diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:05:50 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:05:50 -0700 |
| commit | 62a175c1d9eea05a7783153487c0fa3953fe7a0a (patch) | |
| tree | 43f7a73b3406e9a8545acdc0dcbefa3143114e5e /36452-8.txt | |
Diffstat (limited to '36452-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 36452-8.txt | 19338 |
1 files changed, 19338 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/36452-8.txt b/36452-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf64ee0 --- /dev/null +++ b/36452-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19338 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 2 + "Fairbanks, Erastus" to "Fens" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 17, 2011 [EBook #36452] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE FALLIÈRES, CLÉMENT ARMAND: "He was elected on the first + ballot by 449 votes against 371 for his opponent, Paul Doumer." + 'against' amended from 'againt'. + + ARTICLE FARINI, LUIGI CARLO: "As a member of the Sardinian + parliament and as a journalist Farini was one of the staunchest + supporters of Cavour (q.v.), and strongly favoured the proposal + that Piedmont should participate in the Crimean War, ..." 'Crimean' + amended from 'Cimean'. + + ARTICLE FARMERS' MOVEMENT: "Nor could politics be excluded, though + officially tabooed; for economics must be considered by social + idealists, and economics everywhere ran into politics." 'tabooed' + amended from 'tatooed'. + + ARTICLE FARNESE: "Of these the most famous was Pierluigi Farnese + (1503-1547), who served in the papal army in various campaigns, but + also took part in the sack of Rome in 1527." 'campaigns' amended + from 'compaigns'. + + ARTICLE FASTING: "Confucianism ought perhaps to be named as one. + Zoroastrianism is frequently given as another, but hardly + correctly." 'correctly' amended from 'corrrectly'. + + ARTICLE FEATHER : "The plumage in nestling birds is still further + complicated by the fact that it may be almost, or entirely, + composed of pre-plumulae; that is to say, of down-feathers which + are later succeeded by adult down-feathers." 'further' ameded from + 'futher'. + + ARTICLE FELTHAM, OWEN : "He is famous chiefly as the author of a + volume entitled Resolves, Divine, Moral and Political, containing + one hundred short and pithy essays." 'He' amended from 'Hs'. + + ARTICLE FÉNELON, FRANÇOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE : "Tender-hearted + he might be in practice; but toleration he declares synonymous with + 'cowardly indulgence and false compassion .'" 'compassion' amended + from 'compasssion'. + + ARTICLE FÉNELON, FRANÇOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE : "Followed + thereon an independent philosophical Treatise on the Existence of + God, wherein Fénelon rewrote Descartes in the spirit of St + Augustine." 'philosophical' amended from 'philsophical'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME X, SLICE II + + Fairbanks, Erastus to Fens + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS FASCIA + FAIRFAX, EDWARD FASCINATION + FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, FERDINANDO FASCINE + FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, THOMAS FASHION + FAIRFIELD (Connecticut, U.S.A.) FASHODA + FAIRFIELD (Iowa, U.S.A.) FAST AND LOOSE + FAIRHAVEN FASTI + FAIRHOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM FASTING + FAIRMONT FASTOLF, SIR JOHN + FAIR OAKS FAT + FAIRUZABADI FATALISM + FAIRY FATE + FAIRY RING FATEHPUR + FAITHFULL, EMILY FATEHPUR SIKRI + FAITH HEALING FATHER + FAITHORNE, WILLIAM FATHERS OF THE CHURCH + FAIZABAD FATHOM + FAJARDO FATIMITES + FAKHR UD-DIN RAZI FAUBOURG + FAKIR FAUCES + FALAISE FAUCHER, LÉONARD JOSEPH + FALASHAS FAUCHET, CLAUDE + FALCÃO, CHRISTOVÃO DE SOUSA FAUCHET, CLAUDE + FALCK, ANTON REINHARD FAUCIT, HELENA SAVILLE + FALCÓN FAUJAS DE SAINT-FOND, BARTHÉLEMY + FALCON FAULT + FALCONE, ANIELLO FAUNA + FALCONER, HUGH FAUNTLEROY, HENRY + FALCONER, WILLIAM FAUNUS + FALCONET, ÉTIENNE MAURICE FAURE, FRANÇOIS FÉLIX + FALCONRY FAURÉ, GABRIEL + FALDSTOOL FAURIEL, CLAUDE CHARLES + FALERII FAUST + FALERIO FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERIA + FALGUIÈRE, JEAN ALEXANDRE JOSEPH FAVARA + FALIERO, MARINO FAVART, CHARLES SIMON + FALISCI FAVERSHAM + FALK, JOHANN DANIEL FAVORINUS + FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT FAVRAS, THOMAS DE MAHY + FALKE, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB FAVRE, JEAN ALPHONSE + FALKIRK FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL + FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY FAVUS + FALKLAND (burgh of Scotland) FAWCETT, HENRY + FALKLAND ISLANDS FAWCETT, JOHN + FALLACY FAWKES, FRANCIS + FALLIÈRES, CLÉMENT ARMAND FAWKES, GUY + FALL-LINE FÁY, ANDRÁS + FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP FAYAL + FALLOPIUS, GABRIELLO FAYETTEVILLE (Arkansas, U.S.A.) + FALLOUX, FRÉDÉRIC ALFRED PIERRE FAYETTEVILLE (North Carolina, U.S.A.) + FALLOW FAYRER, SIR JOSEPH + FALLOW-DEER FAYUM + FALL RIVER FAZOGLI + FALMOUTH FEA, CARLO + FALSE POINT FEARNE, CHARLES + FALSE PRETENCES FEASTS AND FESTIVALS + FALTICHENI FEATHER + FALUN FEATHERSTONE + FAMA FEATLEY DANIEL + FAMAGUSTA FEBRONIANISM + FAMILIAR FEBRUARY + FAMILISTS FEBVRE, ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC + FAMILY FÉCAMP + FAMINE FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR + FAN FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT + FANCY FECKENHAM, JOHN + FANG FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAVLOVICH + FANO FEDERAL GOVERNMENT + FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD FEDERALIST PARTY + FANTAN FEDERICI, CAMILLO + FANTASIA FEE + FANTI, MANFREDO FEHLING, HERMANN VON + FANTI FEHMARN + FANTIN-LATOUR, JEAN THÉODORE FEHMIC COURTS + FANUM FORTUNAE FEHRBELLIN + FAN VAULT FEIJÓO Y MONTENEGRO, BENITO JERÓNIMO + FARADAY, MICHAEL FEITH, RHIJNVIS + FARAH (river of Afghanistan) FEJÉR, GYORGY + FARAH (town of Afghanistan) FELANITX + FARAZDAQ FELDKIRCH + FARCE FÉLIBIEN, ANDRÉ + FAREHAM FELIX (five popes) + FAREL, GUILLAUME FELIX (bishop from Burgundy) + FAREY, JOHN FELIX (Spanish bishop) + FARGO, WILLIAM GEORGE FELIX (of Valois) + FARGO FELIX, ANTONIUS + FARIA Y SOUSA, MANUEL DE FÉLIX, LIA + FARIBAULT FELIXSTOWE + FARIDKOT FELL, JOHN + FARIDPUR FELL + FARID UD-DIN 'ATTAR FELLAH + FARINA, SALVATORE FELLENBERG, PHILIPP EMANUEL VON + FARINATO, PAOLO FELLER, FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE + FARINELLI FELLING + FARINGDON FELLOE + FARINI, LUIGI CARLO FELLOW + FARM FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES + FARM BUILDINGS FELO DE SE + FARMER, RICHARD FELONY + FARMERS' MOVEMENT FELSITE + FARNABY, THOMAS FELSPAR + FARNBOROUGH, THOMAS ERSKINE MAY FELSTED + FARNBOROUGH FELT + FARNE ISLANDS FELTHAM, OWEN + FARNESE FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY + FARNESE, ALEXANDER FELTON, JOHN + FARNESE, ELIZABETH FELTRE, MORTO DA + FARNHAM FELTRE + FARNWORTH FELUCCA + FARO (town of Portugal) FEMALE + FARO (game of cards) FEMERELL + FARQUHAR, GEORGE FENCING + FARR, WILLIAM FENDER + FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW FÉNELON, BERTRAND DE SALIGNAC + FARRANT, RICHARD FÉNELON, FRANÇOIS DE LA MOTHE + FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM FENESTELLA + FARREN, ELIZABETH FENESTRATION + FARREN, WILLIAM FENIANS + FARRER, THOMAS HENRY FARRER FENNEL + FARRIER, and FARRIERY FENNER, DUDLEY + FARS FENNY STRATFORD + FARTHING FENRIR + FARTHINGALE FENS + FASCES + + + + +FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS (1792-1864), American manufacturer, was born in +Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of October 1792. He studied law +but abandoned it for mercantile pursuits, finally settling in St +Johnsbury, Vermont, where in 1824 he formed a partnership with his +brother Thaddeus for the manufacture of stoves and ploughs. Subsequently +the scales invented by Thaddeus were manufactured extensively. Erastus +was a member of the state legislature in 1836-1838, and governor of +Vermont in 1852-1853 and 1860-1861, during his second term rendering +valuable aid in the equipment and despatch of troops in the early days +of the Civil War. His son HORACE (1820-1888) became president of E. & T. +Fairbanks & Co. in 1874, and was governor of Vermont from 1876 to 1878. + +His brother, THADDEUS FAIRBANKS (1796-1886), inventor, was born at +Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 17th of January 1796. He early +manifested a genius for mechanics and designed the models from which he +and his brother manufactured stoves and ploughs at St Johnsbury. In 1826 +he patented a cast-iron plough which was extensively used. The growing +of hemp was an important industry in the vicinity of St Johnsbury, and +in 1831 Fairbanks invented a hemp-dressing machine. By the old +contrivances then in use, the weighing of loads of hemp-straw was +tedious and difficult, and in 1831 Fairbanks invented his famous +compound-lever platform scale, which marked a great advance in the +construction of machines for weighing bulky and heavy objects. He +subsequently obtained more than fifty patents for improvements or +innovations in scales and in machinery used in their manufacture, the +last being granted on his ninetieth birthday. His firm, eventually known +as E. & T. Fairbanks & Co., went into the manufacture of scales of all +sizes, in which these inventions were utilized. He, with his brothers, +Erastus and Joseph P., founded the St Johnsbury Academy. He died at St +Johnsbury on the 12th of April 1886. + +The latter's son HENRY, born in 1830 at St Johnsbury, Vermont, graduated +at Dartmouth College in 1853 and at Andover Theological Seminary in +1857, and was professor of natural philosophy at Dartmouth from 1859 to +1865 and of natural history from 1865 to 1868. In the following year he +patented a grain-scale and thenceforth devoted himself to the scale +manufacturing business of his family. Altogether he obtained more than +thirty patents for mechanical devices. + + + + +FAIRFAX, EDWARD (c. 1580-1635), English poet, translator of Tasso, was +born at Leeds, the second son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton (father of +the 1st Baron Fairfax of Cameron). His legitimacy has been called in +question, and the date of his birth has not been ascertained. He is said +to have been only about twenty years of age when he published his +translation of the _Gerusalemme Liberala_, which would place his birth +about the year 1580. He preferred a life of study and retirement to the +military service in which his brothers were distinguished. He married a +sister of Walter Laycock, chief alnager of the northern counties, and +lived on a small estate at Fewston, Yorkshire. There his time was spent +in his literary pursuits, and in the education of his children and those +of his elder brother, Sir Thomas Fairfax, afterwards baron of Cameron. +His translation appeared in 1600,--_Godfrey of Bulloigne, or the +Recoverie of Jerusalem, done into English heroicall Verse by Edw. +Fairefax, Gent._, and was dedicated to the queen. It was +enthusiastically received. In the same year in which it was published +extracts from it were printed in _England's Parnassus_. Edward Phillips, +the nephew of Milton, in his _Theatrum Poetarum_, warmly eulogized the +translation. Edmund Waller said he was indebted to it for the harmony of +his numbers. It is said that it was King James's favourite English poem, +and that Charles I. entertained himself in prison with its pages. +Fairfax employed the same number of lines and stanzas as his original, +but within the limits of each stanza he allowed himself the greatest +liberty. Other translators may give a more literal version, but Fairfax +alone seizes upon the poetical and chivalrous character of the poem. He +presented, says Mr Courthope, "an idea of the chivalrous past of Europe, +as seen through the medium of Catholic orthodoxy and classical +humanism." The sweetness and melody of many passages are scarcely +excelled even by Spenser. Fairfax made no other appeal to the public. He +wrote, however, a series of eclogues, twelve in number, the fourth of +which was published, by permission of the family, in Mrs Cooper's +_Muses' Library_ (1737). Another of the eclogues and a _Discourse on +Witchcraft, as it was acted in the Family of Mr Edward Fairfax of +Fuystone in the county of York in 1621_, edited from the original copy +by Lord Houghton, appeared in the _Miscellanies_ of the Philobiblon +Society (1858-1859). Fairfax was a firm believer in witchcraft. He +fancied that two of his children had been bewitched, and he had the poor +wretches whom he accused brought to trial, but without obtaining a +conviction. Fairfax died at Fewston and was buried there on the 27th of +January 1635. + + + + +FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, FERDINANDO FAIRFAX, 2ND BARON (1584-1648), English +parliamentary general, was a son of Thomas Fairfax of Denton +(1560-1640), who in 1627 was created Baron Fairfax of Cameron in the +peerage of Scotland. Born on the 29th of March 1584, he obtained his +military education in the Netherlands, and was member of parliament for +Boroughbridge during the six parliaments which met between 1614 and 1629 +and also during the Short Parliament of 1640. In May 1640 he succeeded +his father as Baron Fairfax, but being a Scottish peer he sat in the +English House of Commons as one of the representatives of Yorkshire +during the Long Parliament from 1640 until his death; he took the side +of the parliament, but held moderate views and desired to maintain the +peace. In the first Scottish war Fairfax had commanded a regiment in the +king's army; then on the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642 he was made +commander of the parliamentary forces in Yorkshire, with Newcastle as +his opponent. Hostilities began after the repudiation of a treaty of +neutrality entered into by Fairfax with the Royalists. At first he met +with no success. He was driven from York, where he was besieging the +Royalists, to Selby; then in 1643 to Leeds; and after beating off an +attack at that place he was totally defeated on the 30th of June at +Adwalton Moor. He escaped to Hull, which he successfully defended +against Newcastle from the 2nd of September till the 11th of October, +and by means of a brilliant sally caused the siege to be raised. Fairfax +was victorious at Selby on the 11th of April 1644, and joining the Scots +besieged York, after which he was present at Marston Moor, where he +commanded the infantry and was routed. He was subsequently, in July, +made governor of York and charged with the further reduction of the +county. In December he took the town of Pontefract, but failed to secure +the castle. He resigned his command on the passing of the Self-denying +Ordinance, but remained a member of the committee for the government of +Yorkshire, and was appointed, on the 24th of July 1645, steward of the +manor of Pontefract. He died from an accident on the 14th of March 1648 +and was buried at Bolton Percy. He was twice married, and by his first +wife, Mary, daughter of Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Lord Sheffield (afterwards +1st earl of Mulgrave), he had six daughters and two sons, Thomas, who +succeeded him as 3rd baron, and Charles, a colonel of horse, who was +killed at Marston Moor. During his command in Yorkshire, Fairfax engaged +in a paper war with Newcastle, and wrote _The Answer of Ferdinando, Lord +Fairfax, to a Declaration of William, earl of Newcastle_ (1642; printed +in Rushworth, pt. iii. vol. ii. p. 139); he also published _A Letter +from ... Lord Fairfax to ... Robert, Earl of Essex_ (1643), describing +the victorious sally at Hull. + + + + +FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, THOMAS FAIRFAX, 3RD BARON (1612-1671), parliamentary +general and commander-in-chief during the English Civil War, the eldest +son of the 2nd lord, was born at Denton, near Otley, Yorkshire, on the +17th of January 1612. He studied at St John's College, Cambridge +(1626-1629), and then proceeded to Holland to serve as a volunteer with +the English army in the Low Countries under Sir Horace (Lord) Vere. This +connexion led to one still closer; in the summer of 1637 Fairfax married +Anne Vere, the daughter of the general. + +The Fairfaxes, father and son, though serving at first under Charles I. +(Thomas commanded a troop of horse, and was knighted by the king in +1640), were opposed to the arbitrary prerogative of the crown, and Sir +Thomas declared that "his judgment was for the parliament as the king +and kingdom's great and safest council." When Charles endeavoured to +raise a guard for his own person at York, intending it, as the event +afterwards proved, to form the nucleus of an army, Fairfax was employed +to present a petition to his sovereign, entreating him to hearken to the +voice of his parliament, and to discontinue the raising of troops. This +was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire +convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving +the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and +placed the petition on the pommel of the king's saddle. The incident is +typical of the times and of the actors in the scene. War broke out, Lord +Fairfax was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north, +and his son, Sir Thomas, was made lieutenant-general of the horse under +him. Both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in +Yorkshire (see GREAT REBELLION). Sometimes severely defeated, more often +successful, and always energetic, prudent and resourceful, they +contrived to keep up the struggle until the crisis of 1644, when York +was held by the marquess of Newcastle against the combined forces of the +English Parliamentarians and the Scots, and Prince Rupert hastened with +all available forces to its relief. A gathering of eager national forces +within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle, and +Marston Moor (q.v.) was decisive of the struggle in the north. The +younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle, +and though severely wounded managed to join Cromwell and the victorious +cavalry on the other wing. One of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, +was killed in the action. But the marquess of Newcastle fled the +kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their +affairs. The city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north +submitted to the parliament. + +In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still +active. The war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain +of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were +committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the +military commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform, the +Self-denying Ordinance was passed. This involved the removal of the earl +of Essex from the supreme command, and the reconstruction of the armed +forces of the parliament. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new +lord general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general and cavalry +commander, and after a short preliminary campaign the "New Model" +justified its existence, and "the rebels' new brutish general," as the +king called him, his capacity as commander-in-chief in the decisive +victory of Naseby (q.v.). The king fled to Wales. Fairfax besieged +Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater and Bristol. The +whole west was soon reduced. + +Fairfax arrived in London on the 12th of November 1645. In his progress +towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds. +Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses +of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, and +a sum of money. The king had returned from Wales and established himself +at Oxford, where there was a strong garrison, but, ever vacillating, he +withdrew secretly, and proceeded to Newark to throw himself into the +arms of the Scots. Oxford capitulated, and by the end of September 1646 +Charles had neither army nor garrison in England. In January 1647 he was +delivered up by the Scots to the commissioners of parliament. Fairfax +met the king beyond Nottingham, and accompanied him during the journey +to Holmby, treating him with the utmost consideration in every way. "The +general," said Charles, "is a man of honour, and keeps his word which he +had pledged to me." With the collapse of the Royalist cause came a +confused period of negotiations between the parliament and the king, +between the king and the Scots, and between the Presbyterians and the +Independents in and out of parliament. In these negotiations the New +Model Army soon began to take a most active part. The lord general was +placed in the unpleasant position of intermediary between his own +officers and parliament. To the grievances, usual in armies of that +time, concerning arrears of pay and indemnity for acts committed on +duty, there was quickly added the political propaganda of the +Independents, and in July the person of the king was seized by Joyce, a +subaltern of cavalry--an act which sufficiently demonstrated the +hopelessness of controlling the army by its articles of war. It had, in +fact, become the most formidable political party in the realm, and +pressed straight on to the overthrow of parliament and the punishment of +Charles. Fairfax was more at home in the field than at the head of a +political committee, and, finding events too strong for him, he sought +to resign his commission as commander-in-chief. He was, however, +persuaded to retain it. He thus remained the titular chief of the army +party, and with the greater part of its objects he was in complete, +sometimes most active, sympathy. Shortly before the outbreak of the +second Civil War, Fairfax succeeded his father in the barony and in the +office of governor of Hull; In the field against the English Royalists +in 1648 he displayed his former energy and skill, and his operations +culminated in the successful siege of Colchester, after the surrender of +which place he approved the execution of the Royalist leaders Sir +Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle, holding that these officers had +broken their parole. At the same time Cromwell's great victory of +Preston crushed the Scots, and the Independents became practically +all-powerful. + +Milton, in a sonnet written during the siege of Colchester, called upon +the lord general to settle the kingdom, but the crisis was now at hand. +Fairfax was in agreement with Cromwell and the army leaders in demanding +the punishment of Charles, and he was still the effective head of the +army. He approved, if he did not take an active part in, Pride's Purge +(December 6th, 1648), but on the last and gravest of the questions at +issue he set himself in deliberate and open opposition to the policy of +the officers. He was placed at the head of the judges who were to try +the king, and attended the preliminary sitting of the court. Then, +convinced at last that the king's death was intended, he refused to act. +In calling over the court, when the crier pronounced the name of +Fairfax, a lady in the gallery called out "that the Lord Fairfax was not +there in person, that he would never sit among them, and that they did +him wrong to name him as a commissioner." This was Lady Fairfax, who +could not forbear, as Whitelocke says, to exclaim aloud against the +proceedings of the High Court of Justice. His last service as +commander-in-chief was the suppression of the Leveller mutiny at Burford +in May 1649. He had given his adhesion to the new order of things, and +had been reappointed lord general. But he merely administered the +affairs of the army, and when in 1650 the Scots had declared for Charles +II., and the council of state resolved to send an army to Scotland in +order to prevent an invasion of England, Fairfax resigned his +commission. Cromwell was appointed his successor, "captain-general and +commander-in-chief of all the forces raised or to be raised by authority +of parliament within the commonwealth of England." Fairfax received a +pension of £5000 a year, and lived in retirement at his Yorkshire home +of Nunappleton till after the death of the Protector. The troubles of +the later Commonwealth recalled Lord Fairfax to political activity, and +for the last time his appearance in arms helped to shape the future of +the country, when Monk invited him to assist in the operations about to +be undertaken against Lambert's army. In December 1659 he appeared at +the head of a body of Yorkshire gentlemen, and such was the influence of +Fairfax's name and reputation that 1200 horse quitted Lambert's colours +and joined him. This was speedily followed by the breaking up of all +Lambert's forces, and that day secured the restoration of the monarchy. +A "free" parliament was called; Fairfax was elected member for +Yorkshire, and was put at the head of the commission appointed by the +House of Commons to wait upon Charles II. at the Hague and urge his +speedy return. Of course the "merry monarch, scandalous and poor," was +glad to obey the summons, and Fairfax provided the horse on which +Charles rode at his coronation. The remaining eleven years of the life +of Lord Fairfax were spent in retirement at his seat in Yorkshire. He +must, like Milton, have been sorely grieved and shocked by the scenes +that followed--the brutal indignities offered to the remains of his +companions in arms, Cromwell and Ireton, the sacrifice of Sir Harry +Vane, the neglect or desecration of all that was great, noble or +graceful in England, and the flood of immorality which, flowing from +Whitehall, sapped the foundations of the national strength and honour. +Lord Fairfax died at Nunappleton on the 12th of November 1671, and was +buried at Bilborough, near York. As a soldier he was exact and +methodical in planning, in the heat of battle "so highly transported +that scarce any one durst speak a word to him" (Whitelocke), chivalrous +and punctilious in his dealings with his own men and the enemy. Honour +and conscientiousness were equally the characteristics of his private +and public character. But his modesty and distrust of his powers made +him less effectual as a statesman than as a soldier, and above all he is +placed at a disadvantage by being both in war and peace overshadowed by +his associate Cromwell. + +Lord Fairfax had a taste for literature. He translated some of the +Psalms, and wrote poems on solitude, the Christian warfare, the +shortness of life, &c. During the last year or two of his life he wrote +two _Memorials_ which have been published--one on the northern actions +in which he was engaged in 1642-1644, and the other on some events in +his tenure of the chief command. At York and at Oxford he endeavoured to +save the libraries from pillage, and he enriched the Bodleian with some +valuable MSS. His only daughter, Mary Fairfax, was married to George +Villiers, the profligate duke of Buckingham of Charles II.'s court. + + His correspondence, edited by G.W. Johnson, was published in 1848-1849 + in four volumes (see note thereon in _Dict. Nat. Biogr._, s.v.), and a + life of him by Clements R. Markham in 1870. See also S.R. Gardiner, + _History of the Great Civil War_ (1893). + +His descendant Thomas, 6th baron (1692-1782), inherited from his mother, +the heiress of Thomas, 2nd Baron Culpepper, large estates in Virginia, +U.S.A., and having sold Denton Hall and his Yorkshire estates he retired +there about 1746, dying a bachelor. He was a friend of George +Washington. Thomas found his cousin William Fairfax settled in Virginia, +and made him his agent, and Bryan (1737-1802), the son of William +Fairfax, eventually inherited the title, becoming 8th baron in 1793. His +claim was admitted by the House of Lords in 1800. But it was practically +dropped by the American family, until, shortly before the coronation of +Edward VII., the successor in title was discovered in Albert Kirby +Fairfax (b. 1870), a descendant of the 8th baron, who was an American +citizen. In November 1908 Albert's claim to the title as 12th baron was +allowed by the House of Lords. + + + + +FAIRFIELD, a township in Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., near +Long Island Sound, adjoining Bridgeport on the E. and Westport on the W. +Pop. (1890) 3868; (1900) 4489 (1041 being foreign-born); (1910) 6134. It +is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The principal +villages of the township are Fairfield, Southport, Greenfield Hill and +Stratfield. The beautiful scenery and fine sea air attract to the +township a considerable number of summer visitors. The township has the +well-equipped Pequot and Fairfield memorial libraries (the former in the +village of Southport, the latter in the village of Fairfield), the +Fairfield fresh air home (which cares for between one and two hundred +poor children of New York during each summer season), and the Gould home +for self-supporting women. The Fairfield Historical Society has a museum +of antiquities and a collection of genealogical and historical works. +Among Fairfield's manufactures are chemicals, wire and rubber goods. +Truck-gardening is an important industry of the township. In the Pequot +Swamp within the present Fairfield a force of Pequot Indians was badly +defeated in 1637 by some whites, among whom was Roger Ludlow, who, +attracted by the country, founded the settlement in 1639 and gave it its +present name in 1645. Within its original limits were included what are +now the townships of Redding (separated, 1767), Weston (1787) and Easton +(formed from part of Weston in 1845), and parts of the present Westport +and Bridgeport. During the colonial period Fairfield was a place of +considerable importance, but subsequently it was greatly outstripped by +Bridgeport, to which, in 1870, a portion of it was annexed. On the 8th +of July 1779 Fairfield was burned by the British and Hessians under +Governor William Tryon. Among the prominent men who have lived in +Fairfield are Roger Sherman, the first President Dwight of Yale (who +described Fairfield in his _Travels_ and in his poem _Greenfield Hill_), +Chancellor James Kent, and Joseph Earle Sheffield. + + See Frank S. Child, _An Old New England Town, Sketches of Life, + Scenery and Character_ (New York, 1895); and Mrs E.H. Schenck, + _History of Fairfield_ (2 vols., New York, 1889-1905). + + + + +FAIRFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Iowa, U.S.A., +about 51 m. W. by N. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 3391; (1900) 4689, of +whom 206 were foreign-born and 54 were negroes; (1905) 5009; (1910) +4970. Area, about 2.25 sq. m. Fairfield is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. +The city is in a blue grass country, in which much live stock is bred; +and it is an important market for draft horses. It is the seat of +Parsons College (Presbyterian, coeducational, 1875), endowed by Lewis +Baldwin Parsons, Sr. (1798-1855), a merchant of Buffalo, N.Y. The +college offers classical, philosophical and scientific courses, and has +a school of music and an academic department; in 1907-1908 it had 19 +instructors and 257 students, of whom 93 were in the college and 97 were +in the school of music. Fairfield has a Carnegie library (1892), and a +museum with a collection of laces. Immediately E. of the city is an +attractive Chautauqua Park, of 30 acres, with an auditorium capable of +seating about 4000 persons; and there is an annual Chautauqua assembly. +The principal manufactures of Fairfield are farm waggons, farming +implements, drain-tile, malleable iron, cotton gloves and mittens and +cotton garments. The municipality owns its waterworks and an +electric-lighting plant. Fairfield was settled in 1839; was incorporated +as a town in 1847; and was first chartered as a city in the same year. + + See Charles H. Fletcher, _Jefferson County, Iowa: Centennial History_ + (Fairfield, 1876). + + + + +FAIRHAVEN, a township in Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on New +Bedford Harbor, opposite New Bedford. Pop. (1890) 2919; (1900) 3567 (599 +being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4235; (1910) 5122. Area, about +13 sq. m. Fairhaven is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford +railway and by electric railway to Mattapoisett and Marion, and is +connected with New Bedford by two bridges, by electric railway, and by +the New York, New Haven & Hartford ferry line. The principal village is +Fairhaven; others are Oxford, Naskatucket and Sconticut Neck. As a +summer resort Fairhaven is widely known. Among the principal buildings +are the following, presented to the township by Henry H. Rogers +(1840-1909), a native of Fairhaven and a large stockholder and long +vice-president of the Standard Oil Co.; the town hall, a memorial of Mrs +Rogers, the Rogers public schools; the Millicent public library (17,500 +vols. in 1908), a memorial to his daughter; and a fine granite memorial +church (Unitarian) with parish house, a memorial to his mother; and +there is also a public park, of 13 acres, the gift of Mr Rogers. From +1830 to 1857 the inhabitants of Fairhaven were chiefly engaged in +whaling, and the fishing interests are still important. Among +manufactures are tacks, nails, iron goods, loom-cranks, glass, yachts +and boats, and shoes. + +Fairhaven, originally a part of New Bedford, was incorporated as a +separate township in 1812. On the 5th of September 1778 a fleet and +armed force under Earl Grey, sent to punish New Bedford and what is now +Fairhaven for their activity in privateering, burned the shipping and +destroyed much of New Bedford. The troops then marched to the head of +the Acushnet river, and down the east bank to Sconticut Neck, where they +camped till the 7th of September, when they re-embarked, having +meanwhile dismantled a small fort, built during the early days of the +war, on the east side of the river at the entrance to the harbour. On +the evening of the 8th of September a landing force from the fleet, +which had begun to set fire to Fairhaven, was driven off by a body of +about 150 minute-men commanded by Major Israel Fearing; and on the +following day the fleet departed. The fort was at once rebuilt and was +named Fort Fearing, but as early as 1784 it had become known as Fort +Phoenix; it was one of the strongest defences on the New England coast +during the war of 1812. The township of Acushnet was formed from the +northern part of Fairhaven in 1860. + + See James L. Gillingham and others, _A Brief History of the Town of + Fairhaven, Massachusetts_ (Fairhaven, 1903). + + + + +FAIRHOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1866), English antiquary and wood +engraver, was born in London in 1814. His father, who was of a German +family (the name was originally Fahrholz), was a tobacco manufacturer, +and for some years Fairholt himself was employed in the business. For a +time he was a drawing-master, afterwards a scene-painter, and in 1835 he +became assistant to S. Sly, the wood engraver. Some pen and ink copies +made by him of figures from Hogarth's plates led to his being employed +by Charles Knight on several of his illustrated publications. His first +published literary work was a contribution to Hone's _Year-Book_ in +1831. His life was one of almost uninterrupted quiet labour, carried on +until within a few days of death. Several works on civic pageantry and +some collections of ancient unpublished songs and dialogues were edited +by him for the Percy Society in 1842. In 1844 he was elected fellow of +the Society of Antiquaries. He published an edition of the dramatic +works of Lyly in 1856. His principal independent works are _Tobacco, its +History, and Association_ (1859); _Gog and Magog_ (1860); _Up the Nile +and Home Again_ (1862); many articles and serials contributed to the +_Art Journal_, some of which were afterwards separately published, as +_Costume in England_ (1846); _Dictionary of Terms in Art_ (1854). These +works are illustrated by numerous cuts, drawn on the wood by his own +hand. His pencil was also employed in illustrating Evans's _Coins of the +Ancient Britons_, Madden's _Jewish Coinage_, Halliwell's folio +_Shakespeare_ and his _Sir John Maundeville_, Roach Smith's +_Richborough_, the _Miscellanea Graphica_ of Lord Londesborough, and +many other works. He died on the 3rd of April 1866. His books relating +to Shakespeare were bequeathed to the library at Stratford-on-Avon; +those on civic pageantry (between 200 and 300 volumes) to the Society of +Antiquaries; his old prints and works on costume to the British Museum; +his general library he desired to be sold and the proceeds devoted to +the Literary Fund. + + + + +FAIRMONT, a city and the county-seat of Marion county, West Virginia, +U.S.A., on both sides of the Monongahela river, about 75 m. S.E. of +Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 1023; (1900) 5655, of whom 283 were negroes and +182 foreign-born; (1910) 9711. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio +railway. Among its manufactures are glass, machinery, flour and +furniture, and it is an important shipping point for coal mined in the +vicinity. The city is the seat of one of the West Virginia state normal +schools. Fairmont was laid out as Middletown in 1819, became the +county-seat of the newly established Marion county in 1842, received its +present name about 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1899. + + + + +FAIR OAKS, a station on a branch of the Southern railway, 6 m. E. of +Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A. It is noted as the site of one of the battles +of the Civil War, fought on the 31st of May and the 1st of June 1862, +between the Union (Army of the Potomac) under General G.B. McClellan and +the Confederate forces (Army of Northern Virginia) commanded by General +J.E. Johnston. The attack of the Confederates was made at a moment when +the river Chickahominy divided the Federal army into two unequal parts, +and was, moreover, swollen to such a degree as to endanger the bridges. +General Johnston stationed part of his troops along the river to prevent +the Federals sending aid to the smaller force south of it, upon which +the Confederate attack, commanded by General Longstreet, was directed. +Many accidents, due to the inexperience of the staff officers and to the +difficulty of the ground, hindered the development of Longstreet's +attack, but the Federals were gradually driven back with a loss of ten +guns, though at the last moment reinforcements managed to cross the +river and re-establish the line of defence. At the close of the day +Johnston was severely wounded, and General G.W. Smith succeeded to the +command. The battle was renewed on the 1st of June but not fought out. +At the close of the action General R.E. Lee took over the command of the +Confederates, which he held till the final surrender in April 1865. So +far as the victory lay with either side, it was with the Union army, for +the Confederates failed to achieve their purpose of destroying the +almost isolated left wing of McClellan's army, and after the battle they +withdrew into the lines of Richmond. The Union losses were 5031 in +killed, wounded and missing; those of the Confederates were 6134. The +battle is sometimes known as the battle of Seven Pines. + + + + +FAIRUZABADI [Abu-t-Tahir ibn Ibrahim Majd ud-Din ul-Fairuzabadi] +(1329-1414), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Karazin near Shiraz. His +student days were spent in Shiraz, Wasit, Bagdad and Damascus. He taught +for ten years in Jerusalem, and afterwards travelled in western Asia +and Egypt. In 1368 he settled in Mecca, where he remained for fifteen +years. He next visited India and spent some time in Delhi, then remained +in Mecca another ten years. The following three years were spent in +Bagdad, in Shiraz (where he was received by Timur), and in Ta'iz. In +1395 he was appointed chief cadi (qadi) of Yemen, married a daughter of +the sultan, and died at Zabid in 1414. During this last period of his +life he converted his house at Mecca into a school of Malikite law and +established three teachers in it. He wrote a huge lexicographical work +of 60 or 100 volumes uniting the dictionaries of Ibn Sida, a Spanish +philologist (d. 1066), and of Sajani (d. 1252). A digest of or an +extract from this last work is his famous dictionary _al-Qamus_ ("the +Ocean"), which has been published in Egypt, Constantinople and India, +has been translated into Turkish and Persian, and has itself been the +basis of several later dictionaries. (G. W. T.) + + + + +FAIRY (Fr. _fée_, _faerie_; Prov. _fada_; Sp. _hada_; Ital. _fata_; med. +Lat. _fatare_, to enchant, from Lat. _fatum_, fate, destiny), the common +term for a supposed race of supernatural beings who magically +intermeddle in human affairs. Of all the minor creatures of mythology +the fairies are the most beautiful, the most numerous, the most +memorable in literature. Like all organic growths, whether of nature or +of the fancy, they are not the immediate product of one country or of +one time; they have a pedigree, and the question of their ancestry and +affiliation is one of wide bearing. But mixture and connexion of races +have in this as in many other cases so changed the original folk-product +that it is difficult to disengage and separate the different strains +that have gone to the making or moulding of the result as we have it. + +It is not in literature, however ancient, that we must look for the +early forms of the fairy belief. Many of Homer's heroes have fairy +lemans, called nymphs, fairies taken up into a higher region of poetry +and religion; and the fairy leman is notable in the story of Athamas and +his cloud bride Nephele, but this character is as familiar to the +unpoetical Eskimo, and to the Red Indians, with their bird-bride and +beaver-bride (see A. Lang's _Custom and Myth_, "The Story of Cupid and +Psyche"). The Gandharvas of Sanskrit poetry are also fairies. + +One of the most interesting facts about fairies is the wide distribution +and long persistence of the belief in them. They are the chief factor in +surviving Irish superstition. Here they dwell in the "raths," old +earth-forts, or earthen bases of later palisaded dwellings of the Norman +period, and in the subterranean houses, common also in Scotland. They +are an organized people, often called "the army," and their life +corresponds to human life in all particulars. They carry off children, +leaving changeling substitutes, transport men and women into fairyland, +and are generally the causes of all mysterious phenomena. Whirls of dust +are caused by the fairy marching army, as by the being called Kutchi in +the Dieri tribe of Australia. In 1907, in northern Ireland, a farmer's +house was troubled with flying stones (see POLTERGEIST). The neighbours +said that the fairies caused the phenomenon, as the man had swept his +chimney with a bough of holly, and the holly is "a gentle tree," dear to +the fairies. The fairy changeling belief also exists in some districts +of Argyll, and a fairy boy dwelt long in a small farm-house in Glencoe, +now unoccupied. + +In Ireland and the west Highlands neolithic arrow-heads and flint chips +are still fairy weapons. They are dipped in water, which is given to +ailing cattle and human beings as a sovereign remedy for diseases. The +writer knows of "a little lassie in green" who is a fairy and, according +to the percipients, haunts the banks of the Mukomar pool on the Lochy. +In Glencoe is a fairy hill where the fairy music, vocal and +instrumental, is heard in still weather. In the Highlands, however, +there is much more interest in second sight than in fairies, while in +Ireland the reverse is the case. The best book on Celtic fairy lore is +still that of the minister of Aberfoyle, the Rev. Mr Kirk (_ob._ 1692). +His work on _The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and Fairies_, left +in MS. and incomplete (the remainder is in the Laing MSS., Edinburgh +University library), was published (a hundred copies) in 1815 by Sir +Walter Scott, and in the Bibliothèque de Carabas (Lang) there is a +French translation. Mr Kirk is said (though his tomb exists) to have +been carried away by fairies. He appeared to a friend and said that he +would come again, when the friend must throw a dirk over his shoulder +and he would return to this world. The friend, however, lost his nerve +and did not throw the dirk. In the same way a woman reappeared to her +husband in Glencoe in the last generation, but he was wooing another +lass and did not make any effort to recover his wife. His character was +therefore lost in the glen. + +It is clear that in many respects fairyland corresponds to the +pre-Christian abode of the dead. Like Persephone when carried to Hades, +or Wainamoïnen in the Hades of the Finns (Manala), a living human being +must not eat in fairyland; if he does, he dwells there for ever. Tamlane +in the ballad, however, was "fat and fair of flesh," yet was rescued by +Janet: probably he had not abstained from fairy food. He was to be given +as the _kane_ to Hell, which shows a distinction between the beliefs in +hell and in the place of fairies. + +It is a not uncommon theory that the fairies survive in legend from +prehistoric memories of a pigmy people dwelling in the subterranean +earth-houses, but the contents of these do not indicate an age prior to +the close of the Roman occupation of Britain; nor are pigmy bones common +in neolithic sepulchres. The "people of peace" (_Daoine Shie_) of +Ireland and Scotland are usually of ordinary stature, indeed not to be +recognized as varying from mankind except by their proceedings (see J. +Curtin, _Irish Folk-tales_). + +The belief in a species of lady fairies, deathly to their human lovers, +was found by R.L. Stevenson to be as common in Samoa (see _Island +Nights' Entertainments_) as in Strathfinlas or on the banks of Loch Awe. +In New Caledonia a native friend of J.J. Atkinson (author of _Primal +Law_) told him that he had met and caressed the girl of his heart in the +forest, that she had vanished and must have been a fairy. He therefore +would die in three days, which (Mr Atkinson informs the writer) he +punctually did. The Greek sirens of Homer are clearly a form of these +deadly fairies, as the Nereids and Oreads and Naiads are fairies of +wells, mountains and the sea. The fairy women who come to the births of +children and foretell their fortunes (_Fata_, _Moerae_, ancient Egyptian +_Hathors_, _Fées_, _Dominae Fatales_), with their spindles, are +refractions of the human "spae-women" (in the Scots term) who attend at +birth and derive omens of the child's future from various signs. The +custom is common among several savage races, and these women, +represented in the spiritual world by _Fata_, bequeath to us the French +_fée_, in the sense of fairy. Perrault also uses _fée_ for anything that +has magical quality; "the key was _fée_," had _mana_, or _wakan_, savage +words for the supposed "power," or _ether_, which works magic or is the +vehicle of magical influences. + +Though the fairy belief is universally human, the nearest analogy to the +shape which it takes in Scotland and Ireland--the "pixies" of +south-western England--is to be found in _Jan_ or _Jinnis_ of the Arabs, +Moors and people of Palestine. In stories which have passed through a +literary medium, like _The Arabian Nights_, the _geni_ or _Jan_ do not +so much resemble our fairies as they do in the popular superstitions of +the East, orally collected. The _Jan_ are now a subterranean +commonwealth, now they reside in ruinous places, like the fairies in the +Irish raths. Like the fairies they go about in whirls of dust, or the +dust-whirls themselves are _Jan_. They carry off men and women "to their +own herd," in the phrase of Mr Kirk, and are kind to mortals who are +kind to them. They chiefly differ from our fairies in their greater +tendency to wear animal forms; though, like the fairies, when they +choose to appear in human shape they are not to be distinguished from +men and women of mortal mould. Like the fairies everywhere they have +amours with mortals, such as that of the Queen of Faery with Thomas of +Ercildoune. The herb rue is potent against them, as in British +folk-lore, and a man long captive among the _Jan_ escaped from them by +observing their avoidance of rue, and by plucking two handfuls thereof. +They, like the British brownies (a kind of domesticated fairy), are the +causes of strange disappearances of things. To preserve houses from +their influences, rue, that "herb of grace," is kept in the apartments, +and the name of Allah is constantly invoked. If this is omitted, things +are stolen by the _Jan_. + +They often bear animal names, and it is dangerous to call a cat or dog +without pointing at the animal, for a _Jinni_ of the same name may be +present and may take advantage of the invocation. A man, in fun, called +to a goat to escort his wife on a walk: he did not point at the goat, +and the wife disappeared. A _Jinni_ had carried her off, and her husband +had to seek her at the court of the _Jan_. Euphemistically they are +addressed as _mubarakin_, "blessed ones," as we say "the good folk" or +"the people of peace." As our fairies give gold which changes into +withered leaves, the _Jan_ give onion peels which turn into gold. Like +our fairies the _Jan_ can apply an ointment, kohl, to human eyes, after +which the person so favoured can see _Jan_, or fairies, which are +invisible to other mortals, and can see treasure wherever it may be +concealed (see _Folk-lore of the Holy Land_, by J.E. Hanauer, 1907). + +It is plain that fairies and _Jan_ are practically identical, a curious +proof of the uniformity of the working of imagination in peoples widely +separated in race and religion. Fairies naturally won their way into the +poetry of the middle ages. They take lovers from among men, and are +often described as of delicate, unearthly, ravishing beauty. The +enjoyment of their charms is, however, generally qualified by some +restriction or compact, the breaking of which is the cause of calamity +to the lover and all his race, as in the notable tale of Melusine. This +fay by enchantment built the castle of Lusignan for her husband. It was +her nature to take every week the form of a serpent from the waist +below. The hebdomadal transformation being once, contrary to compact, +witnessed by her husband, she left him with much wailing, and was said +to return and give warning by her appearance and great shrieks whenever +one of the race of Lusignan was about to die. At the birth of Ogier le +Danois six fairies attend, five of whom give good gifts, which the sixth +overrides with a restriction. Gervaise of Tilbury, writing early in the +13th century, has in his _Otia Imperialia_ a chapter, _De lamiis et +nocturnis larvis_, where he gives it out, as proved by individuals +beyond all exception, that men have been lovers of beings of this kind +whom they call _Fadas_, and who did in case of infidelity or +infringement of secrecy inflict terrible punishment--the loss of goods +and even of life. There seems little in the characteristics of these +fairies of romance to distinguish them from human beings, except their +supernatural knowledge and power. They are not often represented as +diminutive in stature, and seem to be subject to such human passions as +love, jealousy, envy and revenge. To this class belong the fairies of +Boiardo, Ariosto and Spenser. + + There is no good modern book on the fairy belief in general. + Keightley's _Fairy Mythology_ is full of interesting matter; Rhys's + _Celtic Mythology_ is especially copious about Welsh fairies, which + are practically identical with those of Ireland and Scotland. The + works of Mr Jeremiah Curtin and Dr Douglas Hyde are useful for + Ireland; for Scotland, Kirk's _Secret Commonwealth_ has already been + quoted. Scott's dissertation on fairies in _The Border Minstrelsy_ is + rich in lore, though necessarily Scott had not the wide field of + comparative study opened by more recent researches. There is a full + description of French fairies of the 15th century in the evidence of + Jeanne d'Arc at her trial (1431) in Quicherat's _Procès de Jeanne + d'Arc_, vol. i. pp. 67, 68, 187, 209, 212, vol. ii. pp. 390, 404, 450. + (A. L.) + + + + +FAIRY RING, the popular name for the circular patches of a dark green +colour that are to be seen occasionally on permanent grass-land, either +lawn or meadow, on which the fairies were supposed to hold their +midnight revels. They mark the area of growth of some fungus, starting +from a centre of one or more plants. The mycelium produced from the +spores dropped by the fungus or from the "spawn" in the soil, radiates +outwards, and each year's successive crop of fungi rises from the new +growth round the circle. The rich colour of the grass is due to the +fertilizing quality of the decaying fungi, which are peculiarly rich in +nitrogenous substances. The most complete and symmetrical grass rings +are formed by _Marasmius orcades_, the fairy ring champignon, but the +mushroom and many other species occasionally form rings, both on +grass-lands and in woods. Observations were made on a ring in a +pine-wood for a period of nine years, and it was calculated that it +increased from centre to circumference about 8½ in. each year. The +fungus was never found growing within the circle during the time the +ring was under observation, the decaying vegetation necessary for its +growth having become exhausted. + + + + +FAITHFULL, EMILY (1835-1895), English philanthropist, was the youngest +daughter of the Rev. Ferdinand Faithfull, and was born at Headley +Rectory, Surrey, in 1835. She took a great interest in the conditions of +working-women, and with the object of extending their sphere of labour, +which was then painfully limited, in 1860 she set up in London a +printing establishment for women. The "Victoria Press," as it was +called, soon obtained quite a reputation for its excellent work, and +Miss Faithfull was shortly afterwards appointed printer and publisher in +ordinary to Queen Victoria. In 1863 she began the publication of a +monthly organ, _The Victoria Magazine_, in which for eighteen years she +continuously and earnestly advocated the claims of women to remunerative +employment. In 1868 she published a novel, _Change upon Change_. She +also appeared as a lecturer, and with the object of furthering the +interests of her sex, lectured widely and successfully both in England +and the United States, which latter she visited in 1872 and 1882. In +1888 she was awarded a civil list pension of £50. She died in Manchester +on the 31st of May 1895. + + + + +FAITH HEALING, a form of "mind cure," characterized by the doctrine that +while pain and disease really exist, they may be neutralized and +dispelled by faith in Divine power; the doctrine known as Christian +Science (q.v.) holds, however, that pain is only an illusion and seeks to +cure the patient by instilling into him this belief. In the Christian +Church the tradition of faith healing dates from the earliest days of +Christianity; upon the miracles of the New Testament follow cases of +healing, first by the Apostles, then by their successors; but faith +healing proper is gradually, from the 3rd century onwards, transformed +into trust in relics, though faith cures still occur sporadically in +later times. Catherine of Siena is said to have saved Father Matthew from +dying of the plague, but in this case it is rather the healer than the +healed who was strong in faith. With the Reformation faith healing proper +reappears among the Moravians and Waldenses, who, like the Peculiar +People of our own day, put their trust in prayer and anointing with oil. +In the 16th century we find faith cures recorded of Luther and other +reformers, in the next century of the Baptists, Quakers and other Puritan +sects, and in the 18th century the faith healing of the Methodists in +this country was paralleled by Pietism in Germany, which drew into its +ranks so distinguished a man of science as Stahl (1660-1734). In the 19th +century Prince Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst, canon of +Grosswardein, was a famous healer on the continent; the Mormons and +Irvingites were prominent among English-speaking peoples; in the last +quarter of the 19th century faith healing became popular in London, and +Bethshan homes were opened in 1881, and since then it has found many +adherents in England. + +Under faith healing in a wider sense may be included (1) the cures in +the temples of Aesculapius and other deities in the ancient world; (2) +the practice of touching for the king's evil, in vogue from the 11th to +the 18th century; (3) the cures of Valentine Greatrakes, the "Stroker" +(1629-1683); and (4) the miracles of Lourdes, and other resorts of +pilgrims, among which may be mentioned St Winifred's Well in Flintshire, +Treves with its Holy Coat, the grave of the Jansenist F. de Paris in the +18th century, the little town of Kevelaer from 1641 onwards, the tombs +of St Louis, Francis of Assisi, Catherine of Siena and others. + +An animistic theory of disease was held by Pastor J. Ch. Blumhardt, +Dorothea Trudel, Boltzius and other European faith healers. Used in this +sense faith healing is indistinguishable from much of savage +leech-craft, which seeks to cure disease by expelling the evil spirit in +some portion of the body. Although it is usually present, faith in the +medicine man is not essential for the efficacy of the method. The same +may be said of the lineal descendant of savage medicine--the magical +leech-craft of European folk-lore; cures for toothache, warts, &c., act +in spite of the disbelief of the sufferer; how far incredulity on the +part of the healer would result in failure is an open question. + +From the psychological point of view all these different kinds of faith +healing, as indeed all kinds of mind cure, including those of Christian +Science and hypnotism, depend on suggestion (q.v.). In faith healing +proper not only are powerful direct suggestions used, but the religious +atmosphere and the auto-suggestions of the patient co-operate, +especially where the cures take place during a period of religious +revival or at other times when large assemblies and strong emotions are +found. The suggestibility of large crowds is markedly greater than that +of individuals, and to this and the greater faith must be attributed the +greater success of the fashionable places of pilgrimage. + + See A.T. Myers and F.W.H. Myers in _Proc. Soc. Psychical Research_, + ix. 160-209, on the miracles of Lourdes, with bibliography; A. + Feilding, _Faith Healing and Christian Science_; O. Stoll, _Suggestion + und Hypnotismus in der Völkerpsychologie_; article "Greatrakes" in + _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (N. W. T.) + + + + +FAITHORNE, WILLIAM (1626 or 1627-1691), English painter and engraver, +was born in London and was apprenticed to Robert Peake, a painter and +printseller, who received the honour of knighthood from Charles I. On +the outbreak of the Civil War he accompanied his master into the king's +service, and being made prisoner at Basinghouse, he was confined for +some time to Aldersgate, where, however, he was permitted to follow his +profession of engraver, and among other portraits did a small one of the +first Villiers, duke of Buckingham. At the earnest solicitation of his +friends he very soon regained his liberty, but only on condition of +retiring to France. There he was so fortunate as to receive instruction +from Robert Nanteuil. He was permitted to return to England about 1650, +and took up a shop near Temple Bar, where, besides his work as an +engraver, he carried on a large business as a printseller. In 1680 he +gave up his shop and retired to a house in Blackfriars, occupying +himself chiefly in painting portraits from the life in crayons, although +still occasionally engaged in engraving. It is said that his life was +shortened by the misfortunes, dissipation, and early death of his son +William. Faithorne is especially famous as a portrait engraver, and +among those on whom he exercised his art were a large number of eminent +persons, including Sir Henry Spelman, Oliver Cromwell, Henry Somerset, +the marquis of Worcester, John Milton, Queen Catherine, Prince Rupert, +Cardinal Richelieu, Sir Thomas Fairfax, Thomas Hobbes, Richard Hooker, +Robert second earl of Essex, and Charles I. All his works are remarkable +for their combination of freedom and strength with softness and +delicacy, and his crayon paintings unite to these the additional quality +of clear and brilliant colouring. He is the author of a work on +engraving (1622). + +His son WILLIAM (1656-1686), mezzotint engraver, at an early age gave +promise of attaining great excellence, but became idle and dissipated, +and involved his father in money difficulties. Among persons of note +whose portraits he engraved are Charles II., Mary princess of Orange, +Queen Anne when princess of Denmark, and Charles XII. of Sweden. + + The best account of the Faithornes is that contained in Walpole's + _Anecdotes of Painting_. A life of Faithorne the elder is preserved in + the British Museum among the papers of Mr Bayford, librarian to Lord + Oxford, and an intimate friend of Faithorne. + + + + +FAIZABAD, a town of Afghanistan, capital of the province of Badakshan, +situated on the Kokcha river. In 1821 it was destroyed by Murad Beg of +Kunduz, and the inhabitants removed to Kunduz. But since Badakshan was +annexed by Abdur Rahman, the town has recovered its former importance, +and is now a considerable place of trade. It is the chief cantonment for +eastern Afghanistan and the Pamir region, and is protected by a fort +built in 1904. + + + + +FAJARDO, a district and town on the E. coast of Porto Rico, belonging to +the department of Humacao. Pop. (1899) of the district, 16,782; and of +the town, 3414. The district is highly fertile and is well watered, +owing in great measure to its abundant rainfall. Sugar production is its +principal industry, but some attention is also given to the growing of +oranges and pineapples. The town, which was founded in 1774, is a busy +commercial centre standing 1¼ m. from a large and well-sheltered bay, at +the entrance to which is the cape called Cabeza de San Juan. It is the +market town for a number of small islands off the E. coast, some of +which produce cattle for export. + + + + +FAKHR UD-DIN RAZI (1149-1209), Arabian historian and theologian, was the +son of a preacher, himself a writer, and was born at Rai (Rei, Rhagae), +near Tehran, where he received his earliest training. Here and at +Maragha, whither he followed his teacher Majd ud-Din ul-Jili, he studied +philosophy and theology. He was a Shaf'ite in law and a follower of +Ash'ari (q.v.) in theology, and became renowned as a defender of +orthodoxy. During a journey in Khwarizm and Mawara'l-nahr he preached +both in Persian and Arabic against the sects of Islam. After this tour +he returned to his native city, but settled later in Herat, where he +died. His dogmatic positions may be seen from his work _Kitab +ul-Muhassal_, which is analysed by Schmölders in his _Essai sur les +écoles philosophiques chez les Arabes_ (Paris, 1842). Extracts from his +_History of the Dynasties_ were published by Jourdain in the _Fundgruben +des Orients_ (vol. v.), and by D.R. Heinzius (St Petersburg, 1828). His +greatest work is the _Mafatih ul-Ghaib_ ("The Keys of Mystery"), an +extensive commentary on the Koran published at Cairo (8 vols., 1890) and +elsewhere; it is specially full in its exposition of Ash'arite theology +and its use of early and late Mu'tazilite writings. + + For an account of his life see F. Wüstenfeld's _Geschichte der + arabischen Ärzte_, No. 200 (Göttingen, 1840); for a list of his works + cf. C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der arabischen Literatur_, vol. 1 + (Weimar, 1898), pp. 506 ff. An account of his teaching is given by M. + Schreiner in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen + Gesellschaft_ (vol. 52, pp. 505 ff.). (G. W. T.) + + + + +FAKIR (from Arabic _faqir_, "poor"), a term equivalent to _Dervish_ +(q.v.) or Mahommedan religious mendicant, but which has come to be +specially applied to the Hindu devotees and ascetics of India. There are +two classes of these Indian Fakirs, (1) the religious orders, and (2) +the nomad rogues who infest the country. The ascetic orders resemble the +Franciscans of Christianity. The bulk lead really excellent lives in +monasteries, which are centres of education and poor-relief; while +others go out to visit the poor as Gurus or teachers. Strict celibacy is +not enforced among them. These orders are of very ancient date, owing +their establishment to the ancient Hindu rule, followed by the +Buddhists, that each "twice-born" man should lead in the woods the life +of an ascetic. The second class of Fakirs are simply disreputable +beggars who wander round extorting, under the guise of religion, alms +from the charitable and practising on the superstitions of the +villagers. As a rule they make no real pretence of leading a religious +life. They are said to number nearly a million. Many of them are known +as "Jogi," and lay claim to miraculous powers which they declare have +become theirs by the practice of abstinence and extreme austerities. The +tortures which some of these wretches will inflict upon themselves are +almost incredible. They will hold their arms over their heads until the +muscles atrophy, will keep their fists clenched till the nails grow +through the palms, will lie on beds of nails, cut and stab themselves, +drag, week after week, enormous chains loaded with masses of iron, or +hang themselves before a fire near enough to scorch. Most of them are +inexpressibly filthy and verminous. Among the filthiest are the Aghoris, +who preserve the ancient cannibal ritual of the followers of Siva, eat +filth, and use a human skull as a drinking-vessel. Formerly the fakirs +were always nude and smeared with ashes; but now they are compelled to +wear some pretence of clothing. The natives do not really respect these +wandering friars, but they dread their curses. + + See John Campbell Oman, _The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_ + (1903), and Indian Census Reports. + + + + +FALAISE, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Calvados, on the right bank of the Ante, 19 m. S. by +E. of Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 6215. The principal object of interest +is the castle, now partly in ruins, but formerly the seat of the dukes +of Normandy and the birthplace of William the Conqueror. It is situated +on a lofty crag overlooking the town, and consists of a square mass +defended by towers and flanked by a small donjon and a lofty tower added +by the English in the 15th century; the rest of the castle dates chiefly +from the 12th century. Near the castle, in the Place de la Trinité, is +an equestrian statue in bronze of William the Conqueror, to whom the +town owed its prosperity. The churches of La Trinité and St Gervais +combine the Gothic and Renaissance styles of architecture, and St +Gervais also includes Romanesque workmanship. A street passes by way of +a tunnel beneath the choir of La Trinité. Falaise has populous suburbs, +one of which, Guibray, is celebrated for its annual fair for horses, +cattle and wool, which has been held in August since the 11th century. +The town is the seat of a subprefecture and has tribunals of first +instance and commerce, a chamber of arts and manufacture, a board of +trade-arbitrators and a communal college. Tanning and important +manufactures of hosiery are carried on. + +From 1417, when after a siege of forty-seven days it succumbed to Henry +V., king of England, till 1450, when it was retaken by the French, +Falaise was in the hands of the English. + + + + +FALASHAS (i.e. exiles; Ethiopic _falas_, a stranger), or "Jews of +Abyssinia," a tribe of Hamitic stock, akin to Galla, Somali and Beja, +though they profess the Jewish religion. They claim to be descended from +the ten tribes banished from the Holy Land. Another tradition assigns +them as ancestor Menelek, Solomon's alleged son by the queen of Sheba. +There is little or no physical difference between them and the typical +Abyssinians, except perhaps that their eyes are a little more oblique; +and they may certainly be regarded as Hamitic. It is uncertain when they +became Jews: one account suggests in Solomon's time; another, at the +Babylonian captivity; a third, during the 1st century of the Christian +era. That one of the earlier dates is correct seems probable from the +fact that the Falashas know nothing of either the Babylonian or +Jerusalem Talmud, make no use of phylacteries (_tefillin_), and observe +neither the feast of Purim nor the dedication of the temple. They +possess--not in Hebrew, of which they are altogether ignorant, but in +Ethiopic (or Geez)--the canonical and apocryphal books of the Old +Testament; a volume of extracts from the Pentateuch, with comments given +to Moses by God on Mount Sinai; the Te-e-sa-sa Sanbat, or laws of the +Sabbath; the Ardit, a book of secrets revealed to twelve saints, which +is used as a charm against disease; lives of Abraham, Moses, &c.; and a +translation of Josephus called Sana Aihud. A copy of the Orit or Mosaic +law is kept in the holy of holies in every synagogue. Various pagan +observances are mingled in their ritual: every newly-built house is +considered uninhabitable till the blood of a sheep or fowl has been +spilt in it; a woman guilty of a breach of chastity has to undergo +purification by leaping into a flaming fire; the Sabbath has been +deified, and, as the goddess Sanbat, receives adoration and sacrifice +and is said to have ten thousand times ten thousand angels to wait on +her commands. There is a monastic system, introduced it is said in the +4th century A.D. by Aba Zebra, a pious man who retired from the world +and lived in the cave of Hoharewa, in the province of Armatshoho. The +monks must prepare all their food with their own hands, and no lay +person, male or female, may enter their houses. Celibacy is not +practised by the priests, but they are not allowed to marry a second +time, and no one is admitted into the order who has eaten bread with a +Christian, or is the son or grandson of a man thus contaminated. Belief +in the evil eye or shadow is universal, and spirit-raisers, soothsayers +and rain-doctors are in repute. Education is in the hands of the monks +and priests, and is confined to boys. Fasts, obligatory on all above +seven years of age, are held on every Monday and Thursday, on every new +moon, and at the passover (the 21st or 22nd of April). The annual +festivals are the passover, the harvest feast, the Baala Mazalat or +feast of tabernacles (during which, however, no booths are built), the +day of covenant or assembly and Abraham's day. It is believed that after +death the soul remains in a place of darkness till the third day, when +the first sacrifice for the dead is offered; prayers are read in the +synagogue for the repose of the departed, and for seven days a formal +lament takes place every morning in his house. No coffins are used, and +a stone vault is built over the corpse so that it may not come into +direct contact with the earth. + +The Falashas are an industrious people, living for the most part in +villages of their own, or, if they settle in a Christian or Mahommedan +town, occupying a separate quarter. They had their own kings, who, they +pretend, were descended from David, from the 10th century until 1800, +when the royal race became extinct, and they then became subject to the +Abyssinian kingdom of Tigré. They do not mix with the Abyssinians, and +never marry women of alien religions. They are even forbidden to enter +the houses of Christians, and from such a pollution have to be purified +before entering their own houses. Polygamy is not practised; early +marriages are rare, and their morals are generally better than those of +their Christian masters. Unlike most Jews, they have no liking for +trade, but are skilled in agriculture, in the manufacture of pottery, +ironware and cloth, and are good masons. Their numbers are variously +estimated at from one hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand. + + Bibliography.