild stallions, +each with a small troop of mares; “and it is certain +that these stallions would never have approached each +other without fighting. Both had tried singly to fight +the English horse and drive away his mares, but had +failed. One day they came in <i>together</i> and attacked +him. This was seen by the capitan who had charge of +the horses, and who, on riding to the spot, found one +of the two stallions engaged with the English horse, +whilst the other was driving away the mares, and had +already separated four from the rest. The capitan +settled the matter by driving the whole party into the +corral, for the wild stallions would not leave the +mares.”</p> + +<p>Male animals already provided with efficient cutting +or tearing teeth for the ordinary purposes of life, as +in the carnivora, insectivora, and rodents, are seldom +furnished with weapons especially adapted for fighting +with their rivals. The case is very different with the +males of many other animals. We see this in the horns +of stags and of certain kinds of antelopes in which +the females are hornless. With many animals the +canine teeth in the upper or lower jaw, or in both, are +much larger in the males than in the females; or are +absent in the latter, with the exception sometimes of a +hidden rudiment. Certain antelopes, the musk-deer, +camel, horse, boar, various apes, seals, and the walrus, +offer instances of these several cases. In the females<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> +of the walrus the tusks are sometimes quite absent.<a name="FNanchor_291" id="FNanchor_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">291</a> +In the male elephant of India and in the male dugong<a name="FNanchor_292" id="FNanchor_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">292</a> +the upper incisors form offensive weapons. In the male +narwhal one alone of the upper teeth is developed into +the well-known, spirally-twisted, so called horn, which is +sometimes from nine to ten feet in length. It is believed +that the males use these horns for fighting together; for +“an unbroken one can rarely be got, and occasionally +one may be found with the point of another jammed +into the broken place.”<a name="FNanchor_293" id="FNanchor_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">293</a> The tooth on the opposite +side of the head in the male consists of a rudiment about +ten inches in length, which is embedded in the jaw. It +is not, however, very uncommon to find double-horned +male narwhals in which both teeth are well developed. +In the females both teeth are rudimentary. The male +cachalot has a larger head than that of the female, and +it no doubt aids these animals in their aquatic battles. +Lastly, the adult male ornithorhynchus is provided with +a remarkable apparatus, namely a spur on the foreleg, +closely resembling the poison-fang of a venomous snake; +its use is not known, but we may suspect that it serves +as a weapon of offence.<a name="FNanchor_294" id="FNanchor_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">294</a> It is represented by a mere +rudiment in the female.</p> + +<p>When the males are provided with weapons which +the females do not possess, there can hardly be a doubt +that they are used for fighting with other males, and +that they have been acquired through sexual selection.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span></p><p>It is not probable, at least in most cases, that the females +have actually been saved from acquiring such weapons, +owing to their being useless and superfluous, or in some +way injurious. On the contrary, as they are often used +by the males of many animals for various purposes, +more especially as a defence against their enemies, it is +a surprising fact that they are so poorly developed or +quite absent in the females. No doubt with female deer +the development during each recurrent season of great +branching horns, and with female elephants the development +of immense tusks, would have been a great +waste of vital power, on the admission that they were +of no use to the females. Consequently variations in +the size of these organs, leading to their suppression, +would have come under the control of natural selection, +and if limited in their transmission to the female offspring +would not have interfered with their development +through sexual selection in the males. But how +on this view can we explain the presence of horns in the +females of certain antelopes, and of tusks in the females +of many animals, which are only of slightly less size +than in the males? The explanation in almost all cases +must, I believe, be sought in the laws of transmission.</p> + +<p>As the reindeer is the single species in the whole +family of Deer in which the female is furnished with +horns, though somewhat smaller, thinner, and less +branched than in the male, it might naturally be +thought that they must be of some special use to her. +There is, however, some evidence opposed to this view. +The female retains her horns from the time when they +are fully developed, namely in September, throughout +the winter, until May, when she brings forth her young; +whilst the male casts his horns much earlier, towards the +end of November. As both sexes have the same requirements +and follow the same habits of life, and as the male<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> +sheds his horns during the winter, it is very improbable +that they can be of any special service to the female at +this season, which includes the larger proportion of the +time during which she bears horns. Nor is it probable +that she can have inherited horns from some ancient +progenitor of the whole family of deer, for, from the fact +of the males alone of so many species in all quarters of +the globe possessing horns, we may conclude that this +was the primordial character of the group. Hence it +appears that horns must have been transferred from the +male to the female at a period subsequent to the divergence +of the various species from a common stock; but +that this was not effected for the sake of giving her any +special advantage.<a name="FNanchor_295" id="FNanchor_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">295</a></p> + +<p>We know that the horns are developed at a most +unusually early age in the reindeer; but what the cause +of this may have been is not known. The effect, however, +has apparently been the transference of the horns +to both sexes. It is intelligible on the hypothesis of +pangenesis, that a very slight change in the constitution +of the male, either in the tissues of the forehead or in +the gemmules of the horns, might lead to their early +development; and as the young of both sexes have +nearly the same constitution before the period of reproduction, +the horns, if developed at an early age in the +male, would tend to be developed equally in both sexes. +In support of this view, we should bear in mind that the +horns are always transmitted through the female, and +that she has a latent capacity for their development, as +we see in old or diseased females.<a name="FNanchor_296" id="FNanchor_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">296</a> Moreover the females +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>of some other species of deer either normally or occasionally +exhibit rudiments of horns; thus the female of +<i>Cervulus moschatus</i> has “bristly tufts, ending in a knob, +instead of a horn;” and “in most specimens of the +female Wapiti (<i>Cervus Canadensis</i>) there is a sharp +bony protuberance in the place of the horn.”<a name="FNanchor_297" id="FNanchor_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">297</a> From +these several considerations we may conclude that the +possession of fairly well-developed horns by the female +reindeer, is due to the males having first acquired them +as weapons for fighting with other males; and secondarily +to their development from some unknown cause at an +unusually early age in the males, and their consequent +transmission to both sexes.</p> + +<p>Turning to the sheath-horned ruminants: with antelopes +a graduated series can be formed, beginning with +the species, the females of which are completely destitute +of horns—passing to those which have horns so +small as to be almost rudimentary, as in <i>Antilocapra +Americana</i>—to those which have fairly well-developed +horns, but manifestly smaller and thinner than in the +male, and sometimes of a different shape,<a name="FNanchor_298" id="FNanchor_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">298</a> and ending +with those in which both sexes have horns of equal size. +As with the reindeer, so with antelopes there exists a +relation between the period of the development of the +horns and their transmission to one or both sexes; it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>is therefore probable that their presence or absence in +the females of some species, and their more or less perfect +condition in the females of other species, depend, +not on their being of some special use, but simply on +the form of inheritance which has prevailed. It accords +with this view that even in the same restricted +genus both sexes of some species, and the males alone +of other species, are thus provided. It is a remarkable +fact that, although the females of <i>Antilope bezoartica</i> +are normally destitute of horns, Mr. Blyth has seen no +less than three females thus furnished; and there was +no reason to suppose that they were old or diseased. +The males of this species have long straight spirated +horns, nearly parallel to each other, and directed backwards. +Those of the female, when present, are very +different in shape, for they are not spirated, and +spreading widely bend round, so that their points are +directed forwards. It is a still more remarkable fact +that in the castrated male, as Mr. Blyth informs me, the +horns are of the same peculiar shape as in the female, +but longer and thicker. In all cases the differences +between the horns of the males and females, and of +castrated and entire males, probably depend on various +causes,—on the more or less complete transference of +male characters to the females,—on the former state +of the progenitors of the species,—and partly perhaps on +the horns being differently nourished, in nearly the same +manner as the spurs of the domestic cock, when inserted +into the comb or other parts of the body, assume various +abnormal forms from being differently nourished.</p> + +<p>In all the wild species of goats and sheep the horns +are larger in the male than in the female, and are sometimes +quite absent in the latter.<a name="FNanchor_299" id="FNanchor_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">299</a> In several domestic +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>breeds of the sheep and goat, the males alone are furnished +with horns; and it is a significant fact, that in +one such breed of sheep on the Guinea coast, the horns +are not developed, as Mr. Winwood Reade informs me, +in the castrated male; so that they are affected in +this respect like the horns of stags. In some breeds, +as in that of N. Wales, in which both sexes are properly +horned, the ewes are very liable to be hornless. In +these same sheep, as I have been informed by a trustworthy +witness who purposely inspected a flock during +the lambing-season, the horns at birth are generally +more fully developed in the male than in the female. +With the adult musk-ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>) the horns of +the male are larger than those of the female, and in the +latter the bases do not touch.<a name="FNanchor_300" id="FNanchor_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">300</a> In regard to ordinary +cattle Mr. Blyth remarks: “In most of the wild bovine +animals the horns are both longer and thicker in the +bull than in the cow, and in the cow-banteng (<i>Bos +sondaicus</i>) the horns are remarkably small, and inclined +much backwards. In the domestic races of +cattle, both of the humped and humpless types, the +horns are short and thick in the bull, longer and +more slender in the cow and ox; and in the Indian +buffalo, they are shorter and thicker in the bull, longer +and more slender in the cow. In the wild gaour +(<i>B. gaurus</i>) the horns are mostly both longer and +thicker in the bull than in the cow.”<a name="FNanchor_301" id="FNanchor_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">301</a> Hence with +most sheath-horned ruminants the horns of the male +are either longer or stronger than those of the female. +With the <i>Rhinoceros simus</i>, as I may here add, the +horns of the female are generally longer but less powerful +than in the male; and in some other species of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span>rhinoceros they are said to be shorter in the female.<a name="FNanchor_302" id="FNanchor_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">302</a> +From these various facts we may conclude that horns +of all kinds, even when they are equally developed in +both sexes, were primarily acquired by the males in +order to conquer other males, and have been transferred +more or less completely to the female, in relation +to the force of the equal form of inheritance.</p> + +<p>The tusks of the elephant, in the different species or +races, differ according to sex, in nearly the same manner +as the horns of ruminants. In India and Malacca the +males alone are provided with well-developed tusks. +The elephant of Ceylon is considered by most naturalists +as a distinct race, but by some as a distinct +species, and here “not one in a hundred is found with +tusks, the few that possess them being exclusively +males.”<a name="FNanchor_303" id="FNanchor_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">303</a> The African elephant is undoubtedly distinct, +and the female has large, well-developed tusks, +though not so large as those of the male. These differences +in the tusks of the several races and species of +elephants—the great variability of the horns of deer, +as notably in the wild reindeer—the occasional presence +of horns in the female <i>Antilope bezoartica</i>—the +presence of two tusks in some few male narwhals—the +complete absence of tusks in some female walruses;—are +all instances of the extreme variability of secondary +sexual characters, and of their extreme liability to +differ in closely-allied forms.</p> + +<p>Although tusks and horns appear in all cases to have +been primarily developed as sexual weapons, they often +serve for other purposes. The elephant uses his tusks +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span>in attacking the tiger; according to Bruce, he scores +the trunks of trees until they can be easily thrown +down, and he likewise thus extracts the farinaceous +cores of palms; in Africa he often uses one tusk, this +being always the same, to probe the ground and thus +to ascertain whether it will bear his weight. The +common bull defends the herd with his horns; and +the elk in Sweden has been known, according to Lloyd, +to strike a wolf dead with a single blow of his great +horns. Many similar facts could be given. One of the +most curious secondary uses to which the horns of any +animal are occasionally put, is that observed by Captain +Hutton<a name="FNanchor_304" id="FNanchor_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">304</a> with the wild goat (<i>Capra ægagrus</i>) of the +Himalayas, and as it is said with the ibex, namely, that +when the male accidentally falls from a height he +bends inwards his head, and, by alighting on his massive +horns, breaks the shock. The female cannot thus +use her horns, which are smaller, but from her more +quiet disposition she does not so much need this strange +kind of shield.</p> + +<p>Each male animal uses his weapons in his own peculiar +fashion. The common ram makes a charge and +butts with such force with the bases of his horns, that I +have seen a powerful man knocked over as easily as a +child. Goats and certain species of sheep, for instance +the <i>Ovis cycloceros</i> of Afghanistan,<a name="FNanchor_305" id="FNanchor_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">305</a> rear on their hind +legs, and then not only butt, but “make a cut down +and a jerk up, with the ribbed front of their scimitar-shaped +horn, as with a sabre. When the <i>O. cycloceros</i> +attacked a large domestic ram, who was a noted +bruiser, he conquered him by the sheer novelty of his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>mode of fighting, always closing at once with his +adversary, and catching him across the face and nose +with a sharp drawing jerk of his head, and then +bounding out of the way before the blow could be +returned.” In Pembrokeshire a male goat, the master +of a flock which during several generations had run +wild, was known to have killed several other males in +single combat; this goat possessed enormous horns, +measuring 39 inches in a straight line from tip to tip. +The common bull, as every one knows, gores and tosses +his opponent; but the Italian buffalo is said never to +use his horns, he gives a tremendous blow with his +convex forehead, and then tramples on his fallen enemy +with his knees—an instinct which the common bull does +not possess.<a name="FNanchor_306" id="FNanchor_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">306</a> Hence a dog who pins a buffalo by +the nose is immediately crushed. We must, however, +remember that the Italian buffalo has long been domesticated, +and it is by no means certain that the wild +parent-form had similarly shaped horns. Mr. Bartlett +informs me that when a female Cape buffalo (<i>Bubalus +caffer</i>) was turned into an enclosure with a bull of +the same species, she attacked him, and he in return +pushed her about with great violence. But it was +manifest to Mr. Bartlett that had not the bull shewn +dignified forbearance, he could easily have killed her +by a single lateral thrust with his immense horns. The +giraffe uses his short hair-covered horns, which are +rather longer in the male than in the female, in a +curious manner; for with his long neck he swings his +head to either side, almost upside down, with such +force, that I have seen a hard plank deeply indented +by a single blow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="f61" id="f61"></a><img src="images/fig61.png" width="600" height="329" alt="Fig. 61. Oryx leucoryx, male (from the Knowsley Menagerie)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 61. Oryx leucoryx, male (from the Knowsley Menagerie).</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> +With antelopes it is sometimes difficult to imagine +how they can possibly use their curiously-shaped horns; +thus the spring-boc (<i>Ant. euchore</i>) has rather short upright +horns, with the sharp points bent inwards almost +at a right angle, so as to face each other; Mr. Bartlett +does not know how they are used, but suggests that +they would inflict a fearful wound down each side of +the face of an antagonist. The slightly-curved horns of +the <i>Oryx leucoryx</i> (fig. <a href="#f61">61</a>) are directed backwards, and +are of such length that their points reach beyond the +middle of the back, over which they stand in an almost +parallel line. Thus they seem singularly ill-fitted for +fighting; but Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two +of these animals prepare for battle, they kneel down, +with their heads between their front legs, and in this +attitude the horns stand nearly parallel and close to +the ground, with the points directed forwards and a +little upwards. The combatants then gradually approach +each other and endeavour to get the upturned +points under each other’s bodies; if one succeeds in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> +doing this, he suddenly springs up, throwing up his +head at the same time, and can thus wound or perhaps +even transfix his antagonist. Both animals always kneel +down so as to guard as far as possible against this +manœuvre. It has been recorded that one of these +antelopes has used his horns with effect even against a +lion; yet from being forced to place his head between +the forelegs in order to bring the points of the horns +forward, he would generally be under a great disadvantage +when attacked by any other animal. It is, +therefore, not probable that the horns have been modified +into their present great length and peculiar position, as +a protection against beasts of prey. We can, however, +see that as soon as some ancient male progenitor of the +Oryx acquired moderately long horns, directed a little +backwards, he would be compelled in his battles with +rival males to bend his head somewhat inwards or downwards, +as is now done by certain stags; and it is not +improbable that he might have acquired the habit of +at first occasionally and afterwards of regularly kneeling +down. In this case it is almost certain that the +males which possessed the longest horns would have +had a great advantage over others with shorter horns; +and then the horns would gradually have been rendered +longer and longer, through sexual selection, until +they acquired their present extraordinary length and +position.</p> + +<p>With stags of many kinds the branching of the horns +offers a curious case of difficulty; for certainly a single +straight point would inflict a much more serious wound +than several diverging points. In Sir Philip Egerton’s +museum there is a horn of the red-deer (<i>Cervus elaphus</i>) +thirty inches in length, with “not fewer than +fifteen snags or branches;” and at Moritzburg there +is still preserved a pair of antlers of a red-deer, shot in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> +1699 by Frederick I., each of which bears the astonishing +number of thirty-three branches. Richardson +figures a pair of antlers of the wild reindeer with twenty-nine +points.<a name="FNanchor_307" id="FNanchor_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">307</a> From the manner in which the horns +are branched, and more especially from deer being +known occasionally to fight together by kicking with +their fore-feet,<a name="FNanchor_308" id="FNanchor_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">308</a> M. Bailly actually came to the conclusion +that their horns were more injurious than useful +to them! But this author overlooks the pitched battles +between rival males. As I felt much perplexed about +the use or advantage of the branches, I applied to Mr. +McNeill of Colinsay, who has long and carefully observed +the habits of red-deer, and he informs me that +he has never seen some of the branches brought into +action, but that the brow-antlers, from inclining downwards, +are a great protection to the forehead, and their +points are likewise used in attack. Sir Philip Egerton +also informs me in regard both to red-deer and fallow-deer, +that when they fight they suddenly dash together, +and getting their horns fixed against each other’s bodies +a desperate struggle ensues. When one is at last +forced to yield and turn round, the victor endeavours +to plunge his brow-antlers into his defeated foe. It +thus appears that the upper branches are used chiefly +or exclusively for pushing and fencing. Nevertheless +with some species the upper branches are used as +weapons of offence; when a man was attacked by a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>Wapiti deer (<i>Cervus Canadensis</i>) in Judge Caton’s park +in Ottawa, and several men tried to rescue him, the stag +“never raised his head from the ground; in fact he kept +his face almost flat on the ground, with his nose nearly +between his fore-feet, except when he rolled his head +to one side to take a new observation preparatory to +a plunge.” In this position the terminal points of +the horns were directed against his adversaries. “In +rolling his head he necessarily raised it somewhat, +because his antlers were so long that he could not +roll his head without raising them on one side, while +on the other side they touched the ground.” The +stag by this procedure gradually drove the party of +rescuers backwards, to a distance of 150 or 200 feet; +and the attacked man was killed.<a name="FNanchor_309" id="FNanchor_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">309</a></p> + +<p>Although the horns of stags are efficient weapons, +there can, I think, be no doubt that a single point +would have been much more dangerous than a branched +antler; and Judge Caton, who has had large experience +with deer, fully concurs in this conclusion. Nor +do the branching horns, though highly important as a +means of defence against rival stags, appear perfectly +well adapted for this purpose, as they are liable to +become interlocked. The suspicion has therefore crossed +my mind that they may serve partly as ornaments. +That the branched antlers of stags, as well as the +elegant lyrated horns of certain antelopes, with their +graceful double curvature, (fig. <a href="#f62">62</a>), are ornamental +in our eyes, no one will dispute. If, then, the horns, +like the splendid accoutrements of the knights of old, +add to the noble appearance of stags and antelopes, +they may have been partly modified for this purpose, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>though mainly for actual service in battle; but I have +no evidence in favour of this belief.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f62" id="f62"></a><img src="images/fig62.png" width="400" height="574" alt="Fig. 62. Strepsiceros Kudu (from Andrew Smith’s ‘Zoology of South Africa’)." title="" /></div> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 62. Strepsiceros Kudu (from Andrew Smith’s ‘Zoology of South Africa’).</p> + +<p>An interesting case has lately been published, from +which it appears that the horns of a deer in one district +in the United States are now being modified through +sexual and natural selection. A writer in an excellent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> +American Journal<a name="FNanchor_310" id="FNanchor_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">310</a> says, that he has hunted for the +last twenty-one years in the Adirondacks, where the +<i>Cervus Virginianus</i> abounds. About fourteen years ago +he first heard of <i>spike-horn bucks</i>. These became from +year to year more common; about five years ago he +shot one, and subsequently another, and now they are +frequently killed. “The spike-horn differs greatly +from the common antler of the <i>C. Virginianus</i>. It +consists of a single spike, more slender than the antler, +and scarcely half so long, projecting forward from the +brow, and terminating in a very sharp point. It gives +a considerable advantage to its possessor over the +common buck. Besides enabling him to run more +swiftly through the thick woods and underbrush +(every hunter knows that does and yearling bucks +run much more rapidly than the large bucks when +armed with their cumbrous antlers), the spike-horn +is a more effective weapon than the common antler. +With this advantage the spike-horn bucks are gaining +upon the common bucks, and may, in time, entirely +supersede them in the Adirondacks. Undoubtedly +the first spike-horn buck was merely an accidental +freak of nature. But his spike-horns gave him an +advantage, and enabled him to propagate his peculiarity. +His descendants, having a like advantage, +have propagated the peculiarity in a constantly +increasing ratio, till they are slowly crowding the +antlered deer from the region they inhabit.”</p> + +<p>Male quadrupeds which are furnished with tusks +use them in various ways, as in the case of horns. +The boar strikes laterally and upwards; the musk-deer +with serious effect downwards.<a name="FNanchor_311" id="FNanchor_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">311</a> The walrus, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>though having so short a neck and so unwieldy a body, +“can strike either upwards, or downwards, or sideways, +with equal dexterity.”<a name="FNanchor_312" id="FNanchor_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">312</a> The Indian elephant +fights, as I was informed by the late Dr. Falconer, in a +different manner according to the position and curvature +of his tusks. When they are directed forwards and +upwards he is able to fling a tiger to a great distance—it +is said to even thirty feet; when they are short and +turned downwards he endeavours suddenly to pin the +tiger to the ground, and in consequence is dangerous +to the rider, who is liable to be jerked off the +hoodah.<a name="FNanchor_313" id="FNanchor_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">313</a></p> + +<p>Very few male quadrupeds possess weapons of two +distinct kinds specially adapted for fighting with rival +males. The male muntjac-deer (<i>Cervulus</i>), however, +offers an exception, as he is provided with horns and +exserted canine teeth. But one form of weapon, has +often been replaced in the course of ages by another +form, as we may infer from what follows. With ruminants +the development of horns generally stands +in an inverse relation with that of even moderately +well-developed canine teeth. Thus camels, guanacoes, +chevrotains and musk-deer, are hornless, and they +have efficient canines; these teeth being “always of +smaller size in the females than in the males.” The +Camelidæ have in their upper jaws, in addition to +their true canines, a pair of canine-shaped incisors.<a name="FNanchor_314" id="FNanchor_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">314</a> +Male deer and antelopes, on the other hand, possess +horns, and they rarely have canine teeth; and these +when present are always of small size, so that it is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>doubtful whether they are of any service in their +battles. With <i>Antilope montana</i> they exist only as +rudiments in the young male, disappearing as he +grows old; and they are absent in the female at +all ages; but the females of certain other antelopes +and deer have been known occasionally to exhibit +rudiments of these teeth.<a name="FNanchor_315" id="FNanchor_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">315</a> Stallions have small canine +teeth, which are either quite absent or rudimentary +in the mare; but they do not appear to be used in +fighting, for stallions bite with their incisors, and do +not open their mouths widely like camels and guanacoes. +Whenever the adult male possesses canines now +in an inefficient state, whilst the female has either none +or mere rudiments, we may conclude that the early +male progenitor of the species was provided with efficient +canines, which had been partially transferred to +the females. The reduction of these teeth in the males +seems to have followed from some change in their +manner of fighting, often caused (but not in the case +of the horse) by the development of new weapons.</p> + +<p>Tusks and horns are manifestly of high importance to +their possessors, for their development consumes much +organised matter. A single tusk of the Asiatic elephant,—one +of the extinct woolly species,—and of the +African elephant, have been known to weigh respectively +150, 160, and 180 pounds; and even greater weights +have been assigned by some authors.<a name="FNanchor_316" id="FNanchor_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">316</a> With deer, in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>which the horns are periodically renewed, the drain +on the constitution must be greater; the horns, for +instance, of the moose weigh from fifty to sixty pounds, +and those of the extinct Irish elk from sixty to seventy +pounds,—the skull of the latter weighing on an average +only five and a quarter pounds. With sheep, although +the horns are not periodically renewed, yet their development, +in the opinion of many agriculturists, entails +a sensible loss to the breeder. Stags, moreover, +in escaping from beasts of prey are loaded with +an additional weight for the race, and are greatly +retarded in passing through a woody country. The +moose, for instance, with horns extending five and a +half feet from tip to tip, although so skilful in their +use that he will not touch or break a dead twig +when walking quietly, cannot act so dexterously whilst +rushing away from a pack of wolves. “During his +progress he holds his nose up, so as to lay the +horns horizontally back; and in this attitude cannot +see the ground distinctly.”<a name="FNanchor_317" id="FNanchor_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">317</a> The tips of the horns +of the great Irish elk were actually eight feet apart! +Whilst the horns are covered with velvet, which lasts +with the red-deer for about twelve weeks, they are +extremely sensitive to a blow; so that in Germany +the stags at this time change their habits to a certain +extent, and avoid dense forests, frequenting young +woods and low thickets.<a name="FNanchor_318" id="FNanchor_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">318</a> These facts remind us, that +male birds have acquired ornamental plumes at the +cost of retarded flight, and other ornaments at the cost +of some loss of power in their battles with rival males.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span></p><p>With quadrupeds, when, as is often the case, the +sexes differ in size, the males are, I believe, always +larger and stronger. This holds good in a marked +manner, as I am informed by Mr. Gould, with the marsupials +of Australia, the males of which appear to +continue growing until an unusually late age. But +the most extraordinary case is that of one of the +seals (<i>Callorhinus ursinus</i>), a full-grown female weighing +less than one-sixth of a full-grown male.<a name="FNanchor_319" id="FNanchor_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">319</a> The +greater strength of the male is invariably displayed, +as Hunter long ago remarked,<a name="FNanchor_320" id="FNanchor_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">320</a> in those parts of the +body which are brought into action in fighting with +rival males,—for instance, in the massive neck of the +bull. Male quadrupeds are also more courageous and +pugnacious than the females. There can be little +doubt that these characters have been gained, partly +through sexual selection, owing to a long series of victories +by the stronger and more courageous males over +the weaker, and partly through the inherited effects of +use. It is probable that the successive variations in +strength, size, and courage, whether due to so-called +spontaneous variability or to the effects of use, by the +accumulation of which male quadrupeds have acquired +these characteristic qualities, occurred rather late in +life, and were consequently to a large extent limited +in their transmission to the same sex.</p> + +<p>Under this point of view I was anxious to obtain +information in regard to the Scotch deerhound, the +sexes of which differ more in size than those of any +other breed (though blood-hounds differ considerably), +or than in any wild canine species known to me.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p><p>Accordingly, I applied to Mr. Cupples, a well-known +breeder of these dogs, who has weighed and measured +many of his own dogs, and who, with great kindness, has +collected for me the following facts from various sources. +Superior male dogs, measured at the shoulder, range +from twenty-eight inches, which is low, to thirty-three, +or even thirty-four inches in height; and in weight +from eighty pounds, which is low, to 120, or even more +pounds. The females range in height from twenty-three +to twenty-seven, or even to twenty-eight inches; +and in weight from fifty to seventy, or even eighty +pounds.<a name="FNanchor_321" id="FNanchor_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">321</a> Mr. Cupples concludes that from ninety-five +to one hundred pounds for the male, and seventy for +the female, would be a safe average; but there is reason +to believe that formerly both sexes attained a greater +weight. Mr. Cupples has weighed puppies when a +fortnight old; in one litter the average weight of four +males exceeded that of two females by six and a half +ounces; in another litter the average weight of four +males exceeded that of one female by less than one +ounce; the same males, when three weeks old, exceeded +the female by seven and a half ounces, and at the age +of six weeks by nearly fourteen ounces. Mr. Wright +of Yeldersley House, in a letter to Mr. Cupples, says: +“I have taken notes on the sizes and weights of puppies +of many litters, and as far as my experience goes, +dog-puppies as a rule differ very little from bitches +till they arrive at about five or six months old; and +then the dogs begin to increase, gaining upon the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span>bitches both in weight and size. At birth, and for +several weeks afterwards, a bitch-puppy will occasionally +be larger than any of the dogs, but they are +invariably beaten by them later.” Mr. McNeill, of +Colinsay, concludes that “the males do not attain +their full growth till over two years old, though +the females attain it sooner.” According to Mr. +Cupples’ experience, male dogs go on growing in +stature till they are from twelve to eighteen months +old, and in weight till from eighteen to twenty-four +months old; whilst the females cease increasing in +stature at the age of from nine to fourteen or fifteen +months, and in weight at the age of from twelve to +fifteen months. From these various statements it is +clear that the full difference in size between the +male and female Scotch deerhound is not acquired +until rather late in life. The males are almost exclusively +used for coursing, for, as Mr. McNeill informs +me, the females have not sufficient strength and weight +to pull down a full-grown deer. From the names used +in old legends, it appears, as I hear from Mr. Cupples, +that at a very ancient period the males were the most +celebrated, the females being mentioned only as the +mothers of famous dogs. Hence during many generations, +it is the male which has been chiefly tested +for strength, size, speed, and courage, and the best +will have been bred from. As, however, the males +do not attain their full dimensions until a rather +late period in life, they will have tended, in accordance +with the law often indicated, to transmit +their characters to their male offspring alone; and +thus the great inequality in size between the sexes +of the Scotch deerhound may probably be accounted +for.</p> + +<p>The males of some few quadrupeds possess organs or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> +parts developed solely as a means of defence against +the attacks of other males. Some kinds of deer use, +as we have seen, the upper branches of their horns +chiefly or exclusively for defending themselves; and +the Oryx antelope, as I am informed by Mr. Bartlett, +fences most skilfully with his long, gently curved horns; +but these are likewise used as organs of offence. Rhinoceroses, +as the same observer remarks, in fighting +parry each other’s sidelong blows with their horns, +which loudly clatter together, as do the tusks of boars. +Although wild boars fight desperately together, they +seldom, according to Brehm, receive fatal blows, as +these fall on each other’s tusks, or on the layer of +gristly skin covering the shoulder, which the German +hunters call the shield; and here we have a part specially +modified for defence. With boars in the prime + +<span class="figright2" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f63" id="f63"></a><img src="images/fig63.png" width="300" height="260" alt="Fig. 63. Head of common wild boar, in prime +of life (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<span class="indent2">Fig. 63. Head of common wild boar, in prime +of life (from Brehm).</span></span> + +of life (see fig. 63) the +tusks in the lower jaw +are used for fighting +but they become in +old age, as Brehm +states, so much curved +inwards and upwards, +over the snout, that +they can no longer be +thus used. They may, +however, still continue +to serve, and even in +a still more effective +manner, as a means of defence. In compensation for +the loss of the lower tusks as weapons of offence, those +in the upper jaw, which always project a little laterally, +increase so much in length during old age, and +curve so much upwards, that they can be used as a +means of attack. Nevertheless an old boar is not so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> +dangerous to man as one at the age of six or seven +years.<a name="FNanchor_322" id="FNanchor_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">322</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f64" id="f64"></a><img src="images/fig64.png" width="450" height="417" alt="Fig 64. Skull of the Babirusa Pig (from Wallace’s ‘Malay Archipelago’)" title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 64. Skull of the Babirusa Pig (from Wallace’s ‘Malay Archipelago’).</p></div> + +<p>In the full-grown male Babirusa pig of Celebes +(fig. <a href="#f64">64</a>), the lower tusks are formidable weapons, like +those of the European boar in the prime of life, whilst +the upper tusks are so long and have their points so +much curled inwards, sometimes even touching the +forehead, that they are utterly useless as weapons of +attack. They more nearly resemble horns than teeth, +and are so manifestly useless as teeth that the animal +was formerly supposed to rest his head by hooking them +on to a branch. Their convex surfaces would, however, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span>if the head were held a little laterally, serve as an +excellent guard; and hence, perhaps it is that in +old animals they “are generally broken off, as if by +fighting.”<a name="FNanchor_323" id="FNanchor_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">323</a> Here, then, we have the curious case of +the upper tusks of the Babirusa regularly assuming +during the prime of life, a structure which apparently +renders them fitted only for defence; whilst in the European +boar the lower and opposite tusks assume in a less +degree and only during old age nearly the same form, +and then serve in like manner solely for defence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f65" id="f65"></a><img src="images/fig65.png" width="450" height="268" alt="Fig. 65. Head of Æthiopian Wart-hog, from ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869. (I now find that +this drawing represents the head of a female, but it serves to shew, on a reduced +scale, the characters of the male.)" title="" /></div> + +<p class="indent2">Fig. 65. Head of Æthiopian Wart-hog, from ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869. (I now find that +this drawing represents the head of a female, but it serves to shew, on a reduced +scale, the characters of the male.)</p> + +<p>In the wart-hog (<i>Phacochœrus æthiopicus</i>, fig. 65) +the tusks in the upper jaw of the male curve upwards +during the prime of life, and from being pointed, +serve as formidable weapons. The tusks in the lower +jaw are sharper than those in the upper, but from their +shortness it seems hardly possible that they can be used +as weapons of attack. They must, however, greatly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span>strengthen those in the upper jaw, from being ground +so as to fit closely against their bases. Neither the +upper nor the lower tusks appear to have been specially +modified to act as guards, though, no doubt, they +are thus used to a certain extent. But the wart-hog is +not destitute of other special means of protection, for +there exists, on each side of the face, beneath the eyes, +a rather stiff, yet flexible, cartilaginous, oblong pad +(fig. <a href="#f65">65</a>), which projects two or three inches outwards; +and it appeared to Mr. Bartlett and myself, when viewing +the living animal, that these pads, when struck from +beneath by the tusks of an opponent, would be turned +upwards, and would thus protect in an admirable manner +the somewhat prominent eyes. These boars, as I +may add on the authority of Mr. Bartlett, when fighting +together, stand directly face to face.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the African river-hog (<i>Potamochoerus penicillatus</i>) +has a hard cartilaginous knob on each side of +the face beneath the eyes, which answers to the flexible +pad of the wart-hog; it has also two bony prominences +on the upper jaw above the nostrils. A boar of this +species in the Zoological Gardens recently broke into +the cage of the wart-hog. They fought all night-long, +and were found in the morning much exhausted, but +not seriously wounded. It is a significant fact, as +shewing the purpose of the above-described projections +and excrescences, that these were covered with blood, +and were scored and abraded in an extraordinary +manner.</p> + +<p>The mane of the lion forms a good defence against +the one danger to which he is liable, namely the attacks +of rival lions: for the males, as Sir. A. Smith +informs me, engage in terrible battles, and a young +lion dares not approach an old one. In 1857 a tiger +at Bromwich broke into the cage of a lion, and a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> +fearful scene ensued; “the lion’s mane saved his neck +and head from being much injured, but the tiger at +last succeeded in ripping up his belly, and in a few +minutes he was dead.”<a name="FNanchor_324" id="FNanchor_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">324</a> The broad ruff round the +throat and chin of the Canadian lynx (<i>Felis Canadensis</i>) +is much longer in the male than in the female; but +whether it serves as a defence I do not know. Male +seals are well known to fight desperately together, and +the males of certain kinds (<i>Otaria jubata</i>)<a name="FNanchor_325" id="FNanchor_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">325</a> have great +manes, whilst the females have small ones or none. +The male baboon of the Cape of Good Hope (<i>Cynocephalus +porcarius</i>) has a much longer mane and larger +canine teeth than the female; and the mane probably +serves as a protection, for on asking the keepers +in the Zoological Gardens, without giving them any +clue to my object, whether any of the monkeys especially +attacked each other by the nape of the neck, I +was answered that this was not the case, excepting with +the above baboon. In the Hamadryas baboon, Ehrenberg +compares the mane of the adult male to that +of a young lion, whilst in the young of both sexes and +in the female the mane is almost absent.</p> + +<p class="tb">It appeared to me probable that the immense woolly +mane of the male American bison, which reaches +almost to the ground, and is much more developed +in the males than in the females, served as a protection +to them in their terrible battles; but an experienced +hunter told Judge Caton that he had never +observed anything which favoured this belief. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span>stallion has a thicker and fuller mane than the mare; +and I have made particular inquiries of two great +trainers and breeders who have had charge of many +entire horses, and am assured that they “invariably +endeavour to seize one another by the neck.” It +does not, however, follow from the foregoing statements, +that when the hair on the neck serves as a +defence, that it was originally developed for this purpose, +though this is probable in some cases, as in that +of the lion. I am informed by Mr. McNeill that the +long hairs on the throat of the stag (<i>Cervus elephas</i>) +serve as a great protection to him when hunted, for +the dogs generally endeavour to seize him by the +throat; but it is not probable that these hairs were +specially developed for this purpose; otherwise the +young and the females would, as we may feel assured, +have been equally protected.</p> + +<p><i>On Preference or Choice in Pairing, as shewn by either +sex of Quadrupeds.</i>—Before describing, in the next chapter, +the differences between the sexes in voice, odour +emitted, and ornamentation, it will be convenient here +to consider whether the sexes exert any choice in their +unions. Does the female prefer any particular male, +either before or after the males may have fought together +for supremacy; or does the male, when not a polygamist, +select any particular female? The general impression +amongst breeders seems to be that the male +accepts any female; and this, owing to his eagerness, +is, in most cases, probably the truth. Whether the +female as a general rule indifferently accepts any male +is much more doubtful. In the fourteenth chapter, +on Birds, a considerable body of direct and indirect +evidence was advanced, shewing that the female selects +her partner; and it would be a strange anomaly if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> +female quadrupeds, which stand higher in the scale of +organisation and have higher mental powers, did not +generally, or at least often, exert some choice. The +female could in most cases escape, if wooed by a male +that did not please or excite her; and when pursued, +as so incessantly occurs, by several males, she would +often have the opportunity, whilst they were fighting +together, of escaping with, or at least of temporarily +pairing with, some one male. This latter contingency +has often been observed in Scotland with female red-deer, +as I have been informed by Sir Philip Egerton.<a name="FNanchor_326" id="FNanchor_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">326</a></p> + +<p>It is scarcely possible that much should be known +about female quadrupeds exerting in a state of nature +any choice in their marriage unions. The following +very curious details on the courtship of one of the +eared seals, <i>Callorhinus ursinus</i>, are given<a name="FNanchor_327" id="FNanchor_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">327</a> on the +authority of Capt. Bryant, who had ample opportunities +for observation. He says, “Many of the females on +their arrival at the island where they breed appear +desirous of returning to some particular male, and +frequently climb the outlying rocks to overlook the +rookeries, calling out and listening as if for a familiar +voice. Then changing to another place they do the +same again.... As soon as a female reaches the +shore, the nearest male goes down to meet her, making +meanwhile a noise like the clucking of a hen to her +chickens. He bows to her and coaxes her until he +gets between her and the water so that she cannot +escape him. Then his manner changes, and with a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span>harsh growl he drives her to a place in his harem. +This continues until the lower row of harems is +nearly full. Then the males higher up select the +time when their more fortunate neighbours are off +their guard to steal their wives. This they do by +taking them in their mouths and lifting them over +the heads of the other females, and carefully placing +them in their own harem, carrying them as cats do +their kittens. Those still higher up pursue the same +method until the whole space is occupied. Frequently +a struggle ensues between two males for the possession +of the same female, and both seizing her at once pull +her in two or terribly lacerate her with their teeth. +When the space is all filled, the old male walks around +complacently reviewing his family, scolding those +who crowd or disturb the others, and fiercely driving +off all intruders. This surveillance always keeps him +actively occupied.”</p> + +<p>As so little is known about the courtship of animals in +a state of nature, I have endeavoured to discover how far +our domesticated quadrupeds evince any choice in their +unions. Dogs offer the best opportunity for observation, +as they are carefully attended to and well understood. +Many breeders have expressed a strong opinion on this +head. Thus Mr. Mayhew remarks, “The females are +able to bestow their affections; and tender recollections +are as potent over them as they are known to +be in other cases, where higher animals are concerned. +Bitches are not always prudent in their +loves, but are apt to fling themselves away on curs +of low degree. If reared with a companion of vulgar +appearance, there often springs up between the pair a +devotion which no time can afterwards subdue. The +passion, for such it really is, becomes of a more than +romantic endurance.” Mr. Mayhew, who attended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> +chiefly to the smaller breeds, is convinced that the +females are strongly attracted by males of large size.<a name="FNanchor_328" id="FNanchor_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">328</a> +The well-known veterinary Blaine states<a name="FNanchor_329" id="FNanchor_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">329</a> that his own +female pug became so attached to a spaniel, and a +female setter to a cur, that in neither case would they +pair with a dog of their own breed until several weeks +had elapsed. Two similar and trustworthy accounts +have been given me in regard to a female retriever +and a spaniel, both of which became enamoured with +terrier-dogs.</p> + +<p>Mr. Cupples informs me that he can personally vouch +for the accuracy of the following more remarkable case, +in which a valuable and wonderfully-intelligent female +terrier loved a retriever, belonging to a neighbour, to +such a degree that she had often to be dragged away +from him. After their permanent separation, although +repeatedly shewing milk in her teats, she would never +acknowledge the courtship of any other dog, and to the +regret of her owner, never bore puppies. Mr. Cupples +also states that a female deerhound now (1868) in his +kennel has thrice produced puppies, and on each +occasion shewed a marked preference for one of the +largest and handsomest, but not the most eager, of four +deerhounds living with her, all in the prime of life. +Mr. Cupples has observed that the female generally +favours a dog whom she has associated with and +knows; her shyness and timidity at first incline her +against a strange dog. The male, on the contrary, +seems rather inclined towards strange females. It +appears to be rare when the male refuses any particular +female, but Mr. Wright, of Yeldersley House, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>a great breeder of dogs, informs me that he has known +some instances; he cites the case of one of his own +deerhounds, who would not take any notice of a particular +female mastiff, so that another deerhound had +to be employed. It would be superfluous to give other +cases, and I will only add that Mr. Barr, who has carefully +bred many blood-hounds, states that in almost +every instance particular individuals of the opposite +sex shew a decided preference for each other. Finally +Mr. Cupples, after attending to this subject for another +year, has recently written to me, “I have had full confirmation +of my former statement, that dogs in breeding +form decided preferences for each other, being +often influenced by size, bright colour, and individual +character, as well as by the degree of their previous +familiarity.”</p> + +<p>In regard to horses, Mr. Blenkiron, the greatest +breeder of race-horses in the world, informs me that +stallions are so frequently capricious in their choice, +rejecting one mare and without any apparent cause +taking to another, that various artifices have to be +habitually used. The famous Monarque, for instance, +would never consciously look at the dam of Gladiateur, +and a trick had to be practised. We can partly see the +reason why valuable race-horse stallions, which are in +such demand, should be so particular in their choice. +Mr. Blenkiron has never known a mare to reject a +horse; but this has occurred in Mr. Wright’s stable, +so that the mare had to be cheated. Prosper Lucas<a name="FNanchor_330" id="FNanchor_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">330</a> +quotes various statements from French authorities, and +remarks, “On voit des étalons qui s’éprennent d’une +jument, et négligent toutes les autres.” He gives, on +the authority of Baëlen, similar facts in regard to bulls. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span> +Hoffberg, in describing the domesticated reindeer of +Lapland, says, “Fœmina majores et fortiores mares +præ cæteris admittunt, ad eos confugiunt, a junioribus +agitatæ, qui hos in fugam conjiciunt.”<a name="FNanchor_331" id="FNanchor_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">331</a> A clergy-man, +who has bred many pigs, assures me that sows +often reject one boar and immediately accept another.</p> + +<p>From these facts there can be no doubt that with +most of our domesticated quadrupeds strong individual +antipathies and preferences are frequently exhibited, +and much more commonly by the female than by the +male. This being the case, it is improbable that the +unions of quadrupeds in a state of nature should be +left to mere chance. It is much more probable that +the females are allured or excited by particular males, +who possess certain characters in a higher degree than +other males; but what these characters are, we can +seldom or never discover with certainty.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Mammals</span>—<i>continued</i>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Voice—Remarkable sexual peculiarities in seals—Odour—Development +of the hair—Colour of the hair and skin—Anomalous +case of the female being more ornamented than the male—Colour +and ornaments due to sexual selection—Colour acquired +for the sake of protection—Colour, though common to both +sexes, often due to sexual selection—On the disappearance of +spots and stripes in adult quadrupeds—On the colours and +ornaments of the Quadrumana—Summary.</p></div> + +<p>Quadrupeds use their voices for various purposes, +as a signal of danger, as a call from one member of +a troop to another, or from the mother to her lost +offspring, or from the latter for protection to their +mother; but such uses need not here be considered. +We are concerned only with the difference between the +voices of the two sexes, for instance between that of +the lion and lioness, or of the bull and cow. Almost +all male animals use their voices much more during +the rutting-season than at any other time; and some, +as the giraffe and porcupine,<a name="FNanchor_332" id="FNanchor_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">332</a> are said to be completely +mute excepting at this season. As the throats (i.e. the +larynx and thyroid bodies<a name="FNanchor_333" id="FNanchor_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">333</a>) of stags become periodically +enlarged at the commencement of the breeding-season, +it might be thought that their powerful voices +must be then in some way of high importance to them; +but this is very doubtful. From information given to +me by two experienced observers, Mr. McNeill and Sir +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>P. Egerton, it seems that young stags under three +years old do not roar or bellow; and that the old ones +begin bellowing at the commencement of the breeding-season, +at first only occasionally and moderately, whilst +they restlessly wander about in search of the females. +Their battles are prefaced by loud and prolonged bellowing, +but during the actual conflict they are silent. +Animals of all kinds which habitually use their voices, +utter various noises under any strong emotion, as when +enraged and preparing to fight; but this may merely +be the result of their nervous excitement, which leads +to the spasmodic contraction of almost all the muscles of +the body, as when a man grinds his teeth and clenches +his hands in rage or agony. No doubt stags challenge +each other to mortal combat by bellowing; but it is +not likely that this habit could have led through +sexual selection, that is by the loudest-voiced males +having been the most successful in their conflicts, to +the periodical enlargement of the vocal organs; for the +stags with the most powerful voices, unless at the same +time the strongest, best-armed, and most courageous, +would not have gained any advantage over their rivals +with weaker voices. The stags, moreover, which had +weaker voices, though not so well able to challenge other +stags, would have been drawn to the place of combat as +certainly as those with stronger voices.</p> + +<p>It is possible that the roaring of the lion may be +of some actual service to him in striking terror into +his adversary; for when enraged he likewise erects his +mane and thus instinctively tries to make himself appear +as terrible as possible. But it can hardly be supposed +that the bellowing of the stag, even if it be of +any service to him in this way, can have been important +enough to have led to the periodical enlargement +of the throat. Some writers suggest that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span> +bellowing serves as a call to the female; but the +experienced observers above quoted inform me that +female deer do not search for the male, though the +males search eagerly for the females, as indeed might +be expected from what we know of the habits of +other male quadrupeds. The voice of the female, +on the other hand, quickly brings to her one or more +stags,<a name="FNanchor_334" id="FNanchor_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">334</a> as is well known to the hunters who in wild +countries imitate her cry. If we could believe that +the male had the power to excite or allure the female +by his voice, the periodical enlargement of his vocal +organs would be intelligible on the principle of sexual +selection, together with inheritance limited to the same +sex and season of the year; but we have no evidence +in favour of this view. As the case stands, the loud +voice of the stag during the breeding season does not +seem to be of any special service to him, either during +his courtship or battles, or in any other way. But may +we not believe that the frequent use of the voice, under +the strong excitement of love, jealousy, and rage, continued +during many generations, may at last have +produced an inherited effect on the vocal organs of +the stag, as well as of other male animals? This +appears to me, with our present state of knowledge, +the most probable view.</p> + +<p>The male gorilla has a tremendous voice, and when +adult is furnished with a laryngeal sack, as is likewise +the adult male orang.<a name="FNanchor_335" id="FNanchor_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">335</a> The gibbons rank amongst the +noisiest of monkeys, and the Sumatra species (<i>Hylobates +syndactylus</i>) is also furnished with a laryngeal sack; but +Mr. Blyth, who has had opportunities for observation, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>does not believe that the male is more noisy than the +female. Hence, these latter monkeys probably use their +voices as a mutual call; and this is certainly the case +with some quadrupeds, for instance with the beaver.<a name="FNanchor_336" id="FNanchor_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">336</a> +Another gibbon, the <i>H. agilis</i>, is highly remarkable, +from having the power of emitting a complete and +correct octave of musical notes,<a name="FNanchor_337" id="FNanchor_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">337</a> which we may reasonably +suspect serves as a sexual charm; but I shall have to +recur to this subject in the next chapter. The vocal +organs of the American <i>Mycetes caraya</i> are one-third +larger in the male than in the female, and are wonderfully +powerful. These monkeys, when the weather is +warm, make the forests resound during the morning and +evening with their overwhelming voices. The males +begin the dreadful concert, in which the females, with +their less powerful voices, sometimes join, and which +is often continued during many hours. An excellent +observer, Rengger,<a name="FNanchor_338" id="FNanchor_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">338</a> could not perceive that they were +excited to begin their concert by any special cause; he +thinks that like many birds, they delight in their own +music, and try to excel each other. Whether most of the +foregoing monkeys have acquired their powerful voices +in order to beat their rivals and to charm the females—or +whether the vocal organs have been strengthened +and enlarged through the inherited effects of long-continued +use without any particular good being gained—I +will not pretend to say; but the former view, at +least in the case of the <i>Hylobates agilis</i>, seems the most +probable.</p> + +<p class="tb">I may here mention two very curious sexual peculiarities +occurring in seals, because they have been sup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>posed +by some writers to affect the voice. The nose of +the male sea-elephant (<i>Macrorhinus proboscideus</i>), when +about three years old, is greatly elongated during the +breeding-season, and can then be erected. In this state +it is sometimes a foot in length. The female at no +period of life is thus provided, and her voice is different. +That of the male consists of a wild, hoarse, +gurgling noise, which is audible at a great distance, +and is believed to be strengthened by the proboscis. +Lesson compares the erection of the proboscis, to the +swelling of the wattles of male gallinaceous birds, whilst +they court the females. In another allied kind of seal, +namely, the bladder-nose (<i>Cystophora cristata</i>), the head +is covered by a great hood or bladder. This is internally +supported by the septum of the nose, which is +produced far backwards and rises into a crest seven +inches in height. The hood is clothed with short hair, +and is muscular; it can be inflated until it more than +equals the whole head in size! The males when rutting +fight furiously on the ice, and their roaring “is +said to be sometimes so loud as to be heard four +miles off.” When attacked by man they likewise roar +or bellow; and whenever irritated the bladder is inflated. +Some naturalists believe that the voice is thus +strengthened, but various other uses have been assigned +to this extraordinary structure. Mr. R. Brown thinks +that it serves as a protection against accidents of all +kinds. This latter view is not probable, if what the +sealers have long maintained is correct, namely, that +the hood or bladder is very poorly developed in the +females and in the males whilst young.<a name="FNanchor_339" id="FNanchor_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">339</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span> +<i>Odour.</i>—With some animals, as with the notorious +skunk of America, the overwhelming odour which they +emit appears to serve exclusively as a means of defence. +With shrew-mice (<i>Sorex</i>) both sexes possess abdominal +scent-glands, and there can be little doubt, from the +manner in which their bodies are rejected by birds and +beasts of prey, that their odour is protective; nevertheless +the glands become enlarged in the males during +the breeding-season. In many quadrupeds the glands +are of the same size in both sexes;<a name="FNanchor_340" id="FNanchor_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">340</a> but their use is +not known. In other species the glands are confined +to the males, or are more developed in them than in +the females; and they almost always become more +active during the rutting-season. At this period the +glands on the sides of the face of the male elephant +enlarge and emit a secretion having a strong musky +odour.</p> + +<p>The rank effluvium of the male goat is well known, +and that of certain male deer is wonderfully strong +and persistent. On the banks of the Plata I have perceived +the whole air tainted with the odour of the male +<i>Cervus campestris</i>, at the distance of half a mile to +leeward of a herd; and a silk handkerchief, in which I +carried home a skin, though repeatedly used and washed, +retained, when first unfolded, traces of the odour for +one year and seven months. This animal does not emit +its strong odour until more than a year old, and if cas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span>trated +whilst young never emits it.<a name="FNanchor_341" id="FNanchor_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">341</a> Besides the general +odour, with which the whole body of certain ruminants +seems to be permeated during the breeding-season, many +deer, antelopes, sheep, and goats, possess odoriferous +glands in various situations, more especially on their +faces. The so-called tear-sacks or suborbital pits come +under this head. These glands secrete a semi-fluid +fetid matter, which is sometimes so copious as to stain +the whole face, as I have seen in the case of an antelope. +They are “usually larger in the male than in +the female, and their development is checked by castration.”<a name="FNanchor_342" id="FNanchor_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">342</a> +According to Desmarest they are altogether +absent in the female of <i>Antilope subgutturosa</i>. +Hence, there can be no doubt that they stand in some +close relation with the reproductive functions. They +are also sometimes present, and sometimes absent, in +nearly-allied forms. In the adult male musk-deer +(<i>Moschus moschiferus</i>), a naked space round the tail +is bedewed with an odoriferous fluid, whilst in the +adult female, and in the male, until two years old, this +space is covered with hair and is not odoriferous. The +proper musk-sack, from its position, is necessarily confined +to the male, and forms an additional scent-organ. +It is a singular fact that the matter secreted by this +latter gland does not, according to Pallas, change in +consistence, or increase in quantity, during the rutting-season; +nevertheless this naturalist admits that its presence +is in some way connected with the act of repro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>duction. +He gives, however, only a conjectural and +unsatisfactory explanation of its use.<a name="FNanchor_343" id="FNanchor_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">343</a></p> + +<p class="tb">In most cases, when during the breeding-season the +male alone emits a strong odour, this probably serves +to excite or allure the female. We must not judge +on this head by our own taste, for it is well known +that rats are enticed by certain essential oils, and +cats by valerian, substances which are far from agreeable +to us; and that dogs, though they will not eat +carrion, sniff and roll in it. From the reasons given +when discussing the voice of the stag, we may reject +the idea that the odour serves to bring the females +from a distance to the males. Active and long-continued +use cannot here have come into play, as in the case of +the vocal organs. The odour emitted must be of considerable +importance to the male, inasmuch as large +and complex glands, furnished with muscles for everting +the sack, and for closing or opening the orifice, +have in some cases been developed. The development +of these organs is intelligible through sexual selection, +if the more odoriferous males are the most successful in +winning the females, and in leaving offspring to inherit +their gradually-perfected glands and odours.</p> + +<p><i>Development of the Hair.</i>—We have seen that male +quadrupeds often have the hair on their necks and +shoulders much more developed than in the females; +and many additional instances could be given. This +sometimes serves as a defence to the male during his +battles; but whether the hair in most cases has been +specially developed for this purpose is very doubtful. +We may feel almost certain that this is not the case, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span>when a thin and narrow crest runs along the whole +length of the back; for a crest of this kind would +afford scarcely any protection, and the ridge of the back +is not a likely place to be injured; nevertheless such +crests are sometimes confined to the males, or are +much more developed in them than in the females. +Two antelopes, the <i>Tragelaphus scriptus</i><a name="FNanchor_344" id="FNanchor_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">344</a> (see fig. <a href="#f68">68</a>, +p. 300) and <i>Portax picta</i>, may be given as instances. +The crests of certain stags and of the male wild goat +stand erect, when these animals are enraged or terrified;<a name="FNanchor_345" id="FNanchor_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">345</a> +but it can hardly be supposed that they have +been acquired for the sake of exciting fear in their +enemies. One of the above-named antelopes, the <i>Portax +picta</i>, has a large well-defined brush of black hair on +the throat, and this is much larger in the male than in +the female. In the <i>Ammotragus tragelaphus</i> of North +Africa, a member of the sheep-family, the front-legs +are almost concealed by an extraordinary growth of +hair, which descends from the neck and upper halves +of the legs; but Mr. Bartlett does not believe that this +mantle is of the least use to the male, in whom it is +much more developed than in the female.</p> + +<p>Male quadrupeds of many kinds differ from the +females in having more hair, or hair of a different +character, on certain parts of their faces. The bull +alone has curled hair on the forehead.<a name="FNanchor_346" id="FNanchor_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">346</a> In three +closely-allied sub-genera of the goat family, the males +alone possess beards, sometimes of large size; in two +other sub-genera both sexes have a beard, but this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>disappears in some of the domestic breeds of the common +goat; and neither sex of the <i>Hemitragus</i> has a +beard. In the ibex the beard is not developed during +the summer, and is so small at other seasons that it +may be called rudimentary.<a name="FNanchor_347" id="FNanchor_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">347</a> With some monkeys the +beard is confined to the male, as in the Orang, or is +much larger in the male than in the female, as in the +<i>Mycetes caraya</i> and <i>Pithecia satanas</i> (fig. <a href="#f66">66</a>). So it is +with the whiskers of some species of <i>Macacus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_348" id="FNanchor_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">348</a> and, as +we have seen, with the manes of some species of baboons. +But with most kinds of monkeys the various tufts of +hair about the face and head are alike in both sexes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f66" id="f66"></a><img src="images/fig66.png" width="500" height="455" alt="Fig. 66. Pithecia Satanas, male (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 66. <i>Pithecia Satanas</i>, male (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span></p> + +<p>The males of various members of the Ox family +(Bovidæ), and of certain antelopes, are furnished with +a dewlap, or great fold of skin on the neck, which is +much less developed in the female.</p> + +<p>Now, what must we conclude with respect to such +sexual differences as these? No one will pretend that +the beards of certain male-goats, or the dewlap of the +bull, or the crests of hair along the backs of certain +male antelopes, are of any direct or ordinary use to +them. It is possible that the immense beard of the +male <i>Pithecia</i>, and the large beard of the male Orang, +may protect their throats when fighting; for the keepers +in the Zoological Gardens inform me that many monkeys +attack each other by the throat: but it is not probable +that the beard has been developed for a distinct +purpose from that which the whiskers, moustache, +and other tufts of hair on the face serve; and no one +will suppose that these are useful as a protection. Must +we attribute to mere purposeless variability in the male +all these appendages of hair or skin? It cannot be denied +that this is possible; for with many domesticated +quadrupeds, certain characters, apparently not derived +through reversion from any wild parent-form, have appeared +in, and are confined to, the males, or are more +largely developed in them than in the females,—for instance +the hump in the male zebu-cattle of India, the +tail in fat-tailed rams, the arched outline of the forehead +in the males of several breeds of sheep, the mane in the +ram of an African breed, and, lastly, the mane, long +hairs on the hinder legs, and the dewlap in the male +alone of the Berbura goat.<a name="FNanchor_349" id="FNanchor_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">349</a> The mane which occurs in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>the rams alone of the above-mentioned African breed of +sheep, is a true secondary sexual character, for it is not +developed, as I hear from Mr. Winwood Reade, if the +animal be castrated. Although we ought to be extremely +cautious, as shewn in my work on ‘Variation +under Domestication,’ in concluding that any character, +even with animals kept by semi-civilised people, has +not been subjected to selection by man, and thus augmented; +yet in the cases just specified this is improbable, +more especially as the characters are confined +to the males, or are more strongly developed in them +than in the females. If it were positively known that +the African ram with a mane was descended from the +same primitive stock with the other breeds of sheep, +or the Berbura male-goat with his mane, dewlap, &c., +from the same stock with other goats; and if selection +has not been applied to these characters, then +they must be due to simple variability, together with +sexually-limited inheritance.</p> + +<p class="tb">t would appear reasonable to extend +the same view to the many analogous characters +occurring in animals under a state of nature. Nevertheless +I cannot persuade myself that this view is +applicable in many cases, as in that of the extraordinary +development of hair on the throat and forelegs +of the male <i>Ammotragus</i>, or of the immense beard of +the male <i>Pithecia</i>. With those antelopes in which the +male when adult is more strongly-coloured than the +female, and with those monkeys in which this is likewise +the case, and in which the hair on the face is of a +different colour from that on the rest of the head, being +arranged in the most diversified and elegant manner, +it seems probable that the crests and tufts of hair have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>been acquired as ornaments; and this I know is the +opinion of some naturalists. If this view be correct, +there can be little doubt that they have been acquired, +or at least modified, through sexual selection.</p> + +<p><i>Colour of the Hair and of the Naked Skin.</i>—I will +first give briefly all the cases known to me, of male +quadrupeds differing in colour from the females. With +Marsupials, as I am informed by Mr. Gould, the sexes +rarely differ in this respect; but the great red kangaroo +offers a striking exception, “delicate blue being +the prevailing tint in those parts of the female, +which in the male are red.”<a name="FNanchor_350" id="FNanchor_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">350</a> In the <i>Didelphis opossum</i> +of Cayenne the female is said to be a little more +red than the male. With Rodents Dr. Gray remarks: +“African squirrels, especially those found in the tropical +regions, have the fur much brighter and more +vivid at some seasons of the year than at others, and +the fur of the male is generally brighter than that +of the female.”<a name="FNanchor_351" id="FNanchor_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">351</a> Dr. Gray informs me that he +specified the African squirrels, because, from their unusually +bright colours, they best exhibit this difference. +The female of the <i>Mus minutus</i> of Russia is of +a paler and dirtier tint than the male. In some few +bats the fur of the male is lighter and brighter than +in the female.<a name="FNanchor_352" id="FNanchor_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">352</a></p> + +<p>The terrestrial Carnivora and Insectivora rarely exhibit +sexual differences of any kind, and their colours +are almost always exactly the same in both sexes. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span>ocelot (<i>Felis pardalis</i>), however, offers an exception, for +the colours of the female, compared with those of the +male, are “moins apparentes, le fauve étant plus terne, +le blanc moins pur, les raies ayant moins de largeur +et les taches moins de diamètre.”<a name="FNanchor_353" id="FNanchor_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">353</a> The sexes of +the allied <i>Felis mitis</i> also differ, but even in a less +degree, the general hues of the female being rather +paler than in the male, with the spots less black. +The marine Carnivora or Seals, on the other hand, +sometimes differ considerably in colour, and they present, +as we have already seen, other remarkable sexual +differences. Thus the male of the <i>Otaria nigrescens</i> +of the southern hemisphere is of a rich brown shade +above; whilst the female, who acquires her adult tints +earlier in life than the male, is dark-grey above, the +young of both sexes being of a very deep chocolate +colour. The male of the northern <i>Phoca groenlandica</i> +is tawny grey, with a curious saddle-shaped dark mark +on the back; the female is much smaller, and has a +very different appearance, being “dull white or yellowish +straw-colour, with a tawny hue on the back;” the +young at first are pure white, and can “hardly be distinguished +among the icy hummocks and snow, their +colour thus acting as a protection.”<a name="FNanchor_354" id="FNanchor_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">354</a></p> + +<p>With Ruminants sexual differences of colour occur +more commonly than in any other order. A difference +of this kind is general with the Strepsicerene antelopes; +thus the male nilghau (<i>Portax picta</i>) is bluish-grey +and much darker than the female, with the square white +patch on the throat, the white marks on the fetlocks, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>and the black spots on the ears, all much more distinct. +We have seen that in this species the crests and +tufts of hair are likewise more developed in the male +than in the hornless female. The male, as I am +informed by Mr. Blyth, without shedding his hair, +periodically becomes darker during the breeding-season. +Young males cannot be distinguished from young +females until above twelve months old; and if the +male is emasculated before this period, he never, according +to the same authority, changes colour. The importance +of this latter fact, as distinctive of sexual colouring, +becomes obvious, when we hear<a name="FNanchor_355" id="FNanchor_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">355</a> that neither the red +summer-coat nor the blue winter-coat of the Virginian +deer is at all affected by emasculation. With most or +all of the highly-ornamented species of <i>Tragelaphus</i> the +males are darker than the hornless females, and their +crests of hair are more fully developed. In the male +of that magnificent antelope, the <i>Derbyan Eland</i>, the +body is redder, the whole neck much blacker, and the +white band which separates these colours, broader, +than in the female. In the Cape Eland also, the male +is slightly darker than the female.<a name="FNanchor_356" id="FNanchor_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">356</a></p> + +<p>In the Indian Black-buck (<i>A. bezoartica</i>), which belongs +to another tribe of antelopes, the male is very dark, almost +black; whilst the hornless female is fawn-coloured. We +have in this species, as Mr. Blyth informs me, an exactly +parallel series of facts, as with the <i>Portax picta</i>, namely in +the male periodically changing colour during the breed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span>ing +season, in the effects of emasculation on this change, +and in the young of both sexes being undistinguishable +from each other. In the <i>Antilope niger</i> the male is +black, the female as well as the young being brown; in +<i>A. sing-sing</i> the male is much brighter coloured than the +hornless female, and his chest and belly are blacker; +in the male <i>A. caama</i>, the marks and lines which occur +on various parts of the body are black instead of as +in the female brown; in the brindled gnu (<i>A. gorgon</i>) +“the colours of the male are nearly the same as those +of the female, only deeper and of a brighter hue.”<a name="FNanchor_357" id="FNanchor_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">357</a> +Other analogous cases could be added.</p> + +<p>The Banteng bull (<i>Bos sondaicus</i>) of the Malayan +archipelago is almost black, with white legs and buttocks; +the cow is of a bright dun, as are the young +males until about the age of three years, when they +rapidly change colour. The emasculated bull reverts +to the colour of the female. The female Kemas goat +is paler, and the female <i>Capra ægagrus</i> is said to be +more uniformly tinted than their respective males. +Deer rarely present any sexual differences in colour. +Judge Caton, however, informs me that with the males +of the Wapiti deer (<i>Cervus Canadensis</i>) the neck, belly, +and legs are much darker than the same parts in the +female; but during the winter the darker tints gradually +fade away and disappear. I may here mention that +Judge Caton has in his park three races of the Virginian +deer, which differ slightly in colour, but the +differences are almost exclusively confined to the blue +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span>winter or breeding coat; so that this case may be +compared with those given in a previous chapter of +closely-allied or representative species of birds which +differ from each other only in their nuptial plumage.<a name="FNanchor_358" id="FNanchor_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">358</a> +The females of <i>Cervus paludosus</i> of S. America, as +well as the young of both sexes, do not possess the +black stripes on the nose, and the blackish-brown line +on the breast which characterise the adult males.<a name="FNanchor_359" id="FNanchor_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">359</a> +Lastly, the mature male of the beautifully coloured and +spotted Axis deer is considerably darker, as I am informed +by Mr. Blyth, than the female; and this hue +the castrated male never acquires.</p> + +<p>The last Order which we have to consider—for I am +not aware that sexual differences in colour occur in +the other mammalian groups—is that of the Primates. +The male of the <i>Lemur macaco</i> is coal-black, whilst +the female is reddish-yellow, but highly variable in +colour.<a name="FNanchor_360" id="FNanchor_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">360</a> Of the Quadrumana of the New World, the +females and young of <i>Mycetes caraya</i> are greyish-yellow +and alike; in the second year the young male +becomes reddish-brown, in the third year black, excepting +the stomach, which, however, becomes quite +black in the fourth or fifth year. There is also a +strongly-marked difference in colour between the sexes +in <i>Mycetes seniculus</i> and <i>Cebus capucinus</i>; the young +of the former and I believe of the latter species resembling +the females. With <i>Pithecia leucocephala</i> the +young likewise resemble the females, which are brownish-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span>black +above and light rusty-red beneath, the adult +males being black. The ruff of hair round the face +of <i>Ateles marginatus</i> is tinted yellow in the male and +white in the female. Turning to the Old World, the +males of <i>Hylobates hoolock</i> are always black, with the +exception of a white band over the brows; the females +vary from whity-brown to a dark tint mixed with +black, but are never wholly black.<a name="FNanchor_361" id="FNanchor_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">361</a> In the beautiful +<i>Cercopithecus diana</i> the head of the adult male is of an +intense black, whilst that of the female is dark grey; in +the former the fur between the thighs is of an elegant +fawn-colour, in the latter it is paler. In the equally +beautiful and curious moustache monkey (<i>Cercopithecus +cephus</i>) the only difference between the sexes is that +the tail of the male is chesnut and that of the female +grey; but Mr. Bartlett informs me that all the hues +become more strongly pronounced in the male when +adult, whilst in the female they remain as they were +during youth. According to the coloured figures given +by Solomon Müller, the male of <i>Semnopithecus chrysomelas</i> +is nearly black, the female being pale brown. +In the <i>Cercopithecus cynosurus</i> and <i>griseo-viridis</i> one +part of the body which is confined to the male sex is of +the most brilliant blue or green, and contrasts strikingly +with the naked skin on the hinder part of the body, +which is vivid red.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f67" id="f67"></a><img src="images/fig67.png" width="400" height="485" alt="Fig. 67. Head of male Mandrill (from Gervais, ‘Hist. Nat des Mammifères’)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 67. Head of male Mandrill (from Gervais, ‘Hist. Nat des Mammifères’).</p></div> + +<p>Lastly, in the Baboon family, the adult male of <i>Cynocephalus +hamadryas</i> differs from the female not only by +his immense mane, but slightly in the colour of the hair +and of the naked callosities. In the drill (<i>Cynocephalus +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span>leucophœus</i>) the females and young are much paler-coloured, +with less green, than the adult males. No +other member of the whole class of mammals is coloured +in so extraordinary a manner as the adult male mandrill +(<i>Cynocephalus mormon</i>). The face at this age becomes +of a fine blue, with the ridge and tip of the nose of the +most brilliant red. According to some authors the face +is also marked with whitish stripes, and is shaded in parts +with black, but the colours appear to be variable. On +the forehead there is a crest of hair, and on the chin a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>yellow beard. “Toutes les parties supérieures de leurs +cuisses et le grand espace nu de leurs fesses sont +également colorés du rouge le plus vif, avec un +mélange de bleu qui ne manque réellement pas +d’élégance.”<a name="FNanchor_362" id="FNanchor_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">362</a> When the animal is excited all the naked +parts become much more vividly tinted. Several authors +have used the strongest expressions in describing these +resplendent colours, which they compare with those of +the most brilliant birds. Another most remarkable +peculiarity is that when the great canine teeth are fully +developed, immense protuberances of bone are formed +on each cheek, which are deeply furrowed longitudinally, +and the naked skin over them is brilliantly-coloured, as +just described. (Fig. 67.) In the adult females and in +the young of both sexes these protuberances are scarcely +perceptible; and the naked parts are much less brightly +coloured, the face being almost black, tinged with blue. +In the adult female, however, the nose at certain regular +intervals of time becomes tinted with red.</p> + +<p class="tb">In all the cases hitherto given the male is more +strongly or brightly coloured than the female, and differs +in a greater degree from the young of both sexes. +But as a reversed style of colouring is characteristic of +the two sexes with some few birds, so with the Rhesus +monkey (<i>Macacus rhesus</i>) the female has a large surface +of naked skin round the tail, of a brilliant carmine red, +which periodically becomes, as I was assured by the +keepers in the Zoological Gardens, even more vivid, +and her face is also pale red. On the other hand with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>the adult male and with the young of both sexes, as I +saw in the Gardens, neither the naked skin at the +posterior end of the body, nor the face, shew a trace +of red. It appears, however, from some published +accounts, that the male does occasionally, or during +certain seasons, exhibit some traces of the red. Although +he is thus less ornamented than the female, yet in the +larger size of his body, larger canine teeth, more developed +whiskers, more prominent superciliary ridges, +he follows the common rule of the male excelling the +female.</p> + +<p>I have now given all the cases known to me of a difference +in colour between the sexes of mammals. The +colours of the female either do not differ in a sufficient +degree from those of the male, or are not of a suitable +nature, to afford her protection, and therefore cannot be +explained on this principle. In some, perhaps in many +cases, the differences may be the result of variations +confined to one sex and transmitted to the same sex, +without any good having been thus gained, and therefore +without the aid of selection. We have instances +of this kind with our domesticated animals, as in the +males of certain cats being rusty-red, whilst the females +are tortoise-shell coloured. Analogous cases occur +under nature; Mr. Bartlett has seen many black varieties +of the jaguar, leopard, vulpine phalanger and +wombat; and he is certain that all, or nearly all, were +males. On the other hand, both sexes of wolves, +foxes, and apparently of American squirrels, are occasionally +born black. Hence it is quite possible that +with some mammals the blackness of the males, especially +when this colour is congenital, may simply be the +result, without the aid of selection, of one or more +variations having occurred, which from the first were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> +sexually limited in their transmission. Nevertheless +it can hardly be admitted that the diversified, vivid, +and contrasted colours of certain quadrupeds, for instance +of the above-mentioned monkeys and antelopes, +can thus be accounted for. We should bear in mind +that these colours do not appear in the male at birth, +as in the case of most ordinary variations, but only at +or near maturity; and that unlike ordinary variations, +if the male be emasculated, they never appear or subsequently +disappear. It is on the whole a much more +probable conclusion that the strongly-marked colours +and other ornamental characters of male quadrupeds +are beneficial to them in their rivalry with other males, +and have consequently been acquired through sexual +selection. The probability of this view is strengthened +by the differences in colour between the sexes occurring +almost exclusively, as may be observed by going +through the previous details, in those groups and subgroups +of mammals, which present other and distinct +secondary sexual characters; these being likewise due +to the action of sexual selection.</p> + +<p>Quadrupeds manifestly take notice of colour. Sir +S. Baker repeatedly observed that the African elephant +and rhinoceros attacked with special fury white or grey +horses. I have elsewhere shewn<a name="FNanchor_363" id="FNanchor_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">363</a> that half-wild horses +apparently prefer pairing with those of the same colour, +and that herds of fallow-deer of a different colour, though +living together, have long kept distinct. It is a more +significant fact that a female zebra would not admit the +addresses of a male ass until he was painted so as to +resemble a zebra, and then, as John Hunter remarks, +“she received him very readily. In this curious fact, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>we have instinct excited by mere colour, which had +so strong an effect as to get the better of everything +else. But the male did not require this, the +female being an animal somewhat similar to himself, +was sufficient to rouse him.”<a name="FNanchor_364" id="FNanchor_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">364</a></p> + +<p>In an early chapter we have seen that the mental +powers of the higher animals do not differ in kind, +though so greatly in degree, from the corresponding +powers of man, especially of the lower and barbarous +races; and it would appear that even their taste for the +beautiful is not widely different from that of the Quadrumana. +As the negro of Africa raises the flesh on his +face into parallel ridges “or cicatrices, high above the +natural surface, which unsightly deformities, are considered +great personal attractions;”<a name="FNanchor_365" id="FNanchor_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">365</a>—as negroes, as +well as savages in many parts of the world, paint their +faces with red, blue, white, or black bars,—so the +male mandrill of Africa appears to have acquired his +deeply-furrowed and gaudily-coloured face from having +been thus rendered attractive to the female. No doubt +it is to us a most grotesque notion that the posterior +end of the body should have been coloured for the +sake of ornament even more brilliantly than the face; +but this is really not more strange than that the +tails of many birds should have been especially decorated.</p> + +<p class="tb">e do not at present possess any evidence +that the males take pains to display their charms +before the female; and the elaborate manner in which +this is performed by male birds, is the strongest argument +in favour of the belief that the females admire, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span>or are excited by, the ornaments and colours displayed +before them. There is, however, a striking parallelism +between mammals and birds in all their secondary sexual +characters, namely in their weapons for fighting with +rival males, in their ornamental appendages, and in their +colours. In both classes, when the male differs from the +female, the young of both sexes almost always resemble +each other, and in a large majority of cases resemble the +adult female. In both classes the male assumes the +characters proper to his sex shortly before the age for +reproduction; if emasculated he either never acquires +such characters or subsequently loses them. In both +classes the change of colour is sometimes seasonal, and +the tints of the naked parts sometimes become more +vivid during the act of courtship. In both classes the +male is almost always more vividly or strongly coloured +than the female, and is ornamented with larger crests +either of hair or feathers, or other appendages. In a +few exceptional cases the female in both classes is +more highly ornamented than the male. With many +mammals, and at least in the case of one bird, the +male is more odoriferous than the female. In both +classes the voice of the male is more powerful than that +of the female. Considering this parallelism there can be +little doubt that the same cause, whatever it may be, +has acted on mammals and birds; and the result, as far +as ornamental characters are concerned, may safely be +attributed, as it appears to me, to the long-continued +preference of the individuals of one sex for certain individuals +of the opposite sex, combined with their success +in leaving a larger number of offspring to inherit +their superior attractions.</p> + +<p><i>Equal transmission of ornamental characters to both +sexes.</i>—With many birds, ornaments, which analogy leads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> +us to believe were primarily acquired by the males, have +been transmitted equally, or almost equally, to both +sexes; and we may now enquire how far this view +may be extended to mammals. With a considerable +number of species, especially the smaller kinds, both +sexes have been coloured, independently of sexual selection, +for the sake of protection; but not, as far as I can +judge, in so many cases, nor in nearly so striking a +manner as in most of the lower classes. Audubon remarks +that he often mistook the musk-rat,<a name="FNanchor_366" id="FNanchor_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">366</a> whilst sitting +on the banks of a muddy stream, for a clod of earth, so +complete was the resemblance. The hare on her form +is a familiar instance of concealment through colour; +yet this principle partly fails in a closely-allied species, +namely the rabbit, for as this animal runs to its burrow, +it is made conspicuous to the sportsman and no doubt +to all beasts of prey, by its upturned pure-white tail. +No one has ever doubted that the quadrupeds which +inhabit snow-clad regions, have been rendered white to +protect them from their enemies, or to favour their +stealing on their prey. In regions where snow never +lies long on the ground a white coat would be injurious; +consequently species thus coloured are extremely +rare in the hotter parts of the world. It deserves notice +that many quadrupeds, inhabiting moderately cold regions, +although they do not assume a white winter dress, +become paler during this season; and this apparently +is the direct result of the conditions to which they +have long been exposed. Pallas<a name="FNanchor_367" id="FNanchor_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">367</a> states that in Siberia +a change of this nature occurs with the wolf, two +species of Mustela, the domestic horse, the <i>Equus he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>mionus</i>, +the domestic cow, two species of antelopes, the +musk-deer, the roe, the elk, and reindeer. The roe, +for instance, has a red summer and a greyish-white +winter coat; and the latter may perhaps serve as a +protection to the animal whilst wandering through the +leafless thickets, sprinkled with snow and hoar-frost. +If the above named animals were gradually to extend +their range into regions perpetually covered with snow, +their pale winter-coats would probably be rendered, +through natural selection, whiter and whiter by degrees, +until they became as white as snow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f68" id="f68"></a><img src="images/fig68.png" width="500" height="508" alt="Fig. 68. Tragelaphus scriptus, male (from the Knowsley Menagerie)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 68. <i>Tragelaphus scriptus</i>, male (from the Knowsley Menagerie).</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f69" id="f69"></a><img src="images/fig69.png" width="400" height="446" alt="Fig. 69. Damalis pygarga, male (from the Knowsley Menagerie)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 69. <i>Damalis pygarga</i>, male (from the Knowsley Menagerie).</p></div> + +<p>Although we must admit that many quadrupeds have +received their present tints as a protection, yet with a +host of species, the colours are far too conspicuous and +too singularly arranged to allow us to suppose that they +serve for this purpose. We may take as an illustration +certain antelopes: when we see that the square +white patch on the throat, the white marks on the fetlocks, +and the round black spots on the ears, are all +more distinct in the male of the <i>Portax picta</i>, than in +the female;—when we see that the colours are more +vivid, that the narrow white lines on the flank and +the broad white bar on the shoulder are more distinct +in the male <i>Oreas derbyanus</i> than in the female;—when +we see a similar difference between the sexes +of the curiously-ornamented <i>Tragelaphus scriptus</i> (fig. +68),—we may conclude that these colours and various +marks have been at least intensified through sexual +selection. It is inconceivable that such colours and +marks can be of any direct or ordinary service to these +animals; and as they have almost certainly been intensified +through sexual selection, it is probable that they +were originally gained through this same process, and +then partially transferred to the females. If this view +be admitted, there can be little doubt that the equally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span> +singular colours and marks of many other antelopes, +though common to both sexes, have been gained and +transmitted in a like manner. Both sexes, for instance, +of the Koodoo (<i>Strepsiceros Kudu</i>, fig. 62) have narrow +white vertical lines on their hinder flanks, and an +elegant angular white mark on their foreheads. Both +sexes in the genus <i>Damalis</i> are very oddly coloured; in +<i>D. pygarga</i> the back and neck are purplish-red, shading +on the flanks into black, and abruptly separated from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> +white belly and a large white space on the buttocks; +the head is still more oddly coloured, a large oblong +white mask, narrowly-edged with black, covers the face +up to the eyes (fig. <a href="#f69">69</a>); there are three white stripes +on the forehead, and the ears are marked with white. +The fawns of this species are of a uniform pale yellowish-brown. +In <i>Damalis albifrons</i> the colouring of the +head differs from that in the last species in a single +white stripe replacing the three stripes, and in the ears +being almost wholly white.<a name="FNanchor_368" id="FNanchor_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">368</a> After having studied to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span>the best of my ability the sexual differences of animals +belonging to all classes, I cannot avoid the conclusion +that the curiously-arranged colours of many antelopes, +though common to both sexes, are the result of sexual +selection primarily applied to the male.</p> + +<p>The same conclusion may perhaps be extended to the +tiger, one of the most beautiful animals in the world, +the sexes of which cannot be distinguished by colour, +even by the dealers in wild beasts. Mr. Wallace +believes<a name="FNanchor_369" id="FNanchor_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">369</a> that the striped coat of the tiger “so assimilates +with the vertical stems of the bamboo, as to +assist greatly in concealing him from his approaching +prey.” But this view does not appear to me satisfactory. +We have some slight evidence that his beauty +may be due to sexual selection, for in two species of +<i>Felis</i> analogous marks and colours are rather brighter +in the male than in the female. The zebra is conspicuously +striped, and stripes on the open plains of South +Africa cannot afford any protection. Burchell<a name="FNanchor_370" id="FNanchor_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">370</a> in describing +a herd says, “their sleek ribs glistened in the +sun, and the brightness and regularity of their striped +coats presented a picture of extraordinary beauty, in +which probably they are not surpassed by any other +quadruped.” Here we have no evidence of sexual +selection, as throughout the whole group of the Equidæ +the sexes are identical in colour. Nevertheless he who +attributes the white and dark vertical stripes on the +flanks of various antelopes to sexual selection, will probably +extend the same view to the Royal Tiger and +beautiful Zebra.</p> + +<p>We have seen in a former chapter that when young +animals belonging to any class follow nearly the same +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span>habits of life with their parents, and yet are coloured +in a different manner, it may be inferred that they have +retained the colouring of some ancient and extinct +progenitor. In the family of pigs, and in the genus +<i>Tapir</i>, the young are marked with longitudinal stripes, +and thus differ from every existing adult species in +these two groups. With many kinds of deer the +young are marked with elegant white spots, of which +their parents exhibit not a trace. A graduated series +can be followed from the Axis deer, both sexes of +which at all ages and during all seasons are beautifully +spotted (the male being rather more strongly +coloured than the female)—to species in which neither +the old nor the young are spotted. I will specify +some of the steps in this series. The Mantchurian +deer (<i>Cervus Mantchuricus</i>) is spotted during the whole +year, but the spots are much plainer, as I have seen +in the Zoological Gardens, during the summer, when the +general colour of the coat is lighter, than during the +winter, when the general colour is darker and the horns +are fully developed. In the hog-deer (<i>Hyelaphus porcinus</i>) +the spots are extremely conspicuous during the +summer when the coat is reddish-brown, but quite disappear +during the winter when the coat is brown.<a name="FNanchor_371" id="FNanchor_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">371</a> +In both these species the young are spotted. In the +Virginian deer the young are likewise spotted, and +about five per cent. of the adult animals living in +Judge Caton’s park, as I am informed by him, temporarily +exhibit at the period when the red summer +coat is being replaced by the bluish winter coat, a row +of spots on each flank, which are always the same in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span>number, though very variable in distinctness. From +this condition there is but a very small step to the +complete absence of spots at all seasons in the adults; +and lastly, to their absence at all ages, as occurs with +certain species. From the existence of this perfect +series, and more especially from the fawns of so many +species being spotted, we may conclude that the now +living members of the deer family are the descendants +of some ancient species which, like the Axis deer, was +spotted at all ages and seasons. A still more ancient +progenitor probably resembled to a certain extent the +<i>Hyomoschus aquaticus</i>—for this animal is spotted, and +the hornless males have large exserted canine teeth, +of which some few true deer still retain rudiments. It +offers, also, one of those interesting cases of a form +linking together two groups, as it is intermediate in +certain osteological characters between the pachyderms +and ruminants, which were formerly thought to be +quite distinct.<a name="FNanchor_372" id="FNanchor_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">372</a></p> + +<p>A curious difficulty here arises. If we admit that +coloured spots and stripes have been acquired as ornaments, +how comes it that so many existing deer, the +descendants of an aboriginally spotted animal, and +all the species of pigs and tapirs, the descendants of +an aboriginally striped animal, have lost in their adult +state their former ornaments? I cannot satisfactorily +answer this question. We may feel nearly sure that +the spots and stripes disappeared in the progenitors of +our existing species at or near maturity, so that they were +retained by the young and, owing to the law of inheritance +at corresponding ages, by the young of all succeeding +generations. It may have been a great advantage to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>the lion and puma from the open nature of the localities +which they commonly haunt, to have lost their stripes, +and to have been thus rendered less conspicuous to their +prey; and if the successive variations, by which this +end was gained, occurred rather late in life, the young +would have retained their stripes, as we know to be the +case. In regard to deer, pigs, and tapirs, Fritz Müller +has suggested to me that these animals by the removal +through natural selection of their spots or stripes would +have been less easily seen by their enemies; and they +would have especially required this protection, as soon +as the carnivora increased in size and number during +the Tertiary periods. This may be the true explanation, +but it is rather strange that the young should +not have been equally well protected, and still more +strange that with some species the adults should have +retained their spots, either partially or completely, +during part of the year. We know, though we cannot +explain the cause, that when the domestic ass varies and +becomes reddish-brown, grey or black, the stripes on the +shoulders and even on the spine frequently disappear. +Very few horses, except dun-coloured kinds, exhibit +stripes on any part of their bodies, yet we have good +reason to believe that the aboriginal horse was striped +on the legs and spine, and probably on the shoulders.<a name="FNanchor_373" id="FNanchor_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">373</a> +Hence the disappearance of the spots and stripes in our +adult existing deer, pigs, and tapirs, may be due to a +change in the general colour of their coats; but whether +this change was effected through sexual or natural selection, +or was due to the direct action of the conditions +of life, or some other unknown cause, it is impossible +to decide. An observation made by Mr. Sclater well +illustrates our ignorance of the laws which regulate the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span>appearance and disappearance of stripes; the species of +<i>Asinus</i> which inhabit the Asiatic continent are destitute +of stripes, not having even the cross shoulder-stripe, +whilst those which inhabit Africa are conspicuously +striped, with the partial exception of <i>A. tæniopus</i>, which +has only the cross shoulder-stripe and generally some +faint bars on the legs; and this species inhabits the almost +intermediate region of Upper Egypt and Abyssinia.<a name="FNanchor_374" id="FNanchor_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">374</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f70" id="f70"></a><img src="images/fig70.png" width="400" height="377" alt="Fig. 70. Head of Semnopithecus rubicundus. This and the following figures (from +Prof. Gervais) are given to shew the odd arrangement and development of the hair on +the head." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 70. Head of <i>Semnopithecus rubicundus</i>. This and the following figures (from +Prof. Gervais) are given to shew the odd arrangement and development of the hair on +the head.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="heads"> +<tr> +<td class="left50"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f71" id="f71"></a><img src="images/fig71.png" width="250" height="278" alt="Fig. 71. Head of Semnopithecus comatus." title="" /></div></td> +<td class="left50"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f72" id="f72"></a><img src="images/fig72.png" width="250" height="288" alt="Fig. 72. Head of Cebus capucinus." title="" /></div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left50"><p class="center2">Fig. 71. Head of <i>Semnopithecus comatus</i>.</p></td> +<td class="left50"><p class="center2">Fig. 72. Head of <i>Cebus capucinus</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left50"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f73" id="f73"></a><img src="images/fig73.png" width="250" height="230" alt="Fig. 73. Head of Ateles marginatus." title="" /></div></td> +<td class="left50"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f74" id="f74"></a><img src="images/fig74.png" width="250" height="248" alt="Fig. 74. Head of Cebus vellerosus." title="" /></div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left50"><p class="center2">Fig. 73. Head of <i>Ateles marginatus</i>.</p></td> +<td class="left50"><p class="center2">Fig. 74. Head of <i>Cebus vellerosus</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Quadrumana.</i>—Before we conclude, it will be advisable +to add a few remarks to those already given on the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> +ornamental characters of monkeys. In most of the +species the sexes resemble each other in colour, but +in some, as we have seen, the males differ from the +females, especially in the colour of the naked parts of +the skin, in the development of the beard, whiskers, +and mane. Many species are coloured either in so extraordinary +or beautiful a manner, and are furnished +with such curious and elegant crests of hair, that we +can hardly avoid looking at these characters as having +been gained for the sake of ornament. The accompanying +figures (figs. 70 to 74) serve to shew the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span> +arrangement of the hair on the face and head in several +species. It is scarcely conceivable that these crests of +hair and the strongly-contrasted colours of the fur and +skin can be the result of mere variability without the +aid of selection; and it is inconceivable that they can +be of any ordinary use to these animals. If so, they +have probably been gained through sexual selection, +though transmitted equally, or almost equally, to both +sexes. With many of the Quadrumana, we have additional +evidence of the action of sexual selection in +the greater size and strength of the males, and in the +greater development of their canine teeth, in comparison +with the females.</p> + +<p>With respect to the strange manner in which both +sexes of some species are coloured, and of the beauty +of others, a few instances will suffice. The face of the +<i>Cercopithecus petaurista</i> (fig. <a href="#f75">75</a>) is black, the whiskers +and beard being white, with a defined, round, white +spot on the nose, covered with short white hair, which +gives to the animal an almost ludicrous aspect. The +<i>Semnopithecus frontatus</i> likewise, has a blackish face +with a long black beard, and a large naked spot on +the forehead of a bluish-white colour. The face of +<i>Macacus lasiotus</i> is dirty flesh-coloured, with a defined +red spot on each cheek. The appearance of <i>Cercocebus +æthiops</i> is grotesque, with its black face, white +whiskers and collar, chesnut head, and a large naked +white spot over each eyelid. In very many species, the +beard, whiskers, and crests of hair round the face are of +a different colour from the rest of the head, and when +different, are always of a lighter tint,<a name="FNanchor_375" id="FNanchor_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">375</a> being often pure +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span>white, sometimes bright yellow, or reddish. The whole +face of the South American <i>Brachyurus calvus</i> is of a +“glowing scarlet hue;” but this colour does not appear +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span>until the animal is nearly mature.