--M. Flad, _Zwölf Jahre in Abyssinia_ (Basel, 1869), and + his _Falashas of Abyssinia_, translated from the German by S.P. + Goodhart (London, 1869); H.A. Stern, _Wanderings among the Falashas in + Abyssinia_ (London, 1862); Joseph Halévy, _Travels in Abyssinia_ + (trans. London, 1878); Morais, "The Falashas" in _Penn Monthly_ + (Philadelphia, 1880); Cyrus Adler, "Bibliography of the Falashas" in + _American Hebrew_ (16th of March 1894); Lewin, "Ein verlassener + Bruderstamm," in Bloch's _Wochenschrift_ (7th February 1902), p. 85; + J. Faitlovitch, _Notes d'un voyage chez les Falachas_ (Paris, 1905). + + + + +FALCÃO, CHRISTOVÃO DE SOUSA (? 1512-1557), Portuguese poet, came of a +noble family settled at Portalegre in the Alemtejo, which had originated +with John Falcon or Falconet, one of the Englishmen who went to Portugal +in 1386 in the suite of Philippa of Lancaster. His father, João Vaz de +Almada Falcão, was an upright public servant who had held the captaincy +of Elmina on the West African coast, but died, as he had lived, a poor +man. There is a tradition that in boyhood Christovão fell in love with a +beautiful child and rich heiress, D. Maria Brandão, and in 1526 married +her clandestinely, but parental opposition prevented the ratification of +the marriage. Family pride, it is said, drove the father of Christovão +to keep his son under strict surveillance in his own house for five +years, while the lady's parents, objecting to the youth's small means, +put her into the Cistercian convent of Lorvão, and there endeavoured to +wean her heart from him by the accusation that he coveted her fortune +more than her person. Their arguments and the promise of a good match +ultimately prevailed, and in 1534 D. Maria left the convent to marry D. +Luis de Silva, captain of Tangier, while the broken-hearted Christovão +told his sad story in some beautiful lyrics and particularly in the +eclogue _Chrisfal_. He had been the disciple and friend of the poets +Bernardim Ribeiro and Sá de Miranda, and when his great disappointment +came, Falcão laid aside poetry and entered on a diplomatic career. There +is documentary evidence that he was employed at the Portuguese embassy +in Rome in 1542, but he soon returned to Portugal, and we find him at +court again in 1548 and 1551. The date of his death, as of his birth, is +uncertain. Such is the story accepted by Dr Theophilo Braga, the +historian of Portuguese literature, but Senhor Guimarães shows that the +first part is doubtful, and, putting aside the testimony of a +contemporary and grave writer, Diogo do Couto, he even denies the title +of poet to Christovão Falcão, arguing from internal and other evidence +that _Chrisfal_ is the work of Bernardim Ribeiro; his destructive +criticism is, however, stronger than his constructive work. The eclogue, +with its 104 verses, is the very poem of _saudade_, and its simple, +direct language and chaste and tender feeling, enshrined in exquisitely +sounding verses, has won for its author lasting fame and a unique +position in Portuguese literature. Its influence on later poets has been +very considerable, and Camoens used several of the verses as proverbs. + + The poetical works of Christovão Falcão were published anonymously, + owing, it is supposed, to their personal nature and allusions, and, + in part or in whole, they have been often reprinted. There is a modern + critical edition of _Chrisfal_ and a _Carta_ (letter) by A. Epiphanio + da Silva Dias under the title _Obras de Christovão Falcão_ (Oporto, + 1893), and one of the _Cantigas_ and _Esparsas_ by the same scholar + appeared in the _Revista Lusitana_, vol. 4, pp. 142-179 (Lisbon, + 1896), under the name _Fragmento de um Cancioneiro do Seculo XVI_. See + _Bernardim Ribeiro e o Bucolismo_, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, 1897), and + _Bernardim Ribeiro_ (_O Poeta Crisfal_), by Delfim Guimarães (Lisbon, + 1908). (E. Pr.) + + + + +FALCK, ANTON REINHARD (1777-1843), Dutch statesman, was born at Utrecht +on the 19th of March 1777. He studied at the university of Leiden, and +entered the Dutch diplomatic service, being appointed to the legation at +Madrid. Under King Louis Napoleon he was secretary-general for foreign +affairs, but resigned office on the annexation of the Batavian republic +to France. He took a leading part in the revolt of 1813 against French +domination, and had a considerable share in the organization of the new +kingdom of the Netherlands. As minister of education under William I. he +reorganized the universities of Ghent, Louvain and Liége and the Royal +Academy of Brussels. Side by side with his activities in education he +directed the departments of trade and the colonies. Falck was called in +Holland the king's good genius, but William I. presently tired of his +counsels and he was superseded by Van Maanen. He was ambassador in +London when the disturbances of 1830 convinced him of the necessity of +the separation of Belgium from Holland. He consequently resigned his +post and lived in close retirement until 1839, when he became the first +Dutch minister at the Belgian court. He died at Brussels on the 16th of +March 1843. Besides some historical works he left a correspondence of +considerable political interest, printed in _Brieven van A.R. Falck_, +1795-1843 (2nd ed. The Hague, 1861), and _Ambtsbrieven van A.R. Falck_ +(ibid. 1878). + + + + +FALCÓN, the most northern state of Venezuela, with an extensive coast +line on the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Venezuela. Pop. (1905 est.) +173,968. It lies between the Caribbean on the N. and the state of Lara +on the S., with Zulia and the Gulf of Venezuela on the W. Its surface is +much broken by irregular ranges of low mountains, and extensive areas on +the coast are sandy plains and tropical swamps. The climate is hot, but, +being tempered by the trade winds, is not considered unhealthy except in +the swampy districts. The state is sparsely settled and has no large +towns, its capital, Coro, being important chiefly because of its +history, and as the entrepôt for an extensive inland district. The only +port in the state is La Vela de Coro, on a small bay of the same name, 7 +m. E. of the capital, with which it is connected by railway. + + + + +FALCON (Lat. _Falco_;[1] Fr. _Faucon_; Teutonic, _Falk_ or _Valken_), a +word now restricted to the high-couraged and long-winged birds of prey +which take their quarry as it moves; but formerly it had a very +different meaning, being by the naturalists of the 18th and even of the +19th century extended to a great number of birds comprised in the genus +_Falco_ of Linnaeus and writers of his day,[2] while, on the other hand, +by falconers, it was, and still is, technically limited to the _female_ +of the birds employed by them in their vocation (see FALCONRY), whether +"long-winged" and therefore "noble," or "short-winged" and "ignoble." + +According to modern usage, the majority of the falcons, in the sense +first given, may be separated into _five_ very distinct groups: (1) the +falcons pure and simple (_Falco_ proper); (2) the large northern falcons +(_Hierofalco_, Cuvier); (3) the "desert falcons" (_Gennaea_, Kaup); (4) +the merlins (_Aesalon_, Kaup); and (5) the hobbies (_Hypotriorchis_, +Boie). A sixth group, the kestrels (_Tinnunculus_, Vieillot), is often +added. This, however, appears to have been justifiably reckoned a +distinct genus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Peregrine Falcon.] + +The typical falcon is by common consent allowed to be that almost +cosmopolitan species to which unfortunately the English epithet +"peregrine" (i.e. strange or wandering) has been attached. It is the +_Falco peregrinus_ of Tunstall (1771) and of most recent ornithologists, +though some prefer the specific name _communis_ applied by J.F. Gmelin a +few years later (1788) to a bird which, if his diagnosis be correct, +could not have been a true falcon at all, since it had yellow irides--a +colour never met with in the eyes of any bird now called by naturalists +a "falcon." This species inhabits suitable localities throughout the +greater part of the globe, though examples from North America have by +some received specific recognition as _F. anatum_ (the "duck-hawk"), and +those from Australia have been described as distinct under the name of +_F. melanogenys_. Here, as in so many other cases, it is almost +impossible to decide as to which forms should, and which should not, be +accounted merely local races. In size not surpassing a raven, this +falcon (fig. 1) is perhaps the most powerful bird of prey for its bulk +that flies, and its courage is not less than its power. It is the +species, in Europe, most commonly trained for the sport of hawking (see +FALCONRY). Volumes have been written upon it, and to attempt a complete +account of it is, within the limits now available, impossible. The +plumage of the adult is generally blackish-blue above, and white, with a +more or less deep cream-coloured tinge, beneath--the lower parts, except +the chin and throat, being barred transversely with black, while a black +patch extends from the bill to the ear-coverts, and descends on either +side beneath the mandible. The young have the upper parts deep +blackish-brown, and the lower white, more or less strongly tinged with +ochraceous-brown, and striped longitudinally with blackish-brown. From +Port Kennedy, the most northern part of the American continent, to +Tasmania, and from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk to Mendoza in the +Argentine territory, there is scarcely a country in which this falcon +has not been found. Specimens have been received from the Cape of Good +Hope, and it is only a question of the technical differentiation of +species whether it does not extend to Cape Horn. Fearless as it is, and +adapting itself to almost every circumstance, it will form its eyry +equally on the sea-washed cliffs, the craggy mountains, or (though more +rarely) the drier spots of a marsh in the northern hemisphere, as on +trees (says H. Schlegel) in the forests of Java or the waterless ravines +of Australia. In the United Kingdom it was formerly very common, and +hardly a high rock from the Shetlands to the Isle of Wight but had a +pair as its tenants. But the British gamekeeper has long held the +mistaken faith that it is his worst foe, and the number of pairs now +allowed to rear their brood unmolested in the British Islands is very +small. Yet its utility to the game-preserver, by destroying every one of +his most precious wards that shows any sign of infirmity, can hardly be +questioned by reason, and G.E. Freeman (_Falconry_) has earnestly urged +its claims to protection.[3] Nearly allied to this falcon are several +species, such as _F. barbarus_ of Mauretania, _F. minor_ of South +Africa, the Asiatic _F. babylonicus_, _F. peregrinator_ of India (the +shaheen), and perhaps _F. cassini_ of South America, with some others. + +Next to the typical falcons comes a group known as the "great northern" +falcons (_Hierofalco_). Of these the most remarkable is the gyrfalcon +(_F. gyrfalco_), whose home is in the Scandinavian mountains, though the +young are yearly visitants to the plains of Holland and Germany. In +plumage it very much resembles _F. peregrinus_, but its flanks have +generally a bluer tinge, and its superiority in size is at once +manifest. Nearly allied to it is the Icelander (_F. islandus_), which +externally differs in its paler colouring and in almost entirely wanting +the black mandibular patch. Its proportions, however, differ a good +deal, its body being elongated. Its country is shown by its name, but it +also inhabits south Greenland, and not unfrequently makes its way to the +British Islands. Very close to this comes the Greenland falcon (_F. +candicans_), a native of north Greenland, and perhaps of other countries +within the Arctic Circle. Like the last, the Greenland falcon from time +to time occurs in the United Kingdom, but it is always to be +distinguished by wearing a plumage in which at every age the prevailing +colour is pure white. In north-eastern America these birds are replaced +by a kindred form (_F. labradorus_), first detected by Audubon and +subsequently recognized by Dresser (_Orn. Miscell._ i. 135). It is at +once distinguished by its very dark colouring, the lower parts being +occasionally almost as deeply tinted at all ages as the upper. + +All the birds hitherto named possess one character in common. The darker +markings of their plumage are longitudinal before the first real moult +takes place, and for ever afterwards are transverse. In other words, +when young the markings are in the form of stripes, when old in the form +of bars. The variation of tint is very great, especially in _F. +peregrinus_; but the experience of falconers, whose business it is to +keep their birds in the very highest condition, shows that a falcon of +either of these groups if light-coloured in youth is light-coloured when +adult, and if dark when young is also dark when old-age, _after the +first moult_, making no difference in the complexion of the bird. The +next group is that of the so-called "desert falcons" (_Gennaea_), +wherein the difference just indicated does not obtain, for long as the +bird may live and often as it may moult, the original style of markings +never gives way to any other. Foremost among these are to be considered +the lanner and the saker (commonly termed _F. lanarius_ and _F. sacer_), +both well known in the palmy days of falconry, but only since about 1845 +readmitted to full recognition. Both of these birds belong properly to +south-eastern Europe, North Africa and south-western Asia. They are, for +their bulk, less powerful than the members of the preceding group, and +though they may be trained to high flights are naturally captors of +humbler game. The precise number of species is very doubtful, but among +the many candidates for recognition are especially to be named the +lugger (_F. jugger_) of India, and the prairie falcon (_F. mexicanus_) +of the western plains of North America. + +The systematist finds it hard to decide in what group he should place +two somewhat large Australian species (_F. hypoleucus_ and F. +_subniger_), both of which are rare in collections--the latter +especially. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Merlin.] + +A small but very beautiful group comes next--the merlins[4] (_Aesalon_ +of some writers, _Lithofalco_ of others). The European merlin (_F. +aesalon_) is perhaps the boldest of the _Accipitres_, not hesitating to +attack birds of twice its own size, and even on occasion threatening +human beings. Yet it readily becomes tame, if not affectionate, when +reclaimed, and its ordinary prey consists of the smaller _Passeres_. Its +"pinion of glossy blue" has become almost proverbial, and a deep ruddy +blush suffuses its lower parts; but these are characteristic only of the +male--the female maintaining very nearly the sober brown plumage she +wore when as a nestling she left her lowly cradle in the heather. Very +close to this bird comes the pigeon-hawk (_F. columbarius_) of North +America--so close, indeed, that none but an expert ornithologist can +detect the difference. The turumti of Anglo-Indians (_F. chicquera_), +and its representative from southern Africa (_F. ruficollis_), also +belong to this group, but they are considerably larger than either of +the former. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hobby.] + +Lastly, the Hobbies (_Hypotriorchis_) comprise a greater number of +forms--though how many seems to be doubtful. They are in life at once +recognizable by their bold upstanding position, and at any time by their +long wings. The type of this group is the English hobby (_F. subbuteo_), +a bird of great power of flight, chiefly shown in the capture of +insects, which form its ordinary food. It is a summer visitant to most +parts of Europe, including the British Islands, and is most wantonly and +needlessly destroyed by gamekeepers. A second European species of the +group is the beautiful _F. eleonorae_, which hardly comes farther north +than the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and, though in some +places abundant, is an extremely local bird. The largest species of this +section seems to be the Neotropical _F. femoralis_, for _F. diroleucus_ +though often ranked here, is now supposed to belong to the group of +typical falcons. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Unknown to classical writers, the earliest use of this word is + said to be by Servius Honoratus (_circa_ A.D. 390-480) in his notes + on _Aen._ x. 145. It seems possibly to be the Latinized form of the + Teutonic _Falk_, though _falx_ is commonly accounted its root. + + [2] The nomenclature of nearly all the older writers on this point is + extremely confused. What many of them, even so lately as Pennant's + time, termed the "gentle falcon" is certainly the bird we now call + the goshawk (i.e. goose-hawk), which name itself may have been + transferred to the _Astur palumbarius_ of modern ornithologists, from + one of the long-winged birds of prey. + + [3] It is not to be inferred, as many writers have done, that falcons + habitually prey upon birds in which disease has made any serious + progress. Such birds meet their fate from the less noble _Accipitres_ + or predatory animals of many kinds. But when a bird is _first_ + affected by any disorder, its power of taking care of itself is at + once impaired, and hence in the majority of cases it may become an + easy victim under circumstances which would enable a perfectly sound + bird to escape from the attack even of a falcon. + + [4] French, _Émérillon_; Icelandic, _Smirill_. + + + + +FALCONE, ANIELLO (1600-1665), Italian battle-painter, was the son of a +tradesman, and was born in Naples. He showed his artistic tendency at an +early age, received some instruction from a relative, and then studied +under Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), of whom he ranks as the most eminent +pupil. Besides battle-pictures, large and small, taken from biblical as +well as secular history, he painted various religious subjects, which, +however, count for little in his general reputation. He became, as a +battle-painter, almost as celebrated as Borgognone (Courtois), and was +named "L'Oracolo delle Battaglie." His works have animation, variety, +truth to nature, and careful colour. Falcone was bold, generous, used to +arms, and an excellent fencer. In the insurrection of Masaniello (1647) +he resolved to be bloodily avenged for the death, at the hands of two +Spaniards, of a nephew and of a pupil in the school of art which he had +established in Naples. He and many of his scholars, including Salvator +Rosa and Carlo Coppola, formed an armed band named the _Compagnia della +Morte_ ("Company of Death"; see ROSA, SALVATOR). They scoured the +streets by day, exulting in slaughter; at night they were painters +again, and handled the brush with impetuous zeal. Peace being restored, +they had to decamp. Falcone and Rosa made off to Rome; here Borgognone +noticed the works of Falcone, and became his friend, and a French +gentleman induced him to go to France, where Louis XIV. became one of +his patrons. Ultimately Colbert obtained permission for the painter to +return to Naples, and there he died in 1665. Two of his battle-pieces +are to be seen in the Louvre and in the Naples museum; he painted a +portrait of Masaniello, and engraved a few plates. Among his principal +scholars, besides Rosa and Coppola (whose works are sometimes ascribed +to Falcone himself), were Domenico Gargiuolo (named Micco Spadaro), +Paolo Porpora and Andrea di Lione. + + + + +FALCONER, HUGH (1808-1865), British palaeontologist and botanist, +descended from an old Scottish family, was born at Forres on the 29th of +February 1808. In 1826 he graduated at Aberdeen, where he manifested a +taste for the study of natural history. He afterwards studied medicine +in the university of Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. in 1829; +during this period he zealously attended the botanical classes of Prof. +R. Graham (1786-1845), and those on geology by Prof. R. Jameson. +Proceeding to India in 1830 as assistant-surgeon on the Bengal +establishment of the East India Company, he made on his arrival an +examination of the fossil bones from Ava in the possession of the +Asiatic Society of Bengal, and his description of the collection, +published soon afterwards, gave him a recognized position among the +scientists of India. Early in 1831 he was appointed to the army station +at Meerut, in the Northwestern Provinces, but in the same year he was +asked to officiate as superintendent of the botanic garden of +Saharanpur, during the ill-health and absence of Dr J.F. Royle; and in +1832 he succeeded to this post. He was thus placed in a district that +proved to be rich in palaeontological remains; and he set to work to +investigate its natural history and geology. In 1834 he published a +geological description of the Siwalik hills, in the Tertiary strata of +which he had in 1831 discovered bones of crocodiles, tortoises and other +animals; and subsequently, with conjoint labourers, he brought to light +a sub-tropical fossil fauna of unexampled extent and richness, including +remains of _Mastodon_, the colossal ruminant _Sivatherium_, and the +enormous tortoise _Colossochelys Atlas_. For these valuable discoveries +he and Captain (afterwards Sir Proby T.) Cautley (1802-1871) received in +1837 the Wollaston medal in duplicate from the Geological Society of +London. In 1834 Falconer was appointed to inquire into the fitness of +India for the growth of the tea-plant, and it was on his recommendation +that it was introduced into that country. + +He was compelled by illness to leave India in 1842, and during his stay +in England he occupied himself with the classification and arrangement +of the Indian fossils presented to the British Museum and East India +House, chiefly by himself and Sir Proby T. Cautley. He then set to work +to edit the great memoir by Cautley and himself, entitled _Fauna Antiqua +Sivalensis_, of which Part I. text was issued in 1846, and a series of +107 plates during the years 1846-1849. Unfortunately the work, owing +partly to Dr Falconer's absence from England and partly to ill-health, +was never completed. He was elected F.R.S. in 1845. In 1847 he was +appointed superintendent of the Calcutta botanical garden, and professor +of botany in the medical college; and on entering on his duties in the +following year he was at once employed by the Indian government and the +Agricultural and Horticultural Society as their adviser on all matters +connected with the vegetable products of India. He prepared an important +report on the teak forests of Tenasserim, and this was the means of +saving them from destruction by reckless felling; and through his +recommendation the cultivation of the cinchona bark was introduced into +the Indian empire. Being compelled by the state of his health to leave +India in 1855, he spent the remainder of his life chiefly in examining +fossil species in England and the Continent corresponding to those which +he had discovered in India, notably the species of mastodon, elephant +and rhinoceros; he also described some new mammalia from the Purbeck +strata, and he reported on the bone-caves of Sicily, Gibraltar, Gower +and Brixham. In the course of his researches he became interested in the +question of the antiquity of the human race, and actually commenced a +work on "Primeval Man," which, however, he did not live to finish. He +died on the 31st of January 1865. Shortly after his death a committee +was formed for the promotion of a "Falconer Memorial." This took the +shape of a marble bust, which was placed in the rooms of the Royal +Society of London, and of a Falconer scholarship of the annual value of +£100, open for competition to graduates in science or medicine of the +university of Edinburgh. + + Dr Falconer's botanical notes, with 450 coloured drawings of Kashmir + and Indian plants, have been deposited in the library at Kew Gardens, + and his _Palaeontological Memoirs and Notes_, comprising all his + papers read before learned societies, have been edited, with a + biographical sketch, by Charles Murchison, M.D. (London, 1868). Many + reminiscences of Dr Falconer, and a portrait of him, were published by + his niece, Grace, Lady Prestwich, in her _Essays descriptive and + biographical_ (1901). + + + + +FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-1760), British poet, was born in Edinburgh on +the 11th of February 1732. His father was a wig-maker, and carried on +business in one of the small shops with wooden fronts at the Netherbow +Port, an antique castellated structure which remained till 1764, +dividing High Street from the Canongate. The old man became bankrupt, +then tried business as a grocer, and finally died in extreme poverty. +William, the son, having received a scanty education, was put to sea. He +served on board a Leith merchant vessel, and in his eighteenth year +obtained the appointment of second mate of the "Britannia," a vessel +employed in the Levant trade, and sailed from Alexandria for Venice. The +"Britannia" was overtaken by a dreadful storm off Cape Colonna and was +wrecked, only three of the crew being saved. Falconer was happily one of +the three, and the incidents of the voyage and its disastrous +termination formed the subject of his poem of _The Shipwreck_ (1762). +Meanwhile, on his return to England, Falconer, in his nineteenth year, +printed at Edinburgh an elegy on Frederick, prince of Wales, and +afterwards contributed short pieces to the _Gentleman's Magazine_. Some +of these descriptive and lyrical effusions possess merit. The fine naval +song of "The Storm" ("Cease, rude Boreas"), reputed to be by George +Alexander Stevens, the dramatic writer and lecturer, has been ascribed +to Falconer, but apparently on no authority. The duke of York, to whom +_The Shipwreck_ had been dedicated, advised Falconer to enter the royal +navy, and before the end of 1762 the poet-sailor was rated as a +midshipman on board the "Royal George." But as this ship was paid off at +the peace of 1763, Falconer received an appointment as purser of the +"Glory" frigate, a situation which he held until that vessel was laid up +on ordinary at Chatham. In 1764 he published a new and enlarged edition +of _The Shipwreck_, and in the same year a rhymed political tirade +against John Wilkes and Charles Churchill, entitled _The Demagogue_. In +1769 appeared his _Universal Marine Dictionary_, in which _retreat_ is +defined as a French manoeuvre, "not properly a term of the British +marine." While engaged on this dictionary, J. Murray, a bookseller in +Fleet Street, father of Byron's munificent publisher and correspondent, +wished him to join him as a partner in business. The poet declined the +offer, and became purser of the "Aurora" frigate, which had been +commissioned to carry out to India certain supervisors or +superintendents of the East India Company. Besides his nomination as +purser, Falconer was promised the post of private secretary to the +commissioners. Before sailing he published a third edition of his +_Shipwreck_, which had again undergone "correction," but not +improvement. The poet sailed in the "Aurora" from Spithead on the 20th +of September 1769. The vessel arrived safely at the Cape of Good Hope, +and left on the 27th of December. She was never more heard of, having, +as is supposed, foundered at sea. _The Shipwreck_, the poem with which +Falconer's name is connected, had a great reputation at one time, but +the fine passages which pleased the earlier critics have not saved it +from general oblivion. + + See his _Poetical Works_ in the "Aldine Edition" (1836), with a life + by J. Mitford. + + + + +FALCONET, ÉTIENNE MAURICE (1716-1791), French sculptor, was born in +Paris. His parents were poor, and he was at first apprenticed to a +carpenter, but some of his clay-figures, with the making of which he +occupied his leisure hours, attracted the notice of the sculptor +Lemoine, who made him his pupil. He found time to study Greek and Latin, +and also wrote several _brochures_ on art. His artistic productions are +characterized by the same defects as his writings, for though +manifesting considerable cleverness and some power of imagination, they +display in many cases a false and fantastic taste, the result, most +probably, of an excessive striving after originality. One of his most +successful statues was one of Milo of Crotona, which secured his +admission to the membership of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1754. At the +invitation of the empress Catherine he went in 1766 to St Petersburg, +where he executed a colossal statue of Peter the Great in bronze. In +1788 he became director of the French Academy of Painting. Many of +Falconet's works, being placed in churches, were destroyed at the time +of the French Revolution. His "_Nymphe descendant au bain_" is in the +Louvre. + + Among his writings are _Reflexions sur la sculpture_ (Paris, 1768), + and _Observations sur la statue de Marc-Aurèle_ (Paris, 1771). The + whole were collected under the title of _Oeuvres littéraires_ (6 + vols., Lausanne, 1781-1782; 3 vols., Paris, 1787). + + + + +FALCONRY (Fr. _fauconnerie_, from Late Lat. _falco_, falcon), the art of +employing falcons and hawks in the chase, often termed _Hawking_. +Falconry was for many ages one of the principal sports of the richer +classes, and, since many more efficacious methods and appliances for the +capture of game undoubtedly existed, it is probable that it has always +been carried on as a pure sport. The antiquity of falconry is very +great. There appears to be little doubt that it was practised in Asia at +a very remote period, for which we have the concurrent testimony of +various Chinese and Japanese works, some of the latter being most +quaintly and yet spiritedly illustrated. It appears to have been known +in China some 2000 years B.C., and the records of a king Wen Wang, who +reigned over a province of that country 689 B.C., prove that the art was +at that time in very high favour. In Japan it appears to have been known +at least 600 years B.C., and probably at an equally early date in India, +Arabia, Persia and Syria. Sir A.H. Layard, in his _Nineveh and Babylon_, +considered that in a bas-relief found by him in the ruins of Khorsabad +"there appeared to be a falconer bearing a hawk on his wrist," from +which it would appear to have been known there some 1700 years B.C. In +all the above-mentioned countries of Asia it is practised at the present +day. + +Little is known of the early history of falconry in Africa, but from +very ancient Egyptian carvings and drawings it seems to have been known +there many ages ago. It was probably also in vogue in the countries of +Morocco, Oran, Algiers, Tunis and Egypt, at the same time as in Europe. +The older writers on falconry, English and continental, often mention +Barbary and Tunisian falcons. It is still practised in Egypt. + +Perhaps the oldest records of falconry in Europe are supplied by the +writings of Pliny, Aristotle and Martial. Although their notices of the +sport are slight and somewhat vague, yet they are quite sufficient to +show clearly that it was practised in their days--between the years 384 +B.C. and A.D. 40. It was probably introduced into England from the +continent about A.D. 860, and from that time down to the middle of the +17th century falconry was followed with an ardour that perhaps no +English sport has ever called forth, not even fox-hunting. Stringent +laws and enactments, notably in the reigns of William the Conqueror, +Edward III., Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, were passed from time to time in +its interest. Falcons and hawks were allotted to degrees and orders of +men according to rank and station--for instance, to the emperor the +eagle and vulture, to royalty the jerfalcons, to an earl the peregrine, +to a yeoman the goshawk, to a priest the sparrow-hawk, and to a knave or +servant the useless kestrel. The writings of Shakespeare furnish ample +testimony to the high and universal estimation in which it was held in +his days. About the middle of the 17th century falconry began to decline +in England, to revive somewhat at the Restoration. It never, however, +completely recovered its former favour, a variety of causes operating +against it, such as enclosure of waste lands, agricultural improvements, +and the introduction of fire-arms into the sporting field, till it fell, +as a national sport, almost into oblivion. Yet it has never been even +temporarily extinct, and it is successfully practised even at the +present day. + +In Europe the game or "quarry" at which hawks are flown consists of +grouse (confined to the British Isles), black-game, pheasants, +partridges, quails, landrails, ducks, teal, woodcocks, snipes, herons, +rooks, crows, gulls, magpies, jays, blackbirds, thrushes, larks, hares +and rabbits. In former days geese, cranes, kites, ravens and bustards +were also flown at. Old German works make much mention of the use of the +Iceland falcon for taking the great bustard, a flight scarcely alluded +to by English writers. In Asia the list of quarry is longer, and, in +addition to all the foregoing, or their Asiatic representatives, various +kinds of bustards, sand grouse, storks, ibises, spoonbills, pea-fowl, +jungle-fowl, kites, vultures and gazelles are captured by trained hawks. +In Mongolia and Chinese Tartary, and among the nomad tribes of central +Asia, the sport still flourishes; and though some late accounts are not +satisfactory either to the falconer or the naturalist, yet they leave no +doubt that a species of eagle is still trained in those regions to take +large game, as antelopes and wolves. Mr Atkinson, in his account of his +travels in the country of the Amur, makes particular mention of the +sport, as does also Mr Shaw in his work on Yarkand; and in a letter from +the Yarkand embassy, under Mr Forsyth, C.B., dated Camp near Yarkand, +Nov. 27, 1873, the following passage occurs:--"Hawking appears also to +be a favourite amusement, the golden eagle taking the place of the +falcon or hawk. This novel sport seemed very successful." It is +questionable whether the bird here spoken of is the golden eagle. In +Africa gazelles are taken, and also partridges and wild-fowl. + +The hawks used in England are the three great northern falcons, viz. the +Greenland, Iceland and Norway falcons, the peregrine falcon, the hobby, +the merlin, the goshawk and the sparrow-hawk. In former days the saker, +the lanner and the Barbary or Tunisian falcon were also employed. (See +FALCON.) + +Of the foregoing the easiest to keep, most efficient in the field, and +most suitable for general use are the peregrine falcon and the goshawk. + +In all hawks, the female is larger and more powerful than the male. + +Hawks are divided by falconers all over the world into two great +classes. The first class comprises "falcons," i.e. "long-winged hawks," +or "hawks of the lure," distinguished by Eastern falconers as "dark-eyed +hawks." In these the wings are pointed, the second feather in the wing +is the longest, and the iris is of a deep, dark-brown hue. Merlins must, +however, be excepted; and here it would seem that the Eastern +distinction is the better, for though merlins are much more falcons than +they are hawks, they differ from falcons in having the third feather in +the wing the longest, while they are certainly "dark-eyed hawks." + +The second class is that of "hawks," i.e. "short-winged hawks," or +"hawks of the fist," called by Eastern falconers "yellow (or rose) eyed +hawks." In these the wings are rounded, the fourth feather is the +longest in the wing, and the iris is yellow, orange or deep-orange. + +The following glossary of the principal terms used in falconry may +assist the reader in perusing this notice of the practice of the art. +Useless or obsolete terms are omitted:-- + + _Austringan._--A falconer. + + _Bate._--A hawk is said to "bate" when she flutters off from the fist, + perch or block, whether from wildness, or for exercise, or in the + attempt to chase. + + _Bewits._--Straps of leather by which the bells are fastened to a + hawk's legs. + + _Bind._--A hawk is said to "bind" when she seizes a bird in the air + and clings to it. + + _Block._--The conical piece of wood, of the form of an inverted + flower-pot, used for hawks to sit upon; for a peregrine it should be + about 10 to 12 in. high, 5 to 6 in diameter at top, and 8 to 9 in + diameter at base. + + _Brail._--A thong of soft leather used to secure, when desirable, the + wing of a hawk. It has a slit to admit the pinion joint, and the ends + are tied together. + + _Cadge._--The wooden frame on which hawks, when numerous, are carried + to the field. + + _Cadger._--The person who carries the cadge. + + _Calling off._--Luring a hawk (see LURE) from the hand of an + assistant. + + _Carry._--A hawk is said to "carry" when she flies away with the + quarry on the approach of the falconer. + + _Cast._--Two hawks which may be used for flying together are called a + "cast," not necessarily a pair. + + _Casting._--The oblong or egg-shaped ball, consisting of feathers, + bones, &c., which all hawks (and insectivorous birds) throw up after + the nutritious part of their food has been digested. Also the fur or + feathers given them to assist the process. + + _Cere._--The naked wax-like skin above the beak. + + _Check._--A hawk is said to fly at "check" when she flies at a bird + other than the intended object of pursuit. + + _Clutching._--Taking the quarry in the feet as the short-winged hawks + do. Falcons occasionally "clutch." + + _Come to._--A hawk is said to "come to" when she begins to get tame. + + _Coping._--Cutting the beak or talons of a hawk. + + _Crab._--To fight. + + _Creance._--A long line or string. + + _Crop, to put away._--A hawk is said to "put away her crop" when the + food passes out of the crop into the stomach. + + _Deck feathers._--The two centre tail-feathers. + + _Eyas._--A hawk which has been brought up from the nest (nyas, from + Fr. _niais_). + + _Eyry._--The nest of a hawk. + + _Foot._--A hawk is said to "foot" well or to be a "good footer" when + she is successful in killing. Many hawks are very fine fliers without + being "good footers." + + _Frounce._--A disease in the mouth and throat of hawks. + + _Get in._--To go up to a hawk when she has killed her quarry. + + _Hack._--The state of partial liberty in which young hawks must always + at first be kept. + + _Haggard._--A wild-caught hawk in the adult plumage. + + _Hood._--(See fig.) + + _Hoodshy._--A hawk is said to be "hoodshy" when she is afraid of, or + resists, having her hood put on. + + _Hunger trace._--A mark, and a defect, in the tail feathers, denoting + a weak point; generally due to temporary starvation as a nestling. + + _Imping._--The process of mending broken feathers is called "imping." + (See fig.) + + _Imping needle._--A piece of tough soft iron wire from about 1½ to 2½ + in. long, rough filed so as to be three-sided and tapering from the + middle to the ends. (See fig.) + + _Intermewed._--A hawk moulted in confinement is said to be + "intermewed." + + _Jack._--Mate of the merlin. + + _Jerkin._--Mate of the jerfalcon. + + _Jesses._--Strips of light but very tough leather, some 6 to 8 in. + long, which always remain on a hawk's legs--one on each leg. (See + fig.) + + _Jonk._--To sleep. + + _Leash._--A strong leathern thong, some 2½ or 3 ft. long, with a knot + or button at one end, used to secure a hawk. (See fig.) + + _Lure._--The instrument used for calling long-winged hawks--a dead + pigeon, or an artificial lure made of leather and feathers or wings of + birds, tied to a string, with meat attached to it. + + _Mail._--The breast feathers. + + _Make hawk._--A hawk is called a "make hawk" when, as a thoroughly + trained and steady hawk, she is flown with young ones to teach them + their work. + + _Man a hawk._--To tame a hawk and accustom her to strangers. + + [Illustration: Implements used in Falconry. + + 1. Hood. + + 2. Back view of hood, showing braces a, a, b, b; by drawing the + braces b, b, the hood, now open, is closed. + + 3. Rufter hood. + + 4. Imping-needle. + + 5. Jess; d is the space for the hawk's leg; the point and slit a, a + are brought round the leg, and passed through slit b, after which + the point c and slit c, and also the whole remaining length of jess, + are pulled through slits a and b; c is the slit to which the upper + ring of swivel is attached. + + 6. Hawk's leg with bell a, bewit b, jess c. + + 7. Jesses, swivel and leash. + + 8. Portion of first wing-feather of male peregrine falcon, + "tiercel," half natural size, in process of imping; a, the living + hawk's feather; b, piece supplied from another tiercel, with the + imping needle c pushed half its length into it and ready to be + pushed home into the living bird's feather.] + + _Mantle._--A hawk is said to "mantle" when she stretches out a leg and + a wing simultaneously, a common action of hawks when at ease; also + when she spreads out her wings and feathers to hide any quarry or food + she may have seized from another hawk, or from man. In the last case + it is a fault. + + _Mew._--A hawk is said to "mew" when she moults. The place where a + hawk was kept to moult was in olden times called her "mew." Buildings + where establishments of hawks were kept were called "mews." + + _Musket._--Male of the sparrow-hawk. + + _Mutes (mutings)._--Excrement of hawk. + + _Pannel._--The stomach of a hawk, corresponding with the gizzard of a + fowl, is called her pannel. In it the casting is formed. + + _Passage._--The line herons take over a tract of country on their way + to and from the heronry when procuring food in the breeding season. + + _Passage hawks._--Hawks captured when on their passage or migration. + + _Pelt._--The dead body of any quarry the hawk has killed. + + _Pitch._--The height to which a hawk, when waiting for game to be + flushed, rises in the air. + + _Plume._--A hawk is said to "plume" a bird when she pulls off the + feathers. + + _Point._--A hawk "makes her point" when she rises in the air over the + spot where quarry has saved itself from capture by dashing into a + hedge, or has otherwise secreted itself. + + _Pounces._--A hawk's claws. + + _Pull through the hood._--A hawk is said to pull through the hood when + she eats with it on. + + _Put in._--A bird is said to "put in" when it saves itself from the + hawk by dashing into covert or other place of security. + + _Quarry._--The bird or beast flown at. + + _Rake out._--A hawk is said to "rake out" when she flies, while + "waiting on" (see WAIT ON), too far and wide from her master. + + _Ramage._--Wild. + + Red hawk.--Hawks of the first year, in the young plumage, are called + "red hawks." + + _Ringing._--A bird is said to "ring" when it rises spirally in the + air. + + _Rufter hood._--An easy fitting hood, not, however, convenient for + hooding and unhooding--used only for hawks when first captured. (See + fig.) + + _Sails._--The wings of a hawk. + + _Seeling._--Closing the eyes by a fine thread drawn through the lid of + each eye, the threads being then twisted together above the head--a + practice long disused in England. + + _Serving a hawk._--Driving out quarry which has taken refuge, or has + "put in." + + _Stoop._--The hawk's rapid plunge upon the quarry. + + _Take the air._--A bird is said to "take the air" when it seeks to + escape by trying to rise higher than the falcon. + + _Tiercel._--The male of various falcons, particularly of the + peregrine, also _tarcell_, _tassell_ or _tercel_; the term is also + applied to the male of the goshawk. + + _Trussing._--A hawk is said to "truss" a bird when she catches it in + the air, and comes to the ground with it in her talons: this term is + not applied to large quarry. (See BIND.) + + _Varvels._--Small rings, generally of silver, fastened to the end of + the jesses, and engraved with the owner's name. + + _Wait on._--A hawk is said to "wait on" when she flies above her + master waiting till game is sprung. + + _Weathering._--Hawks are "weathered" by being placed unhooded in the + open air. Passage hawks which are not sufficiently reclaimed to be + left out by themselves unhooded on blocks are "weathered" by being put + out for an hour or two under the falconer's eye. + + _Yarak._--An Eastern term, generally applied to short-winged hawks. + When a hawk is keen, and in hunting condition, she is said to be "in + yarak." + +The training of hawks affords much scope for judgment, experience and +skill on the part of the falconer, who must carefully observe the temper +and disposition as well as the constitution of each bird. It is through +the appetite principally that hawks, like most wild animals, are tamed; +but to fit them for use in the field much patience, gentleness and care +must be used. Slovenly taming necessitates starving, and low condition +and weakness are the result. The aim of the falconer must be to have his +hawks always keen, and the appetite when they are brought into the field +should be such as would induce the bird in a state of nature to put +forth its full powers to obtain its food, with, as near as possible, a +corresponding condition as to flesh. The following is an outline of the +process of training hawks, beginning with the management of a +wild-caught peregrine falcon. When first taken, a rufter hood should be +put on her head, and she must be furnished with jesses, swivel, leash +and bell. A thick glove or rather gauntlet must be worn on the left hand +(Eastern falconers always carry a hawk on the right), and she must be +carried about as much as possible, late into the night, every day, being +constantly stroked with a bird's wing or feather, very lightly at first. +At night she should be tied to a perch in a room with the window +darkened, so that no light can enter in the morning. The perch should be +a padded pole placed across the room, about 4½ ft. from the ground, with +a canvas screen underneath. She will easily be induced to feed in most +cases by drawing a piece of beefsteak over her feet, brushing her legs +at the time with a wing, and now and then, as she snaps, slipping a +morsel into her mouth. Care must be taken to make a peculiar sound with +the lips or tongue, or to use a low whistle as she is in the act of +swallowing; she will very soon learn to associate this sound with +feeding, and it will be found that directly she hears it, she will gripe +with her talons, and bend down to feel for food. When the falconer +perceives this and other signs of her "coming to," that she no longer +starts at the voice or touch, and steps quietly up from the perch when +the hand is placed under her feet, it will be time to change her rufter +hood for the ordinary hood. This latter should be very carefully +chosen--an easy fitting one, in which the braces draw closely and yet +easily and without jerking. An old one previously worn is to be +recommended. The hawk should be taken into a very dark room--one +absolutely dark is best--and the change should be made if possible in +total darkness. After this she must be brought to feed with her hood +off; at first she must be fed every day in a darkened room, a gleam of +light being admitted. The first day, the hawk having seized the food and +begun to pull at it freely, the hood must be gently slipped off, and +after she has eaten a moderate quantity, it must be replaced as slowly +and gently as possible, and she should be allowed to finish her meal +through the hood. Next day the hood may be twice removed, and so on; day +by day the practice should be continued, and more light gradually +admitted, until the hawk will feed freely in broad daylight, and suffer +the hood to be taken off and replaced without opposition. Next she must +be accustomed to see and feed in the presence of strangers and dogs, &c. +A good plan is to carry her in the streets of a town at night, at first +where the gas-light is not strong, and where persons passing by are few, +unhooding and hooding her from time to time, but not letting her get +frightened. Up to this time she should be fed on lean beefsteak with no +castings, but as soon as she is tolerably tame and submits well to the +hood, she must occasionally be fed with pigeons and other birds. This +should be done not later than 3 or 4 P.M., and when she is placed on her +perch for the night in the dark room, she must be unhooded and left so, +of course being carefully tied up. The falconer should enter the room +about 7 or 8 A.M. next day, admitting as little light as possible, or +using a candle. He should first observe if she has thrown her casting; +if so, he will at once take her to the fist, giving her a bite of food, +and re-hood her. If her casting is not thrown it is better for him to +retire, leaving the room quite dark, and come in again later. She must +now be taught to know the voice--the shout that is used to call her in +the field--and to jump to the fist for food, the voice being used every +time she is fed. When she comes freely to the fist she must be made +acquainted with the lure. Kneeling down with the hawk on his fist, and +gently unhooding her, the falconer casts out a lure, which may be either +a dead pigeon or an artificial lure garnished with beefsteak tied to a +string, to a distance of a couple or three feet in front of her. When +she jumps down to it, she should be allowed to eat a little on it--the +voice being used--the while receiving morsels from the falconer's hand; +and before her meal is finished she must be taken off to the hand, being +induced to forsake the lure for the hand by a tempting piece of meat. +This treatment will help to check her inclination hereafter to carry her +quarry. This lesson is to be continued till the falcon feeds very boldly +on the lure on the ground, in the falconer's presence--till she will +suffer him to walk round her while she is feeding. All this time she +will have been held by the leash only, but in the next step a strong, +but light creance must be made fast to the leash, and an assistant +holding the hawk should unhood her, as the falconer, standing at a +distance of 5 to 10 yds., calls her by shouting and casting out the +lure. Gradually day after day the distance is increased, till the hawk +will come 30 yds. or so without hesitation; then she may be trusted to +fly to the lure at liberty, and by degrees from any distance, say 1000 +yds. This accomplished, she should learn to stoop at the lure. Instead +of allowing the hawk to seize upon it as she comes up, the falconer +should snatch the lure away and let her pass by, and immediately put it +out that she may readily seize it when she turns round to look for it. +This should be done at first only once, and then progressively until she +will stoop backwards and forwards at the lure as often as desired. Next +she should be entered at her quarry. Should she be intended for rooks or +herons, two or three of these birds should be procured. One should be +given her from the hand, then one should be released close to her, and a +third at a considerable distance. If she take these keenly, she may be +flown at a wild bird. Care must, however, be taken to let her have +every possible advantage in her first flights--wind and weather, and the +position of the quarry with regard to the surrounding country, must be +considered. + +Young hawks, on being received by the falconer before they can fly, must +be put into a sheltered place, such as an outhouse or shed. Their basket +or hamper should be filled with straw. A hamper is best, with the lid so +placed as to form a platform for the young hawks to come out upon to +feed. This should be fastened to a beam or prop a few feet from the +ground. The young hawks must be most plentifully fed on the best fresh +food obtainable--good beefsteak and fresh-killed birds; the falconer +when feeding them should use his voice as in luring. As they grow old +enough they will come out, and perch about the roof of their shed, by +degrees extending their flights to neighbouring buildings or trees, +never failing to come at feeding time to the place where they are fed. +Soon they will be continually on the wing, playing or fighting with one +another, and later the falconer will observe them chasing other birds, +as pigeons and rooks, which may be passing by. As soon as one fails to +come for a meal, it must be at once caught with a bow net or a snare the +first time it comes back, or it will be lost. It must be borne in mind +that the longer hawks can be left at hack the better they are likely to +be for use in the field--those hawks being always the best which have +preyed a few times for themselves before being caught. Of course there +is great risk of losing hawks when they begin to prey for themselves. +When a hawk is so caught she is said to be "taken up" from hack. She +will not require a rufter hood, but a good deal of the management +described for the passage falcon will be necessary. She must be +carefully tamed and broken to the hood in the same manner, and so taught +to know the lure; but, as might be expected, very much less difficulty +will be experienced. As soon as the eyas knows the lure sufficiently +well to come to it sharp and straight from a distance, she must be +taught to "wait on." This is effected by letting the hawk loose in an +open place, such as a down. It will be found that she will circle round +the falconer looking for the lure she has been accustomed to +see--perhaps mount a little in the air, and advantage must be taken of a +favourable moment when the hawk is at a little height, her head being +turned in towards the falconer, to let go a pigeon which she can easily +catch. When the hawk has taken two or three pigeons in this way, and +mounts immediately in expectation, in short, begins to wait on, she +should see no more pigeons, but be tried at game as soon as possible. +Young peregrines should be flown at grouse first in preference to +partridges, not only because the season commences earlier, but because, +grouse being the heavier birds, they are not so much tempted to "carry" +as with partridges. + +The training of the great northern falcons, as well as that of merlins +and hobbies, is conducted much on the above principles, but the +jerfalcons (gerfalcons or gyrfalcons) will seldom wait on well, and +merlins will not do it at all. + +The training of short-winged hawks is a simpler process. They must, like +falcons, be provided with jesses, swivel, leash and bell. In these hawks +a bell is sometimes fastened to the tail. Sparrow-hawks can, however, +scarcely carry a bell big enough to be of any service. The hood is +seldom used for short-winged hawks--never in the field. They must be +made as tame as possible by carriage on the fist and the society of man, +and taught to come to the fist freely when required--at first to jump to +it in a room, and then out of doors. When the goshawk comes freely and +without hesitation from short distances, she ought to be called from +long distances from the hand of an assistant, but not oftener than twice +in each meal, until she will come at least 1000 yds., on each occasion +being well rewarded with some food she likes very much, as a +fresh-killed bird, warm. When she does this freely, and endures the +presence of strangers, dogs, &c., a few bagged rabbits should be given +to her, and she will be ready to take the field. Some accustom the +goshawk to the use of the lure, for the purpose of taking her if she +will not come to the fist in the field when she has taken stand in a +tree after being baulked of her quarry, but it ought not to be necessary +to use it. + +Falcons or long-winged hawks are either "flown out of the hood," i.e. +unhooded and slipped when the quarry is in sight, or they are made to +"wait on" till game is flushed. Herons and rooks are always taken by the +former method. Passage hawks are generally employed for flying at these +birds, though sometimes good eyases are quite equal to the work. For +heron-hawking a well-stocked heronry is in the first place necessary. +Next an open country which can be ridden over--over which herons are in +the constant habit of passing to and from their heronry on their fishing +excursions, or making their "passage." A heron found at his +feeding-place at a brook or pond affords no sport whatever. If there be +little water any peregrine falcon that will go straight at him will +seize him soon after he rises. It is sometimes advisable to fly a young +falcon at a heron so found, but it should not be repeated. If there be +much water the heron will neither show sport nor be captured. It is +quite a different affair when he is sighted winging his way at a height +in the air over an open tract of country free from water. Though he has +no chance whatever of competing with a falcon in straightforward flight, +the heron has large concave wings, a very light body proportionately, +and air-cells in his bones, and can rise with astonishing rapidity, more +perpendicularly, or, in other words, in smaller rings, than the falcon +can, with very little effort. As soon as he sees the approach of the +falcon, which he usually does almost directly she is cast off, he makes +play for the upper regions. Then the falcon commences to climb too to +get above him, but in a very different style. She makes very large +circles or rings, travelling at a high rate of speed, due to her +strength and weight and power of flying, till she rises above the heron. +Then she makes her attack by stooping with great force at the quarry, +sometimes falling so far below it as the blow is evaded that she cannot +spring up to the proper pitch for the next stoop, and has to make +another ring to regain her lost command over the heron, which is ever +rising, and so on--the "field" meanwhile galloping down wind in the +direction the flight is taking till she seizes the heron aloft, "binds" +to him, and both come down together. Absurd stories have been told and +pictures drawn of the heron receiving the falcon on its beak in the air. +It is, however, well known to all practical falconers that the heron has +no power or inclination to fight with a falcon in the air; so long as he +is flying he seeks safety solely from his wings. When on the ground, +however, should the falcon be deficient in skill or strength, or have +been mutilated by the coping of her beak and talons, as was sometimes +formerly done in Holland with a view to saving the