<a name="FNanchor_376" id="FNanchor_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">376</a> The naked skin +of the face differs wonderfully in colour in the various +species. It is often brown or flesh-colour, with parts +perfectly white, and often as black as that of the +most sooty negro. In the <i>Brachyurus</i> the scarlet tint +is brighter than that of the most blushing Caucasian +damsel. It is sometimes more distinctly orange than +in any Mongolian, and in several species it is blue, +passing into violet or grey. In all the species known +to Mr. Bartlett, in which the adults of both sexes have +strongly-coloured faces, the colours are dull or absent +during early youth. This likewise holds good with the +Mandrill and Rhesus, in which the face and the posterior +parts of the body are brilliantly coloured in one sex +alone. In these latter cases we have every reason to +believe that the colours were acquired through sexual +selection; and we are naturally led to extend the same +view to the foregoing species, though both sexes when +adult have their faces coloured in the same manner.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f75" id="f75"></a><img src="images/fig75.png" width="450" height="680" alt="Fig 75. Cercopithecus petaurista (from Brehm)" title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 75. <i>Cercopithecus petaurista</i> (from Brehm)</p></div> + +<p>Although, according to our taste, many kinds of +monkeys are far from beautiful, other species are universally +admired for their elegant appearance and +bright colours. The <i>Semnopithecus nemæus</i>, though +peculiarly coloured, is described as extremely pretty; +the orange-tinted face is surrounded by long whiskers +of glossy whiteness, with a line of chesnut-red over the +eyebrows; the fur on the back is of a delicate grey, with +a square patch on the loins, the tail and the fore-arms +all of a pure white; a gorget of chesnut surmounts the +chest; the hind thighs are black, with the legs chesnut-red. +I will mention only two other monkeys on account +of their beauty; and I have selected these as they present +slight sexual differences in colour, which renders it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span>in some degree probable that both sexes owe their +elegant appearance to sexual selection. In the moustache-monkey +(<i>Cercopithecus cephus</i>) the general colour +of the fur is mottled-greenish, with the throat white; in +the male the end of the tail is chesnut; but the face is +the most ornamented part, the skin being chiefly bluish-grey, +shading into a blackish tint beneath the eyes, +with the upper lip of a delicate blue, clothed on the +lower edge with a thin black moustache; the whiskers +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>are orange-coloured, with the upper part black, forming +a band which extends backwards to the ears, the latter +being clothed with whitish hairs. In the Zoological +Society’s Gardens I have often overheard visitors admiring +the beauty of another monkey, deservedly called +<i>Cercopithecus Diana</i> (fig. <a href="#f76">76</a>); the general colour of the +fur is grey; the chest and inner surface of the forelegs +are white; a large triangular defined space on the hinder +part of the back is rich chesnut; in the male the inner +sides of the thighs and the abdomen are delicate fawn-coloured, +and the top of the head is black; the face and +ears are intensely black, finely contrasted with a white +transverse crest over the eyebrows and with a long +white peaked beard, of which the basal portion is +black.<a name="FNanchor_377" id="FNanchor_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">377</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f76" id="f76"></a><img src="images/fig76.png" width="450" height="556" alt="Fig. 76. Cercopithecus Diana (from Brehm)." title="" /> + +<p class="center2">Fig. 76. <i>Cercopithecus Diana</i> (from Brehm).</p></div> + +<p class="tb">In these and many other monkeys, the beauty and +singular arrangement of their colours, and still more the +diversified and elegant arrangement of the crests and +tufts of hair on their heads, force the conviction on my +mind that these characters have been acquired through +sexual selection exclusively as ornaments.</p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—The law of battle for the possession of the +female appears to prevail throughout the whole great +class of mammals. Most naturalists will admit that +the greater size, strength, courage, and pugnacity of the +male, his special weapons of offence, as well as his +special means of defence, have all been acquired or +modified through that form of selection which I have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>called sexual selection. This does not depend on any +superiority in the general struggle for life, but on +certain individuals of one sex, generally the male sex, +having been successful in conquering other males, and +on their having left a larger number of offspring to +inherit their superiority, than the less successful males.</p> + +<p>There is another and more peaceful kind of contest, +in which the males endeavour to excite or allure the +females by various charms. This may be effected by +the powerful odours emitted by the males during the +breeding-season; the odoriferous glands having been +acquired through sexual selection. Whether the same +view can be extended to the voice is doubtful, for the +vocal organs of the males may have been strengthened +by use during maturity, under the powerful excitements +of love, jealousy, or rage, and transmitted to the same +sex. Various crests, tufts, and mantles of hair, which +are either confined to the male, or are more developed +in this sex than in the females, seem in most cases to +be merely ornamental, though they sometimes serve as +a defence against rival males. There is even reason to +suspect that the branching horns of stags, and the +elegant horns of certain antelopes, though properly +serving as weapons of offence or of defence, have been +partly modified for the sake of ornament.</p> + +<p>When the male differs in colour from the female he +generally exhibits darker and more strongly-contrasted +tints. We do not in this class meet with the splendid +red, blue, yellow, and green colours, so common with +male birds and many other animals. The naked parts, +however, of certain Quadrumana must be excepted; for +such parts, often oddly situated, are coloured in some +species in the most brilliant manner. The colours of +the male in other cases may be due to simple variation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> +without the aid of selection. But when the colours are +diversified and strongly pronounced, when they are not +developed until near maturity, and when they are lost +after emasculation, we can hardly avoid the conclusion +that they have been acquired through sexual selection for +the sake of ornament, and have been transmitted exclusively, +or almost exclusively, to the same sex. When +both sexes are coloured in the same manner, and the +colours are conspicuous or curiously arranged, without +being of the least apparent use as a protection, and +especially when they are associated with various other +ornamental appendages, we are led by analogy to the +same conclusion, namely, that they have been acquired +through sexual selection, although transmitted to both +sexes. That conspicuous and diversified colours, whether +confined to the males or common to both sexes, are as +a general rule associated in the same groups and subgroups +with other secondary sexual characters, serving +for war or for ornament, will be found to hold good if +we look back to the various cases given in this and +the last chapter.</p> + +<p>The law of the equal transmission of characters to +both sexes, as far as colour and other ornaments are +concerned, has prevailed far more extensively with +mammals than with birds; but in regard to weapons, +such as horns and tusks, these have often been transmitted +either exclusively, or in a much higher degree +to the males than to the females. This is a surprising +circumstance, for as the males generally use their +weapons as a defence against enemies of all kinds, +these weapons would have been of service to the female. +Their absence in this sex can be accounted for, +as far as we can see, only by the form of inheritance +which has prevailed. Finally with quadrupeds the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> +contest between the individuals of the same sex, whether +peaceful or bloody, has with the rarest exceptions been +confined to the males; so that these have been modified +through sexual selection, either for fighting with +each other or for alluring the opposite sex, far more +commonly than the females.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIX.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Man.</span></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Differences between man and woman—Causes of such differences +and of certain characters common to both sexes—Law of +battle—Differences in mental powers—and voice—On the +influence of beauty in determining the marriages of mankind—Attention +paid by savages to ornaments—Their ideas of +beauty in woman—The tendency to exaggerate each natural +peculiarity.</p></div> + +<p>With mankind the differences between the sexes are +greater than in most species of Quadrumana, but not +so great as in some, for instance, the mandrill. Man +on an average is considerably taller, heavier, and +stronger than woman, with squarer shoulders and more +plainly-pronounced muscles. Owing to the relation +which exists between muscular development and the +projection of the brows,<a name="FNanchor_378" id="FNanchor_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">378</a> the superciliary ridge is generally +more strongly marked in man than in woman. +His body, and especially his face, is more hairy, and +his voice has a different and more powerful tone. In +certain tribes the women are said, whether truly I know +not, to differ slightly in tint from the men; and with +Europeans, the women are perhaps the more brightly +coloured of the two, as may be seen when both sexes +have been equally exposed to the weather.</p> + +<p>Man is more courageous, pugnacious, and energetic +than woman, and has a more inventive genius. His +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span>brain is absolutely larger, but whether relatively to the +larger size of his body, in comparison with that of +woman, has not, I believe been fully ascertained. In +woman the face is rounder; the jaws and the base of the +skull smaller; the outlines of her body rounder, in parts +more prominent; and her pelvis is broader than in man;<a name="FNanchor_379" id="FNanchor_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">379</a> +but this latter character may perhaps be considered +rather as a primary than a secondary sexual character. +She comes to maturity at an earlier age than man.</p> + +<p>As with animals of all classes, so with man, the distinctive +characters of the male sex are not fully developed +until he is nearly mature; and if emasculated they +never appear. The beard, for instance, is a secondary +sexual character, and male children are beardless, +though at an early age they have abundant hair on +their heads. It is probably due to the rather late +appearance in life of the successive variations, by +which man acquired his masculine characters, that +they are transmitted to the male sex alone. Male +and female children resemble each other closely, like +the young of so many other animals in which the adult +sexes differ; they likewise resemble the mature female +much more closely, than the mature male. The female, +however, ultimately assumes certain distinctive +characters, and in the formation of her skull, is said to be +intermediate between the child and the man.<a name="FNanchor_380" id="FNanchor_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">380</a> Again, +as the young of closely allied though distinct species do +not differ nearly so much from each other as do the +adults, so it is with the children of the different races of +man. Some have even maintained that race-differences +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>cannot be detected in the infantile skull.<a name="FNanchor_381" id="FNanchor_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">381</a> In regard to +colour, the newborn negro child is reddish nut-brown, +which soon becomes slaty-grey; the black colour being +fully developed within a year in the Sudan, but not +until three years in Egypt. The eyes of the negro are +at first blue, and the hair chesnut-brown rather than +black, being curled only at the ends. The children of +the Australians immediately after birth are yellowish-brown, +and become dark at a later age. Those of the +Guaranys of Paraguay are whitish-yellow, but they +acquire in the course of a few weeks the yellowish-brown +tint of their parents. Similar observations have +been made in other parts of America.<a name="FNanchor_382" id="FNanchor_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">382</a></p> + +<p>I have specified the foregoing familiar differences between +the male and female sex in mankind, because they +are curiously the same as in the Quadrumana. With +these animals the female is mature at an earlier age than +the male; at least this is certainly the case with the +<i>Cebus azaræ</i>.<a name="FNanchor_383" id="FNanchor_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">383</a> With most of the species the males are +larger and much stronger than the females, of which +fact the gorilla offers a well-known instance. Even in +so trifling a character as the greater prominence of the +superciliary ridge, the males of certain monkeys differ +from the females,<a name="FNanchor_384" id="FNanchor_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">384</a> and agree in this respect with mankind. +In the gorilla and certain other monkeys, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span>cranium of the adult male presents a strongly-marked +sagittal crest, which is absent in the female; and Ecker +found a trace of a similar difference between the two +sexes in the Australians.<a name="FNanchor_385" id="FNanchor_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">385</a> With monkeys when there +is any difference in the voice, that of the male is the +more powerful. We have seen that certain male monkeys, +have a well-developed beard, which is quite deficient, +or much less developed in the female. No instance +is known of the beard, whiskers, or moustache +being larger in a female than in the male monkey. +Even in the colour of the beard there is a curious +parallelism between man and the Quadrumana, for +when in man the beard differs in colour from the hair +of the head, as is often the case, it is, I believe, invariably +of a lighter tint, being often reddish. I have +observed this fact in England, and Dr. Hooker, who +attended to this little point for me in Russia, found +no exception to the rule. In Calcutta, Mr. J. Scott, +of the Botanic Gardens, was so kind as to observe with +care the many races of men to be seen there, as well +as in some other parts of India, namely, two races in +Sikhim, the Bhoteas, Hindoos, Burmese, and Chinese. +Although most of these races have very little hair on +the face, yet he always found that when there was any +difference in colour between the hair of the head and +the beard, the latter was invariably of a lighter tint. Now +with monkeys, as has already been stated, the beard +frequently differs in a striking manner in colour from +the hair of the head, and in such cases it is invariably +of a lighter hue, being often pure white, sometimes +yellow or reddish.<a name="FNanchor_386" id="FNanchor_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">386</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span></p><p>In regard to the general hairiness of the body, the +women in all races are less hairy than the men, and in +some few Quadrumana the under side of the body of +the female is less hairy than that of the male.<a name="FNanchor_387" id="FNanchor_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">387</a> Lastly, +male monkeys, like men, are bolder and fiercer than +the females. They lead the troop, and when there is +danger, come to the front. We thus see how close is +the parallelism between the sexual differences of man +and the Quadrumana. With some few species, however, +as with certain baboons, the gorilla and orang, +there is a considerably greater difference between the +sexes, in the size of the canine teeth, in the development +and colour of the hair, and especially in the +colour of the naked parts of the skin, than in the case +of mankind.</p> + +<p>The secondary sexual characters of man are all highly +variable, even within the limits of the same race or +sub-species; and they differ much in the several races. +These two rules generally hold good throughout the +animal kingdom. In the excellent observations made +on board the <i>Novara</i>,<a name="FNanchor_388" id="FNanchor_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">388</a> the male Australians were found +to exceed the females by only 65 millim. in height, +whilst with the Javanese the average excess was 218 +millim., so that in this latter race the difference in height +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span>between the sexes is more than thrice as great as with +the Australians. The numerous measurements of various +other races, with respect to stature, the circumference +of the neck and chest, and the length of the back-bone +and arms, which were carefully made, nearly all shewed +that the males differed much more from each other than +did the females. This fact indicates that, as far as these +characters are concerned, it is the male which has been +chiefly modified, since the races diverged from their +common and primeval source.</p> + +<p>The development of the beard and the hairiness of +the body differ remarkably in the men belonging to +distinct races, and even to different families in the same +race. We Europeans see this amongst ourselves. In +the island of St. Kilda, according to Martin,<a name="FNanchor_389" id="FNanchor_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">389</a> the men +do not acquire beards, which are very thin, until the +age of thirty or upwards. On the Europæo-Asiatic +continent, beards prevail until we pass beyond India, +though with the natives of Ceylon they are frequently +absent, as was noticed in ancient times by Diodorus.<a name="FNanchor_390" id="FNanchor_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">390</a> +Beyond India beards disappear, as with the Siamese, +Malays, Kalmucks, Chinese, and Japanese; nevertheless +the Ainos,<a name="FNanchor_391" id="FNanchor_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">391</a> who inhabit the northernmost islands +of the Japan archipelago, are the most hairy men in the +world. With negroes the beard is scanty or absent, and +they have no whiskers; in both sexes the body is almost +destitute of fine down.<a name="FNanchor_392" id="FNanchor_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">392</a> On the other hand, the Pa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span>puans +of the Malay archipelago, who are nearly as black +as negroes, possess well-developed beards.<a name="FNanchor_393" id="FNanchor_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">393</a> In the +Pacific Ocean the inhabitants of the Fiji archipelago +have large bushy beards, whilst those of the not-distant +archipelagoes of Tonga and Samoa are beardless; but +these men belong to distinct races. In the Ellice group +all the inhabitants belong to the same race; yet on +one island alone, namely Nunemaya, “the men have +splendid beards;” whilst on the other islands “they +have, as a rule, a dozen straggling hairs for a beard.”<a name="FNanchor_394" id="FNanchor_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">394</a></p> + +<p>Throughout the great American continent the men +may be said to be beardless; but in almost all the tribes +a few short hairs are apt to appear on the face, especially +during old age. With the tribes of North America, +Catlin estimates that eighteen out of twenty men are +completely destitute by nature of a beard; but occasionally +there may be seen a man, who has neglected to +pluck out the hairs at puberty, with a soft beard an inch +or two in length. The Guaranys of Paraguay differ +from all the surrounding tribes in having a small beard, +and even some hair on the body, but no whiskers.<a name="FNanchor_395" id="FNanchor_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">395</a> I +am informed by Mr. D. Forbes, who particularly attended +to this subject, that the Aymaras and Quechuas of the +Cordillera are remarkably hairless, yet in old age a few +straggling hairs occasionally appear on the chin. The +men of these two tribes have very little hair on the +various parts of the body where hair grows abundantly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span>in Europeans, and the women have none on the corresponding +parts. The hair on the head, however, attains +an extraordinary length in both sexes, often reaching +almost to the ground; and this is likewise the case with +some of the N. American tribes. In the amount of +hair, and in the general shape of the body, the sexes +of the American aborigines do not differ from each +other so much as with most other races of mankind.<a name="FNanchor_396" id="FNanchor_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">396</a> +This fact is analogous with what occurs with some allied +monkeys; thus the sexes of the chimpanzee are not as +different as those of the gorilla or orang.<a name="FNanchor_397" id="FNanchor_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">397</a></p> + +<p class="tb">In the previous chapters we have seen that with +mammals, birds, fishes, insects, &c., many characters, +which there is every reason to believe were primarily +gained through sexual selection by one sex alone, have +been transferred to both sexes. As this same form of +transmission has apparently prevailed to a large extent +with mankind, it will save much useless repetition if +we consider the characters peculiar to the male sex +together with certain other characters common to both +sexes.</p> + +<p><i>Law of Battle.</i>—With barbarous nations, for instance +with the Australians, the women are the constant cause +of war both between the individuals of the same tribe +and between distinct tribes. So no doubt it was in +ancient times; “nam fuit ante Helenam mulier teterrima +belli causa.” With the North American Indians, +the contest is reduced to a system. That excellent ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span>server, +Hearne,<a name="FNanchor_398" id="FNanchor_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">398</a> says:—“It has ever been the custom +among these people for the men to wrestle for any +woman to whom they are attached; and, of course, the +strongest party always carries off the prize. A weak +man, unless he be a good hunter, and well-beloved, +is seldom permitted to keep a wife that a stronger +man thinks worth his notice. This custom prevails +throughout all the tribes, and causes a great spirit +of emulation among their youth, who are upon all +occasions, from their childhood, trying their strength +and skill in wrestling.” With the Guanas of South +America, Azara states that the men rarely marry till +twenty or more years old, as before that age they +cannot conquer their rivals.</p> + +<p>Other similar facts could be given; but even if we +had no evidence on this head, we might feel almost +sure, from the analogy of the higher Quadrumana,<a name="FNanchor_399" id="FNanchor_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">399</a> +that the law of battle had prevailed with man during +the early stages of his development. The occasional +appearance at the present day of canine teeth which +project above the others, with traces of a diastema or +open space for the reception of the opposite canines, is +in all probability a case of reversion to a former state, +when the progenitors of man were provided with these +weapons, like so many existing male Quadrumana. It +was remarked in a former chapter that as man gradually +became erect, and continually used his hands +and arms for fighting with sticks and stones, as well as +for the other purposes of life, he would have used his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span>jaws and teeth less and less. The jaws, together with +their muscles, would then have become reduced through +disuse, as would the teeth through the not well understood +principles of correlation and the economy of +growth; for we everywhere see that parts which are +no longer of service are reduced in size. By such steps +the original inequality between the jaws and teeth in +the two sexes of mankind would ultimately have been +quite obliterated. The case is almost parallel with +that of many male Ruminants, in which the canine +teeth have been reduced to mere rudiments, or have +disappeared, apparently in consequence of the development +of horns. As the prodigious difference between +the skulls of the two sexes in the Gorilla and Orang, +stands in close relation with the development of the +immense canine teeth in the males, we may infer that +the reduction of the jaws and teeth in the early male +progenitors of man led to a most striking and favourable +change in his appearance.</p> + +<p class="tb">There can be little doubt that the greater size and +strength of man, in comparison with woman, together +with his broader shoulders, more developed muscles, +rugged outline of body, his greater courage and pugnacity, +are all due in chief part to inheritance from +some early male progenitor, who, like the existing +anthropoid apes, was thus characterised. These characters +will, however, have been preserved or even +augmented during the long ages whilst man was still +in a barbarous condition, by the strongest and boldest +men having succeeded best in the general struggle for +life, as well as in securing wives, and thus having left a +large number of offspring. It is not probable that the +greater strength of man was primarily acquired through +the inherited effects of his having worked harder than +woman for his own subsistence and that of his family;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span> +for the women in all barbarous nations are compelled +to work at least as hard as the men. With civilised +people the arbitrament of battle for the possession of +the women has long ceased; on the other hand, the men, +as a general rule, have to work harder than the women +for their mutual subsistence; and thus their greater +strength will have been kept up.</p> + +<p><i>Difference in the Mental Powers of the two Sexes.</i>—With +respect to differences of this nature between man +and woman, it is probable that sexual selection has +played a very important part. I am aware that some +writers doubt whether there is any inherent difference; +but this is at least probable from the analogy of the +lower animals which present other secondary sexual +characters. No one will dispute that the bull differs +in disposition from the cow, the wild-boar from the +sow, the stallion from the mare, and, as is well known +to the keepers of menageries, the males of the larger +apes from the females. Woman seems to differ from +man in mental disposition, chiefly in her greater tenderness +and less selfishness; and this holds good even +with savages, as shewn by a well-known passage in +Mungo Park’s Travels, and by statements made by +many other travellers. Woman, owing to her maternal +instincts, displays these qualities towards her infants +in an eminent degree; therefore it is likely that she +should often extend them towards her fellow-creatures. +Man is the rival of other men; he delights in competition, +and this leads to ambition which passes too +easily into selfishness. These latter qualities seem to +be his natural and unfortunate birthright. It is generally +admitted that with woman the powers of intuition, +of rapid perception, and perhaps of imitation, are more +strongly marked than in man; but some, at least, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span> +these faculties are characteristic of the lower races, and +therefore of a past and lower state of civilisation.</p> + +<p>The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of +the two sexes is shewn by man attaining to a higher +eminence, in whatever he takes up, than woman can +attain—whether requiring deep thought, reason, or +imagination, or merely the use of the senses and +hands. If two lists were made of the most eminent +men and women in poetry, painting, sculpture, music,—comprising +composition and performance, history, +science, and philosophy, with half-a-dozen names under +each subject, the two lists would not bear comparison. +We may also infer, from the law of the deviation of +averages, so well illustrated by Mr. Galton, in his +work on ‘Hereditary Genius,’ that if men are capable +of decided eminence over women in many subjects, the +average standard of mental power in man must be +above that of woman.</p> + +<p>The half-human male progenitors of man, and men +in a savage state, have struggled together during many +generations for the possession of the females. But mere +bodily strength and size would do little for victory, +unless associated with courage, perseverance, and determined +energy. With social animals, the young males +have to pass through many a contest before they win a +female, and the older males have to retain their females +by renewed battles. They have, also, in the case of +man, to defend their females, as well as their young, +from enemies of all kinds, and to hunt for their joint +subsistence. But to avoid enemies, or to attack them +with success, to capture wild animals, and to invent +and fashion weapons, requires the aid of the higher +mental faculties, namely, observation, reason, invention, +or imagination. These various faculties will thus +have been continually put to the test, and selected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span> +during manhood; they will, moreover, have been +strengthened by use during this same period of life. +Consequently, in accordance with the principle often +alluded to, we might expect that they would at least +tend to be transmitted chiefly to the male offspring +at the corresponding period of manhood.</p> + +<p>Now, when two men are put into competition, or a +man with a woman, who possess every mental quality +in the same perfection, with the exception that the +one has higher energy, perseverance, and courage, +this one will generally become more eminent, whatever +the object may be, and will gain the victory.<a name="FNanchor_400" id="FNanchor_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">400</a> +He may be said to possess genius—for genius has been +declared by a great authority to be patience; and +patience, in this sense, means unflinching, undaunted +perseverance. But this view of genius is perhaps +deficient; for without the higher powers of the imagination +and reason, no eminent success in many subjects +can be gained. But these latter as well as the former +faculties will have been developed in man, partly +through sexual selection,—that is, through the contest of +rival males, and partly through natural selection,—that +is, from success in the general struggle for life; and as +in both cases the struggle will have been during +maturity, the characters thus gained will have been +transmitted more fully to the male than to the female +offspring. Thus man has ultimately become superior to +woman. It is, indeed, fortunate that the law of the +equal transmission of characters to both sexes has commonly +prevailed throughout the whole class of mammals; +otherwise it is probable that man would have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span>become as superior in mental endowment to woman, as +the peacock is in ornamental plumage to the peahen.</p> + +<p class="tb">It must be borne in mind that the tendency in characters +acquired at a late period of life by either sex, +to be transmitted to the same sex at the same age, and +of characters acquired at an early age to be transmitted +to both sexes, are rules which, though general, do not +always hold good. If they always held good, we might +conclude (but I am here wandering beyond my proper +bounds) that the inherited effects of the early education +of boys and girls would be transmitted equally to both +sexes; so that the present inequality between the sexes +in mental power could not be effaced by a similar +course of early training; nor can it have been caused +by their dissimilar early training. In order that woman +should reach the same standard as man, she ought, +when nearly adult, to be trained to energy and perseverance, +and to have her reason and imagination exercised +to the highest point; and then she would probably +transmit these qualities chiefly to her adult +daughters. The whole body of women, however, could +not be thus raised, unless during many generations +the women who excelled in the above robust virtues +were married, and produced offspring in larger numbers +than other women. As before remarked with respect +to bodily strength, although men do not now fight for +the sake of obtaining wives, and this form of selection +has passed away, yet they generally have to undergo, +during manhood, a severe struggle in order to maintain +themselves and their families; and this will tend to keep +up or even increase their mental powers, and, as a consequence, +the present inequality between the sexes.<a name="FNanchor_401" id="FNanchor_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">401</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span> +<i>Voice and Musical Powers.</i>—In some species of Quadrumana +there is a great difference between the adult +sexes, in the power of the voice and in the development +of the vocal organs; and man appears to have inherited +this difference from his early progenitors. His vocal +cords are about one-third longer than in woman, or +than in boys; and emasculation produces the same effect +on him as on the lower animals, for it “arrests that prominent +growth of the thyroid, &c., which accompanies +the elongation of the cords.”<a name="FNanchor_402" id="FNanchor_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">402</a> With respect to the +cause of this difference between the sexes, I have nothing +to add to the remarks made in the last chapter on the +probable effects of the long-continued use of the vocal +organs by the male under the excitement of love, rage, +and jealousy. According to Sir Duncan Gibb,<a name="FNanchor_403" id="FNanchor_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">403</a> the +voice differs in the different races of mankind; and +with the natives of Tartary, China, &c., the voice of +the male is said not to differ so much from that of the +female, as in most other races.</p> + +<p>The capacity and love for singing or music, though +not a sexual character in man, must not here be passed +over. Although the sounds emitted by animals of all +kinds serve many purposes, a strong case can be made +out, that the vocal organs were primarily used and perfected +in relation to the propagation of the species. +Insects and some few spiders are the lowest animals +which voluntarily produce any sound; and this is generally +effected by the aid of beautifully constructed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span>stridulating organs, which are often confined to the +males alone. The sounds thus produced consist, I believe +in all cases, of the same note, repeated rhythmically;<a name="FNanchor_404" id="FNanchor_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">404</a> +and this is sometimes pleasing even to the ears of man. +Their chief, and in some cases exclusive use appears to +be either to call or to charm the opposite sex.</p> + +<p>The sounds produced by fishes are said in some cases +to be made only by the males during the breeding +season. All the air-breathing Vertebrata necessarily +possess an apparatus for inhaling and expelling air, with +a pipe capable of being closed at one end. Hence when +the primeval members of this class were strongly excited +and their muscles violently contracted, purposeless +sounds would almost certainly have been produced; +and these, if they proved in any way serviceable, might +readily have been modified or intensified by the preservation +of properly adapted variations. The Amphibians +are the lowest Vertebrates which breathe air; and +many of these animals, namely, frogs and toads, possess +vocal organs, which are incessantly used during the +breeding-season, and which are often more highly +developed in the male than in the female. The male +alone of the tortoise utters a noise, and this only during +the season of love. Male alligators roar or bellow +during the same season. Every one knows how largely +birds use their vocal organs as a means of courtship; +and some species likewise perform what may be called +instrumental music.</p> + +<p>In the class of Mammals, with which we are here +more particularly concerned, the males of almost all the +species use their voices during the breeding-season +much more than at any other time; and some are abso<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span>lutely +mute excepting at this season. Both sexes of other +species, or the females alone, use their voices as a love-call. +Considering these facts, and that the vocal organs +of some quadrupeds are much more largely developed +in the male than in the female, either permanently or +temporarily during the breeding season; and considering +that in most of the lower classes the sounds produced +by the males, serve not only to call but to excite or allure +the female, it is a surprising fact that we have not as yet +any good evidence that these organs are used by male +mammals to charm the females. The American <i>Mycetes +caraya</i> perhaps forms an exception, as does more probably +one of those apes which come nearer to man, +namely, the <i>Hylobates agilis</i>. This gibbon has an +extremely loud but musical voice. Mr. Waterhouse +states,<a name="FNanchor_405" id="FNanchor_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">405</a> “It appeared to me that in ascending and +descending the scale, the intervals were always exactly +half-tones; and I am sure that the highest note was +the exact octave to the lowest. The quality of the +notes is very musical; and I do not doubt that a good +violinist would be able to give a correct idea of the +gibbon’s composition, excepting as regards its loudness.” +Mr. Waterhouse then gives the notes. Professor +Owen, who is likewise a musician, confirms the +foregoing statement, and remarks that this gibbon +“alone of brute mammals may be said to sing.” It +appears to be much excited after its performance. Unfortunately +its habits have never been closely observed +in a state of nature; but from the analogy of almost +all other animals, it is highly probable that it utters its +musical notes especially during the season of courtship.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span></p> +<p>The perception, if not the enjoyment, of musical +cadences and of rhythm is probably common to all animals, +and no doubt depends on the common physiological +nature of their nervous systems. Even Crustaceans, +which are not capable of producing any +voluntary sound, possess certain auditory hairs, which +have been seen to vibrate when the proper musical notes +are struck.<a name="FNanchor_406" id="FNanchor_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">406</a> It is well known that some dogs howl +when hearing particular tones. Seals apparently appreciate +music, and their fondness for it “was well +known to the ancients, and is often taken advantage +of by the hunters at the present day.”<a name="FNanchor_407" id="FNanchor_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">407</a> With all +those animals, namely insects, amphibians, and birds, +the males of which during the season of courtship +incessantly produce musical notes or mere rhythmical +sounds, we must believe that the females are able to +appreciate them, and are thus excited or charmed; +otherwise the incessant efforts of the males and the +complex structures often possessed exclusively by them +would be useless.</p> + +<p>With man song is generally admitted to be the basis +or origin of instrumental music. As neither the enjoyment +nor the capacity of producing musical notes are +faculties of the least direct use to man in reference +to his ordinary habits of life, they must be ranked +amongst the most mysterious with which he is endowed. +They are present, though in a very rude and as it +appears almost latent condition, in men of all races, +even the most savage; but so different is the taste of +the different races, that our music gives not the least +pleasure to savages, and their music is to us hideous +and unmeaning. Dr. Seemann, in some interesting +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span>remarks on this subject,<a name="FNanchor_408" id="FNanchor_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">408</a> “doubts whether even amongst +the nations of Western Europe, intimately connected +as they are by close and frequent intercourse, the +music of the one is interpreted in the same sense +by the others. By travelling eastwards we find that +there is certainly a different language of music. +Songs of joy and dance-accompaniments are no longer, +as with us, in the major keys, but always in the minor.” +Whether or not the half-human progenitors of man possessed, +like the before-mentioned gibbon, the capacity +of producing, and no doubt of appreciating, musical +notes, we have every reason to believe that man possessed +these faculties at a very remote period, for +singing and music are extremely ancient arts. Poetry, +which may be considered as the offspring of song, is +likewise so ancient that many persons have felt astonishment +that it should have arisen during the earliest +ages of which we have any record.</p> + +<p>The musical faculties, which are not wholly deficient +in any race, are capable of prompt and high development, +as we see with Hottentots and Negroes, who have +readily become excellent musicians, although they do +not practise in their native countries anything that we +should esteem as music. But there is nothing anomalous +in this circumstance: some species of birds +which never naturally sing, can without much difficulty +be taught to perform; thus the house-sparrow has learnt +the song of a linnet. As these two species are closely +allied, and belong to the order of Insessores, which +includes nearly all the singing-birds in the world, it is +quite possible or probable that a progenitor of the spar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span>row +may have been a songster. It is a much more +remarkable fact that parrots, which belong to a group +distinct from the Insessores, and have differently-constructed +vocal organs, can be taught not only to speak, +but to pipe or whistle tunes invented by man, so that +they must have some musical capacity. Nevertheless +it would be extremely rash to assume that parrots are +descended from some ancient progenitor which was a +songster. Many analogous cases could be advanced +of organs and instincts originally adapted for one purpose, +having been utilised for some quite distinct +purpose.<a name="FNanchor_409" id="FNanchor_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">409</a> Hence the capacity for high musical development, +which the savage races of man possess, may +be due either to our semi-human progenitors having +practised some rude form of music, or simply to their +having acquired for some distinct purposes the proper +vocal organs. But in this latter case we must assume +that they already possessed, as in the above instance of +the parrots, and as seems to occur with many animals, +some sense of melody.</p> + +<p>Music affects every emotion, but does not by itself excite +in us the more terrible emotions of horror, rage, &c. +It awakens the gentler feelings of tenderness and love, +which readily pass into devotion. It likewise stirs up in +us the sensation of triumph and the glorious ardour for +war. These powerful and mingled feelings may well give +rise to the sense of sublimity. We can concentrate, as</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span></p> +<p>Dr. Seemann observes, greater intensity of feeling in a +single musical note than in pages of writing. Nearly the +same emotions, but much weaker and less complex, are +probably felt by birds when the male pours forth his full +volume of song, in rivalry with other males, for the sake +of captivating the female. Love is still the commonest +theme of our own songs. As Herbert Spencer remarks, +music “arouses dormant sentiments of which we had not +conceived the possibility, and do not know the meaning; +or, as Richter says, tells us of things we have not seen +and shall not see.”<a name="FNanchor_410" id="FNanchor_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">410</a> Conversely, when vivid emotions +are felt and expressed by the orator or even in common +speech, musical cadences and rhythm are instinctively +used. Monkeys also express strong feelings in different +tones—anger and impatience by low,—fear and pain by +high notes.<a name="FNanchor_411" id="FNanchor_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">411</a> The sensations and ideas excited in us +by music, or by the cadences of impassioned oratory, +appear from their vagueness, yet depth, like mental reversions +to the emotions and thoughts of a long-past age.</p> + +<p class="tb">All these facts with respect to music become to a +certain extent intelligible if we may assume that +musical tones and rhythm were used by the half-human +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span>progenitors of man, during the season of courtship, +when animals of all kinds are excited by the +strongest passions. In this case, from the deeply-laid +principle of inherited associations, musical tones would +be likely to excite in us, in a vague and indefinite manner, +the strong emotions of a long-past age. Bearing in +mind that the males of some quadrumanous animals +have their vocal organs much more developed than in +the females, and that one anthropomorphous species +pours forth a whole octave of musical notes and may be +said to sing, the suspicion does not appear improbable +that the progenitors of man, either the males or females, +or both sexes, before they had acquired the power +of expressing their mutual love in articulate language, +endeavoured to charm each other with musical notes +and rhythm. So little is known about the use of the +voice by the Quadrumana during the season of love, that +we have hardly any means of judging whether the habit +of singing was first acquired by the male or female +progenitors of mankind. Women are generally thought +to possess sweeter voices than men, and as far as this +serves as any guide we may infer that they first acquired +musical powers in order to attract the other sex.<a name="FNanchor_412" id="FNanchor_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">412</a> But +if so, this must have occurred long ago, before the progenitors +of man had become sufficiently human to treat +and value their women merely as useful slaves. The +impassioned orator, bard, or musician, when with his +varied tones and cadences he excites the strongest +emotions in his hearers, little suspects that he uses the +same means by which, at an extremely remote period, +his half-human ancestors aroused each other’s ardent +passions, during their mutual courtship and rivalry.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span> +<i>On the influence of beauty in determining the marriages +of mankind.</i>—In civilised life man is largely, but +by no means exclusively, influenced in the choice of +his wife by external appearance; but we are chiefly +concerned with primeval times, and our only means of +forming a judgment on this subject is to study the habits +of existing semi-civilised and savage nations. If it can +be shewn that the men of different races prefer women +having certain characteristics, or conversely that the +women prefer certain men, we have then to enquire +whether such choice, continued during many generations, +would produce any sensible effect on the race, either +on one sex or both sexes; this latter circumstance +depending on the form of inheritance which prevails.</p> + +<p>It will be well first to shew in some detail that savages +pay the greatest attention to their personal appearance.<a name="FNanchor_413" id="FNanchor_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">413</a> +That they have a passion for ornament is notorious; +and an English philosopher goes so far as to maintain +that clothes were first made for ornament and not for +warmth. As Professor Waitz remarks, “however poor +and miserable man is, he finds a pleasure in adorning +himself.” The extravagance of the naked Indians of +South America in decorating themselves is shewn “by +a man of large stature gaining with difficulty enough +by the labour of a fortnight to procure in exchange +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span>the <i>chica</i> necessary to paint himself red.”<a name="FNanchor_414" id="FNanchor_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">414</a> The +ancient barbarians of Europe during the Reindeer period +brought to their caves any brilliant or singular objects +which they happened to find. Savages at the present +day everywhere deck themselves with plumes, necklaces, +armlets, earrings, &c. They paint themselves in +the most diversified manner. “If painted nations,” as +Humboldt observes, “had been examined with the same +attention as clothed nations, it would have been perceived +that the most fertile imagination and the most +mutable caprice have created the fashions of painting, +as well as those of garments.”</p> + +<p>In one part of Africa the eyelids are coloured black; +in another the nails are coloured yellow or purple. In +many places the hair is dyed of various tints. In different +countries the teeth are stained black, red, blue, +&c., and in the Malay Archipelago it is thought shameful +to have white teeth like those of a dog. Not one +great country can be named, from the Polar regions in +the north to New Zealand in the south, in which the +aborigines do not tattoo themselves. This practice was +followed by the Jews of old and by the ancient Britons. +In Africa some of the natives tattoo themselves, but it +is much more common to raise protuberances by rubbing +salt into incisions made in various parts of the body; +and these are considered by the inhabitants of Kordofan +and Darfur “to be great personal attractions.” In the +Arab countries no beauty can be perfect until the cheeks +or temples have been gashed.”<a name="FNanchor_415" id="FNanchor_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">415</a> In South America, +as Humboldt remarks, “a mother would be accused of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span>culpable indifference towards her children, if she did +not employ artificial means to shape the calf of the leg +after the fashion of the country.” In the Old and New +World the shape of the skull was formerly modified +during infancy in the most extraordinary manner, as is +still the case in many places, and such deformities are +considered ornamental. For instance, the savages of +Colombia<a name="FNanchor_416" id="FNanchor_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">416</a> deem a much flattened head “an essential +point of beauty.”</p> + +<p>The hair is treated with especial care in various +countries; it is allowed to grow to full length, so as to +reach to the ground, or is combed into “a compact +frizzled mop, which is the Papuan’s pride and glory.”<a name="FNanchor_417" id="FNanchor_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">417</a> +In Northern Africa “a man requires a period of from +eight to ten years to perfect his coiffure.” With other +nations the head is shaved, and in parts of South America +and Africa even the eyebrows are eradicated. The +natives of the Upper Nile knock out the four front +teeth, saying that they do not wish to resemble brutes. +Further south, the Batokas knock out the two upper +incisors, which, as Livingstone<a name="FNanchor_418" id="FNanchor_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">418</a> remarks, gives the face +a hideous appearance, owing to the growth of the lower +jaw; but these people think the presence of the incisors +most unsightly, and on beholding some Europeans, cried +out, “Look at the great teeth!” The great chief Sebituani +tried in vain to alter this fashion. In various parts +of Africa and in the Malay Archipelago the natives file +the incisor teeth into points like those of a saw, or pierce +them with holes, into which they insert studs.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p><p>As the face with us is chiefly admired for its beauty, +so with savages it is the chief seat of mutilation. In +all quarters of the world the septum, and more rarely +the wings of the nose are pierced, with rings, sticks, +feathers, and other ornaments inserted into the holes. +The ears are everywhere pierced and similarly ornamented, +and with the Botocudos and Lenguas of South +America the hole is gradually so much enlarged that +the lower edge touches the shoulder. In North and +South America and in Africa either the upper or lower +lip is pierced; and with the Botocudos the hole in the +lower lip is so large that a disc of wood four inches in +diameter is placed in it. Mantegazza gives a curious +account of the shame felt by a South American native, +and of the ridicule which he excited, when he sold his +<i>tembeta</i>,—the large coloured piece of wood which is +passed through the hole. In central Africa the women +perforate the lower lip and wear a crystal, which, from +the movement of the tongue, has “a wriggling motion +indescribably ludicrous during conversation.” The +wife of the chief of Latooka told Sir S. Baker<a name="FNanchor_419" id="FNanchor_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">419</a> that his +“wife would be much improved if she would extract +her four front teeth from the lower jaw, and wear the +long pointed polished crystal in her under lip.” Further +south with the Makalolo, the upper lip is perforated, +and a large metal and bamboo ring, called a <i>pelelé</i>, is +worn in the hole. “This caused the lip in one case to +project two inches beyond the tip of the nose; and +when the lady smiled the contraction of the muscles +elevated it over the eyes. ‘Why do the women wear +these things?’ the venerable chief, Chinsurdi, was +asked. Evidently surprised at such a stupid question, +he replied, ‘For beauty! They are the only beautiful +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span>things women have; men have beards, women have +none. What kind of a person would she be without +the pelelé? She would not be a woman at all with a +mouth like a man, but no beard.’”<a name="FNanchor_420" id="FNanchor_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">420</a></p> + +<p class="tb">Hardly any part of the body, which can be unnaturally +modified, has escaped. The amount of suffering +thus caused must have been wonderfully great, for +many of the operations require several years for their +completion, so that the idea of their necessity must be +imperative. The motives are various; the men paint +their bodies to make themselves appear terrible in battle; +certain mutilations are connected with religious +rites; or they mark the age of puberty, or the rank +of the man, or they serve to distinguish the tribes. +As with savages the same fashions prevail for long +periods,<a name="FNanchor_421" id="FNanchor_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">421</a> mutilations, from whatever cause first made, +soon come to be valued as distinctive marks. But +self-adornment, vanity, and the admiration of others, +seem to be the commonest motives. In regard to +tattooing, I was told by the missionaries in New Zealand, +that when they tried to persuade some girls to give up +the practice, they answered, “We must just have a few +lines on our lips; else when we grow old we shall be +so very ugly.” With the men of New Zealand, a most +capable judge<a name="FNanchor_422" id="FNanchor_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">422</a> says, “to have fine tattooed faces was +the great ambition of the young, both to render themselves +attractive to the ladies, and conspicuous in war.” +A star tattooed on the forehead and a spot on the chin +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span>are thought by the women in one part of Africa to be +irresistible attractions.<a name="FNanchor_423" id="FNanchor_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">423</a> In most, but not all parts of +the world, the men are more highly ornamented than +the women, and often in a different manner; sometimes, +though rarely, the women are hardly at all ornamented. +As the women are made by savages to perform the +greatest share of the work, and as they are not allowed +to eat the best kinds of food, so it accords with the characteristic +selfishness of man that they should not be +allowed to obtain, or to use, the finest ornaments. +Lastly it is a remarkable fact, as proved by the foregoing +quotations, that the same fashions in modifying +the shape of the head, in ornamenting the hair, in +painting, tattooing, perforating the nose, lips, or ears, +in removing or filing the teeth, &c., now prevail and +have long prevailed in the most distant quarters of +the world. It is extremely improbable that these practices +which are followed by so many distinct nations are +due to tradition from any common source. They rather +indicate the close similarity of the mind of man, to whatever +race he may belong, in the same manner as the +almost universal habits of dancing, masquerading, and +making rude pictures.</p> + +<p>Having made these preliminary remarks on the +admiration felt by savages for various ornaments, and +for deformities most unsightly in our eyes, let us see +how far the men are attracted by the appearance +of their women, and what are their ideas of beauty. +As I have heard it maintained that savages are quite +indifferent about the beauty of their women, valuing +them solely as slaves, it may be well to observe that +this conclusion does not at all agree with the care which +the women take in ornamenting themselves, or with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span>their vanity. Burchell<a name="FNanchor_424" id="FNanchor_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">424</a> gives an amusing account of +a Bushwoman, who used so much grease, red ochre, +and shining powder, “as would have ruined any but a +very rich husband.” She displayed also “much vanity +and too evident a consciousness of her superiority.” +Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that the negroes of +the West Coast often discuss the beauty of their women. +Some competent observers have attributed the fearfully +common practice of infanticide partly to the desire felt +by the women to retain their good looks.<a name="FNanchor_425" id="FNanchor_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">425</a> In several +regions the women wear charms and love-philters to +gain the affections of the men; and Mr. Brown enumerates +four plants used for this purpose by the women of +North-Western America.<a name="FNanchor_426" id="FNanchor_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">426</a></p> + +<p>Hearne,<a name="FNanchor_427" id="FNanchor_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">427</a> who lived many years with the American +Indians, and who was an excellent observer, says, in +speaking of the women, “Ask a Northern Indian what +is beauty, and he will answer, a broad flat face, small +eyes, high cheek-bones, three or four broad black lines +across each cheek, a low forehead, a large broad chin, +a clumsy hook nose, a tawny hide, and breasts hanging +down to the belt.” Pallas, who visited the northern +parts of the Chinese empire, says “those women are +preferred who have the Mandschú form; that is to say, +a broad face, high cheek-bones, very broad noses, and +enormous ears;”<a name="FNanchor_428" id="FNanchor_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">428</a> and Vogt remarks that the obliquity +of the eye, which is proper to the Chinese and Japanese, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>is exaggerated in their pictures for the purpose, as +“it seems, of exhibiting its beauty, as contrasted with +the eye of the red-haired barbarians.” It is well +known, as Huc repeatedly remarks, that the Chinese of +the interior think Europeans hideous with their white +skins and prominent noses. The nose is far from being +too prominent, according to our ideas, in the natives of +Ceylon; yet “the Chinese in the seventh century, accustomed +to the flat features of the Mogul races, were +surprised at the prominent noses of the Cingalese; and +Thsang described them as having ‘the beak of a bird, +with the body of a man.’”</p> + +<p>Finlayson, after minutely describing the people of +Cochin China, says that their rounded heads and faces +are their chief characteristics; and, he adds, “the +roundness of the whole countenance is more striking +in the women, who are reckoned beautiful in proportion +as they display this form of face.” The Siamese +have small noses with divergent nostrils, a wide mouth, +rather thick lips, a remarkably large face, with very +high and broad cheek-bones. It is, therefore, not wonderful +that “beauty, according to our notion is a stranger +to them. Yet they consider their own females to be +much more beautiful than those of Europe.”<a name="FNanchor_429" id="FNanchor_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">429</a></p> + +<p>It is well known that with many Hottentot women +the posterior part of the body projects in a wonderful +manner; they are steatopygous; and Sir Andrew Smith +is certain that this peculiarity is greatly admired by the +men.<a name="FNanchor_430" id="FNanchor_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">430</a> He once saw a woman who was considered a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>beauty, and she was so immensely developed behind, that +when seated on level ground she could not rise, and had +to push herself along until she came to a slope. Some of +the women in various negro tribes are similarly characterised; +and, according to Burton, the Somal men “are +said to choose their wives by ranging them in a line, +and by picking her out who projects farthest <i>a tergo</i>. +Nothing can be more hateful to a negro than the +opposite form.”<a name="FNanchor_431" id="FNanchor_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">431</a></p> + +<p>With respect to colour, the negroes rallied Mungo +Park on the whiteness of his skin and the prominence +of his nose, both of which they considered as “unsightly +and unnatural conformations.” He in return praised +the glossy jet of their skins and the lovely depression of +their noses; this they said was “honey-mouth,” nevertheless +they gave him food. The African Moors, also, +“knitted their brows and seemed to shudder” at the +whiteness of his skin. On the eastern coast, the negro +boys when they saw Burton, cried out “Look at the +white man; does he not look like a white ape?” On +the western coast, as Mr. Winwood Reade informs me, +the negroes admire a very black skin more than one of +a lighter tint. But their horror of whiteness may be +partly attributed, according to this same traveller, to +the belief held by most negroes that demons and spirits +are white.</p> + +<p>The Banyai of the more southern part of the continent +are negroes, but “a great many of them are of a light +coffee-and-milk colour, and, indeed, this colour is considered +handsome throughout the whole country;” so +that here we have a different standard of taste. With the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span>Kafirs, who differ much from negroes, “the skin, except +among the tribes near Delagoa Bay, is not usually +black, the prevailing colour being a mixture of black +and red, the most common shade being chocolate. +Dark complexions, as being most common are naturally +held in the highest esteem. To be told that he +is light-coloured, or like a white man, would be deemed +a very poor compliment by a Kafir. I have heard of +one unfortunate man who was so very fair that no +girl would marry him.” One of the titles of the +Zulu king is “You who are black.”<a name="FNanchor_432" id="FNanchor_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">432</a> Mr. Galton, in +speaking to me about the natives of S. Africa, remarked +that their ideas of beauty seem very different from +ours; for in one tribe two slim, slight, and pretty girls +were not admired by the natives.</p> + +<p>Turning to other quarters of the world; in Java, a +yellow, not a white girl, is considered, according to +Madame Pfeiffer, a beauty. A man of Cochin-China +“spoke with contempt of the wife of the English +Ambassador, that she had white teeth like a dog, +and a rosy colour like that of potato-flowers.” We +have seen that the Chinese dislike our white skin, and +that the N. Americans admire “a tawny hide.” In +S. America, the Yura-caras, who inhabit the wooded, +damp slopes of the eastern Cordillera, are remarkably +pale-coloured, as their name in their own language +expresses; nevertheless they consider European women +as very inferior to their own.<a name="FNanchor_433" id="FNanchor_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">433</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span></p><p>In several of the tribes of North America the hair +on the head grows to a wonderful length; and Catlin +gives a curious proof how much this is esteemed, for +the chief of the Crows was elected to this office from +having the longest hair of any man in the tribe, namely +ten feet and seven inches. The Aymaras and Quechuas +of S. America, likewise have very long hair; and this, +as Mr. D. Forbes informs me, is so much valued for +the sake of beauty, that cutting it off was the severest +punishment which he could inflict on them. In both +halves of the continent the natives sometimes increase +the apparent length of their hair by weaving into +it fibrous substances. Although the hair on the head +is thus cherished, that on the face is considered by +the North American Indians “as very vulgar,” and +every hair is carefully eradicated. This practice prevails +throughout the American continent from Vancouver’s +Island in the north to Tierra del Fuego in the +south. When York Minster, a Fuegian on board the +“Beagle” was taken back to his country, the natives told +him he ought to pull out the few short hairs on his face. +They also threatened a young missionary, who was left +for a time with them, to strip him naked, and pluck +the hairs from his face and body, yet he was far from +a hairy man. This fashion is carried to such an extreme +that the Indians of Paraguay eradicate their eyebrows +and eyelashes, saying that they do not wish to +be like horses.<a name="FNanchor_434" id="FNanchor_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">434</a></p> + +<p>It is remarkable that throughout the world the races +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span>which are almost completely destitute of a beard dislike +hairs on the face and body, and take pains to eradicate +them. The Kalmucks are beardless, and they are well +known, like the Americans, to pluck out all straggling +hairs; and so it is with the Polynesians, some of the +Malays, and the Siamese. Mr. Veitch states that the +Japanese ladies “all objected to our whiskers, considering +them very ugly, and told us to cut them off, and +be like Japanese men.” The New Zealanders are +beardless; they carefully pluck out the hairs on the +face, and have a saying that “There is no woman for a +hairy man.”<a name="FNanchor_435" id="FNanchor_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">435</a></p> + +<p>On the other hand, bearded races admire and greatly +value their beards; among the Anglo-Saxons every part +of the body, according to their laws, had a recognised +value; “the loss of the beard being estimated at twenty +shillings, while the breaking of a thigh was fixed at +only twelve.”<a name="FNanchor_436" id="FNanchor_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">436</a> In the East men swear solemnly by +their beards. We have seen that Chinsurdi, the chief +of the Makalolo in Africa, evidently thought that +beards were a great ornament. With the Fijians in +the Pacific the beard is “profuse and bushy, and is his +greatest pride;” whilst the inhabitants of the adjacent +archipelagoes of Tonga and Samoa are “beardless, +and abhor a rough chin.” In one island alone of the +Ellice group “the men are heavily bearded, and not a +little proud thereof.”<a name="FNanchor_437" id="FNanchor_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">437</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span></p><p>We thus see how widely the different races of man +differ in their taste for the beautiful. In every nation +sufficiently advanced to have made effigies of their gods +or of their deified rulers, the sculptors no doubt have +endeavoured to express their highest ideal of beauty +and grandeur.<a name="FNanchor_438" id="FNanchor_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">438</a> Under this point of view it is well to +compare in our mind the Jupiter or Apollo of the Greeks +with the Egyptian or Assyrian statues; and these with +the hideous bas-reliefs on the ruined buildings of Central +America.</p> + +<p>I have met with very few statements opposed to the +above conclusion. Mr. Winwood Reade, however, who +has had ample opportunities for observation, not only +with the negroes of the West Coast of Africa, but with +those of the interior who have never associated with +Europeans, is convinced that their ideas of beauty are +<i>on the whole</i> the same as ours. He has repeatedly found +that he agreed with negroes in their estimation of +the beauty of the native girls; and that their appreciation +of the beauty of European women corresponded +with ours. They admire long hair, and use artificial +means to make it appear abundant; they admire +also a beard, though themselves very scantily provided. +Mr. Reade feels doubtful what kind of nose is +most appreciated: a girl has been heard to say, “I +do not want to marry him, he has got no nose;” and +this shews that a very flat nose is not an object of admiration. +We should, however, bear in mind that the +depressed and very broad noses and projecting jaws of +the negroes of the West Coast are exceptional types +with the inhabitants of Africa. Notwithstanding the +foregoing statements, Mr. Reade does not think it pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span>bable +that negroes would ever prefer the “most beautiful +European woman, on the mere grounds of physical +admiration, to a good-looking negress.”<a name="FNanchor_439" id="FNanchor_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">439</a></p> + +<p>The truth of the principle, long ago insisted on by +Humboldt,<a name="FNanchor_440" id="FNanchor_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">440</a> that man admires and often tries to exaggerate +whatever characters nature may have given him, +is shewn in many ways. The practice of beardless races +extirpating every trace of a beard, and generally all the +hairs on the body, offers one illustration. The skull has +been greatly modified during ancient and modern times +by many nations; and there can be little doubt that this +has been practised, especially in N. and S. America, in +order to exaggerate some natural and admired peculiarity. +Many American Indians are known to admire a +head flattened to such an extreme degree as to appear +to us like that of an idiot. The natives on the nort-hwestern +coast compress the head into a pointed cone; +and it is their constant practice to gather the hair +into a knot on the top of the head, for the sake, as +Dr. Wilson remarks, “of increasing the apparent elevation +of the favourite conoid form.” The inhabitants +of Arakhan “admire a broad, smooth forehead, and in +order to produce it, they fasten a plate of lead on the +heads of the newborn children.” On the other hand, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span>“a broad, well-rounded occiput is considered a great +beauty” by the natives of the Fiji islands.<a name="FNanchor_441" id="FNanchor_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">441</a></p> + +<p>As with the skull, so with the nose; the ancient Huns +during the age of Attila were accustomed to flatten +the noses of their infants with bandages, “for the sake +of exaggerating a natural conformation.” With the +Tahitians, to be called, <i>long-nose</i> is considered as an +insult, and they compress the noses and foreheads of +their children for the sake of beauty. So it is with the +Malays of Sumatra, the Hottentots, certain Negroes, +and the natives of Brazil.<a name="FNanchor_442" id="FNanchor_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">442</a> The Chinese have by +nature unusually small feet;<a name="FNanchor_443" id="FNanchor_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">443</a> and it is well known +that the women of the upper classes distort their feet +to make them still smaller. Lastly, Humboldt thinks +that the American Indians prefer colouring their bodies +with red paint in order to exaggerate their natural tint; +and until recently European women added to their naturally +bright colours by rouge and white cosmetics; but +I doubt whether many barbarous nations have had any +such intention in painting themselves.</p> + +<p>In the fashions of our own dress we see exactly the +same principle and the same desire to carry every point +to an extreme; we exhibit, also, the same spirit of +emulation. But the fashions of savages are far more +permanent than ours; and whenever their bodies are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span>artificially modified this is necessarily the case. The +Arab women of the Upper Nile occupy about three days +in dressing their hair; they never imitate other tribes, +“but simply vie with each other in the superlativeness +of their own style.” Dr. Wilson, in speaking of the +compressed skulls of various American races, adds, “such +usages are among the least eradicable, and long survive +the shock of revolutions that change dynasties +and efface more important national peculiarities.”<a name="FNanchor_444" id="FNanchor_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">444</a> +The same principle comes largely into play in the art of +selection; and we can thus understand, as I have elsewhere +explained,<a name="FNanchor_445" id="FNanchor_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">445</a> the wonderful development of all the +races of animals and plants which are kept merely for +ornament. Fanciers always wish each character to be +somewhat increased; they do not admire a medium +standard; they certainly do not desire any great and +abrupt change in the character of their breeds; they +admire solely what they are accustomed to behold, but +they ardently desire to see each characteristic feature +a little more developed.</p> + +<p>No doubt the perceptive powers of man and the +lower animals are so constituted that brilliant colours +and certain forms, as well as harmonious and rhythmical +sounds, give pleasure and are called beautiful; but why +this should be so, we know no more than why certain +bodily sensations are agreeable and others disagreeable. +It is certainly not true that there is in the mind of +man any universal standard of beauty with respect to +the human body. It is, however, possible that certain +tastes may in the course of time become inherited, +though I know of no evidence in favour of this belief; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">354</a></span>and if so, each race would possess its own innate ideal +standard of beauty. It has been argued<a name="FNanchor_446" id="FNanchor_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">446</a> that ugliness +consists in an approach to the structure of the +lower animals, and this no doubt is true with the more +civilised nations, in which intellect is highly appreciated; +but a nose twice as prominent, or eyes twice +as large as usual, would not be an approach in structure +to any of the lower animals, and yet would be +utterly hideous. The men of each race prefer what +they are accustomed to behold; they cannot endure +any great change; but they like variety, and admire +each characteristic point carried to a moderate extreme.<a name="FNanchor_447" id="FNanchor_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">447</a> +Men accustomed to a nearly oval face, to +straight and regular features, and to bright colours, +admire, as we Europeans know, these points when +strongly developed. On the other hand, men accustomed +to a broad face, with high cheek-bones, a depressed +nose, and a black skin, admire these points +strongly developed. No doubt characters of all kinds +may easily be too much developed for beauty. Hence a +perfect beauty, which implies many characters modified +in a particular manner, will in every race be a prodigy. +As the great anatomist Bichat long ago said, if every +one were cast in the same mould, there would be no such +thing as beauty. If all our women were to become as +beautiful as the Venus de Medici, we should for a time +be charmed; but we should soon wish for variety; and +as soon as we had obtained variety, we should wish to +see certain characters in our women a little exaggerated +beyond the then existing common standard.</p> + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XX.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Man</span>—<i>continued</i>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>On the effects of the continued selection of women according to a +different standard of beauty in each race—On the causes which +interfere with sexual selection in civilised and savage nations—Conditions +favourable to sexual selection during primeval +times—On the manner of action of sexual selection with +mankind—On the women in savage tribes having some power +to choose their husbands—Absence of hair on the body, and +development of the beard—Colour of the skin—Summary.</p></div> + +<p>We have seen in the last chapter that with all barbarous +races ornaments, dress, and external appearance are +highly valued; and that the men judge of the beauty +of their women by widely different standards. We +must next inquire whether this preference and the +consequent selection during many generations of those +women, which, appear to the men of each race the +most attractive, has altered the character either of the +females alone or of both sexes. With mammals the +general rule appears to be that characters of all kinds +are inherited equally by the males and females; we +might therefore expect that with mankind any characters +gained through sexual selection by the females +would commonly be transferred to the offspring of both +sexes. If any change has thus been effected it is almost +certain that the different races will have been differently +modified, as each has its own standard of beauty.</p> + +<p>With mankind, especially with savages, many causes +interfere with the action of sexual selection as far as the +bodily frame is concerned. Civilised men are largely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span> +attracted by the mental charms of women, by their +wealth, and especially by their social position; for men +rarely marry into a much lower rank of life. The men +who succeed in obtaining the more beautiful women, +will not have a better chance of leaving a long line +of descendants than other men with plainer wives, with +the exception of the few who bequeath their fortunes +according to primogeniture. With respect to the opposite +form of selection, namely of the more attractive +men by the women, although in civilised nations women +have free or almost free choice, which is not the case +with barbarous races, yet their choice is largely influenced +by the social position and wealth of the men; +and the success of the latter in life largely depends on +their intellectual powers and energy, or on the fruits of +these same powers in their forefathers.</p> + +<p>There is, however, reason to believe that sexual +selection has effected something in certain civilised and +semi-civilised nations. Many persons are convinced, as +it appears to me with justice, that the members of our +aristocracy, including under this term all wealthy families +in which primogeniture has long prevailed, from +having chosen during many generations from all classes +the more beautiful women as their wives, have become +handsomer, according to the European standard of +beauty, than the middle classes; yet the middle classes +are placed under equally favourable conditions of life +for the perfect development of the body. Cook remarks +that the superiority in personal appearance +“which is observable in the erees or nobles in all the +other islands (of the Pacific) is found in the Sandwich +islands;” but this may be chiefly due to their better +food and manner of life.</p> + +<p>The old traveller Chardin, in describing the Persians, +says their “blood is now highly refined by frequent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span> +intermixtures with the Georgians and Circassians, +two nations which surpass all the world in personal +beauty. There is hardly a man of rank in Persia +who is not born of a Georgian or Circassian mother.” +He adds that they inherit their beauty, “not from their +ancestors, for without the above mixture, the men of +rank in Persia, who are descendants of the Tartars, +would be extremely ugly.”<a name="FNanchor_448" id="FNanchor_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">448</a> Here is a more curious +case: the priestesses who attended the temple of Venus +Erycina at San-Giuliano in Sicily, were selected for their +beauty out of the whole of Greece; they were not +vestal virgins, and Quatrefages,<a name="FNanchor_449" id="FNanchor_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">449</a> who makes this statement, +says that the women of San-Giuliano are famous +at the present day as the most beautiful in the island, +and are sought by artists as models. But it is obvious +that the evidence in the above cases is doubtful.</p> + +<p class="tb">The following case, though relating to savages, is well +worth giving from its curiosity. Mr. Winwood Reade +informs me that the Jollofs, a tribe of negroes on the +west coast of Africa, “are remarkable for their uniformly +fine appearance.” A friend of his asked one of +these men, “How is it that every one whom I meet is +so fine-looking, not only your men, but your women?” +The Jollof answered, “It is very easily explained: it +has always been our custom to pick out our worse-looking +slaves and to sell them.” It need hardly +be added that with all savages female slaves serve as +concubines. That this negro should have attributed, +whether rightly or wrongly, the fine appearance of his +tribe, to the long-continued elimination of the ugly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span>women, is not so surprising as it may at first appear; +for I have elsewhere shewn<a name="FNanchor_450" id="FNanchor_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">450</a> that negroes fully appreciate +the importance of selection in the breeding of +their domestic animals, and I could give from Mr. Reade +additional evidence on this head.</p> + +<p><i>On the Causes which prevent or check the Action of +Sexual Selection with Savages.</i>—The chief causes are, +firstly, so-called communal marriages or promiscuous +intercourse; secondly, infanticide, especially of female +infants; thirdly, early betrothals; and lastly, the low +estimation in which women are held, as mere slaves. +These four points must be considered in some detail.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that as long as the pairing of man, or +of any other animal, is left to chance, with no choice +exerted by either sex, there can be no sexual selection; +and no effect will be produced on the offspring by +certain individuals having had an advantage over others +in their courtship. Now it is asserted that there exist +at the present day tribes which practise what Sir J. +Lubbock by courtesy calls communal marriages; that +is, all the men and women in the tribe are husbands and +wives to each other. The licentiousness of many savages +is no doubt astonishingly great, but it seems to me +that more evidence is requisite before we fully admit +that their existing intercourse is absolutely promiscuous. +Nevertheless all those who have most closely studied +the subject,<a name="FNanchor_451" id="FNanchor_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">451</a> and whose judgment is worth much more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span>than mine, believe that communal marriage was the +original and universal form throughout the world, including +the intermarriage of brothers and sisters. The +indirect evidence in favour of this belief is extremely +strong, and rests chiefly on the terms of relationship +which are employed between the members of the same +tribe, implying a connection with the tribe alone, and +not with either parent. But the subject is too large +and complex for even an abstract to be here given, and +I will confine myself to a few remarks. It is evident in +the case of communal marriages, or where the marriage-tie +is very loose, that the relationship of the child to its +father cannot be known. But it seems almost incredible +that the relationship of the child to its mother should +ever have been completely ignored, especially as the +women in most savage tribes nurse their infants for a +long time. Accordingly in many cases the lines of +descent are traced through the mother alone, to the +exclusion of the father. But in many other cases the +terms employed express a connection with the tribe +alone, to the exclusion even of the mother. It seems +possible that the connection between the related members +of the same barbarous tribe, exposed to all sorts of +danger, might be so much more important, owing to the +need of mutual protection and aid, than that between +the mother and her child, as to lead to the sole use of +terms expressive of the former relationships; but Mr. +Morgan is convinced that this view of the case is by no +means sufficient.</p> + +<p>The terms of relationship used in different parts of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span>the world may be divided, according to the author just +quoted, into two great classes, the classificatory and +descriptive,—the latter being employed by us. It is +the classificatory system which so strongly leads to the +belief that communal and other extremely loose forms +of marriage were originally universal. But as far as +I can see, there is no necessity on this ground for believing +in absolutely promiscuous intercourse. Men and +women, like many of the lower animals, might formerly +have entered into strict though temporary unions for +each birth, and in this case nearly as much confusion +would have arisen in the terms of relationship as in +the case of promiscuous intercourse. As far as sexual +selection is concerned, all that is required is that choice +should be exerted before the parents unite, and it +signifies little whether the unions last for life or only +for a season.</p> + +<p>Besides the evidence derived from the terms of relationship, +other lines of reasoning indicate the former +wide prevalence of communal marriage. Sir J. Lubbock +ingeniously accounts<a name="FNanchor_452" id="FNanchor_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">452</a> for the strange and widely-extended +habit of exogamy,—that is, the men of one +tribe always taking wives from a distinct tribe,—by +communism having been the original form of marriage; +so that a man never obtained a wife for himself +unless he captured her from a neighbouring and hostile +tribe, and then she would naturally have become his +sole and valuable property. Thus the practice of capturing +wives might have arisen; and from the honour +so gained might ultimately have become the universal +habit. We can also, according to Sir J. Lubbock,<a name="FNanchor_452b" id="FNanchor_452b"></a><a href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">452</a> +thus understand “the necessity of expiation for mar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span>riage +as an infringement of tribal rites, since, according +to old ideas, a man had no right to appropriate +to himself that which belonged to the whole tribe.” +Sir J. Lubbock further gives a most curious body of +facts shewing that in old times high honour was bestowed +on women who were utterly licentious; and this, +as he explains, is intelligible, if we admit that promiscuous +intercourse was the aboriginal and therefore +long revered custom of the tribe.<a name="FNanchor_453" id="FNanchor_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">453</a></p> + +<p>Although the manner of development of the marriage-tie +is an obscure subject, as we may infer from +the divergent opinions on several points between the +three authors who have studied it most closely, namely, +Mr. Morgan, Mr. M’Lennan, and Sir J. Lubbock, yet +from the foregoing and several other lines of evidence it +seems certain that the habit of marriage has been gradually +developed, and that almost promiscuous intercourse +was once extremely common throughout the world. +Nevertheless from the analogy of the lower animals, +more particularly of those which come nearest to man +in the series, I cannot believe that this habit prevailed +at an extremely remote period, when man had hardly +attained to his present rank in the zoological scale. +Man, as I have attempted to shew, is certainly descended +from some ape-like creature. With the existing Quadrumana, +as far as their habits are known, the males of +some species are monogamous, but live during only a +part of the year with the females, as seems to be the +case with the Orang. Several kinds, as some of the +Indian and American monkeys, are strictly monogamous, +and associate all the year round with their wives. +Others are polygamous, as the Gorilla and several +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span>American species, and each family lives separate. +Even when this occurs, the families inhabiting the +same district are probably to a certain extent social: +the Chimpanzee, for instance, is occasionally met with +in large bands. Again, other species are polygamous, +but several males, each with their own females, live +associated in a body, as with several species of Baboons.<a name="FNanchor_454" id="FNanchor_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">454</a> +We may indeed conclude from what we know of the +jealousy of all male quadrupeds, armed, as many of them +are, with special weapons for battling with their rivals, +that promiscuous intercourse in a state of nature is +extremely improbable. The pairing may not last for +life, but only for each birth; yet if the males which are +the strongest and best able to defend or otherwise assist +their females and young offspring, were to select the +more attractive females, this would suffice for the work +of sexual selection.</p> + +<p>Therefore, if we look far enough back in the stream +of time, it is extremely improbable that primeval men +and women lived promiscuously together. Judging from +the social habits of man as he now exists, and from +most savages being polygamists, the most probable +view is that primeval man aboriginally lived in small +communities, each with as many wives as he could +support and obtain, whom he would have jealously +guarded against all other men. Or he may have lived +with several wives by himself, like the Gorilla; for +all the natives “agree that but one adult male is +seen in a band; when the young male grows up, a +contest takes place for mastery, and the strongest, by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">363</a></span>killing and driving out the others, establishes himself +as the head of the community.”<a name="FNanchor_455" id="FNanchor_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">455</a> The younger males, +being thus expelled and wandering about, would, when +at last successful in finding a partner, prevent too close +interbreeding within the limits of the same family.</p> + +<p class="tb">Although savages are now extremely licentious, and +although communal marriages may formerly have +largely prevailed, yet many tribes practise some form +of marriage, but of a far more lax nature than with +civilised nations. Polygamy, as just stated, is almost +universally followed by the leading men in every tribe. +Nevertheless there are tribes, standing almost at the +bottom of the scale, which are strictly monogamous. +This is the case with the Veddahs of Ceylon: they +have a saying, according to Sir J. Lubbock,<a name="FNanchor_456" id="FNanchor_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">456</a> “that +death alone can separate husband and wife.” An +intelligent Kandyan chief, of course a polygamist, +“was perfectly scandalized at the utter barbarism of +living with only one wife, and never parting until +separated by death.” It was, he said, “just like the +Wanderoo monkeys.” Whether savages who now +enter into some form of marriage, either polygamous or +monogamous, have retained this habit from primeval +times, or whether they have returned to some form of +marriage, after passing through a stage of promiscuous +intercourse, I will not pretend to conjecture.</p> + +<p><i>Infanticide.</i>—This practice is now very common +throughout the world, and there is reason to believe +that it prevailed much more extensively during former +times.<a name="FNanchor_457" id="FNanchor_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">457</a> Barbarians find it difficult to support them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span>selves +and their children, and it is a simple plan to kill +their infants. In South America some tribes, as Azara +states, formerly destroyed so many infants of both sexes, +that they were on the point of extinction. In the Polynesian +Islands women have been known to kill from four +or five to even ten of their children; and Ellis could not +find a single woman who had not killed at least one. +Wherever infanticide prevails the struggle for existence +will be in so far less severe, and all the members of +the tribe will have an almost equally good chance of +rearing their few surviving children. In most cases +a larger number of female than of male infants are +destroyed, for it is obvious that the latter are of most +value to the tribe, as they will when grown up aid in defending +it, and can support themselves. But the trouble +experienced by the women in rearing children, their +consequent loss of beauty, the higher estimation set on +them and their happier fate, when few in number, are +assigned by the women themselves, and by various observers, +as additional motives for infanticide. In +Australia, where female infanticide is still common, Sir +G. Grey estimated the proportion of native women to +men as one to three; but others say as two to three. +In a village on the eastern frontier of India, Colonel +Macculloch found not a single female child.<a name="FNanchor_458" id="FNanchor_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">458</a></p> + +<p>When, owing to female infanticide, the women of a +tribe are few in number, the habit of capturing wives +from neighbouring tribes would naturally arise. Sir J. +Lubbock, however, as we have seen, attributes the practice +in chief part, to the former existence of communal +marriage, and to the men having consequently captured +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">365</a></span>women from other tribes to hold as their sole property. +Additional causes might be assigned, such as the communities +being very small, in which case, marriageable +women would often be deficient. That the habit of +capture was most extensively practised during former +times, even by the ancestors of civilised nations, is +clearly shewn by the preservation of many curious +customs and ceremonies, of which Mr. M’Lennan has +given a most interesting account. In our own marriages +the “best man” seems originally to have been +the chief abettor of the bridegroom in the act of capture. +Now as long as men habitually procured their +wives through violence and craft, it is not probable that +they would have selected the more attractive women; +they would have been too glad to have seized on any +woman. But as soon as the practice of procuring wives +from a distinct tribe was effected through barter, as now +occurs in many places, the more attractive women would +generally have been purchased. The incessant crossing, +however, between tribe and tribe, which necessarily +follows from any form of this habit would have tended +to keep all the people inhabiting the same country +nearly uniform in character; and this would have +greatly interfered with the power of sexual selection in +differentiating the tribes.</p> + +<p class="tb">The scarcity of women, consequent on female infanticide, +leads, also, to another practice, namely polyandry, +which is still common in several parts of the world, and +which formerly, as Mr. M’Lennan believes, prevailed +almost universally; but this latter conclusion is doubted +by Mr. Morgan and Sir J. Lubbock.<a name="FNanchor_459" id="FNanchor_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">459</a> Whenever two +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span>or more men are compelled to marry one woman, it is +certain that all the women of the tribe will get married, +and there will be no selection by the men of the more +attractive women. But under these circumstances the +women no doubt will have the power of choice, and +will prefer the more attractive men. Azara, for instance, +describes how carefully a Guana woman bargains +for all sorts of privileges, before accepting some one +or more husbands; and the men in consequence take +unusual care of their personal appearance.<a name="FNanchor_460" id="FNanchor_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">460</a> The very +ugly men would perhaps altogether fail in getting a +wife, or get one later in life, but the handsomer men, +although the most successful in obtaining wives, would +not, as far as we can see, leave more offspring to inherit +their beauty than the less handsome husbands of the +same women.</p> + +<p><i>Early Betrothals and Slavery of Women.</i>—With +many savages it is the custom to betroth the females +whilst mere infants; and this would effectually prevent +preference being exerted on either side according to +personal appearance. But it would not prevent the +more attractive women from being afterwards stolen +or taken by force from their husbands by the more +powerful men; and this often happens in Australia, +America, and other parts of the world. The same consequences +with reference to sexual selection would to a +certain extent follow when women are valued almost +exclusively as slaves or beasts of burden, as is the case +with most savages. The men, however, at all times +would prefer the handsomest slaves according to their +standard of beauty.</p> + +<p>We thus see that several customs prevail with savages +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">367</a></span>which would greatly interfere with, or completely stop, +the action of sexual selection. On the other hand, the +conditions of life to which savages are exposed, and +some of their habits, are favourable to natural selection; +and this always comes into play together with sexual +selection. Savages are known to suffer severely from +recurrent famines; they do not increase their food by +artificial means; they rarely refrain from marriage,<a name="FNanchor_461" id="FNanchor_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">461</a> +and generally marry young. Consequently they must +be subjected to occasional hard struggles for existence, +and the favoured individuals will alone survive.</p> + +<p class="tb">Turning to primeval times when men had only doubtfully +attained the rank of manhood, they would probably +have lived, as already stated, either as polygamists or +temporarily as monogamists. Their intercourse, judging +from analogy, would not then have been promiscuous. +They would, no doubt, have defended their females to +the best of their power from enemies of all kinds, and +would probably have hunted for their subsistence, as +well as for that of their offspring. The most powerful +and able males would have succeeded best in the +struggle for life and in obtaining attractive females. At +this early period the progenitors of man, from having +only feeble powers of reason, would not have looked +forward to distant contingencies. They would have +been governed more by their instincts and even less +by their reason than are savages at the present day. +They would not at that period have partially lost one +of the strongest of all instincts, common to all the lower +animals, namely the love of their young offspring; and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span>consequently they would not have practised infanticide. +There would have been no artificial scarcity of women, +and polyandry would not have been followed; there +would have been no early betrothals; women would +not have been valued as mere slaves; both sexes, if the +females as well as the males were permitted to exert +any choice, would have chosen their partners, not for +mental charms, or property, or social position, but almost +solely from external appearance. All the adults would +have married or paired, and all the offspring, as far as +that was possible, would have been reared; so that the +struggle for existence would have been periodically +severe to an extreme degree. Thus during these primordial +times all the conditions for sexual selection +would have been much more favourable than at a later +period, when man had advanced in his intellectual +powers, but had retrograded in his instincts. Therefore, +whatever influence sexual selection may have had in +producing the differences between the races of man, and +between man and the higher Quadrumana, this influence +would have been much more powerful at a very remote +period than at the present day.</p> + +<p><i>On the Manner of Action of Sexual Selection with +mankind.</i>—With primeval men under the favourable +conditions just stated, and with those savages who at the +present time enter into any marriage tie (but subject to +greater or less interference according as the habits of +female infanticide, early betrothals, &c., are more or +less practised), sexual selection will probably have +acted in the following manner. The strongest and most +vigorous men,—those who could best defend and hunt +for their families, and during later times the chiefs or +head-men,—those who were provided with the best +weapons and who possessed the most property, such as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span> +a larger number of dogs or other animals, would have +succeeded in rearing a greater average number of offspring, +than would the weaker, poorer and lower +members of the same tribes. There can, also, be no +doubt that such men would generally have been able +to select the more attractive women. At present the +chiefs of nearly every tribe throughout the world succeed +in obtaining more than one wife. Until recently, +as I hear from Mr. Mantell, almost every girl in New +Zealand, who was pretty, or promised to be pretty, +was <i>tapu</i> to some chief. With the Kafirs, as Mr. C. +Hamilton states,<a name="FNanchor_462" id="FNanchor_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">462</a> “the chiefs generally have the pick +of the women for many miles round, and are most +persevering in establishing or confirming their privilege.” +We have seen that each race has its own +style of beauty, and we know that it is natural to man +to admire each characteristic point in his domestic animals, +dress, ornaments, and personal appearance, when +carried a little beyond the common standard. If then +the several foregoing propositions be admitted, and I +cannot see that they are doubtful, it would be an inexplicable +circumstance, if the selection of the more +attractive women by the more powerful men of each +tribe, who would rear on an average a greater number +of children, did not after the lapse of many generations +modify to a certain extent the character of the tribe.</p> + +<p>With our domestic animals, when a foreign breed +is introduced into a new country, or when a native +breed is long and carefully attended to, either for use or +ornament, it is found after several generations to have +undergone, whenever the means of comparison exist, a +greater or less amount of change. This follows from +unconscious selection during a long series of generations—that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span>is, the preservation of the most approved individuals—without +any wish or expectation of such a result +on the part of the breeder. So again, if two careful +breeders rear during many years animals of the same +family, and do not compare them together or with +a common standard, the animals are found after a +time to have become to the surprise of their owners +slightly different.<a name="FNanchor_463" id="FNanchor_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">463</a> Each breeder has impressed, as +Von Nathusius well expresses it, the character of his +own mind—his own taste and judgment—on his +animals. What reason, then, can be assigned why +similar results should not follow from the long-continued +selection of the most admired women by those +men of each tribe, who were able to rear to maturity +the greater number of children? This would be unconscious +selection, for an effect would be produced, +independently of any wish or expectation on the part +of the men who preferred certain women to others.</p> + +<p class="tb">Let us suppose the members of a tribe, in which +some form of marriage was practised, to spread over an +unoccupied continent; they would soon split up into +distinct hordes, which would be separated from each +other by various barriers, and still more effectually by +the incessant wars between all barbarous nations. The +hordes would thus be exposed to slightly different conditions +and habits of life, and would sooner or later +come to differ in some small degree. As soon as this +occurred, each isolated tribe would form for itself a +slightly different standard of beauty;<a name="FNanchor_464" id="FNanchor_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">464</a> and then un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span>conscious +selection would come into action through the +more powerful and leading savages preferring certain +women to others. Thus the differences between the +tribes, at first very slight, would gradually and inevitably +be increased to a greater and greater degree.</p> + +<p>With animals in a state of nature, many characters +proper to the males, such as size, strength, special +weapons, courage and pugnacity, have been acquired +through the law of battle. The semi-human progenitors +of man, like their allies the Quadrumana, will +almost certainly have been thus modified; and, as +savages still fight for the possession of their women, a +similar process of selection has probably gone on in a +greater or less degree to the present day. Other characters +proper to the males of the lower animals, such +as bright colours and various ornaments, have been +acquired by the more attractive males having been +preferred by the females. There are, however, exceptional +cases in which the males, instead of having been +the selected, have been the selectors. We recognise +such cases by the females having been rendered more +highly ornamented than the males,—their ornamental +characters having been transmitted exclusively or +chiefly to their female offspring. One such case has +been described in the order to which man belongs, +namely, with the Rhesus monkey.</p> + +<p>Man is more powerful in body and mind than woman, +and in the savage state he keeps her in a far more +abject state of bondage than does the male of any other +animal; therefore it is not surprising that he should +have gained the power of selection. Women are everywhere +conscious of the value of their beauty; and when +they have the means, they take more delight in decorating +themselves with all sorts of ornaments than do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span> +men. They borrow the plumes of male birds, with which +nature decked this sex in order to charm the females. +As women have long been selected for beauty, it is +not surprising that some of the successive variations +should have been transmitted in a limited manner; and +consequently that women should have transmitted their +beauty in a somewhat higher degree to their female +than to their male offspring. Hence women have become +more beautiful, as most persons will admit, than +men. Women, however, certainly transmit most of +their characters, including beauty, to their offspring +of both sexes; so that the continued preference by +the men of each race of the more attractive women, +according to their standard of taste, would tend to +modify in the same manner all the individuals of both +sexes belonging to the race.</p> + +<p>With respect to the other form of sexual selection +(which with the lower animals is much the most common), +namely, when the females are the selectors, and +accept only those males which excite or charm them +most, we have reason to believe that it formerly acted +on the progenitors of man. Man in all probability owes +his beard, and perhaps some other characters, to inheritance +from an ancient progenitor who gained in this +manner his ornaments. But this form of selection may +have occasionally acted during later times; for in utterly +barbarous tribes the women have more power in +choosing, rejecting, and tempting their lovers, or of afterwards +changing their husbands, than might have been expected. +As this is a point of some importance, I will give +in detail such evidence as I have been able to collect.</p> + +<p>Hearne describes how a woman in one of the tribes +of Arctic America repeatedly ran away from her husband +and joined a beloved man; and with the +Charruas of S. America, as Azara states, the power of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">373</a></span> +divorce is perfectly free. With the Abipones, when +a man chooses a wife he bargains with the parents +about the price. But “it frequently happens that the +girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the +parents and the bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the +very mention of marriage.” She often runs away, +hides herself, and thus eludes the bridegroom. In the +Fiji Islands the man seizes on the woman whom he +wishes for his wife by actual or pretended force; but +“on reaching the home of her abductor, should she not +approve of the match, she runs to some one who can +protect her; if, however, she is satisfied, the matter is +settled forthwith.” In Tierra del Fuego a young +man first obtains the consent of the parents by doing +them some service, and then he attempts to carry off +the girl; “but if she is unwilling, she hides herself +in the woods until her admirer is heartily tired of +looking for her, and gives up the pursuit; but this +seldom happens.” With the Kalmucks there is a +regular race between the bride and bridegroom, the +former having a fair start; and Clarke “was assured +that no instance occurs of a girl being caught, unless +she has a partiality to the pursuer.” So with the +wild tribes of the Malay archipelago there is a similar +racing match; and it appears from M. Bourien’s account, +as Sir J. Lubbock remarks, that “the race ‘is not to +the swift, nor the battle to the strong,’ but to the +young man who has the good fortune to please his +intended bride.”</p> + +<p>Turning to Africa: the Kafirs buy their wives, and +girls are severely beaten by their fathers if they will +not accept a chosen husband; yet it is manifest from +many facts given by the Rev. Mr. Shooter, that they +have considerable power of choice. Thus very ugly, +though rich men, have been known to fail in getting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span> +wives. The girls, before consenting to be betrothed, +compel the men to shew themselves off, first in front +and then behind, and “exhibit their paces.” They +have been known to propose to a man, and they not +rarely run away with a favoured lover. With the +degraded bushwomen of S. Africa, “when a girl has +grown up to womanhood without having been betrothed, +which, however, does not often happen, her +lover must gain her approbation, as well as that of +the parents.”<a name="FNanchor_465" id="FNanchor_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">465</a> Mr. Winwood Reade made inquiries +for me with respect to the negroes of Western Africa, +and he informs me that “the women, at least among +the more intelligent Pagan tribes, have no difficulty +in getting the husbands whom they may desire, although +it is considered unwomanly to ask a man to +marry them. They are quite capable of falling in +love, and of forming tender, passionate, and faithful +attachments.”</p> + +<p>We thus see that with savages the women are not +in quite so abject a state in relation to marriage as has +often been supposed. They can tempt the men whom +they prefer, and can sometimes reject those whom they +dislike, either before or after marriage. Preference +on the part of the women, steadily acting in any one +direction, would ultimately affect the character of the +tribe; for the women would generally choose not merely +the handsomer men, according to their standard of taste, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span>but those who were at the same time best able to defend +and support them. Such well-endowed pairs would +commonly rear a larger number of offspring than the +less well endowed. The same result would obviously +follow in a still more marked manner if there was selection +on both sides; that is if the more attractive, and +at the same time more powerful men were to prefer, +and were preferred by, the more attractive women. +And these two forms of selection seem actually to have +occurred, whether or not simultaneously, with mankind, +especially during the earlier periods of our long history.</p> + +<p class="tb">We will now consider in a little more detail, relatively +to sexual selection, some of the characters which +distinguish the several races of man from each other +and from the lower animals, namely, the more or less +complete absence of hair from the body and the colour +of the skin. We need say nothing about the great +diversity in the shape of the features and of the skull +between the different races, as we have seen in the last +chapter how different is the standard of beauty in these +respects. These characters will therefore probably have +been acted on through sexual selection; but we have no +means of judging, as far as I can see, whether they +have been acted on chiefly through the male or female +side. The musical faculties of man have likewise been +already discussed.</p> + +<p><i>Absence of Hair on the Body, and its Development on +the Face and Head.</i>—From the presence of the woolly +hair or lanugo on the human fœtus, and of rudimentary +hairs scattered over the body during maturity, we may +infer that man is descended from some animal which +was born hairy and remained so during life. The loss +of hair is an inconvenience and probably an injury to +man even under a hot climate, for he is thus exposed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span> +to sudden chills, especially during wet weather. As +Mr. Wallace remarks, the natives in all countries are +glad to protect their naked backs and shoulders with +some slight covering. No one supposes that the nakedness +of the skin is any direct advantage to man, so +that his body cannot have been divested of hair through +natural selection.<a name="FNanchor_466" id="FNanchor_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">466</a> Nor have we any grounds for believing, +as shewn in a former chapter, that this can be +due to the direct action of the conditions to which man +has long been exposed, or that it is the result of correlated +development.</p> + +<p>The absence of hair on the body is to a certain extent +a secondary sexual character; for in all parts of the +world women are less hairy than men. Therefore we +may reasonably suspect that this is a character which +has been gained through sexual selection. We know +that the faces of several species of monkeys, and large +surfaces at the posterior end of the body in other species, +have been denuded of hair; and this we may +safely attribute to sexual selection, for these surfaces +are not only vividly coloured, but sometimes, as with +the male mandrill and female rhesus, much more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span>vividly in the one sex than in the other. As these +animals gradually reach maturity the naked surfaces, +as I am informed by Mr. Bartlett, grow larger, relatively +to the size of their bodies. The hair, however, +appears to have been removed in these cases, not for +the sake of nudity, but that the colour of the skin +should be more fully displayed. So again with many +birds the head and neck have been divested of feathers +through sexual selection, for the sake of exhibiting the +brightly-coloured skin.