heron's life, the +heron may use his dagger-like bill with dangerous effect, though it is +very rare for a falcon to be injured. It is never safe to fly the +goshawk at a heron of any description. Short-winged hawks do not +immediately kill their quarry as falcons do, nor do they seem to know +where the life lies, and seldom shift their hold once taken even to +defend themselves; and they are therefore easily stabbed by a heron. +Rooks are flown in the same manner as herons, but the flight is +generally inferior. Although rooks fly very well, they seek shelter in +trees or bushes as soon as possible. + +For game-hawking eyases are generally used, though undoubtedly passage +or wild-caught hawks are to be preferred. The best game hawks we have +seen have been passage hawks, but there are difficulties attending the +use of them. It may perhaps be fairly said that it is easy to make all +passage hawks "wait on" in grand style, but until they have got over a +season or two they are very liable to be lost. Among the advantages +attending the use of eyases are the following: they are easier to obtain +and to train and keep; they also moult far better and quicker than +passage hawks, while if lost in the field they will often go home by +themselves, or remain about the spot where they were liberated. +Experience, and, we must add, some good fortune also, are requisite to +make eyases good for waiting on for game. Slight mistakes on the part of +the falconer, false points from dogs, or bad luck in serving, will cause +a young hawk to acquire bad habits, such as sitting down on the ground, +taking stand in a tree, raking out wide, skimming the ground, or lazily +flying about at no height. A good game hawk in proper flying order goes +up at once to a good pitch in the air--the higher she flies the +better--and follows her master from field to field, always ready for a +stoop when the quarry is sprung. Hawks that have been successfully +broken and judiciously worked become wonderfully clever, and soon learn +to regulate their flight by the movements of their master. Eyases were +not held in esteem by the old falconers, and it is evident from their +writings that these hawks have been very much better understood and +managed in the 19th century than in the middle ages. It is probable that +the old falconers procured their passage and wild-caught hawks with such +facility, having at the same time more scope for their use in days when +quarry was more abundant and there was more waste land than there now +is, that they did not find it necessary to trouble themselves about +eyases. Here may be quoted a few lines from one of the best of the old +writers, which may be taken as giving a fair account of the estimation +in which eyases were generally held, and from which it is evident that +the old falconers did not understand flying hawks at hack. Simon Latham, +writing in 1633, says of eyases: + + They will be verie easily brought to familiaritie with the man, not in + the house only, but also abroad, hooded or unhooded; nay, many of them + will be more gentle and quiet when unhooded than when hooded, for if a + man doe but stirre or speake in their hearing, they will crie and bate + as though they did desire to see the man. Likewise some of them being + unhooded, when they see the man will cowre and crie, shewing thereby + their exceeding fondness and fawning love towards him.... + + ... These kind of hawks be all (for the most part) taken out of the + nest while verie young, even in the downe, from whence they are put + into a close house, whereas they be alwaies fed and familiarly brought + up by the man, untill they bee able to flie, when as the summer + approaching verie suddenly they are continued and trained up in the + same, the weather being alwaies warm and temperate; thus they are + still inured to familiaritie with the man, not knowing from whence + besides to fetch their relief or sustenance. When the summer is ended + they bee commonly put up into a house again, or else kept in some warm + place, for they cannot endure the cold wind to blow upon them.... But + leaving to speak of these kind of scratching hawks that I never did + love should come too neere my fingers, and to return unto the faire + conditioned haggard faulcon.... + +The author here describes with accuracy the condition of unhacked +eyases, which no modern falconer would trouble himself to keep. Many +English falconers in modern times have had eyases which have killed +grouse, ducks and other quarry in a style almost equalling that of +passage hawks. Rooks also have been most successfully flown, and some +herons on passage have been taken by eyases. No sport is to be had at +game without hawks that wait on well. Moors, downs, open country where +the hedges are low and weak are best suited to game hawking. Pointers or +setters may be used to find game, or the hawk may be let go on coming to +the ground where game is known to lie, and suffered, if an experienced +one, to "wait on" till game is flushed. However, the best plan with most +hawks, young ones especially, is to use a dog, and to let the hawk go +when the dog points, and to flush the birds as soon as the hawk is at +her pitch. It is not by any means necessary that the hawk should be near +the birds when they rise, provided she is at a good height, and that she +is watching; she will come at once with a rush out of the air at great +speed, and either cut one down with the stoop, or the bird will save +itself by putting in, when every exertion must be made, especially if +the hawk be young and inexperienced, to "serve" her as soon as possible +by driving out the bird again while she waits overhead. If this be +successfully done she is nearly certain to kill it at the second flight. +Perhaps falcons are best for grouse and tiercels for partridges. + +Magpies afford much sport. Only tiercels should be used for hunting +magpies. A field is necessary--at the very least 4 or 5 runners to beat +the magpie out, and perhaps the presence of a horseman is an advantage. +Of course in open flight a magpie would be almost immediately caught by +a tiercel peregrine, and there would be no sport, but the magpie makes +up for his want of power of wing by his cunning and shiftiness; and he +is, moreover, never to be found except where he has shelter under his +lee for security from a passing peregrine. Once in a hedge or tree he +is perfectly safe from the wild falcon, but the case is otherwise when +the falconer approaches with his trained tiercel, perhaps a cast of +tiercels, waiting on in the air, with some active runners in his field. +Then driven from hedge to hedge, from one kind of shelter to another, +stooped at every instant when he shows himself ever so little away from +cover by the watchful tiercels overhead, his egg-stealing days are +brought to an end by a fatal stroke--sometimes not before the field is +pretty well exhausted with running and shouting. The magpie always +manoeuvres towards some thick wood, from which it is the aim of the +field to cut him off. At first hawks must be flown in easy country, but +when they understand their work well they will kill magpies in very +enclosed country--with a smart active field a magpie may even be pushed +through a small wood. Magpie hawking affords excellent exercise, not +only for those who run to serve the hawks, but for the hawks also; they +get a great deal of flying, and learn to hunt in company with men--any +number of people may be present. Blackbirds may be hunted with tiercels +in the same way. Woodcock afford capital sport where the country is +tolerably open. It will generally be found that after a hawk has made +one stoop at a woodcock, the cock will at first try to escape by taking +the air, and will show a very fine flight. When beaten in the air it +will try to get back to covert again, but when once a hawk has outflown +a woodcock, he is pretty sure to kill it. Hawks seem to pursue woodcock +with great keenness; something in the flight of the cock tempts them to +exertion. The laziest and most useless hawks--hawks that will scarcely +follow a slow pigeon--will do their best at woodcock, and will very +soon, if the sport is continued, be improved in their style of flying. +Snipe may be killed by first-class tiercels in favourable localities. +Wild duck and teal are only to be flown at when they can be found in +small pools or brooks at a distance from much water--where the fowl can +be suddenly flushed by men or dogs while the falcon is flying at her +pitch overhead. For duck, falcons should be used; tiercels will kill +teal well. + +The merlin is used for flying at larks, and there does not seem to be +any other use to which this pretty little falcon may fairly be put. It +is very active, but far from being, as some authors have stated, the +swiftest of all hawks. Its flight is greatly inferior in speed and power +to that of the peregrine. Perhaps its diminutive size, causing it to be +soon lost to view, and a limited acquaintance with the flight of the +wild peregrine falcon, have led to the mistake. + +The hobby is far swifter than the merlin, but cannot be said to be +efficient in the field; it may be trained to wait on beautifully, and +will sometimes take larks; it is very much given to the fault of +"carrying." + +The three great northern falcons are not easy to procure in proper +condition for training. They are very difficult to break to the hood and +to manage in the field. They are flown, like the peregrine, at herons +and rooks, and in former days were used for kites and hares. Their style +of flight is magnificent; they are considerably swifter than the +peregrine, and are a most deadly "footers." They seem, however, to lack +somewhat of the spirit and dash of the peregrine. + +For the short-winged hawks an open country is not required; indeed they +may be flown in a wood. Goshawks are flown at hares, rabbits, pheasants, +partridges and wild-fowl. Only very strong females are able to take +hares; rabbits are easy quarry for any female goshawk, and a little too +strong for the male. A good female goshawk may kill from 10 to 15 +rabbits in a day, or more. For pheasants the male is to be preferred, +certainly for partridges; either sex will take duck and teal, but the +falconer must get close to them before they are flushed, or the goshawk +will stand a poor chance of killing. Rabbit hawking may be practised by +ferreting, and flying the hawk as the rabbits bolt, but care must be +taken or the hawk will kill the ferret. Where rabbits sit out on grass +or in turnip fields, a goshawk may be used with success, even in a wood +when the holes are not too near. From various causes it is impossible, +or nearly so, to have goshawks in England in the perfection to which +they are brought in the East. In India, for instance, there is a far +greater variety of quarry suited to them, and wild birds are much more +approachable; moreover, there are advantages for training which do not +exist in England. Unmolested--and scarcely noticed except perhaps by +others of his calling or tastes--the Eastern falconer carries his hawk +by day and night in the crowded bazaars, till the bird becomes perfectly +indifferent to men, horses, dogs, carriages, and, in short, becomes as +tame as the domestic animals. + +The management of sparrow-hawks is much the same as that of goshawks, +but they are far more delicate than the latter. They are flown in +England at blackbirds, thrushes and other small birds; good ones will +take partridges well till the birds get too wild and strong with the +advancing season. In the East large numbers of quail are taken with +sparrow-hawks. + +It is of course important that hawks from which work in the field is +expected should be kept in the highest health, and they must be +carefully fed; no bad or tainted meat must on any account be given to +them--at any rate to hawks of the species used in England. Peregrines +and the great northern falcons are best kept on beefsteak, with a +frequent change in the shape of fresh-killed pigeons and other birds. +The smaller falcons, the merlin and the hobby, require a great number of +small birds to keep them in good health for any length of time. Goshawks +should be fed like peregrines, but rats and rabbits are very good as +change of food for them. The sparrow-hawk, like the small falcons, +requires small birds. All hawks require castings frequently. It is true +that hawks will exist, and often appear to thrive, on good food without +castings, but the seeds of probable injury to their health are being +sown the whole time they are so kept. If there is difficulty in +procuring birds, and it is more convenient to feed the hawks on +beefsteak, they should frequently get the wings and heads and necks of +game and poultry. In addition to the castings which they swallow, +tearing these is good exercise for them, and biting the bones prevents +the beaks from overgrowing. Most hawks, peregrines especially, require +the bath. The end of a cask, sawn off to give a depth of about 6 in., +makes a very good bath. Peregrines which are used for waiting on require +a bath at least twice a week. If this be neglected, they will not wait +long before going off in search of water to bathe, however hungry they +may be. + +The most agreeable and the best way, where practicable, of keeping hawks +is to have them on blocks on the lawn. Each hawk's block should stand in +a circular bed of sand--about 8 ft. in diameter; this will be found very +convenient for keeping them clean. Goshawks are generally placed on bow +perches, which ought not to be more than 8 or 9 in. high at the highest +part of the arc. It will be several months before passage or wild-caught +falcons can be kept out of doors; they must be fastened to a perch in a +darkened room, hooded, but by degrees as they get thoroughly tame may be +brought to sit on the lawn. In England (especially in the south) +peregrines, the northern falcons and goshawks may be kept out of doors +all day and night in a sheltered situation. In very wild boisterous +weather, or in snow or sharp frost, it will be advisable to move them to +the shelter of a shed, the floor of which should be laid with sand to a +depth of 3 or 4 in. Merlins and hobbies are too tender to be kept much +out of doors. An eastern aspect is to be preferred--all birds enjoy the +morning sun, and it is very beneficial to them. The more hawks confined +to blocks out of doors see of persons, dogs, horses, &c., moving about +the better, but of course only when there is no danger of their being +frightened or molested, or of food being given to them by strangers. +Those who have only seen wretched ill-fed hawks in cages as in +zoological gardens or menageries, pining for exercise, with battered +plumage, torn shoulders and bleeding ceres, from dashing against their +prison bars, and overgrown beaks from never getting bones to break, can +have little idea of the beautiful and striking-looking birds to be seen +pluming their feathers and stretching their wings at their ease at their +blocks on the falconer's lawn, watching with their large bright keen +eyes everything that moves in the sky and everywhere else within the +limits of their view. Contrary to the prevailing notion, hawks show a +good deal of attachment when they have been properly handled. It is true +that by hunger they are in a great measure tamed and controlled, and the +same may be said of all undomesticated and many domesticated animals. +And instinct prompts all wild creatures when away from man's control to +return to their former shyness, but hawks certainly retain their +tameness for a long time, and their memory is remarkably retentive. +Wild-caught hawks have been retaken, either by their coming to the lure +or upon quarry, from 2 to 7 days after they had been lost, and eyases +after 3 weeks. As one instance of retentiveness of memory displayed by +hawks we may mention the case of a wild-caught falcon which was +recaptured after being at liberty more than 3 years, still bearing the +jesses which were cut short close to the leg at the time she was +released; in five days she was flying at the lure again at liberty, and +was found to retain the peculiar ways and habits she was observed to +have in her former existence as a trained hawk. It is useless to bring a +hawk into the field unless she has a keen appetite; if she has not, she +will neither hunt effectually nor follow her master. Even wild-caught +falcons, however, may sometimes be seen so attached to their owner that, +when sitting on their blocks on a lawn with food in their crops, they +will on his coming out of the house bate hard to get to him, till he +either go up to them and allow them to jump up to his hand or withdraw +from their sight. Goshawks are also known to evince attachment to their +owner. Another prevailing error regarding hawks is that they are +supposed to be lazy birds, requiring the stimulus of hunger to stir them +to action. The reverse is the truth; they are birds of very active +habits, and exceedingly restless, and the notion of their being lazy has +been propagated by those who have seen little or nothing of hawks in +their wild state. The wild falcon requires an immense deal of exercise, +and to be in wind, in order to exert the speed and power of flight +necessary to capture her prey when hungry; and to this end instinct +prompts her to spend hours daily on the wing, soaring and playing about +in the air in all weathers, often chasing birds merely for play or +exercise. Sometimes she takes a siesta when much gorged, but unless she +fills her crop late in the evening she is soon moving again--before half +her crop is put over. Goshawks and sparrow-hawks, too, habitually soar +in the air at about 9 or 10 A.M., and remain aloft a considerable time, +but these birds are not of such active habits as the falcons. The +frequent bating of thoroughly tame hawks from their blocks, even when +not hungry or frightened, proves their restlessness and impatience of +repose. So does the wretched condition of the caged falcon (before +alluded to), while the really lazy buzzards and kites, which do not in a +wild state depend on activity or power of wing for their sustenance, +maintain themselves for years, even during confinement if properly fed, +in good case and plumage. Such being the habits of the falcon in a state +of nature, the falconer should endeavour to give the hawks under his +care as much flying as possible, and he should avoid the very common +mistake of keeping too many hawks. In this case a favoured few are sure +to get all the work, and the others, possibly equally good if they had +fair play, are spoiled for want of exercise. + +The larger hawks may be kept in health and working order for several +years--15 or 20--barring accidents. The writer has known peregrines, +shaheens and goshawks to reach ages between 15 and 20 years. Goshawks, +however, never fly well after 4 or 5 seasons, when they will no longer +take difficult quarry; they may be used at rabbits as long as they live. +Shaheens may be seen in the East at an advanced age, killing wild-fowl +beautifully. The shaheen is a falcon of the peregrine type, which does +not travel, like the peregrine, all over the world. It appears that the +jerfalcons also may be worked to a good age. Old Simon Latham tells us +of these birds--"I myself have known one of them an excellent Hearnor +(killer of herons), and to continue her goodnesse very near twentie +yeeres, or full out that time." + + AUTHORITIES.--Schlegel's _Traité de fauconnerie_ contains a very large + list of works on falconry in the languages of all the principal + countries of the Old World. _Bibliotheca accipitraria_, by J.E. + Harting (1891), gives a complete bibliography. See _Coursing_ and + _Falconry_ in the Badminton Library; and _The Art and Practice of + Hawking_, by E.B. Michell (1900), the best modern book on the subject. + Perhaps the most useful of the old works are _The Booke of Faulconrie + or Hawking_, by George Turberville (1575), and _The Faulcon's Lure and + Cure_, by Simon Latham (1633). (E. D. R.) + + + + +FALDSTOOL (from the O.H. Ger. _falden_ or _falten_, to fold, and +_stuol_, Mod. Ger. _Stuhl_, a stool; from the medieval Latin +_faldistolium_ is derived, through the old form _faudesteuil_, the Mod. +Fr. _fauteuil_), properly a folding seat for the use of a bishop when +not occupying the throne in his own cathedral, or when officiating in a +cathedral or church other than his own; hence any movable folding stool +used for kneeling in divine service. The small desk or stand from which +the Litany is read is sometimes called a faldstool, and a similar stool +is provided for the use of the sovereign at his coronation. + + + + +FALERII [mod. _Cività Castellana_ (q.v.)], one of the twelve chief +cities of Etruria, situated about 1 m. W. of the ancient Via +Flaminia,[1] 32 m. N. of Rome. According to the legend, it was of Argive +origin; and Strabo's assertion that the population, the Falisci (q.v.), +were of a different race from the Etruscans is proved by the language of +the earliest inscriptions which have been found here. Wars between Rome +and the Falisci appear to have been frequent. To one of the first of +them belongs the story of the schoolmaster who wished to betray his boys +to Camillus; the latter refused his offer, and the inhabitants thereupon +surrendered the city. At the end of the First Punic War, the Falisci +rose in rebellion, but were soon conquered (241 B.C.) and lost half +their territory. Zonaras (viii. 18) tells us that the ancient city, +built upon a precipitous hill, was destroyed and another built on a more +accessible site on the plain. The description of the two sites agrees +well with the usual theory that the original city occupied the site of +the present Cività Castellana, and that the ruins of Falleri (as the +place is now called) are those of the Roman town which was thus +transferred 3 m. to the north-west. After this time Falerii hardly +appears in history. It became a colony (Junonia Faliscorum) perhaps +under Augustus, though according to the inscriptions apparently not +until the time of Gallienus. There were bishops of Falerii up till 1033, +when the desertion of the place in favour of the present site began, and +the last mention of it dates from A.D. 1064. + +The site of the original Falerii is a plateau, about 1100 yds. by 400, +not higher than the surrounding country (475 ft.) but separated from it +by gorges over 200 ft. in depth, and only connected with it on the +western side, which was strongly fortified with a mound and ditch; the +rest of the city was defended by walls constructed of rectangular blocks +of tufa, of which some remains still exist. Remains of a temple were +found at Lo Scasato, at the highest point of the ancient town, in 1888, +and others have been excavated in the outskirts. The attribution of one +of these to Juno Quiritis is uncertain. These buildings were of wood, +with fine decorations of coloured terra-cotta (_Notizie degli scavi_, +1887, p. 92; 1888, p. 414). Numerous tombs hewn in the rock are visible +on all sides of the town, and important discoveries have been made in +them; many objects, both from the temples and from the tombs, are in the +Museo di Villa Giulia at Rome. Similar finds have also been made at +Calcata, 6 m. S., and Corchiano, 5 m. N.W. The site of the Roman Falerii +is now entirely abandoned. It lay upon a road which may have been (see +H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 361) the Via Annia, a by-road of +the Via Cassia; this road approached it from the south passing through +Nepet, while its prolongation to the north certainly bore the name Via +Amerina. The circuit of the city is about 2250 yds., its shape roughly +triangular, and the walls are a remarkably fine and well-preserved +specimen of Roman military architecture. They are constructed of +rectangular blocks of tufa two Roman ft. in height; the walls themselves +reach in places a height of 56 ft. and are 7 to 9 ft. thick. There were +about 80 towers, some 50 of which are still preserved. Two of the gates +also, of which there were eight, are noteworthy. Of the buildings within +the walls hardly anything is preserved above ground, though the forum +and theatre (as also the amphitheatre, the arena of which measured 180 +by 108 ft. outside the walls) were all excavated in the 19th century. +Almost the only edifice now standing is the 12th-century abbey church of +S. Maria. Recent excavations have shown that the plan of the whole city +could easily be recovered, though the buildings have suffered +considerable devastation (_Notizie degli scavi_, 1903, 14). + + See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), i. + 97; for philology and ethnology see FALISCI. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Roman town lay 3 m. farther N.W. on the Via Annia. The Via + Flaminia, which did not traverse the Etruscan city, had two + post-stations near it, Aquaviva, some 2½ m. S.E., and Aequum + Faliscum, 4½ m. N.N.E.; the latter is very possibly identical with + the Etruscan site which G. Dennis (_Cities and Cemeteries of + Etruria_, London, 1883, i. 121) identified with Fescennium (q.v.). + See O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des österr. arch. Inst._ ii. (1899), 87. + + + + +FALERIO (mod. _Falerone_), an ancient town of Picenum, Italy, about 10 +m. S.E. of Urbs Salvia. We know almost nothing of the place except from +inscriptions, from which, and from the remains of its buildings, it +appears to have been of some importance. It was probably founded as a +colony by Augustus after his victory at Actium. A question arose in the +time of Domitian between the inhabitants of Falerio and Firmum as to +land which had been taken out of the territory of the latter (which was +recolonized by the triumvirs), and, though not distributed to the new +settlers, had not been given back again to the people of Firmum. The +emperor, by a rescript, a copy of which in bronze was found at Falerio, +decided in favour of the people of Falerio, that the occupiers of this +land should remain in possession of it (Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscr. +Latin._ ix., Berlin, 1883, No. 5, 420). Considerable remains of a +theatre in concrete faced with brickwork, erected, according to an +inscription, in 43 B.C., and 161 ft. in diameter, were excavated in 1838 +and are still visible; and an amphitheatre, less well preserved, also +exists, the arena of which measures about 180 by 150 ft. Between the two +is a water reservoir (called Bagno della Regina) connected with remains +of baths. + + See G. de Minicis in _Giornale Arcadico_, lv. (1832), 160 seq.; + _Annali dell' Istituto_ (1839), 5 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +FALGUIÈRE, JEAN ALEXANDRE JOSEPH (1831-1900), French sculptor and +painter, was born at Toulouse. A pupil of the École des Beaux Arts he +won the _Prix de Rome_ in 1859; he was awarded the medal of honour at +the Salon in 1868 and was appointed officer of the Legion of Honour in +1878. His first bronze statue of importance was the "Victor of the +Cock-Fight" (1864), and "Tarcisus the Christian Boy-Martyr" followed in +1867; both are now in the Luxembourg Museum. His more important +monuments are those to Admiral Courbet (1890) at Abbeville and the +famous "Joan of Arc." Among more ideal work are "Eve" (1880), "Diana" +(1882 and 1891), "Woman and Peacock," and "The Poet," astride his +Pegasus spreading wings for flight. His "Triumph of the Republic" +(1881-1886), a vast quadriga for the Arc de Triomphe, Paris, is perhaps +more amazingly full of life than others of his works, all of which +reveal this quality of vitality in superlative degree. To these works +should be added his monuments to "Cardinal Lavigerie" and "General de La +Fayette" (the latter in Washington), and his statues of "Lamartine" +(1876) and "St Vincent de Paul" (1879), as well as the "Balzac," which +he executed for the _Société des gens de lettres_ on the rejection of +that by Rodin; and the busts of "Carolus-Duran" and "Coquelin cadet" +(1896). + +Falguière was a painter as well as a sculptor, but somewhat inferior in +merit. He displays a fine sense of colour and tone, added to the +qualities of life and vigour that he instils into his plastic work. His +"Wrestlers" (1875) and "Fan and Dagger" (1882; a defiant Spanish woman) +are in the Luxembourg, and other pictures of importance are "The +Beheading of St John the Baptist" (1877), "The Sphinx" (1883), "Acis and +Galatea" (1885), "Old Woman and Child" (1886) and "In the Bull +Slaughter-House." He became a member of the Institute (Académie des +Beaux-Arts) in 1882. He died in 1900. + + See Léonce Bénédite, _Alexandre Falguière_, Librairie de l'art + (Paris). + + + + +FALIERO (or FALIER), MARINO (1279-1355), doge of Venice, belonged to one +of the oldest and most illustrious Venetian families and had served the +republic with distinction in various capacities. In 1346 he commanded +the Venetian land forces at the siege of Zara, where he was attacked by +the Hungarians under King Louis the Great and totally defeated them; +this victory led to the surrender of the city. In September 1354, while +absent on a mission to Pope Innocent IV. at Avignon, Faliero was elected +doge, an honour which apparently he had not sought. His reign began, as +it was to end, in disaster, for very soon after his election the +Venetian fleet was completely destroyed by the Genoese off the island of +Sapienza, while plague and a declining commerce aggravated the +situation. Although a capable commander and a good statesman, Faliero +possessed a violent temper, and after his election developed great +ambition. The constitutional restrictions of the ducal power, which had +been further curtailed just before his election, and the insolence of +the nobility aroused in him a desire to free himself from all control, +and the discontent of the arsenal hands at their treatment by the nobles +offered him his opportunity. In concert with a sea-captain named +Bertuccio Ixarella (who had received a blow from the noble Giovanni +Dandolo), Filippo Calendario, a stonemason, and others, a plot was laid +to murder the chief patricians on the 15th of April and proclaim Faliero +prince of Venice. But there was much ferment in the city and disorders +broke out before the appointed time; some of the conspirators having +made revelations, the Council of Ten proceeded to arrest the ringleaders +and to place armed guards all over the town. Several of the conspirators +were condemned to death and others to various terms of imprisonment. The +doge's complicity having been discovered, he was himself arrested; at +the trial he confessed everything and was condemned and executed on the +17th of April 1355. + +The story of the insult written by Michele Steno on the doge's chair is +a legend of which no record is found in any contemporary authority. The +motives of Faliero are not altogether clear, as his past record, even in +the judgment of the poet Petrarch, showed him as a wise, clear-headed +man of no unusual ambition. But possibly the attitude of the aristocracy +and the example offered by the tyrants of neighbouring cities may have +induced him to attempt a similar policy. The only result of the plot was +to consolidate the power of the Council of Ten. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--An account of Marino Faliero's reign is given in S. + Romanin's _Storia documentata di Venezia_, lib. ix. cap. ii. (Venice, + 1855); M. Sanudo, _Le Vite dei Dogi_ in new edition of Muratori fasc, + 3, 4, 5 (Citta di Castello, 1900). For special works see V. + Lazzerini's "Genealogia d. M. Faliero" in the _Archivio Veneto_ of + 1892; "M. Faliero avanti il Dogado," ibid. (1893), and his exhaustive + study "M. Faliero, la Congiura," ibid. (1897). The most recent essay + on the subject is contained in Horatio Brown's _Studies in Venetian + History_ (London, 1907), wherein all the authorities are set forth. + (L. V.*) + + + + +FALISCI, a tribe of Sabine origin or connexions, but speaking a dialect +closely akin to Latin, who inhabited the town of Falerii (q.v.), as well +as a considerable tract of the surrounding country, probably reaching as +far south as to include the small town of Capena. But at the beginning +of the historical period, i.e. from the beginning of the 5th century +B.C., and no doubt earlier, the dominant element in the town was +Etruscan; and all through the wars of the following centuries the town +was counted a member, and sometimes a leading member, of the Etruscan +league (cf. Livy iv. 23, v. 17, vii. 17). + +In spite of the Etruscan domination, the Faliscans preserved many traces +of their Italic origin, such as the worship of the deities Juno Quiritis +(Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 49) and Feronia (Livy xxvi. n), the cult of _Dis +Soranus_ by the _Hirpi_ or fire-leaping priests on Mount Soracte (Pliny, +_Nat. Hist._ vii. 2, 19; Servius, _ad Aen._ xi. 785, 787), above all +their language. This is preserved for us in some 36 short inscriptions, +dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., and is written in a peculiar +alphabet derived from the Etruscan, and written from right to left, but +showing some traces of the influence of the Latin alphabet. Its most +characteristic signs are-- + + [symbol] a, [symbol] z, [symbol] f, [symbol] r, [symbol] t + +As a specimen of the dialect may be quoted the words written round the +edge of a picture on a patera, the genuineness of which is established +by the fact that they were written before the glaze was put on: "foied +vino pipafo, era carefo," i.e. in Latin "hodie vinum bibam, cras carebo" +(R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, p. 312, b). This shows some of the +phonetic characteristics of the Faliscan dialect, viz.:-- + + 1. The retention of medial f which in Latin became b; + + 2. The representation of an initial Ind.-Eur. _gh_ by, f (_foied_, + contrast Latin _hodie_); + + 3. The palatalization of d+consonant i into some sound denoted merely + by i-the central sound of _foied_,.from _fo-diëd_; + + 4. The loss of final s, at all events before certain following sounds + (cra beside Latin _cras_); + + Other characteristics, appearing elsewhere, are: + + 5. The retention of the velars (Fal. _cuando_ = Latin _quando_; + contrast Umbrian _pan(n)u_); + + 6. The assimilation of some final consonants to the initial letter of + the next word: "pretod de zenatuo sententiad" (Conway, lib. cit. 321), + i.e. "praetor de senatus sententia" (_zenatuo_ for _senaiuos_., an + archaic genitive). For further details see Conway, ib. pp. 370 if., + especially pp. 384-385, where the relation of the names _Falisci_, + _Falerii_ to the local hero _Halaesus_ (e.g. Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 73) is + discussed, and where reason is given for thinking that the change of + initial f (from an original bh or dh) into an initial h was a genuine + mark of Faliscan dialect. + +It seems probable that the dialect lasted on, though being gradually +permeated with Latin, till at least 150 B.C. + +In addition to the remains found in the graves (see FALERII), which +belong mainly to the period of Etruscan domination and give ample +evidence of material prosperity and refinement, the earlier strata have +yielded more primitive remains from the Italic epoch. A large number of +inscriptions consisting mainly of proper names may be regarded as +Etruscan rather than Faliscan, and they have been disregarded in the +account of the dialect just given. It should perhaps be mentioned that +there was a town Feronia in Sardinia, named probably after their native +goddess by Faliscan settlers, from some of whom we have a votive +inscription found at S. Maria di Falleri(Conway, ib. p. 335). + + Further information may be sought from W. Deecke, _Die Falisker_ (a + useful but somewhat uncritical collection of the evidence accessible + in 1888); E. Bormann, in C.I.L. xi. pp. 465 ff., and Conway, op. cit. + (R. S. C.) + + + + +FALK, JOHANN DANIEL (1768-1826), German author and philanthropist, was +born at Danzig on the 28th of October 1768, After attending the +gymnasium of his native town, he entered the university of Halle with +the view of studying theology, but preferring a non-professional life, +gave up his theological studies and went to live at Weimar. There he +published a volume of satires which procured him the notice and +friendship of Wieland, and admission into literary circles. After the +battle of Jena, Falk, on the recommendation of Wieland, was appointed to +a civil post under the French official authorities and rendered his +townsmen such good service that the duke of Weimar created him a +counsellor of legation. In 1813 he established a society for friends in +necessity (_Gesellschaft der Freunde in der Not_), and about the same +time founded an institute for the care and education of neglected and +orphan children, which, in 1820, was taken over by the state and still +exists as the _Falksches Institut_. The first literary efforts of Falk +took the form chiefly of satirical poetry, and gave promise of greater +future excellence than was ever completely fulfilled; his later pieces, +directed more against individuals than the general vices and defects of +society, gradually degenerated in quality. In 1806 Falk founded a +critical journal under the title of _Elysium und Tartarus_. He also +contributed largely to contemporary journals. He enjoyed the +acquaintance and intimate friendship of Goethe, and his account of their +intercourse was posthumously published under the title _Goethe aus +näherem persönlichen Umgange dargestellt_ (1832) (English by S. Austin). +Falk died on the 14th of February 1826. + + Falk's _Satirische Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. (1817 and 1826); his + _Auserlesene Schriften_ (3 vols., 1819). See _Johannes Falk: + Erinnerungsblatter aus Briefen und Tagebüchern, gesammelt von dessen + Tochter Rosalie Falk_ (1868); Heinzelmann, _Johannes Falk und die + Gesellschaft der Freunde in der Not_ (1879); A. Stein, _J. Falk_ + (1881); S. Schultze, _Falk und Goethe_ (1900). + + + + +FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT (1827-1900), German politician, was born at +Matschkau, Silesia, on the 10th of August 1827. In 1847 he entered the +Prussian state service, and in 1853 became public prosecutor at Lyck. In +1858 he was elected a deputy, joining the Old Liberal party. In 1868 he +became a privy-councillor in the ministry of justice. In 1872 he was +made minister of education, and in connexion with Bismarck's policy of +the Kultur-kampf he was responsible for the famous May Laws against the +Catholics (see GERMANY: HISTORY). In 1879 his position became untenable, +owing to the death of Pius IX. and the change of German policy with +regard to the Vatican, and he resigned his office, but retained his seat +in the Reichstag till 1882. He was then made president of the supreme +court of justice at Hamm, where he died in 1900. + + + + +FALKE, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1823-1876), German historian, was born +at Ratzeburg on the 20th of April 1823. Entering the university of +Erlangen in 1843, he soon began to devote his attention to the history +of the German language and literature, and in 1848 went to Munich, where +he remained five years, and diligently availed himself of the use of the +government library for the purpose of prosecuting his historical +studies. In 1856 he was appointed secretary of the German museum at +Nuremberg, and in 1859 keeper of the manuscripts. With the aid of the +manuscript collections in the museum he now turned his attention chiefly +to political history, and, with Johann H. Müller, established an +historical journal under the name of _Zeitschrift für deutsche +Kulturgeschichte_ (4 vols., Nuremberg, 1856-1859). To this journal he +contributed a history of German taxation and commerce. On the latter +subject he published separately _Geschichte des deutschen Handels_ (2 +vols., Leipzig, 1850-1860) and _Die Hansa als deutsche See- und +Handelsmacht_ (Berlin, 1862). In 1862 he was appointed secretary of the +state archives at Dresden, and, a little later, keeper. He there began +the study of Saxon history, still devoting his attention chiefly to the +history of commerce and economy, and published _Die Geschichte des +Kurfürsten August von Sachsen in volkswirthschaftlicher Beziehung_ +(Leipzig, 1868) and _Geschichte des deutschen Zollwesens_ (Leipzig, +1869). He died at Dresden on the 2nd of March 1876. + + + + +FALKIRK, a municipal and police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1891) 19,769; (1901) 29,280. It is situated on high ground overlooking +the fertile Carse of Falkirk, 11 m. S.E. of Stirling, and about midway +between Edinburgh and Glasgow. Grangemouth, its port, lies 3 m. to the +N.E., and the Forth & Clyde Canal passes to the north, and the Union +Canal to the south of the town. Falkirk now comprises the suburbs of +Laurieston (E.), Grahamston and Bainsford (N.), and Camelon (W.). The +principal structures include the burgh and county buildings, town hall, +the Dollar free library and Camelon fever hospital. The present church, +with a steeple 146 ft. high, dates only from 1811. In the churchyard are +buried Sir John Graham, Sir John Stewart who fell in the battle of 1298, +and Sir Robert Munro and his brother, Dr Duncan Munro, killed in the +battle of 1746. The town is under the control of a council with provost +and bailies, and combines with Airdrie, Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow +(the Falkirk group of burghs) to return a member to parliament. The +district is rich in coal and iron, which supply the predominant +industries, Falkirk being the chief seat of the light casting trade in +Scotland; but tanning, flour-milling, brewing, distilling and the +manufacture of explosives (Nobel's) and chemicals are also carried on. +Trysts or sales of cattle, sheep and horses are held thrice a year +(August, September and October) on Stenhousemuir, 3 m. N.W. They were +transferred hither from Crieff in 1770, and were formerly the most +important in the kingdom, but have to a great extent been replaced by +the local weekly auction marts. Carron, 2 m. N.N.W., is famous for the +iron-works established in 1760 by Dr John Roebuck (1718-1794), whose +advising engineers were successively John Smeaton and James Watt. The +short iron guns of large calibre designed by General Robert Melville, +and first cast in 1779, were called carronades from this their place of +manufacture. + +Falkirk is a town of considerable antiquity. Its original name was the +Gaelic _Eaglais breac_, "church of speckled or mottled stone," which +Simeon of Durham (fl. 1130) transliterated as Egglesbreth. By the end of +the 13th century appears the form Faukirke (the present local +pronunciation), which is merely a translation of the Gaelic _fau_ or +_faw_, meaning "dun," "pale red." The first church was built by Malcolm +Canmore (d. 1093). Falkirk was made a burgh of barony in 1600 and a +burgh of regality in 1646, but on the forfeiture of the earl of +Linlithgow in 1715, its superiority was vested in the crown. Callender +House, immediately to the S., was the seat of the earl and his +ancestors. The mansion was visited by Queen Mary, captured by Cromwell, +and occupied by Generals Monk and Hawley. The wall of Antoninus ran +through, the grounds, and the district is rich in Roman remains, +Camelon, about 2 m. W., being the site of a Roman settlement; Merchiston +Hall, to the N.W., was the birthplace of Admiral Sir Charles Napier. The +eastern suburb of Laurieston was first called Langtoune, then +Merchistown, and received its present name after Sir Lawrence Dundas of +Kerse, who had promoted its welfare. At Polmont, farther east, which +gives the title of baron to the duke of Hamilton, is the school of Blair +Lodge, besides coal-mines and other industries. + +_Batttles of Falkirk._--The battle of the 22nd of July 1298 was fought +between the forces of King Edward I. of England and those of the +Scottish national party under Sir William Wallace. The latter, after +long baffling the king's attempts to bring him to battle, had taken up a +strong position south of the town behind a morass. They were formed in +four deep and close masses ("schiltrons") of pikemen, the light troops +screening the front and flanks and a body of men-at-arms standing in +reserve. It was perhaps hoped that the English cavalry would plunge into +the morass, for no serious precautions were taken as to the flanks, but +in any case Wallace desired no more than to receive an attack at the +halt, trusting wholly to his massed pikes. The English right wing first +appeared, tried the morass in vain, and then set out to turn it by a +long détour; the main battle under the king halted in front of it, while +the left wing under Antony Bec, bishop of Durham, was able to reach the +head of the marsh without much delay. Once on the enemy's side of the +obstacle the bishop halted to wait for Edward, who was now following +him, but his undisciplined barons, shouting "'Tis not for thee, bishop, +to teach us war. Go say mass!" drove off the Scottish archers and +men-at-arms and charged the nearest square of pikes, which repulsed them +with heavy losses. On the other flank the right wing, its flank march +completed, charged with the same result. But Edward, who had now joined +the bishop with the centre or "main battle," peremptorily ordered the +cavalry to stand fast, and, taught by his experience in the Welsh wars, +brought up his archers. The longbow here scored its first victory in a +pitched battle. Before long gaps appeared in the close ranks of pike +heads, and after sufficient preparation Edward again launched his +men-at-arms to the charge. The shaken masses then gave way one after the +other, and the Scots fled in all directions. + +The second battle of Falkirk, fought on the 17th of January 1746 between +the Highlanders under Prince Charles and the British forces under +General Hawley, resulted in the defeat of the latter. It is remarkable +only for the bad conduct of the British dragoons and the steadiness of +the infantry. Hawley retreated to Linlithgow, leaving all his baggage, +700 prisoners and seven guns in the enemy's hands. + + + + +FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY, 2ND VISCOUNT (c. 1610-1643), son of Sir Henry +Cary, afterwards 1st Viscount Falkland (d. 1633), a member of an ancient +Devonshire family, who was lord deputy of Ireland from 1622 to 1629, and +of Elizabeth (1585-1639), only daughter of Sir Lawrence Tanfield, chief +baron of the exchequer, was born either in 1609 or 1610, and was +educated at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1625 he inherited from his +grandfather the manors of Great Tew and Burford in Oxfordshire, and, +about the age of 21, married Lettice, daughter of Sir Richard Morrison, +of Tooley Park in Leicestershire. Involved in a quarrel with his father, +whom he failed to propitiate by offering to hand over to him his +estate, he left England to take service in the Dutch army, but soon +returned. In 1633, by the death of his father, he became Viscount +Falkland. His mother had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, to which it +was now sought to attract Falkland himself, but his studies and +reflections led him, under the influence of Chillingworth, to the +interpretation of religious problems rather by reason than by tradition +or authority. At Great Tew he enjoyed a short but happy period of study, +and he assembled round him many gifted and learned men, whom the near +neighbourhood of the university and his own brilliant qualities +attracted to his house. He was the friend of Hales and Chillingworth, +was celebrated by Jonson, Suckling, Cowley and Waller in verse, and in +prose by Clarendon, who is eloquent in describing the virtues and genius +of the "incomparable" Falkland, and draws a delightful picture of his +society and hospitality. + +Falkland's intellectual pleasures, however, were soon interrupted by war +and politics. He felt it his duty to take part on the king's side as a +volunteer under Essex in the campaign of 1639 against the Scots. In 1640 +he was returned for Newport in the Isle of Wight to the Short and Long +Parliaments, and took an active part on the side of the opposition. He +spoke against the exaction of shipmoney on the 7th of December 1640, +denouncing the servile conduct of Lord Keeper Finch and the judges.[1] +He supported the prosecution of Strafford, at the same time endeavouring +on more than one occasion to moderate the measures of the Commons in the +interests of justice, and voted for the third reading of the attainder +on the 21st of April 1641. On the great question of the church he urged, +in the debate of the 8th of February 1641, that the interference of the +clergy in secular matters, the encroachments in jurisdiction of the +spiritual courts, and the imposition by authority of unnecessary +ceremonies, should be prohibited. On the other hand, though he denied +that episcopacy existed _jure divino_, he was opposed to its abolition; +fearing the establishment of the Presbyterian system, which in Scotland +had proved equally tyrannical. Triennial parliaments would be sufficient +to control the bishops, if they meditated any further attacks upon the +national liberties, and he urged that "where it is not necessary to +change, it is necessary not to change." Even Hampden still believed that +a compromise with the episcopal principle was possible, and assured +Falkland that if the bill taken up to the Lords on the 1st of May 1641, +excluding the bishops from the Lords and the clergy from secular +offices, were passed, "there would be nothing more attempted to the +prejudice of the church." Accordingly the bill was supported by +Falkland. The times, however, were not favourable to compromise. The +bill was lost in the Lords, and on the 27th of May the Root and Branch +Bill, for the total abolition of episcopacy, was introduced in the House +of Commons. This measure Falkland opposed, as well as the second bill +for excluding the bishops, introduced on the 21st of October. In the +discussion on the Grand Remonstrance he took the part of the bishops and +the Arminians. He was now opposed to the whole policy of the opposition, +and, being reproached by Hampden with his change of attitude, replied +"that he had formerly been persuaded by that worthy gentleman to believe +many things which he had since found to be untrue, and therefore he had +changed his opinion in many particulars as well as to things as to +persons."[2] + +On the 1st of January 1642, immediately before the attempted arrest of +the five members, of which, however, he was not cognizant, he was +offered by the king the secretaryship of state, and was persuaded by +Hyde to accept it, thus becoming involved directly in the king's policy, +though evidently possessing little influence in his counsels. He was one +of the peers who signed the protestation against making war, at York on +the 15th of June 1642. On the 5th of September he carried Charles's +overtures for peace to the parliament, when he informed the leaders of +the opposition that the king consented to a thorough reformation of +religion. The secret correspondence connected with the Waller plot +passed through his hands. He was present with the king at Edgehill and +at the siege of Gloucester. By this time the hopelessness of the +situation had completely overwhelmed him. The aims and principles of +neither party in the conflict could satisfy a man of Falkland's high +ideals and intellectual vision. His royalism could not suffer the +substitution, as the controlling power in the state, of a parliament for +the monarchy, nor his conservatism the revolutionary changes in church +and state now insisted upon by the opposite faction. The fatal character +and policy of the king, the most incapable of men and yet the man upon +whom all depended, must have been by now thoroughly understood by +Falkland. Compromise had long been out of the question. The victory of +either side could only bring misery; and the prolongation of the war was +a prospect equally unhappy. Nor could Falkland find any support or +consolation in his own inward convictions or principles. His ideals and +hopes were now destroyed, and he had no definite political convictions +such as inspired and strengthened Stratford and Pym. In fact his +sensitive nature shrank from contact with the practical politics of the +day and prevented his rise to the place of a leader or a statesman. +Clarendon has recorded his final relapse into despair. "Sitting amongst +his friends, often, after a deep silence and frequent sighs (he) would +with a shrill and sad accent ingeminate the word _Peace_, _Peace_, and +would passionately profess that the very agony of the war, and the view +of the calamities and desolation the kingdom did and must endure, took +his sleep from him and would shortly break his heart." At Gloucester he +had in vain exposed himself to risks. On the morning of the battle of +Newbury, on the 20th of September 1643, he declared to his friends, who +would have dissuaded him from taking part in the fight, that "he was +weary of the times and foresaw much misery to his own Country and did +believe he should be out of it ere night."[3] He served during the +engagement as a volunteer under Sir John Byron, and, riding alone at a +gap in a hedge commanded by the enemy's fire, was immediately killed. + +His death took place at the early age of 33, which should be borne in +mind in every estimate of his career and character. He was succeeded in +the title by his eldest son Lucius, 3rd Viscount Falkland, his male +descent becoming extinct in the person of Anthony, 5th viscount, in +1694, when the viscounty passed to Lucius Henry (1687-1730), a +descendant of the first viscount, and the present peer is his direct +descendant. + +Falkland wrote a _Discourse of Infallibility_, published in 1646 +(_Thomason Tracts_, E 361 [1]), reprinted in 1650, in 1651 (E 634 [1]) +ed. by Triplet with replies, and in 1660 with the addition of two +discourses on episcopacy by Falkland. This is a work of some importance +in theological controversy, the general argument being that "to those +who follow their reason in the interpretation of the Scriptures God will +either give his grace for assistance to find the truth or his pardon if +they miss it. And then this supposed necessity of an infallible guide +(with the supposed damnation for the want of it) fall together to the +ground." Also _A Letter ... 30 Sept. 1642 concerning the late conflict +before Worcester_ (1642); and _Poems_, in which he shows himself a +follower of Ben Jonson, edited by A.B. Grosart in _Miscellanies of the +Fuller Worthies Library_, vol. iii. (1871). + +The chief interest in Falkland does not lie in his writings or in the +incidents of his career, but in his character and the distinction of his +intellectual position, in his isolation from his contemporaries seeking +reformation in the inward and spiritual life of the church and state and +not in its outward and material form, and as the leader and chief of +rationalism in an age dominated by violent intolerance and narrow +dogmatism. His personal appearance, according to Clarendon, was +insignificant, "in no degree attractive or promising. His stature was +low and smaller than most men; his motion not graceful ... but that +little person and small stature was quickly found to contain a great +heart ... all mankind could not but admire and love him."[4] + + AUTHORITIES.--There is a _Life and Times_ by J.A.R. Marriott (1907); + see also S.R. Gardiner's _Hist, of England_; _Hist. of the Civil War_; + the same author's article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and + references there given; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion_, _passim_ + and esp. vii. 217-234; Clarendon's _Life; Rational Theology ... in the + 17th Century_, by John Tulloch (1874), i. 76; _Life of Lady Falkland + from a MS. in the imperial library at Lille_ (1861); _Life_ of the + same by Lady Georgiana Fullerton (1883); Jonson's _Ode Pindaric to the + memory and friendship of ... Sir Lucius Cary and Sir Henry Morrison_; + W.J. Courthope, _History of English Poetry_ (1903), iii. 291; _Life of + Falkland_, by W.H. Trale in the _Englishman's Library_, vol. 22 + (1842); D. Lloyd, _Memoires_ (1668), 331; and the _Life of Falkland_, + by Lady M.T. Lewis in _Lives of the Friends ... of Lord Chancellor + Clarendon_, vol. i. p. 3. John Duncan's account of Lettice, Lady + Falkland, was edited in 1908 by M.F. Howard. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] His speeches are in the _Thomason Tracts_, E 196 (9), (26), (36). + + [2] Clarendon's _Hist._ iv. 94, note. + + [3] Whitelocke, p. 73. + + [4] _Life_, i. 37. + + + + +FALKLAND, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) +809. It is situated at the northern base of the hill of East Lomond +(1471 ft. high), 2½ m. from Falkland Road station (with which there is +communication by 'bus), on the North British railway company's main line +to Dundee, 21 m. N. of Edinburgh as the crow flies. It is an +old-world-looking place, many of the ancient houses still standing. Its +industries are chiefly concerned with the weaving of linen and the +brewing of ale, for which it was once specially noted; and it has few +public buildings save the town hall. The palace of the Stuarts, +however--more beautiful than Holyrood and quite as romantic--lends the +spot its fame and charm. The older edifice that occupied this site was a +hunting-tower of the Macduffs, earls of Fife, and was transferred with +the earldom in 1371 to Robert Stewart, earl of Fife and Menteith, +afterwards duke of Albany, second son of Robert II. Because of his +father's long illness and the incapacity of Robert III., his brother +Albany was during many years virtual ruler of Scotland, and, in the hope +of securing the crown, caused the heir-apparent--David, duke of +Rothesay--to be conveyed to the castle by force and there starved to +death, in 1402. The conversion of the Thane's tower into the existing +palace was begun by James III. and completed in 1538. The western part +had two round towers, similar to those at Holyrood, which were also +built by James V., and the southern elevation was ornamented with niches +and statues, giving it a close resemblance to the Perpendicular style of +the semi-ecclesiastical architecture of England. The palace soon became +the favourite summer residence of the Stuarts. From it James V. when a +boy fled to Stirling by night from the custody of the earl of Angus, and +in it he died in 1542. + +Here, too, Queen Mary spent some of her happiest days, playing the +country girl in its parks and woods. When the court was held at Falkland +the Green was the daily scene of revelry and dance, and "To be Falkland +bred" was a proverb that then came into vogue to designate a courtier. +James VI. delighted in the palace and especially in the deer. He upset +the schemes of the Gowrie conspirators by escaping from Falkland to St +Andrews, and it was while His Majesty was residing in the palace that +the fifth earl of Bothwell, in 1592, attempted to kidnap him. In +September 1596 an intensely dramatic interview took place in the palace +between the king and Andrew Melville and other Presbyterian ministers +sent by the general assembly at Cupar to remonstrate with him on +allowing the Roman Catholic lords to return to Scotland. In 1654 the +eastern wing was accidentally destroyed by fire, during its tenancy by +the soldiers of Cromwell, by whose orders the fine old oaks in the park +were cut down for the building of a fort at Perth. Even in its neglected +state the mansion impressed Defoe, who declared the Scottish kings owned +more palaces than their English brothers. In 1715 Rob Roy garrisoned the +palace and failed not to levy dues on the burgh and neighbourhood. Signs +of decay were more evident when Thomas Carlyle saw it, for he likened it +to "a black old bit of coffin or protrusive shin-bone striking through +the soil of the dead past." But a munificent protector at length +appeared in the person of the third marquess of Bute, who acquired the +estate and buildings in 1888, and forthwith undertook the restoration of +the palace. + +Falkland became a royal burgh in 1458 and its charter was renewed in +1595, and before the earlier date it had been a seat of the Templars. It +gives the title of viscount to the English family of Cary, the patent +having been granted in 1620 by James VI. The town's most distinguished +native was Richard Cameron, the Covenanter. His house--a three-storeyed +structure with yellow harled front and thatched roof--still stands on +the south side of the square in the main street. The Hackstons of +Rathillet also had a house in Falkland. + + + + +FALKLAND ISLANDS (Fr. _Malouines_; Span. _Malvinas_), a group of islands +in the South Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Britain, and lying about 250 +m. E. of the nearest point in the mainland of South America, between 51° +and 53° S., and 57° 40' and 61° 25' W. With the uninhabited dependency +of South Georgia Island, to the E.S.E., they form the most southerly +colony of the British empire. The islands, inclusive of rocks and reefs, +exceed 100 in number and have a total area of 6500 sq. m.; but only two +are of considerable size; the largest of these, East Falkland, is 95 m. +in extreme length, with an average width of 40 m., and the smaller, West +Falkland, is 80 m. long and about 25 m. wide. The area of East Falkland +is about 3000 sq. m., and that of West Falkland 2300. Most of the others +are mere islets, the largest 16 m. long by 8 m. wide. The two principal +islands are separated by Falkland Sound, a narrow strait from 18 to 2½ +m. in width, running nearly N.E. and S.W. The general appearance of the +islands is not unlike that of one of the outer Hebrides. The general +colouring, a faded brown, is somewhat dreary, but the mountain heights +and promontories of the west display some grandeur of outline. The +coast-line of both main islands is deeply indented and many of the bays +and inlets form secure and well-protected harbours, some of which, +however, are difficult of access to sailing ships. + +East Falkland is almost bisected by two deep fjords, Choiseul and +Brenton Sounds, which leave the northern and southern portions connected +only by an isthmus a mile and a half wide. The northern portion is +hilly, and is crossed by a rugged range, the Wickham Heights, running +east and west, and rising in some places to a height of nearly 2000 ft. +The remainder of the island consists chiefly of low undulating ground, a +mixture of pasture and morass, with many shallow freshwater tarns, and +small streams running in the valleys. Two fine inlets, Berkeley Sound +and Port William, run far into the land at the north-eastern extremity +of the island. Port Louis, formerly the seat of government, is at the +head of Berkeley Sound, but the anchorage there having been found rather +too exposed, about the year 1844 a town was laid out, and the necessary +public buildings were erected on Stanley Harbour, a sheltered recess +within Port William. West Falkland is more hilly near the east island; +the principal mountain range, the Hornby Hills, runs north and south +parallel with Falkland Sound. Mount Adam, the highest hill in the +islands, is 2315 ft. high. + +The little town of Stanley is built along the south shore of Stanley +harbour and stretches a short way up the slope; it has a population of +little more than 900. The houses, mostly white with coloured roofs, are +generally built of wood and iron, and have glazed porches, gay with +fuchsias and pelargoniums. Government House, grey, stone-built and +slated, calls to mind a manse in Shetland or Orkney. The government +barrack is a rather imposing structure in the middle of the town, as is +the cathedral church to the east, built of stone and buttressed with +brick. Next to Stanley the most important place on East Falkland is +Darwin on Choiseul Sound--a village of Scottish shepherds and a station +of the Falkland Island Company. + +The Falkland Islands consist entirely, so far as is known, of the older +Palaeozoic rocks, Lower Devonian or Upper Silurian, slightly +metamorphosed and a good deal crumpled and distorted, in the low grounds +clay slate and soft sandstone, and on the ridges hardened sandstone +passing into the conspicuous white quartzites. There do not seem to be +any minerals of value, and the rocks are not such as to indicate any +probability of their discovery. Galena is found in small quantity, and +in some places it contains a large percentage of silver. The dark +bituminous layers of clay slate, which occur intercalated among the +quartzites, have led, here as elsewhere, to the hope of coming upon a +seam of coal, but it is contrary to experience that coal of any value +should be found in rocks of that age. + +Many of the valleys in the Falklands are occupied by pale glistening +masses which at a little distance much resemble small glaciers. Examined +more closely these are found to be vast accumulations of blocks of +quartzite, irregular in form, but having a tendency to a rude diamond +shape, from 2 to 20 ft. in length, and half as much in width, and of a +thickness corresponding with that of the quartzite ridges on the hills +above. The blocks are angular, and rest irregularly one upon another, +supported in all positions by the angles and edges of those beneath. The +whole mass looks as if it were, as it is, slowly sliding down the valley +to the sea. These "stone runs" are looked upon with great wonder by the +shifting population of the Falklands, and they are shown to visitors +with many strange speculations as to their mode of formation. Their +origin is attributed by some to the moraine formation of former +glaciers. Another out of many theories[1] is that the hard beds of +quartzite are denuded by the disintegration of the softer layers. Their +support being removed they break away in the direction of natural +joints, and the fragments fall down the slope upon the vegetable soil. +This soil is spongy, and, undergoing alternate contraction and expansion +from being alternately comparatively dry and saturated with moisture, +allows the heavy blocks to slip down by their own weight into the +valley, where they become piled up, the valley stream afterwards +removing the soil from among and over them. + +The Falkland Islands correspond very nearly in latitude in the southern +hemisphere with London in the northern, but the climatic influences are +very different. The temperature is equable, the average of the two +midsummer months being about 47° Fahr., and that of the two midwinter +months 37° Fahr. The extreme frosts and heats of the English climate are +unknown, but occasional heavy snow-falls occur, and the sea in shallow +inlets is covered with a thin coating of ice. The sky is almost +constantly overcast, and rain falls, mostly in a drizzle and in frequent +showers, on about 250 days in the year. The rainfall is not great, only +about 20 in., but the mean humidity for the year is 80, saturation being +100. November is considered the only dry month. The prevalent winds from +the west, south-west and south blow continuously, at times approaching +the force of a hurricane. "A region more exposed to storms both in +summer and winter it would be difficult to mention" (Fitzroy, _Voyages +of "Adventure" and "Beagle,"_ ii. 228). The fragments of many wrecks +emphasize the dangers of navigation, which are increased by the absence +of beacons, the only lighthouse being that maintained by the Board of +Trade on Cape Pembroke near the principal settlement. Kelp is a natural +danger-signal, and the sunken rock, "Uranie," is reputed to be the only +one not buoyed by the giant seaweed. + +Of aboriginal human inhabitants there is no trace in the Falklands, and +the land fauna is very scanty. A small wolf, the _loup-renard_ of de +Bougainville, is extinct, the last having been seen about 1875 on the +West Falkland. Some herds of cattle and horses run wild; but these were, +of course, introduced, as were also the wild hogs, the numerous rabbits +and the less common hares. All these have greatly declined in numbers, +being profitably replaced by sheep. Land-birds are few in kind, and are +mostly strays from South America. They include, however, the snipe and +military starling, which on account of its scarlet breast is locally +known as the robin. Sea-birds are abundant, and, probably from the +islands having been comparatively lately peopled, they are singularly +tame. Gulls and amphibious birds abound in large variety; three kinds of +penguin have their rookeries and breed here, migrating yearly for some +months to the South American mainland. Stray specimens of the great king +penguin have been observed, and there are also mollymauks (a kind of +albatross), Cape pigeons and many carrion birds. Kelp and upland geese +abound, the latter being edible; and their shooting affords some sport. + +The Falkland Islands form essentially a part of Patagonia, with which +they are connected by an elevated submarine plateau, and their flora is +much the same as that of Antarctic South America. The trees which form +dense forest and scrub in southern Patagonia and in Fuegia are absent, +and one of the largest plants on the islands is a gigantic woolly +ragweed (_Senecio candicans_) which attains in some places a height of 3 +to 4 ft. A half-shrubby veronica (_V. decussata_) is found in some +parts, and has also received cultivation. The greater part of the "camp" +(the open country) is formed of peat, which in some places is of great +age and depth, and at the bottom of the bed very dense and bituminous. +The peat is different in character from that of northern Europe: +cellular plants enter but little into its composition, and it is formed +almost entirely of the roots and stems of _Empetrum rubrum_, a variety +of the common crow-berry of the Scottish hills with red berries, called +by the Falklanders the "diddle-dee" berry; of _Myrtus nummularia_, a +little creeping myrtle whose leaves are used by the shepherds as a +substitute for tea; of _Caltha appendiculata_, a dwarf species of +marsh-marigold; and of some sedges and sedge-like plants, such as +_Astelia pumila_, _Gaimardia australis_ and _Bostkovia grandiflora_. +Peat is largely used as fuel, coal being obtained only at a cost of £3 a +ton. + +Two vegetable products, the "balsam bog" (_Bolar glebaria_) and the +"tussock grass" (_Dactylis caespitosa_) have been objects of curiosity +and interest ever since the first accounts of the islands were given. +The first is a huge mass of a bright green colour, living to a great +age, and when dead becoming of a grey and stony appearance. When cut +open, it displays an infinity of tiny leaf-buds and stems, and at +intervals there exudes from it an aromatic resin, which from its +astringent properties is used by the shepherds as a vulnerary, but has +not been converted to any commercial purpose. The "tussock grass" is a +wonderful and most valuable natural production, which, owing to the +introduction of stock, has become extinct in the two main islands, but +still flourishes elsewhere in the group. It is a reed-like grass, which +grows in dense tufts from 6 to 10 ft. high from stool-like root-crowns. +It forms excellent fodder for cattle, and is regularly gathered for that +purpose. It is of beautiful appearance, and the almost tropical +profusion of its growth may have led to the early erroneous reports of +the densely-wooded nature of these islands. + +The population slightly exceeds 2000. The large majority of the +inhabitants live in the East Island, and the predominating element is +Scottish--Scottish shepherds having superseded the South American +Gauchos. In 1867 there were no settlers on the west island, and the +government issued a proclamation offering leases of grazing stations on +very moderate terms. In 1868 all the available land was occupied. These +lands are fairly healthy, the principal drawback being the virulent form +assumed by simple epidemic maladies. The occupation of the inhabitants +is almost entirely pastoral, and the principal industry is +sheep-farming. Wool forms by far the largest export, and tallow, hides, +bones and frozen mutton are also exported. Trade is carried on almost +entirely with the United Kingdom; the approximate annual value of +exports is £120,000, and of imports a little more than half that sum. +The Falkland Islands Company, having its headquarters at Stanley and an +important station in the camp at Darwin, carries on an extensive +business in sheep-farming and the dependent industries, and in the +general import trade. The development of this undertaking necessitated +the establishment of stores and workshops at Stanley, and ships can be +repaired and provided in every way; a matter of importance since not a +few vessels, after suffering injury during heavy weather off Cape Horn, +call on the Falklands in distress. The maintenance of the requisite +plant and the high wages current render such repairs somewhat costly. A +former trade in oil and sealskin has decayed, owing to the smaller +number of whales and seals remaining about the islands. Communications +are maintained on horseback and by water, and there are no roads except +at Stanley. There is a monthly mail to and from England, the passage +occupying about four weeks. + +The Falkland Islands are a crown colony, with a governor and executive +and legislative councils. The legislative council consists of the +governor and three official and two unofficial nominated members, and +the executive of the same, with the exception that there is only one +unofficial member. The colony is self-supporting, the revenue being +largely derived from the drink duties, and there is no public debt. The +Falklands are the seat of a colonial bishop. Education is compulsory. +The government maintains schools and travelling teachers; the Falkland +Islands Company also maintains a school at Darwin, and there is one for +those of the Roman Catholic faith in Stanley. There is also on Keppel +Island a Protestant missionary settlement for the training in +agriculture of imported Fuegians. Stanley was for some years a naval +station, but ceased to be so in 1904. + +The Falkland Islands were first seen, by Davis in the year 1592, and Sir +Richard Hawkins sailed along their north shore in 1594. The claims of +Amerigo Vespucci to a previous discovery are doubtful. In 1598 Sebald de +Wert, a Dutchman, visited them, and called them the Sebald Islands, a +name which they bear on some Dutch maps. Captain Strong sailed through +between the two principal islands in 1690, landed upon one of them, and +called the passage Falkland Sound, and from this the group afterwards +took its English name. In 1764 the French explorer De Bougainville took +possession of the islands on behalf of his country, and established a +colony at Port Louis on Berkeley Sound. But in 1767 France ceded the +islands to Spain, De Bougainville being employed as intermediary. +Meanwhile in 1765 Commodore Byron had taken possession on the part of +England on the ground of prior discovery, and had formed a settlement at +Port Egmont on the small island of Saunders. The Spanish and English +settlers remained in ignorance, real or assumed, of each other's +presence until 1769-1770, when Byron's action was nearly the cause of a +war between England and Spain, both countries having armed fleets to +contest the barren sovereignty. In 1771, however, Spain yielded the +islands to Great Britain by convention. As they had not been actually +colonized by England, the republic of Buenos Aires claimed the group in +1820, and subsequently entered into a dispute with the United States of +America concerning the rights to the products of these islands. On the +representations of Great Britain the Buenos Aireans withdrew, and the +British flag was once more hoisted at Port Louis in 1833, and since that +time the Falkland Islands have been a regular British colony. + +In 1845 Mr S. Lafone, a wealthy cattle and hide merchant on the river +Plate, obtained from government a grant of the southern portion of the +island, a peninsula 600,000 acres in extent, and possession of all the +wild cattle on the island for a period of six years, for a payment of +£10,000 down, and £20,000 in ten years from January 1, 1852. In 1851 Mr +Lafone's interest in Lafonia, as the peninsula came to be called, was +purchased for £30,000 by the Falkland Islands Company, which had been +incorporated by charter in the same year. + + See Pernety, _Journal historique d'une voyage faite aux îles Malouines + en 1763 et 1764_ (Berlin, 1767); S. Johnson, _Thoughts on the late + Transactions respecting Falkland's Islands_ (1771); L.A. de + Bougainville, _Voyage autour du monde_ (1771); T. Falkner, + _Description of Patagonia and the Falkland Islands_ (1774); B. + Penrose, _Account of the last Expedition to Port Egmont in the + Falkland Islands_ (1775); _Observations on the Forcible Occupation of + Malvinas by the British Government in 1833_ (Buenos Ayres, 1833); + _Reclamacion del Gobierno de las provincias Unidas de la Plata contra + el de S.M. Britanica sobre la soverania y possesion de las Islas + Malvinas_ (London, 1841); Fitzroy, _Narrative of the Surveying Voyage + of H.M.S. "Adventure" and "Beagle"_ (1839); Darwin, _Voyage of a + Naturalist round the World_ (1845); S.B. Sullivan, _Description of the + Falkland Islands_ (1849); W. Hadfield, _Brazil, the Falkland Islands, + &c._ (1854); W. Parker Snow, _Two Years' Cruise off the Tierra del + Fuego, the Falkland Islands, &c._ (1857); Sir C. Wyville Thomson, + _Voyage of the "Challenger"_ (1877); C.P. Lucas, _Historical Geography + of the British Colonies_, vol. ii. "The West Indies" (Oxford, 1890); + _Colonial Reports Annual_; MS. Sloane, 3295. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See B Stechele, in _Münchener geographische Studien_, xx.(1906), + and _Geographical Journal_ (December 1907). + + + + +FALLACY (Lat. _fall-ax_, apt to mislead), the term given generally to +any mistaken statement used in argument; in Logic, technically, an +argument which violates the laws of correct demonstration. An argument +may be fallacious in _matter_ (i.e. misstatement of facts), in _wording_ +(i.e. wrong use of words), or in the _process of inference_. Fallacies +have, therefore, been classified as: I. Material, II. Verbal, III. +Logical Of Formal; II. and III. are often included under the general +description _Logical_, and in scholastic phraseology, following +Aristotle, are called fallacies _in dictione_ or _in voce_, as opposed +to material fallacies _in re_ or _extra dictionem_. + +I. _Material._--The classification widely adopted by modern logicians +and based on that of Aristotle, _Organon_ (_Sophistici elenchi_), is as +follows:--(1) _Fallacy of Accident_, i.e. arguing erroneously from a +general rule to a particular case, without proper regard to particular +conditions which vitiate the application of the general rule; e.g. if +manhood suffrage be the law, arguing that a criminal or a lunatic must, +therefore, have a vote; (2) _Converse Fallacy of Accident_, i.e. arguing +from a special case to a general rule; (3) _Irrelevant Conclusion_, or +_Ignoratio Elenchi_, wherein, instead of proving the fact in dispute, +the arguer seeks to gain his point by diverting attention to some +extraneous fact (as in the legal story of "No case. Abuse the +plaintiff's attorney"). Under this head come the so-called argumentum +(a) _ad hominem_, (b) _ad populum_, (c) _ad baculum_, (d) _ad +verecundiam_, common in platform oratory, in which the speaker obscures +the real issue by appealing to his audience on the grounds of (a) purely +personal considerations, (b) popular sentiment, (c) fear, (d) +conventional propriety. This fallacy has been illustrated by ethical or +theological arguments wherein the fear of punishment is subtly +substituted for abstract right as the sanction of moral obligation. (4) +_Petitio principii_ (begging the question) or _Circulus in probando_ +(arguing in a circle), which consists in demonstrating a conclusion by +means of premises which presuppose that conclusion. Jeremy Bentham +points out that this fallacy may lurk in a single word, especially in an +epithet, e.g. if a measure were condemned simply on the ground that it +is alleged to be "un-English"; (5) _Fallacy of the Consequent_, really a +species of (3), wherein a conclusion is drawn from premises which do not +really support it; (6) _Fallacy of False Cause_, or Non Sequitur ("it +does not follow"), wherein one thing is incorrectly assumed as the cause +of another, as when the ancients attributed a public calamity to a +meteorological phenomenon; (7) _Fallacy of Many Questions_ (_Plurium +Interrogationum_), wherein several questions are improperly grouped in +the form of one, and a direct categorical answer is demanded, e.g. if a +prosecuting counsel asked the prisoner "What time was it when you met +this man?" with the intention of eliciting the tacit admission that such +a meeting had taken place. + +II. _Verbal Fallacies_ are those in which a false conclusion is obtained +by improper or ambiguous use of words. They are generally classified as +follows. (1) _Equivocation_ consists in employing the same word in two +or more senses, e.g. in a syllogism, the middle term being used in one +sense in the major and another in the minor premise, so that in fact +there are _four_ not _three_ terms ("All fair things are honourable; +This woman is fair; therefore this woman is honourable," the second +"fair" being in reference to complexion). (2) _Amphibology_ is the +result of ambiguity of grammatical structure, e.g. of the position of +the adverb "only" in careless writers ("He only said that," in which +sentence, as experience shows, the adverb has been intended to qualify +any one of the other three words). (3) _Composition_, a species of (1), +which results from the confused use of collective terms ("The angles of +a triangle are less than two right angles" might refer to the angles +separately or added together). (4) _Division_, the converse of the +preceding, which consists in employing the middle term distributively in +the minor and collectively in the major premise. (5) _Accent_, which +occurs only in speaking and consists of emphasizing the wrong word in a +sentence ("He is a fairly good pianist," according to the emphasis on +the words, may imply praise of a beginner's progress, or an expert's +depreciation of a popular hero, or it may imply that the person in +question is a deplorable violinist). (6) _Figure of Speech_, the +confusion between the metaphorical and ordinary uses of a word or +phrase. + +III. The purely _Logical_ or Formal _fallacies_ consist in the violation +of the formal rules of the Syllogism (q.v.). They are (a) fallacy of +Four Terms (_Quaternio terminorum_); (b) of Undistributed Middle; (c) of +Illicit process of the major or the minor term; (d) of Negative +Premises. + +Of other classifications of Fallacies in general the most famous are +those of Francis Bacon and J.S. Mill. Bacon (_Novum organum_, Aph. i. +33, 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four _Idola_ (Idols, i.e. False +Appearances), which summarize the various kinds of mistakes to which the +human intellect is prone (see BACON, FRANCIS). With these should be +compared the _Offendicula_ of Roger Bacon, contained in the _Opus +maius_, pt. i. (see BACON, ROGER). J.S. Mill discussed the subject in +book v. of his _Logic_, and Jeremy Bentham's _Book of Fallacies_ (1824) +contains valuable remarks. + + See Rd. Whateley's _Logic_, bk. v.; A. de Morgan, _Formal Logic_ + (1847); A. Sidgwick, _Fallacies_ (1883) and other text-books. See also + article LOGIC, and for fallacies of Induction, see INDUCTION. + + + + +FALLIÈRES, CLÉMENT ARMAND (1841- ), president of the French republic, +was born at Mézin in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, where his father +was clerk of the peace. He studied law and became an advocate at Nérac, +beginning his public career there as municipal councillor (1868), +afterwards mayor (1871), and as councillor-general of the department of +Lot-et-Garonne (1871). Being an ardent Republican, he lost this position +in May 1873 upon the fall of Thiers, but in February 1876 was elected +deputy for Nérac. In the chamber he sat with the Republican Left, signed +the protestation of the 18th of May 1877, and was re-elected in October +by his constituency. In 1880 he became under-secretary of state in the +department of the interior in the Jules Ferry ministry (May 1880 to +November 1881). From the 7th of August 1882 to the 20th of February 1883 +he was minister of the interior, and for a month (from the 29th of +January 1883) was premier. His ministry had to face the question of the +expulsion of the pretenders to the throne of France, owing to the +proclamation by Prince Jérome Napoleon (January 1883), and M. Fallières, +who was ill at the time, was not able to face the storm of opposition, +and resigned when the senate rejected his project. In the following +November, however, he was chosen as minister of public instruction by +Jules Ferry, and carried out various reforms in the school system. He +resigned with the ministry in March 1885. Again becoming minister of the +interior in the Rouvier cabinet in May 1887, he exchanged his portfolio +in December for that of justice. He returned to the ministry of the +interior in February 1889, and finally took the department of justice +from March 1890 to February 1892. In June 1890 his department +(Lot-et-Garonne) elected him to the senate by 417 votes to 23. There M. +Fallières remained somewhat apart from party struggles, although +maintaining his influence among the Republicans. In March 1899 he was +elected president of the senate, and retained that position until +January 1906, when he was chosen by a union of the groups of the Left in +both chambers as candidate for the presidency of the republic. He was +elected on the first ballot by 449 votes against 371 for his opponent, +Paul Doumer. + + + + +FALL-LINE, in American geology, a line marking the junction between the +hard rocks of the Appalachian Mountains and the softer deposits of the +coastal plain. The pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks of the mountain +mass form a continuous ledge parallel to the east coast, where they are +subject to denudation and form a series of "falls" and rapids in the +river courses all along this line. The relief of the land below the +falls is very slight, and this low country rarely rises to a height of +200 ft., so that the rivers are navigable up to the falls, while the +falls themselves are a valuable source of power. A line of cities may be +traced upon the map whose position will thus be readily understood in +relation to the economic importance of the fall-line. They are Trenton +on the Delaware, Philadelphia on the Schuylkill, Georgetown on the +Potomac, Richmond on the James, and Augusta on the Savannah. It will be +readily understood that the softer and more recent rocks of the coastal +plain have been more easily washed away, while the harder rocks of the +mountains, owing to differential denudation, are left standing high +above them, and that the trend of the edge of this great lenticular +mass of ancient rock is roughly parallel to that of the Appalachian +system. + + + + +FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP (1790-1861), German traveller and historical +investigator, best known for his opinions in regard to the ethnology of +the modern Greeks, was born, the son of a poor peasant, at Tschötsch, +near Brixen in Tirol, on the 10th of December 1790. In 1809 he absconded +from the cathedral choir school at Brixen and made his way to Salzburg, +where he supported himself by private teaching while he studied +theology, the Semitic languages, and history. After a year's study he +sought to assure to himself the peace and quiet necessary for a +student's life by entering the abbey of Kremsmünster, but difficulties +put in his way by the Bavarian officials prevented the accomplishment of +this intention. At the university of Landshut, to which he removed in +1812, he first applied himself to jurisprudence, but soon devoted his +attention exclusively to history and philology. His immediate +necessities were provided for by a rich patron. During the Napoleonic +wars he joined the Bavarian infantry as a subaltern in 1813, fought at +Hanau (30th October 1813), and served throughout the campaign in France. +He remained in the army of occupation on the banks of the Rhine until +Waterloo, when he spent six months at Orleans as adjutant to General von +Spreti. Two years of garrison life at Lindau on Lake Constance after the +peace were spent in the study of modern Greek, Persian and Turkish. + +Resigning his commission in 1818, he was successively engaged as teacher +in the gymnasium at Augsburg and in the progymnasium and lyceum at +Landshut. In 1827 he won the gold medal offered by the university of +Copenhagen with his _Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt_, based on +patient investigation of Greek and oriental MSS. at Venice and Vienna. +The strictures on priestcraft contained in the preface to this book gave +offence to the authorities, and his position was not improved by the +liberal views expressed in his _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während +des Mittelalters_ (Stuttgart, 1830-1836, 2 pts.). The three years from +1831 to 1834 he spent in travel with the Russian count Ostermann +Tolstoy, visiting Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Rhodes, +Constantinople, Greece and Naples. On his return he was elected in 1835 +a member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, but he soon after +left the country again on account of political troubles, and spent the +greater part of the next four years in travel, spending the winter of +1839-1840 with Count Tolstoy at Geneva. Constantinople, Trebizond, +Athos, Macedonia, Thessaly and Greece were visited by him during +1840-1841; and after some years' residence in Munich he returned in 1847 +to the East, and travelled in Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor. The +authorities continued to regard him with suspicion, and university +students were forbidden to attend the lectures he delivered at Munich. +He entered, however, into friendly relations with the crown prince +Maximilian, but this intimacy was destroyed by the events following on +1848. At that period he was appointed professor of history in the Munich +University, and made a member of the national congress at +Frankfort-on-Main. He there joined the left or opposition party, and in +the following year he accompanied the rump-parliament to Stuttgart, a +course of action which led to his expulsion from his professorate. +During the winter of 1849-1850 he was an exile in Switzerland, but the +amnesty of April 1850 enabled him to return to Munich. He died on the +26th of April 1861. + +His contributions to the medieval history of Greece are of great value, +and though his theory that the Greeks of the present day are of Albanian +and Slav descent, with hardly a drop of true Greek blood in their veins, +has not been accepted in its entirety by other investigators, it has +served to modify the opinions of even his greatest opponents. A +criticism of his views will be found in Hopf's _Geschichte +Griechenlands_ (reprinted from Ersch and Gruber's _Encykl._) and in +Finlay's _History of Greece in the Middle Ages_. Another theory which he +propounded and defended with great vigour was that the capture of +Constantinople by Russia was inevitable, and would lead to the +absorption by the Russian empire of the whole of the Balkan and Grecian +peninsula; and that this extended empire would constitute a standing +menace to the western Germanic nations. These views he expressed in a +series of brilliant articles in German journals. His most important +contribution to learning remains his history of the empire of Trebizond. +Prior to his discovery of the chronicle of Michael Panaretos, covering +the dominion of Alexus Comnenus and his successors from 1204 to 1426, +the history of this medieval empire was practically unknown. + + His works are--_Geschichte des Kaiserthums Trapezunt_ (Munich, + 1827-1848); _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea im Mittelalter_ + (Stuttgart, 1830-1836); _Über die Entstehung der Neugriechen_ + (Stuttgart, 1835); "Originalfragmente, Chroniken, u.s.w., zur + Geschichte des K. Trapezunts" (Munich, 1843), in _Abhandl. der hist. + Classe der K. Bayerisch. Akad. v. Wiss.; Fragmente aus dem Orient_ + (Stuttgart, 1845); _Denkschrift über Golgotha und das heilige Grab_ + (Munich, 1852), and _Das Todte Meer_ (1853)--both of which had + appeared in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Academy; _Das albanesische + Element in Griechenland_, iii. parts, in the _Abhandl._ for 1860-1866. + After his death there appeared at Leipzig in 1861, under the + editorship of G.M. Thomas, three volumes of _Gesammelte Werke_, + containing _Neue Fragmente aus dem Orient, Kritische Versuche_, and + _Studien und Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben_. A sketch of his life will + also be found in L. Steub, _Herbsttage in Tyrol_ (Munich, 1867). + + + + +FALLOPIUS (or FALLOPIO), GABRIELLO (1523-1562), Italian anatomist, was +born about 1523 at Modena, where he became a canon of the cathedral. He +studied medicine at Ferrara, and, after a European tour, became teacher +of anatomy in that city. He thence removed to Pisa, and from Pisa, at +the instance of Cosmo I., grand-duke of Tuscany, to Padua, where, +besides the chairs of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he held the +office of superintendent of the new botanical garden. He died at Padua +on the 9th of October 1562. Only one treatise by Fallopius appeared +during his lifetime, namely the _Observationes anatomicae_ (Venice, +1561). His collected works, _Opera genuina omnia_, were published at +Venice in 1584. (See ANATOMY.) + + + + +FALLOUX, FRÉDÉRIC ALFRED PIERRE, COMTE DE (1811-1886), French politician +and author, was born at Angers on the 11th of May 1811. His father had +been ennobled by Charles X., and Falloux began his career as a +Legitimist and clerical journalist under the influence of Mme Swetchine. +In 1846 he entered the legislature as deputy for Maine-et-Loire, and +with many other ultra-Catholics he gave real or pretended support to the +revolution of 1848. Louis Napoleon made him minister of education in +1849, but disagreements with the president led to his resignation within +a year. He had nevertheless secured the passage of the Loi Falloux +(March 15, 1850) for the organization of primary and secondary +education. This law provided that the clergy and members of +ecclesiastical orders, male and female, might exercise the profession of +teaching without producing any further qualification. This exemption was +extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools, where a +university degree was exacted from lay teachers. The primary schools +were put under the management of the curés. Falloux was elected to the +French Academy in 1856. His failure to secure re-election to the +legislature in 1866, 1869, 1870 and 1871 was due to the opposition of +the stricter Legitimists, who viewed with suspicion his attempts to +reconcile the Orleans princes with Henri, comte de Chambord. In spite of +his failure to enter the National Assembly his influence was very great, +and was increased by the intimacy of his personal relations with Thiers. +But in 1872 he offended both sections of the monarchical party at a +conference arranged in the hope of effecting a fusion between the +partisans of the comte de Chambord and of the Orleans princes, divided +on the vexed question of the flag. He suggested that the comte de +Chambord might recede from his position with dignity at the desire of +the National Assembly, and not content with this encroachment on +royalist principles, he insinuated the possibility of a transitional +stage with the duc d'Aumale as president of the republic. His disgrace +was so complete that he was excommunicated by the bishop of Angers in +1876. He died on the 16th of January 1886. + + Of his numerous works the best known are his _Histoire de Louis XVI_ + (1840); _Histoire de Saint Pie_ (1845); _De la contre-revolution_ + (1876); and the posthumous _Mémoires d'un royaliste_ (2 vols., 1888). + + + + + +FALLOW, land ploughed and tilled, but left unsown, usually for a year, +in order, on the one hand, to disintegrate, aërate and free it from +weeds, and, on the other, to allow it to recuperate. The word was +probably early confused with "fallow" (from O. Eng. _fealu_, probably +cognate with Gr. [Greek: polios], grey), of a pale-brown or yellow +colour, often applied to soil left unfilled and unsown, but chiefly seen +in the name of the "fallow deer." The true derivation is from the O. +Eng. _fealga_, only found in the plural, a harrow, and the ultimate +origin is a Teutonic root meaning "to plough," cf. the German _falgen_. +The recognition that continuous growing of wheat on the same area of +land robs the soil of its fertility was universal among ancient peoples, +and the practice of "fallowing" or resting the soil is as old as +agriculture itself. The "Sabbath rest" ordered to be given every seventh +year to the land by the Mosaic law is a classical instance of the +"fallow." Improvements in crop rotations and manuring have diminished +the necessity of the "bare fallow," which is uneconomical because the +land is left unproductive, and because the nitrates in the soil +unintercepted by the roots of plants are washed away in the drainage +waters. At the present time bare fallowing is, in general, only +advisable on stiff soils and in dry climates. A "green fallow" is land +planted with turnips, potatoes or some similar crop in rows, the space +between which may be cleared of weeds by hoeing. The "bastard fallow" is +a modification of the bare fallow, effected by the growth of rye, +vetches, or some other rapidly growing crop, sown in autumn and fed off +in spring, the land then undergoing the processes of ploughing, grubbing +and harrowing usual in the bare fallow. + + + + +FALLOW-DEER (that is, DUN DEER, in contradistinction to the red deer, +_Cervus [Dama] dama_), a medium-sized representative of the family +_Cervidae_, characterized by its expanded or palmated antlers, which +generally have no bez-tine, rather long tail (black above and white +below), and a coat spotted with white in summer but uniformly coloured +in winter. The shoulder height is about 3 ft. The species is +semi-domesticated in British parks, and occurs wild in western Asia, +North Africa, the south of Europe and Sardinia. In prehistoric times it +occurred throughout northern and central Europe. One park-breed has no +spots. Bucks and does live apart except during the pairing-season; and +the doe produces one or two, and sometimes three fawns at a birth. These +deer are particularly fond of horse-chestnuts, which the stags are said +to endeavour to procure by striking at the branches with their antlers. +The Persian fallow-deer (C. [D.] _mesopotamicus_), a native of the +mountains of Luristan, is larger than the typical species, and has a +brighter coat, differing in some details of colouring. The antlers have +the trez-tine near the small brow-tine, and the palmation beginning near +the former. Here may be mentioned the gigantic fossil deer commonly +known as the Irish elk, which is perhaps a giant type of fallow-deer, +and if so should be known as _Cervus (Dama) giganteus_. If a distinct +type, its title should be _C. (Megaceros) giganteus_. This deer +inhabited Ireland, Great Britain, central and northern Europe, and +western Asia in Pleistocene and prehistoric times; and must have stood 6 +ft. high at the shoulder. The antlers are greatly palmated and of +enormous size, fine specimens measuring as much as 11 ft. between the +tips. + + + + +FALL RIVER, a city of Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on +Mount Hope Bay, at the mouth of the Taunton river, 49 m. S. of Boston. +Pop. (1890) 74,398; (1900) 104,863; (estimated, 1906) 105,942;[1] (1910 +census) 119,295. It is the third city in size of the commonwealth. Of +the population in 1900, 50,042, or 47.7%, were foreign-born, 90,244 were +of foreign parentage (i.e. either one or both parents were foreign), and +of these 81,721 had both foreign father and foreign mother. Of the +foreign-born, 20,172 were French Canadians, 2329 were English Canadians, +12,268 were from England, 1045 were from Scotland, 7317 were from +Ireland, 2805 were from Portugal, and 1095 were from Russia, various +other countries being represented by smaller numbers. Fall River is +served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and has good +steamer connexions with Providence, Newport and New York, notably by the +"Fall River Line," which is much used, in connexion with the N.Y., N.H. +& H. railway, by travellers between New York and Boston. The harbour is +large, deep and easy of access. The city lies on a plateau and on slopes +that rise rather steeply from the river, and is irregularly laid out. +Granite underlying the city furnishes excellent building material; among +the principal buildings are the state armoury, the county court house, +the B.M.C. Durfee high school, the custom house, Notre Dame College, the +church of Notre Dame, the church of St Anne, the Central Congregational +church and the public library. The commonwealth aids in maintaining a +textile school (the Bradford Durfee textile school), opened in 1904. The +city library contained in 1908 about 78,500 volumes. There is +considerable commerce, but it is as a manufacturing centre that Fall +River is best known. Above the city, on the plateau, about 2 m. from the +bay, are the Watuppa Lakes, 7 m. long and on an average three-fourths of +a mile wide, and from them runs the Fall (Quequechan) river, with a +constant flow and descending near its mouth through 127 ft. in less than +half a mile. The conjunction of water transportation and water power is +thus remarkable, and accounts in great part for the city's rapid growth. +The waters of the North Watuppa Lake (which is fed by springs and drains +out a very small area) are also exceptionally pure and furnish an +excellent water-supply. The Fall river runs directly through the city +(passing beneath the city hall), and along its banks are long rows of +cotton mills; formerly many of these were run by water power, and their +wheels were placed directly in the stream bed, but steam power is now +used almost exclusively. According to the special census of manufactures +of 1905, the value of all factory products for the calendar year 1904 +was $43,473,105, of which amount $35,442,581, or 81.5%, consisted of +cotton goods and dyeing and finishing, making Fall River the largest +producer of cotton goods among American cities.[2] A large hat +manufactory (the Marshall Brothers' factory) furnishes the United States +army with hats. Until forced by the competition of mills in the Southern +states to direct attention to finer products, the cotton manufacturers +of Fall River devoted themselves almost exclusively to the making of +print cloth, in which respect the city was long distinguished from +Lawrence and Lowell, whose products were more varied and of higher +grade. The number of spindles increased from 265,328 in 1865 to +1,269,043 in 1875, 3,000,000 in 1900, and to about 3,500,000 in 1906. +Excellent drainage and sewerage systems contribute to the city's health. +The birth-rate was in 1900 the highest (38.75) of any city in the +country of above 30,000 inhabitants (three of the four next highest +being Massachusetts towns). The social conditions and labour problems of +Fall River have long been exceptional. The mills supplement the public +schools in the mingling of races and the work for Americanization, and +labour disturbances, for which Fall River was once conspicuous, have +become less frequent and less bitter, the great strike of +1904-1905--perhaps the greatest in the history of the textile industry +in the United States--being marked by little or no violence. Fall River +has become a "city of homes," and tenements are giving way to dwellings +for one or two families. The lists of the city's corporation +stockholders show more than 10,000 names. The municipal police is +controlled (as nowhere else in the state save in Boston) by a state +board; this arrangement is generally regarded as having worked for +better order. Lowell was about three times as large as Fall River in +1850, and Lawrence was larger until after 1870. Fall River was +originally a part of Freetown; it was incorporated as a township in 1803 +(being known as "Troy" in 1804-1834), and was chartered as a city in +1854. In 1861 it was increased by certain territory secured from Rhode +Island, the city having spread across the state boundary and become +subject to a divided jurisdiction. In 1902 the city received a new +charter. Its manufactures amounted to little before the War of 1812. A +disastrous fire occurred in 1843 (loss above $500,000). In 1904 Fall +River became the see of the Roman Catholic diocese of that name. + + See H.H. Earl, _Centennial History of Fall River ... 1656-1876_ (New + York, 1877); and the report of Carroll D. Wright on _Fall River, + Lowell and Lawrence_, in 13th annual report of the Massachusetts + Bureau of Statistics of Labor (1882), which, however, was regarded as + unjust and partial by the manufacturers of Fall River. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The small increase between 1900 and 1906 was due in large part to + the emigration of many of the inhabitants during the great strike of + 1904-1905. + + [2] The above figures do not show adequately the full importance of + Fall River as a cotton manufacturing centre, for during six months of + the census year the great strike was in progress; this strike, caused + by a reduction in wages, lasted from the 25th of July 1904 to the + 18th of January 1905. + + + + +FALMOUTH, a municipal and contributary parliamentary borough and seaport +of Cornwall, England, 306 m. W.S.W. of London, on a branch of the Great +Western railway. Pop. (1901) 11,789. It is finely situated on the west +shore of the largest of the many estuaries which open upon the south +coast of the county. This is entered by several streams, of which the +largest is the Fal. Falmouth harbour lies within Pendennis Point, which +shelters the estuary from the more open Falmouth Bay. The Penryn river, +coming in from the north-west, forms one of several shallow, winding +arms of the estuary, the main channel of which is known as Carrick +Roads. To the east Pendennis Castle stands on its lofty promontory, +while on the opposite side of the roads the picturesque inlet of the +Porthcuel river opens between Castle Point on the north, with St Mawes' +Castle, and St Anthony Head and Zoze Point on the south. The shores of +the estuary as a rule slope sharply up to about 250 ft., and are +beautifully wooded. The entrance is 1 m. across, and the roads form one +of the best refuges for shipping on the south coast, being accessible at +all times by the largest vessels. Among the principal buildings and +institutions in Falmouth are the town hall, market-house, hall of the +Cornwall Polytechnic Society, a meteorological and magnetic observatory, +and a submarine mining establishment. The Royal Cornwall Yacht Club has +its headquarters here, and in the annual regatta the principal prize is +a cup given by the prince of Wales as duke of Cornwall. Engineering, +shipbuilding, brewing and the manufacture of manure are carried on, and +there are oyster and trawl fisheries, especially for pilchard. The inner +harbour, under the jurisdiction partly of commissioners and partly of a +dock company, is enclosed between two breakwaters, of which the eastern +has 23 ft. of water at lowest tides alongside. The area of the harbour +is 42 acres, with nearly 700 lineal yards of quayage. There are two +graving docks, and repairing yards. Grain, timber, coal and guano and +other manures are imported, and granite, china clay, copper ore, ropes +and fish exported. Falmouth is also in favour as a watering-place. The +parliamentary borough of Penryn and Falmouth returns one member. The +municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, +790 acres. + +Falmouth (Falemuth) as a haven and port has had a place in the maritime +history of Cornwall from very early times. The site of the town, which +is comparatively modern, was formerly known as Smithick and +Pennycomequick and formed part of the manor of Arwenack held by the +family of Killigrew. The corporations of Penryn, Truro and Helston +opposed the undertaking, but the lords in council, to whom the matter +was referred, decided in Killigrew's favour. In 1652 the House of +Commons considered that it would be advantageous to the Commonwealth to +grant a Thursday market to Smithick. This market was confirmed to Sir +Peter Killigrew in 1660 together with two fairs, on the 30th of October +and the 27th of July, and also a ferry between Smithick and Flushing. By +the charter of incorporation granted in the following year the name was +changed to Falmouth, and a mayor, recorder, 7 aldermen and 12 burgesses +constituted a common council with the usual rights and privileges. Three +years later an act creating the borough a separate ecclesiastical parish +empowered the mayor and aldermen to assess all buildings within the town +at the rate of sixteen pence in the pound for the support of the rector. +This rector's rate occasioned much ill-feeling in modern times, and by +act of parliament in 1896 was taken over by the corporation, and +provision made for its eventual extinction. The disfranchisement of +Penryn, which had long been a subject of debate in the House of +Commons, was settled in 1832, by uniting Penryn with Falmouth for +parliamentary purposes and assigning two members to the united boroughs. +By the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, the number of members was +reduced to one. The fairs granted in 1660 are no longer held, and a +Saturday market has superseded the chartered market. In the 17th and +18th centuries Falmouth grew in importance owing to its being a station +of the Packet Service for the conveyance of mails. + + + + +FALSE POINT, a landlocked harbour in the Cuttack district of Bengal, +India. It was reported by the famine commissioners in 1867 to be the +best harbour on the coast of India from the Hugli to Bombay. It derives +its name from the circumstance that vessels proceeding up the Bay of +Bengal frequently mistook it for Point Palmyras, a degree farther north. +The anchorage is safe, roomy and completely landlocked, but large +vessels are obliged to lie out at some distance from its mouth in an +exposed roadstead. The capabilities of False Point as a harbour remained +long unknown, and it was only in 1860 that the port was opened. It was +rapidly developed, owing to the construction of the Orissa canals. Two +navigable channels lead inland across the Mahanadi delta, and connect +the port with Cuttack city. The trade of False Point is chiefly with +other Indian harbours, but a large export trade in rice and oil-seeds +has sprung up with Mauritius, the French colonies and France. False +Point is now a regular port of call for Anglo-Indian coasting steamers. +Its capabilities were first appreciated during the Orissa famine of +1866, when it afforded almost the only means by which supplies of rice +could be thrown into the province. A lighthouse is situated a little to +the south of the anchorage, on the point which screens it from the +southern monsoon. + + + + +FALSE PRETENCES, in English law, the obtaining from any other person by +any false pretence any chattel, money or valuable security, with intent +to defraud. It is an indictable misdemeanour under the Larceny Act of +1861. The broad distinction between this offence and larceny is that in +the former the owner intends to part with his property, in the latter he +does not. This offence dates as a statutory crime practically from 1756. +At common law the only remedy originally available for an owner who had +been deprived of his goods by fraud was an indictment for the crime of +cheating, or a civil action for deceit. These remedies were insufficient +to cover all cases where money or other properties had been obtained by +false pretences, and the offence was first partially created by a +statute of Henry VIII. (1541), which enacted that if any person should +falsely and deceitfully obtain any money, goods, &c., by means of any +false token or counterfeit letter made in any other man's name, the +offender should suffer any punishment other than death, at the +discretion of the judge. The scope of the offence was enlarged to +include practically all false pretences by the act of 1756, the +provisions of which were embodied in the Larceny Act 1861. + +The principal points to notice are that the pretence must be a false +pretence of some existing fact, made for the purpose of inducing the +prosecutor to part with his property (e.g. it was held not to be a false +pretence to promise to pay for goods on delivery), and it may be by +either words or conduct. The property, too, must have been actually +obtained by the false pretence. The owner must be induced by the +pretence to make over the absolute and immediate ownership of the goods, +otherwise it is "larceny by means of a trick." It is not always easy, +however, to draw a distinction between the various classes of offences. +In the case where a man goes into a restaurant and orders a meal, and, +after consuming it, says that he has no means of paying for it, it was +usual to convict for obtaining food by false pretences. But _R._ v. +_Jones_, 1898, L.R. 1 Q.B. 119 decided that it is neither larceny nor +false pretences, but an offence under the Debtors Act 1869, of obtaining +credit by fraud. (See also CHEATING; FRAUD; LARCENY.) + +_United States._--American statutes on this subject are mainly copied +from the English statutes, and the courts there in a general way follow +the English interpretations. The statutes of each state must be +consulted. There is no Federal statute, though there are Federal laws +providing penalties for false personation of the lawful owner of public +stocks, &c., or of persons entitled to pensions, prize money, &c. (U.S. +Rev. Stats. § 5435), or the false making of any order purporting to be a +money order (id. § 5463). + +In Arizona, obtaining money or property by falsely personating another +is punishable as for larceny (Penal Code, 1901, § 479). Obtaining credit +by false pretences as to wealth and mercantile character is punishable +by six months' imprisonment and a fine not exceeding three times the +value of the money or property obtained (id. § 481). + +In Illinois, whoever by any false representation or writing signed by +him, of his own respectability, wealth or mercantile correspondence or +connexions, obtains credit and thereby defrauds any person of money, +goods, chattels or any valuable thing, or who procures another to make a +false report of his honesty, wealth, &c., shall return the money, goods, +&c., and be fined and imprisoned for a term not exceeding one year +(Crim. Code, 1903, ch. xxxviii. §§ 96, 97). Obtaining money or property +by bogus cheques, the "confidence game" (_Dorr_ v. _People_, 1907, § +228, Ill. 216), or "three card monte," sleight of hand, fortune-telling, +&c., is punishable by imprisonment for from one to ten years (id. §§ 98, +100). Obtaining goods from warehouse, mill or wharf by fraudulent +receipt wrongly stating amount of goods deposited--by imprisonment for +not less than one nor more than ten years (id. § 124). Fraudulent use of +railroad passes is a misdemeanour (id. 125a). + +In Massachusetts it is simple larceny to obtain by false pretences the +money or personal chattel of another (Rev. Laws, 1902, ch. ccviii. § +26). Obtaining by a false pretence with intent to defraud the signature +of a person to a written instrument, the false making whereof would be +forgery, is punishable by imprisonment in a state prison or by fine (id. +§ 27). + +In New York, obtaining property by false pretences, felonious breach of +trust and embezzlement are included in the term "larceny" (Penal Code, § +528; _Paul_ v. _Dumar_, 106 N.Y. 508; _People_ v. _Tattlekan_, 1907, 104 +N.Y. Suppl. 805), but the methods of proof required to establish each +crime remain as before the code. Obtaining lodging and food on credit at +hotel or lodging house with intent to defraud is a misdemeanour (Pen. +Code, § 382). Purchase of property by false pretences as to person's +means or ability to pay is not criminal when in writing signed by the +party to be charged (Pen. Code, § 544). + + + + +FALTICHENI (_Faltiçeni_), the capital of the department of Suceava, +Rumania, situated on a small right-hand tributary of the Sereth, among +the hills of north-west Moldavia, and 2 m. S.E. of the frontier of +Bukovina. Pop. (1900) 9643, about half being Jews. A branch railway runs +for 15 m. to join the main line between Czernowitz in Bukovina, and +Galatz. The Suceava department (named after Suceava or Suciava, its +former capital, now Suczawa in Bukowina) is densely forested; its +considerable timber trade centres in Falticheni. For five weeks, from +the 20th July onwards, Russians and Austro-Hungarians, as well as +Rumans, attend the fair which is held at Falticheni, chiefly for the +sale of horses, carriages and cattle. + + + + +FALUN, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (_län_) of Kopparberg, +153 m. N.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 9606. It is situated in a +bare and rocky country near the western shore of lake Runn. Here are the +oldest and most celebrated copper mines in Europe. Their produce has +gradually decreased since the 17th century, and is now unimportant, but +sulphate of copper, iron pyrites, and some gold, silver, sulphur and +sulphuric acid, and red ochre are also produced. The mines belong to the +Kopparberg Mining Company (_Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags Aktiebolag_, +formerly _Kopparbergslagen_). This is the oldest industrial corporation +in Sweden, and perhaps the oldest still existing in the world; it is +known to have been established before 1347. Since its reorganization as +a joint-stock company in 1890 many of the shares have been held by the +crown, philanthropic institutions and other public bodies. The company +also owns iron mines, limestone and quartz quarries, large iron-works at +Domnarfvet and elsewhere, a great extent of forests and saw-mills, and +besides the output of the copper mines it produces manufactured iron and +steel, timber, wood-pulp, bricks and charcoal. Falun has also railway +rolling-stock factories. There are museums of mineralogy and geology, a +lower school of mining, model room and scientific library. The so-called +"Gothenburg System" of municipal control over the sale of spirits was +actually devised at Falun as early as 1850. + + + + +FAMA (Gr. [Greek: Phêmê, Ossa]), in classical mythology, the +personification of Rumour. The Homeric equivalent _Ossa_ (_Iliad_, ii. +93) is represented as the messenger of Zeus, who spreads reports with +the rapidity of a conflagration. Homer does not personify _Pheme_, which +is merely a presage drawn from human utterances, whereas Ossa (until +later times) is associated with the idea of divine origin. A more +definite character is given to Pheme by Hesiod (_Works and Days_, 764), +who calls her a goddess; in Sophocles (_Oed. Tyr._ 158) she is the +immortal daughter of golden Hope and is styled by the orator Aeschines +(_Contra Timarchum_, § 128) one of the mightiest of goddesses. According +to Pausanias (i. 17. 1) there was a temple of Pheme at Athens, and at +Smyrna (ib. ix. 11, 7), whose inhabitants were especially fond of +seeking the aid of divination, there was a sanctuary of Cledones (sounds +or rumours supposed to convey omens). + +There does not seem to have been any cult of Fama among the Romans, by +whom she was regarded merely as "a figure of poetical religion." The +Temple of Fame and Omen (Pheme and Cledon) mentioned by Plutarch +(_Moralia_, p. 319) is due to a confusion with Aius Locutius, the +divinity who warned the Romans of the coming attack of the Gauls. There +are well-known descriptions of Fame in Virgil (_Aeneid_, iv. 173) and +Ovid (_Metam._ xii. 39); see also Valerius Flaccus (ii. 116), Statius +(_Thebais_, iii. 425). An unfavourable idea gradually became attached to +the name; thus Ennius speaks of Fama as the personification of "evil" +reputation and the opposite of Gloria (cp. the adjective _famosus_, +which is not used in a good sense till the post-Augustan age). Chaucer +in his _House of Fame_ is obviously imitating Virgil and Ovid, although +he is also indebted to Dante's _Divina Commedia_. + + + + +FAMAGUSTA (Gr. _Ammochostos_), a town and harbour on the east cost of +Cyprus, 2½ m. S. of the ruins of Salamis. The population in 1901 was +818, nearly all being Moslems who live within the walls of the fortress; +the Christian population has migrated to a suburb called Varosia (pop. +2948). The foundation of Salamis (q.v.) was ascribed to Teucer: it was +probably the most important town in early Cyprus. The revolt of the Jews +under Trajan, and earthquakes in the time of Constantius and Constantine +the Great helped in turn to destroy it. It was restored by Fl. +Constantius II. (A.D. 337-361) as Constantia. Another town a little to +the south, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus in 274 B.C., and called Arsinoe +in honour of his sister, received the refugees driven from Constantia by +the Arabs under Mu'awiyah, became the seat of the orthodox +archbishopric, and was eventually known as Famagusta. It received a +large accession of population at the fall of Acre in 1291; was annexed +by the Genoese in 1376; reunited to the throne of Cyprus in 1464; and +surrendered, after an investment of nearly a year, to the Turks in 1571. +The fortifications, remodelled by the Venetians after 1489, the castle, +the grand cathedral church of St Nicolas, and the remains of the palace +and many other churches make Famagusta a place of unique interest. Acts +ii. and v. of Shakespeare's _Othello_ pass there. In 1903 measures were +taken to develop the fine natural harbour of Famagusta. Basins were +dredged to give depths of 15 and 24 ft. respectively at ordinary low +tides, and commodious jetties and quays were constructed. + + + + +FAMILIAR (through the Fr. _familier_, from Lat. _familiaris_, of or +belonging to the _familia_, family), an adjective, properly meaning +belonging to the family or household, but in this sense the word is +rare. The more usual meanings are: friendly, intimate, well known; and +from its application to the easy relations of intimate friends the term +may be used in an invidious sense of "free and easy" conduct on the part +of any one not justified by any close relationship, friendship or +intimacy. "Familiar" is, however, also used as a substantive, +especially of the spirit or demon which attended on a wizard or +magician, and was summoned to execute his master's wishes. The idea +underlies the notion of the Christian guardian angel and of the Roman +_genius natalis_ (see DEMONOLOGY; WITCHCRAFT). In the Roman Church the +term is applied to persons attached to the household of the pope or of +bishops. These must actually do some domestic service. They are +supported by their patron, and enjoy privileges which in the case of the +papal familiars are considerable. "Familiars of the Holy Office" were +lay officers of the Inquisition, whose functions were chiefly those of +police, in making arrests, &c., of persons charged. + + + + +FAMILISTS, a term of English origin (later adopted in other languages) +to denote the members of the _Familia Caritatis_ (_Hus der Lieften_; +_Huis der Liefde_; _Haus der Liebe_; "Family of Love"), founded by +Hendrik Niclaes (born on the 9th or 10th of January 1501 or 1502, +probably at Münster; died after 1570, not later than 1581, probably in +1580). His calling was that of a merchant, in which he and his son Franz +prospered, becoming ultimately wealthy. Not till 1540 did he appear in +the character of one divinely endowed with "the spirit of the true love +of Jesus Christ." For twenty years (1540-1560) Emden was the +headquarters at once of his merchandise and of his propaganda; but he +travelled in both interests to various countries, visiting England in +1552 or 1553. To this period belong most of his writings. His primary +work was _Den Spegel der Gherechticheit dorch den Geist der Liefden unde +den vergodeden Mensch H.N. uth de hemmelische Warheit betüget_. It +appeared in an English form with the author's revision, as _An +Introduction to the holy Understanding of the Glasse of Righteousness_ +(1575?; reprinted in 1649). None of his works bear his name in full; his +initials were mystically interpreted as standing for _Homo Novus_. His +"glass of righteousness" is the spirit of Christ as interpreted by him. +The remarkable fact was brought out by G. Arnold (and more fully by F. +Nippold in 1862) that the printer of Niclaes's works was Christopher +Plantin, of Antwerp, a specially privileged printer of Roman Catholic +theology and liturgy, yet secretly a steadfast adherent of Niclaes. It +is true that Niclaes claimed to hold an impartial attitude towards all +existing religious parties, and his mysticism, derived from David Joris, +was undogmatic. Yet he admitted his followers by the rite of adult +baptism, and set up a hierarchy among them on the Roman model (see his +_Evangelium Regni_, in English _A Joyfull Message of the Kingdom_, +1574?; reprinted, 1652). His pantheism had an antinomian drift; for +himself and his officials he claimed impeccability; but, whatever truth +there may be in the charge that among his followers were those who +interpreted "love" as licence, no such charge can be sustained against +the morals of Niclaes and the other leaders of the sect. His chief +apostle in England was Christopher Vitel, a native of Delft, an +"illuminate elder," living at Colchester and Southwark, who ultimately +recanted. The society spread in the eastern counties, in spite of +repressive measures; it revived under the Commonwealth, and lingered +into the early years of the 18th century; the leading idea of its +"service of love" was a reliance on sympathy and tenderness for the +moral and spiritual edification of its members. Thus, in an age of +strife and polemics, it seemed to afford a refuge for quiet, gentle +spirits, and meditative temperaments. + + See F. Nippold, "H. Niclaes u. das Haus der Liebe," in _Zeitschrift + für die histor. Theol._ (1862); article "H. Niclaes" in A.J. van der + Aa, Biog. _Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1868); article "H. Nicholas," + by C. Fell Smith, in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1894); article "Familisten," + by Loofs, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1898). (A. Go.*) + + + + +FAMILY, a word of which the etymology but partially illustrates the +meaning. The Roman _familia_, derived from the Oscan _famel_ (_servus_), +originally signified the servile property, the thralls, of a master. +Next, the term denoted other domestic property, in things as well as in +persons. Thus, in the fifth of the laws of the Twelve Tables, the rules +are laid down: SI . INTESTATO . MORITUR . CUI · SUUS · HERES · NEC · SIT +· ADGNATUS · PROXIMUS · AMILIAM · ABETO, and SI · AGNATUS · NEC · ESCIT +· GENTILIS · FAMILIAM · NANCITOR; that is, if a man die intestate, +leaving no natural heir who had been under his _potestas_, the nearest +agnate, or relative tracing his connexion with the deceased exclusively +through males, is to inherit the _familia_, or family fortune of every +sort. Failing an agnate, a member of the _gens_ of the dead man is to +inherit. In a third sense, _familia_ was applied to all the persons who +could prove themselves to be descended from the same ancestor, and thus +the word almost corresponded to our own use of it in the widest meaning, +as when we say that a person is "of a good family" (Ulpian, _Dig._ 50, +16, 195 _fin_.). + + + Old theory. + +1. Leaving for awhile the Roman terms, to which it will be necessary to +return, we may provisionally define Family, in the modern sense, as the +small community formed by the union of one man with one woman, and by +the increase of children born to them. These in modern times, and in +most European countries, constitute the household, and it has been +almost universally supposed that little natural associations of this +sort are the germ-cell of early society. The Bible presents the growth +of the Jewish nation from the one household of Abraham. His patriarchal +family differed from the modern family in being polygamous, but, as +female chastity was one of the conditions of the patriarchal family, and +as descent through males was therefore recognized as certain, the +plurality of wives makes no real difference to the argument. In the same +way the earliest formal records of Indian, Greek and Roman society +present the family as firmly established, and generally regarded as the +most primitive of human associations. Thus, Aristotle derives the first +household ([Greek: oikia prôtê]) from the combination of man's +possession of property--in the slave or in domesticated animals--with +man's relation to woman, and he quotes Hesiod: [Greek: oikon men +prôtista gunaika te boun t' arotêra] (_Politics_, i. 2. 5). The village, +again, with him is a colony or offshoot of the household, and +monarchical government in states is derived from the monarchy of the +eldest male member of the family. Now, though certain ancient terms, +introduced by Aristotle in the chapters to which we refer, might have +led him to imagine a very different origin of society, his theory is, on +the face of it, natural and plausible, and it has been almost +universally accepted. The beginning of society, it has been said a +thousand times, is the family, a natural association of kindred by +blood, composed of father, mother and their descendants. In this family, +the father is absolute master of his wife, his children and the goods of +the little community; at his death his eldest son succeeds him; and in +course of time this association of kindred, by natural increase and by +adoption, develops into the clan, _gens_, or [Greek: genos]. As +generations multiply, the more distant relations split off into other +clans, and these clans, which have not lost the sense of primitive +kinship, unite once more into tribes. The tribes again, as civilization +advances, acknowledge themselves to be subjects of a king, in whose +veins the blood of the original family runs purest. This, or something +like this, is the common theory of the growth of society. + + + Modern criticism + +2. It was between 1866 and 1880 that the common opinion began to be +seriously opposed. John Ferguson McLennan, in his _Primitive Marriage_ +and his essays on _The Worship of Plants and Animals_ (see his _Studies +in Ancient History_, second series), drew attention to the wide +prevalence of the custom of inheriting the kinship name through mothers, +not fathers; and to the law of "Exogamy" (q.v.). The former usage he +attributed to archaic uncertainty as to fatherhood; the natural result +of absolute sexual promiscuity, or of Polyandry (q.v.). Either practice +is inconsistent, prima facie, with the primitive existence of the +Family, whether polygamous or monogamous, whether patriarchal or modern. +The custom of Exogamy, again,--here taken to mean the unwritten law +which makes it incest, and a capital offence, to marry within the real +or supposed kin denoted by the common name of the kinship,--pointed to +an archaic condition of family affairs all unlike our Table of +prohibited degrees. This law of Exogamy was found, among many savage +races, associated with Totems, that is plants, animals and other +natural objects which give names to the various kinships, and are +themselves, in various degrees, reverenced by members of the kinships. +(See TOTEM AND TOTEMISM.) Traces of such kinships, and of Totemism, also +of alleged promiscuity in ancient times, were detected by McLennan in +the legends, folk-lore and institutions of Greece, Rome and India. +Later, Prof. Robertson Smith found similar survivals, or possible +survivals, among the Semitic races (_Kinship in Early Arabia_). Others +have followed the same trail among the Celts (S. Reinach, _Cultes, +mythes et religions_, 1904). + +If arguments founded on these alleged survivals be valid, it may be that +the most civilized races have passed through the stages of Exogamy, +Totemism and reckoning descent in the female line. McLennan explained +Exogamy as a result of scarcity of women, due to female infanticide. +Women being scarce, the men of a group would steal them from other +groups, and it would become shameful, and finally a deadly sin, for a +man to marry within his own group-name, or name of kinship, say Wolf or +Raven. Meanwhile, owing to scarcity of women, one woman would be the +mate of many husbands (polyandry); hence, paternity being undetermined, +descent would be reckoned through mothers. + + + McLennan's value. + +Such are the outlines of McLennan's theory, which, as a whole, has been +attacked by many writers, and is now, perhaps, accepted by none. +McLennan's was the most brilliant pioneer work; but his supply of facts +was relatively scanty, and his friend Charles Darwin stated objections +which to many seem final, as regards the past existence of a stage of +sexual promiscuity. C.N. Starcke (_The Primitive Family_, 1889), Edward +Alexander Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, 1891), Ernest +Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_), Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Lord +Avebury and many others, have criticized McLennan, who, however, in +coining the term Exogamy, and drawing scientific attention to Totemism, +and reckoning of kin through mothers, founded the study of early +society. Here it must be observed that "Matriarchate" (q.v.) is a +misleading term, as is "Gynaecocracy," for the custom of deducing +descent on the spindle side. Women among totemistic and exogamous +savages are in a degraded position, nor does the deriving and inheriting +of the kinship name, or anything else, on the spindle side, imply any +ignorance of paternal relations; even where, as among Central Australian +tribes, the facts of reproduction are said to be unknown. + + + Lewis Morgan. + +3. Simultaneous with McLennan's researches and speculations were the +works of Lewis H. Morgan. He was the discoverer of a custom very +important in its bearing on the history of society. In about two-thirds +of the globe, persons in addressing a kinsman do not discriminate between +grades of relationship. All these grades are merged in large categories. +Thus, in what Morgan calls the "Malayan system," "all _consanguinei_, +near or far, fall within one of these relationships--grandparent, parent, +brother, sister, child and grandchild." No other blood-relationships are +recognized (_Ancient Society_). This at once reminds us of the Platonic +Republic. "We devised means that no one should ever be able to know his +own child, but that all should imagine themselves to be of one family, +and should regard as brothers and sisters those who were within a certain +limit of age; and those who were of an elder generation they were to +regard as parents and grandparents, and those who were of a younger +generation as children and grandchildren" (_Timaeus_, 18, Jowett's +translation, first edition, vol. ii., 1871). This system prevails in the +Polynesian groups and in New Zealand. Next comes what Morgan chooses to +call the Turanian system. "It was universal among the North American +aborigines," whom he styles Ganowanians. "Traces of it have been found in +parts of Africa" (_Ancient Society_), and "it still prevails in South +India among the Hindus, who speak the Dravidian language," and also in +North India, among other Hindus. The system, Morgan says, "is simply +stupendous." It is not exactly the same among all his miscellaneous +"Turanians," but, on the whole, assumes the following shapes. Suppose the +speaker to be a male, he will style his nephew and niece in the male +line, his brother's children, "son" and "daughter," and his grand-nephews +and grand-nieces in the male line, "grandson" and "granddaughter." Here +the Turanian and the Malayan systems agree. But change the sex; let the +male speaker address his nephews and nieces in the female line,--the +children of his sister,--he salutes them as "nephew" and "niece," and +they hail him as "uncle." Now, in the Malay system, nephews and nieces on +both sides, brother's children or sisters, are alike named "children" of +the uncle. If the speaker be a female, using the Turanian style, these +terms are reversed. Her sister's sons and daughters are saluted by her as +"son" and "daughter," her brother's children she calls "nephew" and +"niece." Yet the children of the persons thus styled "nephew" and "niece" +are not recognized in conversation as "grand-nephew" and "grand-niece," +but as "grandson" and "granddaughter." It is impossible here to do more +than indicate these features of the classificatory nomenclature, from +which the others may be inferred. The reader is referred for particulars +to Morgan's _Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Race_. + +The existence of the classificatory system is not an entirely novel +discovery. Nicolaus Damascenus, one of the inquirers into early society, +who lived in the first century of our era, noticed this mode of address +among the Galactophagi. Lafitau found it among the Iroquois. To Morgan's +perception of the importance of the facts, and to his energetic +collection of reports, we owe our knowledge of the wide prevalence of +the system. From an examination of the degrees of kindred which seem to +be indicated by the "Malayan" and "Turanian" modes of address, he has +worked out a theory of the evolution of the modern family. A brief +comparison of this with other modern theories will close our account of +the family. The main points of the theory are shortly stated in _Systems +of Consanguinity_, &c., and in _Ancient Society_. From the latter work +we quote the following description of the five different and successive +forms of the family:-- + + "I. _The Consanguine Family._--It was founded upon the intermarriage + of brothers and sisters, own and collateral, in a group. + + "II. _The Punaluan Family._--It was founded upon the intermarriage of + several sisters, own and collateral, with each others' husbands, in a + group--the joint husbands not being necessarily kinsmen of each other; + also, on the intermarriage of several brothers, own and collateral, + with each others' wives in a group--these wives not being necessarily + of kin to each other, although often the case in both instances (sic). + In each case the group of men were conjointly married to the group of + women. + + "III. _The Syndyasmian or Pairing Family._--It was founded upon + marriage between single pairs, but without an exclusive cohabitation. + The marriage continued during the pleasure of the parties. + + "IV. _The Patriarchal Family._--It was founded upon the marriage of + one man with several wives, followed in general by the seclusion of + the wives. + + "V. _The Monogamian Family._--It was founded upon marriage between + single pairs with an exclusive cohabitation. + + "Three of these forms, namely, the first, second, and fifth, were + radical, because they were sufficiently general, and influential to + create three distinct systems of consanguinity, all of which still + exist in living forms. Conversely, these systems are sufficient of + themselves to prove the antecedent existence of the forms of the + family and of marriage with which they severally stand connected." + +Morgan makes the systems of nomenclature proofs of the existence of the +Consanguine and Punaluan families. Unhappily, there is no other proof, +and the same systems have been explained on a very different principle +(McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_). Looking at facts, we find the +Consanguine family nowhere, and cannot easily imagine how early groups +abstained from infringing on each other, and created a systematic +marriage of brothers and sisters. St Augustine, however (De civ. Dei, +xv. 16), and Archinus in his _Thessalica_ (_Odyssey_, xi. 7, scholia B, +Q) agree more or less with Morgan. Next, how did the Consanguine family +change into the Punaluan? Morgan says (_Ancient Society_) brothers +ceased to marry their sisters, because "the evils of it could not for +ever escape human observation." Thus the Punaluan family was hit upon, +and "created a distinct system of consanguinity" (_Ancient Society_), +the Turanian. Again, "marriages in Punaluan groups explain the +relationships in the system." But Morgan provides himself with another +explanation, "the Turanian system owes its origin to marriage in the +group _and_ to the gentile organization." He calls exogamy "the gentile +organization," though, in point of fact, the only gentes we know, the +Roman gentes, show scarcely a trace of exogamy. Again, "the change of +relationships which resulted from substituting Punaluan in the place of +Consanguine marriage turns the Malayan into the Turanian system." On the +same page Morgan attributes the change to the "gentile organization," +and, still on the same page, uses _both_ factors in his working out of +the problem. Now, if the Punaluan marriage is a sufficient explanation, +we do not need the "gentile organization." Both, in Morgan's opinion, +were efforts of conscious moral reform. In _Systems of Consanguinity_ +the gentile organization (there called tribal), that is, exogamy, is +said to have been "designed to work out a reformation in the +intermarriage of brothers and sisters." But the Punaluan marriage had +done that, otherwise it would not have produced (as Morgan says it did) +the change from the Malayan to the Turanian system, the difference in +the two systems, as exemplified in Seneca and Tamil, being "in the +relationships which depended on the intermarriage or non-intermarriage +of brothers and sisters" (_Ancient Society_). Yet the Punaluan family, +though itself a reform in morals and in "breeding," "did not furnish +adequate motives to reform the Malay system," which, as we have seen, it +did reform. The Punaluan family, it is suspected, "frequently involved +own brothers and sisters"; had it not been so, there would have been no +need of a fresh moral reformation,--"the gentile organization." Yet even +in the Punaluan family (_Ancient Society_) "brothers ceased to marry +their own sisters." What, then, did the "gentile organization" do for +men? As they had already ceased to marry their own sisters, and as, +under the gentile organization, they were still able to marry their +half-sisters, the reformatory "ingenuity" of the inventors of the +organizations was at once superfluous and useless. It is impossible to +understand the Punaluan system. Its existence is inferred from a system +of nomenclature which it does (and does not) produce; it admits (and +excludes) own brothers and sisters. Morgan has intended, apparently, to +represent the Punaluan marriage as a long transition to the definite +custom of exogamy, but it will be seen that his language is not very +clear nor his positions assured. He does not adduce sufficient proof +that the Punaluan family ever existed as an institution, even in Hawaii. +There is, if possible, a greater absence of historical testimony to the +existence of the Consanguine family. It is difficult to believe that +exogamy was a conscious moral and social reformation, because, _ex +hypothesi_, the savages had no moral data, nothing to cause disgust at +relations which seem revolting to us. It is as improbable that they +discovered the supposed physical evils of breeding in and in. That +discovery could only have been made after a long experience, and in the +Consanguine family that experience was impossible. Thus, setting moral +reform aside as inconceivable, we cannot understand how the Consanguine +families ever broke up. Morgan's ingenious speculations as to a +transitional step towards the gens (as he calls what we style the +totem-kindred), supposed to be found in the "classes" and marriage laws +of the Kamilaroi, are vitiated by the weakness and contradictory nature +of the evidence (see Pritchard; J.D. Lang's Queensland, Appendix; +_Proceedings of American Academy of Arts_, &c., vol. viii. 412; Nature, +October 29, 1874). Further, though Morgan calls the Australian "gentile +organization" "incipient," he admits (_Ancient Society_) that the +Narrinyeri have totem groups, in which "the children are of the clan of +the father." Far from being "incipient," the gens of the Narrinyeri is +on the footing of the ghotra of Hindu custom. Lastly, though Morgan +frequently declares that the Polynesians have not the gens (for he +thinks them not sufficiently advanced), W.W. Gill (_Myths and Songs from +the South Pacific_, London, 1876) has shown that unmistakable traces of +the totem survive in Polynesian mythology. + + + Rival theories. + +4. Morgan's theory was opposed by McLennan (_Studies in Ancient +History_, 1876), who maintained that the names of relationships, in the +"classificatory system," were merely terms of address, as among +ourselves when a preacher calls any adult male "brother," when an old +woman is addressed as "mother," when an elder man calls a junior "my +son." He also showed that his own system accounted for the terms. The +controversy is still alive; one set of writers regarding the savage +terms of relationship as indicating a state of things in which human +beings dwelt in a "horde," with promiscuous intercourse; another set +holding that the terms do not indicate consanguineous kinship, but +degrees of age, status, and reciprocal obligations in a local _tribe_, +and therefore that they do not yield any presumption that there was a +past of promiscuity or of what is called "group marriage." On Morgan's +side (not of course accepting all his details) are L. Fison and A.W. +Howitt, and Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen. Against him are Starcke, +Westermarck, A. Lang, Dr Durkheim, apparently, Crawley and many others. + + + Evidence of original promiscuity. + +5. A second presumption in favour of original promiscuity has been drawn +by the eminent Australian students, Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen, and +by A.W. Howitt, from the customs of some Australian aborigines. In each +tribe, owing to customary laws which are to be examined later, only men +and women of a given status are intermarriageable (_nupa_, _noa_, +_unawa_) with each other. Though child-betrothals are usual, and though +the woman is specialized to one man, who protects and nourishes her and +all her children, and though their union is immediately preceded by an +extended _jus primae noctis_ (such as Herodotus describes among the +Nasamones), yet, among certain tribes, the following custom prevails. At +great meetings the tribal leaders assign a woman as paramour (with what +amount of permanence remains obscure) to a man (_pirrauru_); one woman +may have several _pirrauru_ men, one man several _pirrauru_ women, in +addition to their regularly betrothed (_tippa malku_) wives and +husbands. The husband occasionally shows fight, and bitter jealousies +prevail, but, at the great ceremonial meetings, complaisance is enforced +under penalty of strangling. Thenceforth, if the husband permits, the +male _pirrauru_ has matrimonial rights over the other man's _tippa +malku_ wife when they meet. A symbolic ceremony of union precedes the +junction of the _pirrauru_ people. This institution, as far as reported, +is peculiar to a group of tribes near Lake Eyre, the Dieri, Urabunna, +and their congeners,--or perhaps to all who have the same "phratry" +names as the Dieri and Urabunna (_Kiraru_ and _Mattera_, in various +dialectic forms). + +Elsewhere the _pirrauru_ custom is not known: but almost everywhere +there are licentious festivals, in which all marriage rules except those +which forbid incest (in our sense of the word, namely between the +closest relations) are thrown to the winds. Also a native travelling +among alien tribes is lent women of the status into which he may legally +marry. + + + Group marriage. + +Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen, and A.W. Howitt, regard _pirrauru_ as +"group marriage" and as a proof that, at one time, all intermarriageable +people were actually husbands and wives, while the other examples of +licence are also survivals, in a later stage of decay, of promiscuity, +and "group marriage." To this it is replied that "_group_ marriage" is a +misnomer; that if _pirrauru_ be in a sense marriage it is _status_, not +_group_ marriage. Again, it is urged, _pirrauru_ is a modification of +_tippa malku_, which comes first; a woman is "specialized" to a man +_before_ she can be made _pirrauru_ to another, and her tippa _malku +husband_ continues to support her, and to recognize her children as his +own, after she has become _pirrauru_ to another man or other men. +Without the foregoing _tippa malku_ union, the _pirrauru_ unions are not +conceivable; they are mere legalized paramourships, modifying the _tippa +malku_ marriage (like the Italian cicisbeism); procuring a protector for +a woman in her husband's absence, and supplying legal loves for +bachelors. The custom is peculiar to a given set of kindred tribes. The +festivals are the legalized, restricted and more or less permanent +modification of the casual orgies of feasts of licence, or _Saturnalia_, +which have their analogies among many people, ancient and modern. +_Pirrauru_ is no more a survival of and a proof of primitive +promiscuity, than is the legalized incest of ancient Egypt or ancient +Peru. If these views be correct the argument for primitive promiscuity +derived from _pirrauru_ falls to the ground. + + + The historical problem. + +6. The questions at issue obviously are, was mankind originally +promiscuous, with no objections to marriage between persons of the +nearest kin; and was the first step in advance the prohibition of +marriage (or of amatory intercourse) between brothers and sisters; or +did mankind originally live in very small groups, under a jealous sire, +who imposed restrictions on intercourse between the young males, his +sons, and all the females of the "hearth-circle," who constituted his +harem? The problem has been studied, first, in the institutions of +savages, notably of the most backward savages, the black natives of +Australia; and next, in the light of the habits of the higher mammalia. + +As regards Australian matrimonial institutions, it has been known since +the date of the _Journals of two Expeditions of Discovery_, by Sir +George Grey (1837-1839), that they are very complex and peculiar, in +points strongly resembling the customary laws of the more backward Red +Indian tribes of North America. Information came in, while McLennan was +working, from G. Taplin (_The Narrinyeri_, 1874), from A.W. Howitt and +L. Fison, and many other inquirers (in Brough Smyth's _Aborigines of +Victoria_, 1878), from Howitt and Fison again (in _Kamilaroi and +Kurnai_, 1880), and many essays by these authors, and finally, in +_Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (1899) and _Northern Tribes of +Central Australia_ (1904), by Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen; and in +Howitt's _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (1904), with R. Roth's +_North-West Central Queensland Aborigines_ (1897). All of these are +works of very high merit. Knowledge is now much more wide, minute and +securely based than it was when McLennan's _Studies in Ancient History_, +second series, was posthumously published (1896). We know with certainty +that in Australia, among archaic savages who have neither metals, +agriculture, pottery nor domesticated animals, a graduated scale of +matrimonial institutions exists. First there are _local_ tribes, each +tribe having its own dialect; holding a recognized area of territory; +and living on friendly terms with neighbouring tribes. Territorial +conquest is never attempted. In many cases a knot of tribes of allied +dialects and kindred rites may be, or at least is, spoken of as a +"nation" by our authorities. + + + Primitive restrictions on marriage. + +7. Customary law is administered by the Seniors, the wise, the magically +skilled, who in many cases are "headmen" of local groups or of sets of +kindred. As to marriage, persons may wed within the local tribe, or into +a neighbouring local tribe, at will, provided that they obey the +restrictions of customary law. The local tribe is neither exogamous nor +endogamous, any more than is an English county. The restrictions, except +where they have become obsolete, fall into six main categories:-- + +(1) In the most primitive, each tribe consists of two intermarrying and +exogamous divisions, which are often styled _phratries_. Each such +division has a name, which, when it can be translated, is the name of an +animal: in the majority of cases, however, the meaning of the phratry +name is lost. In one instance, that of the Euahlayi tribe of north-west +New South Wales, the phratry names are said (by Mrs Langloh Parker) to +mean "Light Blood" and "Dark Blood." This, as in the theory of the Rev. +J. Mathews, _Eagle and Crow_, might be taken to indicate a blending of +two distinct _races_. + +Taking, for the sake of clearness, tribes whose phratry names mean +"Crow" and "Eagle Hawk," every member of the tribe belongs either to +Eagle Hawk phratry or to Crow phratry: if to Crow, the man or woman can +only marry an Eagle Hawk, if to Eagle Hawk, can only marry a Crow. The +children invariably belong to the phratry of the mother, in this most +primitive type. Within Eagle Hawk phratry is one set of totem kins, +named usually after various species of animals and plants; within Crow +phratry is another set of totem kins, named always (except in one region +of Central Australia) after a _different_ set of plants and animals. +With the exception mentioned (that of the Arunta "nation"), in no tribe +does the same totem ever occur in both phratries. Totems and totem names +are inherited by the children from the mother, in this primitive type. +Thus a man, Eagle Hawk by phratry, Snipe by totem, marries a woman Crow +by phratry, Black Duck by totem. His children by her are of phratry +Crow, of totem Black Duck. Obviously no person can marry another of his +or her own totem, because, in the phratry into which he or she _must_ +marry, no man or woman of his or her totem exists. The prohibition +extends to members of alien and remote tribes, if of the same totem +name. + +The same rules exist in the more primitive North American tribes, but as +the phratry there has generally, though not always, decayed, the rule, +where this has occurred, merely forbids marriage within the totem kin. + +(2) We find this type of organization, where the child inherits phratry +and totem from the father, not from the mother. + +(3) We find tribes in which phratry and totem are inherited from the +mother, but an additional rule prevails: the rule of "Matrimonial +Classes." By this device, in phratry "Dilbi," there are two classes, +"Muri" and "Kubi." In phratry "Kupathin" are two classes, "Ipai" and +"Kumbo" (all these names are of unknown meaning). Each child inherits +its mother's phratry name and totem name, and also the name of that +class of the two in the mother's phratry to which the mother does _not_ +belong. No person may marry into his or her own class--practically into +his or her own generation: the rule makes parental and filial marriages +impossible,--but these never occur even among more primitive tribes +which have not the institution of classes. Suppose that the class names +are really names of animals and other objects in nature--as in a few +cases they actually are. Then the rules, where classes exist, would +amount to this: no person may marry another who, by phratry, totem or +generation, owns the same hereditary animal name as himself or herself. +In practice, where phratries exist, a man who knows a woman's phratry +name knows whether or not he may marry her. Where class names exist +(even though the phratry name be lost), a man who knows a woman's class +name knows whether or not he may marry her. Nothing can be simpler in +practice. + +(4) The same rules as under (3) exist, but the phratry, totem and class +are inherited through the father: the class of the child of course not +being the father's, but the linked class in his phratry. + +(5) In the fifth category (Central North Australia), while phratry name +(if not lost) and totem name are inherited from the father, by a +refinement of law which is spreading southwards there are _four_ classes +in each phratry (or main exogamous division unnamed), and the choice of +a partner in life is thus more restricted than in more primitive tribes. + + + Arunta customs. + +(6) Finally we reach the institutions of the group of tribes called, +from the name of the most powerful tribe in the set, "the Arunta +nation." They occupy the Macdonnell Ranges and other territory in the +very centre of Australia. The Arunta reckon kinship in the male line: +their phratry names they have forgotten, in place of phratries eight +matrimonial classes regulate marriage. In these respects they resemble +most of the central and northern tribes, but present this unique +peculiarity, that the same totems may and do exist in _both_ of the +opposed intermarrying exogamous divisions consisting of four classes +each. It thus results that a man, in the Arunta tribe, may marry a woman +of his own totem, if she be in the class with which he may intermarry. +This licence is unknown in every other part of the totemic world, and +even in the Kaitish tribe of the Arunta nation intertotemic marriages, +in practice, almost never occur. + +Among the Arunta the totems are only prominent in magical ceremonies, +unknown in South-Eastern Australia. At these ceremonies (Intichiuma) the +men of the totem do cooperative magic for the benefit of their plant or +animal, as part of the tribal food-supply. The members of the totem +taste it sparingly on these occasions, apparently under the belief that +to do so increases their magical power: the rest of the tribe eat +freely. But, as far as denoting kinship or regulating marriage is +concerned, the totems, among the Arunta, have no legally important +existence. Men and women of the same totem may intermarry, their +children need not belong to the totem of either father or mother. + +The process by which Arunta totems came thus to differ from those of all +other savages is easily understood. Like the other tribes from the +centre to the north (including the Urabunna nation, which reckons +descent through women), the Arunta believe that the souls of the primal +semi-bestial ancestors of the Alcheringa or "dream time" are perpetually +reincarnated. This opinion does not affect by itself the usual exogamous +character of totemism among the other tribes. The Arunta nation, +however, cultivates an additional myth, namely that the primal +ancestors, when they sank into the ground, left behind them certain oval +stone slabs, with archaic markings, called _churinga nanja_, or "sacred +things of the _nanja_." The _nanja_, again, is a tree or rock, fabled to +have risen up to mark the spot where a group of primal ancestors, all of +one and the same totem in each case (Cats here, Grubs there, Ducks +elsewhere), "went into the ground." The souls of these ancestors haunt +such spots, especially they haunt the nanja tree or rock, and the stone +_churinga nanja_. Each district, therefore, has its own _oknanikilla_ +(or local totem centre of the ghosts), Cat ghosts, Grub ghosts, Hakea +flower ghosts and so on. These spirits enter into women and are reborn +as children. When a child comes to birth, the mother names the +oknanikilla in which she conceived it, and, whatever the ghost totem of +that place may be, it is the child's totem. Its mother may be a Grub, +its father may be a Crow, but if the child was conceived in a Duck, or +Cat, or Opossum or Kangaroo locality, it is, by totem, a Cat, Opossum, +Duck or Kangaroo. The _churinga nanja_ of its primal ancestor is sought +for at the place of the child's conception, and is put into the sacred +repository of such objects. + +Thus the child does not inherit its totem from father, or from mother, +as everywhere else, but _does_ inherit the right to do ceremonies for +the paternal totem: a proof that, of old, totems were inherited, as +elsewhere, and that in the male line. If totems among the Arunta, as +everywhere else, were once arranged on the plan that the same totem +never occurs in both exogamous moieties, that arrangement has been +destroyed, as was inevitable, by the existing method of allotting totems +to children,--not by inheritance,--but at haphazard. By this means (a +consequence of the unique Arunta belief about _churinga nanja_) the same +totems have got into _both_ exogamous moieties, so that persons of the +same totem, but of appropriate matrimonial classes, may marry. This +licence is absolutely confined to the limited region in which stone +_churinga nanja_ occur. + +The whole system is impossible except where descent is reckoned in the +male line, for there alone is _local_ totemism possible, and the Arunta +system is based on local totemism, _plus_ the _churinga nanja_ and +reincarnation beliefs. With reckoning of descent in the female line, no +locality can possibly have its _local_ totem: all the totems +indiscriminately distributed everywhere: and thus no woman can say in +what totemic locality her child was conceived, for there is not and +cannot be, with female descent, any totemic _locality_. Now it is +admitted that reckoning by female descent is the earlier method, and it +is granted that in rites and ceremonies the Arunta are of a relatively +advanced and highly organized pattern. Their social organization is +local, and they have a kind of local magistracies, hereditary in the +male line. + +In spite of these facts, Spencer and Gillen conceive that the peculiar +totemism of the Arunta is the most primitive type extant (cp. Spencer, +_J.A.I._ (N.S.), vol. i. 275-281; and Frazer, _ibid._ 281-288). It is +not easy to understand this position, as, without male kinship and +consequent local totemism (which are not primitive), and without the +_churinga nanja_ (which exist only in a strictly limited area), the +Arunta system of non-exogamous totems cannot possibly exist. Again, the +other tribes cannot have passed through the Arunta stage, for, if they +had, their totems would have existed, as among the Arunta, in _both_ +exogamous moieties, and would there remain when they came to be +inherited; so that the totems of all these tribes would still be +non-exogamous, like those of the Arunta. But this is not the case. Once +more, it is clear that the Arunta system has but recently reached their +neighbours, the Kaitish, for though they have the _churinga nanja_ +belief, and the haphazard method of acquiring totems by local accident, +these things have not yet overcome the old traditional reluctance to +marry within the totem name. It is not unlawful among the Kaitish; but +it is hardly ever done. + +Despite these objections, however, Spencer and Gillen hold, as we have +said, that, originally, there were no restrictions (or no known +restrictions) on marriage. Totems were merely the result of the +formation of co-operative magical societies, in the interest of the +tribal food supply. Then, in some unknown way, regulations as to +marriage were introduced for some unknown purpose, or were involved in +some manner not understood. "The traditions of the Arunta," says +Spencer, "point to a very definite introduction of an exogamous system +long after the totemic groups were fully developed, and, further, they +point very clearly to the fact that the introduction was due to the +deliberate action of certain ancestors. Our knowledge of the natives +leads us to the opinion that it is quite possible that this really took +place, that the exogamic groups were deliberately introduced so as to +regulate marital relations." + +Thus the wisdom of men living promiscuously as regards marriage, but +organized in magical societies for the benefit of the common food supply +of the local _tribe_ (a complex institution postulated as already in +being at this early stage), induced them to institute exogamy. Why they +did this, what harm they saw in their promiscuity, we are not informed. +Spencer goes on, "by this we do not mean that the regulations had +anything whatever to do with the idea of incest, or of any harm accruing +from the union of individuals who were regarded as too nearly +related.... There was felt the need of some kind of organization, and +this gradually resulted in the development of exogamous groups." But as +"it is quite possible that the exogamous groups were deliberately +introduced to regulate marital relations," and as they could only do so +by introducing exogamy, we do not see how that system can be the result +of the _gradual_ development of an organization _quelconque_,--of +unknown nature. A magical organization already existed (_Journal of the +Anthropological Institute_, New Series, i. pp. 284-285). + +The traditions of the Arunta seem here to be first accepted: "quite +possibly" they are correct in stating that an exogamic system was +purposefully introduced, long after totemic groups had arisen, by "the +deliberate action of certain ancestors," and then that myth is rejected, +in favour of the _gradual_ development of exogamy, "out of some form of +organization," unknown. + +People who, like the Arunta, have lost memory of the very names of the +phratries, cannot conceivably remember the nature of the origin of +exogamy. Accustomed as they now are to tribal councils which introduce +new rules, they fancy that, in the beginning, new rules were thus +introduced. + + + Conclusion as to Spencer's hypothesis. + +Meanwhile the working of magic for the behoof of the totem animals and +plants, or rather for the name-giving animals of magical societies, is +not known to Howitt among the tribes of primitive social organization, +while it is well known among agricultural natives of the Torres Strait +Islands and among the advanced Sioux and Omaha of North America. The +practice seems to belong rather to the decadence than to the dawn of +totemism. On the whole, then, there seem to be insuperable difficulties +in the way of Spencer's hypothesis that mankind were promiscuous, as +regards marriage, but were organized into cooperative magical groups, +athwart which came, in some unexplained way, the rule of exogamy; while, +when it did come, all savages except the Arunta arranged matters so that +totem kins were exogamous. The reverse was probably the case, totem kins +were originally exogamous, and ceased to be so, and even to be kins +among the Arunta, in consequence of the _churinga nanja_ creed, becoming +co-operative magical societies (Hartland, Marett, Durkheim and others). + + + Origin of exogamy. + +8. Spencer and Gillen leave the origin of exogamy an open question. +Howitt supposes that, in the shape of the phratriac division of the +tribe into two exogamous moieties, the scheme may have been introduced +to the tribal headmen by a medicine man "announcing to his fellow +headman a command received from some supernatural being ..." (_Natives +of South-East Australia_, pp. 89, 90). The Council, so to speak, of +"headmen" accept the divine decree, and the assembled tribe pass the +Act. But this explanation explains nothing. Why did the prophet wish to +introduce exogamy? Why were names of animals given, in so many cases, to +the two exogamous divisions? As Howitt asks (op. cit. p. 153), "How was +it that men assumed the names of objects, which in fact must have been +the commencement of totemism?" + +It is apparent that any theory which begins by postulating the existence +of early mankind in promiscuous groups or hordes, into which exogamous +moieties are introduced by tribal decree, takes for granted that the +_tribe_, with its headman, councils and great meetings (not to mention +its inspired prophet, with the tribal "All Father" who inspires him), +existed before any rules regulating "marital relations" were evolved. +Even if all this were probable, we are not told why a promiscuous tribe +thought good to establish exogamous divisions. Some native myths +attribute the institution to certain wise ancestors; some to the +supernatural "All Father," say Baiame; some to a treaty between Eagle +Hawk and Crow, beings of cosmogonic legend, who give names to the +phratries. Such myths are mere hypotheses. It is impossible to imagine +how early savages, _ex hypothesi_ promiscuous, saw anything to reform in +their state of promiscuity. They now think certain unions wrong, because +they are forbidden: they were not forbidden, originally, because they +were thought wrong. + + + Westermarck + +Westermarck has endeavoured to escape the difficulty thus: "Among the +ancestors of man, as among other animals, there was no doubt a time when +blood relationship was no bar to sexual intercourse. But variations +here, as elsewhere, would naturally present themselves, and those of our +ancestors who avoided in and in breeding would survive," while the +others would die out. This appears to be orthodox evolutionary language, +but it carries us no further. Human societies are not animals or plants, +in whose structure various favourable "accidents" occur, producing +better types, which survive. We ask _why_ in human society did +"variations present themselves"; _why_ did certain sets of human beings +"avoid in and in breeding"? We are merely told that some of our +ancestors became exogamous and survived, while others remained +promiscuous and perished. No light is thrown on the problem,--wherefore +did some of our ancestors avoid in and in breeding, and become +exogamous? Nothing is gained by saying "thus an instinct would be +developed which would be powerful enough, as a rule, to prevent +injurious unions." There is no "instinct," there is a tribal law of +exogamy. If there had been an "instinct," it might account for the +avoidance of "in and in breeding"--that is, it might account for +exogamy, _ab initio_. But that is left unaccounted for by the theory +which, after maintaining that the avoidance produced the instinct, seems +to argue that the instinct produced the avoidance. Westermarck goes on +to say that "exogamy, as a natural extension of the instinct, would +arise when single families united in small hordes." But, if the single +families already had the "instinct," they would not marry within the +family: they would be exogamous,--marrying only into other +families,--_before_ they "united in small hordes." The difficulty of +accounting for exogamy does not seem to have been overcome, and no +attempt is made to explain the animal names of totem kins and phratries. +Westermarck, however, says that "there is no reason why we should +assume, as so many anthropologists have done, that primitive men lived +in small endogamous groups, practising incest in every degree," +although, as he also says, "there was no doubt a time when blood +relationship was no bar to sexual intercourse." If there was no bar, +people would "practise incest in every degree,"--what was there to +prevent them? (_History of Human Marriage_, pp. 352, 353 (1891)). + + + Durkheim. + +So far we have seen no luminous and consistent account of how mankind +became exogamous, if they began by being promiscuous. The theories rest +on the idea that man, dwelling in an "undivided horde" (except so far as +it was divided into co-operative magical societies), bisected it into +two exogamous intermarrying moieties. Durkheim has put forward a theory +which is not at all points easily understood. He supposes that, "at the +beginning of societies of men, incest was not prohibited ... before each +horde (_peuplade_) divided itself into two primitive 'clans' at least" +(_L'Année sociologique_, i. pp. 62, 63). Each of the two "clans" claimed +descent from a different animal, which was its totem, and its "god." The +two clans were exogamous,--out of respect to the blood of their totem +(with which every member of the clan is mystically one), and, being +hostile, the two clans raided each other for women. Each clan threw off +colonies, which took new totems, new "gods," though still owning some +regard to their original clan, from which they had seceded, while +abandoning its "god." When the two "primary clans" made alliance and +_connubium_, they became the phratries in the local tribe, and their +colonies became the totem kins within the phratries. + +We are not told why the original horde was disrupted into two hostile +and intermarrying "clans": we especially wonder why the horde, if it +wanted an animal god, did not choose one animal for the whole community; +and we may suspect that a difference of taste in animal "gods" caused +the hostility of the two clans. Nor do we see why, if things occurred +thus, the totem kins should not represent twenty or thirty differences +of religious taste, in the original horde, as to the choice of animal +gods. If the horde was going to vary in opinion, it is unlikely that +only _two_ factions put forward animal candidates for divinity. Again, a +"clan" (a totem kin, with exogamy and descent derived through mothers) +cannot overflow its territorial area and be therefore obliged to send +out colonies, for such a clan (as Durkheim himself remarks) has no +territorial area to overflow. It is not a _local_ institution at all. + +While these objections cannot but occur, Durkheim does provide a valid +reason for the existence of exogamy. When once the groups (however they +got them) had totems, with the usual taboos on any sort of use of the +totem by his human kinsfolk, the women of the kin would be tabooed to +the men of the same kin. In marrying a maiden of his own totem, a man +inevitably violates the sanctity of the blood of the totem (_L'Année +sociologique_, i. pp. 47-57. Cf. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_, +vol. i. pp. 162-166). + +Here at last we have a theory which accounts for the "religious horror" +that attaches to the violation of the rule of totemic exogamy: a +mysterious entity, the totem, is hereby offended. But how did totems, +animals, plants and so on, come to be mystically _solidaires_ with their +human namesakes and kinsmen? We do not observe that Dr Durkheim ever +explains _why_ two divisions of one horde chose each a different animal +god, or why the supposed colonies thrown off by these primary clans +deserted their animal gods for others, or why, and on what principle, +they all chose new "gods,"--fresh animals, plants and other objects. His +hereditary totem is, in practice, the last thing that a savage changes. +The only case of change on record is a recent attempt to increase the +range of legal marriages in a waning Australian tribe, on whose lands +certain species of animals are perishing. + + + Howitt's solution. + +Theories based on a supposed primal state of promiscuity certainly +encounter, when explaining the social oganization of Australian savages, +difficulties which they do not surmount. But Howitt has provided +(apparently without fully realizing the merit of his own suggestions) a +way out of the perplexities caused by the conception of early mankind +dwelling promiscuously in "undivided communes." The way out is +practically to say that, in everyday life, they lived in nothing of the +sort. Howitt writes (_Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 173): +"A study of the evidence ... has led me to the conclusion that the state +of society among the early Australians was that of an 'Undivided +Commune.'... It is, however, well to guard this expression. I do not +desire to imply necessarily the existence of complete and continuous +communism between the sexes. The character of the country, the necessity +of moving from one point to another in search of game and vegetable +food, would cause any Undivided Commune, when it assumed dimensions +greater than the immediate locality could provide with food, to break up +into two or more Communes of the same character. In addition to this it +is clear ... that in the past as now, individual likes and dislikes must +have existed, so that, admitting the existence of common rights between +the members of the Commune, these rights would remain in abeyance, so +far as the separated parts of the Commune were concerned. But at certain +gatherings ... or on great ceremonial occasions, all the segments of the +original Commune would reunite," and would behave in the fashion now +common in great licentious festive meetings. + + + Primitive promiscuity improbable. + +In the early ages contemplated, how can we postulate "great ceremonial +occasions" or even peaceful assemblies at fruit-bearing spots? How can +we postulate a surviving sense of solidarity among the scattered +segments of the Commune, obviously very small, owing to lack of +supplies, and perpetually disintegrated? But, taking the original groups +as very small, and as ruled by likes and dislikes, by affection and +jealousy, we are no longer concerned with a promiscuous horde, but with +a little knot of human beings, in whom love, parental affection and the +jealousy of sires, would promptly make discriminations between this +person and that person, as regards sexual privileges. Thus we have edged +away from the hypothesis of the promiscuous indiscriminating horde to +the opinion of Darwin. "We may conclude," he says, "from what we know of +the jealousy of all male quadrupeds, armed as many of them are with +special weapons for battling with their rivals, that promiscuous +intercourse in a state of Nature is extremely improbable.... The most +probable view is that Man originally lived in small communities, each +(man) with a single wife, or, if powerful, with-several, whom he +jealously guarded against all other men." But, in a community of this +early type, to guard women jealously would mean constant battle, at +least when Man became an animal who makes love all the year round. So +Darwin adds: "Or man may not have been a social animal, and yet have +lived with several wives, like the Gorilla,--for all the natives agree +that but one adult male is seen in a band; when the young male grows up +a contest takes place for the mastery, and the strongest, by killing or +driving out the others, establishes himself as head of the Community. +Younger males, being thus expelled and wandering about, would, when at +last successful in finding a partner, prevent too close interbreeding +within the limits of the same _family_" (_Descent of Man_, ii. pp. 361, +363 (1871)). + +Here, then, we have practical Exogamy, as regards unions of brothers and +sisters, among man still brutish, while the Sire is husband of the whole +harem of females, probably unchecked as regards his daughters. + + + Atkinson's theory. + +On this Darwinian text J.J. Atkinson builds his theory of the evolution +of exogamy and of savage society in his _Primal Law_ (_Social Origins +and Primal Law_, by Lang and Atkinson, 1903). Paternal jealousy "gave +birth to Primal Law, prohibitory of marriage between certain members of +a family or local group, and thus, in natural sequence, led to _forced_ +connubial selection _beyond_ its circle, that is, led to Exogamy ... as +a _habit_, not as an expressed law...." The "expressed law" was +necessarily a later development; conditioned by the circumstances which +produced totemism, and sanctioned, as on Durkheim's scheme, by the +totemic taboo. Atkinson worked out his theory by a minute study of +customs of avoidance between near kin by blood or affinity; by +observations on the customs of animals, and by hypotheses as to the very +gradual evolution of human restrictions through many modifications. He +also gave a theory of the "classificatory" system of names for +relationships opposed to that of Morgan. The names are based merely "on +reference to relativity of age of a class in relation to the group." The +exogamous moieties of a tribe (phratries) are not the result of a +reformatory legislative bisection of the tribe, but of the existence of +"two intermarrying totem clan groups." The whole treatise, allowing for +defects caused by the author's death before the book was printed, is +highly original and ingenious. The author, however, did not touch on the +evolution of totemism. + + + Lang's system. + +9. The following system, as a means of making intelligible the evolution +of Australian totemic society, is proposed by the present writer. We may +suggest that men originally lived in the state of "the Cyclopean family" +of Atkinson; that is, in Darwin's "family group," containing but one +adult male, with the females, the adolescent males being driven out, to +find each a female mate, or mates, elsewhere if they can. With increase +of skill, improvements in implements and mitigation of ferocity, such +groups may become larger, in a given area, but men may retain the habit +of seeking mates outside the limits of the group of contiguity; the +"avoidance" of brothers and sisters may already have arisen. Among the +advanced Arunta, now, a man may speak freely to his elder sisters; to +younger sisters, or "tribal sisters," he may not speak, "or only at such +a distance that the features are indistinguishable." This archaic rule +of avoidance would be a step facilitating the permission to adult males +to dwell in their paternal group, avoiding their sisters. Such groups, +whether habitually exogamous or not, will require names for each other, +and various reasons would yield a preference to names derived from +animals. These are easily signalled in gesture language; are easily +presented in pictographs and tattooing; are even now, among savages and +boys, the most usual sort of _personal_ nicknames; and are widely +employed as _group_ names of villagers in European folk-lore. Among +European rustics such group sobriquets are usual, but are resented. The +savage, with his ideas of the equality or superiority of animals to +himself, sees nothing to resent in an animal sobriquet, and the names, +originally group sobriquets, would not find more difficulty in being +accepted than "Whig," "Tory," "Huguenot," "Cavalier," "Christian," +"Cameronian,"--all of them originally nicknames given from without. +Again, "Wry Nose" and "Crooked Mouth" are _derisive_ nicknames, but they +are the translations of the ancient Celtic clan names Cameron and +Campbell. The nicknames "Naked Dogs," "Liars," "Buffalo Dung," "Men who +do not laugh," "Big Topknots," have been thoroughly accepted by the +"gentes" of the Blackfoot Indians, now passing out of Totemism +(Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_, pp. 208-225). + +As Howitt writes, "the assumption of the names of objects by men must in +fact have been the origin of totemism." Howitt does not admit the theory +that the totem names came to arise in this way, but this way is a _vera +causa_. Names must be given either from within or from without. A group, +in savagery, has no need of a name for itself; "we" are "we," or are +"The Men"; for all other adjacent groups names are needed. The name of +one totem, _Thaballa_, "The Laughing Boy" totem, among the Warramunga +and another tribe, is quite transparently a nickname, as is _Karti_, +"The Grown-up Men" (Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central +Australia_, p. 207). + +There is nothing, prima facie, which renders this origin of animal, +plant and other such names for early savage groups at all improbable. +They would not even be resented, as now are the animal names for +villagers in the Orkneys, the Channel Islands, France, Cornwall and in +ancient Israel (for examples see _Social Origins_, pp. 295-301). The +names once accepted, and their origin forgotten, would be inevitably +regarded as implying a mystic _rapport_ between the bestial and the +human namesakes, Crow, Eagle Hawk, Grub, Bandicoot, Opossum, Emu, +Kangaroo and so on (see NAME). On this subject it is enough to cite J.G. +Frazer, in _The Golden Bough_ (2nd ed., vol. i. pp. 404-446). Here will +be found a rich and satisfactory collection of proof that community of +name implies mystic _rapport_. Professor Rhys is quoted for the +statement that probably "the whole Aryan race believed at one time not +only that the name was a part of the man, but that it was that part of +him which is termed the soul." In such a mental stage the men "Crows" +identify themselves with the actual Crow species: the birds are now "of +their flesh," are fabled to be their ancestors, or the men have been +evolved out of the birds. The Crow is sacro-sanct, a friend and +protector, and a centre of taboos, one of which is the prohibition +preventing a Crow man from intercourse with a Crow woman, "however far +apart their hunting grounds may have been." All men and women Crows are +recognized as brothers and sisters in the Crow, and are not +intermarriageable. + +On these lines the prohibition to infringe the totem taboo by marriage +within the totem name is intelligible, but the system of phratries has +yet to be accounted for. It is obvious that the names could only have +been given originally to _local_ groups: the people who held this or +that local habitation received the name. Suppose that the rule of each +such group, or heart circle, had been "no marriage within the local +group or camp," as in Atkinson's scheme. When the groups accept their +new names, the rule becomes, "no marriage within local group Eagle Hawk, +group Crow," and so on. So far the animal giving the group name may not +yet have become a revered totem. The result of the rule would inevitably +be, in three or four generations, that in groups Crow or Eagle Hawk, +there were no Crows or Eagle Hawks _by descent_, if the children took +the names of descent from their mothers; for the sake of +differentiation: the Ant woman's children in local group Crow being +Ants, the Grub woman's children being Grubs, the Eagle Hawk woman's +children being Eagle Hawks,--all in local group Crow, and inheriting the +names of the local groups whence their mothers were brought into local +group Crow. + +By this means (indicated first by McLennan) each member of a local group +would have a _local_ group name, say Eagle Hawk, and a name by _female +descent_, say Kangaroo, in addition, as now, to his or her personal +name. In this way, all members of each local group would find, in any +other local group, people of his name of descent, and, as the totem +belief grew to maturity, kinsmen of his in the totem. When this fact was +realized, it would inevitably make for peace among all contiguous +groups. In place of taking women by force, at the risk of shedding +kindred blood, peaceful betrothals between men and women of different +local group names and of different names by descent could be arranged. +Say that local groups Eagle Hawk and Crow took the lead in this +arrangement of alliance and _connubium_, and that (as they would +naturally flourish in the strength conferred by union) the other local +groups came into it, ranging themselves under Eagle Hawk and Crow, we +should have the existing primitive type of organization: Local Groups +Eagle Hawk (_Mukwara_) and Crow (_Kilpara_) would have become the widely +diffused phratries, _Mukwara_ and _Kilpara_, with all the totem kins +within them. + +But, on these lines, some members of any totem kin, say Cat, would be in +phratry Eagle Hawk, some would be in phratry _Kilpara_ as now (for the +different reason already indicated) among the Arunta. Such persons were +in a quandary. By _phratry_ law, as being in opposite phratries, a Cat +in Eagle Hawk' phratry could marry a Cat in Crow phratry. But, by totem +law, this was impossible. To avoid the clash of law, all Cats had to go +into one phratry or the other, either into Eagle Hawk or into Crow. + +Two whole totem kins were in the same unhappy position. The persons who +were Eagle Hawks by _descent_ could not be in Eagle Hawk local group, +now phratry, as we have already shown. They were in Crow phratry, they +could not, by phratry law, marry in their own phratry, and to marry in +Eagle Hawk was to break the old law, "no marriage within the _local_ +group name." Their only chance was to return to Eagle Hawk phratry, +while Crow totem kin went into Crow phratry, and thus we often find, in +fact, that in Australian phratries _Mukwara_ (Eagle Hawk) there is a +totem kin Eagle Hawk, and in _Kilpara_ phratry (Crow) there is a totem +kin Crow. This arrangement--the totem kin within the phratry of its own +name--has long been known to exist in America. The Thlinkets have Raven +phratry, with totem kins Raven, Frog, Goose, &c., and Wolf phratry, with +totem kins Wolf, Bear, Eagle, &c. (Frazer, _Totemism_, pp. 61, 62 +(1887)). In Australia the fact has hitherto escaped observation, because +so many phratry names are not translated, while, though _Mukwara_ and +_Kilpara_ are translated, the Eagle Hawk and Crow totem kins within them +bear other names for the same birds, more recent names, or tribal native +names, such as _Biliari_ and _Waa_, while _Mukwara_ and _Kilpara_ may +have been names borrowed, within the institution of phratries, from some +alien tribe now perhaps extinct. + +We have now sketched a scheme explanatory of the most primitive type of +social organization in Australia. The tendency is for phratries first to +lose the meanings of their names, and, next, for their names to lapse +into oblivion, as among the Arunta; the work of regulating marriage +being done by the opposed Matrimonial Classes. + +These classes are obviously an artificial arrangement, intended to +restrict marriage to persons on the same level as generations. The +meanings of the class names are only known with certainty in two cases, +and then are names of animals, while there is reason to suspect that +animal names occur in four or five of the eight class-names which, in +different dialect forms, prevail in central and northern Australia. +Conceivably the new class regulations made use of the old totemic +machinery of nomenclature. But until Australian philologists can trace +the original meanings of Class names, further speculation is premature. + + + Breaking up of totemism. + +10. Much might be said about the way out of totemism. When once descent +and inheritance are traced through males, the social side of totemism +begins to break up. One way out is the Arunta way, where totems no +longer designate kinships. In parts of America totems are simply fading +into heraldry, or into magical societies, while the "gentes," once +totemic, have acquired new names, often local, as among the Sioux, or +mere sobriquets, as among the Blackfeet. In Melanesia the phratries, +whether named or nameless, have survived, while the totems have left but +a few traces which some consider disputable (_Social Origins_, pp. +176-184). Among the Bantu of South Africa the _tribes_ have sacred +animals (_Siboko_), which may be survivals of the totems of the chief +local totem group, with male descent in the tribe, the whole of which +now bears the name of the sacred animal. Even in Australia, among tribes +where there is reckoning of descent in the male line, and where there +are no matrimonial classes, the tendency is for totems to dwindle, while +exogamy becomes _local_, the rule being to marry out of the _district_, +not out of the _kin_ (Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, +pp. 270-272; cf. pp. 135-137). + +The problem as to why, among savages all on the same low level of +material culture, one tribe derives descent through women, while its +nearest neighbouring tribe, with ceremonies, rites, beliefs and myths +like its own, and occupying lands of similar character in a similar +climate, traces descent through men, seems totally insoluble. Again, we +find that the civilized Lycians, as described by Herodotus (book i. ch. +173), reckoned lineage in the female line, while the naked savages of +north and central Australia reckon in the male line. Our knowledge does +not enable us to explain the change from female to male tracing of +lineage. Yet the change was essential for the formation of the family +system of civilized life. The change may be observed taking place in the +region of North-West America peopled by the Thlinket, Haida and Salish +tribes; the first are pure totemists, the last have arrived, +practically, in the south, at the modern family, while a curious +intermediate stage pervades the interjacent region. + +The best authority on the Family developed in different shapes in +North-West America is Charles Hill-Tout (cf. "Origin of the Totemism of +the Aborigines of British Columbia," _Transactions of the Royal Society +of Canada_, vol. vii. sect. 11, 1901). He, like many American and some +English and continental students, applies the term "totem" not only to +the hereditary totem of the exogamous kin, but to the animal familiars +of individual men or women, called _manitus_, _naguals_, _nyarongs_ and +_yunbeai_, among North American Indians, in South America, in Borneo +and in the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales. These animal familiars +are chosen by individuals, obeying the monition of dreams, or are +assigned to them at birth, or at puberty, by the tribal magicians. It +has often been suggested that totemism arose when the familiar of an +individual became hereditary among his descendants. This could not occur +under a system of reckoning descent and inheriting the kin name through +women, but as a Tsimshian myth says that a man's sister adopted his +animal familiar, the bear, and transmitted it to _her_ offspring, +Hill-Tout supposes that this may have been the origin of totemism in +tribes with reckoning of descent in the female line. Instances, however, +are not known to exist in practice, and myths are mere baseless savage +hypotheses. + +Exogamy, in his opinion, is the result of treaties of political alliance +with exclusive _interconnubium_ between two sets of kinsfolk by blood, +totemism being a mere accidental concomitant. This theory evades the +difficulties raised by the hypothesis of deliberate reformatory +legislation introducing the bisection of the tribe into exogamous +societies. + + AUTHORITIES.