</p> + +<p>As woman has a less hairy body than man, and as +this character is common to all races, we may conclude +that our female semi-human progenitors were +probably first partially divested of hair; and that this +occurred at an extremely remote period before the +several races had diverged from a common stock. As +our female progenitors gradually acquired this new +character of nudity, they must have transmitted it in +an almost equal degree to their young offspring of both +sexes; so that its transmission, as in the case of many +ornaments with mammals and birds, has not been +limited either by age or sex. There is nothing surprising +in a partial loss of hair having been esteemed +as ornamental by the ape-like progenitors of man, for +we have seen that with animals of all kinds innumerable +strange characters have been thus esteemed, and have +consequently been modified through sexual selection. +Nor is it surprising that a character in a slight degree +injurious should have been thus acquired; for we know +that this is the case with the plumes of some birds, and +with the horns of some stags.</p> + +<p>The females of certain anthropoid apes, as stated in a +former chapter, are somewhat less hairy on the under +surface than are the males; and here we have what +might have afforded a commencement for the process<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span> +of denudation. With respect to the completion of the +process through sexual selection, it is well to bear in +mind the New Zealand proverb, “there is no woman +for a hairy man.” All who have seen photographs of +the Siamese hairy family will admit how ludicrously +hideous is the opposite extreme of excessive hairiness. +Hence the king of Siam had to bribe a man to marry +the first hairy woman in the family, who transmitted +this character to her young offspring of both sexes.<a name="FNanchor_467" id="FNanchor_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">467</a></p> + +<p>Some races are much more hairy than others, especially +on the male side; but it must not be assumed that +the more hairy races, for instance Europeans, have retained +a primordial condition more completely than +have the naked races, such as the Kalmucks or Americans. +It is a more probable view that the hairiness +of the former is due to partial reversion, for characters +which have long been inherited are always apt to return. +It does not appear that a cold climate has been +influential in leading to this kind of reversion; excepting +perhaps with the negroes, who have been reared +during several generations, in the United States,<a name="FNanchor_468" id="FNanchor_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">468</a> and +possibly with the Ainos, who inhabit the northern +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span>islands of the Japan archipelago. But the laws of inheritance +are so complex than we can seldom understand +their action. If the greater hairiness of certain +races be the result of reversion, unchecked by any form +of selection, the extreme variability of this character, +even within the limits of the same race, ceases to be +remarkable.</p> + +<p>With respect to the beard, if we turn to our best +guide, namely the Quadrumana, we find beards equally +well developed in both sexes of many species, but in +others, either confined to the males, or more developed +in them than in the females. From this fact, and from +the curious arrangement, as well as the bright colours, of +the hair about the heads of many monkeys, it is highly +probable, as before explained, that the males first +acquired their beards as an ornament through sexual +selection, transmitting them in most cases, in an equal or +nearly equal degree, to their offspring of both sexes. +We know from Eschricht<a name="FNanchor_469" id="FNanchor_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">469</a> that with mankind, the +female as well as the male fœtus is furnished with much +hair on the face, especially round the mouth; and this +indicates that we are descended from a progenitor, of +which both sexes were bearded. It appears therefore +at first sight probable that man has retained his beard +from a very early period, whilst woman lost her beard +at the same time when her body became almost completely +divested of hair. Even the colour of the beard +with mankind seems to have been inherited from an +ape-like progenitor; for when there is any difference +in tint between the hair of the head and the beard, the +latter is lighter coloured in all monkeys and in man. +There is less improbability in the men of the bearded +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span>races having retained their beards from primordial +times, than in the case of the hair on the body; for +with those Quadrumana, in which the male has a larger +beard than that of the female, it is fully developed +only at maturity, and the later stages of development +may have been exclusively transmitted to mankind. +We should then see what is actually the case, namely, +our male children, before they arrive at maturity, as +destitute of beards as are our female children. On the +other hand the great variability of the beard within +the limits of the same race and in different races indicates +that reversion has come into action. However +this may be, we must not overlook the part which +sexual selection may have played even during later +times; for we know that with savages, the men of the +beardless races take infinite pains in eradicating every +hair from their faces, as something odious, whilst the +men of the bearded races feel the greatest pride in their +beards. The women, no doubt, participate in these +feelings, and if so sexual selection can hardly have +failed to have effected something in the course of later +times.<a name="FNanchor_470" id="FNanchor_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">470</a></p> + +<p class="tb">It is rather difficult to form a judgment how the long +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span>hair on our heads became developed. Eschricht +<a name="FNanchor_471" id="FNanchor_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">471</a> states +that in the human fœtus the hair on the face during +the fifth month is longer than that on the head; and +this indicates that our semi-human progenitors were not +furnished with long tresses, which consequently must +have been a late acquisition. This is likewise indicated +by the extraordinary difference in the length of the hair +in the different races; in the negro the hair forms a +mere curly mat; with us it is of great length, and with +the American natives it not rarely reaches to the +ground. Some species of Semnopithecus have their +heads covered with moderately long hair, and this probably +serves as an ornament and was acquired through +sexual selection. The same view may be extended to +mankind, for we know that long tresses are now and +were formerly much admired, as may be observed in the +works of almost every poet; St. Paul says, “if a woman +have long hair, it is a glory to her;” and we have seen +that in North America a chief was elected solely from +the length of his hair.</p> + +<p><i>Colour of the Skin.</i>—The best kind of evidence that +the colour of the skin has been modified through sexual +selection is wanting in the case of mankind; for the +sexes do not differ in this respect, or only slightly and +doubtfully. On the other hand we know from many +facts already given that the colour of the skin is regarded +by the men of all races as a highly important +element in their beauty; so that it is a character which +would be likely to be modified through selection, as has +occurred in innumerable instances with the lower animals. +It seems at first sight a monstrous supposition +that the jet blackness of the negro has been gained +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span>through sexual selection; but this view is supported by +various analogies, and we know that negroes admire +their own blackness. With mammals, when the sexes +differ in colour, the male is often black or much darker +than the female; and it depends merely on the form of +inheritance whether this or any other tint shall be transmitted +to both sexes or to one alone. The resemblance +of <i>Pithecia satanas</i> with his jet black skin, white rolling +eyeballs, and hair parted on the top of the head, to a +negro in miniature, is almost ludicrous.</p> + +<p class="tb">The colour of the face differs much more widely in +the various kinds of monkeys than it does in the races +of man; and we have good reason to believe that +the red, blue, orange, almost white and black tints of +their skin, even when common to both sexes, and the +bright colours of their fur, as well as the ornamental +tufts of hair about the head, have all been acquired +through sexual selection. As the newly-born infants of +the most distinct races do not differ nearly as much in +colour as do the adults, although their bodies are completely +destitute of hair, we have some slight indication +that the tints of the different races were acquired subsequently +to the removal of the hair, which, as before +stated, must have occurred at a very early period.</p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—We may conclude that the greater size, +strength, courage, pugnacity, and even energy of man, +in comparison with the same qualities in woman, were +acquired during primeval times, and have subsequently +been augmented, chiefly through the contests of rival +males for the possession of the females. The greater +intellectual vigour and power of invention in man is +probably due to natural selection combined with the +inherited effects of habit, for the most able men will +have succeeded best in defending and providing for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span> +themselves, their wives and offspring. As far as the +extreme intricacy of the subject permits us to judge, +it appears that our male ape-like progenitors acquired +their beards as an ornament to charm or excite the +opposite sex, and transmitted them to man as he now +exists. The females apparently were first denuded of +hair in like manner as a sexual ornament; but they +transmitted this character almost equally to both sexes. +It is not improbable that the females were modified in +other respects for the same purpose and through the +same means; so that women have acquired sweeter +voices and become more beautiful than men.</p> + +<p>It deserves particular attention that with mankind +all the conditions for sexual selection were much more +favourable, during a very early period, when man had +only just attained to the rank of manhood, than during +later times. For he would then, as we may safely conclude, +have been guided more by his instinctive passions, +and less by foresight or reason. He would not then +have been so utterly licentious as many savages now are; +and each male would have jealously guarded his wife or +wives. He would not then have practised infanticide; +nor valued his wives merely as useful slaves; nor have +been betrothed to them during infancy. Hence we may +infer that the races of men were differentiated, as far as +sexual selection is concerned, in chief part during a very +remote epoch; and this conclusion throws light on the +remarkable fact that at the most ancient period, of which +we have as yet obtained any record, the races of man +had already come to differ nearly or quite as much as +they do at the present day.</p> + +<p>The views here advanced, on the part which sexual +selection has played in the history of man, want scientific +precision. He who does not admit this agency in +the case of the lower animals, will properly disregard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span> +all that I have written in the later chapters on man. +We cannot positively say that this character, but not +that, has been thus modified; it has, however, been +shewn that the races of man differ from each other and +from their nearest allies amongst the lower animals, in +certain characters which are of no service to them in +their ordinary habits of life, and which it is extremely +probable would have been modified through sexual selection. +We have seen that with the lowest savages the +people of each tribe admire their own characteristic +qualities,—the shape of the head and face, the squareness +of the cheek-bones, the prominence or depression +of the nose, the colour of the skin, the length of the +hair on the head, the absence of hair on the face and +body, or the presence of a great beard, and so forth. +Hence these and other such points could hardly fail to +have been slowly and gradually exaggerated from the +more powerful and able men in each tribe, who would +succeed in rearing the largest number of offspring, having +selected during many generations as their wives the +most strongly characterised and therefore most attractive +women. For my own part I conclude that of all +the causes which have led to the differences in external +appearance between the races of man, and to a certain +extent between man and the lower animals, sexual +selection has been by far the most efficient.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXI.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">General Summary and Conclusion</span>.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Main conclusion that man is descended from some lower form—Manner +of development—Genealogy of man—Intellectual and +moral faculties—Sexual selection—Concluding remarks.</p></div> + +<p>A brief summary will here be sufficient to recall to the +reader’s mind the more salient points in this work. +Many of the views which have been advanced are highly +speculative, and some no doubt will prove erroneous; +but I have in every case given the reasons which have +led me to one view rather than to another. It seemed +worth while to try how far the principle of evolution +would throw light on some of the more complex problems +in the natural history of man. False facts are +highly injurious to the progress of science, for they often +long endure; but false views, if supported by some +evidence, do little harm, as every one takes a salutary +pleasure in proving their falseness; and when this is +done, one path towards error is closed and the road to +truth is often at the same time opened.</p> + +<p>The main conclusion arrived at in this work, and now +held by many naturalists who are well competent to +form a sound judgment, is that man is descended from +some less highly organised form. The grounds upon +which this conclusion rests will never be shaken, for the +close similarity between man and the lower animals in +embryonic development, as well as in innumerable +points of structure and constitution, both of high and +of the most trifling importance,—the rudiments which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span> +he retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he +is occasionally liable,—are facts which cannot be disputed. +They have long been known, but until recently +they told us nothing with respect to the origin of +man. Now when viewed by the light of our knowledge +of the whole organic world, their meaning is +unmistakeable. The great principle of evolution stands +up clear and firm, when these groups of facts are considered +in connection with others, such as the mutual +affinities of the members of the same group, their +geographical distribution in past and present times, +and their geological succession. It is incredible that +all these facts should speak falsely. He who is not +content to look, like a savage, at the phenomena of +nature as disconnected, cannot any longer believe that +man is the work of a separate act of creation. He will +be forced to admit that the close resemblance of the +embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog—the construction +of his skull, limbs, and whole frame, independently +of the uses to which the parts may be put, on +the same plan with that of other mammals—the occasional +reappearance of various structures, for instance +of several distinct muscles, which man does not normally +possess, but which are common to the Quadrumana—and +a crowd of analogous facts—all point in +the plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the +co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor.</p> + +<p>We have seen that man incessantly presents individual +differences in all parts of his body and in his +mental faculties. These differences or variations seem +to be induced by the same general causes, and to obey +the same laws as with the lower animals. In both +cases similar laws of inheritance prevail. Man tends to +increase at a greater rate than his means of subsistence;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">387</a></span> +consequently he is occasionally subjected to a severe +struggle for existence, and natural selection will have +effected whatever lies within its scope. A succession +of strongly-marked variations of a similar nature are +by no means requisite; slight fluctuating differences +in the individual suffice for the work of natural selection. +We may feel assured that the inherited effects +of the long-continued use or disuse of parts will have +done much in the same direction with natural selection. +Modifications formerly of importance, though no longer +of any special use, will be long inherited. When one +part is modified, other parts will change through the +principle of correlation, of which we have instances in +many curious cases of correlated monstrosities. Something +may be attributed to the direct and definite +action of the surrounding conditions of life, such as +abundant food, heat, or moisture; and lastly, many +characters of slight physiological importance, some indeed +of considerable importance, have been gained +through sexual selection.</p> + +<p>No doubt man, as well as every other animal, presents +structures, which as far as we can judge with +our little knowledge, are not now of any service to +him, nor have been so during any former period of his +existence, either in relation to his general conditions of +life, or of one sex to the other. Such structures cannot +be accounted for by any form of selection, or by the +inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts. We +know, however, that many strange and strongly-marked +peculiarities of structure occasionally appear in our +domesticated productions, and if the unknown causes +which produce them were to act more uniformly, they +would probably become common to all the individuals +of the species. We may hope hereafter to understand +something about the causes of such occasional modifications,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span> +especially through the study of monstrosities: +hence the labours of experimentalists, such as those of +M. Camille Dareste, are full of promise for the future. +In the greater number of cases we can only say that the +cause of each slight variation and of each monstrosity +lies much more in the nature or constitution of the +organism, than in the nature of the surrounding conditions; +though new and changed conditions certainly +play an important part in exciting organic changes of +all kinds.</p> + +<p>Through the means just specified, aided perhaps by +others as yet undiscovered, man has been raised to his +present state. But since he attained to the rank of +manhood, he has diverged into distinct races, or as they +may be more appropriately called sub-species. Some +of these, for instance the Negro and European, are so +distinct that, if specimens had been brought to a naturalist +without any further information, they would undoubtedly +have been considered by him as good and +true species. Nevertheless all the races agree in so +many unimportant details of structure and in so many +mental peculiarities, that these can be accounted for +only through inheritance from a common progenitor; +and a progenitor thus characterised would probably +have deserved to rank as man.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that the divergence of +each race from the other races, and of all the races +from a common stock, can be traced back to any one +pair of progenitors. On the contrary, at every stage +in the process of modification, all the individuals which +were in any way best fitted for their conditions of life, +though in different degrees, would have survived in +greater numbers than the less well fitted. The process +would have been like that followed by man, when +he does not intentionally select particular individuals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span> +but breeds from all the superior and neglects all the +inferior individuals. He thus slowly but surely modifies +his stock, and unconsciously forms a new strain. +So with respect to modifications, acquired independently +of selection, and due to variations arising from +the nature of the organism and the action of the surrounding +conditions, or from changed habits of life, no +single pair will have been modified in a much greater +degree than the other pairs which inhabit the same +country, for all will have been continually blended +through free intercrossing.</p> + +<p class="tb">By considering the embryological structure of man,—the +homologies which he presents with the lower +animals,—the rudiments which he retains,—and the +reversions to which he is liable, we can partly recall +in imagination the former condition of our early progenitors; +and can approximately place them in their +proper position in the zoological series. We thus learn +that man is descended from a hairy quadruped, furnished +with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal +in its habits, and an inhabitant of the Old World. +This creature, if its whole structure had been examined +by a naturalist, would have been classed amongst the +Quadrumana, as surely as would the common and still +more ancient progenitor of the Old and New World +monkeys. The Quadrumana and all the higher mammals +are probably derived from an ancient marsupial +animal, and this through a long line of diversified +forms, either from some reptile-like or some amphibian-like +creature, and this again from some fish-like animal. +In the dim obscurity of the past we can see that the +early progenitor of all the Vertebrata must have been +an aquatic animal, provided with branchiæ, with the two +sexes united in the same individual, and with the most +important organs of the body (such as the brain and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">390</a></span> +heart) imperfectly developed. This animal seems to +have been more like the larvæ of our existing marine +Ascidians than any other known form.</p> + +<p>The greatest difficulty which presents itself, when +we are driven to the above conclusion on the origin of +man, is the high standard of intellectual power and of +moral disposition which he has attained. But every one +who admits the general principle of evolution, must see +that the mental powers of the higher animals, which +are the same in kind with those of mankind, though +so different in degree, are capable of advancement. +Thus the interval between the mental powers of one +of the higher apes and of a fish, or between those +of an ant and scale-insect, is immense. The development +of these powers in animals does not offer any +special difficulty; for with our domesticated animals, +the mental faculties are certainly variable, and the +variations are inherited. No one doubts that these +faculties are of the utmost importance to animals in a +state of nature. Therefore the conditions are favourable +for their development through natural selection. +The same conclusion may be extended to man; the +intellect must have been all-important to him, even at +a very remote period, enabling him to use language, +to invent and make weapons, tools, traps, &c.; by +which means, in combination with his social habits, +he long ago became the most dominant of all living +creatures.</p> + +<p>A great stride in the development of the intellect +will have followed, as soon as, through a previous considerable +advance, the half-art and half-instinct of language +came into use; for the continued use of language +will have reacted on the brain, and produced an inherited +effect; and this again will have reacted on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">391</a></span> +improvement of language. The large size of the brain +in man, in comparison with that of the lower animals, +relatively to the size of their bodies, may be attributed +in chief part, as Mr. Chauncey Wright has well remarked,<a name="FNanchor_472" id="FNanchor_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">472</a> +to the early use of some simple form of +language,—that wonderful engine which affixes signs +to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites trains +of thought which would never arise from the mere impression +of the senses, and if they did arise could not +be followed out. The higher intellectual powers of +man, such as those of ratiocination, abstraction, self-consciousness, +&c., will have followed from the continued +improvement of other mental faculties; but +without considerable culture of the mind, both in the +race and in the individual, it is doubtful whether these +high powers would be exercised, and thus fully attained.</p> + +<p>The development of the moral qualities is a more +interesting and difficult problem. Their foundation +lies in the social instincts, including in this term the +family ties. These instincts are of a highly complex +nature, and in the case of the lower animals give +special tendencies towards certain definite actions; but +the more important elements for us are love, and the +distinct emotion of sympathy. Animals endowed with +the social instincts take pleasure in each other’s company, +warn each other of danger, defend and aid each +other in many ways. These instincts are not extended +to all the individuals of the species, but only to those +of the same community. As they are highly beneficial +to the species, they have in all probability been acquired +through natural selection.</p> + +<p>A moral being is one who is capable of comparing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">392</a></span>his past and future actions and motives,—of approving +of some and disapproving of others; and the fact that +man is the one being who with certainty can be thus +designated makes the greatest of all distinctions between +him and the lower animals. But in our third +chapter I have endeavoured to shew that the moral +sense follows, firstly, from the enduring and always +present nature of the social instincts, in which respect +man agrees with the lower animals; and secondly, from +his mental faculties being highly active and his impressions +of past events extremely vivid, in which respects +he differs from the lower animals. Owing to this condition +of mind, man cannot avoid looking backwards and +comparing the impressions of past events and actions. +He also continually looks forward. Hence after some +temporary desire or passion has mastered his social instincts, +he will reflect and compare the now weakened +impression of such past impulses, with the ever present +social instinct; and he will then feel that sense of dissatisfaction +which all unsatisfied instincts leave behind +them. Consequently he resolves to act differently for +the future—and this is conscience. Any instinct which +is permanently stronger or more enduring than another, +gives rise to a feeling which we express by saying that +it ought to be obeyed. A pointer dog, if able to reflect +on his past conduct, would say to himself, I ought (as +indeed we say of him) to have pointed at that hare +and not have yielded to the passing temptation of +hunting it.</p> + +<p>Social animals are partly impelled by a wish to aid +the members of the same community in a general +manner, but more commonly to perform certain definite +actions. Man is impelled by the same general wish to +aid his fellows, but has few or no special instincts. +He differs also from the lower animals in being able<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">393</a></span> +to express his desires by words, which thus become +the guide to the aid required and bestowed. The +motive to give aid is likewise somewhat modified in +man: it no longer consists solely of a blind instinctive +impulse, but is largely influenced by the praise or +blame of his fellow men. Both the appreciation and +the bestowal of praise and blame rest on sympathy; +and this emotion, as we have seen, is one of the most +important elements of the social instincts. Sympathy, +though gained as an instinct, is also much strengthened +by exercise or habit. As all men desire their own +happiness, praise or blame is bestowed on actions and +motives, according as they lead to this end; and as +happiness is an essential part of the general good, the +greatest-happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly +safe standard of right and wrong. As the reasoning +powers advance and experience is gained, the more +remote effects of certain lines of conduct on the +character of the individual, and on the general good, +are perceived; and then the self-regarding virtues, +from coming within the scope of public opinion, receive +praise, and their opposites receive blame. But with the +less civilised nations reason often errs, and many bad +customs and base superstitions come within the same +scope, and consequently are esteemed as high virtues, +and their breach as heavy crimes.</p> + +<p>The moral faculties are generally esteemed, and with +justice, as of higher value than the intellectual powers. +But we should always bear in mind that the activity of +the mind in vividly recalling past impressions is one of +the fundamental though secondary bases of conscience. +This fact affords the strongest argument for educating +and stimulating in all possible ways the intellectual +faculties of every human being. No doubt a man with +a torpid mind, if his social affections and sympathies are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">394</a></span> +well developed, will be led to good actions, and may +have a fairly sensitive conscience. But whatever renders +the imagination of men more vivid and strengthens +the habit of recalling and comparing past impressions, +will make the conscience more sensitive, and may even +compensate to a certain extent for weak social affections +and sympathies.</p> + +<p class="tb">The moral nature of man has reached the highest +standard as yet attained, partly through the advancement +of the reasoning powers and consequently of a just +public opinion, but especially through the sympathies +being rendered more tender and widely diffused through +the effects of habit, example, instruction, and reflection. +It is not improbable that virtuous tendencies may +through long practice be inherited. With the more +civilised races, the conviction of the existence of an +all-seeing Deity has had a potent influence on the +advancement of morality. Ultimately man no longer +accepts the praise or blame of his fellows as his chief +guide, though few escape this influence, but his habitual +convictions controlled by reason afford him the +safest rule. His conscience then becomes his supreme +judge and monitor. Nevertheless the first foundation +or origin of the moral sense lies in the social instincts, +including sympathy; and these instincts no doubt were +primarily gained, as in the case of the lower animals, +through natural selection.</p> + +<p>The belief in God has often been advanced as not +only the greatest, but the most complete of all the +distinctions between man and the lower animals. It is +however impossible, as we have seen, to maintain that +this belief is innate or instinctive in man. On the +other hand a belief in all-pervading spiritual agencies +seems to be universal; and apparently follows from a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span> +considerable advance in the reasoning powers of man, +and from a still greater advance in his faculties of imagination, +curiosity and wonder. I am aware that the +assumed instinctive belief in God has been used by many +persons as an argument for His existence. But this +is a rash argument, as we should thus be compelled to +believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant +spirits, possessing only a little more power than man; +for the belief in them is far more general than of a +beneficent Deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent +Creator of the universe does not seem to arise in +the mind of man, until he has been elevated by long-continued +culture.</p> + +<p>He who believes in the advancement of man from +some lowly-organised form, will naturally ask how does +this bear on the belief in the immortality of the soul. +The barbarous races of man, as Sir J. Lubbock has +shewn, possess no clear belief of this kind; but arguments +derived from the primeval beliefs of savages are, +as we have just seen, of little or no avail. Few persons +feel any anxiety from the impossibility of determining +at what precise period in the development of the individual, +from the first trace of the minute germinal +vesicle to the child either before or after birth, man +becomes an immortal being; and there is no greater +cause for anxiety because the period in the gradually +ascending organic scale cannot possibly be determined.<a name="FNanchor_473" id="FNanchor_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">473</a></p> + +<p class="tb">I am aware that the conclusions arrived at in this +work will be denounced by some as highly irreligious; +but he who thus denounces them is bound to shew why +it is more irreligious to explain the origin of man as +a distinct species by descent from some lower form, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span> +through the laws of variation and natural selection, +than to explain the birth of the individual through the +laws of ordinary reproduction. The birth both of the +species and of the individual are equally parts of that +grand sequence of events, which our minds refuse to +accept as the result of blind chance. The understanding +revolts at such a conclusion, whether or not we +are able to believe that every slight variation of structure,—the +union of each pair in marriage,—the dissemination +of each seed,—and other such events, have +all been ordained for some special purpose.</p> + +<p>Sexual selection has been treated at great length in +these volumes; for, as I have attempted to shew, it has +played an important part in the history of the organic +world. As summaries have been given to each chapter, +it would be superfluous here to add a detailed summary. +I am aware that much remains doubtful, but I +have endeavoured to give a fair view of the whole case. +In the lower divisions of the animal kingdom, sexual +selection seems to have done nothing: such animals +are often affixed for life to the same spot, or have the +two sexes combined in the same individual, or what is +still more important, their perceptive and intellectual +faculties are not sufficiently advanced to allow of the +feelings of love and jealousy, or of the exertion of choice. +When, however, we come to the Arthropoda and Vertebrata, +even to the lowest classes in these two great Sub-Kingdoms, +sexual selection has effected much; and it +deserves notice that we here find the intellectual faculties +developed, but in two very distinct lines, to the +highest standard, namely in the Hymenoptera (ants, +bees, &c.) amongst the Arthropoda, and in the Mammalia, +including man, amongst the Vertebrata.</p> + +<p>In the most distinct classes of the animal kingdom,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span> +with mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, and even +crustaceans, the differences between the sexes follow +almost exactly the same rules. The males are almost +always the wooers; and they alone are armed with special +weapons for fighting with their rivals. They are +generally stronger and larger than the females, and are +endowed with the requisite qualities of courage and pugnacity. +They are provided, either exclusively or in a +much higher degree than the females, with organs for +producing vocal or instrumental music, and with odoriferous +glands. They are ornamented with infinitely +diversified appendages, and with the most brilliant or +conspicuous colours, often arranged in elegant patterns, +whilst the females are left unadorned. When the sexes +differ in more important structures, it is the male which +is provided with special sense-organs for discovering the +female, with locomotive organs for reaching her, and +often with prehensile organs for holding her. These +various structures for securing or charming the female +are often developed in the male during only part of the +year, namely the breeding season. They have in many +cases been transferred in a greater or less degree to +the females; and in the latter case they appear in +her as mere rudiments. They are lost by the males +after emasculation. Generally they are not developed +in the male during early youth, but appear a short +time before the age for reproduction. Hence in most +cases the young of both sexes resemble each other; +and the female resembles her young offspring throughout +life. In almost every great class a few anomalous +cases occur in which there has been an almost complete +transposition of the characters proper to the two sexes; +the females assuming characters which properly belong +to the males. This surprising uniformity in the laws +regulating the differences between the sexes in so many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">398</a></span> +and such widely separated classes, is intelligible if we +admit the action throughout all the higher divisions +of the animal kingdom of one common cause, namely +sexual selection.</p> + +<p>Sexual selection depends on the success of certain +individuals over others of the same sex in relation to +the propagation of the species; whilst natural selection +depends on the success of both sexes, at all ages, in relation +to the general conditions of life. The sexual +struggle is of two kinds; in the one it is between the +individuals of the same sex, generally the male sex, in +order to drive away or kill their rivals, the females +remaining passive; whilst in the other, the struggle is +likewise between the individuals of the same sex, in +order to excite or charm those of the opposite sex, +generally the females, which no longer remain passive, +but select the more agreeable partners. This latter +kind of selection is closely analogous to that which man +unintentionally, yet effectually, brings to bear on his +domesticated productions, when he continues for a long +time choosing the most pleasing or useful individuals, +without any wish to modify the breed.</p> + +<p>The laws of inheritance determine whether characters +gained through sexual selection by either sex shall +be transmitted to the same sex, or to both sexes; as +well as the age at which they shall be developed. It +appears that variations which arise late in life are commonly +transmitted to one and the same sex. Variability +is the necessary basis for the action of selection, +and is wholly independent of it. It follows from this, +that variations of the same general nature have often +been taken advantage of and accumulated through +sexual selection in relation to the propagation of the +species, and through natural selection in relation to the +general purposes of life. Hence secondary sexual cha<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span>racters, +when equally transmitted to both sexes can be +distinguished from ordinary specific characters only by +the light of analogy. The modifications acquired through +sexual selection are often so strongly pronounced that +the two sexes have frequently been ranked as distinct +species, or even as distinct genera. Such strongly-marked +differences must be in some manner highly important; +and we know that they have been acquired in +some instances at the cost not only of inconvenience, +but of exposure to actual danger.</p> + +<p>The belief in the power of sexual selection rests +chiefly on the following considerations. The characters +which we have the best reason for supposing to have +been thus acquired are confined to one sex; and this +alone renders it probable that they are in some way +connected with the act of reproduction. These characters +in innumerable instances are fully developed only +at maturity; and often during only a part of the year, +which is always the breeding-season. The males (passing +over a few exceptional cases) are the most active in +courtship; they are the best armed, and are rendered +the most attractive in various ways. It is to be especially +observed that the males display their attractions +with elaborate care in the presence of the females; +and that they rarely or never display them excepting +during the season of love. It is incredible that all this +display should be purposeless. Lastly we have distinct +evidence with some quadrupeds and birds that the individuals +of the one sex are capable of feeling a strong +antipathy or preference for certain individuals of the +opposite sex.</p> + +<p>Bearing these facts in mind, and not forgetting the +marked results of man’s unconscious selection, it seems +to me almost certain that if the individuals of one sex +were during a long series of generations to prefer pair<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span>ing +with certain individuals of the other sex, characterised +in some peculiar manner, the offspring would +slowly but surely become modified in this same manner. +I have not attempted to conceal that, excepting when +the males are more numerous than the females, or when +polygamy prevails, it is doubtful how the more attractive +males succeed in leaving a larger number of offspring +to inherit their superiority in ornaments or other +charms than the less attractive males; but I have shewn +that this would probably follow from the females,—especially +the more vigorous females which would be the first +to breed, preferring not only the more attractive but at +the same time the more vigorous and victorious males.</p> + +<p>Although we have some positive evidence that birds +appreciate bright and beautiful objects, as with the +Bower-birds of Australia, and although they certainly +appreciate the power of song, yet I fully admit that it +is an astonishing fact that the females of many birds +and some mammals should be endowed with sufficient +taste for what has apparently been effected through +sexual selection; and this is even more astonishing in +the case of reptiles, fish, and insects. But we really +know very little about the minds of the lower animals. +It cannot be supposed that male Birds of Paradise or +Peacocks, for instance, should take so much pains in +erecting, spreading, and vibrating their beautiful plumes +before the females for no purpose. We should remember +the fact given on excellent authority in a former chapter, +namely that several peahens, when debarred from +an admired male, remained widows during a whole +season rather than pair with another bird.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless I know of no fact in natural history +more wonderful than that the female Argus pheasant +should be able to appreciate the exquisite shading of +the ball-and-socket ornaments and the elegant patterns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span> +on the wing-feathers of the male. He who thinks that +the male was created as he now exists must admit that +the great plumes, which prevent the wings from being +used for flight, and which, as well as the primary +feathers, are displayed in a manner quite peculiar to +this one species during the act of courtship, and at no +other time, were given to him as an ornament. If so, +he must likewise admit that the female was created and +endowed with the capacity of appreciating such ornaments. +I differ only in the conviction that the male +Argus pheasant acquired his beauty gradually, through +the females having preferred during many generations +the more highly ornamented males; the æsthetic +capacity of the females having been advanced through +exercise or habit in the same manner as our own taste +is gradually improved. In the male, through the fortunate +chance of a few feathers not having been modified, +we can distinctly see how simple spots with a little +fulvous shading on one side might have been developed +by small and graduated steps into the wonderful +ball-and-socket ornaments; and it is probable +that they were actually thus developed.</p> + +<p>Everyone who admits the principle of evolution, and +yet feels great difficulty in admitting that female +mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish, could have acquired +the high standard of taste which is implied by the +beauty of the males, and which generally coincides with +our own standard, should reflect that in each member +of the vertebrate series the nerve-cells of the brain are +the direct offshoots of those possessed by the common +progenitor of the whole group. It thus becomes intelligible +that the brain and mental faculties should be +capable under similar conditions of nearly the same +course of development, and consequently of performing +nearly the same functions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span>The reader who has taken the trouble to go through +the several chapters devoted to sexual selection, will be +able to judge how far the conclusions at which I have arrived +are supported by sufficient evidence. If he accepts +these conclusions, he may, I think, safely extend them +to mankind; but it would be superfluous here to repeat +what I have so lately said on the manner in which +sexual selection has apparently acted on both the male +and female side, causing the two sexes of man to differ +in body and mind, and the several races to differ from +each other in various characters, as well as from their +ancient and lowly-organised progenitors.</p> + +<p class="tb">He who admits the principle of sexual selection will +be led to the remarkable conclusion that the cerebral +system not only regulates most of the existing functions +of the body, but has indirectly influenced the progressive +development of various bodily structures and of certain +mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, +strength and size of body, weapons of all kinds, musical +organs, both vocal and instrumental, bright colours, +stripes and marks, and ornamental appendages, have +all been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, +through the influence of love and jealousy, through the +appreciation of the beautiful in sound, colour or form, +and through the exertion of a choice; and these powers +of the mind manifestly depend on the development of +the cerebral system.</p> + +<p>Man scans with scrupulous care the character and +pedigree of his horses, cattle, and dogs before he +matches them; but when he comes to his own marriage +he rarely, or never, takes any such care. He is impelled +by nearly the same motives as are the lower animals +when left to their own free choice, though he is in so far +superior to them that he highly values mental charms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span> +and virtues. On the other hand he is strongly attracted +by mere wealth or rank. Yet he might by selection +do something not only for the bodily constitution and +frame of his offspring, but for their intellectual and +moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from +marriage if in any marked degree inferior in body or +mind; but such hopes are Utopian and will never be +even partially realised until the laws of inheritance are +thoroughly known. All do good service who aid towards +this end. When the principles of breeding and of inheritance +are better understood, we shall not hear ignorant +members of our legislature rejecting with scorn a plan +for ascertaining by an easy method whether or not consanguineous +marriages are injurious to man.</p> + +<p class="tb">The advancement of the welfare of mankind is a most +intricate problem: all ought to refrain from marriage +who cannot avoid abject poverty for their children; for +poverty is not only a great evil, but tends to its own +increase by leading to recklessness in marriage. On the +other hand, as Mr. Galton has remarked, if the prudent +avoid marriage, whilst the reckless marry, the inferior +members will tend to supplant the better members of +society. Man, like every other animal, has no doubt advanced +to his present high condition through a struggle +for existence consequent on his rapid multiplication; +and if he is to advance still higher he must remain +subject to a severe struggle. Otherwise he would soon +sink into indolence, and the more highly-gifted men +would not be more successful in the battle of life than +the less gifted. Hence our natural rate of increase, +though leading to many and obvious evils, must not +be greatly diminished by any means. There should be +open competition for all men; and the most able should +not be prevented by laws or customs from succeeding +best and rearing the largest number of offspring. Im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span>portant +as the struggle for existence has been and even +still is, yet as far as the highest part of man’s nature is +concerned there are other agencies more important. For +the moral qualities are advanced, either directly or indirectly, +much more through the effects of habit, the +reasoning powers, instruction, religion, &c., than through +natural selection; though to this latter agency the social +instincts, which afforded the basis for the development +of the moral sense, may be safely attributed.</p> + +<p>The main conclusion arrived at in this work, namely +that man is descended from some lowly-organised form, +will, I regret to think, be highly distasteful to many +persons. But there can hardly be a doubt that we are +descended from barbarians. The astonishment which +I felt on first seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild +and broken shore will never be forgotten by me, +for the reflection at once rushed into my mind—such +were our ancestors. These men were absolutely +naked and bedaubed with paint, their long hair was +tangled, their mouths frothed with excitement, and +their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. +They possessed hardly any arts, and like wild animals +lived on what they could catch; they had no government, +and were merciless to every one not of their own +small tribe. He who has seen a savage in his native +land will not feel much shame, if forced to acknowledge +that the blood of some more humble creature flows +in his veins. For my own part I would as soon be +descended from that heroic little monkey, who braved +his dreaded enemy in order to save the life of his +keeper; or from that old baboon, who, descending from +the mountains, carried away in triumph his young +comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs—as from a +savage who delights to torture his enemies, offers up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span> +bloody sacrifices, practises infanticide without remorse, +treats his wives like slaves, knows no decency, and is +haunted by the grossest superstitions.</p> + +<p>Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having +risen, though not through his own exertions, to the +very summit of the organic scale; and the fact of his +having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally +placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher +destiny in the distant future. But we are not here +concerned with hopes or fears, only with the truth as +far as our reason allows us to discover it. I have given +the evidence to the best of my ability; and we must +acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all his +noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most +debased, with benevolence which extends not only to +other men but to the humblest living creature, with his +god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements +and constitution of the solar system—with all +these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily +frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.<br /><br /></p> +<hr /> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> Yarrell’s ‘Hist. of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 417, 425, 436. +Dr. Günther informs me that the spines in <i>R. clavata</i> are peculiar to the +female.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> See Mr. R. Warington’s interesting articles in ‘Annals and Mag. +of Nat. Hist.’ Oct. 1852 and Nov. 1855.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> Noel Humphreys, ‘River Gardens,’ 1857.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Natural History,’ vol. iii. 1830, p. 331.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> ‘The Field,’ June 29th, 1867. For Mr. Shaw’s statement, see +'Edinburgh Review,’ 1843. Another experienced observer (Scrope’s +'Days of Salmon Fishing,’ p. 60) remarks that the male would, if he +could, keep, like the stag, all other males away.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Yarrell, ‘History of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> ‘The Naturalist in Vancouver’s Island,’ vol. i. 1866, p. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> ‘Scandinavian Adventures,’ vol. i. 1854, p. 100, 104.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> See Yarrell’s account of the Rays in his ‘Hist. of British Fishes,’ +vol. ii. 1836, p. 416, with an excellent figure, and p. 422, 432.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> As quoted in ‘The Farmer,’ 1868, p. 369.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> I have drawn up this description from Yarrell’s ‘British Fishes,’ +vol. i. 1836, p. 261 and 266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> ‘Catalogue of Acanth. Fishes in the British Museum,’ by Dr. +Günther, 1861, p. 138-151.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ &c., 1867, p. 466.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> With respect to this and the following species I am indebted to +Dr. Günther for information: see also his paper on the Fishes of +Central America, in ‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vi. 1868, p. 485.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Dr. Günther makes this remark; ‘Catalogue of Fishes in the +British Museum,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 141.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> See Dr. Günther on this genus, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 232.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> F. Buckland, in ‘Land and Water,’ July, 1868, p. 377, with a +figure.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Dr. Günther, ‘Catalogue of Fishes,’ vol. iii. p. 221 and 240.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> See also ‘A Journey in Brazil,’ by Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz, 1868, +p. 220.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Yarrell, ‘British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 10, 12, 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> W. Thompson, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,’ vol. vi. 1841, +p. 440.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> ‘The American Agriculturist,’ 1868, p. 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Oct. 1852.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1832, p. 681.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Bory de Saint Vincent, in ‘Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.’ tom. ix. 1826, +p. 151.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> Owing to some remarks on this subject, made in my work ‘On the +Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ Mr. W. F. Mayers +(‘Chinese Notes and Queries,’ Aug. 1868, p. 123) has searched the +ancient Chinese encyclopedias. He finds that goldfish were first +reared in confinement during the Sung Dynasty, which commenced +<span class="smcap">a.d</span>. 960. In the year 1129 these fishes abounded. In another place +it is said that since the year 1548 there has been “produced at Hang-chow +a variety called the fire-fish, from its intensely red colour. It +is universally admired, and there is not a household where it is not +cultivated, <i>in rivalry as to its colour</i>, and as a source of profit.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> “Indian Cyprinidæ,” by Mr. J. M’Clelland, ‘Asiatic Researches,’ +vol. xix. part ii. 1839, p. 230.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1865, p. 327, pl. xiv. and xv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> Yarrell, ‘British Fishes,’ vol. ii. p. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> According to the observations of M. Gerbe; see Günther’s ‘Record +of Zoolog. Literature,’ 1865, p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> Cuvier, ‘Règne Animal,’ vol. ii. 1829, p. 242.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> See Mr. Warington’s most interesting description of the habits of +the <i>Gasterosteus leiurus</i>, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ November, +1855.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> Prof. Wyman, in ‘Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.’ Sept. 15, 1857. +Also W. Turner, in ‘Journal of Anatomy and Phys.’ Nov. 1, 1866, +p. 78. Dr. Günther has likewise described other cases.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> Yarrell, ‘Hist. of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 329, 338.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> Dr. Günther, since publishing an account of this species in ‘The +Fishes of Zanzibar,’ by Col. Playfair, 1866, p. 137, has re-examined the +specimens, and has given me the above information.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> The Rev. C. Kingsley, in ‘Nature,’ May, 1870, p. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Bell, ‘History of British Reptiles,’ 2nd edit. 1849, p. 156-159.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Bell, ibid. p. 146, 151.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ 1843. “Reptiles,” by +Mr. Bell, p. 49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> ‘The Reptiles of India,’ by Dr. A. Günther, Ray Soc. 1864, p. 413.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> Bell, ‘History of British Reptiles,’ 1849, p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> J. Bishop, in ‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.’ vol. iv. p. 1503.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> Bell, ibid. p. 112-114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> Mr. C. J. Maynard, ‘The American Naturalist,’ Dec. 1869, p. 555.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> See my ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the +“Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 384.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> ‘Travels through Carolina,’ &c., 1791, p. 128.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. i. 1866, p. 615.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> Sir Andrew Smith, ‘Zoolog. of S. Africa: Reptilia,’ 1849, pl. x.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> Dr. A. Günther, ‘Reptiles of British India,’ Ray Soc. 1864, p. +304, 308.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. i. 1866, p. 615.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> The celebrated botanist Schleiden incidently remarks (‘Ueber +den Darwinismus: Unsere Zeit,’ 1869, s. 269), that Rattle-snakes use +their rattles as a sexual call, by which the two sexes find each other. +I do not know whether this suggestion rests on any direct observations. +These snakes pair in the Zoological Gardens, but the keepers have +never observed that they use their rattles at this season more than at +any other.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> “Rambles in Ceylon,” ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ 2nd series, +vol. ix. 1852, p. 333.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> ‘Westminster Review,’ July 1st, 1867, p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> Mr. N. L. Austen kept these animals alive for a considerable time, +see ‘Land and Water,’ July, 1867, p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> All these statements and quotations, in regard to <i>Cophotis</i>, <i>Sitana</i> +and <i>Draco</i>, as well as the following facts in regard to Ceratophora, are +taken from Dr. Günther’s magnificent work on the ‘Reptiles of British +India,’ Ray Soc. 1864, p. 122, 130, 135.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> Bell, ‘History of British Reptiles,’ 2nd edit. 1849, p. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> For <i>Proctotretus</i> see ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the “Beagle:” +Reptiles,’ by Mr. Bell, p. 8. For the Lizards of S. Africa, see ‘Zoology +of S. Africa: Reptiles,’ by Sir Andrew Smith, pl. 25 and 39. For the +Indian Calotes, see ‘Reptiles of British India,’ by Dr. Günther, p. 143.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. (new series) 1867, p. 414.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> Gould, ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. ii. p. 383.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> Quoted by Mr. Gould, ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Gould, ibid. p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> W. Thompson, ‘Nat. Hist. of Ireland: Birds,’ vol. ii. 1850, p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ 1863, vol. ii. p. 96.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. iv. 1852, p. 177-181.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> Sir R. Schomburgk, in ‘Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.’ vol. xiii. +1843, p. 31.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. i. p. 191. For pelicans and snipes, +see vol. iii. p. 381, 477.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 395; vol. ii. p. 383.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> Mr. Hewitt in the ‘Poultry Book by Tegetmeier,’ 1866, p. 137.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Layard, ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xiv. 1854, p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 574.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> Brehm, ‘Illust. Thierleben,’ 1867, B. iv. s. 351. Some of the foregoing +statements are taken from L. Lloyd, ‘The Game Birds of +Sweden,’ &c., 1867, p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India:’ on <i>Ithaginis</i>, vol. iii. p. 523; on <i>Galloperdix</i>, +p. 541.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> For the Egyptian goose, see Macgillivray, ‘British Birds,’ vol. iv. +p. 639. For <i>Plectropterus</i>, ‘Livingstone’s Travels,’ p. 254. For <i>Palamedea</i>, +Brehm’s ‘Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 740. See also on this bird Azara, +'Voyages dans l’Amérique mérid.’ tom. iv. 1809, p. 179, 253.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> See, on our peewit, Mr. R. Carr in ‘Land and Water,’ Aug. 8th, +1868, p. 46. In regard to <i>Lobivanellus</i>, see Jerdon’s ‘Birds of India,’ +vol. iii. p. 647, and Gould’s ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. +p. 220. For the <i>Hoplopterus</i>, see Mr. Allen in the ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, +p. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 492; vol. i. p. 4-13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> Mr. Blyth, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 212.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> Richardson, on <i>Tetrao umbellus</i>, ‘Fauna Bor. Amer.: Birds,’ 1831, +p. 343. L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 22, 79, on the +capercailzie and black-cock. Brehm, however, asserts (‘Thierleben,’ &c., +B. iv. s. 352) that in Germany the grey-hens do not generally attend +the Balzen of the black-cocks, but this is an exception to the common +rule; possibly the hens may lie hidden in the surrounding bushes, as +is known to be the case with the grey-hens in Scandinavia, and with +other species in N. America.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ &c., B. iv. 1867, p. 990. Audubon, ‘Ornith. +Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 492.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> ‘Land and Water,’ July 25th, 1868, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> Audubon’s ‘Ornitholog. Biography;’ on <i>Tetrao cupido</i>, vol. ii. +p. 492; on the <i>Sturnus</i>, vol. ii. p. 219.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> ‘Ornithological Biograph.’ vol. v. p. 601.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> The Hon. Daines Barrington, ‘Philosoph. Transact.’ 1773, p. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> ‘Ornithological Dictionary,’ 1833, p. 475.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> ‘Naturgeschichte der Stubenvögel,’ 1840, s. 4. Mr. Harrison Weir +likewise writes to me:—“I am informed that the best singing males +generally get a mate first when they are bred in the same room.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1773, p. 263. White’s ‘Natural History +of Selborne,’ vol. i. 1825, p. 246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> ‘Naturges. der Stubenvögel,’ 1840, s. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> Mr. Bold, ‘Zoologist,’ 1843-44, p. 659.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> D. Barrington, ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1773, p. 262. Bechstein, ‘Stubenvögel,’ +1840, s. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> This is likewise the case with the water-ouzel, see Mr. Hepburn +in the ‘Zoologist,’ 1845-1846, p. 1068.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 25.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> Barrington, ibid. p. 264. Bechstein, ibid. s. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> Dureau de la Malle gives a curious instance (‘Annales des Sc. Nat.’ +3rd series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 118) of some wild blackbirds in his garden +in Paris which naturally learnt from a caged bird a republican air.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> Bishop, in ‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.’ vol. iv. p. 1496.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> As stated by Barrington in ‘Philosoph. Transact.’ 1773, p. 262.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> Gould, ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 1865, p. 308-310. +See also Mr. T. W. Wood in the ‘Student,’ April, 1870, p. 125.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> See remarks to this effect in Gould’s ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ +1861, p. 22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> ‘The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,’ by Major W. Ross +King, 1866, p. 144-146. Mr. T. W. Wood gives in the ‘Student’ +(April, 1870, p. 116) an excellent account of the attitude and habits of +this bird during its courtship. He states that the ear-tufts or neck-plumes +are erected, so that they meet over the crown of the head.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana: Birds,’ 1831, p. 359. Audubon, +ibid. vol. iv. p. 507.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> The following papers have been lately written on this subject:—Prof. +A. Newton, in the ‘Ibis,’ 1862, p. 107; Dr. Cullen, ibid. 1865, +p. 145; Mr. Flower, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1865, p. 747; and Dr. Murie, +in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 471. In this latter paper an excellent +figure is given of the male Australian Bustard in full display with the +sack distended.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> Bates, ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ 1863, vol. ii. p. 284; +Wallace, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1850, p. 206. A new species, with a still +larger neck-appendage (<i>C. penduliger</i>), has lately been discovered, see +'Ibis,’ vol. i. p. 457.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> Bishop, in Todd’s ‘Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.’ vol. iv. p. 1499.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> The spoonbill (<i>Platalea</i>) has its trachea convoluted into a figure +of eight, and yet this bird (Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 763) is +mute; but Mr. Blyth informs me that the convolutions are not constantly +present, so that perhaps they are now tending towards abortion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> ‘Elements of Comp. Anat.’ by R. Wagner, Eng. translat. 1845, p. +111. With respect to the swan, as given above, Yarrell’s ‘Hist. of +British Birds,’ 2nd edit. 1845, vol. iii. p. 193.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> C. L. Bonaparte, quoted in the ‘Naturalist Library: Birds,’ vol. +xiv. p. 126.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> L. Lloyd, ‘The Game Birds of Sweden,’ &c., 1867, p. 22, 81.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> Jenner, ‘Philosoph. Transactions,’ 1824, p. 20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> For the foregoing several facts see, on Birds of Paradise, Brehm, +'Thierleben,’ Band iii. s. 325. On Grouse, Richardson, ‘Fauna +Bor. Americ.: Birds,’ p. 343 and 359; Major W. Ross King, ‘The +Sportsman in Canada,’ 1866, p. 156; Audubon, ‘American Ornitholog. +Biograph.’ vol. i. p. 216. On the Kalij pheasant, Jerdon, ‘Birds of +India,’ vol. iii. p. 533. On the Weavers, ‘Livingstone’s Expedition to +the Zambesi,’ 1865, p. 425. On Woodpeckers, Macgillivray, ‘Hist. of +British Birds,’ vol. iii. 1840, p. 84, 88, 89, and 95. On the Hoopoe, +Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ June 23, 1863. On the Night-Jar, +Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 255. The English Night-Jar likewise makes +in the spring a curious noise during its rapid flight.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> See M. Meves’ interesting paper in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1858, p. 199. +For the habits of the snipe, Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. iv. +p. 371. For the American snipe, Capt. Blakiston, ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, +p. 131.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> Mr. Salvin, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1867, p. 160. I am much indebted +to this distinguished ornithologist for sketches of the feathers of +the Chamæpetes, and for other information.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 618, 621.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> Gould, ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 49. Salvin, +'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1867, p. 160.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">114</span></a> Sclater, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1860, p. 90, and in ‘Ibis,’ vol. iv. +1862, p. 175. Also Salvin, in ‘Ibis,’ 1860, p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">115</span></a> ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867, p. 203.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">116</span></a> For <i>Tetrao phasianellus</i>, see Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. America,’ +p. 361, and for further particulars Capt. Blakiston, ‘Ibis,’ 1863, p. 125. +For the <i>Cathartes</i> and <i>Ardea</i>, Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. +p. 51, and vol. iii. p. 89. On the White-throat, Macgillivray, ‘Hist. +British Birds,’ vol. ii. p. 354. On the Indian Bustard, Jerdon, ‘Birds +of India,’ vol. iii. p. 618.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">117</span></a> Gould, ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 444, 449, 455. +The bower of the Satin Bower-bird may always be seen in the Zoological +Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">118</span></a> See remarks to this effect, on the “Feeling of Beauty among +Animals,” by Mr. J. Shaw, in the ‘Athenæum,’ Nov. 24th, 1866, p. 681.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">119</span></a> Mr. Monteiro, ‘Ibis,’ vol. iv. 1862, p. 339.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">120</span></a> ‘Land and Water,’ 1868, p. 217.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">121</span></a> Jardine’s ‘Naturalist Library: Birds,’ vol. xiv. p. 166.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">122</span></a> Sclater, in the ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 114. Livingstone, ‘Expedition +to the Zambesi,’ 1865, p. 66.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">123</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 620.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">124</span></a> Wallace, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xx. 1857, p. 416; +and in his ‘Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 390.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">125</span></a> See my work on ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under +Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 289, 293.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">126</span></a> Quoted from M. de Lafresnaye, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. +Hist.’ vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157: see also Mr. Wallace’s much fuller account +in vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and in his Malay Archipelago.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">127</span></a> Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">128</span></a> Mr. Sclater, ‘Intellectual Observer,’ Jan. 1867. ‘Waterton’s +Wanderings,’ p. 118. See also Mr. Salvin’s interesting paper, with a +plate, in the ‘Ibis,’ 1865, p. 90.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">129</span></a> ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 394.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">130</span></a> Mr. D. G. Elliot, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869, p. 589.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">131</span></a> ‘Nitzsch’s Pterylography,’ edited by P. L. Sclater. Ray Soc. +1867, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">132</span></a> The brown mottled summer plumage of the ptarmigan is of as +much importance to it, as a protection, as the white winter plumage; +for in Scandinavia, during the spring, when the snow has disappeared, +this bird is known to suffer greatly from birds of prey, before it has +acquired its summer dress: see Wilhelm von Wright, in Lloyd, ‘Game +Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 125.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">133</span></a> In regard to the previous statements on moulting, see, on snipes, +&c., Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. iv. p. 371; on Glareolæ, +curlews, and bustards, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 615, 630, +683; on <i>Totanus</i>, ibid, p. 700; on the plumes of herons, ibid, p. +738, and Macgillivray, vol. iv. p. 435 and 444, and Mr. Stafford Allen, +in the ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">134</span></a> On the moulting of the ptarmigan, see Gould’s ‘Birds of Great +Britain.’ On the honey-suckers, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 359, +365, 369. On the moulting of <i>Anthus</i>, see Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">135</span></a> For the foregoing statements in regard to partial moults, and on +old males retaining their nuptial plumage, see Jerdon, on bustards and +plovers, in ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 617, 637, 709, 711. Also Blyth +in ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 84. On the <i>Vidua</i>, ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, +p. 133. On the Drongo shrikes, Jerdon, ibid. vol. i. p. 435. On the +vernal moult of the <i>Herodias bubulcus</i>, Mr. S. S. Allen, in ‘Ibis,’ 1863, +p. 33. On <i>Gallus bankiva</i>, Blyth, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ +vol. i. 1848, p. 455; see, also, on this subject, my ‘Variation of Animals +under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 236.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">136</span></a> See Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds’ (vol. v. p. 34, 70, and 223), +on the moulting of the Anatidæ, with quotations from Waterton and +Montagu. Also Yarrell, ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. iii. p. 243.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">137</span></a> On the pelican, see Sclater, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 265. +On the American finches, see Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. +174, 221, and Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 383. On the <i>Fringilla +cannabina</i> of Madeira, Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt, ‘Ibis,’ vol. v., +1863, p. 230.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">138</span></a> See also ‘Ornamental Poultry,’ by Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848, p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">139</span></a> ‘Birds of India,’ introduct. vol. i. p. xxiv.; on the peacock, vol. iii. +p. 507. See Gould’s ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 15 and 111.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">140</span></a> ‘Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.’ vol. x. 1840, p. 236.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">141</span></a> ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157; also +Wallace, ibid. vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. +ii. 1869, p. 252. Also Dr. Bennett, as quoted by Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ +B. iii. s. 326.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">142</span></a> Mr. T. W. Wood has given (‘The Student,’ April, 1870, p. 115) a +full account of this manner of display, which he calls the lateral or +one-sided, by the gold pheasant and by the Japanese pheasant, <i>Ph. +versicolor</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">143</span></a> ‘The Reign of Law,’ 1867, p. 263.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">144</span></a> For the description of these birds, see Gould’s ‘Handbook to the +Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 1865, p. 417.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">145</span></a> ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 96.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">146</span></a> On the <i>Cosmetornis</i>, see Livingstone’s ‘Expedition to the Zambesi,’ +1865, p. 66. On the Argus pheasant, Jardine’s ‘Nat. Hist. Lib.: +Birds,’ vol. xiv. p. 167. On Birds of Paradise, Lesson, quoted by Brehm, +'Thierleben,’ B. iii. s. 325. On the widow-bird, Barrow’s ‘Travels in +Africa,’ vol. i. p. 243, and ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. Mr. Gould, on +the shyness of male birds, ‘Handbook to Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. +1865, p. 210, 457.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">147</span></a> Tegetmeier, ‘The Poultry Book,’ 1866, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">148</span></a> Nordmann describes (‘Bull. Soc. Imp. des Nat. Moscow,’ 1861, tom. +xxxiv. p. 264) the balzen of <i>Tetrao urogalloides</i> in Amur Land. He +estimated the number of assembled males at above a hundred, the +females, which lie hid in the surrounding bushes, not being counted. +The noises uttered differ from those of the <i>T. urogallus</i> or the capercailzie.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">149</span></a> With respect to the assemblages of the above named grouse see +Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 350; also L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of +Sweden,’ 1867, p. 19, 78. Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ Birds, +p. 362. References in regard to the assemblages of other birds have +previously been given. On <i>Paradisea</i> see Wallace, in ‘Annals and Mag. +of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xx. 1857, p. 412. On the snipe, Lloyd, ibid. p. 221.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">150</span></a> Quoted by Mr. T. W. Wood in the ‘Student,’ April, 1870, p. 125.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">151</span></a> Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 300, 308, 448, +451. On the ptarmigan, above alluded to, see Lloyd, ibid. p. 129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">152</span></a> On magpies, Jenner, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1824, p. 21. Macgillivray, +'Hist. British Birds,’ vol. i. p. 570. Thompson, in ‘Annals and +Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. viii. 1842, p. 494.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">153</span></a> On the peregrine falcon see Thompson, ‘Nat. Hist. of Ireland: +Birds,’ vol. i. 1849, p. 39. On owls, sparrows, and partridges, see White, +'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139. On the <i>Phœnicura</i>, +see Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. vii. 1834, p. 245. Brehm, +'Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 991) also alludes to cases of birds thrice mated +during same day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">154</span></a> See White (‘Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ 1825, vol. i. p. 140) on the +existence, early in the season, of small coveys of male partridges, of which +fact I have heard other instances. See Jenner, on the retarded state +of the generative organs in certain birds, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1824. +In regard to birds living in triplets, I owe to Mr. Jenner Weir the cases +of the starling and parrots, and to Mr. Fox, of partridges; on carrion-crows, +see the ‘Field,’ 1868, p. 415. On various male birds singing +after the proper period, see Rev. L. Jenyns, ‘Observations in Natural +History,’ 1846, p. 87.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">155</span></a> The following case has been given (‘The Times,’ Aug. 6th, 1868) +by the Rev. F. O. Morris, on the authority of the Hon. and Rev. O. W. +Forester. “The gamekeeper here found a hawk’s nest this year, with +five young ones in it. He took four and killed them, but left one +with its wings clipped as a decoy to destroy the old ones by. They +were both shot next day, in the act of feeding the young one, and +the keeper thought it was done with. The next day he came again +and found two other charitable hawks, who had come with an adopted +feeling to succour the orphan. These two he killed, and then left +the nest. On returning afterwards he found two more charitable +individuals on the same errand of mercy. One of these he killed; +the other he also shot, but could not find. No more came on the like +fruitless errand.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">156</span></a> For instance, Mr. Yarrell states (‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. iii. 1845, +p. 585) that a gull was not able to swallow a small bird which had been +given to it. The gull “paused for a moment, and then, as if suddenly +recollecting himself, ran off at full speed to a pan of water, shook the +bird about in it until well soaked, and immediately gulped it down. +Since that time he invariably has had recourse to the same expedient +in similar cases.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">157</span></a> ‘A Tour in Sutherlandshire,’ vol. i. 1849, p. 185.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">158</span></a> ‘Acclimatization of Parrots,’ by C. Buxton, M.P. ‘Annals and +Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Nov. 1868, p. 381.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">159</span></a> ‘The Zoologist,’ 1847-1848, p. 1602.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">160</span></a> Hewitt on wild ducks, ‘Journal of Horticulture,’ Jan. 13, 1863, p. +39. Audubon on the wild turkey, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 14. +On the mocking thrush, ibid. vol. i. p. 110.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">161</span></a> The ‘Ibis,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 344.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">162</span></a> On the ornamented nests of humming-birds, Gould, ‘Introduction +to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 19. On the bower-birds, Gould, +'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. i. p. 444-461. Mr. +Ramsay in the ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 456.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">163</span></a> ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. ii. p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">164</span></a> ‘Zoologist,’ 1853-1854, p. 3946.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">165</span></a> Waterton, ‘Essays on Nat. Hist.’ 2nd series, p. 42, 117. For the +following statements, see on the wigeon, Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ +vol. ix. p. 616; L. Lloyd, ‘Scandinavian Adventures,’ vol. i. 1854, p. 452; +Dixon, ‘Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,’ p. 137; Hewitt, in ‘Journal +of Horticulture,’ Jan. 13, 1863, p. 40; Bechstein, ‘Stubenvögel,’ 1840, +s. 230.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">166</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornitholog. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 191, 349; vol. ii. p. 42, +275; vol. iii. p. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">167</span></a> ‘Rare and Prize Poultry,’ 1854, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">168</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. +ii. p. 103.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">169</span></a> Boitard and Corbié, ‘Les Pigeons,’ 1824, p. 12. Prosper Lucas +(‘Traité de l’Héréd. Nat.’ tom. ii. 1850, p. 296) has himself observed +nearly similar facts with pigeons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">170</span></a> ‘Die Taubenzucht,’ 1824, s. 86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">171</span></a> ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. i. p. 13.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">172</span></a> ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1835, p. 54. The japanned peacock is considered +by Mr. Sclater as a distinct species, and has been named +<i>Pavo nigripennis</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">173</span></a> Rudolphi, ‘Beyträge zur Anthropologie,’ 1812, s. 184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">174</span></a> ‘Die Darwin’sche Theorie, und ihre Stellung zu Moral und +Religion,’ 1869, s. 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">175</span></a> In regard to peafowl, see Sir R. Heron, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1835, +p. 54, and the Rev. E. S. Dixon, ‘Ornamental Poultry,’ 1848, p. 8. +For the turkey, Audubon, ibid. p. 4. For the capercailzie, Lloyd, +'Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">176</span></a> Mr. Hewitt, quoted in ‘Tegetmeier’s Poultry Book,’ 1866, p. 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">177</span></a> Quoted in Lloyd’s ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ p. 345.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">178</span></a> According to Dr. Blasius (‘Ibis,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 297), there are +425 indubitable species of birds which breed in Europe, besides 60 +forms, which are frequently regarded as distinct species. Of the latter, +Blasius thinks that only ten are really doubtful, and that the other fifty +ought to be united with their nearest allies; but this shews that there +must be a considerable amount of variation with some of our European +birds. It is also an unsettled point with naturalists, whether several +North American birds ought to be ranked as specifically distinct from +the corresponding European species.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">179</span></a> ‘Origin of Species,’ fifth edit. 1869, p. 104. I had always perceived, +that rare and strongly-marked deviations of structure, deserving +to be called monstrosities, could seldom be preserved through natural +selection, and that the preservation of even highly-beneficial variations +would depend to a certain extent on chance. I had also fully appreciated +the importance of mere individual differences, and this led me +to insist so strongly on the importance of that unconscious form of +selection by man, which follows from the preservation of the most +valued individuals of each breed, without any intention on his part to +modify the characters of the breed. But until I read an able article in +the ‘North British Review’ (March, 1867, p. 289, <i>et seq.</i>), which has +been of more use to me than any other Review, I did not see how +great the chances were against the preservation of variations, whether +slight or strongly pronounced, occurring only in single individuals.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">180</span></a> ‘Introduct. to the Trochilidæ,’ p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">181</span></a> Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 32 and 68.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">182</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornitholog. Biography,’ 1838, vol. iv. p. 389.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">183</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 108; and Mr. Blyth, in ‘Land +and Water,’ 1868, p. 381.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">184</span></a> Graba, ‘Tagebuch, Reise nach Färo,’ 1830, s. 51-54. Macgillivray, +'Hist. British Birds,’ vol. iii. p. 745. ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, p. +469.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">185</span></a> Graba, ibid. s. 54. Macgillivray, ibid. vol. v. p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">186</span></a> ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. +p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">187</span></a> On these points see also ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under +Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 253; vol. ii. p. 73, 75.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">188</span></a> See, for instance, on the irides of a <i>Podica</i> and <i>Gallicrex</i> in ‘Ibis,’ +vol. ii. 1860, p. 206; and vol. v. 1863, p. 426.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">189</span></a> See also Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 243-245.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">190</span></a> ‘Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle,’ 1841, p. 6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">191</span></a> Bechstein, ‘Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,’ B. iv. 1795, s. 31, on +a sub-variety of the Monck pigeon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">192</span></a> This woodcut has been engraved from a beautiful drawing, most +kindly made for me by Mr. Trimen; see also his description of the +wonderful amount of variation in the coloration and shape of the wings +of this butterfly, in his, ‘Rhopalocera Africæ Australis,’ p. 186. See +also an interesting paper by the Rev. H. H. Higgins, on the origin +of the ocelli in the Lepidoptera in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ +July, 1868, p. 325.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">193</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 517.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">194</span></a> ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. +p. 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">195</span></a> When the Argus pheasant displays his wing-feathers like a great +fan, those nearest to the body stand more upright than the outer ones, +so that the shading of the ball-and-socket ocelli ought to be slightly +different on the different feathers, in order to bring out their full effect, +relatively to the incidence of the light. Mr. T. W. Wood, who has the +experienced eye of an artist, asserts (‘Field,’ Newspaper, May 28, 1870, +p. 457) that this is the case; but after carefully examining two mounted +specimens (the proper feathers from one having been given to me by +Mr. Gould for more accurate comparison) I cannot perceive that this +acme of perfection in the shading has been attained; nor can others +to whom I have shewn these feathers recognise the fact.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">196</span></a> ‘The Reign of Law,’ 1867, p. 247.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">197</span></a> ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 110.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">198</span></a> Fourth edition, 1866, p. 241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">199</span></a> ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867. ‘Journal of Travel,’ vol. i. +1868, p. 73.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">200</span></a> Temminck says that the tail of the female <i>Phasianus Sœmmerringii</i> +is only six inches long, ‘Planches coloriées,’ vol. v. 1838, p. 487 and +488: the measurements above given were made for me by Mr. Sclater. +For the common pheasant, see Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. i. +p. 118-121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">201</span></a> Dr. Chapuis, ‘Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,’ 1865, p. 87.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">202</span></a> Bechstein, ‘Naturgesch. Deutschlands,’ 1793, B. iii. s. 339.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">203</span></a> Daines Barrington, however, thought it probable (‘Phil. Transact.’ +1773, p. 164) that few female birds sing, because the talent would have +been dangerous to them during incubation. He adds, that a similar +view may possibly account for the inferiority of the female to the male +in plumage.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">204</span></a> Mr. Ramsay, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 50.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">205</span></a> ‘Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">206</span></a> ‘Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 281.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">207</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. i. p. 233.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">208</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 108. Gould’s ‘Handbook of +the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 463.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">209</span></a> For instance, the female <i>Eupetomena macroura</i> has the head and +tail dark blue with reddish loins; the female <i>Lampornis porphyrurus</i> +is blackish-green on the upper surface, with the lores and sides of the +throat crimson; the female <i>Eulampis jugularis</i> has the top of the head +and back green, but the loins and the tail are crimson. Many other +instances of highly conspicuous females could be given. See Mr. Gould’s +magnificent work on this family.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">210</span></a> Mr. Salvin noticed in Guatemala (‘Ibis,’ 1864, p. 375) that humming-birds +were much more unwilling to leave their nests during very +hot weather, when the sun was shining brightly, than during cool, +cloudy, or rainy weather.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">211</span></a> I may specify, as instances of obscurely-coloured birds building +concealed nests, the species belonging to eight Australian genera, +described in Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. +p. 340, 362, 365, 383, 387, 389, 391, 414.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">212</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 244.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">213</span></a> On the nidification and colours of these latter species, see Gould’s +'Handbook,’ &c., vol. i. p. 504, 527.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">214</span></a> I have consulted, on this subject, Macgillivray’s ‘British Birds,’ +and though doubts may be entertained in some cases in regard to the +degree of concealment of the nest, and of the degree of conspicuousness +of the female, yet the following birds, which all lay their eggs in holes +or in domed nests, can hardly be considered, according to the above +standard, as conspicuous: <i>Passer</i>, 2 species; <i>Sturnus</i>, of which the +female is considerably less brilliant than the male; <i>Cinclus</i>; <i>Motacilla +boarula</i> (?); <i>Erithacus</i> (?); <i>Fruticola</i>, 2 sp.; <i>Saxicola</i>; <i>Ruticilla</i>, 2 +sp.; <i>Sylvia</i>, 3 sp.; <i>Parus</i>, 3 sp.; <i>Mecistura</i>; <i>Anorthura</i>; <i>Certhia</i>; +<i>Sitta</i>; <i>Yunx</i>; <i>Muscicapa</i>, 2 sp.; <i>Hirundo</i>, 3 sp.; and <i>Cypselus</i>. The +females of the following 12 birds may be considered as conspicuous +according to the same standard, viz., <i>Pastor</i>, <i>Motacilla alba</i>, <i>Parus +major</i> and <i>P. cæruleus</i>, <i>Upupa</i>, <i>Picus</i>, 4 sp., <i>Coracias</i>, <i>Alcedo</i>, and <i>Merops</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">215</span></a> ‘Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">216</span></a> See many statements in the ‘Ornithological Biography.’ See, also, +some curious observations on the nests of Italian birds by Eugenio +Bettoni, in the ‘Atti della Società Italiana,’ vol. xi. 1869, p. 487.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">217</span></a> See his ‘Monograph of the Trogonidæ,’ first edition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">218</span></a> Namely <i>Cyanalcyon</i>. Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ +vol. i. p. 133; see, also, p. 130, 136.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">219</span></a> Every gradation of difference between the sexes may be followed in +the parrots of Australia. See Gould’s ‘Handbook,’ &c., vol. ii. p. 14-102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">220</span></a> Macgillivray’s ‘British Birds,’ vol. ii. p. 433. Jerdon, ‘Birds of +India,’ vol. ii. p. 282.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">221</span></a> All the following facts are taken from M. Malherbe’s magnificent +'Monographie des Picidées,’ 1861.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">222</span></a> Audubon’s ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 75; see also the +'Ibis,’ vol. i. p. 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">223</span></a> Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 109-149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">224</span></a> See remarks to this effect in my work on ‘Variation under Domestication,’ +vol. ii. chap, xii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">225</span></a> The ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 122.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">226</span></a> On Ardetta, Translation of Cuvier’s ‘Règne Animal,’ by Mr. Blyth, +footnote, p. 159. On the Peregrine Falcon, Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth’s +'Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 304. On <i>Dicrurus</i>, ‘Ibis,’ +1863, p. 44. On the Platalea, ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 366. On the +<i>Bombycilla</i>, Audubon’s ‘Ornitholog. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 229. On +the <i>Palæornis</i>, see, also, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 263. +On the wild turkey, Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 15: I hear from Judge +Caton that in Illinois the female very rarely acquires a tuft.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">227</span></a> Mr. Blyth has recorded (Translation of Cuvier’s ‘Règne Animal,’ +p. 158) various instances with <i>Lanius</i>, <i>Ruticilla</i>, <i>Linaria</i>, and <i>Anas</i>. +Audubon has also recorded a similar case (‘Ornith. Biog.’ vol. v. p. 519) +with <i>Tyranga æstiva</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">228</span></a> See Gould’s ‘Birds of Great Britain.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">229</span></a> In regard to thrushes, shrikes, and woodpeckers, see Mr. Blyth, in +Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 304; also footnote +to his translation of Cuvier’s ‘Règne Animal,’ p. 159. I give the case +of <i>Loxia</i> from Mr. Blyth’s information. On thrushes, see also Audubon, +'Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 195. On <i>Chrysococcyx</i> and <i>Chalcophaps</i>, +Blyth, as quoted in Jerdon’s ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 485. +On <i>Sarkidiornis</i>, Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">230</span></a> See, for instance, Mr. Gould’s account (‘Handbook of the Birds of +Australia,’ vol. i. p. 133) of <i>Cyanalcyon</i> (one of the Kingfishers) in which, +however, the young male, though resembling the adult female, is less +brilliantly coloured. In some species of <i>Dacelo</i> the males have blue +tails, and the females brown ones; and Mr. R. B. Sharpe informs me +that the tail of the young male of <i>D. Gaudichaudi</i> is at first brown. +Mr. Gould has described (ibid. vol. ii. p. 14, 20, 37) the sexes and +the young of certain Black Cockatoos and of the King Lory, with +which the same rule prevails. Also Jerdon (‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. +260) on the <i>Palæornis rosa</i>, in which the young are more like the +female than the male. See Audubon (‘Ornith. Biograph.’ vol. ii. p. +475) on the two sexes and the young of <i>Columba passerina</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">231</span></a> I owe this information to Mr. Gould who shewed me the specimens; +see also his ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">232</span></a> Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. v. p. 207-214.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233" id="Footnote_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233"><span class="label">233</span></a> See his admirable paper in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of +Bengal,’ vol. xix. 1850, p. 223; see also Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. +introduction, p. xxix. In regard to <i>Tanysiptera</i>, Prof. Schlegel told +Mr. Blyth that he could distinguish several distinct races, solely by +comparing the adult males.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234" id="Footnote_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234"><span class="label">234</span></a> See also Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Ibis,’ July, 1863, p. 131; and a previous +paper, with an extract from a note by Mr. Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ Jan. 1861, +p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235" id="Footnote_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235"><span class="label">235</span></a> Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 394.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236" id="Footnote_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236"><span class="label">236</span></a> These species are described, with coloured figures, by M. F. Pollen, +in ‘Ibis,’ 1866, p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237" id="Footnote_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237"><span class="label">237</span></a> ‘Variation of Animals, &c., under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 251.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238" id="Footnote_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238"><span class="label">238</span></a> Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. i. p. 172-174.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239" id="Footnote_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239"><span class="label">239</span></a> See, on this subject, chap. xxiii. in the ‘Variation of Animals and +Plants under Domestication.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240" id="Footnote_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240"><span class="label">240</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 193. Macgillivray, ‘Hist. +Brit. Birds,’ vol. iii. p. 85. See also the case before given of <i>Indopicus +carlotta</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241" id="Footnote_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241"><span class="label">241</span></a> ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, and A. Murray, ‘Journal of +Travel,’ 1868, p. 83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242" id="Footnote_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242"><span class="label">242</span></a> For the Australian species, see Gould’s ‘Handbook,’ &c., vol. ii. p. +178, 180, 186, and 188. In the British Museum specimens of the +Australian Plain-wanderer (<i>Pedionomus torquatus</i>) may be seen, shewing +similar sexual differences.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243" id="Footnote_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243"><span class="label">243</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 596. Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Ibis,’ +1865, p. 542; 1866, p. 131, 405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244" id="Footnote_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244"><span class="label">244</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 677.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245" id="Footnote_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245"><span class="label">245</span></a> Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 275.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246" id="Footnote_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246"><span class="label">246</span></a> ‘The Indian Field,’ Sept. 1858, p. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247" id="Footnote_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247"><span class="label">247</span></a> ‘Ibis,’ 1866, p. 298.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248" id="Footnote_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248"><span class="label">248</span></a> For these several statements, see Mr. Gould’s ‘Birds of Great +Britain.’ Prof. Newton informs me that he has long been convinced, +from his own observations and from those of others, that the males of +the above-named species take either the whole or a large share of the +duties of incubation, and that they “shew much greater devotion +towards their young, when in danger, than do the females.” So it is, +as he informs me, with <i>Limosa lapponica</i> and some few other Waders, +in which the females are larger and have more strongly contrasted +colours than the males.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249" id="Footnote_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249"><span class="label">249</span></a> The natives of Ceram (Wallace, ‘Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. p. +150) assert that the male and female sit alternately on the eggs; but +this assertion, as Mr. Bartlett thinks, may be accounted for by the +female visiting the nest to lay her eggs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250" id="Footnote_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250"><span class="label">250</span></a> ‘The Student,’ April, 1870, p. 124.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251" id="Footnote_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251"><span class="label">251</span></a> See the excellent account of the habits of this bird under confinement, +by Mr. A. W. Bennett, in ‘Land and Water,’ May, 1868, p. 233.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252" id="Footnote_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252"><span class="label">252</span></a> Mr. Sclater, on the incubation of the Struthiones, ‘Proc. Zoo. +Soc.’ June 9, 1863.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253" id="Footnote_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253"><span class="label">253</span></a> For the Milvago, see ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ +Birds, 1841, p. 16. For the <i>Climacteris</i> and nightjar (Eurostopodus), +see Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 602 and 97. +The New Zealand shieldrake (<i>Tadorna variegata</i>) offers a quite anomalous +case: the head of the female is pure white, and her back is redder +than that of the male; the head of the male is of a rich dark bronzed +colour, and his back is clothed with finely pencilled slate-coloured +feathers, so that he may altogether be considered as the more beautiful +of the two. He is larger and more pugnacious than the female, and +does not sit on the eggs. So that in all these respects this species +comes under our first class of cases; but Mr. Sclater (‘Proc. Zool. +Soc.’ 1866, p. 150) was much surprised to observe that the young of both +sexes, when about three months old, resembled in their dark heads and +necks the adult males, instead of the adult females; so that it would +appear in this case that the females have been modified, whilst the +males and the young have retained a former state of plumage.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254" id="Footnote_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254"><span class="label">254</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 598.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255" id="Footnote_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255"><span class="label">255</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 222, 228. Gould’s ‘Handbook +of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 124, 130.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256" id="Footnote_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256"><span class="label">256</span></a> Gould, ibid. vol. ii. p. 37, 46, 56.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257" id="Footnote_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257"><span class="label">257</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 55.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258" id="Footnote_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258"><span class="label">258</span></a> ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. +p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259" id="Footnote_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259"><span class="label">259</span></a> Charlesworth, ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 305, 306.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260" id="Footnote_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260"><span class="label">260</span></a> ‘Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.’ vol. x. 1869, p. 132. +The young of the Polish swan, <i>Cygnus immutabilis</i> of Yarrell, are +always white; but this species, as Mr. Sclater informs me, is believed +to be nothing more than a variety of the Domestic Swan (<i>Cygnus olor</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261" id="Footnote_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261"><span class="label">261</span></a> +I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to this +genus. The sparrow of Palestine belongs to the sub-genus <i>Petronia</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262" id="Footnote_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262"><span class="label">262</span></a> For instance, the males of <i>Tanagra æstiva</i> and <i>Fringilla cyanea</i> +require three years, the male of <i>Fringilla ciris</i> four years, to complete +their beautiful plumage. (See Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. +p. 233, 280, 378.) The Harlequin duck takes three years (ibid. vol. +iii. p. 614). The male of the Gold pheasant, as I hear from Mr. J. +Jenner Weir, can be distinguished from the female when about three +months old, but he does not acquire his full splendour until the end +of the September in the following year.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263" id="Footnote_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263"><span class="label">263</span></a> Thus the <i>Ibis tantalus</i> and <i>Grus Americanus</i> take four years, the +Flamingo several years, and the <i>Ardea Ludovicana</i> two years, before +they acquire their perfect plumage. See Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 221; +vol. iii. p. 133, 139, 211.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264" id="Footnote_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264"><span class="label">264</span></a> Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. +300. Mr. Bartlett has informed me in regard to gold pheasants.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265" id="Footnote_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265"><span class="label">265</span></a> I have noticed the following cases in Audubon’s ‘Ornith. Biography. +The Redstart of America’ (<i>Muscicapa ruticilla</i>, vol. i. p. +203). The <i>Ibis tantalus</i> takes four years to come to full maturity, but +sometimes breeds in the second year (vol. iii. p. 133). The <i>Grus Americanus</i> +takes the same time, but breeds before acquiring its full plumage +(vol. iii. p. 211). The adults of <i>Ardea cærulea</i> are blue and the young +white; and white, mottled, and mature blue birds may all be seen +breeding together (vol. iv. p. 58): but Mr. Blyth informs me that certain +herons apparently are dimorphic, for white and coloured individuals +of the same age may be observed. The Harlequin duck (<i>Anas histrionica</i>, +Linn.) takes three years to acquire its full plumage, though +many birds breed in the second year (vol. iii. p. 614). The White-headed +Eagle (<i>Falco leucocephalus</i>, vol. iii. p. 210) is likewise +known to breed in its immature state. Some species of <i>Oriolus</i> (according +to Mr. Blyth and Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Ibis,’ July, 1863, p. 68) +likewise breed before they attain their full plumage.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266" id="Footnote_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266"><span class="label">266</span></a> See the last footnote.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267" id="Footnote_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267"><span class="label">267</span></a> Other animals, belonging to quite distinct classes, are either +habitually or occasionally capable of breeding before they have fully +acquired their adult characters. This is the case with the young +males of the salmon. Several amphibians have been known to breed +whilst retaining their larval structure. Fritz Müller has shewn (‘Facts +and Arguments for Darwin,’ Eng. trans. 1869, p. 79) that the males of +several amphipod crustaceans become sexually mature whilst young; +and I infer that this is a case of premature breeding, because they +have not as yet acquired their fully-developed claspers. All such facts +are highly interesting, as bearing on one means by which species may +undergo great modifications of character, in accordance with Mr. Cope’s +views, expressed under the terms of the “retardation and acceleration +of generic characters;” but I cannot follow the views of this eminent +naturalist to their full extent. See Mr. Cope, “On the Origin of Genera,” +from the ‘Proc. of Acad. Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia,’ Oct. 1868.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268" id="Footnote_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268"><span class="label">268</span></a> Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 507, on the peacock. Audubon, +ibid. vol. iii. p. 139, on the Ardea.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269" id="Footnote_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269"><span class="label">269</span></a> For illustrative cases see vol. iv. of Macgillivray’s ‘Hist. Brit. +Birds;’ on <i>Tringa</i>, &c., p. 229, 271; on the <i>Machetes</i>, p. 172; on the +<i>Charadrius hiaticula</i>, p. 118; on the <i>Charadrius pluvialis</i>, p. 94.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270" id="Footnote_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270"><span class="label">270</span></a> For the goldfinch of N. America, <i>Fringilla tristis</i>, Linn., see +Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 172. For the <i>Maluri</i>, Gould’s +'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 318.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271" id="Footnote_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271"><span class="label">271</span></a> I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to the +<i>Buphus</i>; see also Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 749. On the +<i>Anastomus</i>, see Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 173.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272" id="Footnote_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272"><span class="label">272</span></a> On the <i>Alca</i>, see Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. v. p. 347. +On the <i>Fringilla leucophrys</i>, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 89. I shall have +hereafter to refer to the young of certain herons and egrets being +white.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273" id="Footnote_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273"><span class="label">273</span></a> ‘History of British Birds,’ vol. i. 1839, p. 159.