--The study of the History of the Family has been subject + to great fluctuation of opinion, as unexpected evidence has kept + pouring in from many quarters. The theory of primal promiscuity, which + in 1870 succeeded to Sir Henry Maine's _patriarchal theory_, has + endured many attacks, and there is a tendency to return, not precisely + to the "patriarchal theory," but to the view that the jealousy of the + Sire of the "Cyclopean family," or "Gorilla family" indicated by + Darwin, has had much to do with laying the bases of "primal law." The + whole subject has been especially studied by English-speaking writers, + as the English and Americans are brought most into contact with the + most archaic savage societies. Among foreigners, in addition to + Starcke, Westermarck and Durkheim, already cited, may be mentioned + Professor J. Kohler, _Zur Urgeschichte der Ehe_ (Stuttgart, 1897). + Professor Kohler is in favour of a remote past of "collective + marriage," indicated, as in Morgan's hypothesis, by the existing + savage names of relationships, which are expressive of relations of + consanguinity. E.S. Hartland (_Primitive Paternity_, 1910) discusses + myths of supernatural birth in relation to the history of the Family. + + A careful and well-reasoned work by Herr Cunow (_Die Verwandtschafts + Organisationen der Australneger_, Stuttgart, 1894) deals with the + Matrimonial Classes of Australian tribes. Cunow supposes that descent + was originally reckoned in the male line, and that tribes with this + organization (such as the Narrinyeri) are the more primitive. In this + opinion he has few allies: and on the origin of Exogamy he seems to + possess no definite ideas. Pikler's _Ursprung des Totemismus_ (Berlin, + 1900) explains Totemism as arising from the need of names for early + groups of men: names which could be expressed in pictographs and + tattooing, to which we may add "gesture language." This is much akin + to the theory which we have already suggested, though Pikler seems to + think that the pictograph (say of a Crow or an Eagle Hawk) was prior + to the group name. But, he remarks, like Howitt, "the germ of Totemism + is the naming"; and the community of name between the animal species + and the human group led to the belief that there was an important + connexion between the men and their name-giving animal. + + Other useful sources of information are the annual Reports of the + Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), the _Journal of the Institute of the + Anthropological Society, Folk Lore_ (the organ of the Folk Lore + Society), and Durkheim's _L'Année sociologique_. _Tabou et totémisme à + Madagascar_, by M.A. van Gennep (Leroux, Paris, 1904) is a valuable + contribution to knowledge. + + For India, where vestiges of totemism linger in the hill tribes, see + Risley and Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, vols. i., ii., iii., iv.; and + Crooke, _Popular Religion_; also Crooke in _J.A.I._ (N.S.), vol. i. + pp. 232-244. (A. L.) + + + + +FAMINE (Lat. _fames_, hunger), extreme and general scarcity of food, +causing distress and deaths from starvation among the population of a +district or country. Famines have caused widespread suffering in all +countries and ages. A list of the chief famines recorded by history is +given farther on. The causes of famine are partly natural and partly +artificial. Among the natural causes may be classed all failures of +crops due to excess or defect of rainfall and other meteorological +phenomena, or to the ravages of insects and vermin. Among the artificial +causes may be classed war and economic errors in the production, +transport and sale of food-stuffs. + +The natural causes of famine are still mainly outside our control, +though science enables agriculturists to combat them more successfully, +and the improvement in means of transport allows a rich harvest in one +land to supplement the defective crops in another. In tropical +countries drought is the commonest cause of a failure in the harvest, +and where great droughts are not uncommon--as in parts of India and +Australia--the hydraulic engineer comes to the rescue by devising +systems of water-storage and irrigation. It is less easy to provide +against the evils of excessive rainfall and of frost, hail and the like. +The experience of the French in Algiers shows that it is possible to +stamp out a plague of locusts, such as is the greatest danger to the +farmer in many parts of Argentina. But the ease with which food can +nowadays be transported from one part of the world to another minimizes +the danger of famine from natural causes, as we can hardly conceive that +the whole food-producing area of the world should be thus affected at +once. + +The artificial causes of famine have mostly ceased to be operative on +any large scale. Chief among them is war, which may cause a shortage of +food-supplies, either by its direct ravages or by depleting the supply +of agricultural labour. But only local famines are likely to arise from +this cause. Legislative interference with agricultural operations or +with the distribution of food-supplies, currency restrictions and +failure of transport, which have all caused famines in the past, are +unlikely thus to operate again; nor is it probable that the modern +speculators who attempt to make "corners" in wheat could produce the +evil effects contemplated in the old statutes against forestallers and +regrators. + +Such local famines as may occur in the 20th century will probably be +attributable to natural causes. It is impossible to regulate the +rainfall of any district, or wholly to supply its failure by any system +of water-storage. Irrigation is better able to bring fertility to a +naturally arid district than to avert the failure of crops in one which +is naturally fertile. The true palliative of famine is to be found in +the improvement of methods of transport, which make it possible rapidly +to convey food from one district to another. But the efficiency of this +preventive stops short at the point of saving human life. It cannot +prevent a rise in prices, with the consequent suffering among the poor. +Still, every year makes it less likely that the world will see a renewal +of the great famines of the past, and it is only the countries where +civilization is still backward that are in much danger of even a local +famine. + + _Great Famines._--Amongst the great famines of history may be named + the following:-- + + B.C. 436 Famine at Rome, when thousands of starving people threw + themselves into the Tiber. + + A.D. 42 Great famine in Egypt. + + 650 Famine throughout India. + + 879 Universal famine. + + 941, 1022 Great famines in India, in which entire provinces and 1033 + were depopulated and man was driven to cannibalism. + + 1005 Famine in England. + + 1016 Famine throughout Europe. + + 1064-1072 Seven years' famine in Egypt. + + 1148-1159 Eleven years' famine in India. + + 1162 Universal famine. + + 1344-1345 Great famine in India, when the Mogul emperor was unable to + obtain the necessaries for his household. The famine continued for + years and thousands upon thousands of people perished of want. + + 1396-1407 The Durga Devi famine in India, lasting twelve years. + + 1586 Famine in England which gave rise to the Poor Law system. + + 1661 Famine in India, when not a drop of rain fell for two years. + + 1769-1770 Great famine in Bengal, when a third of the population + (10,000,000 persons) perished. + + 1783 The Chalisa famine in India, which extended from the eastern edge + of the Benares province to Lahore and Jammu. + + 1790-1792 The Doji Bara, or skull famine, in India, so-called because + the people died in such numbers that they could not be buried. + According to tradition this was one of the severest famines ever + known. It extended over the whole of Bombay into Hyderabad and + affected the northern districts of Madras. Relief works were first + opened during this famine in Madras. + + 1838 Intense famine in North-West Provinces (United Provinces) of + India; 800,000 perished. + + 1846-1847 Famine in Ireland, due to the failure of the potato-crop. + Grants were made by parliament amounting to £10,000,000. + + 1861 Famine in North-West India. + + 1866 Famine in Bengal and Orissa; one million perished. + + 1869 Intense famine in Rajputana; one million and a half perished. The + government initiated the policy of saving life. + + 1874 Famine in Behar, India. Government relief in excess of the needs + of the people. + + 1876-1878 Famine in Bombay, Madras and Mysore; five millions perish. + Relief insufficient. + + 1877-1878 Severe famine in north China. Nine and a half millions said + to have perished. + + 1887-1889 Famine in China. + + 1891-1892 Famine in Russia. + + 1897 Famine in India. Government policy of saving life successful. + Mansion House fund £550,000. + + 1899-1901 Famine in India. One million people perished. Estimated loss + to India £50,000,000. The government spent £10,000,000 on relief, and + at one time there were 4,500,000 people on the relief works. + + 1905 Famine in Russia. + +_Famines in India._--Owing to its tropical situation and its almost +entire dependence upon the monsoon rains, India is more liable than any +other country in the world to crop failures, which upon occasion deepen +into famine. Every year sufficient rain falls in India to secure an +abundant harvest if it were evenly distributed over the whole country; +but as a matter of fact the distribution is so uneven and so uncertain +that every year some district suffers from insufficient rainfall. In +fact, famine is, to all intents and purposes, endemic in India, and is a +problem to reckon with every year in some portion of that vast area. The +people depend so entirely upon agriculture, and the harvest is so +entirely destroyed by a single monsoon failure, that wherever a total +failure occurs the landless labourer is immediately thrown out of work +and remains out of work for the whole year. The question is thus one of +lack of employment, rather than lack of food. The food is there, perhaps +at a slightly enhanced price, but the unemployed labourer has no money +to buy it. The problem is very much the same as that met by the British +Poor Law system. Every year in England a poor rate of some £22,000,000 +is expended for a population of 40 millions; while it is only in an +exceptional year in India that £10,000,000 are spent on a population of +300 millions. + +Famines seem to recur in India at periodical intervals, which have been +held to be in some way dependent on the sun-spot period. Every five or +ten years the annual scarcity widens its area and becomes a recognized +famine; every fifty or a hundred years whole provinces are involved, +loss of life becomes widespread, and a great famine is recorded. In the +140 years since Warren Hastings initiated British rule in India, there +have been nineteen famines and five severe scarcities. For the period +preceding British rule the records have not been so well preserved, but +there is ample evidence to show that famine was just as frequent in its +incidence and infinitely more deadly in its effects under the native +rulers of India. In the great Bengal famine of 1769-1770, which occurred +shortly after the foundation of British rule, but while the native +officials were still in power, a third of the population, or ten +millions out of thirty millions, perished. From this it may be guessed +what occurred in the centuries under Mogul rule, when for years there +was no rain, when famine lasted for three, four or twelve years, and +entire cities were left without an inhabitant. In the famine of 1901, +the worst of recent years, the loss of life in British districts was 3% +of the population affected, as against 33% in the Bengal famine of 1770. + +The native rulers of India seem to have made no effort to relieve the +sufferings of their subjects in times of famine; and even down to 1866 +the British government had no settled famine policy. In that year the +Orissa famine awakened the public conscience, and the commission +presided over by Sir George Campbell laid down the lines upon which +subsequent famine-relief was organized. In the Rajputana famine of 1869 +the humane principle of saving every possible life was first +enunciated. In the Behar famine of 1874 this principle was even carried +to an extreme, the cost was enormous, and the people were in danger of +being pauperized. The resulting reaction caused a regrettable loss of +life in the Madras and Bombay famine of 1876-1878; and the Famine +Commission of 1880, followed by those of 1898 and 1901, laid down the +principle that every possible life must be saved, but that the wages on +relief works must be so regulated in relation to the market rate of +wages as not to undermine the independence of the people. The experience +gained in the great famines of 1898 and 1901 has been garnered by these +commissions, and stored up in the "famine codes" of each separate +province, where rules are provided for the treatment of famine directly +a crop failure is seen to be probable. The first step is to open test +works; and directly they show the necessity, regular relief works are +established, in which the people may earn enough to keep them from +starvation, until the time comes to sow the next crop. + +As a result of the severe famine of 1878-1879, Lord Lytton's government +instituted a form of insurance against famine known as the Famine +Insurance Grant. A sum of Rs. 1,500,000 was to be yearly set aside for +purposes of famine relief. This scheme has been widely misunderstood; it +has been assumed that an entirely separate fund was created, and that in +years when the specified sum was not paid into this fund, the purpose of +the government was not carried out. But Sir John Strachey, the author of +the scheme, explains in his book on India that the original intention +was nothing more than the annual application of surplus revenue, of the +indicated amount, to purposes of famine relief; and that when the +country was free from famine, this sum should be regularly devoted to +the discharge of debt, or to the prevention of debt which would +otherwise have been incurred for the construction of railways and +canals. The sum of 1½ crores is regularly set aside for this purpose, +and is devoted as a rule to the construction of protective irrigation +works, and for investigating and preparing new projects falling under +the head of protective works. + +The measures by which the government of India chiefly endeavours to +reduce the liability of the country to famine are the promotion of +railways; the extension of canal and well irrigation; the reclamation of +waste lands, with the establishment of fuel and fodder reserves; the +introduction of agricultural improvements; the multiplication of +industries; emigration; and finally the improvement where necessary of +the revenue and rent systems. In times of famine the function of the +railways in distributing the grain is just as important as the function +of the irrigation-canals in increasing the amount grown. There is always +enough grain within the boundaries of India for the needs of the people; +the only difficulty is to transport it to the tract where it is required +at a particular moment. Owing to the extension of railways, in the +famines of 1898 and 1901 there was never any dearth of food in any +famine-stricken tract; and the only difficulty was to find enough +rolling-stock to cope with the demand. Irrigation protects large tracts +against famine, and has immensely increased the wheat output of the +Punjab; the Irrigation Commission of 1903 recommended the addition of 6½ +million acres to the irrigated area of India, and that recommendation is +being carried out at an annual cost of 1½ millions sterling for twenty +years, but at the end of that time the list of works that will return a +lucrative interest on capital will be practically exhausted. Local +conditions do not make irrigation everywhere possible. + +As five-sixths of the whole population of India are dependent upon the +land, any failure, of agriculture becomes a national calamity. If there +were more industries and manufactures in India, the dependence on the +land would not be so great and the liability to lack of occupation would +not be so uniform in any particular district. The remedy for this is the +extension of factories and home industries; but European capital is +difficult to obtain in India, and the native capitalist prefers to hoard +his rupees. The extension of industries, therefore, is a work of time. + +It is sometimes alleged by native Indian politicians that famines are +growing worse under British rule, because India is becoming exhausted +by an excessive land revenue, a civil service too expensive for her +needs, military expenditure on imperial objects, and the annual drain of +some £15,000,000 for "home charges." The reply to this indictment is +that the British land revenue is £16,000,000 annually, whereas +Aurangzeb's over a smaller area, allowing for the difference in the +value of the rupee, was £110,000,000; though the Indian Civil Service is +expensive, its cost is more than covered by the fact that India, under +British guarantee, obtains her loans at 3½% as against 10% or more paid +by native rulers; though India has a heavy military burden, she pays no +contribution to the British navy, which protects her seaboard from +invasion; the drain of the home charges cannot be very great, as India +annually absorbs 6 millions sterling of the precious metals; in +1899-1900, a year of famine, the net imports of gold and silver were 130 +millions. Finally, it is estimated by the census commissioners that in +the famine of 1901 three million people died in the native states and +only one million in British territory. + + See Cornelius Walford, "On the Famines of the World, Past and Present" + (_Journal of the Statistical Society_, 1878-1879); Romesh C. Dutt, + _Famines in India_ (1900); Robert Wallace, _Famine in India_ (1900); + George Campbell, _Famines in India_ (1769-1788); _Chronological List + of Famines for all India_ (Madras Administration Report, 1885); J.C. + Geddes, _Administrative Experience in Former Famines_ (1874); + _Statistical Atlas of India_ (1895); F.H.S. Merewether, _Through the + Famine Districts of India_ (1898); G.W. Forrest, _The Famine in India_ + (1898); E.A.B. Hodgetts, _In the Track of the Russian Famine_ (1892); + W.B. Steveni, _Through Famine-stricken Russia_ (1892); Vaughan Nash, + _The Great Famine_ (1900); Lady Hope, _Sir Arthur Cotton_ (1900); + _Lord Curzon in India_ (1905); T.W. Holderness, _Narrative of the + Famine of 1896-1897_ (c. 8812 of 1898); the Indian Famine Commission + reports of 1880, 1898 and 1900; report of the Indian Irrigation + Commission (1901-1903); C.W. McMinn, _Famine Truths, Half-Truths, + Untruths_ (1902); Theodore Morison, _Indian Industrial Organization_ + (1906). + + + + +FAN (Lat. _vannus_; Fr. _éventail_), in its usually restricted meaning, +a light implement used for giving motion to the air in order to produce +coolness to the face; the word is, however, also applied to the +winnowing fan, for separating chaff from grain, and to various +engineering appliances for ventilation, &c. _Ventilabrum_ and +_flabellum_ are names under which ecclesiastical fans are mentioned in +old inventories. Fans for cooling the face have been in use in hot +climates from remote ages. A bas-relief in the British Museum represents +Sennacherib with female figures carrying feather fans. They were +attributes of royalty along with horse-hair fly-flappers and umbrellas. +Examples may be seen in plates of the Egyptian sculptures at Thebes and +other places, and also in the ruins of Persepolis. In the museum of +Boulak, near Cairo, a wooden fan handle showing holes for feathers is +still preserved. It is from the tomb of Amenhotep, of the 18th dynasty, +17th century B.C. In India fans were also attributes of men in +authority, and sometimes sacred emblems. A heart-shaped fan, with an +ivory handle, of unknown age, and held in great veneration by the +Hindus, was given to King Edward VII. when prince of Wales. Large +punkahs or screens, moved by a servant who does nothing else, are in +common use in hot countries, and particularly India. + +Fans were used in the early middle ages to keep flies from the sacred +elements during the celebrations of the Christian mysteries. Sometimes +they were round, with bells attached--of silver or silver gilt. Notices +of such fans in the ancient records of St Paul's, London, Salisbury +cathedral and many other churches exist still. For these purposes they +are no longer used in the Western church, though they are retained in +some Oriental rites. The large feather fans, however, are still carried +in the state processions of the supreme pontiff in Rome, though not used +during the celebration of the mass. The fan of Queen Theodolinda (7th +century) is still preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Monza. +Fans made part of the bridal outfit, or _mundus muliebris_, of Roman +ladies. + +Folding fans had their origin in Japan, and were imported thence to +China. They were in the shape still used--a segment of a circle of paper +pasted on a light radiating framework of bamboo, and variously +decorated, some in colours, others of white paper on which verses or +sentences are written. It is a compliment in China to invite a friend +or distinguished guest to write some sentiment on your fan as a memento +of any special occasion, and this practice has continued. A fan that has +some celebrity in France was presented by the Chinese ambassador to the +comtesse de Clauzel at the coronation of Napoleon I. in 1804. When a +site was given in 1635, on an artificial island, for the settlement of +Portuguese merchants in Nippo in Japan, the space was laid out in the +form of a fan as emblematic of an object agreeable for general use. Men +and women of every rank both in China and Japan carry fans, even +artisans using them with one hand while working with the other. In China +they are often made of carved ivory, the sticks being plates very thin +and sometimes carved on both sides, the intervals between the carved +parts pierced with astonishing delicacy, and the plates held together by +a ribbon. The Japanese make the two outer guards of the stick, which +cover the others, occasionally of beaten iron, extremely thin and light, +damascened with gold and other metals. + +Fans were used by Portuguese ladies in the 14th century, and were well +known in England before the close of the reign of Richard II. In France +the inventory of Charles V. at the end of the 14th century mentions a +folding ivory fan. They were brought into general use in that country by +Catherine de'Medici, probably from Italy, then in advance of other +countries in all matters of personal luxury. The court ladies of Henry +VIII.'s reign in England were used to handling fans. A lady in the +"Dance of Death" by Holbein holds a fan. Queen Elizabeth is painted with +a round feather fan in her portrait at Gorhambury; and as many as +twenty-seven are enumerated in her inventory (1606). Coryat, the English +traveller, in 1608 describes them as common in Italy. They also became +of general use from that time in Spain. In Italy, France and Spain fans +had special conventional uses, and various actions in handling them grew +into a code of signals, by which ladies were supposed to convey hints or +signals to admirers or to rivals in society. A paper in the _Spectator_ +humorously proposes to establish a regular drill for these purposes. + +The chief seat of the European manufacture of fans during the 17th +century was Paris, where the sticks or frames, whether of wood or ivory, +were made, and the decorations painted on mounts of very carefully +prepared vellum (incorrectly called _chicken skin_)--a material stronger +and tougher than paper, which breaks at the folds. Paris makers exported +fans unpainted to Madrid and other Spanish cities, where they were +decorated by native artists. Many were exported complete; of old fans +called Spanish a great number were in fact made in France. Louis XIV. +issued edicts at various times to regulate the manufacture. Besides fans +mounted with parchment, Dutch fans of ivory were imported into Paris, +and decorated by the heraldic painters in the process called "Vernis +Martin," after a famous carriage painter and inventor of colourless lac +varnish. Fans of this kind belonging to Queen Victoria and the baroness +de Rothschild were exhibited in 1870 at Kensington. A fan of the date of +1660, representing sacred subjects, is attributed to Philippe de +Champagne, another to Peter Oliver in England in the 17th century. Cano +de Arevalo, a Spanish painter of the 17th century, devoted himself to +fan painting. Some harsh expressions of Queen Christina to the young +ladies of the French court are said to have caused an increased +ostentation in the splendour of their fans, which were set with jewels +and mounted in gold. Rosalba Carriera was the name of a fan painter of +celebrity in the 17th century. Le Brun and Romanelli were much employed +during the same period. Klingstet, a Dutch artist, enjoyed a +considerable reputation in the latter part of the 17th and the first +thirty years of the 18th century. + +The revocation of the edict of Nantes drove many fan-makers out of +France to Holland and England. The trade in England was well established +under the Stuart sovereigns. Petitions were addressed by the fan-makers +to Charles II. against the importation of fans from India, and a duty +was levied upon such fans in consequence. This importation of Indian +fans, according to Savary, extended also to France. During the reign of +Louis XV. carved Indian and China fans displaced to some extent those +formerly imported from Italy, which had been painted on swanskin +parchment prepared with various perfumes. + +During the 18th century all the luxurious ornamentation of the day was +bestowed on fans as far as they could display it. The sticks were made +of mother-of-pearl or ivory, carved with extraordinary skill in France, +Italy, England and other countries. They were painted from designs of +Boucher, Watteau, Lancret and other "genre" painters; Hébert, Rau, +Chevalier, Jean Boquet, Mme. Vérité, are known as fan-painters. These +fashions were followed in most countries of Europe, with certain +national differences. Taffeta and silk, as well as fine parchment, were +used for the mounts. Little circles of glass were let into the stick to +be looked through, and small telescopic glasses were sometimes contrived +at the pivot of the stick. They were occasionally mounted with the +finest point lace. An interesting fan (belonging to Madame de Thiac in +France), the work of Le Flamand, was presented by the municipality of +Dieppe to Marie Antoinette on the birth of her son the dauphin. From the +time of the Revolution the old luxury expended on fans died out. Fine +examples ceased to be exported to England and other countries. The +painting on them represented scenes or personages connected with +political events. At a later period fan mounts were often prints +coloured by hand. The events of the day mark the date of many examples +found in modern collections. Among the fan-makers of modern days the +names of Alexandre, Duvelleroy, Fayet, Vanier became well known in +Paris; and the designs of Charles Conder (1868-1909) have brought his +name to the front in this art. Painters of distinction often design and +paint the mounts, the best designs being figure subjects. A great +impulse was given to the manufacture and painting of fans in England +after the exhibition which took place at South Kensington in 1870. +Modern collections of fans take their date from the emigration of many +noble families from France at the time of the Revolution. Such objects +were given as souvenirs, and occasionally sold by families in straitened +circumstances. A large number of fans of all sorts, principally those of +the 18th century, French, English, German, Italian, Spanish, &c., have +been bequeathed to the South Kensington (Victoria and Albert) Museum. + +The sticks of folding fans are called in French _brins_, the two outer +guards _panaches_, and the mount _feuille_. + + See also Blondel, _Histoire des éventails_ (1875); Octave Uzanne, + _L'éventail_ (1882); and especially G. Wooliscroft Rhead, _History of + the Fan_ (1909). (J. H. P.*) + + + + +FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of "fantasy," +which is derived through the O. Fr. _fantasie_, modern _fantaisie_. from +the Latinized form of the Gr. [Greek: phantasia, phantasein, phainein], +to show), display, showing forth, as a philosophical term, the +presentative power of the mind. The word "fancy" and the older form +"fantasy," which is now chiefly used poetically, was in its early +application synonymous with imagination, the mental faculty of creating +representations or images of things not present to the senses; it is +more usually, in this sense, applied to the lighter forms of the +imagination. "Fancy" also commonly means inclination, whim, caprice. The +more learned form "phantasy," as also such words as "phantom" and +"phantasm," is chiefly confined to visionary imaginings. + + + + +FANG (FAN, FANWE, PANWE, PAHOUIN, PAOUEN, MPANGWE), a powerful African +people occupying the Gabun district north of the Ogowé river in French +Congo. Their name means "men." They call themselves Pa^{n}we, Fa^{n}we +and Fa^{n} with highly nasalized n. They are a finely-made race of +chocolate colour; some few are very dark, but these are of slave origin. +They have bright expressive oval faces with prominent cheek-bones. Many +of them file their teeth to points. Their hair, which is woolly, is worn +by the women long, reaching below the nape of the neck. The men wear it +in a variety of shapes, often building it up over a wooden base. The +growth of the hair appears abundant, but that on the face is usually +removed. Little clothing is worn; the men wear a bark waist-cloth, the +women a plantain girdle, sometimes with a bustle of dried grass. A chief +wears a leopard's skin round the shoulders. Both sexes tattoo and paint +the body, and delight in ornaments of every kind. The men, whose sole +occupations are fighting and hunting, all carry arms--muskets, spears +for throwing and stabbing, and curious throwing-knives with blades +broader than they are long. Instead of bows and arrows they use +crossbows made of ebony, with which they hunt apes and birds. In battle +the Fang used to carry elephant hide shields; these have apparently been +discarded. + +When first met by T.E. Bowdich (1815) the Paamways, as he calls the +Fang, were an inland people inhabiting the hilly plateaus north of the +Ogowé affluents. Now they have become the neighbours of the Mpongwe +(q.v.) of Glass and Libreville on the Komo river, while south of the +Gabun they have reached the sea at several points. Their original home +is probably to be placed somewhere near the Congo. Their language, +according to Sir R. Burton, is soft and sweet and a contrast to their +harsh voices, and the vocabularies collected prove it to be of the +Bantu-Negroid linguistic family. W. Winwood Reade (_Sketch Book_, i. p. +108) states that "it is like Mpongwe (a pure Bantu idiom) cut in half; +for instance, _njina_ (gorilla) in Mpongwe is _nji_ in Fan." The plural +of the tribal name is formed in the usual Bantu way, Ba-Fang. + +Morally the Fang are superior to the negro. Mary Kingsley writes: "The +Fan is full of fire, temper, intelligence and go, very teachable, rather +difficult to manage, quick to take offence, and utterly indifferent to +human life." This latter characteristic has made the Fang dreaded by all +their neighbours. They are noted cannibals, and ferocious in nature. +Prisoners are badly treated and are often allowed to starve. The Fang +are always fighting, but the battles are not bloody. After the fall of +two or three warriors the bodies are dragged off to be devoured, and +their friends disperse. Burton says that their cannibalism is limited to +the consumption of slain enemies; that the sick are not devoured; and +that the dead are decently buried, except slaves, whose bodies are +thrown into the forest. Mary Kingsley, on the other hand, believed their +cannibalism was not limited. She writes: "The Fan is not a cannibal for +sacrificial motives, like the negro. He will eat his next door +neighbour's relation and sell his own deceased to his next door +neighbour in return, but he does not buy slaves and fatten them up for +his table as some of the middle Congo tribes do. He has no slaves, no +prisoners of war, no cemeteries, so you must draw your own conclusions." +Among certain tribes the aged alone are permitted to eat human flesh, +which is _taboo_ for all others. There is no doubt that the cannibalism +of the Fang is diminishing before the advance of civilization. Apart +from their ferocity, the Fang are an agreeable and industrious people. +They are skilful workers in iron and have a curious coinage called +_bikei_, little iron imitation axeheads tied up in bundles called +_ntet_, ten to a bundle; these are used chiefly in the purchase of +wives. They are energetic traders and are skilled in pottery and in +gardening. Their religion appears to be a combination of primitive +animism and ancestor worship, with a belief in sympathetic magic. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Paul du Chaillu, _Explorations in Equatorial Africa_ + (1861); Sir R. Burton, "A Day with the Fans," _Transactions of + Ethnological Society_, new series, vols. 3-4; Mary Kingsley, _Travels + in West Africa_ (1897); Oscar Lenz, _Skizzen aus West Africa_ (1878); + R.E. Dennett, _Notes on the Folklore of the Fjort_ (1898); William + Winwood Reade, _The African Sketch Book_ (1873); and (chiefly) A.L. + Bennett, "Ethnographical Notes on the Fang," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ + N.S., ii. p. 66, and L. Martron in _Anthropos_, t. i. (1906), fasc. 4. + + + + +FANO (anc. _Fanum Fortunae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of the +Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 8 m. S.E. of the +former by rail, and 46 ft. above sea-level, on the N.E. coast of Italy. +Pop. (1901), town 10,535, commune 24,730. The cathedral has a 13th +century portal, but the interior is unimportant. The vestibule of S. +Francesco contains the tombs of some members of the Malatesta family. S. +Croce and S. Maria Nuova contain works by Giovanni Santi, the father of +Raphael; the latter has also two works by Perugino, the predella of one +of which is attributed to Raphael. S. Agostino contains a painting of S. +Angelo Custode ("the Guardian Angel"), which is the subject of a poem by +Robert Browning. The fine Gothic Palazzo della Ragione (1299) has been +converted into a theatre. The palace of the Malatesta, with fine +porticos and Gothic windows, was much damaged by an earthquake in 1874. +S. Michele, built against the arch of Augustus, is an early Renaissance +building (1475-1490), probably by Matteo Nuzio of Fano, with an ornate +portal. The façade has an interesting relief showing the colonnade added +by Constantine as an upper storey to the arch of Augustus and removed in +1463. + +Fano in the middle ages passed through various political vicissitudes, +and in the 14th century became subject to the Malatesta. In 1458 Pius +II. added it to the states of the Church. Julius II. established here in +1514 the first printing press with movable Arabic type. The harbour was +restored by Paul V. but is now unimportant. + + + + +FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD, Bart. (1608-1666), English poet and ambassador, +son of Sir Henry Fanshawe, remembrancer of the exchequer, of Ware Park, +Hertfordshire, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Smith or Smythe, was +born early in June 1608, and was educated in Cripplegate by the famous +schoolmaster, Thomas Farnaby. In November 1623 he was admitted +fellow-commoner of Jesus College, Cambridge, and in January 1626 he +entered the Inner Temple; but the study of the law being distasteful to +him he travelled in France and Spain. On his return, an accomplished +linguist, in 1635, he was appointed secretary to the English embassy at +Madrid under Lord Aston. At the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the +king, and while at Oxford in 1644 married Anne, daughter of Sir John +Harrison of Balls, Hertfordshire. About the same time he was appointed +secretary at war to the prince of Wales, with whom he set out in 1645 +for the western counties, Scilly, and afterwards Jersey. He compounded +in 1646 with the parliamentary authorities, and was allowed to live in +London till October 1647, visiting Charles I. at Hampton Court. In 1647 +he published his translation of the _Pastor Fido_ of Guarini, which he +reissued in 1648 with the addition of several other poems, original and +translated. In 1648 he was appointed treasurer to the navy under Prince +Rupert. In November of this year he was in Ireland, where he actively +engaged in the royalist cause till the spring of 1650, when he was +despatched by Charles II. on a mission to obtain help from Spain. This +was refused, and he joined Charles in Scotland as secretary. On the 2nd +of September 1650 he had been created a baronet. He accompanied Charles +in the expedition into England, and was taken prisoner at the battle of +Worcester on the 3rd of September 1651. After a confinement of some +weeks at Whitehall, he was allowed, with restrictions, and under the +supervision of the authorities, to choose his own place of residence. He +published in 1652 his _Selected Parts of Horace_, a translation +remarkable for its fidelity, felicity and elegance. In 1654 he completed +translations of two of the comedies of the Spanish poet Antonio de +Mendoza, which were published after his death, _Querer per solo querer: +To Love only for Love's Sake_, in 1670, and _Fiestas de Aranjuez_ in +1671. But the great labour of his retirement was the translation of the +_Lusiad_, by Camoens published in 1655. It is in ottava rima, with the +translation prefixed to it of the Latin poem _Furor Petroniensis_. In +1658 he published a Latin version of the _Faithful Shepherdess_ of +Fletcher. + +In April 1659 Fanshawe left England for Paris, re-entered Charles's +service and accompanied him to England at the Restoration, but was not +offered any place in the administration. In 1661 he was returned to +parliament for the university of Cambridge, and the same year was sent +to Portugal to negotiate the marriage between Charles II. and the +infanta. In January 1662 he was made a privy councillor of Ireland, and +was appointed ambassador again to Portugal in August, where he remained +till August 1663. He was sworn a privy councillor of England on the 1st +of October. In January 1664 he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and +arrived at Cadiz in February of that year. He signed the first draft of +a treaty on the 17th of December, which offered advantageous concessions +to English trade, but of which one condition was that it should be +confirmed by his government before a certain date. In January 1666 +Fanshawe went to Lisbon to procure the adherence of Portugal to this +agreement. He returned to Madrid, having failed in his mission, and was +almost immediately recalled by Clarendon on the plea that he had +exceeded his instructions. He died very shortly afterwards before +leaving Madrid, on the 26th of June 1666. He had a family of fourteen +children, of whom five only survived him, Richard, the youngest, +succeeding as second baronet and dying unmarried in 1694. + +As a translator, whether from the Italian, Latin, Portuguese or Spanish, +Fanshawe has a considerable reputation. His _Pastor Fido_ and his +_Lusiad_ have not been superseded by later scholars, and his rendering +of the latter is praised by Southey and Sir Richard Burton. As an +original poet also the few verses he has left are sufficient evidence of +exceptional literary talent. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Memoirs of Lady Fanshawe_, written in 1676 and + published 1829 (from an inaccurate transcript); these were reprinted + from the original manuscript and edited by H.C. Fanshawe (London, + 1907); article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and authorities there + quoted; _Biographia Brit._ (Kippis); _Original Letters of Sir R.F._ (2 + vols., 1724), the earlier edition of 1702 with portrait being only + vol. i. of this edition; _Notes Genealogical and Historical of the + Fanshawe Family_ (1868-1872); funeral sermon by H. Bagshaw; _Nicholas + Papers_ (Camden Society); _Quarterly Review_, xxvii. 1; _Macmillan's + Mag._ lvii. 279; _Camoen's Life and Lusiads_, by Sir F. Burton, i. + 135; Clarendon's _State Papers, Calendars of State Papers, + Autobiography and Hist. of the Rebellion_; _Athenaeum_ (1883), i. 121; + _Add. MSS. British Museum_, 15,228 (poems); _Harl. MSS. Brit. Mus._ + 7010 (letters). (P. C. Y.) + + + + +FANTAN, a form of gambling highly popular among the Chinese. The game is +simple. A square is marked in the centre of an ordinary table, or a +square piece of metal is laid on it, the sides being marked 1, 2, 3 and +4. The banker puts on the table a double handful of small coins--in +China "cash"--or similar articles, which he covers with a metal bowl. +The players bet on the numbers, setting their stakes on the side of the +square which bears the number selected. When all have staked, the bowl +is removed, and the banker or croupier with a small stick removes coins +from the heap, four at a time, till the final batch is reached. If it +contains four coins, the backer of No. 4 wins; if three, the backer of +No. 3 wins, and so on. Twenty-five per cent is deducted from the stake +by the banker, and the winner receives five times the amount of his +stake thus reduced. In Macao, the Monte Carlo of China, play goes on day +and night, every day of the week, and bets can be made from 5 cents to +500 dollars, which are the limits. + +Fantan is also the name of a card game, played with an ordinary pack, by +any number of players up to eight. The deal decided, the cards are dealt +singly, any that are left over forming a stock, and being placed face +downwards on the table. Each player contributes a fixed stake or "ante." +The first player can enter if he has an ace; if he has not he pays an +"ante" and takes a card from the stock; the second player is then called +upon and acts similarly till an ace is played. This (and the other aces +when played) is put face upwards on the table, and the piles are built +up from the ace to the king. The pool goes to the player who first gets +rid of all his cards. If a player fails to play, having a playable card, +he is fined the amount of the ante for every card in the other players' +hands. + + + + +FANTASIA (Italian for "fantasy," a causing to be seen, from Greek, +[Greek: phainein], to show), a name in music sometimes loosely used for +a composition which has little structural form, and appears to be an +improvization; and also for a combination or medley of familiar airs +connected together with original passages of more or less brilliance. +The word, however, was originally applied to more formal compositions, +based on the madrigal, for several instruments. Fantasias appear as +distinct compositions in Bach's works, and also joined to a fugue, as in +the "Great Fantasia and Fugue" in A minor, and the "Fantasia cromatica" +in D minor. Brahms used the name for his shorter piano pieces. It is +also applied to orchestral compositions "not long enough to be called +symphonic poems and not formal enough to be called overtures" (Sir C. +Hubert Parry, in Grove's _Dictionary of Music_, ed. 1906). The Italian +word is still used in Tunis, Algeria and Morocco, with the meaning of +"showing off," for an acrobatic exhibition of horsemanship by the +Arabs. The riders fire their guns, throw them and their lances into the +air, and catch them again, standing or kneeling in the saddle, all at a +full gallop. + + + + +FANTI, MANFREDO (1806-1865), Italian general, was born at Carpi and +educated at the military college of Modena. In 1831 he was implicated in +the revolutionary movement organized by Ciro Menotti (see FRANCIS IV., +of Modena), and was condemned to death and hanged in effigy, but escaped +to France, where he was given an appointment in the French corps of +engineers. In 1833 he took part in Mazzini's abortive attempt to invade +Savoy, and in 1835 he went to Spain to serve in Queen Christina's army +against the Carlists. There he remained for thirteen years, +distinguishing himself in battle and rising to a high staff appointment. +But on the outbreak of the war between Piedmont and Austria in 1848 he +hurried back to Italy, and although at first his services were rejected +both by the Piedmontese government and the Lombard provisional +government, he was afterwards given the command of a Lombard brigade. In +the general confusion following on Charles Albert's defeat on the Mincio +and his retreat to Milan, where the people rose against the unhappy +king, Fanti's courage and tact saved the situation. He was elected +member of the Piedmontese chamber in 1849, and on the renewal of the +campaign he again commanded a Lombard brigade under General Ramorino. +After the Piedmontese defeat at Novara (23rd of March) peace was made, +but a rising broke out at Genoa, and Fanti with great difficulty +restrained his Lombards from taking part in it. But he was suspected as +a Mazzinian and a soldier of fortune by the higher Piedmontese officers, +and they insisted on his being court-martialled for his operations under +Ramorino (who had been tried and shot). Although honourably acquitted, +he was not employed again until the Crimean expedition of 1855. In the +second Austrian war in 1859 Fanti commanded the 2nd division, and +contributed to the victories of Palestro, Magenta and San Martino. After +the peace of Villafranca he was sent to organize the army of the Central +Italian League (composed of the provisional governments of Tuscany, +Modena, Parma and Romagna), and converted it in a few months into a +well-drilled body of 45,000 men, whose function was to be ready to +intervene in the papal states on the outbreak of a revolution. He showed +statesmanlike qualities in steering a clear course between the +exaggerated prudence of Baron Ricasoli, who wished to recall the troops +from the frontier, and the impetuosity of Garibaldi, his +second-in-command, who was anxious to invade Romagna prematurely, even +at the risk of Austrian intervention. Fanti's firmness led to +Garibaldi's resignation. In January 1860 Fanti became minister of war +and marine under Cavour, and incorporated the League's army in that of +Piedmont. In the meanwhile Garibaldi had invaded Sicily with his +Thousand, and King Victor Emmanuel decided at last that he too must +intervene; Fanti was given the chief command of a strong Italian force +which invaded the papal states, seized Ancona and other fortresses, and +defeated the papal army at Castelfidardo, where the enemy's commander, +General Lamoricière, was captured. In three weeks Fanti had conquered +the Marche and Umbria and taken 28,000 prisoners. When the army entered +Neapolitan territory the king took the chief command, with Fanti as +chief of the staff. After defeating a large Neapolitan force at Mola and +organizing the siege operations round Gaeta, Fanti returned to the war +office at Turin to carry out important army reforms. His attitude in +opposing the admission of Garibaldi's 7000 officers into the regular +army with their own grades made him the object of great unpopularity for +a time, and led to a severe reprimand from Cavour. On the death of the +latter (7th of June 1861) he resigned office and took command of the +VII. army corps. But his health had now broken down, and after four +years' suffering he died in Florence on the 5th of April 1865. His lose +was greatly felt in the war of 1866. + + See Carandini, _Vita di M. Fanti_ (Verona, 1872); A. Di Giorgio, _Il + Generale M. Fanti_ (Florence, 1906). (L. V.*) + + + + +FANTI, a nation of Negroes, inhabiting part of the seaboard of the Gold +Coast colony, British West Africa, and about 20,000 sq. m. of the +interior. They number about a million. They have many traditions of +early migrations. It seems probable that the Fanti and Ashanti were +originally one race, driven from the north-east towards the sea by more +powerful races, possibly the ancestors of Fula and Hausa. There are many +words in Fanti for plants and animals not now existing in the country, +but which abound in the Gurunsi and Moshi countries farther north. These +regions have been always haunted by slave-raiders, and possibly these +latter may have influenced the exodus. At any rate, the Fanti were early +driven into the forests from the open plains and slopes of the hills. +The name Fanti, an English version of _Mfantsi_, is supposed to be +derived from _fan_, a wild cabbage, and _ti_, _di_ or _dz_, to eat; the +story being that upon the exile of the tribe the only available food was +some such plant. They are divided into seven tribes, obviously totemic, +and with rules as to exogamy still in force. (1) _Kwonna_, buffalo; (2) +_Etchwi_, leopard; (3) _Eso_, bush-cat; (4) _Nitchwa_, dog; (5) _Nnuna_, +parrot; (6) _Ebradzi_, lion; and (7) _Abrutu_, corn-stalk; these names +are obsolete, though the meanings are known. The tribal marks are three +gashes in front of the ear on each side in a line parallel to the +jaw-bone. The Fanti language has been associated by A.B. Ellis with the +Ashanti speech as the principal descendant of an original language, +possibly the Tshi (pronounced Tchwi), which is generally considered as +the parent of Ashanti, Fanti, Akim, Akwapim and modern Tshi. + +The average Fanti is of a dull brown colour, of medium height, with +negroid features. Some of the women, when young, are quite pretty. The +women use various perfumes, one of the most usual being prepared from +the excrement of snakes. There are no special initiatory rites for the +youthful Fanti, only a short seclusion for girls when they reach the +marriageable age. Marriage is a mere matter of sale, and the maidens are +tricked out in all the family finery and walk round the village to +indicate that they are ready for husbands. The marriages frequently end +in divorce. Polygamy is universally practised. The care of the children +is left exclusively to the mothers, who are regarded by the Fanti with +deep veneration, while little attention is paid to the fathers. Wives +never eat with their husbands, but always with the children. The +rightful heir in native law is the eldest nephew, i.e. the eldest +sister's eldest son, who invariably inherits wives, children and all +property. As to tenure of land, the source of ownership of land is +derived from the possession of the chief's "stool," which is, like the +throne of a king, the symbol of authority, and not even the chief can +alienate the land from the stool. Females may succeed to property, but +generally only when the acquisition of such property is the result of +their succeeding to the stool of a chief. The Fanti are not permanent +cultivators of the soil. Three or at most five years will cover the +period during which land is continuously cultivated. The commonest +native dishes are palm-oil chop, a bowl of palm oil, produced by boiling +freshly ground palm nuts, in which a fowl or fish is then cooked; and +_fufu_, "white," a boiled mash of yams or plantains. The Fanti have a +taste for shark-flesh, called locally "stink-fish." It is sliced up and +partly sun-dried, and is eaten in a putrid state. The Fanti are skilful +sailors and fishermen, build excellent canoes, and are expert weavers. +Pottery and goldsmithery are trades also followed. Their religion is +fetishism, every Fanti having his own "fetish" or familiar spirit, but +there is a belief in a beneficent Creative Being. Food is offered the +dead, and a ceremony of purification is said to be indulged in at +funerals, the bearers and mourners plunging into the sea or river after +the interment. + + See _Journal of Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_, vol. 26, + pp. 128 et seq.; A.B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold + Coast_ (London, 1887). + + + + +FANTIN-LATOUR, IGNACE HENRI JEAN THÉODORE (1836-1904), French artist, +was born at Grenoble on the 14th of January 1836. He studied first with +his father, a pastel painter, and then at the drawing school of Lecoq de +Boisbaudran, and later under Couture. He was the friend of Ingres, +Dalacroix, Corot, Courbet and others. He exhibited in the Salon of 1861, +and many of his more important canvases appeared on its walls in later +years, though 1863 found him with Harpignies, Monet, Legros and Whistler +in the Salon des Refusés. Whistler introduced him to English artistic +circles, and he lived for some time in England, many of his portraits +and flower pieces being in English galleries. He died on the 28th of +August 1904. His portrait groups, arranged somewhat after the manner of +the Dutch masters, are as interesting from their subjects as they are +from the artistic point of view. "_Hommage à Delacroix_" showed +portraits of Whistler and Legros, Baudelaire, Champfleury and himself; +"_Un Atelier à Batignolles_" gave portraits of Monet, Manet, Zola and +Renoir, and is now in the Luxembourg; "_Un Coin de table_" presented +Verlaine, Rimbaud, Camille Peladan and others; and "_Autour du Piano_" +contained portraits of Chabrier, D'Indy and other musicians. His +paintings of flowers are perfect examples of the art, and form perhaps +the most famous section of his work in England. In his later years he +devoted much attention to lithography, which had occupied him as early +as 1862, but his examples were then considered so revolutionary, with +their strong lights and black shadows, that the printer refused to +execute them. After "_L'Anniversaire_" in honour of Berlioz in the Salon +of 1876, he regularly exhibited lithographs, some of which were +excellent examples of delicate portraiture, others being elusive and +imaginative drawings illustrative of the music of Wagner (whose cause he +championed in Paris as early as 1864), Berlioz, Brahms and other +composers. He illustrated Adolphe Jullien's _Wagner_ (1886) and +_Berlioz_ (1888). There are excellent collections of his lithographic +work at Dresden, in the British Museum, and a practically complete set +given by his widow to the Louvre. Some were also exhibited at South +Kensington in 1898-1899, and at the Dutch gallery in 1904. + + A catalogue of the lithographs of Fantin-Latour was drawn up by + Germain Hédiard in _Les Maîtres de la lithographie_ (1898-1899). A + volume of reproductions, in a limited edition, was published (Paris, + 1907) as _L'Oeuvre lithographique de Fantin-Latour_. See A. Jullien, + _Fantin-Latour, sa vie et ses amitiés_ (Paris, 1909). + + + + +FANUM FORTUNAE (mod. _Fano_), an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, at the +point where the Via Flaminia reaches the N.E. coast of Italy. Its name +shows that it was of Roman origin, but of its foundation we know +nothing. It is first mentioned, with Pisaurum and Ancona, as held by +Julius Caesar in 49 B.C. Augustus planted a colony there, and round it +constructed a wall (of which some remains exist), as is recorded in the +inscription on the triple arch erected in his honour at the entrance to +the town (A.D. 9-10), which is still standing. Vitruvius tells us that +there was, during Augustus's lifetime, a temple in his honour and a +temple of Jupiter, and describes a basilica of which he himself was the +architect. The arch of Augustus bears a subsequent inscription in honour +of Constantine, added after his death by L. Turcius Secundus, _corrector +Flaminiae et Piceni_, who also constructed a colonnade above the arch. +Several Roman statues and heads, attributable to members of the +Julio-Claudian dynasty, were found in the convent of S. Filippo in 1899. +These and other objects are now in the municipal museum (E. Brizio in +_Notizie degli scavi_, 1899, 249 seq.). Of the temple of Fortune from +which the town took its name no traces have been discovered. (T. As.) + + + + +FAN VAULT, in architecture, a method of vaulting used in the +Perpendicular style, of which the earliest example is found in the +cloisters of Gloucester cathedral, built towards the close of the 14th +century. The ribs are all of one curve and equidistant, and their +divergency, resembling that of an open fan, has suggested the name. One +of the finest examples, though of later date (1640), is the vault over +the staircase of Christ Church, Oxford. For the origin of its +development see Vault. + + + + +FARABI [Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ul-Farabi] (ca. 870-950), Arabian +philosopher, was born of Turkish stock at Farab in Turkestan, where also +he spent his youth. Thence he journeyed to Bagdad, where he learned +Arabic and gave himself to the study of mathematics, medicine and +philosophy, especially the works of Aristotle. Later he went to the +court of the Hamdanid Saif addaula, from whom he received a warm welcome +and a small pension. Here he lived a quiet if not an ascetic life. He +died in Damascus, whither he had gone with his patron. His works are +very clear in style, though aphoristic rather than systematic in the +treatment of subjects. Unfortunately the success of Avicenna seems to +have led to the neglect of much of his work. In Europe his compendium of +Aristotle's _Rhetoric_ was published at Venice, 1484. Two of his smaller +works appear in _Alpharabii opera omnia_ (Paris, 1638), and two are +translated in F.A. Schmölders' _Documcnta philosophiae Arabum_ (Bonn, +1836). More recently Fr. Dieterici has published at Leiden: _Alfarabi's +philosophische Abhandlungen_ (1890; German trans. 1892); _Alfarabi's +Abhandlung des Musterstaats_ (1895; German trans. with an essay "Über +den Zusammenhang der arabischen und griechischen Philosophie," 1900); +_Die Staatsleitung von Alfarabi_ in German, with an essay on "Das Wesen +der arabischen Philosophie" (1904). + + For Farabi's life see McG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan + (vol. 3, pp. 307 ff.); and for further information as to his works M. + Steinschneider's article in the _Mémoires de l'Académie_ (St + Petersburg, série 7, tom. 13, No. 4, 1869); and C. Brockelmann's + _Gesch. der arab. Litteratur_, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), pp. 210-213. + (G. W. T.) + + + + +FARADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867), English chemist and physicist, was born at +Newington, Surrey, on the 22nd of September 1791. His parents had +migrated from Yorkshire to London, where his father worked as a +blacksmith. Faraday himself became apprenticed to a bookbinder. The +letters written to his friend Benjamin Abbott at this time give a lucid +account of his aims in life, and of his methods of self-culture, when +his mind was beginning to turn to the experimental study of nature. In +1812 Mr Dance, a customer of his master, took him to hear four lectures +by Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday took notes of these lectures, and +afterwards wrote them out in a fuller form. Under the encouragement of +Mr Dance, he wrote to Sir H. Davy, enclosing these notes. "The reply was +immediate, kind and favourable." He continued to work as a journeyman +bookbinder till the 1st of March 1813, when he was appointed assistant +in the laboratory of the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the +recommendation of Davy, whom he accompanied on a tour through France, +Italy and Switzerland from October 1813 to April 1815. He was appointed +director of the laboratory in 1825; and in 1833 he was appointed +Fullerian professor of chemistry in the institution for life, without +the obligation to deliver lectures. He thus remained in the institution +for fifty-four years. He died at Hampton Court on the 25th of August +1867. + +Faraday's earliest chemical work was in the paths opened by Davy, to +whom he acted as assistant. He made a special study of chlorine, and +discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He also made the first rough +experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon first pointed out by +John Dalton, the physical importance of which was more fully brought to +light by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying +several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several +new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of +these heavy glasses afterwards became historically important as the +substance in which Faraday detected the rotation of the plane of +polarization of light when the glass was placed in the magnetic field, +and also as the substance which was first repelled by the poles of the +magnet. He also endeavoured with some success to make the general +methods of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of +special study and of popular exposition. See his work on _Chemical +Manipulation_. + +But Faraday's chemical work, however important in itself, was soon +completely overshadowed by his electrical discoveries. The first +experiment which he has recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile +with seven halfpence, seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper +moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of +magnesia (first letter to Abbott, July 12, 1812). Henceforward, whatever +other subjects might from time to time claim his attention, it was from +among electrical phenomena that he selected those problems to which he +applied the full force of his mind, and which he kept persistently in +view, even when year after year his attempts to solve them had been +baffled. + +His first notable discovery was the production of the continuous +rotation of magnets and of wires conducting the electric current round +each other. The consequences deducible from the great discovery of H.C. +Oersted (21st July 1820) were still in 1821 apprehended in a somewhat +confused manner even by the foremost men of science. Dr W.H. Wollaston +indeed had formed the expectation that he could make the conducting wire +rotate on its own axis, and in April 1821 he came with Sir H. Davy to +the laboratory of the Royal Institution to make an experiment. Faraday +was not there at the time, but coming in afterwards he heard the +conversation on the expected rotation of the wire. + +In July, August and September of that year Faraday, at the request of R. +Phillips, the editor of the _Annals of Philosophy_, wrote for that +journal an historical sketch of electromagnetism, and he repeated almost +all the experiments he described. This led him in the beginning of +September to discover the method of producing the continuous rotation of +the wire round the magnet, and of the magnet round the wire. He did not +succeed in making the wire or the magnet revolve on its own axis. This +first success of Faraday in electro-magnetic research became the +occasion of the most painful, though unfounded, imputations against his +honour. Into these we shall not enter, referring the reader to the _Life +of Faraday_, by Dr Bence Jones. + +We may remark, however, that although the fact of the tangential force +between an electric current and a magnetic pole was clearly stated by +Oersted, and clearly apprehended by A.M. Ampère, Wollaston and others, +the realization of the continuous rotation of the wire and the magnet +round each other was a scientific puzzle requiring no mean ingenuity for +its original solution. For on the one hand the electric current always +forms a closed circuit, and on the other the two poles of the magnet +have equal but opposite properties, and are inseparably connected, so +that whatever tendency there is for one pole to circulate round the +current in one direction is opposed by the equal tendency of the other +pole to go round the other way, and thus the one pole can neither drag +the other round and round the wire nor yet leave it behind. The thing +cannot be done unless we adopt in some form Faraday's ingenious +solution, by causing the current, in some part of its course, to divide +into two channels, one on each side of the magnet, in such a way that +during the revolution of the magnet the current is transferred from the +channel in front of the magnet to the channel behind it, so that the +middle of the magnet can pass across the current without stopping it, +just as Cyrus caused his army to pass dryshod over the Gyndes by +diverting the river into a channel cut for it in his rear. + +We must now go on to the crowning discovery of the induction of electric +currents. + +In December 1824 he had attempted to obtain an electric current by means +of a magnet, and on three occasions he had made elaborate but +unsuccessful attempts to produce a current in one wire by means of a +current in another wire or by a magnet. He still persevered, and on the +29th of August 1831 he obtained the first evidence that an electric +current can induce another in a different circuit. On the 23rd of +September he writes to his friend R. Phillips: "I am busy just now again +on electromagnetism, and think I have got hold of a good thing, but +can't say. It may be a weed instead of a fish that, after all my labour, +I may at last pull up." This was his first successful experiment. In +nine more days of experimenting he had arrived at the results described +in his first series of "Experimental Researches" read to the Royal +Society on the 24th of November 1841. By the intense application of his +mind he had thus brought the new idea, in less than three months from +its first development, to a state of perfect maturity. + +During his first period of discovery, besides the induction of electric +currents, Faraday established the identity of the electrification +produced in different ways; the law of the definite electrolytic action +of the current; and the fact, upon which he laid great stress, that +every unit of positive electrification is related in a definite manner +to a unit of negative electrification, so that it is impossible to +produce what Faraday called "an absolute charge of electricity" of one +kind not related to an equal charge of the opposite kind. He also +discovered the difference of the capacities of different substances for +taking part in electric induction. Henry Cavendish had before 1773 +discovered that glass, wax, rosin and shellac have higher specific +inductive capacities than air, and had actually determined the numerical +ratios of these capacities, but this was unknown both to Faraday and to +all other electricians of his time, since Cavendish's _Electrical +Researches_ remained unpublished till 1879. + +The first period of Faraday's electrical discoveries lasted ten years. +In 1841 he found that he required rest, and it was not till 1845 that he +entered on his second great period of research, in which he discovered +the effect of magnetism on polarized light, and the phenomena of +diamagnetism. + +Faraday had for a long time kept in view the possibility of using a ray +of polarized light as a means of investigating the condition of +transparent bodies when acted on by electric and magnetic forces. Dr +Bence Jones (_Life of Faraday_, vol. i. p. 362) gives the following note +from his laboratory book on the 10th of September 1822:-- + + "Polarized a ray of lamplight by reflection, and endeavoured to + ascertain whether any depolarizing action (was) exerted on it by water + placed between the poles of a voltaic battery in a glass cistern; one + Wollaston's trough used; the fluids decomposed were pure water, weak + solution of sulphate of soda, and strong sulphuric acid; none of them + had any effect on the polarized light, either when out of or in the + voltaic circuit, so that no particular arrangement of particles could + be ascertained in this way." + +Eleven years afterwards we find another entry in his notebook on the 2nd +of May 1833 (_Life_, by Dr Bence Jones, vol. ii. p. 29). He then tried +not only the effect of a steady current, but the effect on making and +breaking contact. + + "I do not think, therefore, that decomposing solutions or substances + will be found to have (as a consequence of decomposition or + arrangement for the time) any effect on the polarized ray. Should now + try non-decomposing bodies, as solid nitre, nitrate of silver, borax, + glass, &c., whilst solid, to see if any internal state induced, which + by decomposition is destroyed, i.e. whether, when they cannot + decompose, any state of electrical tension is present. My borate of + glass good, and common electricity better than voltaic." + +On the 6th of May he makes further experiments, and concludes: "Hence I +see no reason to expect that any kind of structure or tension can be +rendered evident, either in decomposing or non-decomposing bodies, in +insulating or conducting states." + +At last, in 1845, Faraday attacked the old problem, but this time with +complete success. Before we describe this result we may mention that in +1862 he made the relation between magnetism and light the subject of his +very last experimental work. He endeavoured, but in vain, to detect any +change in the lines of the spectrum of a flame when the flame was acted +on by a powerful magnet. + +This long series of researches is an instance of his persistence. His +energy is shown in the way in which he followed up his discovery in the +single instance in which he was successful. The first evidence which he +obtained of the rotation of the plane of polarization of light under the +action of magnetism was on the 13th of September 1845, the transparent +substance being his own heavy glass. He began to work on the 30th of +August 1845 on polarized light passing through electrolytes. After three +days he worked with common electricity, trying glass, heavy optical +glass, quartz, Iceland spar, all without effect, as on former trials. On +the 13th of September he worked with lines of magnetic force. Air, +flint, glass, rock-crystal, calcareous spar were examined, but without +effect. + + "Heavy glass was experimented with. It gave no effects when the _same + magnetic poles_ or the _contrary_ poles were on opposite sides (as + respects the course of the polarized ray), nor when the same poles + were on the same side either with the constant or intermitting + current. But when contrary magnetic poles were on the same side there + was an effect produced on the polarized ray, and thus magnetic force + and light were proved to have relations to each other. This fact will + most likely prove exceedingly fertile, and of great value in the + investigation of the conditions of natural force." + +He immediately goes on to examine other substances, but with "no +effect," and he ends by saying, "Have got enough for to-day." On the +18th of September he "does an excellent day's work." During September he +had four days of work, and in October six, and on the 6th of November he +sent in to the Royal Society the nineteenth series of his "Experimental +Researches," in which the whole conditions of the phenomena are fully +specified. The negative rotation in ferro-magnetic media is the only +fact of importance which remained to be discovered afterwards (by M.E. +Verdet in 1856). + +But his work for the year was not yet over. On the 3rd of November a new +horseshoe magnet came home, and Faraday immediately began to experiment +on the action in the polarized ray through gases, but with no effect. +The following day he repeated an experiment which had given no result on +the 6th of October. A bar of heavy glass was suspended by silk between +the poles of the new magnet. "When it was arranged, and had come to +rest, I found I _could_ affect it by the magnetic forces and give it +position." By the 6th of December he had sent in to the Royal Society +the twentieth, and on the 24th of December the twenty-first, series of +his "Researches," in which the properties of diamagnetic bodies are +fully described. Thus these two great discoveries were elaborated, like +his earlier one, in about three months. + +The discovery of the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized light, +though it did not lead to such important practical applications as some +of Faraday's earlier discoveries, has been of the highest value to +science, as furnishing complete dynamical evidence that wherever +magnetic force exists there is matter, small portions of which are +rotating about axes parallel to the direction of that force. + +We have given a few examples of the concentration of his efforts in +seeking to identify the apparently different forces of nature, of his +far-sightedness in selecting subjects for investigation, of his +persistence in the pursuit of what he set before him, of his energy in +working out the results of his discoveries, and of the accuracy and +completeness with which he made his final statement of the laws of the +phenomenon. + +These characteristics of his scientific spirit lie on the surface of his +work, and are manifest to all who read his writings. But there was +another side of his character, to the cultivation of which he paid at +least as much attention, and which was reserved for his friends, his +family and his church. His letters and his conversation were always full +of whatever could awaken a healthy interest, and free from anything that +might rouse ill-feeling. When, on rare occasions, he was forced out of +the region of science into that of controversy, he stated the facts and +let them make their own way. He was entirely free from pride and undue +self-assertion. During the growth of his powers he always thankfully +accepted a correction, and made use of every expedient, however humble, +which would make his work more effective in every detail. When at length +he found his memory failing and his mental powers declining, he gave up, +without ostentation or complaint, whatever parts of his work he could no +longer carry on according to his own standard of efficiency. When he was +no longer able to apply his mind to science, he remained content and +happy in the exercise of those kindly feelings and warm affections which +he had cultivated no less carefully than his scientific powers. + +The parents of Faraday belonged to the very small and isolated Christian +sect which is commonly called after Robert Sandeman. Faraday himself +attended the meetings from childhood; at the age of thirty he made +public profession of his faith, and during two different periods he +discharged the office of elder. His opinion with respect to the relation +between his science and his religion is expressed in a lecture on mental +education delivered in 1854, and printed at the end of his _Researches +in Chemistry and Physics_. + + "Before entering upon the subject, I must make one distinction which, + however it may appear to others, is to me of the utmost importance. + High as man is placed above the creatures around him, there is a + higher and far more exalted position within his view; and the ways are + infinite in which he occupies his thoughts about the fears, or hopes, + or expectations of a future life. I believe that the truth of that + future cannot be brought to his knowledge by any exertion of his + mental powers, however exalted they may be; that it is made known to + him by other teaching than his own, and is received through simple + belief of the testimony given. Let no one suppose for an instant that + the self-education I am about to commend, in respect of the things of + this life, extends to any considerations of the hope set before us, as + if man by reasoning could find out God. It would be improper here to + enter upon this subject further than to claim an absolute distinction + between religious and ordinary belief. I shall be reproached with the + weakness of refusing to apply those mental operations which I think + good in respect of high things to the very highest. I am content to + bear the reproach. Yet even in earthly matters I believe that 'the + invisible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly + seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His eternal + power and Godhead'; and I have never seen anything incompatible + between those things of man which can be known by the spirit of man + which is within him and those higher things concerning his future, + which he cannot know by that spirit." + +Faraday gives the following note as to this lecture:-- + + "These observations were delivered as a lecture before His Royal + Highness the Prince Consort and the members of the Royal Institution + on the 6th of May 1854. They are so immediately connected in their + nature and origin with my own experimental life, considered either as + cause or consequence, that I have thought the close of this volume not + an unfit place for their reproduction." + +As Dr Bence Jones concludes-- + + "His standard of duty was supernatural. It was not founded on any + intuitive ideas of right and wrong, nor was it fashioned upon any + outward experiences of time and place, but it was formed entirely on + what he held to be the revelation of the will of God in the written + word, and throughout all his life his faith led him to act up to the + very letter of it." + + _Published Works._--_Chemical Manipulation, being Instructions to + Students in Chemistry_ (1 vol., John Murray, 1st ed. 1827, 2nd 1830, + 3rd 1842); _Experimental Researches in Electricity_, vols. i. and ii., + Richard and John Edward Taylor, vols. i. and ii. (1844 and 1847); vol. + iii. (1844); vol. iii. Richard Taylor and William Francis (1855); + _Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics_, Taylor and Francis + (1859); _Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle_ (edited by W. + Crookes) (Griffin, Bohn & Co., 1861); _On the Various Forces in + Nature_ (edited by W. Crookes) (Chatto & Windus, no date). + + BIOGRAPHIES.--_Faraday as a Discoverer_, by John Tyndall (Longmans, + 1st ed. 1868, 2nd ed. 1870); _The Life and Letters of Faraday_, by Dr + Bence Jones, secretary of the Royal Institution, in 2 vols. (Longmans, + 1870); _Michael Faraday_, by J.H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Macmillan, + 1872); _Michael Faraday; his Life and Work_, by S.P. Thompson (1898). + (J. C. M.) + + + + +FARAH, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the southern slopes of +Siah-Koh, which forms the southern wall of the valley of Herat, and +after a south-westerly course of about 200 m. falls into the Seistan +Hamun. At the town of Farah it has a width of 150 yds. in the dry season +with 2 ft. of water and a clear swift stream. It is liable to floods, +when it becomes impassable for weeks. The lower valley of the Farah Rud +is fertile and well cultivated. + + + + +FARAH, a town of Afghanistan. It is situated on the river that bears its +name on the main road between Herat and Kandahar, 160 m. S. of Herat and +225 m. W. of Kandahar. It is a place of some strategical importance, as +it commands the approaches to India and Seistan from Herat. The town +(2460 ft. above sea-level) is a square walled enclosure standing in the +middle of the plain, surrounded with a walled rampart. Owing to its +unhealthiness it is now almost deserted, being only occupied by the +Afghan regiment quartered there. It is a place of great antiquity, being +probably the Phra mentioned by Isidore of Charax in the 1st century A.D. +It was sacked by the armies of Jenghiz Khan, and the survivors +transported to a position farther north, where there are still great +ruins. The population returned to the original site after the +destruction of the medieval city by Shah Abbas, and the city prospered +again until its bloody siege by Nadir Shah. Subsequently under constant +attacks it declined, and in 1837 the population amounting to 6000 was +carried off to Kandahar. The sole industry of the town at present is the +manufacture of gunpowder. In the districts east of Farah are to be found +the most fanatical of the Durani Afghan tribes. + + + + +FARAZDAQ [Hammam ibn Ghalib ibn Sa'sa', known as al-Farazdaq] (ca. +641-ca. 728), Arabian poet, was born at Basra. He was of the Darim, one +of the most respected divisions of the bani Tamim, and his mother was of +the tribe of Dabba. His grandfather Sa'sa' was a Bedouin of great +repute, his father Ghalib followed the same manner of life until Basra +was founded, and was famous for his generosity and hospitality. At the +age of fifteen Farazdaq was known as a poet, and though checked for a +short time by the advice of the caliph Ali to devote his attention to +the study of the Koran, he soon returned to making verse. In the true +Bedouin spirit he devoted his talent largely to satire and attacked the +bani Nahshal and the bani Fuqaim. When Ziyad, a member of the latter +tribe, became governor of Basra, the poet was compelled to flee, first +to Kufa, and then, as he was still too near Ziyad, to Medina, where he +was well received by Sa'id ibn ul-Asi. Here he remained about ten years, +writing satires on Bedouin tribes, but avoiding city politics. But he +lived a prodigal life, and his amorous verses led to his expulsion by +the caliph Merwan I. Just at that time he learned of the death of Ziyad +and returned to Basra, where he secured the favour of Ziyad's successor +'Obaidallah ibn Ziyad. Much of his poetry was now devoted to his +matrimonial affairs. He had taken advantage of his position as guardian +and married his cousin Nawar against her will. She sought help in vain +from the court of Basra and from various tribes. All feared the poet's +satires. At last she fled to Mecca and appealed to the pretender +'Abdallah ibn Zobair, who, however, succeeded in inducing her to consent +to a confirmation of the marriage. Quarrels soon arose again. Farazdaq +took a second wife, and after her death a third, to annoy Nawar. Finally +he consented to a divorce pronounced by Hasan al-Basri. Another subject +occasioned a long series of verses, namely his feud with his rival Jarir +(q.v.) and his tribe the bani Kulaib. These poems are published as the +_Naka'id of Jarir and al-Farazdaq_ (ed. A.A. Bevan, Leiden, 1906 ff.). +In political life Farazdaq was prevented by fear from taking a large +part. He seems, however, to have been attached to the house of Ali. +During the reign of Moawiya I. he avoided politics, but later gave his +allegiance to 'Abdallah ibn Zobair. + + The fullest account of his life is contained in J. Hell's _Das Leben + Farazdaq nach seinen Gedichten_ (Leipzig, 1903); Arabian stories of + him in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_ and in Ibn Khallikan. A portion of his + poems was edited with French translation by R. Boucher (Paris, 1870); + the remainder have been published by J. Hell (Munich, 1900). + (G. W. T.) + + + + +FARCE, a form of the comic in dramatic art, the object of which is to +excite laughter by ridiculous situations and incidents rather than by +imitation with intent to ridicule, which is the province of burlesque, +or by the delineation of the play of character upon character, which is +that of comedy. The history of the word is interesting. Its ultimate +origin is the Latin _farcire_, to stuff, and with the meaning of +"stuffing" or forcemeat it appears in old cookery books in English. In +medieval Latin _farsa_ and _farsia_ were applied to the expansion of the +_Kyrie eleison_ in litanies, &c., by interpolating words and phrases +between those two words; later, to words, phrases and rhymed verses, +sometimes in the vernacular, also interpolated in various parts of the +service. The French _farce_, the form to which we owe our word, was +originally the "gag" that the actors in the medieval drama inserted into +their parts, generally to meet the popular demand for a lightening of +humour or buffoonery. It has thus been used for the lighter form of +comic drama (see DRAMA), and also figuratively for a piece of idle +buffoonery, sham, or mockery. + + + + +FAREHAM, a market town in the Fareham parliamentary division of +Hampshire, England, 76 m. S.W. from London by the London & South Western +railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 8246. It lies at the head of a +creek opening into the north-western corner of Portsmouth harbour. The +principal industries are the manufacture of sackings, ropes, bricks, +coarse earthenware, terra-cotta, tobacco-pipes and leather. Fareham has +a considerable trade in corn, timber and coal; the creek being +accessible to vessels of 300 tons. Three miles E. of Fareham, on +Portsmouth harbour, are the interesting ruins of Porchester Castle, an +extensive walled enclosure retaining its Norman keep, and exhibiting in +its outer walls considerable evidence of Roman workmanship; Professor +Haverfield, however, denies that it occupies the site of the Roman +_Portus Magnus_. The church of St Mary has some fine Norman portions. It +belonged to an Augustinian priory founded by Henry I. At Titchfield, 3 +m. W. of Fareham, are ruins of the beautiful Tudor mansion, Place House, +built on the site of a Premonstratensian abbey of the 13th century, of +which there are also fragments. + +The fact that Fareham (Fernham, Ferham) formed part of the original +endowment of the see of Winchester fixes its existence certainly as +early as the 9th century. It is mentioned in the Domesday Survey as +subject to a reduced assessment on account of its exposed position and +liability to Danish attacks. There is evidence to show that Fareham had +become a borough before 1264, but no charter can be found. It was a +mesne borough held of the bishop of Winchester, but it is probable that +during the 18th century the privileges of the burgesses were allowed to +lapse, as by 1835 it had ceased to be a borough. Fareham returned two +members to the parliament of 1306, but two years later it petitioned +against representation on the ground of expense. A fair on the 31st of +October and the two following days was held under grant of Henry III. +The day appears to have been afterwards changed to the 29th of June, and +in the 18th century was mainly important for the sale of toys. It was +abolished in 1871. Fareham owed its importance in medieval times to its +facilities for commerce. It was a free port and had a considerable trade +in wool and wine. Later its shipping declined and in the 16th century it +was little more than a fishing village. Its commercial prosperity in +modern times is due to its nearness to Portsmouth. + + + + +FAREL, GUILLAUME (1489-1565), French reformer, was born of a noble +family near Gap in Dauphiné in 1489. His parents meant him for the +military profession, but his bent being for study he was allowed to +enter the university of Paris. Here he came under the influence of +Jacobus Faber (Stapulensis), on whose recommendation he was appointed +professor in the college of Cardinal Lemoine. In 1521, on the invitation +of Bishop Briçonnet, he repaired to Meaux, and took part in efforts of +reform within the Roman communion. The persecuting measures of 1523, +from which Faber found a refuge at Meaux, determined Farel to leave +France. Oecolampadius welcomed him to Basel, where in 1524 he put forth +thirteen theses sharply antagonizing Roman doctrine. These he defended +with great ability, but with so much heat that Erasmus joined in +demanding his expulsion from the city. He thought of going to +Wittenberg, but his first halt was at Strassburg, where Bucer and Capito +received him kindly. At the call of Duke Ulrich of Württemberg he went +as preacher to Montbéliard. Displaying the same qualities which had +driven him from Basel, he was forced to leave Montbéliard in the spring +of 1525. + +He retraced his steps to Strassburg and Basel; and, at the end of 1526, +obtained a preacher's post at Aigle, then a dependency of Bern. Deeming +it wise to suppress his name, he adopted the pseudonym Ursinus, with +reference to his protection by Bern. Despite strenuous opposition by the +monastic orders, he obtained in 1528 a licence from the authorities to +preach anywhere within the canton of Bern. He extended his labours to +the cantons of Neuchâtel and Vaud. His vehement missionary addresses +were met by mob violence, but he persevered with undaunted zeal. In +October 1530 he broke into the church of Neuchâtel with an iconoclastic +mob, thus planting the Reformation in that city. In 1532 he visited the +Waldenses. On the return journey he halted at Geneva, then at a crisis +of political and religious strife. On the 30th of June 1532 the council +of two hundred had ordained that in every church and cloister of the +city "the pure Gospel" should be preached; against this order the +bishop's vicar led the opposition. Reaching Geneva in October 1532, +Farel (described in a contemporary monastic chronicle as "un chétif +malheureux prédicant, nommé maistre Guillaume") at once began to preach +in a room of his lodging, and soon attracted "un grand nombre de gens +qui estoient advertis de sa venue et déjà infects de son hérésie." +Summoned before the bishop's vicar, his trial was a scene of insult and +clamour, ending in his being violently thrust from the court and bidden +to leave the city within three hours. He escaped with difficulty to Orbe +by boat. Through the intervention of the government of Bern, liberty of +worship was granted on the 28th of March 1533 to the Reformation party +in Geneva. Farel, returning, achieved in a couple of years a complete +supremacy for his followers. On New Year's Day 1534 the bishop +interdicted all preaching unauthorized by himself, and ordered the +burning of all Protestant Bibles. This was the signal for public +disputations in which Farel took the leading part on the Reformation +side, with the result that by decree of the 27th of August 1535 the mass +was suppressed and the reformed religion established. Calvin, on his way +to Basel for a life of study, touched at Geneva, and by the importunity +of Farel was there detained to become the leader of the Genevan +Reformation. The severity of the disciplinary measures which followed +procured a reaction under which Farel and Calvin were banished the city +in 1538. Farel was called to Neuchâtel in July 1538, but his position +there was made untenable, though he remained at his post during a +visitation of the plague. When (1541) Calvin was recalled to Geneva, +Farel also returned; but in 1542 he went to Metz to support the +Reformation there. It is said that when he preached in the Dominican +church of Metz, the bells were rung to drown his voice, but his voice +outdid the bells, and on the next occasion he had three thousand +hearers. His work was checked by the active hostility of the duke of +Lorraine, and in 1544 he returned to Neuchâtel. No one was more +frequently and confidentially consulted by Calvin. When the trial of +Servetus was in progress (1553), Calvin was anxious for Farel's +presence, but he did not arrive till sentence had been passed. He +accompanied Servetus to the stake, vainly urging him to a recantation at +the last moment. A coolness with Calvin was created by Farel's marriage, +at the age of sixty-nine, with a refugee widow from Rouen, of unsuitable +age. By her, six years later, he had one son, who died in infancy. The +vigour and fervency of his preaching were unabated by length of years. +Calvin's death, in 1564, affected him deeply. Yet in his last year he +revisited Metz, preaching amid great enthusiasm, with all his wonted +fire. The effort was too much for him; he left the church exhausted, +took to his bed, and died at Metz on the 13th of September 1565. + +Farel wrote much, but usually in haste, and for an immediate purpose. He +takes no rank as a scientific theologian, being a man of activity rather +than of speculation or of much insight. His _Sommaire_ was re-edited +from the edition of 1534 by J.G. Baum in 1867. Others of his works (all +in French) were his treatise on purgatory (1534), on the Lord's Prayer +(1543), on the Supper (1555). He "was remarkable for boldness and energy +both in preaching and prayer" (M. Young, _Life of Paleario_). As an +orator, he was denunciatory rather than suasive; thus while on the one +hand he powerfully impressed, on the other hand he stimulated +opposition. A monument to him was unveiled at Neuchâtel on the 4th of +May 1876. + + Lives of Farel are numerous; it may suffice to mention C. Ancillon, + _Vie de G. Farel_ (1691); the article in Bayle.; M. Kirchhofer, _Das + Leben W. Farels_ (1831-1833); Ch. Schmidt, _Études sur Farel_ (1834); + F. Bevan, _W. Farel_ (1893); J.J. Herzog, in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopädie_ (1898). (A. Go.*) + + + + +FAREY, JOHN (1766-1826), English geologist, was born at Woburn in +Bedfordshire in 1766. He was educated at Halifax in Yorkshire, and +showed such aptitude in mathematics, drawing and surveying, that he was +brought under the notice of John Smeaton (1724-1792). In 1792 he was +appointed agent to the duke of Bedford for his Woburn estates. After the +decease of the duke, Farey in 1802 removed to London, and settled there +as a consulting surveyor and geologist. That he was enabled to take this +step was due largely to his acquaintance with William Smith (q.v.), who +in 1801 had been employed by the duke of Bedford in works of draining +and irrigation. The duke, appreciating Smith's knowledge of the strata, +commissioned him in 1802 to explore the margin of the chalk-hills south +of Woburn in order to determine the true succession of the strata; and +he instructed Farey to accompany him. Farey has remarked that Smith was +his "Master and Instructor in Mineral Surveying," and his subsequent +publications show how well he had profited by the teachings he received. +Farey prepared the _General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of +Derbyshire_ in two vols. (1811-1813) for the Board of Agriculture. In +the first of these volumes (1811) he gave an able account of the upper +part of the British series of strata, and a masterly exposition of the +Carboniferous and other strata of Derbyshire. In this classic work, and +in a paper published in the _Phil. Mag._ vol. li. 1818, p. 173, on "Mr +Smith's Geological Claims stated," he zealously called attention to the +importance of the discoveries of William Smith. Farey died in London on +the 6th of January 1826. + + See Biographical Notice, by W.S. Mitchell, in _Geol. Mag._ 1873, P. + 25. + + + + +FARGO, WILLIAM GEORGE (1818-1881), pioneer American expressman, was born +in Pompey, New York, on the 20th of May 1818. From the age of thirteen +he had to support himself, obtaining little schooling, and for several +years he was a clerk in grocery stores in Syracuse. He became a freight +agent for the Auburn & Syracuse railway company at Auburn in 1841, an +express messenger between Albany and Buffalo a year later, and in 1843 a +resident agent in Buffalo. In 1844 he organized, with Henry Wells +(1805-1878) and Daniel Dunning, the first express company (Wells & Co.; +after 1845 Livingston & Fargo) to engage in the carrying business west +of Buffalo. The lines of this company (which first operated only to +Detroit, via Cleveland) were rapidly extended to Chicago, St Louis, and +other western points. In March 1850, when through a consolidation of +competing lines the American Express Company was organized, Wells became +president and Fargo secretary. In 1851, with Wells and others, he +organized the firm of Wells, Fargo & Company to conduct an express +business between New York and San Francisco by way of the Isthmus of +Panama and on the Pacific coast, where it long had a virtual monopoly. +In 1861 Wells, Fargo & Co. bought and reorganized the Overland Mail Co., +which had been formed in 1857 to carry the United States mails, and of +which Fargo had been one of the original promoters. From 1862 to 1866 he +was mayor of Buffalo, and from 1868 to his death, in Buffalo, on the 3rd +of August 1881, he was president of the American Express Company, with +which in 1868 the Merchants Union Express Co. was consolidated. He was a +director of the New York Central and of the Northern Pacific railways. + + + + +FARGO, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, North Dakota, U.S.A., +about 254 m. W. of Duluth, Minnesota. Pop. (1890) 5664; (1900) 9589, of +whom 2564 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,331. It is served by the +Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St +Paul railways. The city is situated on the W. bank of the Red river of +the North, which in 1909 had a navigable depth of only about 2 ft. from +Fargo to Grank Forks, and the navigation of which was obstructed at +various places by fixed bridges. In the city are Island and Oakgrove +parks, the former of which contains a statue (erected by Norwegians in +1908) of Henrik Arnold Wergeland, the Norwegian poet. Fargo is the seat +of the North Dakota agricultural college (coeducational), founded in +1890 under the provisions of the Federal "Morrill Act" of 1862; it +receives both Federal and state support (the former under the Morrill +Act of 1890), and in connexion with it a United States Agricultural +Experiment Station is maintained. In 1907-1908 the college had 988 +students in the regular courses (including the students in the Academy), +117 in the summer course in steam engineering, and 68 in correspondence +courses. At Fargo, also, are Fargo College (non-sectarian, 1887; founded +by Congregationalists), which has a college department, a preparatory +department, and a conservatory of music, and in 1908 had 310 students, +of whom 211 were in the conservatory of music; the Oak Grove Lutheran +ladies' seminary (1906) and the Sacred Heart Academy (Roman Catholic). +The city is the see of both a Roman Catholic bishop and a Protestant +Episcopal bishop; and it is the centre of masonic interests in the +state, having a fine masonic temple. There are a public library and a +large Y.M.C.A. building. St John's hospital is controlled by Roman +Catholic sisters, and St Luke's hospital by the Lutheran Church. Fargo +is in a rich agricultural (especially wheat) region, is a busy +grain-trading and jobbing centre, is one of the most important wholesale +distributing centres for agricultural implements and machinery in the +United States, and has a number of manufactures, notably flour. The +total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $1,160,832. +Fargo, named in honour of W.G. Fargo of the Wells Fargo Express Company, +was first settled as a tent city in 1871, when the Red river was crossed +by the Northern Pacific, but was not permanently settled until after the +extinction in 1873 of the Indian title to the reservation on which it +was situated. It was chartered as a city in 1875. The Milwaukee railway +was completed to Fargo in 1884. In June 1893 a large part of the city +was destroyed by fire, the loss being more than $3,000,000. + + + + +FARIA Y SOUSA, MANUEL DE (1590-1649), Spanish and Portuguese historian +and poet, was born of an ancient Portuguese family, probably at +Pombeiro, on the 18th of March 1590, attended the university of Braga +for some years, and when about fourteen entered the service of the +bishop of Oporto. With the exception of about four years from 1631 to +1634, during which he was a member of the Portuguese embassy in Rome, +the greater part of his later life was spent at Madrid, and there he +died, after much suffering, on the 3rd of June 1649. He was a laborious, +peaceful man; and a happy marriage with Catharina Machado, the Albania +of his poems, enabled him to lead a studious domestic life, dividing his +cares and affections between his children and his books. His first +important work, an _Epitome de las historias Portuguezas_ (Madrid, +1628), was favourably received; but some passages in his enormous +commentary upon _Os Lusiadas_, the poem of Luis de Camoens, excited the +suspicion of the inquisitors, caused his temporary incarceration, and +led to the permanent loss of his official salary. In spite of the +enthusiasm which is said to have prescribed to him the daily task of +twelve folio pages, death overtook him before he had completed his +greatest enterprise, a history of the Portuguese in all parts of the +world. Several portions of the work appeared at Lisbon after his death, +under the editorship of Captain Faria y Sousa:--_Europa Portugueza_ +(1667, 3 vols.); _Asia Portugueza_ (1666-1675, 3 vols.); _Africa +Portugueza_ (1681). As a poet Faria y Sousa was nearly as prolific; but +his poems are vitiated by the prevailing Gongorism of his time. They +were for the most part collected in the _Noches claras_ (Madrid, +1624-1626), and the _Fuente de Aganipe_, of which four volumes were +published at Madrid in 1644-1646. He also wrote, from information +supplied by P.A. Semmedo, _Imperio de China i cultura evangelica en él_ +(Madrid, 1642); and translated and completed the _Nobiliario_ of the +count of Barcellos. + + There are English translations by J. Stevens of the _History of + Portugal_ (London, 1698), and of _Portuguese Asia_ (London, 1695). + + + + +FARIBAULT, a city and the county-seat of Rice county, Minnesota, U.S.A., +on the Cannon river, at the mouth of the Straight river, about 45 m. S. +of St Paul. (Pop. 1890) 6520; (1900) 7868, of whom 1586 were +foreign-born; (1905) 8279; (1910) 9001. Faribault is served by the +Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the +Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The city is attractively +situated near a lake region widely known for its summer resorts. +Faribault is the seat of the Minnesota institute for defectives, +embracing the state school for the deaf (1863), the state school for the +blind (1874), and the state school for the feeble-minded (1879); of +three institutions under control of the Protestant Episcopal Church--the +Seabury divinity school (incorporated 1860), the Shattuck school (1867; +incorporated in 1905), a military school for boys, and St Mary's hall +(1866), a school for girls, founded by Bishop Whipple; and of the Roman +Catholic (Dominican) Bethlehem Academy for girls. In the city are the +cathedral of our Merciful Saviour (1868-1869), the first Protestant +Episcopal church in the United States built and used as a cathedral from +its opening; and the hospital and nurses' training school of the +Minnesota District of the Evangelical Synod. The city has a public +library, and owns and operates its own water-supply system. There is a +good water power, and among the city's manufactures are flour, beer, +shoes, furniture, rattan-ware, warehouse trucks, canned goods, cane +syrup, waggons and carriages, gasolene engines, wind-mills, pianos and +woollen goods. Faribault, named in honour of Jean Baptiste Faribault, a +French fur-trader and pioneer who made his headquarters in the region in +the latter part of the 18th century, was permanently settled about 1848, +and was chartered as a city in 1872. A French millwright, N. La Croix, +introduced here, about 1860, a new process of making flour, which +revolutionized the industry in the United States, but his mill was soon +destroyed by flood and he removed to Minneapolis, where the process was +first successful on a large scale. Faribault was for many years the home +of Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple (1822-1901), the pioneer bishop +(1850-1901) of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Minnesota, famous for +his missionary work among the Indians. + + + + +FARIDKOT, a native state of India in the Punjab. It ranks as one of the +Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. Its area +is 642 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 124,912. It is bounded on +the W. and N.E. by the British district of Ferozepore, and on the S. by +Nabha state. During the Sikh wars in 1845 the chief, Raja Pahar Singh, +exerted himself in the British cause, and was rewarded with an increase +of territory. In the Mutiny of 1857, too, his son and successor, Wazir +Singh, did good service by guarding the Sutlej ferries, and in attacking +a notorious rebel, whose stronghold he destroyed. The estimated gross +revenue is £28,300; there is no tribute. The territory is traversed by +the Rewari-Ferozepore railway, and also crossed by the Fazilka line, +which starts from Kotkapura, the old capital. It is irrigated by a +branch of the Sirhind canal. The town of Faridkot has a railway station, +84 m. from Lahore. + + + + +FARIDPUR, or FURREEDPORE, a town and district of British India, in the +Dacca division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town, which has a +railway station, stands on an old channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) +11,649. There are a Baptist mission and a government high school. The +district comprises an area of 2281 sq. m. The general aspect is flat, +tame and uninteresting, although in the northern tract the land is +comparatively high, with a light sandy soil, covered with water during +the rainy season, but dry during the cold and hot weather. From the town +of Faridpur the ground slopes, until in the south, on the confines of +Backergunje, it becomes one immense swamp, never entirely dry. During +the height of the inundations the whole district may be said to be under +water. The villages are built on artificially raised sites, or the high +banks of the deltaic streams. Along many of the larger rivers the line +of hamlets is unbroken for miles together, so that it is difficult to +say where one ends and another begins. The huts, however, except in +markets and bazaars, are seldom close together, but are scattered amidst +small garden plots, and groves of mango, date and betel-nut trees. The +plains between the villages are almost invariably more or less depressed +towards the centre, where usually a marsh, or lake, or deep lagoon is +found. These marshes, however, are gradually filling up by the silt +deposited from the rivers; in the north of the district there now only +remain two or three large swamps, and in them the process may be seen +going on. The climate of Faridpur is damp, like that of the other +districts of eastern Bengal; the average annual rainfall is 66 in. and +the average mean temperature 76.9° F. + +The principal rivers of Faridpur are the Ganges, the Arial Khan and the +Haringhata. The Ganges, or Padma as it is locally called, touches the +extreme north-west corner of the district, flows along its northern +boundary as far as Goalanda, where it receives the waters o£ the Jamuna +or main stream of the Brahmaputra, and whence the united stream turns +southwards and forms the eastern boundary of the district. The river is +navigable by large cargo boats throughout the year, and has an average +breadth during the rainy season of 1600 yds. Rice is the great crop of +the district. In 1901 the population was 1,937,646, showing an increase +of 6% in the decade. The north of the district is crossed by the line of +the Eastern Bengal railway to Goalanda, the port of the Brahmaputra +steamers, and a branch runs to Faridpur town. But most of the trade is +conducted by river. + + + + +FARID UD-DIN 'ATTAR, or FERID EDDIN-ATHAR (1119-1229), Persian poet and +mystic, was born at Nishapur, 513 A.H. (1119 A.D.), and was put to death +627 A.H. (1229 A.D.), thus having reached the age of 110 years. The date +of his death is, however, variously given between the years 1193 and +1235, although the majority of authorities support 1229; it is also +probable that he was born later than 1119, but before 1150. His real +name was Abu Talib (or Abu Hamid) Mahommed ben Ibrahim, and Farid ud-din +was simply an honourable title equivalent to Pearl of Religion. He +followed for a time his father's profession of druggist or perfumer, and +hence the name 'Attar (one who sold 'itr, otto of roses; hence, simply, +dealer in drugs), which he afterwards employed as his poetical +designation. According to the account of Dawlatshah, his interest in the +great mystery of the higher life of man was awakened in the following +way. One day a wandering fakir gazed sadly into his shop, and, when +ordered to be gone, replied: "It is nothing for me to go; but I grieve +for thee, O druggist, for how wilt thou be able to think of death, and +leave all these goods of thine behind thee?" The word was in season; and +Mahommed ben Ibrahim the druggist soon gave up his shop and began to +study the mystic theosophy of the Sufis under Sheik Rukneddin. So +thoroughly did he enter into the spirit of that religion that he was +before long recognized as one of its principal representatives. He +travelled extensively, visited Mecca, Egypt, Damascus and India, and on +his return was invested with the Sufi mantle by Sheik Majd-ud-din of +Bagdad. The greater portion of his life was spent in the town of +Shadyakh, but he is not unfrequently named Nishapuri, after the city of +his boyhood and youth. The story of his death is a strange one. Captured +by a soldier of Jenghiz Khan, he was about to be sold for a thousand +dirhems, when he advised his captor to keep him, as doubtless a larger +offer would yet be made; but when the second bidder said he would give a +bag of horse fodder for the old man, he asserted that he was worth no +more, and had better be sold. The soldier, irritated at the loss of the +first offer, immediately slew him. A noble tomb was erected over his +grave, and the spot acquired a reputation for sanctity. Farid was a +voluminous writer, and left no fewer than 120,000 couplets of poetry, +though in his later years he carried his asceticism so far as to deny +himself the pleasures of poetical composition. His most famous work is +the _Mantik uttair_, or language of birds, an allegorical poem +containing a complete survey of the life and doctrine of the Sufis. It +is extremely popular among Mahommedans both of the Sunnite and Shiite +sects, and the manuscript copies are consequently very numerous. The +birds, according to the poet, were tired of a republican constitution, +and longed for a king. As the lapwing, having guided Solomon through the +desert, best knew what a king should be, he was asked whom they should +choose. The Simorg in the Caucasus, was his reply. But the way to the +Caucasus was long and dangerous, and most of the birds excused +themselves from the enterprise. A few, however, set out; but by the time +they reached the great king's court, their number was reduced to thirty. +The thirty birds (_si morg_), wing-weary and hunger-stricken, at length +gained access to their chosen monarch the Simorg; but only to find that +they strangely lost their identity in his presence--that they are he, +and he is they. In such strange fashion does the poet image forth the +search of the human soul after absorption into the divine. + + The text of the _Mantik uttair_ was published by Garcin de Tassy in + 1857, a summary of its contents having already appeared as _La Poésie + philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans_ in 1856; this was + succeeded by a complete translation in 1863. Among Farid ud-din's + other works may be mentioned his _Pandnama_ (Book of Counsel), of + which a translation by Silvestre de Sacy appeared in 1819; _Bulbul + Nama_ (Book of the Nightingale); _Wasalet Nama_ (Book of + Conjunctions); _Khusru va Gul_ (The King and the Rose); and + _Tadhkiratu 'l Awliya_ (Memoirs of the Saints) (ed. R.A. Nicholson in + _l'ersian Historical Texts_). See Sir Gore Ouseley, _Biographical + Notices of Persian Poets_ (1846), p. 236; Von Hammer Purgstall, + _Geschichte der schönen Redekünste Persiens_ (Vienna, 1818), p. 140; + the Oriental Collections, ii. (London, 1798), pp. 84, 124, containing + translations of part of the _Pandnama_; E.H. Palmer, _Oriental + Mysticism_ (1867); E.G. Browne, _Literary History of Persia_ (1906). + + + + +FARINA, SALVATORE (1846- ), Italian novelist, was born in Sardinia, and +after studying law at Turin and Pavia devoted himself to a literary life +at Milan. Farina has often been compared as a sentimental humorist with +Dickens, and his style of writing has given him a special place in +modern Italian fiction. His masterpiece is _Il Signor Io_ (1880), a +delightful portrait of an egoist; _Don Chisciottino_, _Amore bendato_, +_Capelli biondi_, _Oro nascosto_, _Il Tesoro di Donnina_, _Amore a cent' +occhi_, _Mio figlio_, _Il numero 13_, are some of his other volumes. + + + + +FARINATO, PAOLO (1522-1606), Italian painter and architect, was a native +of Verona. He is sometimes named Farinato degli Uberti, as he came from +the ancient Florentine stock to which the Ghibelline leader Farinata +degli Uberti, celebrated in Dante's _Commedia_, belonged. He flourished +at the same time that the art of Verona obtained its greatest lustre in +the works of Paolo Cagliari (Paul Veronese), succeeded by other members +of the Cagliari family, of whom most or all were outlived by Farinato. +He was instructed by Niccolò Giolfino, and probably by Antonio Badile +and Domenico del Riccio (Brusasorci). Proceeding to Venice, he formed +his style partly on Titian and Giorgione, though he was never +conspicuous as a colourist, and in form he learned more from the works +of Giulio Romano. His nude figures show knowledge of the antique; he +affected a bronzed tone in the complexions, harmonizing with the general +gravity of his colour, which is more laudable in fresco than in +oil-painting. Vasari praised his thronged compositions and merit of +draughtsmanship. His works are to be found not only in Venice and +principally in Verona, but also in Mantua, Padua and other towns +belonging or adjacent to the Venetian territory. He was a prosperous and +light-hearted man, and continually progressed in his art, passing from a +comparatively dry manner into a larger and bolder one, with much +attraction of drapery and of landscape. The "Miracle of the Loaves and +Fishes," painted in the church of S. Giorgio in Verona, is accounted his +masterpiece; it was executed at the advanced age of seventy-nine, and is +of course replete with figures, comprising those of the painter's own +family. A saloon was painted by him in S. Maria in Organo, in the same +city, with the subjects of "Michael expelling Lucifer" and the "Massacre +of the Innocents"; in Piacenza is a "St Sixtus"; in Berlin a +"Presentation in the Temple"; and in the communal gallery of Verona one +of his prime works, the "Marriage of St Catherine." Farinato executed +some sculptures, and various etchings of sacred and mythologic subjects; +his works of all kinds were much in request, including the wax models +which he wrought as studies for his painted figures. He is said to have +died at the same hour as his wife. His son Orazio was also a painter of +merit. + + + + +FARINELLI (1705-1782), whose real name was CARLO BROSCHI, one of the +most extraordinary singers that ever lived, was born on the 24th of +January 1705, at Naples. He was the nephew of Cristiano Farinelli, the +composer and violinist, whose name he took. Having been prepared for the +career of a soprano, he soon acquired, under the instruction of N.A. +Porpora, a voice of marvellous beauty, and became famous throughout +southern Italy as _il ragazzo_ (the boy). In 1722 he made his first +appearance at Rome in his master's _Eumene_, creating the greatest +enthusiasm by surpassing a popular German trumpet-player, for whom +Porpora had written an obligato to one of the boy's songs, in holding +and swelling a note of prodigious length, purity and power, and in the +variations, roulades and trills which he introduced into the air. In +1724 he appeared at Vienna, and at Venice in the following year, +returning to Naples shortly afterwards. He sang at Milan in 1726, and at +Bologna in 1727, where he first met and acknowledged himself vanquished +by the singer Antonio Bernacchi (b. 1700), to whose instruction he was +much indebted. With ever-increasing success and fame Farinelli appeared +in nearly all the great cities of Italy; and returned a third time to +Vienna in 1731. He now modified his style, it is said on the advice of +Charles VI., from mere _bravura_ of the Porpora school to one of pathos +and simplicity. He visited London in 1734, arriving in time to lend his +powerful support to the faction which in opposition to Handel had set up +a rival opera with Porpora as composer and Senesino as principal singer. +But not even his aid could make the undertaking successful. His first +appearance at the Lincoln's Inn Fields theatre was in _Artaserse_, much +of the music of which was by his brother, Riccardo Broschi. His success +was instantaneous, and the prince of Wales and the court loaded him with +favours and presents. Having spent three years in England, Farinelli set +out for Spain, staying a few months on the way in France, where he sang +before Louis XV. In Spain, where he had only meant to stay a few months, +he ended by passing nearly twenty-five years. His voice, employed by the +queen to cure Philip V. of his melancholy madness, acquired for him an +influence with that prince which gave him eventually the power, if not +the name, of prime minister. This power he was wise and modest enough to +use discreetly. For ten years, night after night, he had to sing to the +king the same six songs, and never anything else. Under Ferdinand VI. he +held a similar position, and was decorated (1750) with the cross of +Calatrava. He utilized his ascendancy over this king by persuading him +to establish an Italian opera. After the accession of Charles III. +Farinelli retired with the fortune he had amassed to Bologna, and spent +the remainder of his days there in melancholy splendour, dying on the +15th of July 1782. His voice was of large compass, possessing seven or +eight notes more than those of ordinary singers, and was sonorous, equal +and clear; he also possessed a great knowledge of music. + + + + +FARINGDON, properly GREAT FARINGDON, a market town in the Abingdon +parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 17 m. W.S.W. of Oxford by +road. Pop. (1901) 2900. It lies on the slope of a low range of hills +which borders the valley of the Thames on the south. It is the terminus +of a branch of the Great Western railway from Uffington. The church of +All Saints is a large cruciform building with low central tower. Its +period is mainly Transitional Norman and Early English, and though +considerably altered by restoration it contains some good details, with +many monuments and brasses. Faringdon House, close to the church, was +built by Henry James Pye (1745-1813), poet laureate from 1790 to 1813, +who also caused to be planted the conspicuous group of fir-trees on the +hill east of the town called Faringdon Clump, or locally (like other +similar groups) the Folly. The trade of Faringdon is agricultural. + + + + +FARINI, LUIGI CARLO (1812-1866), Italian statesman and historian, was +born at Russi, near Ravenna, on the 22nd of October 1812. After +completing a brilliant university course at Bologna, which he +interrupted to take part in the revolution of 1831 (see CARBONARI), he +practised as a physician at Russi and at Ravenna. He acquired a +considerable reputation, but in 1843 his political opinions brought him +under the suspicion of the police and caused his expulsion from the +papal states. He resided successively in Florence and Paris, and +travelled about Europe as private physician to Prince Jerome Bonaparte, +but when Pius IX. was elected to the Holy See and began his reign with +apparently Liberal and nationalist tendencies, Farini returned to Italy +and was appointed secretary-general to G. Recchi, the minister of the +interior (March 1848). But he held office for little more than a month, +since like all the other Italian Liberals he disapproved of the pope's +change of front in refusing to allow his troops to fight against +Austria, and resigned with the rest of the ministry on the 29th of +April. Pius, wishing to counteract the effect of this policy, sent +Farini to Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, to hand over the command of +the papal contingent to him. Elected member of parliament for Faenza, he +was again appointed secretary to the ministry of the interior in the +Mamiani cabinet, and later director-general of the public health +department. He resigned office on the proclamation of the republic after +the flight of the pope to Gaeta in 1849, resumed it for a while when +Pius returned to Rome with the protection of French arms, but when a +reactionary and priestly policy was instituted, he went into exile and +took up his residence at Turin. There he became convinced that it was +only through the House of Savoy that Italy could be liberated, and he +expounded his views in Cavour's paper _Il Risorgimento_, in La Frusta +and _Il Piemonte_, of which latter he was at one time editor. He also +wrote his chief historical work, _Lo Stato Romano dal 1815 al 1850_, in +four volumes (Turin, 1850). In 1851 he was appointed minister of public +instruction in the D'Azeglio cabinet, an office which he held till May +1852. As a member of the Sardinian parliament and as a journalist Farini +was one of the staunchest supporters of Cavour (q.v.), and strongly +favoured the proposal that Piedmont should participate in the Crimean +War, if indeed he was not actually the first to suggest that policy (see +G.B. Ercolani's letter in E. Parri's memoir of Farini). In 1856 and 1857 +he published two letters to Mr Gladstone on Italian affairs, which +created a sensation, while he continued to propagate his views in the +Italian press. When on the outbreak of the war of 1859 Francis V., duke +of Modena, was expelled and a provisional government set up, Farini was +sent as Piedmontese commissioner to that city; but although recalled +after the peace of Villafranca he was determined on the annexation of +central Italy to Piedmont and remained behind, becoming a Modenese +citizen and dictator of the state. He negotiated an alliance with Parma, +Romagna and Tuscany, when other provisional governments had been +established, and entrusted the task of organizing an army for this +central Italian league to General Fanti (q.v.). Annexation to Piedmont +having been voted by _plébiscite_ and the opposition of Napoleon III. +having been overcome, Farini returned to Turin, when the king conferred +on him the order of the Annunziata and Cavour appointed him minister of +the interior (June 1860), and subsequently viceroy of Naples; but he +soon resigned on the score of ill-health. Cavour died in 1861, and the +following year Farini succeeded Rattazzi as premier, in which office he +endeavoured to carry out Cavour's policy. Over-exertion, however, +brought on softening of the brain, which compelled him to resign office +on the 24th of March 1863, and ultimately resulted in his death on the +1st of August 1866. He was buried at Turin, but in 1878 his remains were +removed to his native village of Russi. + +His son Domenico Farini had a distinguished political career and was at +one time president of the chamber. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Several letters from Farini to Mr Gladstone and Lord + John Russell were reprinted in a _Mémoire sur les affaires d'Italie_ + (1859), and a collection of his political Correspondence was published + under the title of _Lettres sur les affaires d'Italie_ (Paris, 1860). + His historical work was translated into English in part by Mr + Gladstone and in part under his superintendence. See E. Parri, _Luigi + Carlo Farini_ (Rome, 1878); L. Carpi in _Il Risorgimento Italiano_, + vol. iv. (Milan, 1888); and G. Finali's article, "Il 27 Aprile 1859," + in the _Nuova Antologia_ for the 16th of May 1903. (L. V.*) + + + + +FARM, in the most generally used sense, a portion of land leased or held +for the purpose of agriculture; hence "farming" is equivalent to the +pursuit of agriculture, and "farmer" to an agriculturist. This meaning +is comparatively modern. The origin of the word has perhaps been +complicated by an Anglo-Saxon _feorm_, meaning provisions or food +supply, and more particularly a payment of provisions for the sustenance +of the king, the _cyninges feorm_. In Domesday this appears as a food +rent: _firma unius noctis_ or _diei_. According to the _New English +Dictionary_ there is no satisfactory Teutonic origin for the word. It +has, however, been sometimes connected with a word which appears in the +older forms of some Teutonic languages, meaning "life." The present form +"farm" certainly comes, through the French _ferme_, from the medieval +Lat. _firma_ (_firmus_, fixed), a fixed or certain payment in money or +kind. The Anglo-Saxon _feorm_ may be not an original Teutonic word but +an early adaptation of the Latin. The _feorm_, originally a tax, seems, +as the king "booked" his land, to have become a rent (see F.W. Maitland, +_Domesday Book and After_, 1897, p. 236 ff., and J.H. Round, _Feudal +England_, 1895, p. 109 ff.). The word _firma_ is thus used of the +composition paid by the sheriff in respect of the dues to be collected +from the shire. From the use of the word for the fixed sum paid as rent +for a portion of land leased for cultivation, "farm" was applied to the +land itself, whether held on lease or otherwise, and always with the +meaning of agricultural land. The aspect of the fixity of the sum paid +leads to a secondary meaning, that of a certain sum paid by a taxable +person, community, state, &c., in respect of the taxes or dues that will +be imposed, or to such a sum paid as a rent by a contractor for the +right of collecting such taxes. This method of indirect collection of +the revenue by contractors instead of directly by the officials of the +state is that known as "farming the taxes." The system is best known +through the _publicani_ of Rome, who formed companies or syndicates to +farm not only the indirect taxation of the state, but also other sources +of the state revenues, such as mines, fisheries, &c. (see PUBLICANI). + +In monarchical Europe, which grew out of the ruins of the Roman empire, +the revenue was almost universally farmed, but the system was gradually +narrowed down until only indirect taxes became the subject of farming. +France from the 16th to the 18th centuries is the most interesting +modern example. Owing to the hopeless condition of its revenues, the +French government was continually in a state of anticipating its +resources, and was thus entirely in the hands of financiers. In 1681 the +indirect taxes were farmed collectively to a single company of forty +capitalists (_ferme générale_), increased to sixty in 1755, and reduced +to the original number in 1780. These farmers-general were appointed by +the king for six years, and paid an annual fixed sum every year in +advance. The taxes which they collected were the customs (_douanes_ or +_traites_), the _gabelle_ or salt tax, local taxes or octrois +(_entrées_, &c.), and various smaller taxes. They were under the +management of a controller-general, who had a central office in Paris. +The office of farmer-general was the object of keen competition, +notwithstanding that the successful candidates had to share a +considerable part of the profits of the post with ministers, courtiers, +favourites, and even the sovereign, in the shape of gifts (_croupes_) +and pensions. The rapacity of the farmers-general was proverbial, and +the loss to the revenue by the system was great, while very considerable +hardships were inflicted on the poorer contributors by the unscrupulous +methods of collection practised by the underlings of the farmers. In +addition, the unpopular nature of the taxes caused deep discontent, and +the detestation in which the farmers-general were held culminated in the +execution of thirty-two of them during the French Revolution and the +sweeping away of the system. + + See also AGRICULTURE, DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, FRUIT AND FLOWER + FARMING, &c. + + + + +FARM BUILDINGS. The best laying out of a farm, and the construction of +its buildings, are matters which, from the variety of needs and +circumstances, involve practical considerations and expert knowledge, +too detailed in their nature for more than a brief reference in this +work. It may be said generally that the best aspect for farm buildings +is S. or S.S.E., and with a view to easy disposal of drainage they +should be built on a slight slope. The supply of water, whether it be +provided from wells by engine or windmill power, by hydraulic rams or +other means, is a prime consideration, and it should if possible be laid +on at different suitable points or at any rate the central source of +supply should be in the most accessible and convenient place as regards +stables and cow-sheds. The buildings should be constructed on or within +easy distance of the public road, in order to save the upkeep of private +roads, and should be as near as possible to the centre of the farm. On +mixed farms of ordinary size (200 to 500 acres) the building may be +advantageously planned in one rectangular block, the stock-yards being +placed in the centre separated by the cow-sheds, and surrounded by the +cart-sheds, stables, stores and barn, cattle-boxes, piggeries and minor +buildings. On farms of larger size and on dairy farms special needs must +be taken into account, while in all cases the local methods of farming +must influence the grouping and arrangement of the steading. + + For a more detailed treatment of the subject reference may be made to + the following works;--S. Taylor, _Modern Homesteads_, _a Treatise on + the Designing of Farm Buildings_ (London, 1905); A.D. Clarke, _Modern + Farm Buildings_ (London, 1899); P. Roberts, _The Farmstead_, in the + "Rural Science Series" (New York, 1900), and articles in the _Standard + Cyclopaedia of Agriculture_, vol. 3, and in the _Cyclopaedia of + American Agriculture_, vol. 1. + + + + +FARMER, RICHARD (1735-1797), Shakespearian commentator, the son of a +rich maltster, was born at Leicester on the 28th of August 1735. He was +educated at the free grammar school of his native town, and at Emmanuel +College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1757 a senior optime; three years +later he proceeded M.A. and became classical tutor, and in 1775 master +of his college, in succession to William Richardson, the biographer of +the English bishops. In the latter year also he was appointed +vice-chancellor, and three years afterwards chief librarian of the +university. In 1780 he was appointed to a prebendal stall in Lichfield, +and two years later to one at Canterbury; but the second office he +exchanged in 1788 for that of a canon residentiary of St Paul's. +Cambridge, where he usually resided, was indebted to him for +improvements in lighting, paving and watching; but perhaps London and +the nation have less reason to be grateful for his zealous advocacy of +the custom of erecting monuments to departed worthies in St Paul's. In +1765 he issued a prospectus for a history of the town of Leicester; but +this work, based on materials collected by Thomas Staveley, he never +even began; it was carried out by the learned printer John Nichols. In +1766 he published his famous _Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare_, in +which he proved that the poet's acquaintance with ancient and modern +Continental literature was exclusively derived from translations, of +which he copied even the blunders. "Shakespeare," he said, "wanted not +the stilts of language to raise him above all other men." "He came out +of nature's hand, like Pallas out of Jove's head, at full growth and +mature." "One might," he said--by way of ridiculing the Shakespearian +criticism of the day--"with equal wisdom, study the Talmud for an +exposition of _Tristram Shandy_." The essay fully justifies the author's +description of himself in the preface to the second edition: "I may +consider myself as the pioneer of the commentators; I have removed a +deal of learned rubbish, and pointed out to them Shakespeare's track in +the very pleasant paths of nature." Farmer died at Cambridge on the 8th +of September 1797. He was, it appears, twice offered a bishopric by +Pitt, but declined the preferment. Farmer was immensely popular in his +own college, and loved, it was said, above all other things, old port, +old clothes and old books. + + + + +FARMERS' MOVEMENT, in American political history, the general name for a +movement between 1867 and 1896 remarkable for a radical socio-economic +propaganda that came from what was considered the most conservative +class of American society. In this movement there were three periods, +popularly known as Granger, Alliance and Populist. + +The GRANGE, or Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (the latter the +official name of the national organization, while the former was the +name of local chapters, including a supervisory National Grange at +Washington), was a secret order founded in 1867 to advance the social +needs and combat the economic backwardness of farm life. It grew +remarkably in 1873-1874, and in the latter year attained a membership of +perhaps 800,000. In the causes of its growth--much broader than those +that issued in the financial crisis of 1873--a high tariff, railway +freight-rates and other grievances were mingled with agricultural +troubles like the fall of wheat prices and the increase of mortgages. +The condition of the farmer seemed desperate. The original objects of +the Grange were primarily educational, but these were soon overborne by +an anti-middleman, co-operative movement. Grange agents bought +everything from farm machinery to women's dresses; hundreds of grain +elevators and cotton and tobacco warehouses were bought, and even +steamboat lines; mutual insurance companies were formed and joint-stock +stores. Nor was co-operation limited to distributive processes; +crop-reports were circulated, co-operative dairies multiplied, +flour-mills were operated, and patents were purchased, that the Grange +might manufacture farm machinery. The outcome in some states was ruin, +and the name Grange became a reproach. Nevertheless these efforts in +co-operation were exceedingly important both for the results obtained +and for their wider significance. Nor could politics be excluded, though +officially tabooed; for economics must be considered by social +idealists, and economics everywhere ran into politics. Thus it was with +the railway question. Railways had been extended into frontier states; +there were heavy crops in sparsely settled regions where freight-rates +were high, so that--given the existing distributive system--there were +"over production" and waste; there was notorious stock manipulation and +discrimination in rates; and the farmers regarded "absentee ownership" +of railways by New York capitalists much as absentee ownership of land +has been regarded in Ireland. The Grange officially disclaimed enmity to +railways; but though the organization did not attack them, the +Grangers--through political "farmers' clubs" and the like--did. About +1867 began the efforts to establish regulation of the railways, as +common-carriers, by the states. Such laws were known as "Granger laws," +and their general principles, soon endorsed (1876) by the Supreme Court +of the United States, have become an important chapter in the laws of +the land. In a declaration of principles in 1874 Grangers were declared +to be "not enemies of railroads," and their cause to stand for "no +communism, no agrarianism." To conservatives, however, co-operation +seemed communism, and "Grange laws" agrarianism; and thus in 1873-1874 +the growth of the movement aroused extraordinary interest and much +uneasiness. In 1874 the order was reorganized, membership being limited +to persons directly interested in the farmers' cause (there had been a +millionaire manufacturers' Grange on Broadway), and after this there +were constant quarrels in the order; moreover, in 1875 the National +Grange largely lost control of the state Granges, which discredited the +organization by their disastrous co-operation ventures. Thus by 1876 it +had already ceased to be of national political importance. About 1880 a +renascence began, particularly in the Middle States and New England; +this revival was marked by a recurrence to the original social and +educational objects. The national Grange and state Granges (in all, or +nearly all, of the states) were still active in 1909, especially in the +old cultural movement and in such economic movements--notably the +improvement of highways--as most directly concern the farmers. The +initiative and referendum, and other proposals of reform politics in the +direction of a democratic advance, also enter in a measure into their +propaganda. + +The ALLIANCE carried the movement farther into economics. The "National +Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union," formed in 1889, embraced +several originally independent organizations formed from 1873 onwards; +it was largely confined to the South and was secret. The "National +Farmers' Alliance," formed in 1880, went back similarly to 1877, was +much smaller, Northern and non-secret. The "Colored Farmers' National +Alliance and Co-operative Union" (formed 1888, merged in the above +"Southern" Alliance in 1890) was the second greatest organization. With +these three were associated many others, state and national, including +an annual, non-partisan, deliberative and advisory Farmers' National +Congress. The Alliance movement reached its greatest power about 1890, +in which year twelve national farmers' organizations were represented in +conventions in St Louis, and the six leading ones alone probably had a +membership of 5,000,000.