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274" id="Footnote_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274"><span class="label">274</span></a> Blyth, in Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 362; +and from information given to me by him.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275" id="Footnote_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275"><span class="label">275</span></a> Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 113.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276" id="Footnote_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276"><span class="label">276</span></a> Mr. C. A. Wright, in ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 65. Jerdon, ‘Birds +of India,’ vol. i. p. 515.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277" id="Footnote_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277"><span class="label">277</span></a> The following additional cases may be mentioned: the young +males of <i>Tanagra rubra</i> can be distinguished from the young females +(Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. iv. p. 392), and so it is with the +nestlings of a blue nuthatch, <i>Dendrophila frontalis</i> of India (Jerdon, +'Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 389). Mr. Blyth also informs me that the +sexes of the stonechat, <i>Saxicola rubicola</i>, are distinguishable at a very +early age.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278" id="Footnote_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278"><span class="label">278</span></a> ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279" id="Footnote_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279"><span class="label">279</span></a> ‘Ibis,’ 1859, vol. i. p. 429, <i>et seq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280" id="Footnote_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280"><span class="label">280</span></a> No satisfactory explanation has ever been offered of the immense +size, and still less of the bright colours, of the toucan’s beak. Mr. +Bates (‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ vol. ii. 1863, p. 341) states +that they use their beak for reaching fruit at the extreme tips of the +branches; and likewise, as stated by other authors, for extracting eggs +and young birds from the nests of other birds. But as Mr. Bates admits, +the beak “can scarcely be considered a very perfectly-formed instrument +for the end to which it is applied.” The great bulk of the beak, +as shewn by its breadth, depth, as well as length, is not intelligible on +the view, that it serves merely as an organ of prehension.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281" id="Footnote_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281"><span class="label">281</span></a> <i>Ramphastos carinatus</i>, Gould’s ‘Monograph of Ramphastidæ.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282" id="Footnote_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282"><span class="label">282</span></a> On <i>Larus</i>, <i>Gavia</i>, and <i>Sterna</i>, see Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ +vol. v. p. 515, 584, 626. On the <i>Anser hyperboreus</i>, Audubon, ‘Ornith. +Biography,’ vol. iv. p. 562. On the <i>Anastomus</i>, Mr. Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ +1867, p. 173.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283" id="Footnote_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283"><span class="label">283</span></a> It may be noticed that with vultures, which roam far and wide +through the higher regions of the atmosphere, like marine birds over +the ocean, three or four species are almost wholly or largely white, and +many other species are black. This fact supports the conjecture that +these conspicuous colours may aid the sexes in finding each other during +the breeding-season.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284" id="Footnote_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284"><span class="label">284</span></a> ‘The Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 286.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285" id="Footnote_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285"><span class="label">285</span></a> See Jerdon on the genus <i>Palæornis</i>, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. +258-260.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286" id="Footnote_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286"><span class="label">286</span></a> The young of <i>Ardea rufescens</i> and <i>A. cærulea</i> of the U. States are +likewise white, the adults being coloured in accordance with their specific +names. Audubon (‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. iii. p. 416; vol. iv. +p. 58) seems rather pleased at the thought that this remarkable change +of plumage will greatly “disconcert the systematists.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287" id="Footnote_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287"><span class="label">287</span></a> I am greatly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Sclater for having +looked over these four chapters on birds, and the two following ones +on mammals. By this means I have been saved from making mistakes +about the names of the species, and from giving any facts which are +actually known to this distinguished naturalist to be erroneous. But +of course he is not at all answerable for the accuracy of the statements +quoted by me from various authorities.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288" id="Footnote_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288"><span class="label">288</span></a> See Waterton’s account of two hares fighting, ‘Zoologist,’ vol. i. +1843, p. 211. On moles, Bell, ‘Hist. of British Quadrupeds,’ 1st edit. +p. 100. On squirrels, Audubon and Bachman, ‘Viviparous Quadrupeds +of N. America,’ 1846, p. 269. On beavers, Mr. A. H. Green, in ‘Journal +of Lin. Soc. Zoolog.’ vol. x. 1869, p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289" id="Footnote_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289"><span class="label">289</span></a> On the battles of seals, see Capt. C. Abbott in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ +1868, p. 191; also Mr. R. Brown, ibid. 1869, p. 436; also L. Lloyd, +'Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 412; also Pennant. On the sperm-whale, +see Mr. J. H. Thompson, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1867, p. 246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290" id="Footnote_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290"><span class="label">290</span></a> See Scrope (‘Art of Deer-stalking,’ p. 17) on the locking of the +horns with the <i>Cervus elaphus</i>. Richardson, in ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ +1829, p. 252, says that the wapiti, moose, and reindeer have been +found thus locked together. Sir A. Smith found at the Cape of Good +Hope the skeletons of two gnus in the same condition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291" id="Footnote_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291"><span class="label">291</span></a> Mr. Lamont (‘Seasons with the Sea-Horses,’ 1861, p. 143) says +that a good tusk of the male walrus weighs 4 pounds, and is longer +than that of the female, which weighs about 3 pounds. The males are +described as fighting ferociously. On the occasional absence of the +tusks in the female, see Mr. R. Brown, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 429.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292" id="Footnote_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292"><span class="label">292</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 283.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293" id="Footnote_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293"><span class="label">293</span></a> Mr. R. Brown, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869, p. 553.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294" id="Footnote_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294"><span class="label">294</span></a> Owen on the Cachalot and <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, ibid. vol. iii. p. 638, +641.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295" id="Footnote_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295"><span class="label">295</span></a> On the structure and shedding of the horns of the reindeer, Hoffberg, +'Amœnitates Acad.’ vol. iv. 1788, p. 149. See Richardson, ‘Fauna +Bor. Americana,’ p. 241, in regard to the American variety or species; +also Major W. Ross King, ‘The Sportsman in Canada,’ 1866, p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296" id="Footnote_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296"><span class="label">296</span></a> Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, ‘Essais de Zoolog. Générale,’ 1841, +p. 513. Other masculine characters, besides the horns, are sometimes +similarly transferred to the female; thus Mr. Boner, in speaking of an +old female chamois (‘Chamois Hunting in the Mountains of Bavaria,’ +1860, 2nd edit. p. 363), says, “not only was the head very male-looking, +but along the back there was a ridge of long hair, usually to be +found only in bucks.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297" id="Footnote_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297"><span class="label">297</span></a> On the <i>Cervulus</i>, Dr. Gray, ‘Catalogue of the Mammalia in +British Museum,’ part iii. p. 220. On the <i>Cervus Canadensis</i> or Wapiti +see Hon. J. D. Caton, ‘Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences,’ May, 1868, +p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298" id="Footnote_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298"><span class="label">298</span></a> For instance the horns of the female <i>Ant. Euchore</i> resemble those +of a distinct species, viz. the <i>Ant. Dorcas</i> var. <i>Corine</i>, see Desmarest, +'Mammalogie,’ p. 455.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299" id="Footnote_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299"><span class="label">299</span></a> Gray, ‘Catalogue Mamm. Brit. Mus.’ part iii. 1852, p. 160.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300" id="Footnote_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300"><span class="label">300</span></a> Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ p. 278.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301" id="Footnote_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301"><span class="label">301</span></a> ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 346.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302" id="Footnote_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302"><span class="label">302</span></a> Sir Andrew Smith, ‘Zoology of S. Africa,’ pl. xix. Owen, ‘Anatomy +of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 624.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303" id="Footnote_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303"><span class="label">303</span></a> Sir J. Emerson Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ 1859, vol. ii. p. 274. For +Malacca, ‘Journal of Indian Archipelago,’ vol. iv. p. 357.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304" id="Footnote_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304"><span class="label">304</span></a> ‘Calcutta Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. ii. 1843, p. 526.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305" id="Footnote_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305"><span class="label">305</span></a> Mr. Blyth, in ‘Land and Water,’ March, 1867, p. 134, on the +authority of Capt. Hutton and others. For the wild Pembrokeshire +goats see the ‘Field,’ 1869, p. 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306" id="Footnote_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306"><span class="label">306</span></a> M. E. M. Bailly, “sur l’usage des Cornes,” &c., ‘Annal. des Sc. +Nat.’ tom. ii. 1824, p. 369.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307" id="Footnote_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307"><span class="label">307</span></a> Owen, on the Horns of Red-deer, ‘British Fossil Mammals,’ 1846, +p. 478; ‘Forest Creatures,’ by Charles Boner, 1861, p. 76, 62. Richardson +on the Horns of the Reindeer, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ 1829, +p. 210.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308" id="Footnote_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308"><span class="label">308</span></a> Hon. J. D. Caton (‘Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Science,’ May, 1868, p. +9), says that the American deer fight with their fore-feet, after “the +question of superiority has been once settled and acknowledged in the +herd.” Bailly, “Sur l’usage des Cornes,” ‘Annales des Sc. Nat.’ tom. +ii. 1824, p. 371.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309" id="Footnote_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309"><span class="label">309</span></a> See a most interesting account in the Appendix to Hon. J. D. +Caton’s paper, as above quoted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310" id="Footnote_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310"><span class="label">310</span></a> ‘The American Naturalist,’ Dec. 1869, p. 552.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311" id="Footnote_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311"><span class="label">311</span></a> Pallas, ‘Spicilegia Zoologica,’ fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312" id="Footnote_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312"><span class="label">312</span></a> Lamont, ‘Seasons with the Sea-Horses,’ 1861, p. 141.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313" id="Footnote_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313"><span class="label">313</span></a> See also Corse (‘Philosoph. Transact.’ 1799, p. 212) on the manner +in which the short-tusked Mooknah variety of the elephant attacks +other elephants.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314" id="Footnote_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314"><span class="label">314</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 349.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315" id="Footnote_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315"><span class="label">315</span></a> See Rüppell (in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ Jan. 12, 1836, p. 3) on the +canines in deer and antelopes, with a note by Mr. Martin on a female +American deer. See also Falconer (‘Palæont. Memoirs and Notes,’ +vol. i. 1868, p. 576) on canines in an adult female deer. In old males +of the musk-deer the canines (Pallas, ‘Spic. Zoolog.’ fasc. xiii. 1779, p. +18) sometimes grow to the length of three inches, whilst in old females +a rudiment projects scarcely half an inch above the gums.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316" id="Footnote_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316"><span class="label">316</span></a> Emerson Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ 1859, vol. ii. p. 275; Owen, ‘British +Fossil Mammals,’ 1846, p. 245.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317" id="Footnote_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317"><span class="label">317</span></a> Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ on the moose, <i>Alces palmata</i>, +p. 236, 237; also on the expanse of the horns ‘Land and Water,’ +1869, p. 143. See also Owen, ‘British Fossil Mammals,’ on the Irish +elk, p. 447, 455.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318" id="Footnote_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318"><span class="label">318</span></a> ‘Forest Creatures,’ by C. Boner, 1861, p. 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319" id="Footnote_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319"><span class="label">319</span></a> See the very interesting paper by Mr. J. A. Allen in ‘Bull. Mus. +Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge; United States,’ vol. ii. No. 1, p. 82. The +weights were ascertained by a careful observer, Capt. Bryant.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320" id="Footnote_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320"><span class="label">320</span></a> ‘Animal Economy,’ p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321" id="Footnote_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321"><span class="label">321</span></a> See also Richardson’s ‘Manual on the Dog,’ p. 59. Much valuable +information on the Scottish deerhound is given by Mr. McNeill, +who first called attention to the inequality in size between the sexes, in +Scrope’s ‘Art of Deer Stalking.’ I hope that Mr. Cupples will keep to +his intention of publishing a full account and history of this famous +breed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322" id="Footnote_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322"><span class="label">322</span></a> Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. ii. s. 729-732.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323" id="Footnote_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323"><span class="label">323</span></a> See Mr. Wallace’s interesting account of this animal, ‘The Malay +Archipelago,’ 1869, vol. i. p. 435.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324" id="Footnote_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324"><span class="label">324</span></a> ‘The Times,’ Nov. 10th, 1857. In regard to the Canada lynx, +see Audubon and Bachman, ‘Quadrupeds of N. America,’ 1846, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325" id="Footnote_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325"><span class="label">325</span></a> Dr. Murie, on <i>Otaria</i>, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869, p. 109. Mr. J. A. +Allen, in the paper above quoted (p. 75), doubts whether the hair, +which is longer on the neck in the male than in the female, deserves to +be called a mane.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326" id="Footnote_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326"><span class="label">326</span></a> Mr. Boner in his excellent description of the habits of the red-deer +in Germany (‘Forest Creatures,’ 1861, p. 81) says, “while the +stag is defending his rights against one intruder, another invades the +sanctuary of his harem, and carries off trophy after trophy.” Exactly +the same thing occurs with seals, see Mr. J. A. Allen, ibid. p. 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327" id="Footnote_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327"><span class="label">327</span></a> Mr. J. A. Allen in ‘Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge, United +States,’ vol. ii. No. 1, p. 99.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328" id="Footnote_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328"><span class="label">328</span></a> ‘Dogs: their Management,’ by E. Mayhew, M.R.C.V.S., 2nd edit. +1864, p. 187-192.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329" id="Footnote_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329"><span class="label">329</span></a> Quoted by Alex. Walker ‘On Intermarriage,’ 1838, p. 276; see +also p. 244.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330" id="Footnote_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330"><span class="label">330</span></a> ‘Traité de l’Héréd. Nat.’ tom. ii. 1850, p. 296.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331" id="Footnote_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331"><span class="label">331</span></a> ‘Amœnitates Acad.’ vol. iv. 1788, p. 160.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332" id="Footnote_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332"><span class="label">332</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 585.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333" id="Footnote_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333"><span class="label">333</span></a> Ibid. p. 595.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334" id="Footnote_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334"><span class="label">334</span></a> See, for instance, Major W. Ross King (‘The Sportsman in Canada,’ +1866, p. 53, 131) on the habits of the moose and wild reindeer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335" id="Footnote_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335"><span class="label">335</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 600.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336" id="Footnote_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336"><span class="label">336</span></a> Mr. Green, in ‘Journal of Linn. Soc.’ vol. x. Zoology, 1869, p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337" id="Footnote_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337"><span class="label">337</span></a> C. L. Martin, ‘General Introduction to the Nat. Hist. of Mamm. +Animals,’ 1841, p. 431.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338" id="Footnote_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338"><span class="label">338</span></a> ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 15, 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339" id="Footnote_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339"><span class="label">339</span></a> On the sea-elephant, see an article by Lesson, in ‘Dict. Class. +Hist. Nat.’ tom. xiii. p. 418. For the <i>Cystophora</i> or <i>Stemmatopus</i>, see +Dr. Dekay, ‘Annals of Lyceum of Nat. Hist. New York,’ vol. i. 1824, +p. 94. Pennant has also collected information from the sealers on this +animal. The fullest account is given by Mr. Brown, who doubts about +the rudimentary condition of the bladder in the female, in ‘Proc. +Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 435.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340" id="Footnote_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340"><span class="label">340</span></a> As with the castoreum of the beaver, see Mr. L. H. Morgan’s +most interesting work, ‘The American Beaver,’ 1868, p. 300. Pallas +(‘Spic. Zoolog.’ fasc. viii. 1779, p. 23) has well discussed the odoriferous +glands of mammals. Owen (‘Anat. of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 634) +also gives an account of these glands, including those of the elephant, +and (p. 763) those of shrew-mice.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341" id="Footnote_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341"><span class="label">341</span></a> Rengger, ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, +s. 355. This observer also gives some curious particulars in regard to +the odour emitted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342" id="Footnote_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342"><span class="label">342</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 632. See, also, Dr. +Murie’s observations on their glands in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1870, +p. 340. Desmarest, On the <i>Antilope subgutturosa</i>, ‘Mammalogie,’ 1820, +p. 455.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343" id="Footnote_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343"><span class="label">343</span></a> Pallas, ‘Spicilegia Zoolog.’ fasc. xiii. 1799, p. 24; Desmoulins, +'Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.’ tom. iii. p. 586.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344" id="Footnote_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344"><span class="label">344</span></a> Dr. Gray, ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley,’ pl. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345" id="Footnote_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345"><span class="label">345</span></a> Judge Caton on the wapiti, ‘Transact. Ottawa Acad. Nat. +Sciences,’ 1868, p. 36, 40; Blyth, ‘Land and Water,’ on <i>Capra ægagrus</i>, +1867, p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346" id="Footnote_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346"><span class="label">346</span></a> ‘Hunter’s Essays and Observations,’ edited by Owen, 1861, vol. i. +p. 236.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347" id="Footnote_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347"><span class="label">347</span></a> See Dr. Gray’s ‘Cat. of Mammalia in British Museum,’ part iii. +1852, p. 144.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348" id="Footnote_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348"><span class="label">348</span></a> Rengger, ‘Säugethiere,’ &c., s. 14; Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. +66.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349" id="Footnote_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349"><span class="label">349</span></a> See the chapters on these several animals in vol. i. of my ‘Variation +of Animals and Plants under Domestication;’ also vol. ii. p. 73; also chap. xx. +on the practice of selection by semi-civilised people. For the Berbura +goat, see Dr. Gray, ‘Catalogue,’ ibid. p. 157.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350" id="Footnote_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350"><span class="label">350</span></a> <i>Osphranter rufus</i>, Gould, ‘Mammals of Australia,’ vol. ii. 1863. +On the <i>Didelphis</i>, Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351" id="Footnote_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351"><span class="label">351</span></a> ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Nov. 1867, p. 325. On the <i>Mus +minutus</i>, Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 304.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352" id="Footnote_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352"><span class="label">352</span></a> J. A. Allen, in ‘Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge, +United States,’ 1869, p. 207.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353" id="Footnote_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353"><span class="label">353</span></a> Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ 1820, p. 223. On <i>Felis mitis</i>, Rengger, +ibid. s. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354" id="Footnote_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354"><span class="label">354</span></a> Dr. Murie on the <i>Otaria</i>, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869, p. 108. Mr. +R. Brown, on the <i>P. groenlandica</i>, ibid. 1868, p. 417. See also on the +colours of seals, Desmarest, ibid. p. 243, 249.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355" id="Footnote_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355"><span class="label">355</span></a> Judge Caton, in ‘Trans. Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences,’ 1868, +p. 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356" id="Footnote_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356"><span class="label">356</span></a> Dr. Gray, ‘Cat. of Mamm. in Brit. Mus.’ part iii. 1852, p. 134-142; +also Dr. Gray, ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,’ in which +there is a splendid drawing of the <i>Oreas derbyanus</i>: see the text on +<i>Tragelaphus</i>. For the Cape Eland (<i>Oreas canna</i>), see Andrew Smith, +'Zoology of S. Africa,’ pl. 41 and 42. There are also many of these +antelopes in the Zoological Society’s Gardens.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357" id="Footnote_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357"><span class="label">357</span></a> On the <i>Ant. niger</i>, see ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1850, p. 133. With respect +to an allied species, in which there is an equal sexual difference +in colour, see Sir S. Baker, ‘The Albert Nyanza,’ 1866, vol. ii. p. 327. +For the <i>A. sing-sing</i>, Gray, ‘Cat. B. Mus.’ p. 100. Desmarest, Mammalogie,’ +p. 468, on the <i>A. caama</i>. Andrew Smith, ‘Zoology of S. +Africa,’ on the Gnu.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358" id="Footnote_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358"><span class="label">358</span></a> ‘Ottawa Academy of Sciences,’ May 21, 1868, p. 3, 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359" id="Footnote_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359"><span class="label">359</span></a> S. Müller, on the Banteng, ‘Zoog. Indischen Archipel.’ 1839-1844, +tab. 35; see also Raffles, as quoted by Mr. Blyth, in ‘Land and Water,’ +1867, p. 476. On goats, Dr. Gray, ‘Cat. Brit. Mus.’ p. 146; Desmarest, +'Mammalogie,’ p. 482. On the <i>Cervus paludosus</i>, Rengger, ibid. s. 345.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360" id="Footnote_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360"><span class="label">360</span></a> Sclater, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1866, p. 1. The same fact has also been +fully ascertained by MM. Pollen and van Dam.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361" id="Footnote_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361"><span class="label">361</span></a> On <i>Mycetes</i>, Rengger, ibid. s. 14; and Brehm, ‘Illustrirtes Thierleben,’ +B. i. s. 96, 107. On <i>Ateles</i>, Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 75. +On <i>Hylobates</i>, Blyth, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 135. On the <i>Semnopithecus</i>, +S. Müller, ‘Zoog. Indischen Archipel.’ tab. x.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362" id="Footnote_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362"><span class="label">362</span></a> Gervais, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,’ 1854, p. 103. Figures are +given of the skull of the male. Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 70. +Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mamm.’ 1824, tom. i.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363" id="Footnote_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363"><span class="label">363</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ 1868, +vol. ii. p. 102, 103.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364" id="Footnote_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364"><span class="label">364</span></a> ‘Essays and Observations by J. Hunter,’ edited by Owen, 1861, +vol. i. p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365" id="Footnote_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365"><span class="label">365</span></a> Sir S. Baker, ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366" id="Footnote_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366"><span class="label">366</span></a> <i>Fiber zibethicus</i>, Audubon and Bachman, ‘The Quadrupeds of +N. America,’ 1846, p. 109.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367" id="Footnote_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367"><span class="label">367</span></a> ‘Novæ species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,’ 1778, p. 7. What +I have called the roe is the <i>Capreolus Sibiricus subecaudatus</i> of Pallas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368" id="Footnote_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368"><span class="label">368</span></a> See the fine plates in A. Smith’s ‘Zoology of S. Africa,’ and Dr. +Gray’s ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley.’</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369" id="Footnote_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369"><span class="label">369</span></a> ‘Westminster Review,’ July 1, 1867, p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370" id="Footnote_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370"><span class="label">370</span></a> ‘Travels in South Africa,’ 1824, vol. ii. p. 315.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371" id="Footnote_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371"><span class="label">371</span></a> Dr. Gray, ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,’ p. 64. +Mr. Blyth, in speaking (‘Land and Water,’ 1869, p. 42) of the hog-deer +of Ceylon, says it is more brightly spotted with white than the +common hog-deer, at the season when it renews its horns.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372" id="Footnote_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372"><span class="label">372</span></a> Falconer and Cautley, ‘Proc. Geolog. Soc.’ 1843; and Falconer’s +'Pal. Memoirs,’ vol. i. p. 196.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373" id="Footnote_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373"><span class="label">373</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ +1868, vol. i. p. 61-64.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374" id="Footnote_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374"><span class="label">374</span></a> ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1862, p. 164. See, also, Dr. Hartmann, ‘Ann. +d. Landw.’ Bd. xliii. s. 222.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375" id="Footnote_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375"><span class="label">375</span></a> I observed this fact in the Zoological Gardens; and numerous +cases may be seen in the coloured plates in Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and +F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,’ tom. i. 1824.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376" id="Footnote_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376"><span class="label">376</span></a> Bates, ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ 1863, vol. ii. p. 310.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377" id="Footnote_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377"><span class="label">377</span></a> I have seen most of the above-named monkeys in the Zoological +Society’s Gardens. The description of the <i>Semnopithecus nemæus</i> is +taken from Mr. W. C. Martin’s ‘Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,’ 1841, p. 460; +see also p. 475, 523.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378" id="Footnote_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378"><span class="label">378</span></a> Schaaffhausen, translation in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, +p. 419, 420, 427.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379" id="Footnote_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379"><span class="label">379</span></a> Ecker, translation in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 351-356. +The comparison of the form of the skull in men and women has +been followed out with much care by Welcker.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380" id="Footnote_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380"><span class="label">380</span></a> Ecker and Welcker, ibid. p. 352, 355; Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ +Eng. translat. p. 81.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381" id="Footnote_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381"><span class="label">381</span></a> Schaaffhausen, ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ ibid. p. 429.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382" id="Footnote_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382"><span class="label">382</span></a> Pruner-Bey, on negro infants, as quoted by Vogt, ‘Lectures on +Man,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p. 189: for further facts on negro infants, as +quoted from Winterbottom and Camper, see Lawrence, ‘Lectures on +Physiology,’ &c. 1822, p. 451. For the infants of the Guaranys, see +Rengger, ‘Säugethiere,’ &c. s. 3. See also Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ tom. +ii. 1859, p. 253. For the Australians, Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ +Eng. translat. 1863, p. 99.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383" id="Footnote_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383"><span class="label">383</span></a> Rengger, ‘Säugethiere,’ &c. 1830, s. 49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384" id="Footnote_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384"><span class="label">384</span></a> As in <i>Macacus cynomolgus</i> (Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 65) and +in <i>Hylobates agilis</i> (Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des +Mamm.’ 1824, tom. i. p. 2).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385" id="Footnote_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385"><span class="label">385</span></a> ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 353.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386" id="Footnote_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386"><span class="label">386</span></a> Mr. Blyth informs me that he has never seen more than one instance +of the beard, whiskers, &c., in a monkey becoming white with old age, +as is so commonly the case with us. This, however, occurred in an aged +and confined <i>Macacus cynomolgus</i>, whose moustaches were “remarkably +long and human-like.” Altogether this old monkey presented a ludicrous +resemblance to one of the reigning monarchs of Europe, after whom he +was universally nick-named. In certain races of man the hair on the +head hardly ever becomes grey; thus Mr. D. Forbes has never seen, +as he informs me, an instance with the Aymaras and Quechuas of +S. America.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387" id="Footnote_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387"><span class="label">387</span></a> This is the case with the females of several species of <i>Hylobates</i>, +see Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mamm.’ tom. i. +See, also, on <i>H. lar</i>. ‘Penny Encyclopedia,’ vol. ii. p. 149, 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388" id="Footnote_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388"><span class="label">388</span></a> The results were deduced by Dr. Weisbach from the measurements +made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz, see ‘Reise der <i>Novara</i>: +Anthropolog. Theil,’ 1867, s. 216, 231, 234, 236, 239, 269.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389" id="Footnote_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389"><span class="label">389</span></a> ‘Voyage to St. Kilda,’ (3rd edit. 1753) p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390" id="Footnote_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390"><span class="label">390</span></a> Sir J. E. Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. 1859, p. 107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391" id="Footnote_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391"><span class="label">391</span></a> Quatrefages, ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ Aug. 29, 1868, p. 630; +Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 127.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392" id="Footnote_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392"><span class="label">392</span></a> On the beards of negroes, Vogt, ‘Lectures,’ &c. ibid. p. 127; Waitz, +'Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Engl. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 96. It is +remarkable that in the United States (‘Investigations in Military and +Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,’ 1869, p. 569) the +pure negroes and their crossed offspring seem to have bodies almost as +hairy as those of Europeans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393" id="Footnote_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393"><span class="label">393</span></a> Wallace, ‘The Malay Arch.’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394" id="Footnote_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394"><span class="label">394</span></a> Dr. J. Barnard Davis on Oceanic Races, in ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ +April, 1870, p. 185, 191.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395" id="Footnote_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395"><span class="label">395</span></a> Catlin, ‘North American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. ii. p. 227. +On the Guaranys, see Azara, ‘Voyages dans l’Amérique Mérid.’ tom. ii. +1809, p. 58; also Rengger, ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ s. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396" id="Footnote_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396"><span class="label">396</span></a> Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz (‘Journey in Brazil,’ p. 530) remark +that the sexes of the American Indians differ less than those of the +negroes and of the higher races. See also Rengger, ibid. p. 3, on the +Guaranys.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397" id="Footnote_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397"><span class="label">397</span></a> Rütimeyer, ‘Die Grenzen der Thierwelt; eine Betrachtung zu +Darwin’s Lehre,’ 1868, s. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398" id="Footnote_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398"><span class="label">398</span></a> ‘A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,’ 8vo. edit. Dublin, 1796, +p. 104. Sir J. Lubbock (‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 69) gives +other and similar cases in North America. For the Guanas of S. +America see Azara, ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 94.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399" id="Footnote_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399"><span class="label">399</span></a> On the fighting of the male gorillas, see Dr. Savage, in ‘Boston +Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1847, p. 423. On <i>Presbytis entellus</i>, see +the ‘Indian Field,’ 1859, p. 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400" id="Footnote_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400"><span class="label">400</span></a> J. Stuart Mill remarks (‘The Subjection of Women,’ 1869, p. 122), +“the things in which man most excels woman are those which require +most plodding, and long hammering at single thoughts.” What is +this but energy and perseverance?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401" id="Footnote_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401"><span class="label">401</span></a> An observation by Vogt bears on this subject: he says, it is a +“remarkable circumstance, that the difference between the sexes, as +regards the cranial cavity, increases with the development of the +race, so that the male European excels much more the female, than +the negro the negress. Welcker confirms this statement of Huschke +from his measurements of negro and German skulls.” But Vogt +admits (‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p. 81) that more observations +are requisite on this point.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402" id="Footnote_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402"><span class="label">402</span></a> Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 603.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403" id="Footnote_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403"><span class="label">403</span></a> ‘Journal of the Anthropolog. Soc.’ April, 1869, p. lvii. and lxvi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404" id="Footnote_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404"><span class="label">404</span></a> Dr. Scudder, “Notes on Stridulation,” in ‘Proc. Boston Soc. of +Nat. Hist.’ vol. xi. April, 1868.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405" id="Footnote_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405"><span class="label">405</span></a> Given in W. C. L. Martin’s ‘General Introduct. to Nat. Hist. of +Mamm. Animals,’ 1841, p. 432; Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. +iii. p. 600.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406" id="Footnote_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406"><span class="label">406</span></a> Helmholtz, ‘Théorie Phys. de la Musique,’ 1868, p. 187.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407" id="Footnote_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407"><span class="label">407</span></a> Mr. R. Brown, in ‘Proc. Zoo. Soc.’ 1868, p. 410.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408" id="Footnote_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408"><span class="label">408</span></a> ‘Journal of Anthropolog. Soc.’ Oct. 1870, p. clv. See also the +several later chapters in Sir John Lubbock’s ‘Prehistoric Times,’ +second edition, 1869, which contain an admirable account of the habits +of savages.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409" id="Footnote_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409"><span class="label">409</span></a> Since this chapter has been printed I have seen a valuable article +by Mr. Chauncey Wright (‘North Amer. Review,’ Oct. 1870, page 293), +who, in discussing the above subject, remarks, “There are many consequences +of the ultimate laws or uniformities of nature through +which the acquisition of one useful power will bring with it many +resulting advantages as well as limiting disadvantages, actual or +possible, which the principle of utility may not have comprehended +in its action.” This principle has an important bearing, as I have +attempted to shew in the second chapter of this work, on the acquisition +by man of some of his mental characteristics.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410" id="Footnote_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410"><span class="label">410</span></a> See the very interesting discussion on the Origin and Function of +Music, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his collected ‘Essays,’ 1858, p. +359. Mr. Spencer comes to an exactly opposite conclusion to that at +which I have arrived. He concludes that the cadences used in emotional +speech afford the foundation from which music has been +developed; whilst I conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first +acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of +charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly associated +with some of the strongest passions an animal is capable of feeling, +and are consequently used instinctively, or through association, when +strong emotions are expressed in speech. Mr. Spencer does not offer +any satisfactory explanation, nor can I, why high or deep notes should +be expressive, both with man and the lower animals, of certain emotions. +Mr. Spencer gives also an interesting discussion on the relations +between poetry, recitative, and song.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411" id="Footnote_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411"><span class="label">411</span></a> Rengger, ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ s. 49.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412" id="Footnote_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412"><span class="label">412</span></a> See an interesting discussion on this subject by Häckel, ‘Generelle +Morph.’ B. ii. 1866, s. 246.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413" id="Footnote_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413"><span class="label">413</span></a> A full and excellent account of the manner in which savages in +all parts of the world ornament themselves is given by the Italian +traveller, Prof. Mantegazza, ‘Rio de la Plata, Viaggi e Studi,’ 1867, +p. 525-545; all the following statements, when other references are +not given, are taken from this work. See, also, Waitz, ‘Introduct. to +Anthropolog.’ Eng. transl. vol. i. 1863, p. 275, <i>et passim</i>. Lawrence +also gives very full details in his ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ 1822. +Since this chapter was written Sir J. Lubbock has published his +'Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, in which there is an interesting chapter +on the present subject, and from which (p. 42, 48) I have taken some +facts about savages dyeing their teeth and hair, and piercing their teeth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414" id="Footnote_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414"><span class="label">414</span></a> Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 515; +on the imagination shewn in painting the body, p. 522; on modifying +the form of the calf of the leg, p. 466.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415" id="Footnote_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415"><span class="label">415</span></a> ‘The Nile Tributaries,’ 1867; ‘The Albert N’yanza,’ 1866, vol. i. +p. 218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416" id="Footnote_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416"><span class="label">416</span></a> Quoted by Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ 4th. edit. vol. i. +1851, p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417" id="Footnote_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417"><span class="label">417</span></a> On the Papuans, Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. p. +445. On the coiffure of the Africans, Sir S. Baker, ‘The Albert +N’yanza,’ vol. i. p. 210.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418" id="Footnote_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418"><span class="label">418</span></a> ‘Travels,’ p. 533.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419" id="Footnote_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419"><span class="label">419</span></a> ‘The Albert N’yanza,’ 1866, vol. i. p. 217.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420" id="Footnote_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420"><span class="label">420</span></a> Livingstone, ‘British Association,’ 1860; report given in the +'Athenæum,’ July 7, 1860, p. 29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421" id="Footnote_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421"><span class="label">421</span></a> Sir S. Baker (ibid. vol. i. p. 210) speaking of the natives of Central +Africa says, “every tribe has a distinct and unchanging fashion for +dressing the hair.” See Agassiz (‘Journey in Brazil,’ 1868, p. 318) +on the invariability of the tattooing of the Amazonian Indians.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422" id="Footnote_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422"><span class="label">422</span></a> Rev. R. Taylor, ‘New Zealand and its Inhabitants,’ 1855, p. 152.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423" id="Footnote_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423"><span class="label">423</span></a> Mantegazza, ‘Viaggi e Studi,’ p. 542.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424" id="Footnote_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424"><span class="label">424</span></a> ‘Travels in S. Africa,’ 1824; vol. i. p. 414.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425" id="Footnote_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425"><span class="label">425</span></a> See, for references, ‘Gerland über das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ +1868, s. 51, 53, 55; also Azara, ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 116.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426" id="Footnote_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426"><span class="label">426</span></a> On the vegetable productions used by the North-Western American +Indians, ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ vol. x.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427" id="Footnote_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427"><span class="label">427</span></a> ‘A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,’ 8vo. edit. 1796, p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428" id="Footnote_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428"><span class="label">428</span></a> Quoted by Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ 3rd edit. vol. iv. +1844, p. 519; Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 129. On the +opinion of the Chinese on the Cingalese, E. Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. +1859, p. 107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429" id="Footnote_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429"><span class="label">429</span></a> Prichard, as taken from Crawfurd and Finlayson, ‘Phys. Hist. of +Mankind,’ vol. iv. p. 534, 535.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430" id="Footnote_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430"><span class="label">430</span></a> “Idem illustrissimus viator dixit mihi præcinctorium vel tabula +fæminæ, quod nobis teterrimum est, quondam permagno æstimari ab +hominibus in hac gente. Nunc res mutata est, et censet talem conformationem +minime optandam est.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431" id="Footnote_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431"><span class="label">431</span></a> ‘The Anthropological Review,’ November, 1864, p. 237. For +additional references, see Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Eng. +translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 105.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432" id="Footnote_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432"><span class="label">432</span></a> ‘Mungo Park’s Travels in Africa,’ 4to. 1816, p. 53, 131. Burton’s +statement is quoted by Schaaffhausen, ‘Archiv für Anthropolog.’ 1866, +s. 163. On the Banyai, Livingstone, ‘Travels,’ p. 64. On the Kafirs, +the Rev. J. Shooter, ‘The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country,’ 1857 +p. 1.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433" id="Footnote_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433"><span class="label">433</span></a> For the Javanese and Cochin-Chinese, see Waitz, ‘Introduct. to +Anthropology,’ Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. On the Yura-caras, A. +d’Orligny, as quoted in Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ vol. v. 3rd +edit. p. 476.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434" id="Footnote_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434"><span class="label">434</span></a> ‘North American Indians,’ by G. Catlin, 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. +49; vol. ii. p. 227. On the natives of Vancouver Island, see Sproat, +'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,’ 1868, p. 25. On the Indians of +Paraguay, Azara, ‘Voyages,’ tom. ii. p. 105.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435" id="Footnote_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435"><span class="label">435</span></a> On the Siamese, Prichard, ibid. vol. iv. p. 533. On the Japanese, +Veitch in ‘Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ 1860, p. 1104. On the New Zealanders +Mantegazza, ‘Viaggi e Studi,’ 1867, p. 526. For the other nations +mentioned, see references in Lawrence, ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ &c. +1822, p. 272.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436" id="Footnote_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436"><span class="label">436</span></a> Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437" id="Footnote_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437"><span class="label">437</span></a> Dr. Barnard Davis quotes Mr. Pritchard and others for these facts +in regard to the Polynesians, in ‘Anthropological Review,’ April, 1870, +p. 185, 191.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438" id="Footnote_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438"><span class="label">438</span></a> Ch. Comte has remarks to this effect in his ‘Traité de Législation,’ +3rd edit. 1837, p. 136.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439" id="Footnote_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439"><span class="label">439</span></a> The Fuegians, as I have been informed by a missionary who long +resided with them, consider European women as extremely beautiful; +but from what we have seen of the judgment of the other aborigines of +America, I cannot but think that this must be a mistake, unless indeed +the statement refers to the few Fuegians who have lived for some time +with Europeans, and who must consider us as superior beings. I should +add that a most experienced observer, Capt. Burton, believes that a +woman whom we consider beautiful is admired throughout the world, +'Anthropological Review,’ March, 1864, p. 245.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440" id="Footnote_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440"><span class="label">440</span></a> ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 518, and elsewhere. +Mantegazza, in his ‘Viaggi e Studi,’ 1867, strongly insists on this +same principle.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441" id="Footnote_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441"><span class="label">441</span></a> On the skulls of the American tribes, see Nott and Gliddon, +'Types of Mankind,’ 1854, p. 440; Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ +vol. i. 3rd edit. p. 321; on the natives of Arakhan, ibid. vol. iv. p. 537. +Wilson, ‘Physical Ethnology,’ Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 288; +on the Fijians, p. 290. Sir J. Lubbock (‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. +1869, p. 506) gives an excellent résumé on this subject.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442" id="Footnote_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442"><span class="label">442</span></a> On the Huns, Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ tom. ii. 1859, p. 300. On +the Tahitians, Waitz, ‘Anthropolog.’ Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. +Marsden, quoted by Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ 3rd edit. +vol. v. p. 67. Lawrence, ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ p. 337.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443" id="Footnote_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443"><span class="label">443</span></a> This fact was ascertained in the ‘Reise der <i>Novara</i>: Anthropolog. +Theil,’ Dr. Weisbach, 1867, s. 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444" id="Footnote_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444"><span class="label">444</span></a> ‘Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 289. On the fashions of Arab +women, Sir S. Baker, ‘The Nile Tributaries,’ 1867, p. 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_445" id="Footnote_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445"><span class="label">445</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. +p. 214; vol. ii. p. 240.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_446" id="Footnote_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446"><span class="label">446</span></a> Schaaffhausen, ‘Archiv für Anthropologie,’ 1866, s. 164.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_447" id="Footnote_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447"><span class="label">447</span></a> Mr. Bain has collected (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 304-314) +about a dozen more or less different theories of the idea of beauty; +but none are quite the same with that here given.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_448" id="Footnote_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448"><span class="label">448</span></a> These quotations are taken from Lawrence (‘Lectures on Physiology,’ +&c. 1822, p. 393), who attributes the beauty of the upper classes +in England to the men having long selected the more beautiful women.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449" id="Footnote_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449"><span class="label">449</span></a> “Anthropologie,” ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ Oct. 1868, p. +721.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450" id="Footnote_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450"><span class="label">450</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. +i. p. 207.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451" id="Footnote_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451"><span class="label">451</span></a> Sir J. Lubbock, ‘The Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, chap. iii. especially +p. 60-67. Mr. M’Lennan, in his extremely valuable work on +'Primitive Marriage,’ 1865, p. 163, speaks of the union of the sexes +“in the earliest times as loose, transitory, and in some degree promiscuous.” +Mr. M’Lennan and Sir J. Lubbock have collected much +evidence on the extreme licentiousness of savages at the present time. +Mr. L. H. Morgan, in his interesting memoir on the classificatory system +of relationship (‘Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,’ vol. vii. Feb. 1868, +p. 475) concludes that polygamy and all forms of marriage during +primeval times were essentially unknown. It appears, also, from Sir J. +Lubbock’s work, that Bachofen likewise believes that communal intercourse +originally prevailed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452" id="Footnote_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452"><span class="label">452</span></a> Address to British Association ‘On the Social and Religious Condition +of the Lower Races of Man,’ 1870, p. 20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_453" id="Footnote_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453"><span class="label">453</span></a> ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 86. In the several works above +quoted there will be found copious evidence on relationship through +the females alone, or with the tribe alone.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454" id="Footnote_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454"><span class="label">454</span></a> Brehm (‘Illust. Thierleben,’ B. i. p. 77) says <i>Cynocephalus hamadryas</i> +lives in great troops containing twice as many adult females as +adult males. See Rengger on American polygamous species, and Owen +(‘Anat. of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 746) on American monogamous +species. Other references might be added.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455" id="Footnote_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455"><span class="label">455</span></a> Dr. Savage, in ‘Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1845-47, +p. 423.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_456" id="Footnote_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456"><span class="label">456</span></a> ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1869, p. 424.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_457" id="Footnote_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457"><span class="label">457</span></a> Mr. M’Lennan, ‘Primitive Marriage,’ 1865. See especially on +exogamy and infanticide, p. 130, 138, 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458" id="Footnote_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458"><span class="label">458</span></a> Dr. Gerland (‘Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ 1868) has +collected much information on infanticide, see especially s. 27, 51, 54. +Azara (‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 94, 116) enters in detail on the motives. +See also M’Lennan (ibid. p. 139) for cases in India.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459" id="Footnote_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459"><span class="label">459</span></a> ‘Primitive Marriage,’ p. 208; Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ +p. 100. See also Mr. Morgan, loc. cit., on former prevalence of +polyandry.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460" id="Footnote_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460"><span class="label">460</span></a> ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 92-95.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461" id="Footnote_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461"><span class="label">461</span></a> Burchell says (‘Travels in S. Africa, vol. ii. 1824, p. 58), that among +the wild nations of Southern Africa, neither men nor women ever pass +their lives in a state of celibacy. Azara (‘Voyages dans l’Amérique +Merid.’ tom. ii. 1809, p. 21) makes precisely the same remark in regard +to the wild Indians of South America.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_462" id="Footnote_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462"><span class="label">462</span></a> ‘Anthropological Review,’ Jan. 1870, p. xvi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_463" id="Footnote_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463"><span class="label">463</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ +vol. ii. p. 210-217.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_464" id="Footnote_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464"><span class="label">464</span></a> An ingenious writer argues, from a comparison of the pictures of +Raphael, Rubens, and modern French artists, that the idea of beauty is +not absolutely the same even throughout Europe: see the ‘Lives of +Haydn and Mozart,’ by M. Bombet, English translat. p. 278.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_465" id="Footnote_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465"><span class="label">465</span></a> Azara, ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 23. Dobrizhoffer, ‘An Account +of the Abipones,’ vol. ii. 1822, p. 207. Williams on the Fiji Islanders, +as quoted by Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 79. On the +Fuegians, King and Fitzroy, ‘Voyages of the <i>Adventure</i> and +<i>Beagle</i>,’ vol. ii. 1839, p. 182. On the Kalmucks, quoted by M’Lennan, +'Primitive Marriage,’ 1865, p. 32. On the Malays, Lubbock, ibid. +p. 76. The Rev. J. Shooter, ‘On the Kafirs of Natal,’ 1857, p. 52-60. +On the Bushwomen, Burchell, ‘Travels in S. Africa,’ vol. ii. 1824, +p. 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_466" id="Footnote_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466"><span class="label">466</span></a> ‘Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, p. 346. +Mr. Wallace believes (p. 350) “that some intelligent power has guided +or determined the development of man;” and he considers the hairless +condition of the skin as coming under this head. The Rev. T. +R. Stebbing, in commenting on this view (‘Transactions of Devonshire +Assoc. for Science,’ 1870) remarks, that had Mr. Wallace “employed +his usual ingenuity on the question of man’s hairless skin, he might +have seen the possibility of its selection through its superior beauty +or the health attaching to superior cleanliness. At any rate it is +surprising that he should picture to himself a superior intelligence +plucking the hair from the backs of savage men (to whom, according +to his own account it would have been useful and beneficial), in order +that the descendants of the poor shorn wretches might after many +deaths from cold and damp in the course of many generations,” have +been forced to raise themselves in the scale of civilisation through the +practice of various arts, in the manner indicated by Mr. Wallace.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_467" id="Footnote_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467"><span class="label">467</span></a> ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ +vol. ii. 1868, p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_468" id="Footnote_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468"><span class="label">468</span></a> ‘Investigations into Military and Anthropological Statistics of +American Soldiers,’ by B. A. Gould, 1869; p. 568:—Observations +were carefully made on the pilosity of 2129 black and coloured soldiers, +whilst they were bathing; and by looking to the published table, “it +is manifest at a glance that there is but little, if any, difference +between the white and the black races in this respect.” It is, however, +certain that negroes in their native and much hotter land of +Africa, have remarkably smooth bodies. It should be particularly +observed, that pure blacks and mulattoes were included in the above +enumeration; and this is an unfortunate circumstance, as in accordance +with the principle, the truth of which I have elsewhere proved, crossed +races would be eminently liable to revert to the primordial hairy +character of their early ape-like progenitors.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469" id="Footnote_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469"><span class="label">469</span></a> “Ueber die Richtung der Haare am Menschlichen Körper,” in +Müller’s ‘Archiv für Anat. und Phys.’ 1837, s. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470" id="Footnote_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470"><span class="label">470</span></a> Mr. Sproat (‘Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,’ 1868, p. 25) +suggests, with reference to the beardless natives of Vancouver’s Island, +that the custom of plucking out the hairs on the face, “continued from +one generation to another, would perhaps at last produce a race +distinguishable by a thin and straggling growth of beard.” But the +custom would not have arisen until the beard had already become, +from some independent cause, greatly reduced. Nor have we any direct +evidence that the continued eradication of the hair would lead to any +inherited effect. Owing to this cause of doubt, I have not hitherto +alluded to the belief held by some distinguished ethnologists, for instance +M. Gosse of Geneva, that artificial modifications of the skull +tend to be inherited. I have no wish to dispute this conclusion; and +we now know from Dr. Brown-Séquard’s remarkable observations, especially +those recently communicated (1870) to the British Association, +that with guinea-pigs the effects of operations are inherited.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_471" id="Footnote_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471"><span class="label">471</span></a> ‘Ueber die Richtung,’ ibid. s. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472" id="Footnote_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472"><span class="label">472</span></a> On the “Limits of Natural Selection,” in the ‘North American +Review,’ Oct. 1870, p. 295.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473" id="Footnote_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473"><span class="label">473</span></a> The Rev. J. A. Picton gives a discussion to this effect in his ‘New +Theories and the Old Faith,’ 1870.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span></p> + +<h3>INDEX.</h3> +<ul class="IX"> +<li> +<span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>A.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abbott,</span> C., on the battles of seals, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abductor</span> of the fifth metatarsal, presence of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abercrombie</span>, Dr., on disease of the brain affecting speech, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abipones</span>, marriage-customs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abou-Simbel</span>, caves of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abortion</span>, prevalence of the practice of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Abstraction</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Acalles</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Acanthodactylus capensis</i>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Accentor modularis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Acclimatisation</span>, difference of, in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Achetidæ</span>, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>; +<ul><li> +rudimentary stridulating organs in female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Acilius sulcatus</i>, elytra of the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Acomus</i>, development of spurs in the female of, ii. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Acridiidæ</span>, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>; +<ul><li> +rudimentary stridulating organs in female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Acting</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Actiniæ</i>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Admiral</span> butterfly, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Adoption</span> of the young of other animals by female monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Advancement</span> in the organic scale, Von Baer’s definition of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Aeby</span>, on the difference between the skulls of man and the quadrumana, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Æsthetic</span> faculty, not highly developed in savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Affection</span>, maternal, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +<ul><li> +manifestation of, by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +parental and filial, partly the result of natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>; +</li><li> +shown by birds in confinement, for certain persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +mutual, of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Africa</span>, probably the birthplace of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; +<ul><li> +South, crossed population of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +South, retention of colour by the Dutch in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +South, proportion of the sexes in the butterflies of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>; +</li><li> +tattooing practised in, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; +</li><li> +Northern, coiffure of natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Agassiz,</span> L., on conscience in dogs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; +<ul><li> +on the coincidence of the races of man with zoological provinces, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +on the courtship of the land-snails, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>; +</li><li> +on the brightness of the colours of male fishes during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +on the frontal protuberance of the males of <i>Geophagus</i> and <i>Cichla</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; +</li><li> +on the slight sexual differences of the South Americans, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +</li><li> +on the tattooing of the Amazonian Indians, ii. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Age</span>, in relation to the transmission of characters in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; +<ul><li> +variation in accordance with, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Agelæus phœniceus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ageronia feronia</i>, noise produced by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Agrion</i>, dimorphism in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Agrion Ramburii</i>, sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Agrionidæ</span>, difference in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Agrotis exclamationis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ague</span>, tertian, dog suffering from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Aïthurus polytmus</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ainos</span>, hairiness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Alca torda</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span> +<i>Alces palmata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Alder</span> and Hancock, MM., on the nudibranch mollusca, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Algen</span>, Mr., on the stridulation of <i>Scolytus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Allen</span>, J. A., on the relative size of the sexes of <i>Callorhinus ursinus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; +<ul><li> +on the mane of <i>Otaria jubata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of seals, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in the colour of bats, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Allen</span>, S., on the habits of <i>Hoplopterus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +<ul><li> +on the plumes of herons, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; +</li><li> +on the vernal moult of <i>Herodias bubulcus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Alligator</span>, courtship of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul><li> +roaring of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Amadavat</span>, pugnacity of male, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Amadina Lathami</i>, display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Amadina castanotis</i>, display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Amazons</span>, butterflies of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +<ul><li> +fishes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">America</span>, variation in the skulls of aborigines of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul><li> +wide range of aborigines of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +lice of the natives of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +general beardlessness of the natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">America</span>, North, butterflies of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +<ul><li> +Indians of, women a cause of strife among the, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +</li><li> +Indians of, their notions of female beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">America</span>, South, character of the natives of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +<ul><li> +population of parts of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +piles of stones in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>; +</li><li> +extinction of the fossil horse of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>; +</li><li> +desert-birds of, ii. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>; +</li><li> +slight sexual difference of the aborigines of, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +</li><li> +prevalence of infanticide in, ii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">American</span> languages, often highly artificial, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Americans</span>, wide geographical range of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>; +<ul><li> +and negroes, difference of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +aversion of, to hair on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; +</li><li> +native, variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ammophila</i>, on the jaws of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ammotragus tragelaphus</i>, hairy forelegs of, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Amphibia</span>, affinity of, to the ganoid fishes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +vocal organs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Amphibians</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; +</li><li> +breeding whilst immature, ii. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Amphioxus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Amphipoda</span>, males sexually mature while young, ii. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Amunoph III.</span>, negro character of features of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Anal</span> appendages of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Analogous</span> variation in the plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anas</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anas acuta</i>, male plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anas boschas</i>, male plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anas histrionica</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anastomus oscitans</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +<ul><li> +white nuptial plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Anatidæ</span>, voices of, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anax junius</i>, difference in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxons</span>, estimation of the beard among the, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Animals</span>, cruelty of savages to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +<ul><li> +domesticated, more fertile than wild, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>; +</li><li> +characters common to man and, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; +</li><li> +domestic, change of breeds of, ii. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Annelida</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Annulosa</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anolis cristatellus</i>, male, crest of, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; +</li><li> +throat-pouch of, ii. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Anobium tessellatum</i>, sounds produced by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anser canadensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anser cygnoides</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +<ul><li> +knob at the base of the beak of, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Anser hyperboreus</i>, whiteness of, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Antelope</span>, prong-horned, horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Antelopes</span>, generally polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +</li><li> +canine teeth of some male, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +use of horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>; +</li><li> +dorsal crests in, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +dewlaps of, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>; +</li><li> +winter change of two species of, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>; +</li><li> +peculiar markings of, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Antennæ</span>, furnished with cushions in the male of <i>Penthe</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anthidium manicatum</i>, large male of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Anthocharis cardamines</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Anthocharis genutia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anthocharis sara</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anthophora acervorum</i>, large male of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anthophora retusa</i>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Anthus</i>, moulting of, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Anthropidæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Antigua</span>, Dr. Nicholson’s observations on yellow fever in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Antics</span> of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilocapra americana</i>, horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope bezoartica</i>, horned females of, ii. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Antilope Dorcas</i> and <i>euchore</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope euchore</i>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope montana</i>, rudimentary canines in the young male of, ii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope niger, sing-sing, caama</i>, and <i>gorgon</i>, sexual differences in the colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope oreas</i>, horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope saiga</i>, polygamous habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope strepsiceros</i>, horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Antilope subgutturosa</i>, absence of suborbital pits in, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Antipathy</span>, shown by birds in confinement, to certain persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ants</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>; +<ul><li> +playing together, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>; +</li><li> +memory in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +intercommunication of, by means of the antennæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +large size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; +</li><li> +soldier-, large jaws of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>; +</li><li> +difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>; +</li><li> +recognition of each other by, after separation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ants</span>, White, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Anura</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Apatania muliebris</i>, male unknown, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Apathus</i>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Apatura Iris</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Apes</span>, anthropomorphous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>; +<ul><li> +difference of the young, from the adult, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +building platforms, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +probable speedy extermination of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; +</li><li> +Gratiolet on the evolution of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +semi-erect attitude of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>; +</li><li> +mastoid processes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +influence of the jaw-muscles on the physiognomy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +female, destitute of large canines, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>; +</li><li> +imitative faculties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_161">161</a>; +</li><li> +canine teeth of male, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +females of some, less hairy beneath than the males, ii. <a href="#Page_377">377</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Apes</span>, long-armed, their mode of progression, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Apis mellifica</i>, large male of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Apollo</span>, Greek statues of, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Apoplexy</span> in <i>Cebus Azaræ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Approbation</span>, influence of the love of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Appendages</span>, anal, of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Aprosmictus scapulatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Aquatic</span> birds, frequency of white plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Aquila chrysaëtos</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arab</span> women, elaborate and peculiar coiffure of, ii. <a href="#Page_353">353</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arabs</span>, gashing of cheeks and temples among the, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arachnida</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arakhan</span>, artificial widening of the forehead by the natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Arboricola</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Archeopteryx</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arctiidæ,</span>, coloration of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardea asha</i>, <i>rufescens</i>, and <i>cærulea</i>, change of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardea cærulea</i>, breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardea gularis</i>, change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardea herodias</i>, love-gestures of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardea ludoviciana</i>, age of mature plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>; +<ul><li> +continued growth of crest and plumes in the male of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ardea nycticorax</i>, cries of, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardeola</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ardetta</i>, changes of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Argenteuil</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Argus</span> pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; +</li><li> +ocellated spots of the, ii. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of characters in the, ii. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Argyll</span>, Duke of, the fashioning of implements peculiar to man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; +<ul><li> +on the contest in man between right and wrong, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>; +</li><li> +on the physical weakness of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>; +</li><li> +on the primitive civilisation of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +on the plumage of the male Argus pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Urosticte Benjamini</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; +</li><li> +on the nests of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; +</li><li> +on variety as an object in nature, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Argynnis aglaia</i>, colouring of the lower surface of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Aricoris epitus</i>, sexual differences in the wings of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Aristocracy</span>, increased beauty of the, ii. <a href="#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arms</span>, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +<ul><li> +direction of the hair on the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arms</span> and hands, free use of, indirectly correlated with diminution of canines, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arrest</span> of development, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arrow-heads</span>, stone, general resemblance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arrows</span>, use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arteries</span>, variations in the course of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Artery</span>, effect of tying, upon the lateral channels, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arthropoda</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Arts</span> practised by savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ascension</span>, coloured incrustation on the rocks of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ascidia</span>, affinity of the lancelet to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>; +</li><li> +tadpole-like larvæ of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ascidians</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Asinus</i>, Asiatic and African species of, ii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Asinus tæniopus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ass</span>, colour-variations of the, ii. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ateles</i>, effects of brandy on an, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>; +</li><li> +absence of the thumb in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ateles beelzebuth</i>, ears of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ateles marginatus</i>, colour of the ruff of, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; +<ul><li> +hair on the head of, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +on the recognition of a dog by a turkey, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +on the selection of a mate by female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ateuchus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ateuchus cicatricosus</i>, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Athalia</i>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Attention</span>, manifestations of, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Audouin</span>, V., on a hymenopterous parasite with a sedentary male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Audubon</span>, J. J., on the pugnacity of male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +<ul><li> +on <i>Tetrao cupido</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Ardea nycticorax</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Sturnella ludoviciana</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +on the vocal organs of <i>Tetrao cupido</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +on the drumming of the male <i>Tetrao umbellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +on sounds produced by the nightjar, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Ardea herodias</i> and <i>Cathartes jota</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +</li><li> +on the spring change of colour in some finches, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Mimus polyglottus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +on the turkey, ii. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +on variation in the male scarlet tanager, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Pyranga æstiva</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; +</li><li> +on local differences in the nests of the same species of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of woodpeckers, ii. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Bombycilla carolinensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +on young females of <i>Tanagra æstiva</i> acquiring male characters, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +on the immature plumage of thrushes, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; +</li><li> +on the immature plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i>; +</li><li> +on birds breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +on the growth of the crest and plumes in the male <i>Ardea ludoviciana</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +on the change of colour in some species of <i>Ardea</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>; +</li><li> +on the speculum of <i>Mergus cucullatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +on the musk-rat, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Audubon</span> and Bachman, MM., on squirrels fighting, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Canadian lynx, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Austen</span>, N. L., on <i>Anolis cristatellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Australia</span>, half-castes killed by the natives of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +<ul><li> +lice of the natives of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +not the birthplace of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; +</li><li> +prevalence of female infanticide in, ii. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Australia</span>, South, variation in the skulls of aborigines of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>. +</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Australians</span>, colour of newborn +children of, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +<ul><li> +height of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +</li><li> +women a cause of war among the, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Axis</span> deer, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Aymaras</span>, measurements of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul><li> +no grey hair among the, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +</li><li> +hairlessness of the face in the, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +long hair of the, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Azara</span>, on the proportion of men and women among the Guaranys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>; +<ul><li> +on <i>Palamedea cornuta</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +on the beards of the Guaranys, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +on strife for women among the Guanas, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +</li><li> +on infanticide, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +on the eradication of the eyebrows and eyelashes by the Indians of Paraguay, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; +</li><li> +on polyandry among the Guanas, ii. <a href="#Page_366">366</a>; +</li><li> +celibacy unknown among the savages of South America, ii. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>; +</li><li> +on the freedom of divorce among the Charruas, ii. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>B.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Babbage</span>, C., on the greater proportion of illegitimate female births, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Babirusa</span>, tusks of the, ii. <a href="#Page_264">264</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baboon</span>, employing a mat for shelter against the sun, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>; +<ul><li> +manifestation of memory by a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +protected from punishment by its companions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +rage excited in, by reading, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baboon</span>, Cape, mane of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; +<ul><li> +Hamadryas, mane of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baboons</span>, effects of intoxicating liquors on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>; +<ul><li> +ears of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +manifestation of maternal affection by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>; +</li><li> +using stones and sticks as weapons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +co-operation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; +</li><li> +silence of, on plundering expeditions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>; +</li><li> +diversity of the mental faculties in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +hands of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; +</li><li> +habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the tail in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +apparent polygamy of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +polygamous and social habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bachman</span>, Dr., on the fertility of mulattoes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baer</span>, K. E. von, on embryonic development, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bagehot</span>, W., on the social virtues among primitive men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>; +<ul><li> +on the value of obedience, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>; +</li><li> +on human progress, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>; +</li><li> +on the persistence of savage tribes in classical times, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bailly</span>, E. M., on the fighting of stags, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +<ul><li> +on the mode of fighting of the Italian buffalo, ii. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bain</span>, A., on the sense of duty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul><li> +aid springing from sympathy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +on the basis of sympathy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; +</li><li> +on love of approbation, &c., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +on the idea of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baird</span>, W., on a difference in colour between the males and females of some Entozoa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baker</span>, Mr., observation on the proportion of the sexes in pheasant-chicks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baker</span>, Sir S., on the fondness of the Arabs for discordant music, ii. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; +<ul><li> +on sexual difference in the colours of an antelope, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on the elephant and rhinoceros attacking white or grey horses, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; +</li><li> +on the disfigurements practised by the negroes, ii. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>; +</li><li> +on the gashing of the cheeks and temples practised in Arab countries, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; +</li><li> +on the coiffure of the North Africans, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +on the perforation of the lower lip by the women of Latooka, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; +</li><li> +on the distinctive characters of the coiffure of central African tribes, ii. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the coiffure of Arab women, ii. <a href="#Page_353">353</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +“<span class="smcap">Balz</span>” of the Black-cock, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bantam</span>, Sebright, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Banteng</span>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences in the colours of the, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Banyai</span>, colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_346">346</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Barbarism</span>, primitive, of civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Barbs</span>, filamentous, of the feathers, in certain birds, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Barr</span>, Mr., on sexual preference in dogs, ii. <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Barrington</span>, Daines, on the language of birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; +<ul><li> +on the clucking of the hen, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +on the object of the song of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span> +</li><li> +on the singing of female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +on birds acquiring the songs of other birds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +on the muscles of the larynx in song-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +on the want of the power of song by female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Barrow</span>, on the widow-bird, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bartlett</span>, A. D., on the tragopan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +on the development of the spurs in <i>Crossoptilon auritum</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +on the fighting of the males of <i>Plectropterus gambensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +on the knot, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; +</li><li> +on display in male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; +</li><li> +on the display of plumage by the male <i>Polyplectron</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Crossoptilon auritum</i> and <i>Phasianus Wallichii</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Lophophorus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +on the colour of the mouth in <i>Buceros bicornis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; +</li><li> +on the incubation of the cassowary, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +on the Cape Buffalo, ii. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; +</li><li> +on the use of the horns of antelopes, ii. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>; +</li><li> +on the fighting of male wart-hogs, ii. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Ammotragus tragelaphus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Cercopithecus cephus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the faces of monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; +</li><li> +on the naked surfaces of monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_377">377</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bartram</span>, on the courtship of the male alligator, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Basque</span> language, highly artificial, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bate</span>, C. S., on the superior activity of male crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +<ul><li> +on the proportions of the sexes in crabs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; +</li><li> +on the chelæ of crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative size of the sexes in crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bates</span>, H. W., on variation in the form of the head of Amazonian Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; +<ul><li> +on the proportion of the sexes among Amazonian butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in the wings of butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +on the field-cricket, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Pyrodes pulcherrimus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of Lamellicorn beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Epicaliæ</i>, &c., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of tropical butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_391">391</a>; +</li><li> +on the variability of <i>Papilio Sesostris</i> and <i>Childrenæ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>; +</li><li> +on male and female butterflies inhabiting different stations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>; +</li><li> +on mimickry, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>; +</li><li> +on the caterpillar of a <i>Sphinx</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>; +</li><li> +on the vocal organs of the umbrella-bird, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +on the toucans, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Brachyurus calvus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_309">309</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Batokas</span>, knocking out two upper incisors, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Batrachia</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; +<ul><li> +eagerness of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bats</span>, sexual differences in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Battle</span>, law of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; +<ul><li> +among beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>; +</li><li> +among birds, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +among mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>et seq.</i>; +</li><li> +in man, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beak</span>, sexual difference in the forms of the, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; +<ul><li> +in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beaks</span>, of birds, bright colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beard</span>, development of, in man, ii. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; +<ul><li> +analogy of the, in man and the quadrumana, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; +</li><li> +variation of the development of the, in different races of men, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +estimation of, among bearded nations, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +probable origin of the, ii. <a href="#Page_379">379</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beards</span>, in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +<ul><li> +of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beautiful</span>, taste for the, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul><li> +in the quadrumana, ii. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beauty</span>, sense of, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>; +<ul><li> +appreciation of, by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; +</li><li> +influence of, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the standard of, ii. <a href="#Page_370">370</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beavan</span>, Lieut., on the development of the horns in <i>Cervus Eldi</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beaver</span>, instinct and intelligence of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>; +<ul><li> +voice of the, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; +</li><li> +castoreum of the, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beavers</span>, battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bechstein</span>, on female birds choosing the best singers among the males, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +<ul><li> +on rivalry in song-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +on the singing of female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +on birds acquiring the songs of other birds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +on pairing the canary and siskin, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +on a sub-variety of the monk pigeon, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span> +</li><li> +on spurred hens, ii. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beddoe</span>, Dr., on causes of difference in stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bee-eater</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bees</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>; +<ul><li> +destruction of drones and queens by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; +</li><li> +pollen-baskets and stings of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>; +</li><li> +female, secondary sexual characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +</li><li> +difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beetle</span>, luminous larva of a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Beetles</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>; +<ul><li> +size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; +</li><li> +dilatation of the fore tarsi in male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>; +</li><li> +blind, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; +</li><li> +stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Belgium</span>, ancient inhabitants of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bell</span>, Sir C, on emotional muscles in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>; +<ul><li> +“snarling muscles,” i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>; +</li><li> +on the hand, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bell</span>, T., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in moles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +<ul><li> +on the newts, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; +</li><li> +on the croaking of the frog, ii. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; +</li><li> +on the difference in the coloration of the sexes in <i>Zootoca vivipara</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>; +</li><li> +on moles fighting, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bell-bird</span>, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bell-birds</span>, colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Benevolence</span>, manifested by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bennett</span>, A. W., on the habits of <i>Dromœus irroratus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bennett</span>, Dr., on birds of paradise, ii. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bernicla antarctica</i>, colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bernicle</span> gander pairing with a Canada goose, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bettoni</span>, E., on local differences in the nests of Italian birds, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bhoteas</span>, colour of the beard in, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bhringa</i>, disciform tail-feathers of, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bibio</i>, sexual differences in the genus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bichat</span>, on beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bile</span>, coloured, in many animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bimana</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Birds</span>, imitations of the songs of other birds by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>; +<ul><li> +dreaming, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +language of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +sense of beauty in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +pleasure of, in incubation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>; +</li><li> +male, incubation by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>; +</li><li> +and reptiles, alliance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences in the beak of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +</li><li> +migratory, arrival of the male before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>; +</li><li> +apparent relation between polygamy and marked sexual differences in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +</li><li> +monogamous, becoming polygamous under domestication, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +</li><li> +eagerness of male in pursuit of the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +wild, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +secondary sexual characters of, ii. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; +</li><li> +difference of size in the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; +</li><li> +fights of male, witnessed by females, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +</li><li> +display of male, to captivate the females, ii. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; +</li><li> +close attention of, to the songs of others, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +acquiring the song of their foster-parents, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +brilliant, rarely good songsters, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +love-antics and dances of, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>et seqq.</i>; +</li><li> +moulting of, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>et seqq.</i>; +</li><li> +unpaired, ii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; +</li><li> +male, singing out of season, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +</li><li> +mutual affection of, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; +</li><li> +in confinement, distinguish persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +hybrid, production of, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +European, number of species of, ii. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; +</li><li> +variability of, ii. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of secondary sexual characters in, ii. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +obscurely coloured, building concealed nests, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; +</li><li> +young female, acquiring male characters, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +moulting of, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +aquatic, frequency of white plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>; +</li><li> +vocal courtship of, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; +</li><li> +naked skin of the head and neck in, ii. <a href="#Page_377">377</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Birgus latro</i>, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Birkbeck</span>, Mr. on the finding of new mates by Golden Eagles, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Birthplace</span> of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Births</span>, numerical proportions of the sexes in, in animals and man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>; +<ul><li> +male and female, numerical proportion of, in England, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bischoff</span>, Prof., on the agreement between the brains of man and of the Orang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span> +<ul><li> +figure of the embryo of the dog, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>; +</li><li> +on the convolutions of the brain in the human fœtus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +</li><li> +on the difference between the skulls of man and the quadrumana, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bishop</span>, J., on the vocal organs of frogs, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; +<ul><li> +on the vocal organs of corvine birds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +on the trachea of the <i>Merganser</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bison</span>, American, mane of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bitterns</span>, dwarf, coloration of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Biziura lobata</i>, musky odour of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; +<ul><li> +large size of male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blackbird</span>, sexual differences in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +</li><li> +acquisition of a song by a, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +colour of the beak in the sexes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +pairing with a thrush, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>; +</li><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Black-buck</span>, Indian, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blackcap</span>, arrival of the male, before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>; +<ul><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Black-cock</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity and love-dance of the, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +call of the, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +moulting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +duration of the courtship of the, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +crimson eye-cere of the, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +and pheasant, hybrids of, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Black-grouse</span>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blackwall</span>, J., on the speaking of the magpie, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>; +<ul><li> +on the desertion of their young by swallows, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>; +</li><li> +on the superior activity of male spiders, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in spiders, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual variation of colour in spiders, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>; +</li><li> +on male spiders, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bladder-nose</span> Seal, hood of the, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blaine</span>, on the affections of dogs, ii. <a href="#Page_270">270</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blair</span>, Dr., on the relative liability of Europeans to yellow fever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blake</span>, C. C., on the jaw from La Naulette, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blakiston</span>, Capt., on the American snipe, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; +<ul><li> +on the dances of <i>Tetrao phasianellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blasius</span>, Dr., on the species of European birds, ii. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bledius taurus</i>, hornlike processes of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bleeding</span>, tendency to profuse, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blenkiron</span>, Mr., on sexual preference in horses, ii. <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blennies</span>, crest developed on the head of male, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Blethisa multipunctata</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bloch</span>, on the proportions of the sexes in Fishes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blood</span>, arterial, red colour of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blood-pheasant</span>, number of spurs in, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bluebreast</span>, red-throated, sexual differences of the, ii. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blumenbach</span>, on Man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; +<ul><li> +on the large size of the nasal cavities in American aborigines, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +</li><li> +on the position of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Blyth</span>, E., observations on Indian crows, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +<ul><li> +on the structure of the hand in species of <i>Hylobates</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +</li><li> +on the ascertainment of the sex of nestling bullfinches by pulling out breast-feathers, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the males of <i>Gallinula cristata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +</li><li> +on the presence of spurs in the female <i>Euplocamus erythropthalmus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the amadavat, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +</li><li> +on the spoonbill, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of <i>Anthus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of bustards, plovers, and <i>Gallus bankiva</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +</li><li> +on the Indian honey-buzzard, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in the colour or the eyes of hornbills, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Oriolus melanocephalus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Palæornis javanicus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; +</li><li> +on the genus <i>Ardetta</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span> +</li><li> +on the peregrine falcon, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +on young female birds acquiring male characters, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +on the immature plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; +</li><li> +on representative species of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +on the young of <i>Turnix</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; +</li><li> +on anomalous young of <i>Lanius rufus</i> and <i>Colymbus glacialis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes and young of the sparrows, ii. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>; +</li><li> +on dimorphism in some herons, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +on orioles breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes and young of <i>Buphus</i> and <i>Anastomus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +</li><li> +on the young of the blackcap and blackbird, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>; +</li><li> +on the young of the stonechat, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +on the white plumage of <i>Anastomus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of <i>Antilope bezoartica</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of Bovine animals, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +on the mode of fighting of <i>Ovis cycloceros</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +</li><li> +on the voice of the Gibbons, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; +</li><li> +on the crest of the male wild goat, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Portax picta</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Antilope bezoartica</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +on the development of the horns in the Koodoo and Eland antelopes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on the colour of the Axis deer, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual difference of colour in <i>Hylobates hoolock</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +on the hog-deer, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; +</li><li> +on the beard and whiskers in a monkey becoming white with age, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Boar</span>, wild, polygamous in India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +<ul><li> +use of the tusks by the, ii. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>; +</li><li> +fighting of, ii. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Boitard</span> and Corbié, MM., on the transmission of sexual peculiarities in pigeons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +<ul><li> +on the antipathy shown by some female pigeons to certain males, ii. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bold</span>, Mr., on the singing of a sterile hybrid canary, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bombet</span>, on the variability of the standard of beauty in Europe, ii. <a href="#Page_370">370</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bombus</i>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bombycidæ</span>, coloration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Bombycilla carolinensis</i>, red appendages of, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bombyx cynthia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>; +</li><li> +pairing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Bombyx mori</i>, difference of size of the male and female cocoons of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Bombyx Pernyi</i>, proportion of sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bombyx Yamamai</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; +<ul><li> +M. Personnat on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>; +</li><li> +proportion of sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bonaparte</span>, C. L., on the call-notes of the wild turkey, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bond</span>, F., on the finding of new mates by crows, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bone</span>, implements of, skill displayed in making, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Boner</span>, C., on the transfer of male characters to an old female chamois, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +<ul><li> +on the antlers of the red deer, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of stags, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of red deer, ii. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bones</span>, increase of, in length and thickness, when carrying a greater weight, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bonnet</span> monkey, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Boomerang</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Boreus hyemalis</i>, scarcity of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bory</span> St. Vincent, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +<ul><li> +on the colours of <i>Labrus pavo</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Bos gaurus</i>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bos primigenius</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bos sondaicus</i>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +<ul><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Botocudos</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +mode of life of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +disfigurement of the ears and lower lip of the, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Boucher</span> de Perthes, J. C. de, on the antiquity of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bourbon</span>, proportion of the sexes in a species of <i>Papilio</i> from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bourien</span>, on the marriage-customs of the savages of the Malay Archipelago, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bovidæ</span>, dewlaps of, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bower-birds</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; +<ul><li> +habits of the, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; +</li><li> +ornamented playing-places of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bows</span>, use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brachiopoda</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brachycephalic</span> structure, possible explanation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Brachyscelus</i>, second pair of antennæ in the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brachyura</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Brachyurus calvus</i>, scarlet face of, ii. <a href="#Page_309">309</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brain</span>, of man, agreement of the, with that of lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>; +<ul><li> +convolutions of, in the human fœtus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +</li><li> +larger in some existing mammals than in their tertiary prototypes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +relation of the development of the, to the progress of language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +</li><li> +disease of the, affecting speech, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +influence of development of mental faculties upon the size of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; +</li><li> +influence of the development of, on the spinal column and skull, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +</li><li> +difference in the convolutions of, in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brakenridge</span>, Dr., on the influence of climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Braubach</span>, Prof., on the quasi-religious feeling of a dog towards his master, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul><li> +on the self-restraint of dogs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brauer</span>, F., on dimorphism in <i>Neurothemis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brazil</span>, skulls found in caves of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +<ul><li> +population of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +compression of the nose by the natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Break</span> between man and the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bream</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Breeding</span>, age of, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Breeding</span> season, sexual characters making their appearance in the, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brehm</span>, on the effects of intoxicating liquors on monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>; +<ul><li> +on the recognition of women by male <i>Cynocephali</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +on revenge taken by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +on manifestations of maternal affection by monkeys and baboons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>; +</li><li> +on the instinctive dread of monkeys for serpents, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>; +</li><li> +on a baboon using a mat for shelter from the sun, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +on the use of stones as missiles by baboons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +on the signal-cries of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +</li><li> +on sentinels posted by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +on co-operation of animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; +</li><li> +on an eagle attacking a young <i>Cercopithecus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; +</li><li> +on baboons in confinement protecting one of their number from punishment, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of baboons when plundering, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>; +</li><li> +on the diversity of the mental faculties of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of baboons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>; +</li><li> +on polygamy in <i>Cynocephalus</i> and <i>Cebus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +on the numerical proportion of the sexes in birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +on the love-dance of the Black-cock, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Palamedea cornuta</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of the Black-grouse, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +</li><li> +on sound produced by Birds of Paradise, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on assemblages of grouse, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; +</li><li> +on the finding of new mates by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +</li><li> +on the fighting of wild boars, ii. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Cynocephalus hamadryas</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brent</span>, Mr., on the courtship of fowls, ii. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Breslau</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bridgman</span>, Laura, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brimstone</span> butterfly, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference of colour in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">British</span>, ancient, tattooing practised by, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Broca</span>, Prof., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the human humerus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; +<ul><li> +on the capacity of Parisian skulls at different periods, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +</li><li> +on the influence of natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>; +</li><li> +on hybridity in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +on human remains from Les Eyzies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; +</li><li> +on the cause of the difference between Europeans and Hindoos, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brodie</span>, Sir B., on the origin of the moral sense in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bronn</span>, H. G., on the copulation of insects of distinct species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bronze</span> period, men of, in Europe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brown</span>, R., sentinels of seals generally females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +on the battles of seals, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +on the narwhal, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span> +</li><li> +on the occasional absence of the tusks in the female walrus, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +on the bladder-nose seal, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the sexes in <i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; +</li><li> +on the appreciation of music by seals, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; +</li><li> +on plants used as love-philters, by North American women, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brown-Séquard</span>, Dr., on the inheritance of the effects of operations by guinea pigs, ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bruce</span>, on the use of the elephant’s tusks, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brulerie</span>, P. de la, on the habits of <i>Ateuchus cicatricosus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>; +<ul><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Ateuchus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Brünnich</span>, on the pied ravens of the Feroe islands, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bryant</span>, Capt., on the courtship of <i>Callorhinus ursinus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bubas bison</i>, thoracic projection of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bucephalus capensis</i>, difference of the sexes of, in colour, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Buceros</i>, nidification and incubation of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Buceros bicornis</i>, sexual differences in the colouring of the casque, beak, and mouth in, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Buceros corrugatus</i>, sexual difference in the beak of, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Büchner</span>, L., on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +<ul><li> +on the want of self-consciousness, &c., in low savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>; +</li><li> +on the use of the human foot as a prehensile organ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>; +</li><li> +on the mode of progression of the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buckland</span>, F., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in rats, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +<ul><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in the trout, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Chimæra monstrosa</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buckland</span>, W., on the complexity of crinoids, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buckler</span>, W., proportion of sexes of Lepidoptera reared by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buckinghamshire</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Bucorax abyssinicus</i>, inflation of the neck-wattle of the male, during courtship, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Budytes Raii</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>, Cape, ii. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>, Indian, horns of the, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>, Italian, mode of fighting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buffon</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bugs</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buist</span>, R., on the proportion of the sexes in salmon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pugnacity of the male salmon, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bulbul</span>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +<ul><li> +display of under tail-coverts by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bull</span>, mode of fighting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; +<ul><li> +curled frontal hair of the, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bullfinch</span>, sexual differences in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +piping, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +female, singing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +courtship of the, ii. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>; +</li><li> +widowed, finding a new mate, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +</li><li> +attacking a reed-bunting, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; +</li><li> +nestling, sex ascertained by pulling out breast-feathers, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bullfinches</span> distinguishing persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +<ul><li> +rivalry of female, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bulls</span>, two young, attacking an old one, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; +<ul><li> +wild, battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bull-trout</span>, male, colouring of, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bunting</span>, reed, head feathers of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>; +<ul><li> +attacked by a bullfinch, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buntings</span>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Buphus coromandus</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +<ul><li> +change of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Burchell</span>, Dr., on the zebra, ii. <a href="#Page_302">302</a>; +<ul><li> +on the extravagance of a Bushwoman in adorning herself, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +celibacy unknown among the savages of South Africa, ii. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>; +</li><li> +on the marriage-customs of the Bushwomen, ii. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Burke</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Burmese</span>, colour of the beard in, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Burton</span>, Capt., on negro ideas of female beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; +<ul><li> +on a universal ideal of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bushmen</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bushwoman</span>, extravagant ornamentation of a, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bushwomen</span>, hair of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +<ul><li> +marriage-customs of, ii. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Busk</span>, Prof. G., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the human humerus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bustard</span>, throat-pouch of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +<ul><li> +humming noise produced by a male, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +Indian, ear-tufts of a, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Bustards</span>, occurrence of sexual differences and of polygamy among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +love-gestures of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +</li><li> +double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Butler</span>, A. G., on sexual differences in the wings of <i>Aricoris epitus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +<ul><li> +>on the colouring of the sexes in species of <i>Thecla</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>; +</li><li> +on the resemblance of <i>Iphias glaucippe</i> to a leaf, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>; +</li><li> +on the rejection of certain moths and caterpillars by lizards and frogs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Butterfly</span>, noise produced by a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; +<ul><li> +Emperor, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>; +</li><li> +meadow brown, instability of the ocellated spots of, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Butterflies</span>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +<ul><li> +forelegs atrophied in some male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in the neuration of the wings of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>; +</li><li> +protective resemblances of the lower surface of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>; +</li><li> +display of the wings by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>; +</li><li> +white, alighting upon bits of paper, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>; +</li><li> +attracted by a dead specimen of the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>; +</li><li> +courtship of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>; +</li><li> +male and female, inhabiting different stations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buxton</span>, C., observations on macaws, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; +<ul><li> +on an instance of benevolence in a parrot, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Buzzard</span>, Indian honey-, variation in the crest of, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>C.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cabbage</span> butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cachalot</span>, large head of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cadences</span>, musical, perception of, by animals, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cæcum</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>; +<ul><li> +large, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cairina moschata</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Callianassa</i>, chelæ of, figured, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Callionymus lyra</i>, characters of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Callorhinus ursinus</i>, relative size of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; +<ul><li> +courtship of, ii. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Calotes nigrilabris</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cambridge</span>, O. Pickard, on the sexes of spiders, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Camel</span>, canine teeth of male, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Campbell</span>, J., on the Indian elephant, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +<ul><li> +on the proportion of male and female births in the harems of Siam, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Campylopterus hemileucurus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Canaries</span> distinguishing persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Canary</span>, polygamy of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +change of plumage in, after moulting, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>; +</li><li> +female, selecting the best singing male, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +sterile hybrid, singing of a, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +female, singing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +selecting a greenfinch, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +and siskin, pairing of, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Canestrini</span>, G., on rudimentary characters and the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +<ul><li> +on rudimentary characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +on the movement of the ear in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>; +</li><li> +on the variability of the vermiform appendage in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>; +</li><li> +on the abnormal division of the malar bone in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>; +</li><li> +on abnormal conditions of the human uterus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>; +</li><li> +on the persistence of the frontal suture in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in silk-moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Canine</span> teeth in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; +<ul><li> +diminution of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +diminution of, in horses, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +disappearance of, in male ruminants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +large, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Canines</span>, and horns, inverse development of, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Canoes</span>, use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cantharis</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Capercailzie</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +pairing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +</li><li> +autumn meetings of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +call of the, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +duration of the courtship of, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; +</li><li> +behaviour of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +inconvenience of black colour to the female, ii. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +crimson eye-cere of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Capital</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Capitonidæ</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Capra ægagrus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +<ul><li> +crest of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Capreolus Sibiricus subecaudatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Caprice</span>, common to man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Caprimulgus</i>, noise made by the males of some species of, with their wings, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Caprimulgus virginianus</i>, pairing of, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carabidæ</span>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carbonnier</span>, on the natural history of the pike, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; +<ul><li> +the relative size of the sexes in fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Carcineutes</i>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Carcinus mænas</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Carduelis elegans</i>, sexual differences of the beak in, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carnivora</span>, marine, polygamous habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences in the colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carp</span>, numerical proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carr</span>, R., on the peewit, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carrier</span> pigeon, late development of the wattle in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carrion</span> beetles, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Carus</span>, Prof. V., on the development of the horns in merino sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cassowary</span>, sexes and incubation of the, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Castoreum</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Casuarius galeatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cat</span>, convoluted body in the extremity of the tail of a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +<ul><li> +sick, sympathy of a dog with a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cataract</span> in <i>Cebus Azaræ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Catarrh</span>, liability of <i>Cebus Azaræ</i> to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Catarrhine</span> monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Caterpillars</span>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_415">415</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cathartes aura</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cathartes jota</i>, love-gestures of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Catlin</span>, G., on the development of the beard among North American Indians, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +<ul><li> +on the great length of the hair in some North American tribes, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Caton</span>, J. D., on the development of the horns in <i>Cervus virginianus</i> and <i>strongyloceros</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>; +<ul><li> +on the presence of traces of horns in the female wapiti, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +</li><li> +on the fighting of deer, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +</li><li> +on the crest of the male wapiti, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the Virginian deer, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences of colour in the wapiti, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on the spots of the Virginian deer, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cats</span>, dreaming, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; +<ul><li> +tortois-eshell, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; +</li><li> +enticed by valerian, ii. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; +</li><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cattle</span>, domestic, sexual differences of, late developed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; +<ul><li> +rapid increase of, in South America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +domestic, lighter in winter in Siberia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Caudal</span> vertebræ, number of, in macaques and baboons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +<ul><li> +basal, of monkeys, imbedded in the body, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>. +</li></ul></li> +<li> +<i>Cebus</i>, maternal affection in a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +<ul><li> +gradation of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cebus Azaræ</i>, liability of, to the same diseases as man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>; +<ul><li> +distinct sounds produced by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +early maturity of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cebus capucinus</i>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +hair on the head of, ii. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cebus vellerosus</i>, hair on the head of, ii. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cecidomyidæ</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Celibacy</span>, unknown among the savages of South Africa and South America, ii. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Centipedes</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cephalopterus ornatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cephalopterus penduliger</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cerambyx heros</i>, stridulant organ of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ceratophora aspera</i>, nasal appendages of, ii. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ceratophora Stoddartii</i>, nasal horn of, ii. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cerceris</i>, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cercocebus æthiops</i>, whiskers, &c., of, ii. <a href="#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cercopithecus</i>, young, seized by an eagle and rescued by the troop, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; +<ul><li> +definition of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cercopithecus cephus</i>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cercopithecus cynosurus</i> and <i>griseo-viridis</i>, colour of the scrotum in, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cercopithecus Diana</i>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cercopithecus griseo-viridis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cercopithecus petaurista</i>, whiskers, &c., of, ii. <a href="#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ceres</span>, of birds, bright colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ceriornis Temminckii</i>, swelling of the wattles of the male during courtship, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervulus</i>, weapons of, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervulus moschatus</i>, rudimentary horns of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus alces</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus campestris</i>, odour of, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus canadensis</i>, traces of horns in the female, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +<ul><li> +attacking a man, ii. <a href="#Page_253">253</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cervus elaphus</i>, battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, with numerous points, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cervus Eldi</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus mantchuricus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus paludosus</i>, colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus strongyloceros</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cervus virginianus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, in course of modification, ii. <a href="#Page_255">255</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ceryle</i>, male black-belted in some species of, ii. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cetacea</span>, nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ceylon</span>, frequent absence of beard in the natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chaffinch</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +<ul><li> +courtship of the, ii. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chaffinches</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; +<ul><li> +new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Chalcophaps indicus</i>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chalcosoma atlas</i>, sexual differences of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chamæleon</i>, sexual differences in the genus, ii. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chamæleon bifurcus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chamæleon Owenii</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chameleons</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chamois</span>, danger-signals of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +transfer of male characters to an old female, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Chamæpetes unicolor</i>, modified wing-feather in the male, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chapuis</span>, Dr., on the transmission of sexual peculiarities in pigeons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +<ul><li> +on streaked Belgian pigeons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Char</span>, male, colouring of, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Characters</span>, male, developed in females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>; +<ul><li> +natural, artificial exaggeration of, by man, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; +</li><li> +secondary sexual, transmitted through both sexes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Charadrius hiaticula</i> and <i>pluvialis</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chardin</span> on the Persians, ii. <a href="#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Charms</span>, worn by women, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Charruas</span>, freedom of divorce among the, ii. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chasmorhynchus</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; +<ul><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chastity</span>, early estimation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chatterers</span>, sexual differences in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cheiroptera</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chelæ</span> of crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chelonia</span>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chenalopex ægyptiacus</i>, wing-knobs of, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chera progne</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chest</span>, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; +<ul><li> +large, of the Quechua and Aymara Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chevrotains</span>, canine teeth of, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chiasognathus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chiasognathus Grantii</i>, mandibles of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Children</span>, legitimate and illegitimate, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chiloe</span>, lice of the natives of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +<ul><li> +population of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Chimæra monstrosa</i>, bony process on the head of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chimæroid</span> fishes, prehensile organs of male, ii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chimpanzee</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +<ul><li> +ears of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>; +</li><li> +representatives of the eyebrows in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; +</li><li> +platforms built by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>; +</li><li> +cracking nuts with a stone, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +hands of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; +</li><li> +absence of mastoid processes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +direction of the hair on the arms of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +supposed evolution of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +polygamous and social habits of the, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">China</span>, North, idea of female beauty in, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">China</span>, Southern, inhabitants of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chinese</span>, use of flint tools by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>; +<ul><li> +difficulty of distinguishing the races of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; +</li><li> +colour of the beard in, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; +</li><li> +general beardlessness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +opinions of the, on the appearance of Europeans and Cingalese, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>; +</li><li> +compression of the feet of, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chinsurdi</span>, his opinion of beards, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chlamydera maculata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chloëon</i>, pedunculated eyes of the male of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chloephaga</i>, coloration of the sexes in, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chlorocœlus Tanana</i> (figured), i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chorda Dorsalis</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chough</span>, red beak of the, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chromidæ</span>, frontal protuberance in male, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences in colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Chrysemys picta</i>, long claws of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chrysococcyx</i>, characters of young of, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Chrysomela cerealis</i>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Chrysomelidæ</span>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cicada pruinosa</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cicada septendecim</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cicadæ</span>, songs of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>; +<ul><li> +rudimentary sound-organs in females of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cicatrix</span> of a burn, causing modification of the facial bones, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cichla</i>, frontal protuberance of male, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cimetière</span> du Sud, Paris, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cincloramphus cruralis</i>, large size of male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cinclus aquaticus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cingalese</span>, Chinese opinion of the appearance of the, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cirripedes</span>, complemental males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Civilisation</span>, effects of, upon natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, in the competition of nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Clanging</span> of Geese, &c., ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Claparède</span>, E., on natural selection applied to man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Clarke</span>, on the marriage-customs of the Kalmucks, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Classification</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Claus</span>, C., on the sexes of <i>Saphirina</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cleft-palate</span>, inherited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Climacteris erythrops</i>, sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Climate</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +<ul><li> +cool, favourable to human progress, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>; +</li><li> +power of supporting extremes of, by man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; +</li><li> +want of connexion of, with colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cloaca</span>, existence of a, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cloacal</span> passage existing in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Club</span>, origin of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Clucking</span> of fowls, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Clythra</i> 4-<i>punctata</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cobra</span>, ingenuity of a, ii. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Coccus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Coccyx</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +<ul><li> +in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +</li><li> +convoluted body at the extremity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +</li><li> +imbedded in the body, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cochin-China</span>, notions of beauty of the inhabitants of, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cock</span>, game, killing a kite, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; +<ul><li> +blind, fed by its companions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +comb and wattles of the, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; +</li><li> +preference shown by the, for young hens, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +game, transparent zone in the hackles of a, ii. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cock</span> of the rock, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cockatoos</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>; +<ul><li> +nestling, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +black, immature plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cœlenterata</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Coffee</span>, fondness of monkeys for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cold</span>, supposed effects of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +<ul><li> +power of supporting, by man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Coleoptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>; +<ul><li> +stridulant organs of, discussed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Collingwood</span>, C., on the pugnacity of the butterflies of Borneo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>; +<ul><li> +on butterflies being attracted by a dead specimen of the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Colombia</span>, flattened heads of savages of, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Colonists</span>, success of the English as, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Coloration</span>, protective, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_223">223</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Colour</span>, supposed to be dependent on light and heat, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +<ul><li> +correlation of, with immunity from certain poisons and parasites, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +purpose of, in lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>; +</li><li> +relation of, to sexual functions, in fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; +</li><li> +difference of, in the sexes of snakes, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of, in lizards, ii. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>; +</li><li> +influence of, in the pairing of birds of different species, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +relation of, to nidification, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of, in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; +</li><li> +recognition of, by quadrupeds, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; +</li><li> +of children, in different races of man, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +of the skin in man, ii. <a href="#Page_381">381</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Colours</span>, admired alike by man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>; +<ul><li> +bright, due to sexual selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +bright, among the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>; +</li><li> +bright, protective to butterflies and moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>; +</li><li> +bright, in male fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +transmission of, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Colquhoun</span>, example of reasoning in a retriever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Columba passerina</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Colymbus glacialis</i>, anomalous young of, ii. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Comb</span>, development of, in fowls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Combs</span> and wattles in male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Community</span>, preservation of variations useful to the, by natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Compositæ</span>, gradation of species among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Comte</span>, C., on the expression of the ideal of beauty by sculpture, ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Conditions</span> of life, action of changed, upon man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, on plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Condor</span>, eyes and comb of the, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Conjugations</span>, origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Conscience</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>; +</li><li> +absence of, in some criminals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Constitution</span>, difference of, in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Consumption</span>, liability of <i>Cebus Azaræ</i> to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>; +<ul><li> +connexion between complexion and, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_244">244</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Convergence</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cooing</span> of pigeons and doves, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cook</span>, Capt., on the nobles of the Sandwich Islands, ii. <a href="#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cope</span>, E. D., on the dinosauria, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>; +<ul><li> +on the origin of genera, ii. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cophotis ceylanica</i>, sexual differences of, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Copris</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Copris Isidis</i>, sexual differences of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Copris lunaris</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Corals</span>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Coral-snakes</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cordylus</i>, sexual difference of colour in a species of, ii. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Corfu</span>, habits of the chaffinch in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cornelius</span>, on the proportions of the sexes in <i>Lucanus Cervus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Corpora Wolffiana</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>; +<ul><li> +agreement of, with the kidneys of fishes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Correlated</span> variation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Correlation</span>, influence of, in the production of races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Corse</span>, on the mode of fighting of the elephant, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Corvus corone</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Corvus graculus</i>, red beak of, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Corvus pica</i>, nuptial assembly of, ii. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Corydalis cornutus</i>, large jaws of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cosmetornis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cosmetornis vexillarius</i>, elongation of wing-feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cotingidæ</span>, sexual differences in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +coloration of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +</li><li> +resemblance of the females of distinct species of, ii. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cottus scorpius</i>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Counting</span>, origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +limited power of, in primeval man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Courage</span>, variability of, in the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +<ul><li> +universal high appreciation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>; +</li><li> +importance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>; +</li><li> +a characteristic of men, ii. <a href="#Page_328">328</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Courtship</span>, greater eagerness of males in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +<ul><li> +of fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cow</span>, winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crab</span>, devil, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crab</span>, shore, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Crabro cribrarius</i>, dilated tibiæ of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crabs</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cranz</span>, on the inheritance of dexterity in seal-catching, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crawfurd</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Crenilabrus massa</i> and <i>C. melops</i>, nests built by, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crest</span>, origin of, in Polish fowls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crests</span>, of birds, difference of, in the sexes, ii. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>; +<ul><li> +dorsal hairy, of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cricket</span>, field-, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cricket</span>, house-, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crickets</span>, sexual differences in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crioceridæ</span>, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crinoids</span>, complexity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Croaking</span> of frogs, ii. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crocodiles</span>, musky odour of, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crocodilia</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crossbills</span>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crosses</span> in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crossing</span> of races, effects of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Crossoptilon auritum</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; +<ul><li> +adornment of both sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +sexes alike in, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crotch</span>, G. R., on the stridulation of beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>; +<ul><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Heliopathes</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Acalles</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crow</span> Indians, long hair of the, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crow</span>, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crows</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; +<ul><li> +vocal organs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +living in triplets, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crows</span>, carrion, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crows</span>, Indian, feeding their blind companions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cruelty</span> of savages to animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crustacea</span>, amphipod, males sexually mature while young, ii. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; +<ul><li> +parasitic, loss of limbs by female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +</li><li> +prehensile feet and antennæ of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>; +</li><li> +male, more active than female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +parthenogenesis in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; +</li><li> +secondary sexual characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>; +</li><li> +auditory hairs of, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Crystal</span> worn in the lower lip by some Central African women, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cuckoo</span> fowls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Culicidæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cullen</span>, Dr., on the throat-pouch of the male bustard, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cultivation</span> of plants, probable origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cupples</span>, Mr., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in dogs, sheep, and cattle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Scotch deerhound, ii. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual preference in dogs, ii. <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Curculionidæ</span>, sexual difference in length of snout in some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +<ul><li> +hornlike processes in male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>; +</li><li> +musical, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Curiosity</span>, manifestations of, by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Curlews</span>, double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cursores</span>, comparative absence of sexual differences among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Curtis</span>, J., on the proportion of the sexes in <i>Athalia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cuvier</span>, F., on the recognition of women by male quadrumana, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cuvier</span>, G., views of, as to the position of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +<ul><li> +on instinct and intelligence, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; +</li><li> +on the number of caudal vertebræ in the mandrill, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +on the position of the seals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Hectocotyle</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cyanecula suecica</i>, sexual differences of, ii. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cyanalcyon</i>, sexual difference in colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; +<ul><li> +immature plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cychrus</i>, sounds produced by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cycnia mendica</i>, sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cygnus ferus</i>, trachea of, ii. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cygnus olor</i>, white young of, ii. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cyllo Leda</i>, instability of the ocellated spots of, ii. <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cynanthus</i>, variation in the genus, ii. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cynipidæ</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus</i>, difference of the young, from the adult, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +male, recognition of women by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +polygamous habits of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus chacma</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus gelada</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus hamadryas</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus leucophœus</i>, colours of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus mormon</i>, colours of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cynocephalus porcarius</i>, mane of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cypridina</i>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cyprinidæ</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cyprinidæ</span>, Indian, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cyprinodontidæ</span>, sexual differences in the, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cyprinus auratus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cyprinus phoxinus</i>, spawning of, ii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cypris</i>, relations of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Cystophora cristata</i>, hood of, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>D.</b></span> +</li><li> +<i>Dacelo</i>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dacelo Gaudichaudi</i>, young male of, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dal-ripa</span>, a kind of ptarmigan, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Damalis albifrons</i>, peculiar markings of, ii. <a href="#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Damalis pygarga</i>, peculiar markings of, ii. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dampness</span> of climate, supposed influence of, on the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Danaidæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dances</span> of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dancing</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Daniell</span>, Dr., his experience of residence in West Africa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Darfur</span>, protuberances artificially produced in, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Darwin</span>, F., on the stridulation of <i>Dermestes murinus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dasychira pudibunda</i>, sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Davis</span>, A. H., on the pugnacity of the male stag-beetle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Davis</span>, J. B., on the capacity of the skull in various races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +<ul><li> +on the beards of the Polynesians, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Death-rate</span> higher in towns than in rural districts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Death-tick</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">De Candolle</span>, Alph., on a case of inherited power of moving the scalp, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Declensions</span>, origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Decoration</span> in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Decticus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deer</span>, spots of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; +</li><li> +use of horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; +</li><li> +size of the horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; +</li><li> +female, pairing with one male, whilst others are fighting for her, ii. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; +</li><li> +male, attracted by the voice of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; +</li><li> +male, odour emitted by, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +development of the horns in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">424</a></span> +</li><li> +horns of a, in course of modification, ii. <a href="#Page_255">255</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deer</span>, Axis, sexual, difference in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deer</span>, fallow, different coloured herds of, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deer</span>, Mantchurian, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deer</span>, Virginian, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; +<ul><li> +colour of the, not affected by castration, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deerhound</span>, Scotch, greater size of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Defensive</span> organs of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">De Geer</span>, C., on a female spider destroying a male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dekay</span>, Dr., on the bladder-nose seal, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Demerara</span>, yellow fever in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dendrocygna</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dendrophila frontalis</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Denny</span>, H., on the lice of domestic animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dermestes murinus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Descent</span> traced through the mother alone, ii. <a href="#Page_359">359</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Deserts</span>, protective colouring of animals inhabiting, ii. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Desmarest</span>, on the absence of suborbital pits in <i>Antilope subgutturosa</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +<ul><li> +on the whiskers of <i>Macacus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +on the colour of the opossum, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the sexes of <i>Mus minutus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>; +</li><li> +on the colouring of the ocelot, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of seals, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Antilope caama</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of goats, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual difference of colour in <i>Ateles marginatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +on the mandrill, ii. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Macacus cynomolgus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Desmoulins</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +<ul><li> +on the musk-deer, ii. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Desor</span>, on the imitation of man by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Despine</span>, P., on criminals destitute of conscience, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Development</span>, embryonic, of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +<ul><li> +correlated, ii. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Devil</span>, not believed in by the Fuegians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Devil-crab</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Devonian</span>, fossil insect from the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dewlaps</span>, of cattle and antelopes, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Diadema</i>, sexual differences of colouring in the species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Diadema anomala</i>, mimickry by the female of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_413">413</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Diadema bolina</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_413">413</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diamond-beetles</span>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diastema</span>, occurrence of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diastylidæ</span>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diodorus</span>, on the absence of beard in the natives of Ceylon, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dicrurus</i>, racket-shaped feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +<ul><li> +nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Dicrurus macrocercus</i>, change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Didelphis opossum</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Differences</span>, comparative, between different species of birds of the same sex, ii. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Digits</span>, supernumerary, more frequent in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; +<ul><li> +supernumerary, inheritance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>; +</li><li> +supernumerary, early development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dimorphism</span> in females of water-beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>; +<ul><li> +in <i>Neurothemis</i> and <i>Agrion</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Dipelicus Cantori</i>, sexual differences of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diplopoda</span>, prehensile limbs of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dipsas cynodon</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Disease</span>, generated by the contact of distinct peoples, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Diseases</span> common to man and the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>; +<ul><li> +difference of liability to, in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +new, effects of, upon savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>; +</li><li> +sexually limited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Display</span>, coloration of Lepidoptera for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>; +<ul><li> +of plumage by male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Distribution</span>, wide, of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">425</a></span> +<ul><li> +geographical, as evidence of specific distinctness in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Disuse</span>, effects of, in producing rudimentary organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>; +<ul><li> +and use of parts, effects of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +of parts, influence of, on the races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Divorce</span>, freedom of, among the Charruas, ii. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dixon</span>, E. S., on the habits of the guinea-fowl, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pairing of different species of geese, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +</li><li> +on the courtship of peafowl, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dobrizhoffer</span>, on the marriage-customs of the Abipones, ii. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dogs</span>, suffering from Tertian ague, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +memory of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +domestic, progress of, in moral qualities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>; +</li><li> +distinct tones uttered by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +parallelism between his affection for his master and religious feeling, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>; +</li><li> +sociability of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +sympathy of, with a sick cat, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +sympathy of, with his master, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +possible use of the hair on the forelegs of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>; +</li><li> +races of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>; +</li><li> +diverging when drawing sledges over thin ice, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +dreaming, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>; +</li><li> +exercise of reasoning faculties by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +their possession of conscience, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>; +</li><li> +sexual affection between individuals of, ii. <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; +</li><li> +howling at certain notes, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; +</li><li> +rolling in carrion, ii. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dolichocephalic</span> structure, possible cause of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dolphins</span>, nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Domestic</span> animals, races of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>; +<ul><li> +change of breeds of, ii. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Domestication</span>, influence of, in removing the sterility of hybrids, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">D’Orbigny</span>, A., on the influence of dampness and dryness on the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Yura-caras ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dotterel</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Doubleday</span>, E., on sexual differences in the wings of butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Doubleday</span>, H., on the proportion of the sexes in the smaller moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +<ul><li> +on the attraction of the males of <i>Lasiocampa quercus</i> and <i>Saturnia carpini</i> by the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in the Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; +</li><li> +on the ticking of <i>Anobium tessellatum</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>; +</li><li> +on the structure of <i>Ageronia feronia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; +</li><li> +on white butterflies alighting upon paper, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_400">400</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Douglas</span>, J. W., on the sexual differences of the <i>Hemiptera</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>; +<ul><li> +on the colours of British <i>Homoptera</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Down</span>, of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Draco</i>, gular appendages of, ii. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dragonet</span>, Gemmeous, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dragon-flies</span>, caudal appendages of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; +<ul><li> +relative size of the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; +</li><li> +difference in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +want of pugnacity by the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Drake</span>, breeding plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dreams</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; +<ul><li> +a possible source of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Drill</span>, sexual difference of colour in the, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dromœus irroratus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dromolæa</i>, Saharan species of, ii. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Drongo</span> shrike, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Drongos</span>, racket-shaped feathers in the tails of, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dryness</span>, of climate, supposed influence of, on the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dryopithecus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duck</span>, harlequin, age of mature plumage in the, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>; +<ul><li> +breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duck</span>, long-tailed, preference of male, for certain females, ii. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duck</span>, pintail, pairing with a wigeon, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duck</span>, voice of the, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing with a shield-drake, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +</li><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duck</span>, wild, sexual differences in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +<ul><li> +speculum and male characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +pairing with a pintail drake, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ducks</span>, dogs and cats recognised by, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +<ul><li> +wild, becoming polygamous under partial domestication, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">426</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dugong</span>, tusks of, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +<ul><li> +nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dujardin</span>, on the relative size of the cerebral ganglia in insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duncan</span>, Dr., on the fertility of early marriages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dupont</span>, M., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Durand</span>, J. P., on causes of variation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dureau</span> de la Malle, on the songs of birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; +<ul><li> +on the acquisition of an air by blackbirds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dutch</span>, retention of their colour by the, in South Africa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duty</span>, sense of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Duvaucel</span>, female <i>Hylobates</i> washing her young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dyaks</span>, pride of, in mere homicide, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dynastes</i>, large size of males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Dynastini</span>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Dytiscus</i>, dimorphism of females of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>; +<ul><li> +grooved elytra of the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>E.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eagle</span>, young <i>Cercopithecus</i> rescued from, by the troop, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eagle</span>, white-headed, breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eagles</span>, golden, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ear</span>, motion of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>; +<ul><li> +external shell of the, useless in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>; +</li><li> +rudimentary point of the, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ears</span>, piercing and ornamentation of the, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Echidna</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Echini</i>, bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Echinodermata</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ecker</span>, figure of the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>; +<ul><li> +on sexual differences in the pelvis in man, ii. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; +</li><li> +on the presence of a sagittal crest in Australians, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Edentata</span>, former wide range of, in America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>; +<ul><li> +absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Edolius</i>, racket-shaped feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Edwards</span>, Mr., on the proportion of the sexes in North American species of <i>Papilio</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Egerton</span>, Sir P., on the use of the antlers of deer, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pairing of red deer, ii. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; +</li><li> +on the bellowing of stags, ii. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eggs</span>, hatched by male fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Egret</span>, Indian, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Egrets</span>, breeding plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; +<ul><li> +white, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ehrenberg</span>, on the mane of the male Hamadryas baboon, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ekström</span>, M., on <i>Harelda glacialis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Elachista rufocinerea</i>, habits of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eland</span>, development of the horns of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elands</span>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Elaphomyia</i>, sexual differences in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Elaphrus uliginosus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Elaps</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elateridæ</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elaters</span>, luminous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elephant</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>; +<ul><li> +nakedness of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>; +</li><li> +rate of increase of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +Indian, polygamous habits of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +tusks of, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; +</li><li> +Indian, mode of fighting, of the, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; +</li><li> +male, odour emitted by the, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +attacking white or grey horses, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elevation</span> of abode, modifying influence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elimination</span> of inferior individuals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elk</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +</li><li> +winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elk</span>, Irish, horns of the, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ellice</span> Islands, beards of the natives, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elliot</span>, R., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in young rats, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +<ul><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elliott</span>, D. G., on <i>Pelecanus erythrorhynchus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elliott</span>, Sir W., on the polygamous habits of the Indian wild boar, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ellis</span>, on the prevalence of infanticide in Polynesia, ii. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elphinstone</span>, Mr., on local differences of stature among the Hindoos, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +<ul><li> +on the difficulty of distinguishing the native races of India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Elytra</span>, of the females of <i>Dytiscus</i>, <i>Acilius</i>, <i>Hydroporus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Emberiza</i>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Emberiza miliaria</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Emberiza schœniculus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; +<ul><li> +head-feathers of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Embryo</span> of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>; +<ul><li> +of the dog, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Embryos</span> of mammals, resemblance of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Emigration</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Emotions</span> experienced by the lower animals in common with man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>; +<ul><li> +manifested by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Emperor</span> moth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Emulation</span> of singing-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Emu</span>, sexes and incubation of, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Endurance</span>, estimation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Energy</span>, a characteristic of men, ii. <a href="#Page_328">328</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">England</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Engleheart</span>, Mr., on the finding of new mates by starlings, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">English</span>, success of, as colonists, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Engravers</span>, short-sighted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Entomostraca</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Entozoa</span>, difference of colour between the males and females of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eocene</span>, possible divergence of man during the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eolidæ</span>, colours of, produced by the biliary glands, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Epeira</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Epeira nigra</i>, small size of the male of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ephemeræ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ephemeridæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ephemerina</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ephippiger vitium</i>, stridulating organs of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Epicalia</i>, sexual differences of colouring in the species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Equus hemionus</i>, winter change of, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Erateina</i>, coloration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Erect</span> attitude of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eschricht</span>, on the development of hair in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; +<ul><li> +on a lanuginous moustache in a female fœtus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; +</li><li> +on the want of definition between the scalp and the forehead in some children, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +on the arrangement of the hair in the human fœtus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>; +</li><li> +on the hairiness of the face in the human fœtus of both sexes, ii. <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Esmeralda</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Esox lucius</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Esox reticulatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Esquimaux</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>; +<ul><li> +their belief in the inheritance of dexterity in seal-catching, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; +</li><li> +mode of life of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Estrelda amandava</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Eubagis</i>, sexual differences of colouring in the species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Euchirus longimanus</i>, sound produced by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Eudromias morinellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Eulampis jugularis</i>, colours of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Euler</span>, on the rate of increase in the United States, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Eumomota superciliaris</i>, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Eupetomena macroura</i>, colours of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Euphema splendida</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Euplocamus erythropthalmus</i>, possession of spurs by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Euplœa midamas</i>, mimickry of, by the female of <i>Diadema anomala</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_413">413</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Europe</span>, ancient inhabitants of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Europeans</span>, difference of, from Hindoos, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>; +<ul><li> +hairiness of, probably due to reversion, ii. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Eurostopodus</i>, sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Eurygnathus</i>, different proportions of the head in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">428</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Eustephanus</i>, sexual differences of species of, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; +<ul><li> +young of, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Exaggeration</span> of natural characters by man, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Exogamy</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Expression</span>, resemblances in, between man and the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Extinction</span> of races, causes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eye</span>, destruction of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +<ul><li> +change of position in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>; +</li><li> +obliquity of, regarded as a beauty by the Chinese and Japanese, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eyebrows</span>, elevation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul><li> +development of long hairs in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; +</li><li> +in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +eradicated in parts of South America and Africa, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +eradication of, by the Indians of Paraguay, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eyelids</span>, coloured black, in part of Africa, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eyelashes</span>, eradication of, by the Indians of Paraguay, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eyes</span>, difference in the colour of, in the sexes of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; +<ul><li> +pillared, of the male of <i>Chloëon</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eyton</span>, T. C., observations on the development of the horns in the fallow-deer, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eyzies</span>, Les, human remains from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li><li> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>F.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fabre</span>, M., on the habits of <i>Cerceris</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Facial</span> bones, causes of modification of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Faculties</span>, mental, variation of, in the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>; +<ul><li> +diversity of, in the same race of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +inheritance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +diversity of, in animals of the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fakirs</span>, Indian, tortures undergone by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Falco leucocephalus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Falco peregrinus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Falco tinnunculus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Falcon</span>, peregrine, new mate found by, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Falconer</span>, H., on the mode of fighting of the Indian elephant, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; +<ul><li> +on canines in a female deer, ii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Hyomoschus aquaticus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_304">304</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Falkland</span> islands, horses of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fallow-deer</span>, different coloured herds of, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Famines</span>, frequency of, among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Farr</span>, Dr., on the structure of the uterus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; +<ul><li> +on the effects of profligacy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>; +</li><li> +on the influence of marriage on mortality, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Farrar</span>, F. W., on the origin of language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul><li> +on the crossing or blending of languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +on the absence of the idea of God in certain races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +on early marriages of the poor, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>; +</li><li> +on the middle ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fashions</span>, long prevalence of, among savages, ii. <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Faye</span>, Prof., on the numerical proportion of male and female births in Norway and Russia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>; +<ul><li> +on the greater mortality of male children at and before birth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Feathers</span>, modified, producing sounds, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et seqq.</i>, 163; +<ul><li> +elongated, in male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +racket-shaped, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +</li><li> +barbless and with filamentous barbs in certain birds, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +shedding of margins of, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Feeding</span>, high, probable influence of, in the pairing of birds of different species, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Feet</span>, modification of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>; +<ul><li> +thickening of the skin on the soles of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Felis canadensis</i>, throat-ruff of, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Felis pardalis</i> and <i>F. mitis</i>, sexual differences in the colouring of, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Female</span>, behaviour of the, during courtship, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Female</span> birds, differences of, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Females</span>, presence of rudimentary male organs in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>; +<ul><li> +preference of, for certain males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>; +</li><li> +pursuit of, by males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +occurrence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; +</li><li> +development of male characters by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Females</span> and males, comparative mortality of, while young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; +<ul><li> +comparative numbers of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">429</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Femur</span> and tibia, proportions of, in the Aymara Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ferguson</span>, Mr., on the courtship of fowls, ii. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fertilization</span>, phenomena of, in plants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>; +<ul><li> +in the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fevers</span>, immunity of Negroes and Mulattoes from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fiber zibethicus</i>, protective colouring of, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fidelity</span> of savages to one another, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>; +<ul><li> +importance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Field-slaves</span>, difference of, from house-slaves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fijians</span>, burying their old and sick parents alive, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +<ul><li> +estimation of the beard among the, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +admiration of, for a broad occiput, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fiji</span> Islands, beards of the natives, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +<ul><li> +marriage-customs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Filial</span> affection, partly the result of natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Filum</span> terminale, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Finch</span>, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Finches</span>, spring change of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +<ul><li> +British, females of the, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fingers</span>, partially coherent, in species of <i>Hylobates</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Finlayson</span>, on the Cochin Chinese, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fire</span>, use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fischer</span>, on the pugnacity of the male of <i>Lethrus cephalotes</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fish</span>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +<ul><li> +eagerness of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fishes</span>, kidneys of, represented by Corpora Wolffiana in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +<ul><li> +male, hatching ova in their mouths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>; +</li><li> +receptacles for ova possessed by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +</li><li> +relative size of the sexes in, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; +</li><li> +freshwater, of the tropics, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +protective resemblances in, ii. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; +</li><li> +nest-building, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +</li><li> +spawning of, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +</li><li> +sounds produced by, ii. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>; +</li><li> +continued growth of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Flexor pollicis longus</i>, similar variation of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Flint</span> tools, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Flints</span>, difficulty of chipping into form, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Florida</span>, <i>Quiscalus major</i> in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Flounder</span>, coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Flower</span>, W. H., on the abductor of the fifth metatarsal in apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>; +<ul><li> +on the position of the Seals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +on the throat-pouch of the male Bustard, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fly-catchers</span>, colours and nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fœtus</span>, human, woolly covering of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; +<ul><li> +arrangement of the hair on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Food</span>, influence of, upon stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Foot</span>, prehensile, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; +<ul><li> +prehensile power of the, retained in some savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Foramen</span>, supra-condyloid, exceptional occurrence of in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>; +<ul><li> +in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Forbes</span>, D., on the Aymara Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul><li> +on local variation of colour in the Quechuas, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +on the hairlessness of the Aymaras and Quechuas, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +on the long hair of the Aymaras and Quechuas, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Forel</span>, F., on white young swans, ii. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Formica rufo</i>, size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fossils</span>, absence of, connecting man with the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fowl</span>, occurrence of spurs in the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>; +<ul><li> +game, early pugnacity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>; +</li><li> +Polish, early development of cranial peculiarities of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>; +</li><li> +variations in plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +examples of correlated development in the, ii. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>; +</li><li> +domestic, breeds and sub-breeds of, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fowls</span>, spangled Hamburgh, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual peculiarities in, transmitted only to the same sex, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +loss of secondary sexual characters by male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; +</li><li> +inheritance of changes of plumage by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>; +</li><li> +Polish, origin of the crest in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; +</li><li> +period of inheritance of characters by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span> +</li><li> +cuckoo-, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>; +</li><li> +development of the comb in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_295">295</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +courtship of, ii. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; +</li><li> +mongrel, between a black Spanish cock and different hens, ii. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; +</li><li> +pencilled Hamburgh, difference of the sexes in, ii. <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; +</li><li> +Spanish, sexual differences of the comb in, ii. <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; +</li><li> +spurred, in both sexes, ii. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fox</span>, W. D., on some half-tamed wild ducks becoming polygamous, and on polygamy in the guinea-fowl and canary-bird, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in cattle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the peacock, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +on a nuptial assembly of magpies, ii. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; +</li><li> +on the finding of new mates by crows, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>; +</li><li> +on partridges living in triplets, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of a goose with a Chinese gander, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Foxes</span>, wariness of young, in hunting districts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>; +<ul><li> +black, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">France</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Francesco</span>, B., on the Simian resemblances of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fraser</span>, C., on the different colours of the sexes in a species of <i>Squilla</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fringilla cannabina</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fringilla ciris</i>, age of mature plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fringilla cyanea</i>, age of mature plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fringilla leucophrys</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fringilla spinus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Fringilla tristis</i>, change of colour in, in spring, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +<ul><li> +young of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fringillidæ</span>, resemblance of the females of distinct species of, ii. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Frogs</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; +<ul><li> +male, temporary receptacles for ova possessed by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +</li><li> +ready to breed before the females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +vocal organs of, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Frontal</span> bone, persistence of the suture in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fruits</span>, poisonous, avoided by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fuegians</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +mental capacity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>; +</li><li> +quasi-religious sentiments of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>; +</li><li> +power of sight in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +skill of, in stone-throwing, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>; +</li><li> +resistance of the, to their severe climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; +</li><li> +difference of stature among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +mode of life of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +resemblance of, in mental characters, to Europeans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +</li><li> +aversion of, to hair on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; +</li><li> +said to admire European women, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fulgoridæ</span>, songs of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fur</span>, whiteness of, in arctic animals, in winter, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fur-bearing</span> animals, acquired sagacity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>G.</b></span> +</li><li> +<i>Gallicrex</i>, sexual difference in the colour of the irides in, ii. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gallicrex cristatus</i>, red caruncle occurring in the male during the breeding-season, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gallinaceæ</span>, frequency of polygamous habits and of sexual differences in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +love-gestures of, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +</li><li> +decomposed feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>; +</li><li> +comparative sexual differences between the species of, ii. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; +</li><li> +plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gallinaceous</span> birds, weapons of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; +<ul><li> +racket-shaped feathers on the heads of, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gallinula chloropus</i>, pugnacity of male, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gallinula cristata</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Galloperdix</i>, spurs of, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +<ul><li> +development of spurs in the female, ii. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gallophasis</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gallus bankiva</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; +<ul><li> +neck-hackles of, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gallus Stanleyi</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Galls</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Galton</span>, Mr., on the struggle between the social and personal impulses, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>; +<ul><li> +on hereditary genius, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; +</li><li> +on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">431</a></span> +</li><li> +on the sterility of sole daughters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>; +</li><li> +on the degree of fertility of people of genius, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>; +</li><li> +on the early marriages of the poor, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>; +</li><li> +on the ancient Greeks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; +</li><li> +on the Middle Ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>; +</li><li> +on the progress of the United States, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>; +</li><li> +on South African notions of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gammarus</i>, use of the chelæ of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gammarus marinus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gannets</span>, white only when mature, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ganoidei</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ganoid</span> fishes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gaour</span>, horns of the, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gap</span> between man and the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gaper</span>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gardner</span>, on an example of rationality in a <i>Gelasimus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Garrulus glandarius</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gärtner</span>, on sterility of hybrid plants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +pulmoniferous, courtship of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gasterosteus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>; +<ul><li> +nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gasterosteus leiurus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gasterosteus trachurus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gastrophora</i>, wings of, brightly coloured beneath, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gauchos</span>, want of humanity among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gaudry,</span> M., on a fossil monkey, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gavia</i>, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Geese</span>, clanging noise made by, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing of different species of, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +</li><li> +Canada, selection of mates by, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gegenbaur,</span> C., on the number of digits in the Ichthyopterygia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>; +<ul><li> +on the hermaphroditism of the remote progenitors of the vertebrata, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gelasimus</i>, use of the enlarged chela of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_333">333</a>; +</li><li> +proportions of the sexes in a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; +</li><li> +rational actions of a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>; +</li><li> +difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_336">336</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gemmules</span>, sexual selection of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Genesis</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_318">318</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Genius</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_328">328</a>; +<ul><li> +hereditary, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Genius</span>, fertility of men and women of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire</span>, Isid., on the recognition of women by male quadrumana, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +on the occurrence of a rudimentary tail in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +on monstrosities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +on animal-like anomalies in the human structure, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>; +</li><li> +on the correlation of monstrosities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>; +</li><li> +on the distribution of hair in man and monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +</li><li> +on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +on correlated variability, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>; +</li><li> +on the classification of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>; +</li><li> +on the long hair on the heads of species of <i>Semnopithecus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +on the hair in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>; +</li><li> +on the development of horns in female deer, ii. <a href="#Page_244">244</a>; +</li><li> +and F. Cuvier, on the mandrill, ii. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Hylobates</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Geographical</span> distribution, as evidence of specific distinctions in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Geometræ</span>, brightly coloured beneath, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Geophagus</i>, frontal protuberance of male, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; +<ul><li> +eggs hatched by the male, in the mouth or branchial cavity, ii. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Georgia</span>, change of colour in Germans settled in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Geotrupes</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gerbe</span>, M., on the nest-building of <i>Crenilabrus massa</i> and <i>C. melops</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gerland</span>, Dr., on the prevalence of infanticide, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +on the extinction of races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gervais</span>, P., on the hairiness of the gorilla, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +<ul><li> +on the mandrill, ii. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gesture-language</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ghost-moth</span>, sexual difference of colour in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gibb</span>, Sir D., on differences of the voice in different races of men, ii. <a href="#Page_330">330</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">432</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gibbon</span>, Hoolock, nose of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gibbons</span>, voice of, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Giraffe</span>, mute, except in the rutting season, ii. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; +<ul><li> +its mode of using the horns, ii. <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Giraud-Teulon</span>, on the cause of short sight, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Glanders</span>, communicable between man and the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Glands</span>, odoriferous, in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Glareola</i>, double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Glomeris limbata</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Glowworm</span>, female, apterous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +<ul><li> +luminosity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gnats</span>, dances of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gnu</span>, sexual differences in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goat</span>, male, wild, falling on his horns, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +<ul><li> +male, odour emitted by, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +male, wild, crest of the, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +Berbura, mane, dewlap, &c., of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>; +</li><li> +Kemas, sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goats</span>, sexual differences in the horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +domestic, sexual differences of, late developed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; +</li><li> +beards of, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +mode of fighting of, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goat-sucker</span>, Virginian, pairing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gobies</span>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">God</span>, want of the idea of, in some races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Godron</span>, M., on variability, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>; +<ul><li> +on difference of stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +on the want of connexion between climate and the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +on the odour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>; +</li><li> +on the colour of infants, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goldfinch</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of the beak in the, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; +</li><li> +courtship of the, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goldfinch</span>, North American, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gold-Fish</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gomphus</i>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +difference in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gonepteryx Rhamni</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_409">409</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goodsir</span>, Prof., on the affinity of the lancelet to the ascidians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goosander</span>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Antarctic, colours of the, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Canada, pairing with a Bernicle gander, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Chinese, knob on the beak of the, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Egyptian, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Sebastopol, plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Snow-, whiteness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goose</span>, Spur-winged, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gorilla</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +<ul><li> +semi-erect attitude of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>; +</li><li> +mastoid processes of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +direction of the hair on the arms of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +supposed evolution of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +polygamy of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; +</li><li> +voice of the, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; +</li><li> +cranium of, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +fighting of male, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gosse</span>, P. H., on the pugnacity of the male Humming-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gosse</span>, M., on the inheritance of artificial modifications of the skull, ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gould</span>, B. A., on variation in the length of the legs in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul><li> +measurements of American soldiers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportions of the body and capacity of the lungs in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +on the inferior vitality of mulattoes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gould</span>, J., on the arrival of male snipes before the females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +<ul><li> +on the numerical proportion of the sexes in birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Neomorpha</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; +</li><li> +on the species of <i>Eustephanus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; +</li><li> +on the Australian Musk-duck, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative size of the sexes in <i>Biziura lobata</i> and <i>Cincloramphus cruralis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Lobivanellus lobatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Menura Alberti</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +on the rarity of song in brilliant birds, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Selasphorus platycercus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +on the Bower-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; +</li><li> +on the ornamental plumage of the Humming-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of the ptarmigan, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +on the display of plumage by the male Humming-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +on the shyness of adorned male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span> +</li><li> +on the decoration of the bowers of Bower-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +on the decoration of their nests by Humming-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +on variation in the genus <i>Cynanthus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; +</li><li> +on the colour of the thighs in a male parrakeet, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Urosticte Benjamini</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; +</li><li> +on the nidification of the Orioles, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +</li><li> +on obscurely-coloured birds building concealed nests, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; +</li><li> +on Trogons and Kingfishers, ii. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; +</li><li> +on Australian parrots, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; +</li><li> +on Australian pigeons, ii. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of the ptarmigan, ii. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +on the immature plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i>; +</li><li> +on the Australian species of <i>Turnix</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>; +</li><li> +on the young of <i>Aithurus polytmus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the bills of Toucans, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative size of the sexes in the Marsupials of Australia, ii. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the Marsupials, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Goureau</span>, on the stridulation of <i>Mutilla europæa</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gout</span>, sexually transmitted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Graba</span>, on the Pied Ravens of the Feroe Islands, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Bridled Guillemot, ii. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gradation</span> of secondary sexual characters in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Grallatores</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +double moult in some, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Grallina</i>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Grasshoppers</span>, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gratiolet</span>, Prof., on the anthropomorphous apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>; +<ul><li> +on the evolution of the anthropomorphous apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gray</span>, Asa, on the gradation of species among the Compositæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gray</span>, J. E., on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +<ul><li> +on the presence of rudiments of horns in the female of <i>Cervulus moschatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of goats and sheep, ii. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +on the beard of the Ibex, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +on the Berbura goat, ii. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in the coloration of Rodents, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the Elands, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +on the Sing-sing antelope, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of goats, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +on the Hog-deer, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +“<span class="smcap">Greatest</span> happiness principle,” i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Greeks</span>, ancient, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Green</span>, A. H., on beavers fighting, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +on the voice of the beaver, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Greenfinch</span>, selected by a female canary, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Greg</span>, W. R., on the early marriages of the poor, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Ancient Greeks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>; +</li><li> +on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Grenadiers</span>, Prussian, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Grey</span>, Sir G., on female infanticide in Australia, ii. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Greyhounds</span>, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>; +<ul><li> +numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Grouse</span>, red, monogamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of young male, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +producing a sound by scraping their wings upon the ground, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +duration of courtship of, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; +</li><li> +colours and nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Grube</span>, Dr., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Grus americanus</i>, age of mature plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>; +<ul><li> +breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Grus virgo</i>, trachea of, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Gryllus campestris</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gryllus domesticus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Grypus</i>, sexual differences in the beak in, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guanacoes</span>, battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +canine teeth of, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guanas</span>, strife for women among the, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +polyandry among the, ii. <a href="#Page_366">366</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guanche</span> skeletons, occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guaranys</span>, proportion of men and women among, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>; +<ul><li> +colour of newborn children of the, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +beards of the, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">434</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guenée</span>, A., on the sexes of <i>Hyperythra</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guilding</span>, L., on the stridulation of the LOCUSTIDÆ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guillemot</span>, variety of the, ii. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guinea</span>, sheep of, with males only horned, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guinea-fowl</span>, monogamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +occasional polygamy of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +</li><li> +markings of the, ii. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Guinea-pigs</span>, inheritance of the effects of operations by, ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gull</span>, instance of reasoning in a, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gulls</span>, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>; +<ul><li> +white, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Günther</span>, Dr., on hermaphroditism in <i>Serranus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>; +<ul><li> +on male fishes hatching ova in their mouths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; +</li><li> +on mistaking infertile female fishes for males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; +</li><li> +on the prehensile organs of male Plagiostomous fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the male salmon and trout, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative size of the sexes in fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <i>et seqq.</i>; +</li><li> +on the genus <i>Callionymus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>; +</li><li> +on a protective resemblance in a Pipe-fish, ii. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; +</li><li> +on the genus <i>Solenostoma</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Megalophrys montana</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of frogs and toads, ii. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in the Ophidia, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +on differences of the sexes of lizards, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>et seqq.</i> +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Gynanisa Isis</i>, ocellated spots of, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gypsies</span>, uniformity of, in various parts of the world, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>H.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Habits</span>, bad, facilitated by familiarity, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>; +<ul><li> +variability of the force of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Häckel</span>, E., on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +<ul><li> +on rudimentary characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +on the canine teeth in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on death caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendage, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; +</li><li> +on the steps by which man became a biped, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>; +</li><li> +on man as a member of the Catarrhine group, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; +</li><li> +on the position of the Lemuridæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>; +</li><li> +on the genealogy of the Mammalia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>; +</li><li> +on the lancelet, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +on the transparency of pelagic animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>; +</li><li> +on the musical powers of women, ii. <a href="#Page_337">337</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hagen</span>, H., and Walsh, B. D., on American neuroptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hair</span>, development of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; +<ul><li> +character of, supposed to be determined by light and heat, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +distribution of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_375">375</a>; +</li><li> +possibly removed for ornamental purposes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +</li><li> +arrangement and direction of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +of the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +different texture of, in distinct races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +and skin, correlation of colour of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>; +</li><li> +development of, in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; +</li><li> +management of, among different peoples, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +great length of, in some North American tribes, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; +</li><li> +elongation of the, on the human head, ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hairiness</span>, difference of, in the sexes, in man, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +<ul><li> +variation of, in races of men, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hairs</span> and excretory pores, numerical relation of, in sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hairy</span> family, Siamese, ii. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hamadryas</span> baboon, turning over stones, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; +<ul><li> +mane of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hamilton</span>, C., on the cruelty of the Kafirs to animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +<ul><li> +on the engrossment of the women by the Kafir chiefs, ii. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hammering</span>, difficulty of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hancock</span>, A., on the colours of the nudibranch mollusca, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hands</span>, larger at birth, in the children of labourers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; +<ul><li> +structure of, in the quadrumana, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; +</li><li> +and arms, freedom of, indirectly correlated with diminution of canines, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Handwriting</span>, inherited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Harcourt</span>, E. Vernon, on <i>Fringilla cannabina</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Harelda glacialis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hare</span>, protective colouring of the, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Hares</span>, battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Harlan</span>, Dr., on the difference between field- and house-slaves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Harris</span>, J. M., on the relation of complexion to climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Harris</span>, T. W., on the Katy-did locust, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; +<ul><li> +on the stridulation of the grasshoppers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Œcanthus nivalis,</i> i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +on the colouring of Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>; +</li><li> +on the colouring of <i>Saturnia Io</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Harry-long-legs</span>, pugnacity of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hartman</span>, Dr., on the singing of <i>Cicada septendecim</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Haughton</span>, S., on a variation of the <i>flexor pollicis longus</i> in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hawks</span>, feeding orphan nestling, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hayes</span>, Dr., on the diverging of sledge-dogs on thin ice, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Head</span>, altered position of, to suit the erect attitude of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +<ul><li> +hairiness of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +</li><li> +processes of, in male beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>; +</li><li> +artificial alterations of the form of the, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hearne</span>, on strife for women among the North American Indians, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +on the North American Indians’ notion of female beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +repeated elopements of a North American woman, ii. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Heart</span>, in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Heat</span>, supposed effects of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hectocotyle</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hedge-warbler</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; +<ul><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Heel</span>, small projection of, in the Aymara Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hegt</span>, M., on the development of the spurs in peacocks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Heliconidæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; +<ul><li> +mimickry of, by other butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Heliopathes</i>, stridulation peculiar to the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Heliothrix auriculata</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Helix pomatia</i>, example of individual attachment in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hellins</span>, J., proportions of sexes of Lepidoptera reared by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Helmholtz</span>, on the vibration of the auditory hairs of crustacea, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hemiptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hemitragus</i>, beardless in both sexes, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hepburn</span>, Mr., on the autumn song of the water-ouzel, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hepialus humuli</i>, sexual difference of colour in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Herbs</span>, poisonous, avoided by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hermaphroditism</span> of embryos, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Herodias bubulcus</i>, vernal moult of, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Heron</span>, love-gestures of a, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Heron</span>, Sir R., on the habits of peafowl, ii. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Herons</span>, decomposed feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +breeding plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; +</li><li> +sometimes dimorphic, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +continued growth of crest and plumes in the males of some, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +change of colour in some, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Hetærina</i>, difference in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Heterocerus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hewitt</span>, Mr. on a game-cock killing a kite, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; +<ul><li> +on the recognition of dogs and cats by ducks, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of a wild duck with a pintail drake, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +on the courtship of fowls, ii. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; +</li><li> +on the coupling of pheasants with common hens, ii. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hindoo</span>, his horror of breaking his caste, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hindoos</span>, local difference of stature among, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +<ul><li> +difference of, from Europeans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +colour of the beard in, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Hipparchia Janira</i>, instability of the ocellated spots of, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hipparchiæ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hippocampus</i>, development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>; +<ul><li> +marsupial receptacles of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hippopotamus</span>, nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hips</span>, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hodgson</span>, S., on the sense of duty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hoffberg</span>, on the horns of the reindeer, ii. <a href="#Page_244">244</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">436</a></span> +<ul><li> +on sexual preferences shown by reindeer, ii. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hog</span>, wart-, ii. <a href="#Page_265">265</a>; +<ul><li> +river-, ii. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hog-deer</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Holland</span>, Sir H., on the effects of new diseases, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Homologous</span> structures, correlated variation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Homoptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>; +</li><li> +stridulation of the, and orthoptera, discussed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Honduras</span>, <i>Quiscalus major</i> in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Honey-buzzard</span> of India, variation in the crest of, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Honey-suckers</span>, moulting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +<ul><li> +Australian, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Honour</span>, law of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hooker</span>, Jos., on the colour of the beard in man, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hoolock Gibbon</span>, nose of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hoopoe</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul><li> +sounds produced by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Hoplopterus armatus</i>, wing-spurs of, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hornbill</span>, African, inflation of the neck-wattle of the male during courtship, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hornbills</span>, sexual difference in the colour of the eyes in, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; +<ul><li> +nidification and incubation of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Horne</span>, C., on the rejection of a brightly-coloured locust by lizards and birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Horns</span>, of deer, ii. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; +<ul><li> +and canine teeth, inverse development of, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of, in sheep and goats, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +loss of, in female merino sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; +</li><li> +development of, in deer, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +development of, in antelopes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +from the head and thorax, in male beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Horse</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +<ul><li> +canine teeth of male, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; +</li><li> +fossil, extinction of the, in South America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Horses</span>, dreaming, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; +<ul><li> +rapid increase of, in South America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +diminution of canine teeth in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +of the Falkland Islands and Pampas, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>; +</li><li> +lighter in winter in Siberia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +sexual preferences in, ii. <a href="#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +pairing preferentially the same colour, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>; +</li><li> +formerly striped, ii. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hottentot</span> women, peculiarities of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hottentots</span>, lice of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +<ul><li> +readily become musicians, ii. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; +</li><li> +notions of female beauty of the, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +compression of nose by, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">House-slaves</span>, difference of, from field-slaves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Huber</span>, P., on ants playing together, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>; +<ul><li> +on memory in ants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +on the intercommunication of ants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +on the recognition of each other by ants after separation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Huc</span>, on Chinese opinions of the appearance of Europeans, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Human</span> kingdom, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Human</span> sacrifices, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Humanity</span>, unknown among some savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +<ul><li> +deficiency of, among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Humboldt</span>, A. von, on the rationality of mules, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>; +<ul><li> +on a parrot preserving the language of a lost tribe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; +</li><li> +on the cosmetic arts of savages, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +on the exaggeration of natural characters by man, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; +</li><li> +on the red painting of American Indians, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hume</span>, D., on sympathetic feelings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Humming-bird</span>, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +<ul><li> +display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Humming-birds</span>, ornament their nests, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +<ul><li> +polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +</li><li> +proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of male, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +modified primaries of male, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +young of, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +</li><li> +colours of female, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Humphreys</span>, H. N., on the habits of the Stickle-back, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hunger</span>, instinct of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Huns</span>, ancient, flattening of the nose by the, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hunter</span>, J., on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +<ul><li> +on secondary sexual characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; +</li><li> +on the general behaviour of female animals during courtship, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>; +</li><li> +on the muscles of the larynx in song-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +on the curled frontal hair of the Bull, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +on the rejection of an ass by a female zebra, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hunter</span>, W. W., on the recent rapid increase of the Santali, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Santali, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hussey</span>, Mr., on a partridge distinguishing persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hutchinson</span>, Col., example of reasoning in a retriever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hutton</span>, Capt., on the male wild goat falling on his horns, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Huxley</span>, T. H., on the structural agreement of man with the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>; +<ul><li> +on the agreement of the brain in man with that of lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>; +</li><li> +on the adult age of the Orang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +on the embryonic development of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>; +</li><li> +on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +on variation in the skulls of the natives of Australia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +</li><li> +on the abductor of the fifth metatarsal in apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>; +</li><li> +on the position of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>; +</li><li> +on the sub-orders of primates, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>; +</li><li> +on the Lemuridæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>; +</li><li> +on the Dinosauria, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +on the amphibian affinities of the Ichthyosaurians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +on variability of the skull in certain races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +on the races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hybrid</span> birds, production of, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hydrophobia</span> communicable between man and the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hydroporus</i>, dimorphism of females of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hyelaphus porcinus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hygrogonus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hyla</i>, singing species of, ii. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hylobates</i>, maternal affection in a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +<ul><li> +absence of the thumb in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +</li><li> +upright progression of some species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +direction of the hair on the arms of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +females of, less hairy below than males, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Hylobates agilis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +<ul><li> +hair on the arms of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>; +</li><li> +musical voice of the, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; +</li><li> +superciliary ridge of, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +voice of, ii. <a href="#Page_332">332</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Hylobates hoolock</i>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hylobates lar</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +<ul><li> +hair on the arms of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Hylobates leuciscus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +<ul><li> +laryngeal sac of, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hymenoptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>; +<ul><li> +large size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; +</li><li> +classification of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences in the wings of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +aculeate, relative size of the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hymenopteron</span>, parasitic, with a sedentary male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hyomoschus aquaticus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_304">304</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hyperythra</i>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hypogymna dispar</i>, sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Hypopyra</i>, coloration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>I.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ibex</span>, male, falling on his horns, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +<ul><li> +beard of the, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ibis</span>, scarlet, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; +<ul><li> +white, change of colour of naked skin in, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ibis tantalus</i>, age of mature plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>; +<ul><li> +breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ibises</span>, decomposed feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +white, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, and black, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ichneumonidæ</span>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ichthyopterygia</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ichthyosaurians</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ideas</span>, general, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Idiots</span>, microcephalous, imitative faculties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +<ul><li> +microcephalous, their characters and habits, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Iguana tuberculata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Iguanas</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Illegitimate</span> and legitimate children, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Imagination</span>, existence of, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Imitation</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>; +<ul><li> +of man by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span> +</li><li> +tendency to, in monkeys, microcephalous idiots and savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +influence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_161">161</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Immature</span> plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Implacentata</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Implements</span>, employed by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +fashioning of, peculiar to man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Impregnation</span>, period of, influence of, upon sex, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Improvement</span>, progressive, man alone supposed to be capable of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Incisor</span> teeth, knocked out or filed by some savages, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Increase</span>, rate of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>; +<ul><li> +necessity of checks in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Indecency</span>, hatred of, a modern virtue, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">India</span>, difficulty of distinguishing the native races of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; +<ul><li> +Cyprinidæ of, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +colour of the beard in races of men of, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Indian</span>, North American, honoured for scalping a man of another tribe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Individuality</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Individuation</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_318">318</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Indopicus carlotta</i>, colours of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Infanticide</span>, prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>; +<ul><li> +supposed cause of, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +prevalence and causes of, ii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Inferiority</span>, supposed physical, of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Inflammation</span> of the bowels, occurrence of, in <i>Cebus Azaræ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Inheritance</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +<ul><li> +of effects of use of vocal and mental organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +of moral tendencies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>; +</li><li> +of long and short sight, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +laws of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +sexual, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>; +</li><li> +sexually limited, ii. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Inquisition</span>, influence of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Insanity</span>, hereditary, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Insect</span>, fossil, from the Devonian, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Insectivora</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>; +<ul><li> +absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Insects</span>, relative size of the cerebral ganglia in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; +<ul><li> +male, appearance of, before the females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +pursuit of female, by the males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +period of development of sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +secondary sexual characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>; +</li><li> +stridulation of, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Insessores</span>, vocal organs of, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instep</span>, depth of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instinct</span> and intelligence, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instinct</span>, migratory, vanquishing the maternal, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instinctive</span> actions, the result of inheritance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instinctive</span> impulses, difference of the force of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>; +<ul><li> +and moral impulses, alliance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instincts</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>; +<ul><li> +complex origin of, through natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>; +</li><li> +possible origin of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>; +</li><li> +acquired, of domestic animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the force of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +difference of force between the social and other, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>; +</li><li> +utilised for new purposes, ii. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Instrumental</span> music of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Intellect</span>, influence of, in natural selection in civilised society, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Intellectual</span> faculties, their influence on natural selection in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>; +<ul><li> +probably perfected through natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Intelligence</span>, Mr. H. Spencer on the dawn of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Intemperance</span>, no reproach among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>; +<ul><li> +its destructiveness, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Intoxication</span> in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Iphias glaucippe</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Iris</span>, sexual difference in the colour of the, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ischio-pubic</span> muscle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ithaginis cruentus</i>, number of spurs in, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Iulus</i>, tarsal suckers of the males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>J.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jackals</span> learning to bark from dogs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jack-snipe</span>, coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jacquinot</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">439</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jaeger</span>, Dr., on the difficulty of approaching herds of wild animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +on the increase of length in bones, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +on the deposition of a male Silver pheasant on account of spoiled plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jaguars</span>, black, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Janson</span>, E. W., on the proportions of the sexes in <i>Tomicus villosus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +on stridulant beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Japan</span>, encouragement of licentiousness in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Japanese</span>, general beardlessness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +<ul><li> +aversion of the, to whiskers, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jardine</span>, Sir W., on the Argus pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jarrold</span>, Dr., on modifications of the skull induced by unnatural position, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Javanese</span>, relative height of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +<ul><li> +notions of female beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jaw</span>, influence of the muscles of the, upon the physiognomy of the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jaws</span>, smaller in the same ratio with the extremities, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of food upon the size of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +diminution of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +in man, reduced by correlation, ii. <a href="#Page_325">325</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jay</span>, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>; +<ul><li> +Canada, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jays</span>, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>; +<ul><li> +distinguishing persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jeffreys</span>, J. Gwyn, on the form of the shell in the sexes of the Gasteropoda, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +on the influence of light upon the colours of shells, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jelly-fish</span>, bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jenner</span>, Dr., on the voice of the rook, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +<ul><li> +on the finding of new mates by magpies, ii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; +</li><li> +on retardation of the generative organs in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jenyns</span>, L., on the desertion of their young by swallows, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul><li> +on male birds singing after the proper season, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jerdon</span>, Dr., on birds dreaming, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pugnacity of the male bulbul, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the male <i>Ortygornis gularis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; +</li><li> +on the spurs of <i>Galloperdix</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Lobivanellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +on the spoonbill, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +on the drumming of the Kalij pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on Indian bustards, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Otis bengalensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; +</li><li> +on the ear-tufts of <i>Sypheotides auritus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +</li><li> +on the double moults of certain birds, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of the honey-suckers, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of bustards, plovers, and drongos, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +</li><li> +on display in male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +on the spring change of colour in some finches, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +on the display of the under tail-coverts by the male bulbul, ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +</li><li> +on the Indian honey-buzzard, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences in the colour of the eyes of hornbills, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>; +</li><li> +on the markings of the Tragopan pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>; +</li><li> +on the nidification of the Orioles, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +</li><li> +on the nidification of the hornbills, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; +</li><li> +on the Sultan yellow-tit, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Palæornis javanicus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +on the immature plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i>; +</li><li> +on representative species of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Turnix</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; +</li><li> +on the continued increase of beauty of the peacock, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +on coloration in the genus <i>Palæornis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jevons</span>, W. S., on the migrations of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jews</span>, ancient, use of flint tools by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>; +<ul><li> +uniformity of, in various parts of the world, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of male and female births among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>; +</li><li> +ancient, tattooing practised by, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Johnstone</span>, Lieut., on the Indian elephant, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jollofs</span>, fine appearance of the, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jones</span>, Albert, proportion of sexes of Lepidoptera, reared by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Juan Fernandez</span>, humming-birds of, ii. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Junonia</i>, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jupiter</span>, Greek statues of, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span> +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>K.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kafir</span> skull, occurrence of the diastema in a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kafirs</span>, their cruelty to animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +<ul><li> +lice of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>; +</li><li> +engrossment of the handsomest women by the chiefs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>; +</li><li> +marriage-customs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kalij pheasant</span>, drumming of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +<ul><li> +young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Kallima</i>, resemblance of, to a withered leaf, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kalmucks</span>, aversion of, to hairs on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +<ul><li> +marriage-customs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kangaroo</span>, great red, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kant</span>, Imm., on duty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>; +<ul><li> +on self-restraint, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Katy-did</span>, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Keller</span>, Dr., on the difficulty of fashioning stone implements, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kestrels</span>, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kidney</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">King</span>, W. R., on the vocal organs of <i>Tetrao cupido</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul><li> +on the drumming of grouse, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on the reindeer, ii. <a href="#Page_244">244</a>; +</li><li> +on the attraction of male deer by the voice of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">King</span> and Fitzroy, on the marriage-customs of the Fuegians, ii. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">King-crows</span>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kingfisher</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul><li> +racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kingfishers</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; +<ul><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">King Lory</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; +<ul><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kingsley</span>, C., on the sounds produced by <i>Umbrina</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kirby</span> and Spence, on the courtship of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +<ul><li> +on sexual differences in the length of the snout in curculionidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +</li><li> +on the elytra of <i>Dytiscus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>; +</li><li> +on peculiarities in the legs of male insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative size of the sexes in insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +on the luminosity of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +on the Fulgoridæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Termites</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +on difference of colour in the sexes of beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of the male lamellicorn beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>; +</li><li> +on hornlike processes in male curculionidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the male stag-beetle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kite</span>, killed by a game-cock, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Knot</span>, retention of winter plumage by the, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Knox</span>, R., on the semilunar fold, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +<ul><li> +on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; +</li><li> +on the features of the young Memnon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Koala</span>, length of the cæcum in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kölreuter</span>, on the sterility of hybrid plants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Kobus ellipsiprymnus</i>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Koodoo</span>, development of the horns of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>; +<ul><li> +markings of the, ii. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Köppen</span>, F. T., on the migratory locust, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kordofan</span>, protuberances artificially produced in, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kowalevsky</span>, A., on the affinity of the Ascidia to the Vertebrata, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kowalevsky</span>, W., on the pugnacity of the male Capercailzie, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pairing of the Capercailzie, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Krause</span>, on a convoluted body at the extremity of the tail in a <i>Macacus</i> and a cat, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kuppfer</span>, Prof., on the affinity of the Ascidia to the Vertebrata, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>L.</b></span> +</li><li> +<i>Labidocera Darwinii</i>, prehensile organs of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Labrus</i>, splendid colours of the species of, ii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Labrus mixtus</i>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Labrus pavo</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lacertilia</span>, sexual differences of, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">441</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lafresnaye</span>, M. de, on Birds of Paradise, ii. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lamarck</span>, on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lamellibranchiata</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lamellicorn</span> beetles, hornlike processes from the head and thorax of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>; +<ul><li> +analogy of, to Ruminants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>; +</li><li> +influence of sexual selection on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lamellicornia</span>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lamont</span>, Mr., on the tusks of the Walrus, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +<ul><li> +on the use of its tusks by the Walrus, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Lampornis porphyrurus</i>, colours of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lancelet</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Landois</span>, H., on the production of sound by the Cicadæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; +<ul><li> +on the stridulating organ of the Crickets, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Decticus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulating organs of the Acridiidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>; +</li><li> +on the presence of rudimentary stridulating organs in some female Orthoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Necrophorus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulant organ of <i>Cerambyx heros</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulating organs in the Coleoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>; +</li><li> +on the ticking of <i>Anobium</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulant organ of <i>Geotrupes</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Language</span> an art, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; +<ul><li> +articulate, origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +relation of the progress of, to the development of the brain, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +</li><li> +effects of inheritance in production of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +complex structure of, among barbarous nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +natural selection in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +gesture, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +</li><li> +primeval, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>; +</li><li> +of a lost tribe preserved by a parrot, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Languages</span>, presence of rudiments in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>; +<ul><li> +classification of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +crossing or blending of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +complexity of, no test of perfection or proof of special creation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>; +</li><li> +resemblance of, evidence of community of origin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Languages</span> and species, identity of evidence of their gradual development, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lanius</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +<ul><li> +characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Lanius rufus</i>, anomalous young of, ii. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lankester</span>, E. R., on comparative longevity, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>; +<ul><li> +on the destructive effects of intemperance, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lanugo</span>, of the human fœtus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; ii. <a href="#Page_375">375</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lapponian</span> language, highly artificial, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lark</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +<ul><li> +female, singing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Larks</span>, attracted by a mirror, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lartet</span>, E., on the size of the brain in mammals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul><li> +comparison of cranial capacities of skulls of recent and tertiary mammals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Dryopithecus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Larus</i>, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Larva</span>, luminous, of a Brazilian beetle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Larynx</span>, muscles of the, in song-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lasiocampa quercus</i>, attraction of males by the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Latham</span>, R. G., on the migrations of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Latooka</span>, perforation of the lower lip by the women of, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Laurillard</span>, on the abnormal division of the malar bone in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lawrence</span>, W., on the superiority of savages to Europeans in power of sight, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +<ul><li> +on the colour of negro infants, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +on the fondness of savages for ornaments, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; +</li><li> +on beardless races, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +on the beauty of the English aristocracy, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Layard</span>, E. L., on an instance of rationality in a Cobra, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pugnacity of <i>Gallus Stanleyi</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Laycock</span>, Dr., on vital periodicity, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Leaves</span>, decaying, tints of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lecky</span>, Mr., on the sense of duty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul><li> +on suicide, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +</li><li> +on the practice of celibacy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>; +</li><li> +his view of the crimes of savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +on the gradual rise of morality, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">442</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Leconte</span>, J. L., on the stridulant organ in the Coprini and Dynastini, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lee</span>, H., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in the trout, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Leg</span>, calf of the, artificially modified, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Legitimate</span> and illegitimate children, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Legs</span>, variation of the length of the, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul><li> +proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +fore, atrophied in some male butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +peculiarities of, in male insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +“<span class="smcap">Lek</span>” of the black-cock and capercailzie, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lemoine</span>, Albert, on the origin of language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lemur macaco</i>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lemuridæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>; +<ul><li> +their origin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>; +</li><li> +position and derivation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>; +</li><li> +ears of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the muscles in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lemurs</span>, uterus in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; +<ul><li> +tailless species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Leopards</span>, black, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lepidoptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_386">386</a>; +<ul><li> +numerical proportions of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +</li><li> +colouring of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; +</li><li> +ocellated spots of, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Lepidosiren</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lenguas</span>, disfigurement of the ears of the, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Leptorhynchus angustatus</i>, pugnacity of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Leptura testacea</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lequay</span>, on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Leroy</span>, on the wariness of young foxes in hunting-districts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>; +<ul><li> +on the desertion of their young by swallows, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lesse</span>, valley of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lesson</span>, on the Birds of Paradise, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; +<ul><li> +on the sea-elephant, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Lestis bombylans</i>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lethrus cephalotes</i>, pugnacity of the males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Leuckart</span>, R., on the <i>vesicula prostatica</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>; +<ul><li> +on the influence of the age of parents on the sex of offspring, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Levator claviculæ</i> muscle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Libellula depressa</i>, colour of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Libellulidæ</span>, relative size of the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; +<ul><li> +difference in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lice</span> of domestic animals and man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Licentiousness</span>, prevalence of, among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>; +<ul><li> +a check upon population, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lichtenstein</span>, on <i>Chera progne</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Life</span>, inheritance at corresponding periods of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Light</span>, supposed effects of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, upon the colours of shells, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lilford</span>, Lord, the ruff attracted by bright objects, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Limosa lapponica</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Linaria</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Linaria montana</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Linnæus</span>, views of, as to the position of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Linnet</span>, numerical proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +<ul><li> +crimson forehead and breast of the, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; +</li><li> +courtship of the, ii. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Linyphia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lion</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +<ul><li> +mane of the, defensive, ii. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +roaring of the, ii. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lions</span>, stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lips</span>, piercing of the, by savages, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lithobius</i>, prehensile appendages of the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lithosia</i>, coloration in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Littorina littorea</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Livingstone</span>, Dr., on the influence of dampness and dryness on the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +<ul><li> +on the liability of negroes to tropical fevers after residence in a cold climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; +</li><li> +on the spur-winged goose, ii. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; +</li><li> +on weaver-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on an African nightjar, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +on the battle-scars of South African male mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span> +</li><li> +on the removal of the upper incisors by the Batokas, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +on the perforation of the upper lip by the Makalolo, ii. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the Banyai, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Livonia</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lizards</span>, relative size of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>; +<ul><li> +gular pouches of, ii. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lloyd</span>, L., on the polygamy of the capercailzie and bustard, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +on the numerical proportion of the sexes in the capercailzie and blackcock, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +on the salmon, ii. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the sea-scorpion, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of male grouse, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +on the capercailzie and black-cock, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +on the call of the capercailzie, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +on assemblages of grouse and snipes, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of a shield-drake with a common duck, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +</li><li> +on the battles of seals, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +on the elk, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Lobivanellus</i>, wing-spurs in, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +Local influences, effect of, upon stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lockwood</span>, Mr., on the development of <i>Hippocampus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Locust</span>, bright-coloured, rejected by lizards and birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Locust</span>, migratory, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Locustidæ</span>, stridulation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; +<ul><li> +descent of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Longicorn</span> beetles, difference of the sexes of, in colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; +<ul><li> +stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lonsdale</span>, Mr., on an example of personal attachment in <i>Helix pomatia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_325">325</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lophobranchii</span>, marsupial receptacles of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lophophorus</i>, habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lophorina atra</i>, sexual difference in coloration of, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lophornis ornatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lord</span>, J. K., on <i>Salmo lycaodon</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lory</span>, King, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; +<ul><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Love-antics</span> and dances of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lowne</span>, B. T., on <i>Musca vomitoria</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Loxia</i>, characters of young of, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lubbock</span>, Sir J., on the antiquity of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>; +<ul><li> +on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +</li><li> +on the mental capacity of savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>; +</li><li> +on the origin of implements, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on the simplification of languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>; +</li><li> +on the absence of the idea of God among certain races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>; +</li><li> +on superstitions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>; +</li><li> +on the sense of duty, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +</li><li> +on the practice of burying the old and sick among the Fijians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +non-prevalence of suicide among the lowest barbarians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +</li><li> +on the immorality of savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +on Mr. Wallace’s claim to the origination of the idea of natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; +</li><li> +on the absence of remorse among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>; +</li><li> +on the former barbarism of civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +on improvements in the arts among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; +</li><li> +on resemblances of the mental characters in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +</li><li> +on the power of counting in primeval man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; +</li><li> +on the arts practised by savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; +</li><li> +on the prehensile organs of the male <i>Labidocera Darwinii</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Chloëon</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Smynthurus luteus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>; +</li><li> +on strife for women among the North American Indians, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +</li><li> +on music, ii. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; +</li><li> +on the ornamental practices of savages, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; +</li><li> +on the estimation of the beard among the Anglo-Saxons, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +on artificial deformation of the skull, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; +</li><li> +on “communal marriages,” ii. <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; +</li><li> +on exogamy, ii. <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +on the Veddahs, ii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; +</li><li> +on polyandry, ii. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lucanidæ</span>, variability of the mandibles in the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_376">376</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lucanus</i>, large size of males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lucanus cervus</i>, numerical proportion of sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>; +<ul><li> +weapons of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Lucanus elaphus</i>, use of mandibles of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_377">377</a>; +<ul><li> +large jaws of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lucas</span>, Prosper, on sexual preference in horses and bulls, ii. <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lunar</span> periods, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">444</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lund</span>, Dr., on skulls found in Brazilian caves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lungs</span>, enlargement of, in the Quechua and Aymara Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul><li> +a modified swim-bladder, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>; +</li><li> +different capacity of in races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Luminosity</span> in insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Luschka</span>, Prof., on the termination of the coccyx, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lust</span>, instinct of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Luxury</span>, comparatively innocuous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Lycæna</i>, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_390">390</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lyell</span>, Sir C., on the antiquity of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>; +<ul><li> +on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +</li><li> +on the parallelism of the development of species and languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>; +</li><li> +on the extinction of languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +on the Inquisition, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>; +</li><li> +on the fossil remains of vertebrata, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; +</li><li> +on the fertility of mulattoes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lynx</span>, Canadian, throat-ruff of the, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lyre-bird</span>, assemblies of, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>M.</b></span> +</li><li> +<i>Macacus</i>, ears of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +<ul><li> +convoluted body in the extremity of the tail of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the tail in species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +whiskers of species of, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Macacus cynomolgus</i>, superciliary ridge of, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +beard and whiskers of, becoming white with age, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Macacus inornatus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Macacus lasiotus</i>, facial spots of, ii. <a href="#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Macacus radiatus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Macacus rhesus</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Macalister</span>, Prof., on variations of the <i>palmaris accessorius</i> muscle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>; +<ul><li> +on muscular abnormalities in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>; +</li><li> +on the greater variability of the muscles in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Macaws</span>, Mr. Buxton’s observations on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; +<ul><li> +screams of, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">McCann</span>, J., on mental individuality, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">McClelland</span>, J., on the Indian cyprinidæ, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Macculloch</span>, Col., on an Indian village without any female children, ii. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Macculloch</span>, Dr., on tertian ague in a dog, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Macgillivray</span>, W., on the vocal organs of birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Egyptian goose, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of woodpeckers, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of the snipe, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; +</li><li> +on the whitethroat, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of the snipes, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of the anatidæ, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +</li><li> +on the finding of new mates by magpies, ii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of a blackbird and thrush, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +on pied ravens, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on the guillemots, ii. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the tits, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; +</li><li> +on the immature plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seqq.</i> +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Machetes</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Machetes pugnax</i>, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +<ul><li> +supposed to be polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +</li><li> +double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mackintosh</span>, on the moral sense, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">MacLachlan</span>, R., on <i>Apatania muliebris</i> and <i>Boreus hyemalis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +on the anal appendages of male insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of dragon-flies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; +</li><li> +on dragon-flies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>; +</li><li> +on dimorphism in <i>Agrion</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>; +</li><li> +on the want of pugnacity in male dragon-flies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +on the ghost-moth in the Shetland Islands, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">McLennan</span>, Mr., on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>; +<ul><li> +on the prevalence of licentiousness among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_358">358</a>; +</li><li> +on infanticide, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>; +</li><li> +on the primitive barbarism of civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +on traces of the custom of the forcible capture of wives, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>; +</li><li> +on polyandry, ii. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">McNeill</span>, Mr., on the use of the antlers of deer, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Scotch deerhound, ii. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; +</li><li> +on the long hairs of the throat of the stag, ii. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">445</a></span> +</li><li> +on the bellowing of stags, ii. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Macrorhinus proboscideus</i>, structure of the nose of, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Magpie</span>, power of speech of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>; +<ul><li> +stealing bright objects, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +nuptial assemblies of, ii. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; +</li><li> +new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; +</li><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Magpies</span>, vocal organs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Maillard</span>, M., on the proportion of the sexes in a species of <i>Papilio</i> from Bourbon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Maine</span>, Mr., on the absorption of one tribe by another, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>; +<ul><li> +on the want of a desire for improvement, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Makalolo</span>, perforation of the upper lip by the, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malar</span> bone, abnormal division of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malay</span>, Archipelago, marriage-customs of the savages of the, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malays</span>, line of separation between the Papuans and the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +<ul><li> +general beardlessness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +staining of the teeth among, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; +</li><li> +aversion of some, to hairs on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malays</span> and Papuans, contrasted characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Male</span> animals, struggles of, for the possession of the females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +<ul><li> +eagerness of, in courtship, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>; +</li><li> +generally more modified than female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>; +</li><li> +differ in the same way from females and young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Male</span> characters, developed in females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>; +<ul><li> +transfer of, to female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Male</span>, sedentary, of a hymenopterous parasite, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malefactors</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Males</span>, presence of rudimentary female organs in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Males</span> and females, comparative mortality of, while young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; +<ul><li> +comparative numbers of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malherbe</span>, on the woodpeckers, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Malthus</span>, T., on the rate of increase of population, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Maluridæ</span>, nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Malurus</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mammæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +<ul><li> +rudimentary, in male mammals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>; +</li><li> +supernumerary, in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>; +</li><li> +of male human subject, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mammalia</span>, Prof. Owen’s classification of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>; +<ul><li> +genealogy of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mammals</span>, secondary sexual characters of, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +weapons of, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +recent and tertiary, comparison of cranial capacity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +</li><li> +relative size of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +pursuit of female, by the males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +parallelism of, with birds in secondary sexual characters, ii. <a href="#Page_297">297</a>; +</li><li> +voices of, used especially during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Man</span>, variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul><li> +erroneously regarded as more domesticated than other animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; +</li><li> +definitive origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>; +</li><li> +migrations of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +wide distribution of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; +</li><li> +causes of the nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +</li><li> +supposed physical inferiority of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>; +</li><li> +a member of the Catarrhine group, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>; +</li><li> +early progenitors of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +secondary sexual characters of, ii. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; +</li><li> +primeval condition of, ii. <a href="#Page_367">367</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mandans</span>, correlation of colour and texture of hair in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mandible</span>, left, enlarged in the male of <i>Taphroderes distortus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mandibles</span>, use of the, in <i>Ammophila</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +<ul><li> +large, of <i>Corydalis cornutus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +large, of male <i>Lucanus elaphus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mandrill</span>, number of caudal vertebræ in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +<ul><li> +colours of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mantegazza</span>, Prof., on the ornaments of savages, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a> <i>et seqq.</i>; +<ul><li> +on the beardlessness of the New Zealanders, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +on the exaggeration of natural characters by man, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mantell</span>, W., on the engrossment of pretty girls by the New Zealand chiefs, ii. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Mantis</i>, pugnacity of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marcus</span> Aurelius, on the origin of the moral sense, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul><li> +on the influence of habitual thoughts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Mareca penelope</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marks</span>, retained throughout groups of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marriage</span>, influence of, upon morals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>; +<ul><li> +restraints upon, among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; +</li><li> +influence of, on mortality, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>; +</li><li> +development of, ii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marriages</span>, communal, ii. <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>; +<ul><li> +early, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marshall</span>, Mr., on the brain of a Bushwoman, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marsupials</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>; +<ul><li> +possession of nipples by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>; +</li><li> +their origin from Monotremata, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>; +</li><li> +uterus of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>; +</li><li> +development of the nictitating membrane in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +abdominal sacks of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +</li><li> +relative size of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Marsupium</span>, rudimentary, in male marsupials, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Martin</span>, W. C. L., on alarm manifested by an orang at the sight of a turtle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>; +<ul><li> +on the hair in <i>Hylobates</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>; +</li><li> +on a female American deer, ii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; +</li><li> +on the voice of <i>Hylobates agilis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Semnopithecus nemæus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_312">312</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Martin</span>, on the beards of the inhabitants of St. Kilda, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Martins</span> deserting their young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Martins</span>, C., on death caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendage, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mastoid</span> processes in man and apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Maudsley</span>, Dr., on the influence of the sense of smell in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; +<ul><li> +on Laura Bridgman, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +on the development of the vocal organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mayers</span>, W. F., on the domestication of the goldfish in China, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mayhew</span>, E., on the affection between individuals of different sexes in the dog, ii. <a href="#Page_270">270</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Maynard</span>, C. J., on the sexes of <i>Chrysemys picta</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meckel</span>, on correlated variation of the muscles of the arm and leg, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Medicines</span>, effect produced by, the same in man and in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Medusæ</i>, bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Megalithic</span> structures, prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Megalophrys montana</i>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Megapicus validus</i>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Megasoma</i>, large size of males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meigs</span>, Dr. A., on variation in the skulls of the natives of America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meinecke</span>, on the numerical proportion of the sexes in butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meliphagidæ</span>, Australian, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Melita</i>, secondary sexual characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Meloë</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Memory</span>, manifestations of, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Memnon</span>, young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mental</span> characters, difference of, in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mental</span> faculties, variation of, in the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +<ul><li> +diversity of, in the same race of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +inheritance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +similarity of the, in different races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mental</span> powers, difference of, in the two sexes in man, ii. <a href="#Page_326">326</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Menura Alberti</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; +<ul><li> +song of, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Menura superba</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; +<ul><li> +long tails of both sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Merganser</span>, trachea of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mergus cucullatus</i>, speculum of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_291">291</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mergus merganser</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Merganser serrator</i>, male plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Metallura</i>, splendid tail-feathers of, ii. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Methoca ichneumonides</i>, large male of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meves</span>, M., on the drumming of the snipe, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mexicans</span>, civilisation of the, not foreign, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meyer</span>, on a convoluted body at the extremity of the tail in a <i>Macacus</i> and a cat, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Meyer</span>, Dr. A., on the copulation of phryganidæ of distinct species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Migrations</span> of man, effects of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Migratory</span> instinct of birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>; +<ul><li> +vanquishing the maternal, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mill</span>, J. S., on the origin of the moral sense, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul><li> +on the “greatest happiness principle,” i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +on the difference of the mental powers in the sexes of man, ii. <a href="#Page_328">328</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Millipedes</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Milne-Edwards</span>, H., on the use of the enlarged chela of the male <i>Gelasimus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Milvago leucurus</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mimickry</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_411">411</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mimus polyglottus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mind</span>, difference of, in man and the highest animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>; +<ul><li> +similarity of the, in different races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Minnow</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Minnows</span>, spawning habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mirror</span>, larks attracted by, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mivart</span>, St. George, on the reduction of organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>; +<ul><li> +on the ears of the lemuroidea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +on variability of the muscles in lemuroidea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; +</li><li> +on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +on the classification of the primates, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>; +</li><li> +on the orang and on man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>; +</li><li> +on differences in the lemuroidea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>; +</li><li> +on the crest of the male newt, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mocking-thrush</span>, partial migration of, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; +<ul><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Modifications</span>, unserviceable, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moles</span>, numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +<ul><li> +battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Mollienesia petenensis</i>, sexual difference in, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mollusca</span>, beautiful colours and shapes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>; +<ul><li> +absence of secondary sexual characters in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Molluscoida</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Monacanthus scopas</i> and <i>M. Peronii</i>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mongolians</span>, perfection of the senses in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monkey</span>, protecting his keeper from a baboon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>; +<ul><li> +bonnet-, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +rhesus, sexual difference in colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; +</li><li> +moustache-, colours of the, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monkeys</span>, liability of, to the same diseases as man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>; +<ul><li> +male, recognition of women by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +revenge taken by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +maternal affection in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the faculty of attention in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>; +</li><li> +using stones and sticks, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +imitative faculties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +signal-cries of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +</li><li> +sentinels posted by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +diversity of the mental faculties in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +mutual kindnesses of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; +</li><li> +hands of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +</li><li> +breaking hard fruits with stones, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +</li><li> +basal caudal vertebræ of, imbedded in the body, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>; +</li><li> +human characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +beards of, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +ornamental characters of, ii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +analogy of sexual differences of, with those of man, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +different degrees of difference in the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +</li><li> +expression of emotions by, ii. <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; +</li><li> +generally monogamous habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +polygamous habits of some, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>; +</li><li> +naked surfaces of, ii. <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; +</li><li> +American, manifestation of reason in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>; +</li><li> +American, direction of the hair on the arms of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monogamy</span>, not primitive, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monogenists</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mononychus pseudacori</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monotremata</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>; +<ul><li> +development of the nictitating membrane in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +lactiferous glands of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>; +</li><li> +connecting mammals with reptiles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monstrosities</span>, analogous, in man and lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; +<ul><li> +caused by arrest of development, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">448</a></span> +</li><li> +correlation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>; +</li><li> +transmission of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Montagu</span>, G., on the habits of the black and red grouse, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +on the pugnacity of the ruff, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +</li><li> +on the singing of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on the double moult of the male pintail, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monteiro</span>, Mr., on <i>Bucorax abyssinicus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Montes de Oca</span>, M., on the pugnacity of male Humming-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Monticola cyanea</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Monuments</span>, as traces of extinct tribes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moose</span>, battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of the, an incumbrance, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moral</span> and instinctive impulses, alliance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moral</span> faculties, their influence on natural selection in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moral</span> rules, distinction between the higher and lower, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moral</span> sense, origin of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>; +<ul><li> +so-called, derived from the social instincts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moral</span> tendencies, inheritance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Morality</span>, supposed to be founded in selfishness, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; +<ul><li> +test of, the general welfare of the community, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>; +</li><li> +gradual rise of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>; +</li><li> +influence of a high standard of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Morgan</span>, L. H., on the Beaver, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; +<ul><li> +on the reasoning powers of the Beaver, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +on the forcible capture of wives, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; +</li><li> +on the castoreum of the beaver, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +marriage unknown in primeval times, ii. <a href="#Page_359">359</a>; +</li><li> +on Polyandry, ii. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Morris</span>, F. O., on hawks feeding an orphan nestling, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mortality</span>, comparative, of females and males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Morton</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Moschus moschiferus</i>, odoriferous organs of, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Motacillæ</i>, Indian, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moths</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>; +<ul><li> +absence of mouth in some male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +</li><li> +apterous female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +</li><li> +male, prehensile use of the tarsi by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>; +</li><li> +male, attracted by females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Motmot</span>, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moult</span>, double, ii. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +double annual, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moulting</span> of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moults</span>, partial, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moustache-monkey</span>, colours of the, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Moustaches</span>, in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mud-turtle</span>, long claws of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mulattoes</span>, persistent fertility of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>; +<ul><li> +immunity of, from yellow fever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mule</span>, sterility and strong vitality of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mules</span>, rational, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Müller</span>, Ferd., on the Mexicans and Peruvians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Müller</span>, Fritz, on astomatous males of <i>Tanais</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +<ul><li> +on the disappearance of spots and stripes in adult mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportions of the sexes in some crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; +</li><li> +on secondary sexual characters in various crustaceans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_328">328</a> <i>et seqq.</i>; +</li><li> +on the luminous larva of a beetle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +musical contest between male <i>Cicadæ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexual maturity of young amphipod crustacea, ii. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Müller</span>, J., on the nictitating membrane and semilunar fold, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Müller</span>, Max, on the origin of language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul><li> +struggle for life among the words, &c., of languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Müller</span>, S., on the Banteng, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +<ul><li> +on the colours of <i>Semnopithecus chrysomelas</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Muntjac-deer</span>, weapons of the, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Murie</span>, J., on the reduction of organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>; +<ul><li> +on the ears of the Lemuroidea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +on variability of the muscles in the Lemuroidea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; +</li><li> +basal caudal vertebræ of <i>Macacus inornatus</i> imbedded in the body, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>; +</li><li> +on differences in the Lemuroidea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">449</a></span> +</li><li> +on the throat-pouch of the male Bustard, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +on the mane of <i>Otaria jubata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; +</li><li> +on the suborbital pits of Ruminants, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the sexes in <i>Otaria nigrescens</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Murray</span>, A., on the <i>Pediculi</i> of different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Murray</span>, T. A., on the fertility of Australian women with white men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mus coninga</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mus minutus</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Musca vomitoria</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Muscicapa grisola</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Muscicapa luctuosa</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Muscicapa ruticilla</i>, breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Muscle</span>, ischio-pubic, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Muscles</span>, rudimentary, occurrence of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul><li> +variability of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +effects of use and disuse upon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +animal-like abnormalities of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>; +</li><li> +correlated variation of, in the arm and leg, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>; +</li><li> +variability of, in the hands and feet, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; +</li><li> +of the jaws, influence of, on the physiognomy of the Apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +habitual spasms of, causing modifications of the facial bones, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>; +</li><li> +of the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +greater variability of the, in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Musculus sternalis</span>, Prof. Turner on the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Music</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +<ul><li> +of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +discordant, love of savages for, ii. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; +</li><li> +different appreciation of, by different peoples, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; +</li><li> +origin of, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>; +</li><li> +effects of, ii. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Musical</span> cadences, perception of, by animals, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; +<ul><li> +powers of man, ii. <a href="#Page_330">330</a> <i>et seqq.</i> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Musk-deer</span>, canine teeth of male, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; +<ul><li> +male, odoriferous organs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +</li><li> +winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Musk-duck</span>, Australian, ii. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; +<ul><li> +large size of male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; +</li><li> +of Guiana, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Musk-ox</span>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Musk-rat</span>, protective resemblance of the, to a clod of earth, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Musophagæ</i>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; +<ul><li> +both sexes of, equally brilliant, ii. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mussels</span> opened by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mustela</i>, winter change of two species of, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mutilations</span>, healing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mutilla europæa</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Mutillidæ</span>, absence of ocelli in female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Mycetes caraya</i>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +<ul><li> +vocal organs of, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; +</li><li> +beard of, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +voice of, ii. <a href="#Page_332">332</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Mycetes seniculus</i>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Myriapoda</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>N.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nägeli</span>, on the influence of natural selection on plants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>; +<ul><li> +on the gradation of species of plants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nails</span>, coloured yellow or purple in part of Africa, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Naples</span>, greater proportion of female illegitimate children in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Narwhal</span>, tusks of the, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nasal</span> cavities, large size of, in American aborigines, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nascent</span> organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_18">18</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nathusius</span>, H. von, on the improved breeds of pigs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +<ul><li> +on the breeding of domestic animals, ii. <a href="#Page_370">370</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Natural</span> selection, its effects on the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, on man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>; +</li><li> +limitation of the principle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>; +</li><li> +influence of, on social animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>; +</li><li> +Mr. Wallace on the limitation of, by the influence of the mental faculties in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>; +</li><li> +influence of, in the progress of the United States, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Natural</span> and sexual selection contrasted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Naulette</span>, jaw from, large size of the canines in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Neanderthal</span> skull, capacity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Neck</span>, proportion of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">450</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Necrophorus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Nectarinia</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Nectariniæ</i>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; +<ul><li> +moulting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Negro</span>, resemblance of a, to Europeans, in mental characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Negro-women</span>, their kindness to Mungo Park, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Negroes</span>, character of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +<ul><li> +lice of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +blackness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_381">381</a>; +</li><li> +variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +immunity of, from yellow fever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; +</li><li> +difference of, from Americans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +disfigurements of the, ii. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>; +</li><li> +colour of newborn children of, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +comparative beardlessness of, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +readily become musicians, ii. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; +</li><li> +appreciation of beauty of their women by, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; +</li><li> +idea of beauty among, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>; +</li><li> +compression of the nose by some, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Neolithic</span> period, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Neomorpha</i>, sexual difference of the beak in, ii. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Nephila</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nests</span>, made by fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul><li> +decoration of, by Humming-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Neumeister</span>, on a change of colour in pigeons after several moultings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Neuration</span>, difference of, in the two sexes of some butterflies and hymenoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Neuroptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Neurothemis</i>, dimorphism in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">New Zealand</span>, expectation by the natives of, of their extinction, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>; +<ul><li> +practice of tattooing in, ii. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +aversion of natives of, to hairs on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +pretty girls engrossed by the chiefs in, ii. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Newton</span>, A., on the throat-pouch of the male bustard, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +<ul><li> +on the difference between the females of two species of <i>Oxynotus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of the phalarope, dotterel, and godwit, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Newts</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nicholson</span>, Dr., on the non-immunity of dark Europeans from yellow fever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nictitating</span> membrane, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nidification</span>, of fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul><li> +relation of, to colour, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +</li><li> +of British birds, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Night-heron</span>, cries of the, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nightingale</span>, arrival of the male before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>; +<ul><li> +object of the song of the, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nightingales</span>, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nightjar</span>, selection of a mate by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; +<ul><li> +Australian, sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nightjars</span>, noise made by some male, with their wings, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +<ul><li> +elongated feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nilghau</span>, sexual differences of colour in the, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nilsson</span>, Prof., on the resemblance of stone arrow-heads from various places, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>; +<ul><li> +on the development of the horns in the reindeer, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nipples</span>, absence of, in Monotremata, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nitzsch</span>, C. L., on the down of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Noctuæ</span>, brightly-coloured beneath, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Noctuidæ</span>, coloration of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nordmann</span>, A., on <i>Tetrao urogalloides</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nomadic</span> habits, unfavourable to human progress, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Norway</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nose</span>, resemblance of, in man and the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +<ul><li> +piercing and ornamentation of the, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; +</li><li> +flattening of the, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; +</li><li> +very flat, not admired in negroes, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nott</span> and Gliddon, on the features of Rameses II., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; +<ul><li> +on the features of Amunoph III., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +on skulls from Brazilian caves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +on the immunity of negroes and mulattoes from yellow fever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; +</li><li> +on the deformation of the skull among American tribes, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nudibranch</span> mollusca, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Numerals</span>, Roman, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Nunemaya</span>, natives of, bearded, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">451</a></span> +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>O.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Obedience</span>, value of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Observation</span>, powers of, possessed by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Occupations</span>, sometimes a cause of diminished stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +<ul><li> +effect of, upon the proportions of the body, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ocelli</span>, absence of, in female Mutillidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ocelli</span> of birds, formation and variability of the, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ocelot</span>, sexual differences in the colouring of the, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ocyphaps lophotes</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Odonata</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Odonestis potatoria</i>, sexual difference of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Odour</span>, correlation of, with colour of skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>; +<ul><li> +emitted by snakes in the breeding-season, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; +</li><li> +of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Œcanthus nivalis</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oidemia</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Olivier</span>, on sounds produced by <i>Pimelia striata</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Omaloplia brunnea</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Onitis furcifer</i>, processes of anterior femora of the male, and on the head and thorax of the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_372">372</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Onthophagus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Onthophagus rangifer</i>, sexual differences of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>; +<ul><li> +variation in the horns of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ophidia</span>, sexual differences of, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Opossum</span>, wide range of, in America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Optic</span> nerve, atrophy of the, caused by destruction of the eye, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Orang-Outan</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +<ul><li> +Bischoff on the agreement of the brain of the, with that of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>; +</li><li> +adult age of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +</li><li> +ears of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>; +</li><li> +vermiform appendage of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>; +</li><li> +platforms built by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>; +</li><li> +alarmed at the sight of a turtle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>; +</li><li> +using a stick as a lever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +using missiles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +using the leaves of the <i>Pandanus</i> as a night covering, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +hands of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; +</li><li> +absence of mastoid processes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +direction of the hair on the arms of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; +</li><li> +its aberrant characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>; +</li><li> +supposed evolution of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +voice of the, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; +</li><li> +monogamous habits of the, ii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +male, beard of the, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Oranges</span>, treatment of, by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Orange-tip</span> butterfly, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Orchestia Darwinii</i>, dimorphism of males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Orchestia Tucuratinga</i>, limbs of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ordeal</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oreas canna</i>, colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oreas Derbyanus</i>, colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Organs</span>, prehensile, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>; +<ul><li> +utilised for new purposes, ii. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Organic</span> scale, von Baer’s definition of progress in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Orioles</span>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oriolus</i>, species of, breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oriolus melanocephalus</i>, coloration of the sexes in, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ornaments</span>, prevalence of similar, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>; +<ul><li> +fondness of savages for, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; +</li><li> +of male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ornamental</span> characters, equal transmission of, to both sexes, in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_297">297</a>; +<ul><li> +of monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ornithoptera crœsus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>; +<ul><li> +spur of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +reptilian tendency of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Orocetes erythrogastra</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Orrony</span>, Grotto of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Orsodacna atra</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Orthoptera</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>; +<ul><li> +metamorphosis of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>; +</li><li> +stridulating, auditory apparatus of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; +</li><li> +colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; +</li><li> +rudimentary stridulating organs in female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_359">359</a>; +</li><li> +stridulation of the, and Homoptera, discussed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Ortygornis gularis</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oryctes</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences in the stridulant organs of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_383">383</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">452</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Oryx leucoryx</i>, use of the horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Osphranter rufus</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ostrich</span>, African, sexes and incubation of the, ii. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ostriches</span>, stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Otaria jubata</i>, mane of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Otaria nigrescens</i>, difference in the coloration of the sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Otis bengalensis</i>, love-antics of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Otis tarda</i>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +throat-pouch of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ouzel</span>, ring-, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ouzel</span>, water-, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ovipositor</span> of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ovis cycloceros</i>, mode of fighting of, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ovule</span> of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Owen</span>, Prof., on the Corpora Wolffiana, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +<ul><li> +on the great toe in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +</li><li> +on the nictitating membrane and semilunar fold, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +on the development of the posterior molars in different races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>; +</li><li> +on the length of the cæcum in the Koala, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>; +</li><li> +on the coccygeal vertebræ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +on rudimentary structures belonging to the reproductive system, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>; +</li><li> +on abnormal conditions of the human uterus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; +</li><li> +on the number of digits in the Ichthyopterygia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>; +</li><li> +on the canine teeth in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on the walking of the chimpanzee and orang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; +</li><li> +on the mastoid processes in the higher apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +on the hairiness of elephants in elevated districts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +</li><li> +on the caudal vertebræ of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +classification of mammalia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>; +</li><li> +on the hair in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>; +</li><li> +on the piscine affinities of the Ichthyosaurians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +on polygamy and monogamy among the antelopes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of <i>Antilocapra americana</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on the musky odour of crocodiles during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +on the scent-glands of snakes, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; +</li><li> +on the Dugong, Cachalot and <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +on the antlers of the red deer, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +</li><li> +on the dentition of the camelidæ, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; +</li><li> +on the tusks of the Mammoth, ii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of the Irish elk, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; +</li><li> +on the voice in the giraffe, porcupine, and stag, ii. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; +</li><li> +on the laryngeal sac of the gorilla and orang, ii. <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; +</li><li> +on the odoriferous glands of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +</li><li> +on the effects of emasculation on the vocal organs of men, ii. <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; +</li><li> +on the voice of <i>Hylobates agilis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_332">332</a>; +</li><li> +on American monogamous monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Owls</span>, white, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Oxynotus</i>, difference of the females of two species of, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>P.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pachydermata</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Paget</span>, on the abnormal development of hairs in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; +<ul><li> +on the thickness of the skin on the soles of the feet of infants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Painting</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Palæmon</i>, chelæ of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Palæornis</i>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Palæornis Javanicus</i>, colour of beak of, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Palæornis rosa</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Palamedea cornuta</i>, spurs on the wings, ii. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Paleolithic</span> period, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Palestine</span>, habits of the chaffinch in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pallas</span>, on the perfection of the senses in the Mongolians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul><li> +on the want of connexion between climate and the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +on the polygamous habits of <i>Antilope Saiga</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +</li><li> +on the lighter colour of horses and cattle in winter in Siberia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +on the tusks of the musk-deer, ii. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; +</li><li> +on the odoriferous glands of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +on the odoriferous glands of the musk-deer, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">453</a></span> +</li><li> +on winter changes of colour in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; +</li><li> +on the ideal of female beauty in North China, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Palmaris accessorius</i> muscle, variations of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pampas</span>, horses of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pangenesis</span>, hypothesis of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Panniculus</span> carnosus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Papilio</i>, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in North American species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of the wings in species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Papilio ascanius</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Papilio Sesostris</i> and <i>Childrenæ</i>, variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Papilio Turnus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Papilionidæ</span>, variability in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Papuans</span>, line of separation between the, and the Malays, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +<ul><li> +beards of the, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +hair of, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Papuans</span> and Malays, contrast in characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Paradise</span>, Birds of, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +supposed by Lesson to be polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +rattling of their quills by, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +racket-shaped feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences in colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>; +</li><li> +decomposed feathers in, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Paradisea apoda</i>, barbless feathers in the tail of, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +and <i>P. papuana</i>, divergence of the females of, ii. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Paradisea rubra</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Paraguay</span>, Indians of, eradication of eyebrows and eyelashes by, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parrakeet</span>, Australian, variation in the colour of the thighs of a male, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parallelism</span> of development of species and languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parasites</span> on man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>; +<ul><li> +as evidence of specific identity or distinctness, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>; +</li><li> +immunity from, correlated with colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parental</span> affection, partly a result of natural selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parents</span>, age of, influence upon sex of offspring, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parinæ</span>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Park</span>, Mungo, negro-women teaching their children to love the truth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>; +<ul><li> +his treatment by the negro-women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>; +</li><li> +on negro opinions of the appearance of white men, ii. <a href="#Page_346">346</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parrot</span>, racket-shaped feathers in the tail of a, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +<ul><li> +instance of benevolence in a, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parrots</span>, imitative faculties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>; +<ul><li> +change of colour in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>; +</li><li> +living in triplets, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +</li><li> +affection of, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; +</li><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>; +</li><li> +colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; +</li><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; +</li><li> +musical powers of, ii. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Parthenogenesis</span> in the Tenthredinæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +in Cynipidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +</li><li> +in crustacea, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Partridge</span>, monogamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +female, ii. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +“<span class="smcap">Partridge-dances</span>,” ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Partridges</span>, living in triplets, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul><li> +spring coveys of male, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; +</li><li> +distinguishing persons, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Parus cæruleus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Passer</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Passer brachydactylus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Passer domesticus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Passer montanus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Patagonians</span>, self-sacrifice by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Patterson</span>, Mr., on the AGRIONIDÆ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Paulistas</span> of Brazil, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pavo cristatus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>; ii. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pavo muticus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; +<ul><li> +possession of spurs by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Pavo nigripennis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Payaguas</span> Indians, thin legs and thick arms of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Payan</span>, Mr., on the proportion of the sexes in sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Peacock</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of the, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +rattling of the quills by, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +</li><li> +elongated tail-coverts of the, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +love of display of the, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +ocellated spots of the, ii. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">454</a></span> +</li><li> +inconvenience of long tail of the, to the female, ii. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; +</li><li> +continued increase of beauty of the, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Peacock-butterfly</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Peafowl</span>, preference of females for a particular male, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>; +<ul><li> +first advances made by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Pediculi</i> of domestic animals and man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pedigree</span> of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pedionomus torquatus</i>, sexes of, ii. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Peewit</span>, wing-tubercles of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pelagic</span> animals, transparency of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_323">323</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pelecanus erythrorhynchus</i>, horny crest on the beak of the male, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pelecanus onocrotalus</i>, spring plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pelelé</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pelican</span>, blind, fed by his companions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +<ul><li> +young, guided by old birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pelicans</span>, fishing in concert, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pelobius Hermanni</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pelvis</span>, alteration of, to suit the erect attitude of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +<ul><li> +differences of the, in the sexes in man, ii. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Penelope nigra</i>, sound produced by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pennant</span>, on the battles of seals, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +<ul><li> +on the bladder-nose seal, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Penthe</i>, antennal cushions of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Perch</span>, brightness of male, during breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Peregrine</span> Falcon, new mate found by, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Period</span> of variability, relation of, to sexual selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Periodicity</span>, vital, Dr. Laycock on, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Periods</span>, lunar, followed by functions in man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Periods</span> of life, inheritance at corresponding, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Perisoreus canadensis</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Peritrichia</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Periwinkle</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pernis cristata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Perseverance</span>, a characteristic of man, ii. <a href="#Page_328">328</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Persians</span>, said to be improved by intermixture with Georgians and Circassians, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Personnat</span>, M., on <i>Bombyx Yamamai</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Peruvians</span>, civilisation of the, not foreign, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Petrels</span>, colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Petrocincla cyanea</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Petronia</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pfeiffer</span>, Ida, on Javanese ideas of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phacochœrus æthiopicus</i>, tusks and pads of, ii. <a href="#Page_265">265</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Phalanger</span>, Vulpine, black varieties of the, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phalaropus fulicarius</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_2">203</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phalaropus hyperboreus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phanæus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phanæus carnifex</i>, variation of the horns of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phanæus faunus</i>, sexual differences of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_369">369</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phanæus lancifer</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phasgonura viridissima</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phasianus Sœmmerringii</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phasianus versicolor</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phasianus Wallichii</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Phasmidæ</span>, mimickry of leaves by the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +production of hybrids with the common fowl, ii. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; +</li><li> +and black grouse, hybrids of, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Argus, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +<ul><li> +display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; +</li><li> +ocellated spots of the, ii. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of characters in the, ii. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Blood-, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Cheer, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Eared, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>; +<ul><li> +sexes alike in the, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; +</li><li> +length of the tail in the, ii. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Golden, display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; +<ul><li> +sex of young, ascertained by pulling out head-feathers, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +age of mature plumage in the, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Kalij, drumming of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Reeve’s, length of the tail in, ii. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Silver, sexual coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>; +<ul><li> +triumphant male, deposed on account of spoiled plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Sœmmerring’s, ii. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasant</span>, Tragopan, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul><li> +display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; +</li><li> +markings of the sexes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pheasants</span>, period of acquisition of male characters in the family of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of sexes in chicks of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +length of the tail in, ii. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Philodromus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Philters</span>, worn by women, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>, sexual difference in the coloration of, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phœnicura ruticilla</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Phosphorescence</span> of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Phryganidæ</span>, copulation of distinct species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Phryniscus nigricans</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Physical</span> inferiority, supposed, of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pickering</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Picton</span>, J. A., on the soul of man, ii. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Picus auratus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pieridæ</span>, mimickry by female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_413">413</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pieris</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pigeon</span>, carrier, late development of the wattle in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; +<ul><li> +domestic, breeds and sub-breeds of, ii. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; +</li><li> +pouter, late development of the crop in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; +</li><li> +female, deserting a weakened mate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pigeons</span>, nestling, fed by the secretion of the crop of both parents, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>; +<ul><li> +changes of plumage in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>; +</li><li> +transmission of sexual peculiarities in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +changing colour after several moultings, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +cooing of, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +variations in plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +display of plumage by male, ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +</li><li> +local memory of, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +antipathy of female, to certain males, ii. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +pairing of, ii. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; +</li><li> +profligate male and female, ii. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; +</li><li> +wing-bars and tail-feathers of, ii. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; +</li><li> +supposititious breed of, ii. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; +</li><li> +pouter and carrier, peculiarities of predominant in males, ii. <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; +</li><li> +nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +</li><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; +</li><li> +Australian, ii. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>; +</li><li> +Belgian, with black-streaked males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; ii. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pigs</span>, origin of the improved breeds of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +<ul><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +</li><li> +stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>; +</li><li> +sexual preference shown by, ii. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pike</span>, American, brilliant colours of the male, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pike</span>, male, devoured by females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pike</span>, L. O., on the psychical elements of religion, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pimelia striata</i>, sounds produced by the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_385">385</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pintail</span> Drake, plumage of, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing with a wild duck, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pintail</span> Duck, pairing with a Wigeon, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pipe-fish</span>, filamentous, ii. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; +<ul><li> +marsupial receptacles of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pipits</span>, moulting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pipra</i>, modified secondary wing-feathers of male, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pipra deliciosa</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pirates stridulus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pithecia leucocephala</i>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pithecia Satanas</i>, beard of, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>; +<ul><li> +resemblance of, to a negro, ii. <a href="#Page_381">381</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pits</span>, suborbital, of Ruminants, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pittidæ</span>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Placentata</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plagiostomous</span> fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plain-wanderer</span>, Australian, ii. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">456</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Planariæ</i>, bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plantain-eaters</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; +<ul><li> +both sexes of, equally brilliant, ii. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plants</span>, cultivated, more fertile than wild, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>; +<ul><li> +Nägeli, on natural selection in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>; +</li><li> +male flowers of, mature before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +phenomena of fertilisation in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>; +</li><li> +relation between number and size of seeds in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Platalea</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +<ul><li> +change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Platyblemnus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Platycercus</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Platyphyllum concavum</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Platyrrhine</span> monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Platysma</span> <i>myoides</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Plecostomus</i>, head-tentacles of the male of a species of, ii. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Plecostomus barbatus</i>, peculiar beard of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Plectropterus gambensis</i>, spurred wings of, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ploceus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plovers</span>, wing-spurs of, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +<ul><li> +double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plumage</span>, changes of, inheritance of, by fowls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>; +<ul><li> +tendency to analogous variation in, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +display of, by male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +</li><li> +changes of, in relation to season, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +</li><li> +immature, of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>; +</li><li> +colour of, in relation to protection, ii. <a href="#Page_223">223</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Plumes</span> on the head in birds, difference of, in the sexes, ii. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pneumora</i>, structure of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Podica</i>, sexual difference in the colour of the irides of, ii. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Poeppig</span>, on the contact of civilised and savage races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Poison</span>, avoidance of, by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Poisonous</span> fruits and herbs avoided by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Poisons</span>, immunity from, correlated with colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polish</span> fowls, origin of the crest in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pollen</span> and van Dam, on the colours of <i>Lemur macaco</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polyandry</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>; +<ul><li> +in certain cyprinidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +</li><li> +among the elateridæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polydactylism</span> in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polygamy</span>, influence of, upon sexual selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>; +<ul><li> +superinduced by domestication, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +</li><li> +supposed increase of female births by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>; +</li><li> +in the stickleback, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polygenists</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polynesia</span>, prevalence of infanticide in, ii. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polynesians</span>, aversion of, to hairs on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +<ul><li> +wide geographical range of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +difference of stature among the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +crosses of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +heterogeneity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Polyplectron</i>, display of plumage by the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>; +<ul><li> +number of spurs in, ii. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of characters in, ii. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>; +</li><li> +female of, ii. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Polyplectron chinquis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Polyplectron Hardwickii</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Polyplectron malaccense</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Polyplectron Napoleonis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Polyzoa</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pontoporeia affinis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Porcupine</span>, mute, except in the rutting season, ii. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pores</span>, excretory, numerical relation of, to the hairs in sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Porpitæ</i>, bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Portax picta</i>, dorsal crest and throat-tuft of, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Portunus puber</i>, pugnacity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Potamochoerus penicillatus</i>, tusks and facial knobs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pouchet</span>, G., on the ratio of instinct and intelligence, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; +<ul><li> +on the instincts of ants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>; +</li><li> +on the caves of Abou-Simbel, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; +</li><li> +on the immunity of negroes from yellow fever, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pouter</span> pigeon, late development of the large crop in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Power</span>, Dr., on the different colours of the sexes in a species of <i>Squilla</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Powys</span>, Mr., on the habits of the chaffinch in Corfu, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pre-eminence</span> of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">457</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Preference</span> for males by female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; +<ul><li> +shown by mammals, in pairing, ii. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Prehensile</span> organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Presbytis entellus</i>, fighting of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Preyer</span>, Dr., on supernumerary mammæ in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Prichard</span>, on the difference of stature among the Polynesians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>; +<ul><li> +on the connection between the breadth of the skull in the Mongolians and the perfection of their senses, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +</li><li> +on the capacity of British skulls of different ages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +</li><li> +on the flattened heads of the Colombian savages, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +on Siamese notions of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +on the beardlessness of the Siamese, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +on the deformation of the head among American tribes and the natives of Arakhan, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Primary</span> sexual organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Primates</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Primogeniture</span>, evils of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Primula</i>, relation between number and size of seeds in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_317">317</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Prionidæ</span>, difference of the sexes in colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Proctotretus multimaculatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Proctotretus tenuis</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Profligacy</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Progenitors</span>, early, of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Progress</span>, not the normal rule in human society, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>; +<ul><li> +elements of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Prong-horn</span>, horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Proportions</span>, difference of, in distinct races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Protective</span> colouring in butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>; +<ul><li> +in lizards, ii. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; +</li><li> +in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; +</li><li> +in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Protective</span> nature of the dull colouring of female Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Protective</span> resemblances in fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Protozoa</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pruner-Bey</span>, on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul><li> +on the colour of negro infants, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Prussia</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Psocus</i>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ptarmigan</span>, monogamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +summer and winter plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +</li><li> +nuptial assemblages of, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; +</li><li> +triple moult of the, ii. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +protective coloration of, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Puff-birds</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pugnacity</span> of fine-plumaged male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pumas</span>, stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Puppies</span> learning from cats to clean their faces, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pycnonotus hæmorrhous</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; +<ul><li> +display of under tail coverts by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Pyranga æstiva</i>, male aiding in incubation, ii. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Pyrodes</i>, difference of the sexes in colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>Q.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Quadrumana</span>, hands of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>; +<ul><li> +differences between man and the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +dependence of, on climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +ornamental characters of, ii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +analogy of sexual differences of, with those of man, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +fighting of males for the females, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +</li><li> +monogamous habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +beards of the, ii. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Quain</span>, R., on the variation of the muscles in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Quatrefages</span>, A. de, on the occurrence of a rudimentary tail in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul><li> +on the moral sense as a distinction between man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>; +</li><li> +on variability, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +on the fertility of Australian women with white men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>; +</li><li> +on the Paulistas of Brazil, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +on the evolution of the breeds of cattle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +on the Jews, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +on the liability of negroes to tropical fevers after residence in a cold climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span> +</li><li> +on the difference between field- and house-slaves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +on the influence of climate on colour, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +on the Ainos, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +on the women of San-Giuliano, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Quechua</span> Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>; +<ul><li> +local variation of colour in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>; +</li><li> +no grey hair among the, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +</li><li> +hairlessness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +long hair of the, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Querquedula acuta</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Quiscalus major</i>, proportions of the sexes of, in Florida and Honduras, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>R.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rabbit</span>, white tail of the, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rabbits</span>, danger-signals of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +domestic, elongation of the skull in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>; +</li><li> +modification of the skull in, by the lopping of the ear, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Races</span>, distinctive characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; +<ul><li> +or species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; +</li><li> +crossed, fertility or sterility of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>; +</li><li> +of man, variability of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +of man, resemblance of, in mental characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +</li><li> +formation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>; +</li><li> +of man, extinction of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; +</li><li> +effects of the crossing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +of man, formation of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +of man, children of the, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +beardless, aversion of, to hairs on the face, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Raffles</span>, Sir S., on the Banteng, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rafts</span>, use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rage</span>, manifested by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Raia batis</i>, teeth of, ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Raia clavata</i>, female spined on the back, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference in the teeth of, ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Raia maculata</i>, teeth of, ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rails</span>, spur-winged, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ram</span>, mode of fighting of the, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +<ul><li> +African, mane of an, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>; +</li><li> +fat-tailed, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rameses</span> II., i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ramsay</span>, Mr., on the Australian Musk-duck, ii. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Regent-bird, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +on the incubation of <i>Menura superba</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Rana esculenta</i>, vocal sacs of, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rat</span>, common, general dispersion of, a consequence of superior cunning, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>; +<ul><li> +supplantation of the native, in New Zealand, by the European rat, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +common, said to be polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rats</span>, enticed by essential oils, ii. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rationality</span> of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rattle-snakes</span>, difference of the sexes in the, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +said to use their rattles as a sexual call, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Raven</span>, vocal organs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +<ul><li> +stealing bright objects, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +pied, of the Feroe Islands, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rays</span>, prehensile organs of male, ii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Razor-bill</span>, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reade</span>, Winwood, on the Guinea sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>; +<ul><li> +non-development of horns in castrated male Guinea sheep, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +on the occurrence of a mane in an African ram, ii. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>; +</li><li> +on the negroes’ appreciation of the beauty of their women, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +on the admiration of negroes for a black skin, ii. <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; +</li><li> +on the idea of beauty among negroes, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>; +</li><li> +on the Jollofs, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>; +</li><li> +on the marriage-customs of the negroes, ii. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reason</span>, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Redstart</span>, American, breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Redstarts</span>, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reduvidæ</span>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reed-bunting</span>, head-feathers of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>; +<ul><li> +attacked by a bullfinch, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reefs</span>, fishes frequenting, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Regeneration</span>, partial, of lost parts in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Regent-bird</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reindeer</span>, antlers of, with numerous points, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual preferences shown by, ii. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>; +</li><li> +horns of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>; +</li><li> +battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +horns of the female, ii. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Relationship</span>, terms of, ii. <a href="#Page_360">360</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Religion</span>, deficiency of, among certain races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul><li> +psychical elements of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Remorse</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>; +<ul><li> +deficiency of, among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rengger</span>, on the diseases of <i>Cebus Azaræ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>; +<ul><li> +on maternal affection in a <i>Cebus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +revenge taken by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +on the reasoning powers of American monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>; +</li><li> +on the use of stones by monkeys for cracking hard nuts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +on the sounds uttered by <i>Cebus Azaræ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +on the signal-cries of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +</li><li> +on the diversity of the mental faculties of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +on the Payaguas Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>; +</li><li> +on the inferiority of Europeans to savages in their senses, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +on the polygamous habits of <i>Mycetes caraya</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +on the voice of the howling monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>; +</li><li> +on the odour of <i>Cervus campestris</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>; +</li><li> +on the beards of <i>Mycetes caraya</i> and <i>Pithecia Satanas</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Felis mitis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Cervus paludosus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences of colour in <i>Mycetes</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>; +</li><li> +on the colour of the infant Guaranys, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +on the early maturity of the female of <i>Cebus azaræ</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +on the beards of the Guaranys, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; +</li><li> +on the emotional notes employed by monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; +</li><li> +on American polygamous monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Representative</span> species, of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reproduction</span>, unity of phenomena of, throughout the mammalia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +period of, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reproductive</span> system, rudimentary structures in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +<ul><li> +accessory parts of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reptiles</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reptiles</span> and birds, alliance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Resemblances</span>, small, between man and the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Retrievers</span>, exercise of reasoning faculties by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Revenge</span>, manifested by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Reversion</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>; +<ul><li> +perhaps the cause of some bad dispositions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Rhagium</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ramphastos carinatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span>, nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +horns of, used defensively, ii. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; +</li><li> +attacking white or grey horses, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Rhynchæa</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Rhynchæa australis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Rhynchæa bengalensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Rhynchæa capensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rhythm</span>, perception of, by animals, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Richard</span>, M., on rudimentary muscles in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Richardson</span>, Sir J., on the pairing of <i>Tetrao umbellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul><li> +on <i>Tetrao urophasianus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; +</li><li> +on the drumming of grouse, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +</li><li> +on the dances of <i>Tetrao phasianellus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; +</li><li> +on assemblages of grouse, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; +</li><li> +on the battles of male deer, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +on the reindeer, ii. <a href="#Page_244">244</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of the musk-ox, ii. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +on antlers of the reindeer with numerous points, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +</li><li> +on the moose, ii. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Richardson</span>, on the Scotch deerhound, ii. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Richter</span>, Jean Paul, on imagination, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Riedel</span>, on profligate female pigeons, ii. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ring-ouzel</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ripa</span>, Father, on the difficulty of distinguishing the races of the Chinese, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rivalry</span>, in singing, between male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">River-hog</span>, African, tusks and knobs of the, ii. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rivers</span>, analogy of, to islands, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Roach</span>, brightness of male during breeding-season, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Robbery</span>, of strangers, considered honourable, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Robertson</span>, Mr., remarks on the development of the horns in the roebuck and red-deer, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_288">288</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">460</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Robin</span>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>; +<ul><li> +autumn song of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +female, singing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; +</li><li> +attacking other birds with red in their plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>; +</li><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Robinet</span>, on the difference of size of the male and female cocoons of the silk-moth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rodents</span>, uterus in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; +<ul><li> +absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences in the colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Roe</span>, winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rolle</span>, F., on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +<ul><li> +on a change in German families settled in Georgia, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Roller</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Romans</span>, ancient, gladiatorial exhibitions of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rook</span>, voice of the, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rössler</span>, Dr., on the resemblance of the lower surface of butterflies to the bark of trees, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rostrum</span>, sexual difference in the length of, in some weevils, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rudimentary</span> organs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>; +<ul><li> +origin of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rudiments</span>, presence of, in languages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rudolph</span>, on the want of connexion between climate and the colour of the skin, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ruff</span>, supposed to be polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +pugnacity of the, ii. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +</li><li> +duration of dances of, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; +</li><li> +attraction of the, to bright objects, ii. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ruminants</span>, male, disappearance of canine teeth in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_325">325</a>; +<ul><li> +generally polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +analogy of Lamellicorn beetles to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_373">373</a>; +</li><li> +suborbital pits of, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Rupicola crocea</i>, display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rüppell</span>, on canine teeth in deer and antelopes, ii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Russia</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Ruticilla</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rütimeyer</span>, Prof., on the physiognomy of the apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; +<ul><li> +on the sexual differences of monkeys, ii. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rutlandshire</span>, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>S.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sachs</span>, Prof., on the behaviour of the male and female elements in fertilisation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sacrifices</span>, Human, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sagittal</span> crest in male apes and Australians, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sahara</span>, birds of the, ii. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +<ul><li> +animal inhabitants of the, ii. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sailors</span>, growth of, delayed by conditions of life, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>; +<ul><li> +long-sighted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sailors</span> and soldiers, difference in the proportions of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">St. John</span>, Mr., on the attachment of mated birds, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">St. Kilda</span>, beards of the inhabitants of, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Salmo eriox</i>, and <i>S. umbla</i>, colouring of the male, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Salmo lycaodon</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Salmo salar</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Salmon</span>, leaping out of fresh water, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>; +<ul><li> +male, ready to breed before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +</li><li> +proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; +</li><li> +male, pugnacity of the, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; +</li><li> +male, characters of, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; +</li><li> +spawning of the, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +</li><li> +breeding of immature male, ii. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Salvin</span>, O., on the Humming-birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>; +<ul><li> +on the numerical proportion of the sexes in Humming-birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Chamæpetes</i> and <i>Penelope</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Selasphorus platycercus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Pipra deliciosa</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Chasmorhynchus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Samoa</span> Islands, beardlessness of the natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sand-skipper</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_334">334</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sandwich</span> Islands, variation in the skulls of the natives of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">461</a></span> +</li><li> +superiority of the nobles in the, ii. <a href="#Page_356">356</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sandwich</span> Islanders, lice of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">San-Giuliano</span>, women of, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Santali</span>, recent rapid increase of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; +<ul><li> +Mr. Hunter on the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Saphirina</i>, characters of the males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sarkidiornis melanonotus</i>, characters of the young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sars</span>, O., on <i>Pontoporeia offinis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_329">329</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Saturnia carpini</i>, attraction of males by the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Saturnia Io</i>, difference of coloration in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Saturniidæ</span>, coloration of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Savage</span>, Dr., on the fighting of the male gorillas, ii. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +on the habits of the gorilla, ii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Savage</span> and Wyman, on the polygamous habits of the gorilla, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Savages</span>, imitative faculties of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_161">161</a>; +<ul><li> +causes of low morality of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +uniformity of, exaggerated, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; +</li><li> +long-sighted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +rate of increase among, usually small, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>; +</li><li> +retention of the prehensile power of the feet by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_142">142</a>; +</li><li> +tribes of, supplanting one another, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>; +</li><li> +improvements in the arts among, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; +</li><li> +arts of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; +</li><li> +fondness of, for rough music, ii. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; +</li><li> +attention paid by, to personal appearance, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; +</li><li> +relation of the sexes among, ii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Saw-fly</span>, pugnacity of a male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Saw-flies</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Saxicola rubicola</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scalp</span>, motion of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scent-glands</span> in snakes, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schaaffhausen</span>, Prof., on the development of the posterior molars in different races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>; +<ul><li> +on the jaw from La Naulette, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; +</li><li> +on the correlation between muscularity and prominent supra-orbital ridges, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>; +</li><li> +on the mastoid processes of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>; +</li><li> +on modifications of the cranial bones, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>; +</li><li> +on human sacrifices, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; +</li><li> +on the probable speedy extermination of the anthropomorphous apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; +</li><li> +on the ancient inhabitants of Europe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; +</li><li> +on the effects of use and disuse of parts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; +</li><li> +on the superciliary ridge in man, ii. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; +</li><li> +on the absence of race-differences in the infant skull in man, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +on ugliness, ii. <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schaum</span>, H., on the elytra of <i>Dytiscus</i> and <i>Hydroporus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schelver</span>, on dragon-flies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_363">363</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schiodte</span>, on the stridulation of <i>Heterocerus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schlegel</span>, F. von, on the complexity of the languages of uncivilised peoples, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schlegel</span>, Prof., on <i>Tanysiptera</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schleicher</span>, Prof., on the origin of language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schleiden</span>, Prof., on the rattle-snake, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schomburgk</span>, Sir R., on the pugnacity of the male musk-duck of Guiana, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; +<ul><li> +on the courtship of <i>Rupicola crocea</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Schoolcraft</span>, Mr., on the difficulty of fashioning stone implements, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sclater</span>, P. L., on modified secondary wing-feathers in the males of <i>Pipra</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul><li> +on elongated feathers in nightjars, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; +</li><li> +on the species of <i>Chasmorhynchus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; +</li><li> +on the plumage of <i>Pelecanus onocrotalus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +</li><li> +on the plantain-eaters, ii. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes and young of <i>Tadorna variegata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Lemur macaco</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +on the stripes in asses, ii. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scolecida</span>, absence of secondary sexual characters in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_321">321</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Scolopax frenata</i>, tail-feathers of, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Scolopax gallinago</i>, drumming of, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Scolopax javensis</i>, tail-feathers of, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Scolopax major</i>, assemblies of, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Scolopax Wilsonii</i>, sound produced by, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Scolytus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scoter-duck</span>, black, sexual difference in coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>; +<ul><li> +bright beak of male, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scott</span>, J., on the colour of the beard in man, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scrope</span>, on the pugnacity of the male salmon, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; +<ul><li> +on the battles of stags, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Scudder</span>, S. H., imitation of the stridulation of the Orthoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>; +<ul><li> +on the stridulation of the ACRIDIIDÆ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>; +</li><li> +on a Devonian insect, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; +</li><li> +on stridulation, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sculpture</span>, expression of the ideal of beauty by, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sea-anemonies</span>, bright colours of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sea-bear</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sea-elephant</span>, male, structure of the nose of the, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; +<ul><li> +polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sea-lion</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Seal</span>, bladder-nose, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Seals</span>, their sentinels generally females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +evidence furnished by, on classification, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +sexual differences in the coloration of, ii. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; +</li><li> +appreciation of music by, ii. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>; +</li><li> +battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +canine teeth of male, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +polygamous habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; +</li><li> +pairing of, ii. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; +</li><li> +sexual peculiarities of, ii. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sea-scorpion</span>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Season</span>, changes of colour in birds, in accordance with the, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>; +<ul><li> +changes of plumage of birds in relation to, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Seasons</span>, inheritance at corresponding, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sebituani</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sebright</span> Bantam, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Secondary</span> sexual characters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; +<ul><li> +relations of polygamy to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; +</li><li> +transmitted through both sexes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sedgwick</span>, W., on hereditary tendency to produce twins, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Seemann</span>, Dr., on the different appreciation of music by different peoples, ii. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; +<ul><li> +on the effects of music, ii. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Selasphorus platycercus</i>, acuminate first primary of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Selby</span>, P. J., on the habits of the black and red grouse, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Selection</span>, double, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Selection</span> of male by female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Selection</span>, methodical, of Prussian grenadiers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Selection</span>, sexual, influence of, on the colouring of Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>; +<ul><li> +explanation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Selection</span>, sexual and natural, contrasted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Self-command</span>, habit of, inherited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_92">92</a>; +<ul><li> +estimation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Self-consciousness</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Self-preservation</span>, instinct of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Self-sacrifice</span>, by savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>; +<ul><li> +estimation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Semilunar</span> fold, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>; +<ul><li> +long hair on the heads of species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>; ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus chrysomelas</i>, sexual differences of colour in ii. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus comatus</i>, ornamental hair on the head of, ii. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus frontatus</i>, beard, &c., of, ii. <a href="#Page_308">308</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus nasica</i>, nose of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus nemæus</i>, colouring of, ii. <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Semnopithecus rubicundus</i>, ornamental hair on the head of, ii. <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Senses</span>, inferiority of Europeans to savages in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sentinels</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Serpents</span>, instinctively dreaded by apes and monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Serranus</i>, hermaphroditism in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sex</span>, inheritance limited by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexes</span>, relative proportions of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_300">300</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>; +<ul><li> +probable relation of the, in primeval man, ii. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexual</span> characters, secondary, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; +<ul><li> +relations of polygamy to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +transmitted through both sexes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>; gradation of, in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexual</span> and natural selection, contrasted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexual</span> characters, effects of the loss of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; +<ul><li> +limitation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexual</span> differences in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexual</span> selection, explanation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, on the colouring of Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>; +</li><li> +action of, in mankind, ii. <a href="#Page_368">368</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sexual</span> similarity, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sharks</span>, prehensile organs of male, ii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sharpe</span>, R. B., on <i>Tanysiptera sylvia</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; +<ul><li> +on <i>Ceryle</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>; +</li><li> +on the young male of <i>Dacelo Gaudichaudi</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shaw</span>, Mr., on the pugnacity of the male salmon, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shaw</span>, J., on the decorations of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sheep</span>, danger-signals of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual differences in the horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; +</li><li> +horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; +</li><li> +domestic, sexual differences of, late developed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_293">293</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_304">304</a>; +</li><li> +mode of fighting of, ii. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>; +</li><li> +arched foreheads of some, ii. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sheep</span>, Merino, loss of horns in females of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shells</span>, difference in form of, in male and female Gasteropoda, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_324">324</a>; +<ul><li> +beautiful colours and shapes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_326">326</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shield-drake</span>, pairing with a common duck, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +<ul><li> +New Zealand, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shooter</span>, J., on the Kafirs, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>; +<ul><li> +on the marriage-customs of the Kafirs, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shrew-mice</span>, odour of, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shrike</span>, Drongo, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shrikes</span>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shuckard</span>, W. E., on sexual differences in the wings of Hymenoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Shyness</span> of adorned male birds, ii. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Siagonium</i>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +dimorphism in males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Siam</span>, proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Siamese</span>, general beardlessness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +<ul><li> +notions of beauty of the, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; +</li><li> +hairy family of, ii. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Siebold</span>, C. T. von, on the auditory apparatus of the stridulant orthoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_353">353</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sight</span>, inheritance of long and short, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Signal-cries</span> of monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Silk-moth</span>, difference of size of the male and female cocoons of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>; +</li><li> +male, fertilising two or three females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>; +</li><li> +proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +</li><li> +Ailanthus, Prof. Canestrini, on the destruction of its larvæ by wasps, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Simiadæ</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>; +<ul><li> +their origin and divisions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Similarity</span>, sexual, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_277">277</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Singing</span> of the Cicadæ and Fulgoridæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; +<ul><li> +of tree-frogs, ii. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, object of the, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sirenia</span>, nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sirex juvencus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Siricidæ</span>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Siskin</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +<ul><li> +pairing with a canary, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Sitana</i>, throat-pouch of the males of, ii. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Size</span>, relative, of the sexes of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Skin</span>, movement of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul><li> +nakedness of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>; +</li><li> +colour of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Skin</span> and hair, correlation of colour of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Skull</span>, variation of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +<ul><li> +cubic contents of, no absolute test of intellect, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; +</li><li> +Neanderthal, capacity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>; +</li><li> +causes of modification of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>; +</li><li> +difference of, in form and capacity, in different races of men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +variability of the shape of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +differences of, in the sexes in man, ii. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; +</li><li> +artificial modifications of the shape of, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Skunk</span>, odour emitted by the, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Slavery</span>, prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +<ul><li> +of women, ii. <a href="#Page_366">366</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">464</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Slaves</span>, difference between those of field and house, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Smell</span>, sense of, in man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Smith</span>, Adam, on the basis of sympathy, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Smith</span>, Sir A., on the recognition of women by male <i>Cynocephali</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +on an instance of memory in a baboon, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_45">45</a>; +</li><li> +on the retention of their colour by the Dutch in South Africa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>; +</li><li> +on the polygamy of the South African antelopes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in <i>Kobus ellipsiprymnus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Bucephalus capensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +on South African lizards, ii. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>; +</li><li> +on fighting gnus, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +on the horns of rhinoceroses, ii. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; +</li><li> +on the fighting of lions, ii. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the Cape Eland, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of the gnu, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; +</li><li> +on Hottentot notions of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Smith</span>, F., on the Cynipidæ and Tenthredinidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +on the relative size of the sexes of Aculeate Hymenoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; +</li><li> +on the difference between the sexes of ants and bees, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Trox sabulosus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Mononychus pseudacori</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Smynthurus luteus</i>, courtship of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Snakes</span>, sexual differences of, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul><li> +male, ardency of, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +“<span class="smcap">Snarling muscles</span>,” i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Snipe</span>, drumming of the, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +<ul><li> +coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Snipe</span>, painted, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Snipe</span>, solitary, assemblies of, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Snipes</span>, arrival of male before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of male, ii. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; +</li><li> +double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Snow-goose</span>, whiteness of the, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Social</span> animals, affection of, for each other, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; +<ul><li> +defence of, by the males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sociability</span>, the sense of duty connected with, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>; +<ul><li> +impulse to, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>; +</li><li> +manifestations of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>; +</li><li> +instinct of, in animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sociality</span>, probable, of primeval men, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, on the development of the intellectual faculties, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>; +</li><li> +origin of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_161">161</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Soldiers</span>, American, measurements of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Soldiers</span> and sailors, difference in the proportions of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Solenostoma</i>, bright colours and marsupial sack of the females of, ii. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Song</span> of male birds appreciated by their females, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>; +<ul><li> +want of, in brilliant plumaged birds, ii. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Sorex</i>, odour of, ii. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sounds</span> admired alike by man and animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>; +<ul><li> +produced by fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +produced by male frogs and toads, ii. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; +</li><li> +instrumentally produced by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et seqq.</i> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spain</span>, decadence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sparassus smaragdulus</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sparrow</span>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>; +<ul><li> +acquisition of the Linnet’s song by a, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; +</li><li> +immature plumage of the, ii. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sparrow</span>, white-crowned, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sparrows</span>, house- and tree-, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sparrows</span>, new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sparrows</span>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>; +<ul><li> +learning to sing, ii. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Spathura Underwoodi</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spawning</span> of fishes, ii. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spear</span>, origin of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Species</span>, causes of the advancement of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>; +<ul><li> +distinctive characters of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>; +</li><li> +or races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; +</li><li> +sterility and fertility of, when crossed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_122">122</a>; +</li><li> +supposed, of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +</li><li> +gradation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>; +</li><li> +difficulty of defining, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>; +</li><li> +representative, of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, comparative differences between the sexes of distinct, ii. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">465</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spectre-insects</span>, mimickry of leaves by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Spectrum femoratum</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Speech</span>, connection between the brain and the faculty of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>. +</li><li> +“<span class="smcap">Spel</span>” of the black-cock, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spencer</span>, Herbert, on the dawn of intelligence, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; +<ul><li> +on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>; +</li><li> +on the origin of the moral sense, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>; +</li><li> +on the influence of food on the size of the jaws, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +on the ratio between individuation and genesis, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +on music, ii. <a href="#Page_336">336</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sperm-whales</span>, battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sphingidæ</span>, coloration of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sphinx</span>, Humming-bird, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sphinx</i>, Mr. Bates on the caterpillar of a, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spiders</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>; +<ul><li> +male, more active than female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +</li><li> +male, small size of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Spilosoma menthrasti</i>, rejected by turkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spine</span>, alteration of, to suit the erect attitude of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spirits</span>, fondness of monkeys for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spiritual</span> agencies, belief in, almost universal, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spoonbill</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +<ul><li> +Chinese, change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spots</span>, retained throughout groups of birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>; +<ul><li> +disappearance of, in adult mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sprengel</span>, C. K., on the sexuality of plants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spring-boc</span>, horns of the, ii. <a href="#Page_251">251</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sproat</span>, Mr., on the extinction of savages in Vancouver Island, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +on the eradication of facial hair by the natives of Vancouver Island, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; +</li><li> +on the eradication of the beard by the Indians of Vancouver Island, ii. <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Spurs</span>, occurrence of, in female fowls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; +<ul><li> +development of, in various species of Phasianidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_290">290</a>; +</li><li> +of Gallinaceous birds, ii. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; +</li><li> +development of, in female Gallinaceæ, ii. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Squilla</i>, different colours of the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_335">335</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Squirrels</span>, battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +African, sexual differences in the colouring of, ii. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>; +</li><li> +black, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stag</span>, long hairs of the throat of, ii. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>; +<ul><li> +horns of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +</li><li> +horns of the, with numerous branches, ii. <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; +</li><li> +bellowing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; +</li><li> +crest of the, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stag-beetle</span>, large size of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_347">347</a>; +<ul><li> +weapons of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>; +</li><li> +numerical proportion of sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stainton</span>, H. T., on the numerical proportion of the sexes in the smaller moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>; +<ul><li> +habits of <i>Elachista rufocinerea</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>; +</li><li> +on the rejection of <i>Spilosoma menthrasti</i>, by turkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes of <i>Agrotis exclamationis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_399">399</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stallion</span>, mane of the, ii. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stallions</span>, two, attacking a third, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>; +<ul><li> +fighting, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +small canine teeth of, ii. <a href="#Page_258">258</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stansbury</span>, Capt., observations on pelicans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Staphylinidæ</span>, hornlike processes in male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_374">374</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Starfishes</span>, bright colours of some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stark</span>, Dr., on the death-rate in towns and rural districts, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>; +<ul><li> +on the influence of marriage on mortality, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>; +</li><li> +on the higher mortality of males in Scotland, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Starling</span>, American field, pugnacity of male, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Starling</span>, red-winged, selection of a mate by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Starlings</span>, three, frequenting the same nest, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul><li> +new mates found by, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Statues</span>, Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian, &c., contrasted, ii. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stature</span>, dependence of, upon local influences, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Staudinger</span>, Dr., his list of Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; +<ul><li> +on breeding Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">466</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Staunton</span>, Sir G., hatred of indecency a modern virtue, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_96">96</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stealing</span> of bright objects by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stebbing</span>, T. R., on the nakedness of the human body, ii. <a href="#Page_375">375</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Stemmatopus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Stenobothrus pratorum</i>, stridulating organs of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sterility</span>, general, of sole daughters, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>; +<ul><li> +when crossed, a distinctive character of species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Sterna</i>, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stickle-back</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_271">271</a>; +<ul><li> +male, courtship of the, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; +</li><li> +male, brilliant colouring of, during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; +</li><li> +nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sticks</span> used as implements and weapons by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sting</span> in bees, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stokes</span>, Capt., on the habits of the great Bower-bird, ii. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stonechat</span>, young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stone implements</span>, difficulty of making, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>; +</li><li> +as traces of extinct tribes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stones</span>, used by monkeys for breaking hard fruits and as missiles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>; +<ul><li> +piles of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stork</span>, black, sexual differences in the bronchi of the, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +<ul><li> +red beak of the, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Storks</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference in the colour of the eyes of, ii. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Strange</span>, Mr., on the Satin Bower-bird, ii. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stretch</span>, Mr., on the numerical proportion in the sexes of chickens, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Strepsiceros kudu</i>, horns of, ii. <a href="#Page_255">255</a>; +<ul><li> +markings of, ii. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stridulation</span>, by males of <i>Theridion</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>; +<ul><li> +of the Orthoptera and Homoptera discussed, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; +</li><li> +of beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Stripes</span>, retained throughout groups of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; +<ul><li> +disappearance of, in adult mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Strix flammea</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Structure</span>, existence of unserviceable modifications of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Struggle</span> for existence, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Struthers</span>, Dr., on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the humerus of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sturnella ludoviciana</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sturnus vulgaris</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sub-species</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Suffering</span>, in strangers, indifference of savages to, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Suicide</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_172">172</a>; +<ul><li> +formerly not regarded as a crime, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>; +</li><li> +rarely practised among the lowest savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Suidæ</span>, stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sumatra</span>, compression of the nose by the Malays of, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sumner</span>, Archb., man alone capable of progressive improvement, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sun-birds</span>, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Superstitions</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; +<ul><li> +prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Superstitious</span> customs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Superciliary</span> ridge in man, ii. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Supernumerary</span> digits, more frequent in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; +<ul><li> +inheritance of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_285">285</a>; +</li><li> +early development of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_292">292</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Supra-condyloid</span> foramen in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Suspicion</span>, prevalence of, among animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sulivan</span>, Sir B. J., on two stallions attacking a third, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Swallow-tail</span> Butterfly, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Swallows</span> deserting their young, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Swan</span>, black, red beak of the, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; +<ul><li> +black-necked, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +white, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; +</li><li> +wild, trachea of the, ii. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Swans</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>; +<ul><li> +young, ii. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Swaysland</span>, Mr., on the arrival of migratory birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Swinhoe</span>, R., on the common rat in Formosa and China, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>; +<ul><li> +on the sounds produced by the male Hoopoe, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Dicrurus macrocercus</i> and the Spoonbill, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; +</li><li> +on the young of <i>Ardeola</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Turnix</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Rhynchæa bengalensis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>; +</li><li> +on Orioles breeding in immature plumage, ii. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Sylvia atricapilla</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sylvia cinerea</i>, aerial love-dance of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sympathy</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>; +<ul><li> +among animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; +</li><li> +its supposed basis, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sympathies</span>, gradual widening of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Syngnathous</span> fishes, abdominal pouch in male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Sypheotides auritus</i>, acuminated primaries of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>; +<ul><li> +ear-tufts of, ii. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>T.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tabanidæ</span>, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tadorna variegata</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tadorna vulpanser</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tahitians</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>; +<ul><li> +compression of the nose by the, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tail</span>, rudimentary, occurrence of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>; +<ul><li> +convoluted body in the extremity of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +</li><li> +absence of, in man and the higher apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>; +</li><li> +variability of, in species of <i>Macacus</i> and in baboons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +</li><li> +presence of, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +length of, in pheasants, ii. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; +</li><li> +difference of length of the, in the two sexes of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tait</span>, Lawson, on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tanager</span>, scarlet, variation in the male, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tanagra æstiva</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>; +<ul><li> +age of mature plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tanagra rubra</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; +<ul><li> +young of, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tanais</i>, absence of mouth in the males of some species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>; +<ul><li> +relations of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>; +</li><li> +dimorphic males of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_328">328</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tankerville</span>, Earl, on the battles of wild bulls, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tanysiptera</i>, races of, determined from adult males, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tanysiptera sylvia</i>, long tail-feathers of, ii. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Taphroderes distortus</i>, enlarged left mandible of the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tapirs</span>, longitudinal stripes of young, ii. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tarsi</span>, dilatation of front, in male beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tarsius</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tasmania</span>, half-castes killed by the natives of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tattooing</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; +<ul><li> +universality of, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Taste</span>, in the Quadrumana, ii. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Taylor</span>, G. on <i>Quiscalus major</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tea</span>, fondness of monkeys for, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tear-sacks</span>, of Ruminants, ii. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Teebay</span>, Mr., on changes of plumage in spangled Hamburgh fowls, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Teeth</span>, rudimentary incisor, in Ruminants, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>; +<ul><li> +posterior molar, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>; +</li><li> +wisdom, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_26">26</a>; +</li><li> +diversity of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +</li><li> +canine, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +canine, of male mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; +</li><li> +in man, reduced by correlation, ii. <a href="#Page_325">325</a>; +</li><li> +staining of the, ii. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; +</li><li> +front, knocked out or filed by some savages, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tegetmeier</span>, Mr., on the abundance of male pigeons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +<ul><li> +on the wattles of game-cocks, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; +</li><li> +on the courtship of fowls, ii. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; +</li><li> +on dyed pigeons, ii. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tembeta</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Temper</span>, in dogs and horses, inherited, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tench</span>, proportions of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +<ul><li> +brightness of male, during breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tenebrionidæ</span>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tennent</span>, Sir J. E., on the tusks of the Ceylon Elephant, ii. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; +<ul><li> +on the frequent absence of beard in the natives of Ceylon, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +on the Chinese opinion of the aspect of the Cingalese, ii. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tennyson</span>, A., on the control of thought, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tenthredinidæ</span>, proportions of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +<ul><li> +fighting habits of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">468</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tephrodornis</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Terai</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Termites</i>, habits of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Terns</span>, white, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>; +<ul><li> +and black, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Terns</span>, seasonal change of plumage in, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Terror</span>, common action of, upon the lower animals and man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Testudo nigra</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tetrao cupido</i>, battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; +<ul><li> +sexual difference in the vocal organs of, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tetrao phasianellus</i>, dances of, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; +<ul><li> +duration of dances of, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tetrao scoticus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tetrao tetrix</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; +<ul><li> +pugnacity of the male. ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tetrao umbellus</i>, pairing of, ii. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul><li> +battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; +</li><li> +drumming of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tetrao urogalloides</i>, dances of, ii. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tetrao urogallus</i>, pugnacity of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tetrao urophasianus</i>, inflation of the œsophagus in the male, ii. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Thamnobia</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Thaumalea picta</i>, display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Thecla</i>, sexual differences of colouring in species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_389">389</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Thecla rubi</i>, protective colouring of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Theridion</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>; +<ul><li> +stridulation of males of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Theridion lineatum</i>, variability of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Thomisus citreus</i>, and <i>T. floricolens</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_337">337</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thompson</span>, J. H., on the battles of sperm-whales, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thompson</span>, W., on the colouring of the male char during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; +<ul><li> +on the finding of new mates by magpies, ii. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; +</li><li> +on the finding of new mates by Peregrine falcons, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thorax</span>, processes of, in male beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thorell</span>, T., on the proportion of the sexes in spiders, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_315">315</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thornback</span>, difference in the teeth of the two sexes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thoughts</span>, control of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thrush</span>, pairing with a blackbird, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +<ul><li> +colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thrushes</span>, characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thug</span>, his regrets, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thumb</span>, absence of, in <i>Ateles</i> and <i>Hylobates</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thury</span>, M., on the numerical proportion of male and female births among the Jews, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Thylacinus</i>, possession of the marsupial sack by the male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Thysanura</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tibia</span>, dilated, of the male <i>Crabro cribrarius</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tibia</span> and femur, proportions of, in the Aymara Indians, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_119">119</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tierra</span> del Fuego, marriage-customs of, ii. <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tiger</span>, colours and markings of the, ii. <a href="#Page_302">302</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tigers</span>, depopulation of districts by, in India, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tillus elongatus</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Timidity</span>, variability of, in the same species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tineina</span>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tipula</i>, pugnacity of male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tits</span>, sexual difference of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Toads</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>; +<ul><li> +male, treatment of ova by some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>; +</li><li> +male, ready to breed before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Toe</span>, great, condition of, in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tomtit</span>, blue, sexual difference of colour in the, ii. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tonga</span> Islands, beardlessness of the natives of, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tooke</span>, Horne, on language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tools</span>, flint, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>; +<ul><li> +used by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +</li><li> +use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Top-knots</span> in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tomicus villosus</i>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tortoise</span>, voice of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tortures</span>, submitted to by American savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">469</a></span> +</li><li> +<i>Totanus</i>, double moult in, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Toucans</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; +<ul><li> +beaks and ceres of the, ii. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Towns</span>, residence in, a cause of diminished stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Toynbee</span>, J., on the external shell of the ear in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Trachea</span>, convoluted and imbedded in the sternum, in some birds, ii. <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; +<ul><li> +structure of the, in Rhynchæa, ii. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Trades</span>, affecting the form of the skull, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tragelaphus</i>, sexual differences of colour in, ii. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tragelaphus scriptus</i>, dorsal crest of, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +<ul><li> +markings of, ii. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tragopan</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; +<ul><li> +swelling of the wattles of the male, during courtship, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +</li><li> +display of plumage by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>; +</li><li> +markings of the sexes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tragops dispar</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Training</span>, effect of, on the mental difference between the sexes of man, ii. <a href="#Page_329">329</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Transfer</span> of male characters to female birds, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Transmission</span>, equal, of ornamental characters, to both sexes in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_297">297</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Traps</span>, avoidance of, by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>; +<ul><li> +use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Treachery</span>, to comrades, avoidance of, by savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tremex columbæ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tribes</span>, extinct, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>; +<ul><li> +extinction of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Trichius</i>, difference of colour in the sexes of a species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Trimen</span>, R., on the proportion of the sexes in South African butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>; +<ul><li> +on the attraction of males by the female of <i>Lasiocampa quercus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Pneumora</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>; +</li><li> +on difference of colour in the sexes of beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; +</li><li> +on moths brilliantly coloured beneath, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>; +</li><li> +on mimickry in butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_412">412</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Gynanisa Isis</i>, and on the ocellated spots of Lepidoptera, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Cyllo Leda</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Tringa</i>, sexes and young of, ii. <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Tringa canutus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Triphæna</i>, coloration of the species of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tristram</span>, H. B., on unhealthy districts in North Africa, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_244">244</a>; +<ul><li> +on the habits of the chaffinch in Palestine, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +</li><li> +on the birds of the Sahara, ii. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +</li><li> +on the animals inhabiting the Sahara, ii. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Triton cristatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Triton palmipes</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Triton punctatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Troglodytes vulgaris</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Trogons</span>, colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tropic-birds</span>, white only when mature, ii. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tropics</span>, freshwater fishes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Trout</span>, proportion of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_308">308</a>; +<ul><li> +male, pugnacity of the, ii. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Trox sabulosus</i>, stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Truth</span>, not rare between members of the same tribe, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>; +<ul><li> +more highly appreciated by certain tribes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tulloch</span>, Major, on the immunity of the negro from certain fevers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tumbler</span>, almond, change of plumage in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Turdus merula</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>; +<ul><li> +young of, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Turdus migratorius</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Turdus musicus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Turdus polyglottus</i>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Turdus torquatus</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Turkey</span>, swelling of the wattles of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul><li> +variety of, with a top-knot, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; +</li><li> +recognition of a dog by a, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +wild, pugnacity of young male, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; +</li><li> +wild, notes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +male, wild, acceptable to domesticated females, ii. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; +</li><li> +wild, first advances made by older females, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +wild, breast-tuft of bristles of the, ii. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Turkey-cock</span>, scraping of the wings of, upon the ground, ii. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; +<ul><li> +wild, display of plumage by, ii. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; +</li><li> +fighting habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Turner</span>, Prof. W., on muscular fasciculi in man referable to the panniculus carnosus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_19">19</a>; +<ul><li> +on the occurrence of the supra-condyloid foramen in the human humerus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; +</li><li> +on muscles attached to the coccyx in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>; +</li><li> +on the <i>filum terminale</i> in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +</li><li> +on the variability of the muscles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +on abnormal conditions of the human uterus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; +</li><li> +on the development of the mammary glands, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>; +</li><li> +on male fishes hatching ova in their mouths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Turnix</i>, sexes of some species of, ii. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Turtle-dove</span>, cooing of the, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tuttle</span>, H., on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tylor</span>, E. B., on emotional cries, gestures, &c., of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>; +<ul><li> +on the origin of the belief in spiritual agencies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>; +</li><li> +on the primitive barbarism of civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +on the origin of counting, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>; +</li><li> +on resemblances of the mental characters in different races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Type</span> of structure, prevalence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Typhœus</i>, stridulating organs of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>; +<ul><li> +stridulation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_380">380</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Twins</span>, tendency to produce, hereditary, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Twite</span>, proportion of the sexes in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>U.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ugliness</span>, said to consist in an approach to the lower animals, ii. <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Umbrella-bird</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Umbrina</i>, sounds produced by, ii. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">United</span> States, rate of increase in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of natural selection on the progress of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>; +</li><li> +change undergone by Europeans in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Upupa epops</i>, sounds produced by the male, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Uraniidæ</span>, coloration of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Uria troile</i>, variety of, (= <i>U. lacrymans</i>), ii. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Urodela</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Urosticte Benjamini</i>, sexual differences in, ii. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Use</span> and disuse of parts, effects of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>; +<ul><li> +influence of, on the races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Uterus</span>, reversion in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>; +<ul><li> +more or less divided, in the human subject, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>; +</li><li> +double, in the early progenitors of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>V.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vaccination</span>, influence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vancouver</span> Island, Mr. Sproat on the savages of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>; +<ul><li> +natives of, eradication of facial hair by the, ii. <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Vanellus cristatus</i>, wing tubercles of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Vanessæ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_387">387</a>; +<ul><li> +resemblance of lower surface of, to bark of trees, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Variability</span>, causes of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; +<ul><li> +in man, analogous to that in the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_112">112</a>; +</li><li> +of the races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; +</li><li> +greater in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>; +</li><li> +period of, relation of the, to sexual selection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_296">296</a>; +</li><li> +of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; +</li><li> +of secondary sexual characters in man, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Variation</span>, correlated, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>; +<ul><li> +laws of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; +</li><li> +analogous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>; +</li><li> +analogous, in plumage of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Variations</span>, spontaneous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Varieties</span>, absence of, between two species, evidence of their distinctness, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Variety</span>, an object in nature, ii. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Variola</span>, communicable between man and the lower animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vauréal</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Veddahs</span>, monogamous habits of, ii. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Veitch</span>, Mr., on the aversion of Japanese ladies to whiskers, ii. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vengeance</span>, instinct of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Venus</span> Erycina, priestesses of, ii. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vermes</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_327">327</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vermiform</span> appendage, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Verreaux</span>, M., on the attraction of numerous males by the female of an Australian <i>Bombyx</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_312">312</a>. +</li><li> +Vertebræ, caudal, number of, in macaques and baboons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>; +<ul><li> +of monkeys, partly imbedded in the body, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vertebrata</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; +<ul><li> +common origin of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>; +</li><li> +most ancient progenitors of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; +</li><li> +origin of the voice in air-breathing, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<i>Vesicula prostatica</i>, the homologue of the uterus, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vibrissæ</span>, represented by long hairs in the eyebrows, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Vidua</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Vidua axillaris</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Villerme</span>, M., on the influence of plenty upon stature, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vinson</span>, Aug., on the male of <i>Epeira nigra</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_338">338</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Viper</span>, difference of the sexes in the, ii. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Virey</span>, on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Virtues</span>, originally social only, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>; +<ul><li> +gradual appreciation of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Viscera</span>, variability of, in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Viti</span> Archipelago, population of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vlacovich</span>, Prof., on the ischio-pubic muscle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vocal</span> music of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vocal</span> organs of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>; +<ul><li> +of birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>; ii. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; +</li><li> +of frogs, ii. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; +</li><li> +of the Insessores, ii. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; +</li><li> +difference of, in the sexes of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +primarily used in relation to the propagation of the species, ii. <a href="#Page_330">330</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vogt</span>, Carl, on the origin of species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_1">1</a>; +<ul><li> +on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +</li><li> +on the semilunar fold in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +</li><li> +on the imitative faculties of microcephalous idiots, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; +</li><li> +on microcephalous idiots, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +on skulls from Brazilian caves, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +on the evolution of the races of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_230">230</a>; +</li><li> +on the formation of the skull in women, ii. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; +</li><li> +on the Ainos and negroes, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +on the increased cranial difference of the sexes in man with race-development, ii. <a href="#Page_329">329</a>; +</li><li> +on the obliquity of the eye in the Chinese and Japanese, ii. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Voice</span> in mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>; +<ul><li> +in monkeys and man, ii. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; +</li><li> +in man, ii. <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; +</li><li> +origin of, in air-breathing vertebrates, ii. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Von Baer</span>, definition of advancement in the organic scale, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vulpian</span>, Prof., on the resemblance between the brains of man and of the higher apes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Vultures</span>, selection of a mate by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>; +</li><li> +colours of, ii. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>W.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waders</span>, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wagner</span>, R., on the occurrence of the diastema in a Kafir skull, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; +<ul><li> +on the bronchi of the black stork, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wagtail</span>, Ray’s, arrival of the male before the female, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wagtails</span>, Indian, young of, ii. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waist</span>, proportions of, in soldiers and sailors, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waitz</span>, Prof., on the number of species of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>; +<ul><li> +on the colour of Australian infants, ii. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; +</li><li> +on the beardlessness of negroes, ii. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>; +</li><li> +on the fondness of mankind for ornaments, ii. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; +</li><li> +on the liability of negroes to tropical fevers after residence in a cold climate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; +</li><li> +on negro ideas of female beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; +</li><li> +on Javanese and Cochin Chinese ideas of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Walckenaer</span> and Gervais, on the Myriapoda, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_340">340</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waldeyer</span>, M., on the hermaphroditism of the vertebrate embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wales</span>, North, numerical proportion of male and female births in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Walker</span>, Alex., on the large size of the hands of labourers’ children, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Walker</span>, F., on sexual differences in the diptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_348">348</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wallace</span>, Dr. A., on the prehensile</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">472</a></span> +<ul><li> +use of the tarsi in male moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>; +</li><li> +on the rearing of the Ailanthus silk-moth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +</li><li> +on breeding Lepidoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_311">311</a>; +</li><li> +proportion of sexes of <i>Bombyx cynthia</i>, <i>B. yamamai</i>, and <i>B. Pernyi</i>, reared by, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>; +</li><li> +on the development of <i>Bombyx cynthia</i> and <i>B. yamamai</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; +</li><li> +on the pairing of <i>Bombyx cynthia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_401">401</a>; +</li><li> +on the fertilisation of moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_406">406</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wallace</span>, A. R., on the origin of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_4">4</a>; +<ul><li> +on the power of imitation in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>; +</li><li> +on the use of missiles by the orang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on the varying appreciation of truth among different tribes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>; +</li><li> +on the limits of natural selection in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>; +</li><li> +on the occurrence of remorse among savages, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>; +</li><li> +on the effects of natural selection on civilised nations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>; +</li><li> +on the use of the convergence of the hair at the elbow in the orang, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>; +</li><li> +on the contrast in the characters of the Malays and Papuans, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +</li><li> +on the line of separation between the Papuans and Malays, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes of <i>Ornithoptera Crœsus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>; +</li><li> +on protective resemblances, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative sizes of the sexes of insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_346">346</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Elaphomyia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +on the Birds of Paradise, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the males of <i>Leptorhynchus angustatus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>; +</li><li> +on sounds produced by <i>Euchirus longimanus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>; +</li><li> +on the colours of <i>Diadema</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_388">388</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Kallima</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_392">392</a>; +</li><li> +on the protective colouring of moths, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>; +</li><li> +on bright coloration as protective in butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>; +</li><li> +on variability in the Papilionidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_402">402</a>; +</li><li> +on male and female butterflies inhabiting different stations, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>; +</li><li> +on the protective nature of the dull colouring of female butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>; +</li><li> +on mimickry in butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_412">412</a>; +</li><li> +on the mimickry of leaves by Phasmidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_414">414</a>; +</li><li> +on the bright colours of caterpillars, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>; +</li><li> +on brightly-coloured fishes frequenting reefs, ii. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +on the coral snakes, ii. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Paradisea apoda</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; +</li><li> +on the display of plumage by male Birds of Paradise, ii. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>; +</li><li> +on assemblies of Birds of Paradise, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; +</li><li> +on the instability of the ocellated spots in <i>Hipparchia Janira</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_132">132</a>; +</li><li> +on sexually limited inheritance, ii. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexual coloration of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>; +</li><li> +on the relation between the colours and nidification of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of the Cotingidæ, ii. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +</li><li> +on the females of <i>Paradisea apoda</i> and <i>papuana</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; +</li><li> +on the incubation of the cassowary, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; +</li><li> +on protective coloration in birds, ii. <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; +</li><li> +on the hair of the Papuans, ii. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; +</li><li> +on the Babirusa, ii. <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; +</li><li> +on the markings of the tiger, ii. <a href="#Page_302">302</a>; +</li><li> +on the beards of the Papuans, ii. <a href="#Page_322">322</a>; +</li><li> +on the distribution of hair on the human body, ii. <a href="#Page_375">375</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Walrus</span>, development of the nictitating membrane in the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>; +<ul><li> +tusks of the, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; +</li><li> +use of the tusks by the, ii. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Walsh</span>, B. D., on the proportion of the sexes in <i>Papilio Turnus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_310">310</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Cynipidæ and Cecidomyidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_314">314</a>; +</li><li> +on the jaws of <i>Ammophila</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Corydalis cornutus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the prehensile organs of male insects, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the antennæ of <i>Penthe</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>; +</li><li> +on the caudal appendages of dragon-flies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Platyphyllum concavum</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_356">356</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes of the Ephemeridæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +on the difference of colour in the sexes of <i>Spectrum femoratum</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +on sexes of dragon-flies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +on the difference of the sexes in the Ichneumonidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_365">365</a>; +</li><li> +on the sexes of <i>Orsodacna atra</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_368">368</a>; +</li><li> +on the variation of the horns of the male <i>Phanæus carnifex</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_370">370</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of the species of <i>Anthocharis</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_393">393</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wapiti</span>, battles of, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>; +<ul><li> +traces of horns in the female, ii. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; +</li><li> +attacking a man, ii. <a href="#Page_253">253</a>; +</li><li> +crest of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>; +</li><li> +sexual difference in the colour of the, ii. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Warbler</span>, Hedge-, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; +</li><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">473</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Warblers</span>, Superb, nidification of, ii. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wariness</span>, acquired by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Warington</span>, R., on the habits of the sticklebacks, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>; +<ul><li> +on the brilliant colours of the male stickleback during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wart-hog</span>, tusks and pads of the, ii. <a href="#Page_265">265</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Watchmakers</span>, short-sighted, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Water-hen</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waterhouse</span>, C. O., on blind beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>; +<ul><li> +on difference of colour in the sexes of beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_367">367</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waterhouse</span>, G. R., on the voice of <i>Hylobates agilis</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_332">332</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Water-ouzel</span>, autumn song of the, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Waterton</span>, C., on the pairing of a Canada goose with a Bernicle gander, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +<ul><li> +on hares fighting, ii. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>; +</li><li> +on the Bell-bird, ii. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wattles</span>, disadvantageous to male birds in fighting, ii. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wealth</span>, influence of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weale</span>, J. Mansel, on a South African caterpillar, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_416">416</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weapons</span>, employed by monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>; +<ul><li> +use of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; +</li><li> +offensive, of males, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>; +</li><li> +of mammals, ii. <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>et seq.</i> +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weaver-bird</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weaver-birds</span>, rattling of the wings of, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +<ul><li> +assemblies of, ii. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Webb</span>, Dr., on the wisdom teeth, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wedgwood</span>, Hensleigh, on the origin of language, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weevils</span>, sexual difference in length of snout in some, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weir</span>, Harrison, on the numerical proportion of the sexes in pigs and rabbits, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_305">305</a>; +<ul><li> +on the sexes of young pigeons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +</li><li> +on the songs of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on pigeons, ii. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; +</li><li> +on the dislike of blue pigeons to other coloured varieties, ii. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; +</li><li> +on the desertion of their mates by female pigeons, ii. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weir</span>, J. Jenner, on the nightingale and blackcap, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>; +<ul><li> +on the relative sexual maturity of male birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>; +</li><li> +on female pigeons deserting a feeble mate, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>; +</li><li> +on three starlings frequenting the same nest, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportion of the sexes in <i>Machetes pugnax</i> and other birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_307">307</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of the <i>Triphænæ</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_395">395</a>; +</li><li> +on the rejection of certain caterpillars by birds, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_417">417</a>; +</li><li> +on sexual differences of the beak in the goldfinch, ii. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>; +</li><li> +on a piping bullfinch, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on the object of the nightingale’s song, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on song-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of male fine-plumaged birds, ii. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>; +</li><li> +on the courtship of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>; +</li><li> +on the finding of new mates by Peregrine-falcons and Kestrels, ii. <a href="#Page_104">104</a>; +</li><li> +on the bullfinch and starling, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +</li><li> +on the cause of birds remaining unpaired, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; +</li><li> +on starlings and parrots living in triplets, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; +</li><li> +on recognition of colour by birds, ii. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>; +</li><li> +on hybrid birds, ii. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +</li><li> +on the selection of a greenfinch by a female canary, ii. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>; +</li><li> +on a case of rivalry of female bullfinches, ii. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; +</li><li> +on the maturity of the Golden pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Weisbach</span>, Dr., measurement of men of different races, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>; +<ul><li> +on the greater variability of men than of women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>; +</li><li> +on the relative proportions of the body in the sexes of different races of man, ii. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Welcker</span>, M., on Brachycephaly and Dolichocephaly, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>; +<ul><li> +on sexual differences in the skull in man, ii. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wells</span>, Dr., on the immunity of coloured races from certain poisons, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Westring</span>, on the stridulation of <i>Reduvius personatus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>; +<ul><li> +on the stridulating organs of the Coleoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>; +</li><li> +on sounds produced by <i>Cychrus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_382">382</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of males of <i>Theridion</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_339">339</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_379">379</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Omaloplia brunnea</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_381">381</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Westphalia</span>, greater proportion of female illegitimate children in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_301">301</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Westropp</span>, H. M., on the prevalence of certain forms of ornamentation, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Westwood</span>, J. O., on the classification of the Hymenoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Culicidæ and Tabanidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; +</li><li> +on a Hymenopterous parasite with a sedentary male, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>; +</li><li> +on the proportions of the sexes in <i>Lucanus cervus</i> and <i>Siagonium</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_313">313</a>; +</li><li> +on the absence of ocelli in female mutillidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_341">341</a>; +</li><li> +on the jaws of <i>Ammophila</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the copulation of insects of distinct species, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_342">342</a>; +</li><li> +on the male of <i>Crabro cribrarius</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_343">343</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of male <i>Tipulæ</i> i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_349">349</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Pirates stridulus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>; +</li><li> +on the Cicadæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_351">351</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulating organs of the crickets, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_354">354</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Pneumora</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_357">357</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Ephippiger vitium</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_358">358</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the Mantides, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_360">360</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Platyblemnus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_361">361</a>; +</li><li> +on difference in the sexes of the Agrionidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_362">362</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the males of a species of Tenthredinæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +on the pugnacity of the male stag-beetle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Bledius taurus</i> and <i>Siagonium</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_375">375</a>; +</li><li> +on lamellicorn beetles, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>; +</li><li> +on the coloration of <i>Lithosia</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Whale</span>, Sperm-, battles of male, ii. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Whales</span>, nakedness of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Whately</span>, Archb., language not peculiar to man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>; +<ul><li> +on the primitive civilisation of man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Whewell</span>, Prof., on maternal affection, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Whiskers</span>, in monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">White</span>, Gilbert, on the proportion of the sexes in the partridge, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_306">306</a>; +<ul><li> +on the house-cricket, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_352">352</a>; +</li><li> +on the object of the song of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; +</li><li> +on the finding of new mates by white owls, ii. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>; +</li><li> +on spring coveys of male partridges, ii. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Whiteness</span>, a sexual ornament in some birds, ii. <a href="#Page_232">232</a>; +<ul><li> +of mammals inhabiting snowy countries, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">White-throat</span>, aerial love-dance of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Widow-bird</span>, polygamous, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>; +<ul><li> +breeding plumage of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +</li><li> +female, rejecting the unadorned male, ii. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Widows</span> and widowers, mortality of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wigeon</span>, pairing with a pintail duck, ii. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wilckens</span>, Dr., on the modification of domestic animals in mountainous regions, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_120">120</a>; +<ul><li> +on a numerical relation between the hairs and excretory pores in sheep, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wilder</span>, Dr. Burt, on the greater frequency of supernumerary digits in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Williams</span>, on the marriage-customs of the Fijians, ii. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, Dr., on the conical heads of the natives of North-Western America, ii. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; +<ul><li> +on the Fijians, ii. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>; +</li><li> +on the persistence of the fashion of compressing the skull, ii. <a href="#Page_353">353</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wing-spurs</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wings</span>, differences of, in the two sexes of butterflies and Hymenoptera, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>; +<ul><li> +play of, in the courtship of birds, ii. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Winter</span>, change of colour of mammals in, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Witchcraft</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wives</span>, traces of the forcible capture of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wolf</span>, winter change of the, ii. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wolff</span>, on the variability of the viscera in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wollaston</span>, T. V., on <i>Eurygnathus</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_344">344</a>; +<ul><li> +on musical curculionidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_378">378</a>; +</li><li> +on the stridulation of <i>Acalles</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_384">384</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wolves</span> learning to bark from dogs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>; +<ul><li> +hunting in packs, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wolves</span>, black, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wombat</span>, black varieties of the, ii. <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Women</span> distinguished from men by male monkeys, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>; +<ul><li> +preponderance of, in numbers, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_302">302</a>; +</li><li> +effects of selection of, in accordance with different standards of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_355">355</a>; +</li><li> +practice of capturing, ii. <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>; +</li><li> +early betrothals and slavery of, ii. <a href="#Page_366">366</a>; +</li><li> +selection of, for beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">475</a></span> +</li><li> +freedom of selection by, in savage tribes, ii. <a href="#Page_372">372</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wonder</span>, manifestations of, by animals, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wonfor</span>, Mr., on sexual peculiarities in the wings of butterflies, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_345">345</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Woolner</span>, Mr., observations on the ear in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wood</span>, J., on muscular variations in man, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>; +<ul><li> +on the greater variability of the muscles in men than in women, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wood</span>, T. W., on the colouring of the orange-tip butterfly, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_394">394</a>; +<ul><li> +on the habits of the Saturniidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_398">398</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of <i>Menura Alberti</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +on <i>Tetrao cupido</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +</li><li> +on the display of plumage by male pheasants, ii. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>; +</li><li> +on the ocellated spots of the Argus pheasant, ii. <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; +</li><li> +on the habits of the female Cassowary, ii. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Woodcock</span>, coloration of the, ii. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Woodpecker</span>, selection of a mate by the female, ii. <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Woodpeckers</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; +<ul><li> +tapping of, ii. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +</li><li> +colours and nidification of the, ii. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; +</li><li> +characters of young, ii. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wormald</span>, Mr., on the coloration of <i>Hypopyra</i>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_397">397</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wounds</span>, healing of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wren</span>, ii. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; +<ul><li> +young of the, ii. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wright</span>, C. A., on the young of <i>Orocetes</i> and <i>Petrocincla</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wright</span>, Chauncey, on correlative acquisition, ii. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>; +<ul><li> +on the enlargement of the brain in man, ii. <a href="#Page_391">391</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wright</span>, Mr., on the Scotch deerhound, ii. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>; +<ul><li> +on sexual preference in dogs, ii. <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; +</li><li> +on the rejection of a horse by a mare, ii. <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wright</span>, W. von, on the protective plumage of the Ptarmigan, ii. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Writing</span>, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Wyman</span>, Prof., on the prolongation of the coccyx in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>; +<ul><li> +on the condition of the great toe in the human embryo, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>; +</li><li> +on variation in the skulls of the natives of the Sandwich Islands, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; +</li><li> +on the hatching of the eggs in the mouths and branchial cavities of male fishes, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>, ii. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>X.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Xenarchus</span>, on the Cicadæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_350">350</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Xenorhynchus</i>, sexual difference in the colour of the eyes in, ii. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Xiphophorus Hellerii</i>, peculiar anal fin of the male, ii. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Xylocopa</i>, difference of the sexes in, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_366">366</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>Y.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Yarrell</span>, W., on the habits of the Cyprinidæ, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_309">309</a>; +<ul><li> +on <i>Raia clavata</i>, ii. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; +</li><li> +on the characters of the male salmon during the breeding season, ii. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>; +</li><li> +on the characters of the rays, ii. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>; +</li><li> +on the gemmeous dragonet, ii. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; +</li><li> +on the spawning of the salmon, ii. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; +</li><li> +on the incubation of the Lophobranchii, ii. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; +</li><li> +on rivalry in song-birds, ii. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; +</li><li> +on the trachea of the swan, ii. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; +</li><li> +on the moulting of the anatidæ, ii. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>; +</li><li> +on an instance of reasoning in a gull, ii. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; +</li><li> +on the young of the waders, ii. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Yellow</span> fever, immunity of negroes and mulattoes from, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Youatt</span>, Mr., on the development of the horns in cattle, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Yura-caras</span>, their notions of beauty, ii. <a href="#Page_347">347</a>. +</li><li> +<br /><span style="margin-left: 10em; line-height: 2em;"><b>Z.</b></span> +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Zebra</span>, rejection of an ass by a female, ii. <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; +<ul><li> +stripes of the, ii. <a href="#Page_302">302</a>. +</li></ul></li><li> +<span class="smcap">Zebus</span>, humps of, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Zigzags</span>, prevalence of, as ornaments, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Zincke</span>, Mr., on European emigration to America, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>. +</li><li> +<i>Zootoca vivipara</i>, sexual difference in the colour of, ii. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. +</li><li> +<span class="smcap">Zygænidæ</span>, coloration of the, i. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34967/34967-h/34967-h.htm#Page_396">396</a>. +</li></ul> + +<h4>THE END.</h4> +<hr /> + +<h5>LONDON:</h5> + +<h6>PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, +AND CHARING CROSS.</h6> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1a" id="Page_1a">1</a></span></p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +<span class="smcap">50a, Albemarle Street, London</span><br /> + <i>January, 1871.</i></p> +<hr /> +<h3>MR. MURRAY’S</h3> + +<h2>LIST OF STANDARD WORKS.</h2> + +<p class="indent">AIDS TO FAITH; a Series of Theological Essays. By various +Writers. <i>Seventh Edition.</i> 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<h6>CONTENTS:</h6> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Miracles.</i>—<span class="smcap">Dean Mansel.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Evidences of Christianity.</i>—<span class="smcap">Bishop of Killaloe.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Prophecy—and the Mosaic Record of Creation.</i>—Rev. Dr. <span class="smcap">M’Caul</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Ideology and Subscription.</i>—Canon <span class="smcap">F. C. Cook</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>The Pentateuch.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">George Rawlinson</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Inspiration.</i>—<span class="smcap">Bishop of Ely.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Death of Christ.</i>—<span class="smcap">Archbishop of York.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Scripture and its Interpretation.</i>—<span class="smcap">Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol.</span></p> + +<p class="indent">AUSTIN’S (<span class="smcap">John</span>) LECTURES ON JURISPRUDENCE; or, The +<span class="smcap">Philosophy of Positive Law</span>. <i>Third Edition.</i> Revised by ROBERT +CAMPBELL. 2 vols. 8vo. 32<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (<span class="smcap">Sarah</span>) POLITICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL +HISTORY OF THE POPES OF ROME. Translated from the German of +Leopold Ranke. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> With a Preface by <span class="smcap">Dean Milman</span>. 3 vols. +8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BARROW’S (<span class="smcap">Sir John</span>) AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR, +including Reflections, Observations, and Reminiscences at Home and Abroad. +From Early Life to Advanced Age. Portrait. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY AND RESEARCH +WITHIN THE ARCTIC REGIONS, since 1818. Abridged and Arranged +from the Official Narratives. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BARRY’S (<span class="smcap">Alfred</span>, D.D.) MEMOIR OF THE LIFE AND +WORKS OF SIR CHARLES BARRY, R.A. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Portrait +and 40 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BELCHER’S (<span class="smcap">Lady</span>) MUTINEERS OF THE ‘BOUNTY,’ AND +THEIR DESCENDANTS; in <span class="smcap">Pitcairn</span> and <span class="smcap">Norfolk Islands</span>. With +Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BELL’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Chas.</span>) FAMILIAR LETTERS. With Portrait. +Crown 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BERTRAM’S (<span class="smcap">Jas. G.</span>) HARVEST OF THE SEA; <span class="smcap">A Contribution +to the Natural and Economic History of the British Food +Fishes</span>. <i>Second Edition.</i> With 50 Illustrations. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BIBLE COMMENTARY; THE HOLY BIBLE, according to +the <span class="smcap">Authorized Version, a.d. 1611</span>. With an <span class="smcap">Explanatory</span> and <span class="smcap">Critical +Commentary</span> and a <span class="smcap">Revision</span> of the <span class="smcap">Translation</span>. By BISHOPS and +other CLERGY of the ANGLICAN CHURCH. Edited by F. C. COOK, M.A., +Canon of Exeter. Vol. I. The <span class="smcap">Pentateuch</span>. <span class="smcap">PARTS 1 & 2.</span> Medium 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BIRCH’S (<span class="smcap">Samuel</span>) HISTORY OF ANCIENT POTTERY AND +PORCELAIN. Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman. With +coloured Plates and 200 Woodcuts. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. 42<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2a" id="Page_2a">2</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">BANKES’ (<span class="smcap">George</span>) STORY OF CORFE CASTLE, including +the Private Memoirs of a Family resident there in the time of the Civil Wars, +together with Unpublished Correspondence of the Ministers and Court of +Charles I. at York and Oxford. With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BISSET’S (<span class="smcap">Andrew</span>) HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH +OF ENGLAND, from the <span class="smcap">Death</span> of <span class="smcap">Charles the First</span> to the <span class="smcap">Expulsion</span> +of the <span class="smcap">Long Parliament</span> by <span class="smcap">Cromwell</span>. From MSS. in the State Paper +Office, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BYRON’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) POETICAL WORKS. Edited with Notes. +<i>Library Edition.</i> With Portrait. 6 vols. 8vo. 45<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— With Notes and Illustrations. +<i>Cabinet Edition.</i> With Plates. 10 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— With Portrait and +Illustrations. One Volume. Royal 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE. With his Letters and Journals. By THOMAS +MOORE. With Notes and Illustrations. <i>Cabinet Edition.</i> With Plates. +6 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— With Portraits. One Volume. Royal 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BLUNT’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. J. J.</span>) LECTURES ON THE RIGHT USE OF +THE EARLY FATHERS. <i>Third Edition.</i> 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— UNDESIGNED COINCIDENCES IN THE OLD +AND NEW TESTAMENTS: an Argument of their Veracity. With an +Appendix, containing Undesigned Coincidences between the Gospels, Acts, +and Josephus. <i>Ninth Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— CHRISTIAN CHURCH DURING THE FIRST +THREE CENTURIES. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— PARISH PRIEST: <span class="smcap">His Duties, Acquirements, and +Obligations</span>. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— PLAIN SERMONS PREACHED TO A COUNTRY +CONGREGATION. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> 2 vols. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BONAPARTE’S (<span class="smcap">Napoleon</span>) CONFIDENTIAL CORRESPONDENCE +WITH HIS BROTHER JOSEPH, KING OF SPAIN. Selected +and Translated with Explanatory Notes. 2 vols. 8vo. 26<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BORROW’S (<span class="smcap">George</span>) GYPSIES OF SPAIN; their Manners, +Customs, Religion and Language. <i>Third Edition.</i> 2 vols. Post 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— BIBLE IN SPAIN; or, The Journeys, Adventures, +and Imprisonments of an Englishman in an attempt to circulate the Scriptures +in the Peninsula. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> 3 vols. Post 8vo. 27<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LAVENGRO; <span class="smcap">The Scholar</span>—<span class="smcap">The Gipsy</span>—and <span class="smcap">The +Priest</span>. With Portrait. 3 vols. Post 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ROMANY RYE; <span class="smcap">A Sequel To Lavengro</span>. 2 vols. +Post 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BOSWELL’S (<span class="smcap">James</span>) LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D.; +including the TOUR to the HEBRIDES. By the <span class="smcap">Rt. Hon.</span> J. W. CROKER. +With Portraits. Royal 8vo. 10<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BRAY’S (<span class="smcap">Mrs.</span>) REVOLT OF THE PROTESTANTS IN THE +CEVENNES. With some Account of the Huguenots in the Seventeenth +Century. Post 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE OF THOMAS STOTHARD, R.A. With Personal +Reminiscences. With Portrait and Illustrations. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3a" id="Page_3a">3</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">BROGDEN’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. Jas.</span>) ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE +LITURGY AND RITUAL OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND AND +IRELAND; selected from the Works of eminent Divines of the 17th +Century. 3 vols. Post 8vo. 27<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— CATHOLIC SAFEGUARDS <span class="smcap">against the Errors, +Corruptions, and Novelties of the Church of Rome</span>. 3 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">BULGARIA; <span class="smcap">Notes</span> on the <span class="smcap">Resources</span> and <span class="smcap">Administration</span> of +<span class="smcap">Turkey</span>—the <span class="smcap">Condition</span>, <span class="smcap">Character</span>, <span class="smcap">Manners</span>, <span class="smcap">Customs</span>, and <span class="smcap">Language</span> of +the <span class="smcap">Christian</span> and <span class="smcap">Mussulman Populations</span>, &c. By S. G. B. ST. CLAIR +and CHARLES A. BROPHY. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CAMPBELL’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) LIVES OF THE LORD CHANCELLORS +AND KEEPERS OF THE GREAT SEAL OF ENGLAND, from +the Earliest Times to the Reign of George the Fourth. 10 vols. Post 8vo. +60<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— LIVES OF LORDS LYNDHURST +AND BROUGHAM. 8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (<span class="smcap">Sir Neil</span>) JOURNAL OF OCCURRENCES, +and Notes of Conversations with Napoleon at Fontainbleau and Elba in +1814-15. With a Memoir of that Officer. By his Nephew, REV. A. N. C. +MACLACHLAN. With Portrait. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (<span class="smcap">George</span>) MODERN INDIA. A Sketch of the +System of Civil Government. With some Account of the Natives and Native +Institutions. <i>Second Edition.</i> 8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— INDIA AS IT MAY BE. An Outline of a +Proposed Government and Policy. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CASTLEREAGH’S (<span class="smcap">Viscount</span>) MEMOIRS. CORRESPONDENCE, +AND DESPATCHES. Edited by THE MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY. +12 vols. 8vo. 14<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">CATHCART’S (<span class="smcap">Sir George</span>) COMMENTARIES ON THE +WAR IN RUSSIA AND GERMANY, 1812-13. With Plans. 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— MILITARY OPERATIONS IN KAFFRARIA. +<i>Second Edition.</i> 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CHALMERS’ (<span class="smcap">George</span>) POETICAL REMAINS OF SOME OF +THE SCOTTISH KINGS. Post 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CHURCH AND THE AGE. Essays on the Principles and +Present Position of the Anglican Church. By various Writers. <i>Second +Edition.</i> 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<h6>CONTENTS:</h6> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Anglican Principles.</i>—<span class="smcap">Dean Hook.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Modern Religious Thought.</i>—<span class="smcap">Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>The State, The Church, and Synods.</i>—Rev. Dr. <span class="smcap">Irons</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Religious Use of Taste.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">R. St. John Tyrwhitt</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Place of the Laity.</i>—Professor <span class="smcap">Burrows</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>The Parish Priest.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">Walsham How</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Divines of 16th and 17th Centuries.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">A. W. Haddan</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Liturgies and Ritual.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">M. F. Sadler</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>The Church and Education.</i>—Rev. Dr. <span class="smcap">Barry</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Indian Missions.</i>—<span class="smcap">Sir Bartle Frere.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>The Church and the People.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">W. D. Maclagan</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Conciliation and Comprehension.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">A. Weir</span>.</p> + +<p class="indent">CHURTON AND JONES’ (<span class="smcap">Archdeacon</span>) NEW TESTAMENT. +With a Plain Explanatory Commentary for Families and General Readers; +with more than 100 Illustrations of Scripture Scenes, from Photographs +and Sketches taken on the Spot. 2 vols. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4a" id="Page_4a">4</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">CICERO’S LIFE and TIMES, with his <span class="smcap">Character</span> as a <span class="smcap">Statesman</span>, +<span class="smcap">Orator</span>, and <span class="smcap">Friend</span>; and a Selection from his Correspondence and +Orations. By WILLIAM FORSYTH. <i>Third Edition.</i> With 40 Illustrations. +8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CLODE’S (C. M.) HISTORY OF THE ADMINISTRATION +AND GOVERNMENT OF THE BRITISH ARMY <span class="smcap">from the Revolution, +1688</span>. 2 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">COLCHESTER’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) DIARY AND CORRESPONDENCE +WHILE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS, 1802-1817. Edited +by HIS SON. With Portrait. 3 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CORNWALLIS’S (<span class="smcap">Marquis</span>) CORRESPONDENCE DURING +THE AMERICAN WAR: Administrations in India,—Union with Ireland, +and Peace of Amiens. Edited by CHARLES ROSS. <i>Second Edition.</i> With +Portrait. 3 vols. 8vo. 63<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">COWPER’S (<span class="smcap">Countess</span>) DIARY WHILE LADY OF THE +BEDCHAMBER TO CAROLINE, PRINCESS OF WALES, 1714-20. +Edited by Hon. <span class="smcap">Spencer Cowper</span>. <i>Second Edition.</i> Portrait. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CRABBE’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. George</span>) POETICAL WORKS; with his Life, +Letters, and Journals. By HIS SON. With Notes and Illustrations. +<i>Cabinet Edition.</i> With Plates, 8 vols., Fcap. 8vo, 24<i>s.</i>; or, with Illustrations, +one volume, Royal 8vo. 7<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CROKER’S (<span class="smcap">Rt. Hon. J. W.</span>) WORKS OF ALEXANDER +POPE. With Introductions and Notes by <span class="smcap">Rev. Whitwell Elwin</span>. Vols. I. +to III. With Portraits. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— BOSWELL’S LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON, D.D., +including their Tour to the Hebrides. Edited with Notes. With Portraits. +1 vol. Royal 8vo. 10<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ESSAYS ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. +8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CROWE AND CAVALCASELLE’S HISTORY OF PAINTING +IN ITALY, from the Second to the Sixteenth Century. With 100 +Illustrations. 3 vols. 8vo. 63<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— HISTORY OF PAINTING IN NORTH +ITALY. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="indent">—————— EARLY FLEMISH PAINTERS. With +Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CUNNINGHAM’S (<span class="smcap">Peter</span>) GOLDSMITH’S WORKS. Printed +from the last Edition, revised by the Author, and edited, with Notes. With +Vignettes. 4 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— JOHNSON’S LIVES OF THE MOST +EMINENT ENGLISH POETS. With Critical Observations on their Works. +Edited, with Notes. 3 vols. 8vo. 22<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (J. D.) HISTORY OF THE SIKHS, from +the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej. <i>Second Edition.</i> With +Maps. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">CUST’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Edward</span>) ANNALS OF THE WARS OF THE +<span class="smcap">18th and 19th CENTURIES, 1700-1815</span>. With Maps. 9 vols. Fcap. 8vo. +5<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIVES OF THE WARRIORS OF THE <span class="smcap">17th</span> CENTURY—The +Thirty Years’ War—The Civil Wars of France and England—The +Commanders of Fleets and Armies before the Enemy. 1604-1704. 6 vols. +Post 8vo. 50<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5a" id="Page_5a">5</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">DARWIN’S (<span class="smcap">Charles</span>) Journal of Researches into the Natural +History of the Countries visited during a Voyage round the World. <i>Tenth +Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— <span class="smcap">ORIGIN of SPECIES by MEANS of NATURAL +SELECTION</span>; or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. +<i>Fifth Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— FERTILIZATION OF ORCHIDS THROUGH +INSECT AGENCY, and as to the good of Intercrossing. With Woodcuts. +Post 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS +UNDER DOMESTICATION. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 28<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— DESCENT OF MAN, and on SELECTION in +RELATION to SEX. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DELEPIERRE’S (<span class="smcap">Octave</span>) HISTORY OF FLEMISH LITERATURE +FROM THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DENISON’S (E. B.) LIFE OF BISHOP LONSDALE. With +Portrait. Crown 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DERBY’S (<span class="smcap">Earl of</span>) HOMER’S ILIAD RENDERED INTO +ENGLISH BLANK VERSE. <i>Seventh Edition.</i> 2 vols. Post 8vo. 10<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DE ROS’ (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) MEMORIALS OF THE TOWER OF LONDON. +<i>Second Edition.</i> With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DEVEREUX’S (W. B.) LIVES OF THE EARLS OF ESSEX +IN THE REIGNS OF ELIZABETH, JAMES I., AND CHARLES I. +Portraits. 2 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DOUGLAS’ (<span class="smcap">Sir Howard</span>) LIFE AND ADVENTURES. By +S. W. FULLOM. 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— TREATISE ON GUNNERY. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> +Woodcuts. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— CONSTRUCTION OF MILITARY BRIDGES +<span class="smcap">and the Passage of Rivers in Military Operations</span>. Plates. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DUCANGE’S MEDIÆVAL LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. +Illustrated and enlarged by numerous additions, derived from patristic +and scholastic authors, the works of the Record Commission, Mediæval +Histories, Charters, Glossaries, &c., &c. By E. A. DAYMAN, B.D. 4to.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In Preparation.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent">DUDLEY’S (<span class="smcap">Earl of</span>) LETTERS TO BISHOP COPLESTONE. +<i>Second Edition.</i> Portrait. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">DYER’S (<span class="smcap">Thos. H.</span>) HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE, from +the Taking of Constantinople by the Turks to the Close of the War in the +Crimea, 1453-1857. With an Index. 4 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE AND LETTERS OF JOHN CALVIN. Compiled +from authentic Sources. With Portrait. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">EASTLAKE’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Charles</span>) CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE +LITERATURE OF THE FINE ARTS. <i>Second Edition.</i> 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— MEMOIR; <span class="smcap">With Selections from his Correspondence</span>, +and Additional Contributions to the Literature of the Fine +Arts. By LADY EASTLAKE. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ITALIAN SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. From +the German of <span class="smcap">Kugler</span>. Edited, with Notes. <i>Sixth Edition.</i> With 100 +Illustrations. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 30<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6a" id="Page_6a">6</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">EGYPTIANS (ANCIENT): Their Manners and Customs. By +SIR J. GARDNER WILKINSON. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> with illustrations. +2 vols. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (MODERN): Their <span class="smcap">Manners and Customs</span>. By +E. W. LANE. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">ELLESMERE’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) ESSAYS ON HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, +GEOGRAPHY, and ENGINEERING. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">ELPHINSTONE’S (<span class="smcap">Mount Stuart</span>) HISTORY OF INDIA. +The Hindu and Mahometan Periods. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> With Notes and +Additions by PROFESSOR COWELL. With Map. 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">ELWIN’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. Whitwell</span>) WORKS OF ALEXANDER POPE. +With Introductions and Notes, and many original Letters now for the first +time published. With Portrait. Vols. I to III. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">ENGEL’S (<span class="smcap">Carl</span>) MUSIC OF THE MOST ANCIENT +NATIONS; particularly of the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Hebrews; with +Special Reference to the Discoveries in Western Asia and in Egypt. <i>Second +Edition.</i> With 100 Illustrations. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FARRAR’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. A. S.</span>) CRITICAL HISTORY OF FREE +THOUGHT IN REFERENCE TO THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 8vo. +16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FEATHERSTONHAUGH’S (G. W.) TOUR THROUGH THE +SLAVE STATES OF NORTH AMERICA, from the River Potomac, to +Texas and the Frontiers of Mexico. 2 vols. 8vo. 26<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FERGUSSON’S (<span class="smcap">James</span>) HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN +ALL COUNTRIES. From the Earliest Times. With 1200 Illustrations. +VOLS. I. & II. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— Vol. III. The Modern Styles. With 312 Illustrations. +8vo. 31<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FERRIER’S (T. P.) CARAVAN JOURNEYS IN PERSIA, +AFFGHANISTAN, HERAT, TURKISTAN, AND BELOOCHISTAN, with +Descriptions of Meshed, Balk, and Candahar, and Sketches of the Nomade +Tribes of Central Asia. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Map. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HISTORY OF THE AFFGHANS. With Map. +8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FORSTER’S (<span class="smcap">John</span>) HISTORY OF THE GRAND REMONSTRANCE, +1641. With an Introductory Essay on English Freedom under +Plantagenet and Tudor Sovereigns. <i>Second Edition.</i> 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE OF SIR JOHN ELIOT, 1590-1632. With +Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— CROMWELL, DEFOE, STEELE, CHURCHILL, +FOOTE.—Biographies. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FORSYTH’S (<span class="smcap">William</span>) LIFE AND TIMES OF CICERO. +With Selections from his Correspondence and Orations. <i>Third Edition.</i> +With Illustrations. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">FOSS’ (<span class="smcap">Edward</span>) JUDGES OF ENGLAND. With Sketches of +their Lives, and Notices of the Courts at Westminster, from the Conquest to +the Present Time. 9 vols. 8vo. 126<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF THE JUDGES +OF ENGLAND, FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE PRESENT TIME, 1066-1870. +Condensed from the above work. Medium 8vo. 21<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7a" id="Page_7a">7</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">GEORGE THE THIRD’S CORRESPONDENCE WITH LORD +NORTH, 1769-82. Edited, with Notes and Introduction, by W. BODHAM +DONNE. 2 vols. 8vo. 32<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GIBBON’S (<span class="smcap">Edward</span>) HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND +FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. With Notes by DEAN MILMAN +and M. GUIZOT. A new Edition. Edited, with additional Notes incorporating +the Researches of recent writers, by WM. SMITH, D.C.L. With +Portrait and Maps. 8 vols. 8vo. 60<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GOLDSMITH’S (<span class="smcap">Oliver</span>) WORKS. Edited, with Notes, by +PETER CUNNINGHAM, F.S.A. With Portrait and Vignettes. 4 vols. 8vo. +30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GRENVILLE’S (<span class="smcap">George</span>) PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE +WITH HIS FRIENDS AND CONTEMPORARIES, +during a period of Thirty Years. Including his Diary of Political Events +while First Lord of the Treasury. Edited, with Notes, by W. J. SMITH. +4 vols. 8vo. 16<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">GREY’S (<span class="smcap">Earl</span>) CORRESPONDENCE WITH KING WILLIAM +IV. and SIR HERBERT TAYLOR, from November, 1830, to the Passing of +the Reform Act in 1832. Edited by HIS SON. 2 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GROTE’S (<span class="smcap">George</span>) HISTORY of GREECE, from the Earliest +Period to the Close of the Generation contemporary with Alexander the Great. +<i>Fourth Edition.</i> With Portrait, Maps, and Plans. 8 vols. 8vo. 112<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— <i>Cabinet Edition</i>. With Portrait and +Plans. 12 vols. Post 8vo. 6<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— PLATO AND THE OTHER COMPANIONS OF +SOCRATES. <i>Second Edition.</i> 3 vols. 8vo. 45<i>s.</i> *<sub>*</sub>*. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GRUNER’S (<span class="smcap">Lewis</span>) TERRA-COTTA ARCHITECTURE OF +NORTH ITALY. From careful Drawings and Restorations. With Illustrations, +engraved and printed in Colours. Small folio. 5<i>l.</i> 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GUIZOT’S (M.) MEDITATIONS ON CHRISTIANITY, AND +ON THE RELIGIOUS QUESTIONS OF THE DAY. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 20<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GURWOOD’S (<span class="smcap">Col.</span>) SELECTIONS FROM THE WELLINGTON +DESPATCHES AND GENERAL ORDERS. Intended as a convenient +Manual for Officers while Travelling or on Service. 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">GUSTAVUS VASA (<span class="smcap">Life of</span>). His Exploits and Adventures. +With Extracts from his Correspondence. With Portrait. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HALLAM’S (<span class="smcap">Henry</span>) CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF +ENGLAND, from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II. +<i>Eighth Edition.</i> 3 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HISTORY OF THE STATE OF EUROPE +DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. <i>Eleventh Edition.</i> 3 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LITERARY HISTORY OF EUROPE. <i>Fourth +Edition.</i> 3 vols. 8vo. 36<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HISTORICAL WORKS. With the <i>Author’s latest +Corrections and Additions</i>. Containing HISTORY OF ENGLAND—EUROPE +DURING THE MIDDLE AGES—LITERARY HISTORY OF EUROPE. +<i>Cabinet Edition.</i> 10 vols. Post 8vo. 6<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p>*<sub>*</sub>* The public are cautioned against editions of Hallam’s Histories recently +advertised, which are merely reprints of old editions, <i>which the author himself +declared to be full of errors</i>, and do not contain the additional notes, &c.</p> + +<p>The only correct editions are published by <span class="smcap">John Murray</span>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8a" id="Page_8a">8</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">HAMILTON’S (<span class="smcap">James</span>) WANDERINGS IN NORTHERN +AFRICA, BENGHAZI, CYRENE, THE OASIS OF SIWAH, &c. <i>Second +Edition.</i> With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (W. J.) RESEARCHES IN ASIA MINOR, +PONTUS, AND ARMENIA; with some Account of the Antiquities and +Geology of those Countries. With Map and Plates. 2 vols. 8vo. 38<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HANDBOOK TO THE CATHEDRALS OF ENGLAND; a +Concise History of each See, with Biographical Notices of the Bishops. By +RICHARD J. KING, B.A. With 300 Illustrations. 6 vols. Post 8vo. +Containing:—</p> + +<p class="indent"><i>Southern Division</i>; <span class="smcap">Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, +Rochester, Canterbury, and Chichester</span>. With 110 Illustrations. +2 vols. Crown 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"><i>Eastern Division</i>; <span class="smcap">Oxford, Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, +and Lincoln</span>. With 90 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"><i>Western Division</i>; <span class="smcap">Bristol, Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester, +and Litchfield</span>. With 60 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent"><i>Northern Division</i>; <span class="smcap">York, Ripon, Durham, Carlisle, Chester, +and Manchester</span>. With 60 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2 vols. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HANNAH’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. Dr.</span>) DIVINE AND HUMAN ELEMENTS +IN HOLY SCRIPTURE. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HATHERLEY’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) CONTINUITY OF SCRIPTURE, as +declared by the Testimony of our Lord and of the Evangelists and Apostles. +<i>Fourth Edition.</i> Crown 8vo. 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HEAD’S (<span class="smcap">Sir F. B.</span>) ROYAL ENGINEER, <span class="smcap">and the Royal +Establishments at Woolwich and Chatham</span>. With Illustrations. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— DEFENCELESS STATE OF GREAT BRITAIN. +Contents—1. Military Warfare. 2. Naval Warfare. 3. The Invasion of +England. 4. The Capture of London by a French Army. 5. The Treatment +of Women in War. 6. How to Defend Great Britain. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— FAGGOT OF FRENCH STICKS; or, Description of +Paris in 1851. <i>2nd Edition.</i> 2 vols. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS. Contributed to the ‘Quarterly +Review.’ 2 vols. Post 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HERODOTUS: A New English Version. Edited, with copious +Notes, from the most Recent Sources of Information. By GEORGE +RAWLINSON, M.A. Assisted by Sir <span class="smcap">Henry Rawlinson</span> and Sir <span class="smcap">Gardner +Wilkinson</span>. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Maps and Woodcuts. 4 vols. 8vo. +48<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HESSEY’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. Dr.</span>) SUNDAY: its Origin, History, and +Present Obligations. <i>Second Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HILL (<span class="smcap">Frederick</span>) ON CRIME: its Amount, Causes, and +Remedies. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HOMER’S ILIAD, rendered into English Blank Verse. By the +EARL OF DERBY. <i>Seventh Edition.</i> 2 vols. Small 8vo. 10<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HOOK’S (<span class="smcap">Dean</span>) CHURCH DICTIONARY: a Manual of Reference +for the Clergy—Students—and General Readers. <i>Tenth Edition.</i> 8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">HORACE. A New Edition of the Text. Edited by DEAN +MILMAN. With 100 Illustrations. Small 8vo. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE. By <span class="smcap">Dean Milman</span>. With Illustrations. 8vo. 9<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9a" id="Page_9a">9</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">JAMESON’S (<span class="smcap">Mrs.</span>) LIVES OF THE EARLY ITALIAN +PAINTERS—and the Progress of Painting in Italy from Cimabue to Bassano. +<i>Tenth Edition.</i> With 50 Portraits. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">JOHNSON’S (<span class="smcap">Samuel</span>) LIFE. By JAMES BOSWELL. Including +the Tour to the Hebrides. Edited by the <span class="smcap">Rt. Hon. J. W. Croker.</span> +With Portraits. Royal 8vo. 10<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIVES OF THE MOST EMINENT ENGLISH +POETS, with Critical Observations on their Works. Edited, with Notes, +by <span class="smcap">Peter Cunningham</span>, F.S.A. With Portrait. 3 vols. 8vo. 22<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">JOHNSTON’S (<span class="smcap">Wm.</span>) ENGLAND AS IT IS: Political, Social, +and Industrial, in the Nineteenth Century. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">JONES AND CHURTON’S (<span class="smcap">Archdeacon</span>) NEW TESTAMENT. +Edited, with a <span class="smcap">Plain Practical Commentary</span> for the use of +<span class="smcap">Families</span> and <span class="smcap">General Readers</span>. With 100 Panoramic and other Views +from Sketches and Photographs made on the Spot. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">JUNIUS; the Handwriting of Junius professionally investigated. +By MR. CHABOT, Expert. With Preface and Collateral Evidence, by the +<span class="smcap">Hon. Edward Twisleton</span>. With Facsimiles, Woodcuts, &c. 4to.</p> + +<p class="indent">KEN’S (<span class="smcap">Bishop</span>) LIFE. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Portrait. 2 vols. +8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">KERR’S (<span class="smcap">Robert</span>) GENTLEMAN’S HOUSE; or, How to Plan +English Residences, from the Parsonage to the Palace. <i>Third Edition.</i> +With Views and Plans. 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (<span class="smcap">R. Malcolm</span>) BLACKSTONE’S COMMENTARIES, +adapted to the present state of the Law. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> 4 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In the Press.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent">KING’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. C. W.</span>) ANTIQUE GEMS; their Origin, Use, and +Value, as Interpreters of Ancient History, and as illustrative of Ancient Art. +<i>Second Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">KIRK’S (<span class="smcap">J. Foster</span>) HISTORY OF CHARLES THE BOLD, +DUKE OF BURGUNDY. With Portraits. 3 vols. 8vo. 45<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">KORFF’S (<span class="smcap">Baron</span>) ACCESSION OF NICHOLAS I., compiled +by special command of the Emperor Alexander II. Translated from the +Russian. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">KUGLER’S (<span class="smcap">Franz</span>) HISTORY OF PAINTING (<span class="smcap">The Italian +Schools</span>). Edited, with Notes, by SIR CHARLES EASTLAKE. <i>Sixth +Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">————————— (<span class="smcap">German, Dutch, and Flemish Schools</span>). +Edited, with Notes, by DR. WAAGEN. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Illustrations. +2 vols. Post 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LANE’S (<span class="smcap">Edw. W.</span>) ACCOUNT OF THE MANNERS AND +CUSTOMS OF THE MODERN EGYPTIANS. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> With Woodcuts. +2 vols. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LAYARD’S (A. H.) TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES AT +NINEVEH AND BABYLON. With an Account of the Manners and Arts +of the Ancient Assyrians; being the Narrative of a First and Second Expedition +to the Ruins of Assyria. With Maps and Illustrations. 3 vols. 8vo. +57<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LENNEP’S (<span class="smcap">H. Van</span>) TRAVELS IN ASIA MINOR. With +Illustrations of Biblical Literature and Archæology. With Maps and Illustrations. +2 vols. Post 8vo. 24<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10a" id="Page_10a">10</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">LEWIS’ (<span class="smcap">Sir G. C.</span>) ESSAY ON THE GOVERNMENT OF +DEPENDENCIES. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LEXINGTON (<span class="smcap">The</span>) PAPERS; or, Some Account of the Courts +of London and Vienna at the end of the 17th Century. Edited by HON. H. +MANNERS SUTTON. 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LIDDELL’S (<span class="smcap">Dean</span>) HISTORY OF ROME: from the Earliest +Times to the Establishment of the Empire. With Chapters on the History +of Literature and Art. 2 vols. 8vo. 28<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LINDSAY’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) LIVES OF THE LINDSAYS; or, a +Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Balcarres. 3 vols. 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LOWE’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Hudson</span>) HISTORY OF THE CAPTIVITY OF +NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA. Edited by WILLIAM FORSYTH. With +Portrait. 3 vols. 8vo. 45<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LYELL’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Charles</span>) PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY; or, +the Ancient Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrated by Geological +Monuments. <i>Tenth Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 32<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ANTIQUITY OF MAN FROM GEOLOGICAL +EVIDENCES. With Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species by +Variation. <i>Third Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">LYTTON’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) LOST TALES OF MILETUS. <i>Second +Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— POEMS. <i>A New Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MACDOUGALL’S (<span class="smcap">Col.</span>) MODERN WARFARE AS INFLUENCED +BY MODERN ARTILLERY. With Plans and Woodcuts. +Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MACGREGOR’S (<span class="smcap">John</span>) CRUISE IN THE ‘ROB ROY’ +CANOE <span class="smcap">ON THE</span> JORDAN, THE NILE, THE RED SEA, LAKE OF +GENNESARETH, &c. <i>Third Edition.</i> With Maps and Illustrations. Crown +8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MAETZNER’S (<span class="smcap">Professor</span>) COPIOUS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. +A Methodical, Analytical, and Historical Treatise on the Orthography, +Prosody, Inflections, and Syntax of the English Tongue. With numerous +authorities, cited in the order of historical development. 3 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In the Press.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent">MAHON (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>). See STANHOPE (<span class="smcap">Earl of</span>).</p> + +<p class="indent">MAINE’S (<span class="smcap">H. Sumner</span>) ANCIENT LAW; its Connection with +the Early History of Society, and its relation to Modern Ideas. <i>Fourth +Edition.</i> 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MANSEL’S (<span class="smcap">Dean</span>) LIMITS OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT +EXAMINED. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 8<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MARCO POLO’S TRAVELS. A New English Version. Illustrated +by the Light of Modern Travels and Oriental Writers. By COL. +YULE, C.B. With Maps and Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo.</p> + +<p class="indent">MARRYAT’S (<span class="smcap">Joseph</span>) HISTORY OF MEDIÆVAL AND +MODERN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN <i>Third Edition.</i> With Coloured +Plates and 240 Woodcuts. Medium 8vo. 42<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11a" id="Page_11a">11</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">MILMAN’S (<span class="smcap">Dean</span>) HISTORY OF THE JEWS, from the +<span class="smcap">Earliest Period</span>, continued to <span class="smcap">Modern Times</span>, with a new Preface and +Notes. 3 vols. Post 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— OF CHRISTIANITY, from the +<span class="smcap">Birth of Christ</span> to the <span class="smcap">Abolition of Paganism</span> in the <span class="smcap">Roman Empire</span>. +3 vols. Post 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— LATIN CHRISTIANITY; +and of the <span class="smcap">Popes</span> down to <span class="smcap">Nicholas V.</span> 9 vols. Post 8vo. 54<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— CHARACTER AND CONDUCT OF THE APOSTLES +CONSIDERED AS AN EVIDENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. 8vo. +10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ANNALS OF ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL. <i>Second +Edition.</i> With Portrait and Illustrations. 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— SAVONAROLA, ERASMUS, and other LITERARY +ESSAYS. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HISTORICAL WORKS; containing the ‘<span class="smcap">History +of the Jews</span>,’ ‘<span class="smcap">Early Christianity</span>,’ and ‘<span class="smcap">Latin Christianity</span>.’ With +the Author’s latest Additions and Corrections. <i>Cabinet Edition.</i> 15 vols. +Post 8vo. 6<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— POETICAL WORKS; containing ‘Samor,’ ‘Fall of +Jerusalem,’ ‘Belshazzar,’ ‘Martyr of Antioch,’ ‘Anne Boleyn,’ &c. With Plates. +3 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— AGAMEMNON OF ÆSCHYLUS AND THE +BACCHANALS OF EURIPIDES. With Passages from the Lyric and Later +Poets of Greece. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HORACE; a New Edition of the Text. With 100 +Woodcuts. Small 8vo. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— LIFE OF. With Illustrations. 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MOLTKE’S (<span class="smcap">Baron</span>) RUSSIAN CAMPAIGNS ON THE +DANUBE AND THE PASSAGE OF THE BALKAN, 1828-9. With Plans. +8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MONGREDIEN’S (A.) TREES AND SHRUBS FOR ENGLISH +PLANTATION. A Selection and Description of the most Ornamental +which will flourish in the open air. With Classified Lists. With 30 Illustrations. +8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MOORE’S (<span class="smcap">Thomas</span>) LIFE OF LORD BYRON; his Letters +and Journals. With Notes and Illustrations. <i>Cabinet Edition.</i> With Plates. +6 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">————————— With Portraits. +One Volume. Royal 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MOTLEY’S (J. L.) HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS, +from the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years’ Truce: +with a full view of the English-Dutch struggle against Spain, and of the origin +and destruction of the Spanish Armada. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> With Portraits. +4 vols. 8vo. 60<i>s.</i>; or, <i>Cabinet Edition</i>, 4 vols., Post 8vo, 6<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">MOZLEY’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. J. B.</span>) TREATISE ON THE AUGUSTINIAN +DOCTRINE OF PREDESTINATION. 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— PRIMITIVE DOCTRINE OF BAPTISMAL REGENERATION. +8vo. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">MURCHISON’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Roderick</span>) SILURIA: a History of the +Oldest Rocks in the British Isles and other Countries. With a Sketch of +the Distribution of Native Gold. <i>Fourth Edition.</i> With Plates and Woodcuts. +8vo. 30<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12a" id="Page_12a">12</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">NAPIER’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Charles</span>) LIFE AND OPINIONS; chiefly +derived from his Journals and Letters. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Portraits. +4 vols. Post 8vo. 48<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (<span class="smcap">Sir William</span>) ENGLISH BATTLES AND SIEGES +IN THE PENINSULA. Extracted from his History of the Peninsular +War. <i>Fifth Edition.</i> With Portrait. Post 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE. With Portraits. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">NELSON’S (<span class="smcap">Robert</span>) LIFE AND TIMES. By <span class="smcap">Rev.</span> C. T. +Secretan, M.A. With Portrait. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">NEWBOLD’S (<span class="smcap">Lieut.</span>) STRAITS OF MALACCA, PENANG, +AND SINGAPORE. 2 vols. 8vo. 26<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">NEW TESTAMENT. With a Plain Explanatory Commentary +for General Readers. By ARCHDEACON CHURTON, M.A., and +ARCHDEACON BASIL JONES, M.A. With 110 authentic Views of +Scripture Sites, &c., from Sketches and Photographs taken on the Spot. +2 vols. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">NICHOLAS’ (<span class="smcap">Sir Harris</span>) HISTORIC PEERAGE OF ENGLAND. +Exhibiting the Origin, Descent, and Present State of every Title of +Peerage which has existed in this Country since the Conquest. <i>A New +Edition.</i> Edited by W. COURTHOPE. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">NICHOLLS’ (<span class="smcap">Sir George</span>) HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH,—IRISH,—AND +SCOTCH POOR LAWS. 4 vols. 8vo. 54<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">NORTH’S (<span class="smcap">Lord</span>) CORRESPONDENCE <span class="smcap">WITH</span> KING GEORGE +THE THIRD, 1769-82. Edited, with Notes and Introduction, by W. BODHAM +DONNE. 2 vols. 8vo. 32<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">OLD LONDON; its Archæology and Antiquities; A Series +of Papers read at the Meeting of the Archæological Institute, July, 1866. By +<span class="smcap">Various Writers</span>. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<h6>CONTENTS:</h6> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Archæology in its Religious Aspect.</i>—<span class="smcap">Dean Stanley.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>An Address.</i>—<span class="smcap">A. J. Beresford Hope</span>, M.P.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Chapter House of Westminster Abbey.</i>—<span class="smcap">G. G. Scott</span>, R.A.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Sculpture in Westminster Abbey.</i>—<span class="smcap">R. Westmacott</span>, R.A.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Westminster Hall.</i>—<span class="smcap">E. Foss</span>, F.S.A.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Architectural History of the Tower.</i>—<span class="smcap">G. T. Clark.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Public Record Office.</i>—<span class="smcap">Joseph Burtt.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>London and her Election of Stephen.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">J. R. Green</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Royal Picture Galleries.</i>—<span class="smcap">G. Scharf</span>, F.S.A.</p> + +<p class="indent">OWEN’S (<span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col.</span>) PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF +MODERN ARTILLERY, including <span class="smcap">Artillery Material</span>, <span class="smcap">Gunnery</span>, and +<span class="smcap">Organization and Use of Artillery in Warfare</span>. With Illustrations. +8vo.</p> + +<p class="indent">PARKMAN’S (<span class="smcap">Fras.</span>) DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST; +or, The Valleys of the Mississippi and the Lakes of North America. An +Historical Narrative. With Map. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">PEEL’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Robert</span>) MEMOIRS. I. <span class="smcap">Roman Catholic Relief +Bill, 1828-9.</span> II. <span class="smcap">Formation of the New Government in 1834-5.</span> +III. <span class="smcap">Repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845-6.</span> Edited by EARL STANHOPE +and <span class="smcap">Rt. Hon.</span> EDWARD CARDWELL. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 15<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13a" id="Page_13a">13</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">PERCY’S (<span class="smcap">John</span>) METALLURGY: or, <span class="smcap">The Art of Extracting +Metals from their Ores, and Adapting them to Various Purposes +of Manufacture</span>. With numerous Illustrations. 5 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="indent">I.—<span class="smcap">Fuel</span>, Wood, Peat. <span class="smcap">Coal</span>, Charcoal, Coke. <span class="smcap">Fire-Clays.</span> <span class="smcap">Copper</span>, +<span class="smcap">Zinc</span>, and <span class="smcap">Brass</span>. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="mar5">II.—<span class="smcap">Iron</span> and <span class="smcap">Steel</span>. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="mar5">III.—<span class="smcap">Lead</span>, including Desilverization and Cupellation. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="mar5">IV.—<span class="smcap">Gold</span>, <span class="smcap">Silver</span>, and <span class="smcap">Mercury</span>.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In the Press.</i> +</p> + +<p class="mar5">V.—<span class="smcap">Platinum, Tin, Nickel, Cobalt, Antimony, Bismuth, Arsenic</span>, &c.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In the Press.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent">PHILLIP’S (<span class="smcap">John</span>) RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, AND SEA-COAST +OF YORKSHIRE; with Essays on the Climate, Scenery, and +Ancient Inhabitants. With 36 Plates. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">POPE’S (<span class="smcap">Alexander</span>) WORKS. Collected in part by the late +<span class="smcap">Rt. Hon. J. W. CROKER</span>. Edited, with Introductions and Notes, by <span class="smcap">Rev. +Whitwell Elwin</span>. With Portraits. Vol. I. to III. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">POTTERY (ANCIENT): Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Etruscan, +and Roman. By SAMUEL BIRCH, F.S.A. With Coloured Plates and 200 +Woodcuts. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— (MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN). By JOSEPH +MARRYAT. <i>Third Edition.</i> With Coloured Plates and 300 Woodcuts. +Medium 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— NOTES ON VENETIAN CERAMICS. By W. R. +DRAKE, F.S.A. A Supplement to ‘Marryat’s Pottery.’ Medium 8vo. 4<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">PRINCIPLES AT STAKE. Essays on Church Questions of the +Present Day. By various Writers. <i>Second Edition.</i> 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<h6>CONTENTS:</h6> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Ritualism and Uniformity.</i>—<span class="smcap">Benjamin Shaw, M.A.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Increase of the Episcopate.</i>—<span class="smcap">Bishop of Bath and Wells.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Powers and Duties of the Priesthood.</i>—Canon <span class="smcap">Payne Smith</span>.</p> +<p class="mar5"><i>National Education.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">Alex. R. Grant</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Doctrine of the Eucharist.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">G. H. Sumner</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Scripture and Ritual.</i>—Canon <span class="smcap">T. D. Bernard</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>The Church in South Africa.</i>—<span class="smcap">Arthur Mills, M.A.</span></p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Schismatical Tendency of Ritualism.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">Dr. Salmon</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Revisions of the Liturgy.</i>—Rev. <span class="smcap">W. G. Humphry</span>.</p> + +<p class="mar5"><i>Parties and Party Spirit.</i>—<span class="smcap">Dean of Chester.</span></p> + +<p class="indent">RANKE’S (<span class="smcap">Leopold</span>) HISTORY OF THE POPES OF ROME: +Political and Ecclesiastical. Translated from the German, by MRS. AUSTIN. +<i>Fourth Edition.</i> With a Preface by <span class="smcap">Dean Milman</span>. 3 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">RASSAM’S (<span class="smcap">Hormuzd</span>) NARRATIVE OF THE BRITISH +MISSION TO ABYSSINIA. With <span class="smcap">Notices</span> of the <span class="smcap">Countries</span> from <span class="smcap">Massowah</span>, +through the <span class="smcap">Soodan</span>, and back to <span class="smcap">Annesley Bay</span>, from <span class="smcap">Magdala</span>. +With Map and Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 28<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">RAWLINSON’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. George</span>) MONARCHIES OF THE +ANCIENT WORLD; or, The History, Geography, and Antiquities of +Chaldæa, Media, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. With Maps and Illustrations. +3 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HERODOTUS. A New English Version. +Edited, with Notes and Essays, Historical, Ethnographical, and Geographical. +By SIR GARDNER WILKINSON and SIR HENRY RAWLINSON. +<i>Second Edition.</i> With Maps and Woodcuts. 4 vols. 8vo. 48<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14a" id="Page_14a">14</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">REED’S (E. J.) SHIPBUILDING IN IRON AND STEEL; +a Practical Treatise, giving full details of Construction, Processes of Manufacture, +and Building Arrangements. With Plans and Woodcuts. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— IRON-CLAD SHIPS; their Qualities, Performances, +and Cost. With Chapters on Turret Ships, Iron-clad Rams, &c. With Illustrations. +8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">REYNOLDS’ (<span class="smcap">Sir Joshua</span>) LIFE. With <span class="smcap">Notices</span> of <span class="smcap">Hogarth</span>, +<span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, <span class="smcap">Gainsborough</span>, and other <span class="smcap">Artists</span>, his <span class="smcap">Contemporaries</span>. Commenced +by C. R. LESLIE, R.A., and continued by TOM TAYLOR. With +Portraits. 2 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">ROBERTSON’S (<span class="smcap">Canon</span>) HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN +CHURCH, from the Apostolic Age to the End of the Fifth Council of the +Lateran. 4 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="mar5">Vol. I., <span class="smcap">A.D. 64-590.</span> 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="mar5">Vol. II., <span class="smcap">A.D. 590-1122.</span> 20<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="mar5">Vol. III., <span class="smcap">A.D. 1122-1303.</span> 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="mar5">Vol. IV., <span class="smcap">A.D. 1303-1517.</span> [<i>In the Press.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">ROBINSON’S (<span class="smcap">Rev. Edward</span>) BIBLICAL RESEARCHES IN +PALESTINE AND THE ADJACENT REGIONS; a Journal of Travels in +1838 and 1852. <i>Third Edition.</i> Maps. 3 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY +LAND. Post 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">SCOTT’S (<span class="smcap">Gilbert</span>) REMARKS ON GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, +SECULAR AND DOMESTIC, PRESENT AND FUTURE. 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">SIMMONS (<span class="smcap">Capt. T. F.</span>) ON THE CONSTITUTION AND +PRACTICE OF COURTS MARTIAL; with a Summary of the Law of +Evidence, &c. <i>Sixth Edition</i>, revised and corrected. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In the Press.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent">SMILES’S (<span class="smcap">Samuel</span>) LIVES OF BRITISH ENGINEERS. +From the Earliest Times down to the Death of Robert Stephenson, with an +Account of their Principal Works, a History of Inland Communication in +Britain, and the Introduction and Invention of the Steam Engine. With +Portraits and Illustrations. 4 vols. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">SMITH’S (<span class="smcap">Dr. Wm.</span>) DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE: its +Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History. By various +Writers. With Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. 5<i>l.</i> 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— CONCISE BIBLE DICTIONARY, condensed from +the above work. With Maps and 300 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY AND +ANTIQUITIES: from the times of the Apostles to the age of Charlemagne. +With Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo.</p> + +<p class="quotsig"> +[<i>In the Press.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent">—————— GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. +With Woodcuts. Royal 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— GREEK AND ROMAN BIOGRAPHY +AND MYTHOLOGY. With Woodcuts. 3 vols. Royal 8vo. 63<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. +With Woodcuts. 2 vols. Royal 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. With Tables +of the Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, and Money. <i>Eighth Edition</i> +(1250 pp.). Medium 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY. Compiled from +Original Sources. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and THEOPHILUS D. +HALL, M.A. (964 pp.) Medium 8vo. 21<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15a" id="Page_15a">15</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">SOMERVILLE’S (<span class="smcap">Mary</span>) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. <i>Sixth +Edition, revised.</i> By H. W. BATES. With Portrait. Post 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— SCIENCES. <i>Ninth Edition.</i> With Portrait and +Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— MOLECULAR AND MICROSCOPIC +SCIENCE. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">STANHOPE’S (<span class="smcap">Earl</span>) HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the +Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles, 1713-83. <i>Library Edition.</i> +7 vols. 8vo. 93<i>s.</i> Or, <i>Cabinet Edition</i>, 7 vols., Post 8vo, 35<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE UNTIL THE +PEACE OF UTRECHT, 1701-1713. 8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— SPAIN UNDER CHARLES THE SECOND. +<i>Second Edition.</i> 8vo. 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— LIFE OF BELISARIUS. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— WILLIAM PITT. With Portraits. +4 vols. 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— MISCELLANIES. 8vo. 5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">STANLEY’S (<span class="smcap">Dean</span>) SINAI AND PALESTINE IN CONNECTION +WITH THEIR HISTORY. <i>Eleventh Edition.</i> With Map. +8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS. +With Dissertations and Notes. <i>Third Edition.</i> 8vo. 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— HISTORY OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. <i>Fourth +Edition.</i> Plans. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— JEWISH CHURCH. From +Abraham to the Captivity. <i>Third Edition.</i> 2 vols. 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— MEMORIALS OF CANTERBURY. <i>Fourth +Edition.</i> With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">—————— WESTMINSTER ABBEY. +<i>Third Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ESSAYS ON CHURCH AND STATE. 8vo. 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— SERMONS PREACHED IN THE EAST +DURING A TOUR WITH H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES. With +Notices of the Localities Visited. 8vo. 9<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— ADDRESSES AND CHARGES OF BISHOP +STANLEY. With Memoir. 8vo. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">STREET’S (G. E.) GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN. +<i>Second Edition.</i> With Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">STYFFE (<span class="smcap">Knut</span>) ON THE STRENGTH OF IRON AND +STEEL. Translated from the Swedish. By CHRISTER P. SANDBERG. +With Preface, by DR. PERCY. With Lithographic Plates. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">SYBEL’S (<span class="smcap">Von</span>) HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE +FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. From Secret Papers and Documents +in the Archives of Germany, &c. Translated by <span class="smcap">W. C. Perry.</span> 4 vols. 8vo. +48<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">TAIT’S (<span class="smcap">Archbishop</span>) DANGERS AND SAFEGUARDS; or, +Suggestions to the Theological Student under present Difficulties. <i>2nd +Edition.</i> 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">THOMSON’S (A. S.) STORY OF NEW ZEALAND: PAST +AND PRESENT—SAVAGE AND CIVILIZED. With Map and Illustrations. +2 vols. Post 8vo. 24<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16a" id="Page_16a">16</a></span></p> + +<p class="indent">THOMSON’S (<span class="smcap">Archbishop</span>) LIFE IN THE LIGHT OF GOD’S +WORD. <i>2nd Edition.</i> Post 8vo. 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">TOZER’S (H. F.) RESEARCHES IN THE ISLANDS OF +TURKEY, ALBANIA, MONTENEGRO, &c. With Notes on the Classical +Superstitions of the Modern Greek. With Map and Illustrations. 2 vols. +Crown 8vo. 24<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">TYLOR’S (E. B.) RESEARCHES INTO THE EARLY HISTORY +OF MANKIND, and the <span class="smcap">Development of Civilization</span>. <i>Second +Edition.</i> With Illustrations. 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— PRIMITIVE CULTURE; Researches into the Development +of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. 2 vols. 8vo.</p> + +<p class="indent">UBICINI’S (M. A.) TURKEY AND ITS INHABITANTS. +The Moslems, Greeks, Armenians, &c.—The Reformed Institutions, Army, +&c., described. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WAAGEN’S (DR.) TREASURES OF ART IN GREAT +BRITAIN. Being an Account of the Chief Collections of Paintings, +Sculptures, Drawings, MSS., Miniatures, &c. 4 vols. 8vo. 54<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WELLINGTON’S (<span class="smcap">Duke of</span>) DESPATCHES DURING HIS +VARIOUS CAMPAIGNS. Edited by <span class="smcap">Col. Gurwood</span>. 8 vols. 8vo. 8<i>l.</i> 8<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— SUPPLEMENTARY DESPATCHES. Edited +by HIS SON. 12 vols. 8vo. 20<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— CIVIL AND POLITICAL CORRESPONDENCE. +Edited by HIS SON. Vols. I. to III. 8vo. 20<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="indent">——— SPEECHES ON VARIOUS OCCASIONS. +2 vols. 8vo. 42<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WHYMPER’S (<span class="smcap">Edward</span>) SCRAMBLES AMONG THE ALPS, +1860-9. Including the First Ascent of the Matterhorn. With Observations +on <span class="smcap">Glacier Phenomena</span> in the Alps and in Greenland. With 100 Maps +and Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WILKINSON’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Gardner</span>) ANCIENT EGYPTIANS; +their Private Life, Manners, and Customs, <i>Fourth Edition.</i> With Illustrations. +2 vols. Post 8vo. 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WILLIAM THE FOURTH’S CORRESPONDENCE WITH +SIR HERBERT TAYLOR AND EARL GREY, from Nov., 1830, to the +Passing of the Reform Act in 1832. 2 vols. 8vo. 30<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WILSON’S (<span class="smcap">Sir Robert</span>) SECRET HISTORY OF EVENTS +DURING THE INVASION OF RUSSIA AND RETREAT OF THE +FRENCH ARMY, 1812. <i>Second Edition.</i> With Map and Plans. 8vo. 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">WORDSWORTH’S (<span class="smcap">Bishop</span>) GREECE—Pictorial, Historical, +and Descriptive. With an Essay on Greek Art, by <span class="smcap">George Scharf, F.S.A.</span> +<i>Fourth Edition.</i> With 600 Illustrations. Royal 8vo. 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">——— TOUR IN ATHENS AND ATTICA. +<i>Fourth Edition.</i> With Plates. Post 8vo. 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="indent">YULE’S (<span class="smcap">Col. Henry</span>) MARCO POLO’S TRAVELS. Illustrated +by the light of Modern Travels and Oriental Writers. With Maps +and Illustrations. 2 vols. 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