[1] + +As with the Grange, so in the ends and declarations of the whole later +movement, concrete remedial legislation for agricultural or economic +ills was mingled with principles of vague radical tendency and with +lofty idealism.[2] Among the principles advocated about 1890, +practically all the great organizations demanded the abolition of +national banks, the free coinage of silver, a "sufficient" issue of +government paper money, tariff revision, and a secret ballot (the last +was soon realized); only less commonly demanded were an income tax, +taxation of evidence of debt, and government loans on lands. All of +these were principles of the two great Alliances (the Northern and the +Southern), as were also pure food legislation, abolition of landholding +by aliens, reclamation of unused or unearned land grants (to railways, +e.g.), and either rigid federal regulation of railways and other means +of communication or government ownership thereof. The "Southern" +Alliance put in the forefront a "sub-treasury" scheme according to which +cheap loans should be made by government from local sub-treasuries on +non-perishable farm products (such as grain and cotton) stored in +government warehouses; while the "Northern" Alliance demanded +restriction of the liquor traffic and (for a short time) woman suffrage. +Still other issues were a modification of the patent laws (e.g. to +prevent the purchase of patents to stifle competition), postal currency +exchange, the eight-hour day, inequitable taxation, the single-tax on +land, "trusts," educational qualification for suffrage, direct popular +election of federal judges, of senators, and of the president, +special-interest lobbying, &c. + +In 1889-1890 the political (non-partisan) movement developed astonishing +strength; it captured the Republican stronghold of Kansas, brought the +Democratic Party to vassalage in South Carolina, revolutionized +legislatures even in conservative states like Massachusetts, and seemed +likely completely to dominate the South and West. All its work in the +South was accomplished within the old-party organizations, but in 1890 +the demand became strong for an independent third party, for which +various consolidations since 1887 had prepared the way, and by 1892 a +large part of the strength of the farmers' organizations, with that of +various industrial and radical orders, was united in the People's Party +(perhaps more generally known as the Populist Party), which had its +beginnings in Kansas in 1890, and received national organization in +1892. This party emphasized free silver, the income tax, eight-hour day, +reclamation of land grants, government ownership of railways, telephones +and telegraphs, popular election of federal senators, and the initiative +and referendum. In the presidential election of 1892 it cast 1,041,021 +votes (in a total of 12,036,089), and elected 22 presidential electors, +the first chosen by any third party since 1856. In 1896 the People's +Party "fused" with the Democratic Party (q.v.) in the presidential +campaign, and again in 1900; during this period, indeed, the greatest +part of the People's Party was reabsorbed into the two great parties +from which its membership had originally been drawn;--in some northern +states apparently largely into the Republican ranks, but mainly into the +Democratic Party, to which it gave a powerful radical impulse. + +The Farmers' movement was much misunderstood, abused and ridiculed. It +accomplished a vast amount of good. The movement--and especially the +Grange, for on most important points the later movements only followed +where it had led--contributed the initial impulse and prepared the way +for the establishment of travelling and local rural libraries, reading +courses, lyceums, farmers' institutes (a steadily increasing influence) +and rural free mail delivery (inaugurated experimentally in 1896 and +adopted as part of the permanent postal system of the country in 1902); +for agricultural exhibits and an improved agricultural press; for +encouragement to and increased profit from the work of agricultural +colleges, the establishment (1885) and great services of the United +States Department of Agriculture,--in short, for an extraordinary +lessening of rural isolation and betterment of the farmers' +opportunities; for the irrigation of the semi-arid West, adopted as a +national policy in 1902, the pure-food laws of 1906, the +interstate-commerce law of 1887, the railway-rate laws of 1903 and 1906, +even the great Bureau of Commerce-and-Labor law of 1903, and the +Anti-trust laws of 1903 and later. The Alliance and Populist movements +were bottomed on the idea of "ethical gains through legislation." In its +local manifestations the whole movement was often marked by eccentric +ideas, narrow prejudices and weaknesses in economic reasoning. It is not +to be forgotten that owing to the movement of the frontier the United +States has always been "at once a developed country and a primitive one. +The same political questions have been put to a society advanced in some +regions and undeveloped in others.... On specific political questions +each economic area has reflected its peculiar interests" (Prof. F.J. +Turner). That this idea must not, however, be over-emphasized, is +admirably enforced by observing the great mass of farmer radicalism that +has, since about 1896, become an accepted Democratic and Republican +principle over the whole country. The Farmers' movement was the +beginning of widespread, effective protest against "the menace of +privilege" in the United States. + + American periodicals, especially in 1890-1892, are particularly + informing on the growth of the movement; see F.M. Drew in _Political + Science Quarterly_ (1891), vi. p. 282; C.W. Pierson in _Popular + Science Monthly_ (1888), xxxii. pp. 199, 368; C.S. Walker and F.J. + Foster in _Annals of American Academy_ (1894); iv. p. 790; Senator + W.A. Peffer in _Cosmopolitan_ (1890), x. p. 694; and on agricultural + discontent, _Political Science Quarterly_, iv. (1889), p. 433, by W.F. + Mappin; v. (1890), p. 65, by J.P. Dunn; xi. (1896), pp. 433, 601, xii. + (1897), p. 93, and xiv. (1899), p. 444, by C.F. Emerick; Prof. E.W. + Bemis in _Journal of Political Economy_ (1893), i. p. 193; A.H. Peters + in _Quarterly Journal of Economics_ (1890), iv. p. 18; C.W. Davis in + _Forum_ (1890), ix. pp. 231, 291, 348. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Membership usually included males or females above 16 years of + age. + + [2] Thus, the "Southern" Alliance in 1890 (the chief platforms were + the one at Ocala, Florida, and that of 1889 at St Louis, in + conjunction with the Knights of Labor) declared its principles to be: + "(1) To labour for the education of the agricultural classes in the + science of economical government in a strictly non-partisan way, and + to bring about a more perfect union of such classes. (2) To demand + equal rights to all, and special privileges to none. (3) To endorse + the motto: 'In things essential, unity; in all things, charity.' (4) + To develop a better state, mentally, morally, socially and + financially.... (6) To suppress personal, local, sectional and + national prejudices." For the Southern farmer a chief concrete evil + was the pre-crop mortgages by which cotton farmers remained in debt + to country merchants; in the North the farmer attacked a wide range + of "capitalistic" legislation that hurt him, he believed, for the + benefit of other classes--notably legislation sought by railways. + + + + +FARNABY (or FARNABIE), THOMAS (c. 1575-1647), English grammarian, was +the son of a London carpenter; his grandfather, it is said, had been +mayor of Truro, his great-grandfather an Italian musician. Between 1590 +and 1595 he appears successively as a student of Merton College, Oxford, +a pupil in a Jesuit college in Spain, and a follower of Drake and +Hawkins. After some military service in the Low Countries "he made +shift," says Wood, "to be set on shore in the western part of England; +where, after some wandering to and fro under the name of Tho. Bainrafe, +the anagram of his sirname, he settled at Martock, in Somersetshire, and +taught the grammar school there for some time with success. After he had +gotten some feathers at Martock, he took his flight to London," and +opened a school in Goldsmiths' Rents, Cripplegate. From this school, +which had as many as 300 pupils, there issued, says Wood, "more +churchmen and statesmen than from any school taught by one man in +England." In the course of his London career "he was made master of arts +of Cambridge, and soon after incorporated at Oxon." Such was his success +that he was enabled to buy an estate at Otford near Sevenoaks, Kent, to +which he retired from London in 1636, still, however, carrying on his +profession of schoolmaster. In course of time he added to his Otford +estate and bought another near Horsham in Sussex. In politics he was a +royalist; and, suspected of participation in the rising near Tunbridge, +1643, he was imprisoned in Ely House, Holborn. He died at Sevenoaks on +the 12th of June 1647. + + The details of his life were derived by Anthony à Wood from Francis, + Farnaby's son by a second marriage (see Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_, + ed. Bliss, iii. 213). His works chiefly consisted of annotated + editions of Latin authors--Juvenal, Persius, Seneca, Martial, Lucan, + Virgil, Ovid and Terence, which enjoyed extraordinary popularity. His + _Systema grammaticum_ was published in London in 1641. On the 6th of + April 1632, Farnaby was presented with a royal patent granting him, + for the space of twenty-one years, the sole right of printing and + publishing certain of his works. + + + + +FARNBOROUGH, THOMAS ERSKINE MAY, BARON (1815-1886), English +Constitutional historian, was born in London on the 8th of February 1815 +and educated at Bedford grammar school. In 1831 he was nominated by +Manners Sutton, speaker of the House of Commons, to the post of +assistant librarian, so that his long connexion with parliament began in +his youth. He studied for the bar, and was called at the Middle Temple +in 1838. In 1844 he published the first edition of his _Treatise on the +Law, Privilege, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament_. This work, which +has passed through many editions, is not only an invaluable mine of +information for the historical student, but it is known as the text-book +of the law by which parliament governs its proceedings. In 1846 Erskine +May was appointed examiner of petitions for private bills, and the +following year taxing-master of the House of Commons. He published his +_Remarks to Facilitate Public Business in Parliament_ in 1849; a work +_On the Consolidation of Election Laws_ in 1850; and his _Rules, Orders +and Forms of the House of Commons_ was printed by command of the House +in 1854. In 1856 he was appointed clerk assistant at the table of the +House of Commons. He received the companionship of the Bath in 1860 for +his parliamentary services, and became a knight commander in 1866. His +important work, _The Constitutional History of England since the +Accession of George III._ (1760-1860), was published in 1861-1863, and +it received frequent additions in subsequent editions. In 1871 Sir +Erskine May was appointed clerk of the House of Commons. His _Democracy +in Europe: a History_ appeared in 1877, but it failed to take the same +rank in critical esteem as his _Constitutional History_. He retired from +the post of clerk to the House of Commons in April 1886, having for +fifteen years discharged the onerous duties of the office with as much +knowledge and energy as unfailing tact and courtesy. Shortly after his +retirement from office he was raised to the peerage under the title of +Baron Farnborough of Farnborough, in the county of Southampton, but he +only survived to enjoy the dignity for a few days. He died in London on +the 17th of May 1886, and as he left no issue the title became extinct. + + + + +FARNBOROUGH, an urban district in the Basingstoke parliamentary division +of Hampshire, England, 33 m. S.W. by W. from London, on the London & +South Western and the South Eastern & Chatham railways. Pop. (1901) +11,500 (including 5070 military). The church of St Peter ranges from +Early English to Perpendicular in style. St Michael's Catholic memorial +church, erected in 1887 by the ex-empress Eugénie, contains the remains +of Napoleon III. and the prince imperial. An adjoining abbey is occupied +by Benedictine fathers of the French congregation; the convent is a +ladies' boarding-school. Aldershot North Camp is within the parish. + + + + +FARNE ISLANDS [also FEARNE, FERN, or THE STAPLES], a group of rocky +islands and reefs off the coast of Northumberland, England, included in +that county. In 1901 they had only eleven inhabitants. They extend in a +line of some 6 m. in a northeasterly direction from the coast, on which +the nearest villages are Bamborough and North Sunderland. The Fairway, +1½ m. across, separates the largest island, Farne, or House, from the +mainland. Farne is 16 acres in area, and has precipitous cliffs up to 80 +ft. in height on the east, but the shore is otherwise low. The other +principal islets are Staple, Brownsman, North and South Wamses, +Longstone and Big Harcar. On Farne is a small ancient chapel, with a +square tower near it built for purposes of defence in the 15th century. +The chapel is believed to occupy the site of St Cuthbert's hermitage, +whither he retired from the priory on the neighbouring Holy Island or +Lindisfarne. He was with difficulty persuaded to leave it on his +elevation to the bishopric of Lindisfarne, and returned to it to die +(687). Longstone rock, with its lighthouse, is famous as the scene of +the bravery of Grace Darling in rescuing some of the survivors of the +wreck of the "Forfarshire" (1838). The rocks abound in sea-birds, +including eider duck. + + + + +FARNESE, the name of one of the most illustrious and powerful Italian +families, which besides including eminent prelates, statesmen and +warriors among its members, ruled the duchy of Parma for two centuries. +The early history of the family is involved in obscurity, but they are +first heard of as lords of Farneto or Farnese, a castle near the lake of +Bolsena, and they played an important part as consuls and signori of +Orvieto. They seem to have always been Guelphs, and in the civil broils +of Orvieto they sided with the Monaldeschi faction against the +Ghibelline Filippeschi. One Pietro Farnese commanded the papal armies +under Paschal II. (1099-1118); another Pietro led the Florentines to +victory against the Pisans in 1363. Ranuccio Farnese served Eugene IV. +so well that the pope endowed him with large fiefs, and is reported to +have said, "The Church is ours because Farnese has given it back to us." + +The family derived further advantages at the time of Pope Alexander VI., +who was the lover of the beautiful Giulia Farnese, known as Giulia +Bella, and created her brother Alessandro a cardinal (1493). The latter +was elected pope as Paul III. in 1534, and it is from that moment that +the great importance of the family dates. An unblushing nepotist, he +alienated immense fiefs belonging to the Holy See in favour of his +natural children. Of these the most famous was Pierluigi Farnese +(1503-1547), who served in the papal army in various campaigns, but also +took part in the sack of Rome in 1527. On his father's elevation to the +papacy he was made captain-general of the Church, and received the duchy +of Castro in the Maremma, besides Frascati, Nepi, Montalto and other +fiefs. A shameless rake and a man of uncontrollable temper, his massacre +of the people of Perugia after a rebellion in 1540 and the unspeakable +outrage he committed on the bishop of Fano are typical of his character. +In 1545 his father conferred on him the duchy of Parma and Piacenza, +which likewise belonged to the Holy See, and his rule proved cruel and +tyrannical. He deprived the nobles of their privileges, and forced them +to dwell in the towns, but to some extent he improved the conditions of +the lower classes. Pierluigi being an uncompromising opponent of the +emperor Charles V., Don Ferrante Gonzaga, the imperial governor of +Milan, was ever on the watch for a pretext to deprive him of Piacenza, +which the emperor greatly coveted. When the duke proceeded to build a +castle in that town in order to overawe its inhabitants, the nobles were +furiously indignant, and a plot to murder him was organized by the +marquis Anguissola and others with the support both of Gonzaga and of +Andrea Doria (q.v.), Charles's admiral, who wished to be revenged on +Pierluigi for the part he had played in the Fiesco conspiracy (see +FIESCO). The deed was done while the duke was superintending the +building of the above-mentioned citadel, and his corpse was flung into +the street (December 10th, 1547). Piacenza was thereupon occupied by the +imperialists. + +Pierluigi had several children, for all of whom Paul made generous +provision. One of them, Alessandro (1520-1589), was created cardinal at +the age of fourteen; he was a man of learning and artistic tastes, and +lived with great splendour surrounded by scholars and artists, among +whom were Annibal Caro, Paolo Giovio, Mons. Della Casa, Bembo, Vasari, +&c. It was he who completed the magnificent Farnese palace in Rome. He +displayed diplomatic ability on various missions to foreign courts, but +failed to get elected to the papacy. + +Orazio, Pierluigi's third son, was made duke of Castro when his father +became duke of Parma, and married Diane, a natural daughter of Henry II. +of France. Ottavio, the second son (1521-1586), married Margaret, the +natural daughter of Charles V. and widow of Alessandro de' Medici, at +the age of fifteen, she being a year older; at first she disliked her +youthful bridegroom, but when he returned wounded from the expedition to +Algiers in 1541 her aversion was turned to affection (see MARGARET OF +AUSTRIA). Ottavio had been made lord of Camerino in 1540, but he gave up +that fief when his father became duke of Parma. When, on the murder of +the latter in 1547, Piacenza was occupied by the imperialists, Paul +determined to make an effort to regain the city; he set aside Ottavio's +claims to the succession of Parma, where he appointed a papal legate, +giving him back Camerino in exchange, and then claimed Piacenza of the +emperor, not for the Farnesi, but for the Church. But Ottavio would not +be put off; he attempted to seize Parma by force, and having failed, +entered into negotiations with Gonzaga. This unnatural rebellion on the +part of one grandson, combined with the fact that it was supported by +the other grandson, Cardinal Alessandro, hastened the pope's death, +which occurred on the 10th of November 1549. During the interregnum that +followed Ottavio again tried to induce the governor of Parma to give up +the city to him, but met with no better success; however, on the +election of Giovan Maria Ciocchi (Julius III.) the duchy was conferred +on him (1551). This did not end his quarrel with the emperor, for +Gonzaga refused to give up Piacenza and even threatened to occupy Parma, +so that Ottavio was driven into the arms of France. Julius, who was +anxious to be on good terms with Charles on account of the council of +Trent which was then sitting, ordered Farnese to hand Parma over to the +papal authorities once more, and on his refusal hurled censures and +admonitions at his head, and deprived him of his Roman fiefs, while +Charles did the same with regard to those in Lombardy. A French army +came to protect Parma, war broke out, and Gonzaga at once laid siege to +the city. But the duke came to an arrangement with his father-in-law, by +which he regained Piacenza and his other fiefs. The rest of his life was +spent quietly at home, where the moderation and wisdom of his rule won +for him the affection of his people. At his death in 1586 he was +succeeded by his son Alessandro Farnese (1545-1592), the famous general +of Philip II. of Spain, who spent the whole of his reign in the Flemish +wars. + +The first years of the reign of his son and successor Ranuccio I. +(1569-1622), who had shown much spirit in a controversy with Pope Sixtus +V., were uneventful, but in 1611 a conspiracy was formed against him by +a group of discontented nobles supported by the dukes of Modena and +Mantua. The plot was discovered and the conspirators were barbarously +punished, many being tortured and put to death, and their estates +confiscated. Ranuccio was a reserved and gloomy bigot; he instituted +savage persecutions against supposed witches and heretics, and lived in +perpetual terror of plots. His eldest son Alessandro being deaf and +dumb, the succession devolved on his second son Odoardo (1612-1646), who +fought on the French side in the war against Spain. His failure to pay +the interest of the money borrowed in Rome, and the desire of Urban +VIII. to obtain Castro for his relatives the Barberini (q.v.), resulted +in a war between that pope and Odoardo. His son and successor Ranuccio +II. (1630-1694) also had a war with the Holy See about Castro, which was +eventually razed to the ground. His son Francesco Maria (1678-1727) +suffered from the wars between Spain and Austria, the latter's troops +devastating his territory; but although this obliged him to levy some +burdensome taxes, he was a good ruler and practised economy in his +administration. Having no children, the succession devolved at his death +on his brother Antonio (1679-1731), who was also childless. The powers +had agreed that at the death of the latter the duchy should pass to Don +Carlos of Bourbon, son of King Philip V. of Spain by Elisabetta Farnese +(1692-1766), granddaughter of Ranuccio II. Antonio died in 1731, and +with him the line of Farnese came to an end. + +The Palazzo Farnese in Rome, one of the finest specimens of Roman +Renaissance architecture, was begun under Paul III., while he was +cardinal, by Antonio da San Gallo, and completed by his nephew Cardinal +Alessandro under the direction of Michelangelo (1526). It was inherited +by Don Carlos, afterwards king of Naples and Spain, and most of the +pictures were removed to Naples. It now contains the French embassy to +the Italian court, as well as the French school of Rome. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Odorici gives a detailed history of the family in P. + Litta's _Famiglie celebri italiane_, vol. x. (Milan, 1868), to which + an elaborate bibliography is appended, including manuscript sources; a + more recent bibliography is S. Lottici and G. Sitti, _Bibliografia + generale per la storia parmense_ (Parma, 1904); much information will + be found in A. von Reumont's _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. + (Berlin, 1868), and in F. Gregorovius's _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ + (Stuttgart, 1872). (L. V.*) + + + + +FARNESE, ALEXANDER (1545-1592), duke of Parma, general, statesman and +diplomatist, governor-general of the Netherlands under Philip II. of +Spain, was born at Rome on the 27th of August 1545, and died at the +abbey of St Waast, near Arras, on the 3rd of December 1592. He was the +son of Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma, and Margaret of Austria, natural +daughter of Charles V. He accompanied his mother to Brussels when she +was appointed governor of the Netherlands, and in 1565 his marriage +with the princess Maria of Portugal was celebrated in Brussels with +great splendour. Alexander Farnese had been brought up in Spain with his +cousin, the ill-fated Don Carlos, and his uncle Don John of Austria, +both of whom were about the same age as himself, and after his marriage +he took up his residence at once at the court of Madrid. He fought with +much personal distinction under the command of Don John in 1571 at the +battle of Lepanto. It was seven years, however, before he had again an +opportunity for the display of his great military talents. In the +meantime the provinces of the Netherlands had revolted against the +arbitrary and oppressive Spanish rule, and Don John of Austria, who had +been sent as governor-general to restore order, had found himself +helpless in face of the superior talent and personal influence of the +prince of Orange, who had succeeded in uniting all the provinces in +common resistance to the civil and religious tyranny of Philip. In the +autumn of 1577 Farnese was sent to join Don John at the head of +reinforcements, and it was mainly his prompt decision at a critical +moment that won the battle of Gemblours (1578). Shortly afterwards Don +John, whose health had broken down through disappointment and +ill-health, died, and Farnese was appointed to take his place. + +It is scarcely possible to exaggerate the difficulties with which he +found himself confronted, but he proved himself more than equal to the +task. In military ability the prince of Parma was inferior to none of +his contemporaries, as a skilful diplomatist he was the match even of +his great antagonist William the Silent, and, like most of the leading +statesmen of his day, was unscrupulous as to the means he employed so +long as he achieved his ends. Perceiving that there were divisions and +jealousies in the ranks of his opponents between Catholic and +Protestant, Fleming and Walloon, he set to work by persuasion, address +and bribery, to foment the growing discord, and bring back the Walloon +provinces to the allegiance of the king. He was successful, and by the +treaty of Arras, January 1579, he was able to secure the support of the +"Malcontents," as the Catholic nobles of the south were styled, to the +royal cause. The reply to the treaty of Arras was the Union of Utrecht, +concluded a few weeks later between the seven northern provinces, who +abjured the sovereignty of King Philip and bound themselves to use all +their resources to maintain their independence of Spanish rule. + +Farnese, as soon as he had obtained a secure basis of operations in +Hainaut and Artois, set himself in earnest to the task of reconquering +Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. Town after town fell into his +power. Tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges and Ghent opened their gates, +and finally he laid siege to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was +open to the sea, was strongly fortified, and was defended with resolute +determination and courage by the citizens. They were led by the famous +Philip de Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, and had the assistance of an +ingenious Italian engineer, by name Gianibelli. The siege began in 1584 +and called forth all the resources of Farnese's military genius. He cut +off all access to Antwerp from the sea by constructing a bridge of boats +across the Scheldt from Calloo to Oordam, in spite of the desperate +efforts of the besieged to prevent its completion. At last, on the 15th +of August 1585, Antwerp was compelled by famine to capitulate. +Favourable conditions were granted, but all Protestants were required to +leave the town within two years. With the fall of Antwerp, for Malines +and Brussels were already in the hands of Farnese, the whole of the +southern Netherlands was brought once more to recognize the authority of +Philip. But Holland and Zeeland, whose geographical position made them +unassailable except by water, were by the courage and skill of their +hardy seafaring population, with the help of English auxiliaries sent by +Queen Elizabeth, able to defy his further advance. + +In 1586 Alexander Farnese became duke of Parma by the death of his +father. He applied for leave to visit his paternal territory, but Philip +would not permit him. He could not replace him in the Netherlands; but +while retaining him in his command at the head of a formidable army, the +king would not give his sanction to his great general's desire to use it +for the reconquest of the Northern Provinces. Never was there a better +opportunity than the end of 1586 for an invading army to march through +the country almost without opposition. The misgovernment and lack of +high statesmanship of the earl of Leicester had caused faction to be +rampant in the United Provinces; and on his return to England he left +the country without organized forces or experienced generals to oppose +an advance of a veteran army under the greatest commander of his time. +But Philip's whole thoughts and energies were already directed to the +preparation of an Invincible Armada for the conquest of England, and +Parma was ordered to collect an enormous flotilla of transports and to +keep his army concentrated and trained for the projected invasion of the +island realm of Queen Elizabeth. Thus the critical period passed by +unused, and when the tempests had finally dispersed the defeated +remnants of the Great Armada the Dutch had found a general, in the +youthful Maurice of Nassau, worthy to be the rival in military genius +even of Alexander of Parma. Moreover, the accession to the throne of +France of Henry of Navarre had altogether altered the situation of +affairs, and relieved the pressure upon the Dutch by creating a +diversion, and placing Parma and his army between hostile forces. The +ruinous expenditure upon the Great Armada had also depleted the Spanish +treasury and Philip found himself virtually bankrupt. In 1590 the +condition of the Spanish troops had become intolerable. Farnese could +get no regular supplies of money from the king for the payment of the +soldiery, and he had to pledge his own jewels to meet the demand. A +mutiny broke out, but was suppressed. In the midst of these difficulties +Parma received orders to abandon the task on which he had spent himself +for so many years, and to raise the siege of Paris, which was blockaded +by Henry IV. He left the Netherlands on the 3rd of August 1590 at the +head of 15,000 troops. By brilliant generalship he outwitted Henry and +succeeded in relieving Paris; but owing to lack of money and supplies he +was compelled immediately to retreat to the Netherlands, abandoning on +the march many stragglers and wounded, who were killed by the peasantry, +and leaving all the positions he had taken to be recaptured by Henry. + +Again in 1591, in the very midst of a campaign against Maurice of +Nassau, sorely against his will, the duke of Parma was obliged to give +up the engrossing struggle and march to relieve Rouen. He was again +successful in his object, but was wounded in the arm before Caudebec, +and was finally compelled to withdraw his army with considerable losses +through the privations the troops had to undergo. He himself was +shattered in health by so many years of continuous campaigning and +exposure, and by the cares and disappointments which had befallen him. +He died at Arras on the 3rd of December 1592, in the forty-seventh year +of his age. The feeling that his immense services had not won for him +either the gratitude or confidence of his sovereign hastened his end. He +was honoured by a splendid funeral at Brussels, but his body was +interred at his own capital city of Parma. He left two sons, Ranuce, who +succeeded him, and Edward, who was created a cardinal in 1591 by Pope +Gregory XIV. His daughter Margaret married Vincent, duke of Mantua. + + See L.P. Gachard, _Correspondance d'Alexandre Farnese, Prince de + Parme, gouverneur général des Pays-Bas, avec Philippe II, 1578-1579_ + (Brussels, 1850); Fra Pietro, _Alessandro Farnese, duca di Parma_ + (Rome, 1836). + + + + +FARNESE, ELIZABETH (1692-1766), queen of Spain, born on the 25th of +October 1692, was the only daughter of Odoardo II., prince of Parma. Her +mother educated her in strict seclusion, but seclusion altogether failed +to tame her imperious and ambitious temper. At the age of twenty-one +(1714) she was married by proxy at Parma to Philip V. of Spain. The +marriage was arranged by Cardinal Alberoni (q.v.), with the concurrence +of the Princess des Ursins, the _Camerara Mayor_. On arriving at the +borders of Spain, Elizabeth was met by the Princess des Ursins, but +received her sternly, and, perhaps in accordance with a plan previously +concerted with the king, at once ordered her to be removed from her +presence and from Spain. Over the weak king Elizabeth quickly obtained +complete influence. This influence was exerted altogether in support of +the policy of Alberoni, one chief aim of which was to recover the +ancient Italian possessions of Spain, and which actually resulted in the +seizure of Sardinia and Sicily. So vigorously did she enter into this +policy that, when the French forces advanced to the Pyrenees, she placed +herself at the head of one division of the Spanish army. But Elizabeth's +ambition was grievously disappointed. The Triple Alliance thwarted her +plans, and at length in 1720 the allies made the banishment of Alberoni +a condition of peace. Sicily also had to be evacuated. And finally, all +her entreaties failed to prevent the abdication of Philip, who in 1724 +gave up the throne to his heir, and retired to the palace of La Granja. +Seven months later, however, the death of the young king recalled him to +the throne. During his later years, when he was nearly imbecile, she +directed the whole policy of Spain so as to secure thrones in Italy for +her sons. In 1736 she had the satisfaction of seeing her favourite +scheme realized in the accession of her son Don Carlos (afterwards +Charles III. of Spain) to the throne of the Two Sicilies and his +recognition by the powers in the treaty of Vienna. Her second son, +Philip, became duke of Parma. Elizabeth survived her husband twenty +years, dying in 1766. + + See _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire d'Espagne sous le règne de + Philippe V_, by the Marquis de St Philippe, translated by Maudave + (Paris, 1756); _Memoirs of Elizabeth Farnese_ (London, 1746); and E. + Armstrong, _Elizabeth Farnese, the Termagant of Spain_ (1892). + + + + +FARNHAM, a market town in the Guildford parliamentary division of +Surrey, England, 37½ m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South +Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6124. It lies on the left +bank of the river Wey, on the southern slope of a hill rising about 700 +ft. above the sea-level. The church of St Andrew is a spacious +transitional Norman and Early English building, with later additions, +and was formerly a chapel of ease to Waverley Abbey, of which a crypt +and fragmentary remains, of Early English date, stand in the park +attached to a modern residence of the same name. This was the earliest +Cistercian house in England, founded in 1128 by William Gifford, bishop +of Winchester. The _Annales Waverlienses_, published by Gale in his +_Scriptores_ and afterwards in the Record series of _Chronicles_, are +believed to have suggested to Sir Walter Scott the name of his first +novel. Farnham Castle, on a hill north of the town, the seat of the +bishops of Winchester, was first built by Henry de Blois, bishop of +Winchester, and brother of King Stephen; but it was razed by Henry III. +It was rebuilt and garrisoned for Charles I. by Denham, from whom it was +taken in 1642 by Sir W. Waller; and having been dismantled, it was +restored by George Morley, bishop of Winchester (1662-1684). Farnham has +a town hall and exchange in Italian style (1866), a grammar school of +early foundation, and a school of science and art. It was formerly noted +for its cloth manufacture. Hops of fine quality are grown in the +vicinity. William Cobbett was born in the parish (1766), and is buried +in the churchyard of St Andrew's. The neighbouring mansion of Moor Park +was the residence of Sir William Temple (d. 1699), and Swift worked here +as his secretary. Hester Johnson, Swift's "Stella," was the daughter of +Temple's steward, whose cottage still stands. The town has grown in +favour as a residential centre from the proximity of Aldershot Camp (3 +m. N.E.). + +Though there is evidence of an early settlement in the neighbourhood, +the town of Farnham (Ferneham) seems to have grown up round the castle +of the bishops of Winchester, who possessed the manor at the Domesday +Survey. Its position at the junction of the Pilgrim's Way and the road +from Southampton to London was important. In 1205 Farnham had bailiffs, +and in 1207 it was definitely a mesne borough under the bishops of +Winchester. In 1247 the bishop granted the first charter, giving, among +other privileges, a fair on All Saints' Day. The burgesses surrendered +the proceeds of the borough court and other rights in 1365 in return for +respite of the fee farm rent; these were recovered in 1405 and rent +again paid. Bishop Waynflete is said to have confirmed the original +charter in 1452, and in 1566 Bishop Horne granted a new charter by +which the burgesses elected 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses annually and did +service at their own courts every three weeks, the court leet being held +twice a year. In resisting an attack made by the bishop in 1660 on their +right of toll, the burgesses could only claim Farnham as a borough by +prescription as their charters had been mislaid, but the charters were +subsequently found, and after some litigation their rights were +established. In the 18th century the corporation, a close body, +declined, its duties being performed by the vestry, and in 1789 the one +survivor resigned and handed over the town papers to the bishop. Farnham +sent representatives to parliament in 1311 and 1460, on both occasions +being practically the bishop's pocket borough. In accordance with the +grant of 1247 a fair was held on All Saints' day and also on Holy +Thursday; the former was afterwards held on All Souls' Day. Farnham was +early a market of importance, and in 1216 a royal grant changed the +market day from Sunday to Thursday in each week. It was famous in the +early 17th century for wheat and oats; hop-growing began in 1597. + + + + +FARNWORTH, an urban district in the Radcliffe-cum-Farnworth +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Irwell, 3 m. S.E. +of Bolton by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 25,925. +Cotton mills, iron foundries, brick and tile works, and collieries +employ the large industrial population. + + + + +FARO, the capital of a district bearing the same name, in southern +Portugal; at the terminus of the Lisbon-Faro railway, and on the +Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 11,789. Faro is an episcopal see, with a +Renaissance cathedral of great size, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a +ruined castle surrounded by Moorish fortifications. Its broad but +shallow harbour is protected on the south by the long island of Cães, +and a number of sandy islets, which, being constantly enlarged by silt +from the small river Fermoso, render the entrance of large vessels +impossible. Fishing is an important industry, and fish, with wine, +fruit, cork, baskets and sumach, are the principal articles of export. +Little has been done to develop the mineral resources of the district, +which include tin, lead, antimony and auriferous quartz. Faro was taken +from the Moors by Alphonso III. of Portugal (1248-1279). It was sacked +by the English in 1596, and nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1755. + +The administrative district of Faro coincides with the ancient kingdom +and province of Algarve (q.v.); pop. (1900) 255,191; area, 1937 sq. m. + + + + +FARO (from _Pharaoh_, a picture of the Egyptian king appearing on a card +of the old French pack), a game of cards, played with a full pack. +Originally the pack was held in the dealer's left hand, but nowadays +very elaborate and expensive implements are used. The dealer places the +pack, after shuffling and cutting, in a dealing-box face upwards, and +the cards are taken from the top of the box in couples through a slit in +the side. The exposed card on top is called _soda_, and the last card +left in the box is _in hoc_. The implements include counters of various +colours and values, a dealing-box, a case or frame manipulated by a +"case-keeper," upon which the cards already played are arranged in +sight, a shuffling-board, and score-sheets for the players. Upon the +table is the "lay-out," a complete suit of spades, enamelled on green +cloth, upon or near which to place the stakes. The dealer takes two +cards from the box, placing the first one near it and the second close +beside it. Each deal of two cards is called a _turn_, and there are +twenty-five such, _soda_ and _hoc_ not counting. The players stake upon +any card they please, or in such manner as to take in several cards, +reducing the amount, but increasing the chances, of winning, as at +roulette. The dealer, having waved the hand, after which no more bets +may be made, deals the turn, and then proceeds to gather in the stakes +won by him, and to pay those he has lost. The chances as between dealer +and punters, or players, are equal, except that the banker wins half the +money staked on the cards of a turn should they chance to be alike. Faro +is played considerably in parts of the United States, whither it is said +to have been taken from France, where it had a great vogue during the +reign of Louis XIV. Owing to the dishonest methods of many gambling +"clubs" the game is in disrepute. + + + + +FARQUHAR, GEORGE (1677-1707), British dramatist, son of William +Farquhar, a clergyman, was born in Londonderry, Ireland, in 1677. When +he was seventeen he was entered as a sizar at Trinity College, Dublin, +under the patronage of Dr Wiseman, bishop of Dromore. He did not long +continue his studies, being, according to one account, expelled for a +profane joke. Thomas Wilkes, however, states that the abrupt termination +of his studies was due to the death of his patron. He became an actor on +the Dublin stage, but in a fencing scene in Dryden's _Indian Emperor_ he +forgot to exchange his sword for a foil, with results which narrowly +escaped being fatal to a fellow-actor. After this accident he never +appeared on the boards. He had met Robert Wilks, the famous comedian, in +Dublin. Though he did not, as generally stated, go to London with Wilks, +it was at his suggestion that he wrote his first play, _Love and a +Bottle_, which was performed at Drury Lane, perhaps through Wilks's +interest, in 1698. He received from the earl of Orrery a lieutenancy in +his regiment, then in Ireland, but in two letters of his dated from +Holland in 1700 he says nothing of military service. His second comedy, +_The Constant Couple: or a Trip to the Jubilee_ (1699), ridiculing the +preparations for the pilgrimage to Rome in the Jubilee year, met with an +enthusiastic reception. Wilks as Sir Harry Wildair contributed +substantially to its success. In 1701 Farquhar wrote a sequel, _Sir +Harry Wildair_. Leigh Hunt says that Mrs Oldfield, like Wilks, played +admirably well in it, but the original Lady Lurewell was Mrs Verbruggen. +Mrs Oldfield is said to have been the "Penelope" of Farquhar's letters. +In 1702 Farquhar published a slight volume of miscellanies--_Love and +Business; in a Collection of Occasionary Verse and Epistolary +Prose_--containing, among other things, "A Discourse on Comedy in +reference to the English Stage," in which he defends the English neglect +of the dramatic unities. "The rules of English comedy," he says, "don't +lie in the compass of Aristotle or his followers, but in the pit, box +and galleries." In 1702 he borrowed from Fletcher's _Wild Goose Chase_, +_The Inconstant, or the Way to win Him_, in which he followed his +original fairly closely except in the last act. In 1703 he married, in +the expectation of a fortune, but found too late that he was deceived. +It is said that he never reproached his wife, although the marriage +increased his liabilities and the rest of his life was a constant +struggle against poverty. His other plays are: _The Stage Coach_ (1704), +a one-act farce adapted from the French of Jean de la Chapelle in +conjunction with Peter Motteux; _The Twin Rivals_ (Drury Lane, 1702); +_The Recruiting Officer_ (Drury Lane, 1706); and _The Beaux' Stratagem_ +(Haymarket, 1707). _The Recruiting Officer_ was suggested to him by a +recruiting expedition (1705) in Shropshire, and is dedicated to his +"friends round the Wrekin." _The Beaux' Stratagem_, is the best o£ all +his plays, and long kept the stage. Genest notes nineteen revivals up to +1828. Two embarrassed gentlemen travel in the country disguised as +master and servant in the hope of mending their fortune. The play gives +vivid pictures of the Lichfield inn with its rascally landlord, and of +the domestic affairs of the Sullens. Archer, the supposed valet, whose +adventurous spirit secures full play, was one of Garrick's best parts. + +Meanwhile one of his patrons, said to have been the duke of Ormond, had +advised Farquhar to sell out of his regiment, and had promised to give +him a captaincy in his own. Farquhar sold his commission, but the duke's +promise remained unfulfilled. Before he had finished the second act of +_The Beaux' Stratagem_ he knew that he was stricken with a mortal +illness, but it was necessary to persevere and to be "consumedly lively +to the end." He had received in advance £30 for the copyright from +Lintot the bookseller. The play was staged on the 8th of March, and +Farquhar lived to have his third night, and there was an extra benefit +on the 29th of April, the day of his death. He left his two children to +the care of his friend Wilks. Wilks obtained a benefit at the theatre +for the dramatist's widow, but he seems to have done little for the +daughters. They were apprenticed to a mantua-maker, and one of them was, +as late as 1764, in receipt of a pension of £20 solicited for her by +Edmund Chaloner, a patron of Farquhar. She was then described as a +maidservant and possessed of sentiments "fitted to her humble +situation." + +The plots of Farquhar's comedies are ingenious in conception and +skilfully conducted. He has no pretensions to the brilliance of +Congreve, but his amusing dialogue arises naturally out of the +situation, and its wit is never strained. Sergeant Kite in the +_Recruiting Officer_, Scrub, Archer and Boniface in _The Beaux' +Stratagem_ are distinct, original characters which had a great success +on the boards, and the unexpected incidents and adventures in which they +are mixed up are represented in an irresistibly comic manner by a man +who thoroughly understood the resources of the stage. The spontaneity +and verve with which his adventurous heroes are drawn have suggested +that in his favourite type he was describing himself. His own +disposition seems to have been most lovable, and he was apparently a +much gayer person than the reader might be led to suppose from the +"Portrait of Himself" quoted by Leigh Hunt. The code of morals followed +by these characters is open to criticism, but they are human and genial +in their roguery, and compare far from unfavourably with the cynical +creations of contemporary drama. The advance which he made on his +immediate predecessors in dramatic construction and in general moral +tone is more striking when it is remembered that he died before he was +thirty. + + Farquhar's dramatic works were published in 1728, 1742 and 1772, and + by Thomas Wilkes with a biography in 1775. They were included in the + _Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh and Farquhar_ (1849), + with biographical and critical notices, by Leigh Hunt. See also _The + Dramatic Works of George Farquhar, with Life and Notes_, by A.C. Ewald + (2 vols., 1892); _The Best Plays of George Farquhar_ (Mermaid series, + 1906), with biographical and critical introductions, by William + Archer; _The Beaux' Stratagem_, edited (1898) by H. Macaulay + Fitzgibbon for "The Temple Dramatists"; and D. Schmid, "George + Farquhar, sein Leben und seine Original-Dramen" (1904) in _Wiener + Beiträge zur engl. Philol._ + + + + +FARR, WILLIAM (1807-1883), English statistician, was born at Kenley, in +Shropshire, on the 30th of November 1807. When nineteen he became the +pupil of a doctor in Shrewsbury, also acting as dresser in the infirmary +there. He then went to Paris to study medicine, but after two years +returned to London, where, in 1832, he qualified as L.S.A. Next year he +began to practise, but without very brilliant results, for five years +later he definitely abandoned the exercise of his profession on +accepting the post of compiler of abstracts in the registrar-general's +office. The commissioners for the 1841 census consulted him on several +points, but did not in every case follow his advice. For the next two +decennial censuses he acted as assistant-commissioner; for that of 1871 +he was a commissioner, and he wrote the greater part of the reports of +all. He had an ambition to become registrar-general; and when that post +became vacant in 1879, he was so disappointed at the selection of Sir +Brydges Henniker instead of himself, that he refused to stay any longer +in the registrar's office. He died of paralysis of the brain a year or +two later, on the 14th of April 1883. A great part of Farr's literary +production is to be found in the papers which, from 1839 to 1880, he +wrote for each annual report of the registrar-general on the cause of +the year's deaths in England. He was also the author of many papers on +general statistics and on life-tables for insurance, some read before +the Royal Statistical Society, of which he was president in 1871 and +1872, some contributed to the _Lancet_ and other periodicals. A +selection from his statistical writings was published in 1885 under the +editorship of Mr Noël Humphreys. + + + + +FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW (1801-1870), first admiral of the United States +navy, was the son of Major George Farragut, a Catalan by descent, a +Minorquin by birth, who had emigrated to America in 1776, and, after the +peace, had married a lady of Scottish family and settled near Knoxville, +in Tennessee; there Farragut was born on the 5th of July 1801. At the +early age of nine he entered the navy, under the protection of his +name-father, Captain David Porter, with whom he served in the "Essex" +during her cruise in the Atlantic in 1812, and afterwards in the +Pacific, until her capture by the "Phoebe," in Valparaiso Bay, on the +28th of March 1814. He afterwards served on board the "Washington" (74) +carrying the broad pennant of Commodore Chauncey in the Mediterranean, +and pursued his professional and other studies under the instruction of +the chaplain, Charles Folsom, with whom he contracted a lifelong +friendship. Folsom was appointed from the "Washington" as U.S. consul at +Tunis, and obtained leave for his pupil to pay him a lengthened visit, +during which he studied not only mathematics, but also French and +Italian, and acquired a familiar knowledge of Arabic and Turkish. He is +said to have had a great natural aptitude for languages and in after +years to have spoken several fluently. + +After more than four years in the Mediterranean, Farragut returned to +the States in November 1820. He then passed his examination, and in 1822 +was appointed for service in what was called the "mosquito" fleet, +against the pirates, who then infested the Caribbean Sea. The service +was one of great exposure and privation; for two years and a half, +Farragut wrote, he never owned a bed, but lay down to rest wherever he +found the most comfortable berth. By the end of that time the joint +action of the British and American navies had driven the pirates off the +sea, and when they took to marauding on shore the Spanish governors did +the rest. In 1825 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, whilst +serving in the navy yard at Norfolk, where, with some breaks in +sea-going ships, he continued till 1832; he then served for a commission +on the coast of Brazil, and was again appointed to the yard at Norfolk. + +It is needless to trace the ordinary routine of his service step by +step. The officers of the U.S. navy have one great advantage which +British officers are without; when on shore they are not necessarily +parted from the service, but are employed in their several ranks in the +different dockyards, escaping thus not only the private grievance and +pecuniary difficulties of a very narrow half-pay, but also, what from a +public point of view is much more important, the loss of professional +aptitude, and of that skill which comes from unceasing practice. On the +8th of September 1841 Farragut was promoted to the rank of commander, +and on the 14th of September 1855 to that of captain. At this time he +was in charge of the navy yard, Mare Island, California, from which post +he was recalled in 1858, and appointed to the "Brooklyn" frigate, the +command of which he held for the next two years. When the war of +secession broke out in 1861, he was "waiting orders" at Norfolk. By +birth and marriage he was a Southerner, and the citizens of Norfolk +counted on his throwing in his lot with them; but professional pride, +and affection for the flag under which he had served for more than fifty +years, held him true to his allegiance; he passionately rejected the +proposals of his fellow-townsmen, and as it was more than hinted to him +that his longer stay in Norfolk might be dangerous, he hastily quitted +that place, and offered his services to the government at Washington. +These were at once accepted; he was requested to sit on the Naval +Retiring Board--a board then specially constituted for clearing the navy +of unfit or disloyal officers--and a few months later was appointed to +the command of the "Western Gulf Blockading Squadron," with the rank of +flag-officer, and ordered to proceed forthwith, in the "Hartford," to +the Gulf of Mexico, to collect such vessels as could be spared from the +blockade, to proceed up the Mississippi, to reduce the defences which +guarded the approaches to New Orleans, and to take and hold the city. +All this Farragut executed to the letter, with a skill and caution that +won for him the love of his followers, and with a dash and boldness that +gained him the admiration of the public and the popular name of "Old +Salamander." The passage of the Mississippi was forced on the 24th of +April 1862, and New Orleans surrendered on the 26th; this was +immediately followed by the operations against Vicksburg, from which, +however, Farragut was compelled to withdraw, having relearnt the old +lesson that against heavy earthworks, crowning hills of sufficient +height, a purely naval attack is unavailing; it was not till the +following summer, and after a long siege, that Vicksburg surrendered to +a land force under General Grant. During this time the service on the +Mississippi continued both difficult and irksome; nor until the river +was cleared could Farragut seriously plan operations against Mobile, a +port to which the fall of New Orleans had given increased importance. +Even then he was long delayed by the want of monitors with which to +oppose the ironclad vessels of the enemy. It was the end of July 1864 +before he was joined by these monitors; and on the 5th of August, +undismayed by the loss of his leading ship, the monitor "Tecumseh," sunk +by a torpedo, he forced the passage into the bay, destroyed or captured +the enemy's ships, including the ram "Tennessee" bearing Admiral +Buchanan's flag, and took possession of the forts. The town was not +occupied till the following April, but with the loss of its harbour it +ceased to have any political or strategical importance. + +With this Farragut's active service came to an end; for though in +September 1864 he was offered the command of the force intended for the +reduction of Wilmington, the state of his health, after the labours and +anxieties of the past three years, in a trying climate, compelled him to +decline it and to ask to be recalled. He accordingly returned to New +York in December, and was received with the wildest display of popular +enthusiasm. It was then that the Government instituted the rank of +vice-admiral, previously unknown in the American service. Farragut was +promoted to it, and in July 1866 was further promoted to the rank of +admiral. In 1867, with his flag flying in the "Franklin," he visited +Europe. The appointment was an honourable distinction without political +or naval import: the "Franklin" was, to all intents, for the time being, +a yacht at Farragut's disposal; and her arrival in the different ports +was the signal for international courtesies, entertainments and social +gaiety. She returned to America in 1868, and Farragut retired into +private life. Two years later, on the 14th of August 1870, he died at +Portsmouth, New Hampshire. + + Farragut was twice married, and left, by his second wife, a son, + Loyall Farragut, who, in 1878, published a _Life_ of his father + "embodying his Journal and Letters." Another _Life_ (1892), by Captain + A.T. Mahan, though shorter, has a greater value from the professional + point of view, by reason of the critical appreciation of Farragut's + services. (J. K. L.) + + + + +FARRANT, RICHARD, composer of English church music, flourished during +the 16th century. Very little is known about him. Fétis gives 1530 as +the date of his birth, but on what authority does not appear. He became +a gentleman of the Chapel Royal in the reign of Edward VI., but resigned +his post in 1564 on being appointed master of the children of St +George's chapel, Windsor. In this capacity he presented a play before +the queen at Shrovetide 1568, and again at Christmas of the same year, +receiving on each occasion the sum of £6: 13: 4d. In November 1569 he +was reinstated as gentleman of the Chapel Royal. It is stated by Hawkins +(_History of Music_, vol. iii. 279) that Farrant was also one of the +clerks and organists of St George's chapel, Windsor, and that he +retained these posts till his death. Many of his compositions are +printed in the collections of Barnard and Boyce. Among the most admired +of them are a service in G minor, and the anthems "Call to remembrance" +and "Hide not thou thy face." It is doubtful whether Farrant is entitled +to the credit of the authorship of the beautiful anthem "Lord, for thy +tender mercies' sake." No copy of the music under his name appeared in +print till 1800, although it had been earlier attributed to him. Some +writers have named John Hilton, and others Thomas Tallis, as the +composer. From entries in the _Old Check Book of the Chapel Royal_ +(edited for the Camden Society by Dr Rimbault) it appears that Farrant +died, not in 1585, as Hawkins states, but on the 30th of November 1580 +or 1581. + + + + +FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1903), English divine, was born on the +7th of August 1831, in the Fort of Bombay, where his father, afterwards +vicar of Sidcup, Kent, was then a missionary. His early education was +received in King William's College, Castletown, Isle of Man, a school +whose external surroundings are reproduced in his popular schoolboy +tale, _Eric; or, Little by Little_. In 1847 he entered King's College, +London. Through the influence of F.D. Maurice he was led to the study of +Coleridge, whose writings had a profound influence upon his faith and +opinions. He proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1851, +and in the following year took the degree of B.A. at the university of +London. In 1854 he took his degree as fourth junior optime, and fourth +in the first class of the classical tripos. In addition to other college +prizes he gained the chancellor's medal for the English prize poem on +the search for Sir John Franklin in 1852, the Le Bas prize and the +Norrisian prize. He was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1856. + +On leaving the university Farrar became an assistant-master under G.E.L. +Cotton at Marlborough College. In November 1855 he was appointed an +assistant-master at Harrow, where he remained for fifteen years. He was +elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1864, university preacher in +1868, honorary chaplain to the queen in 1869 and Hulsean lecturer in +1870. In 1871 he was appointed headmaster of Marlborough College, and in +the following year he became chaplain-in-ordinary to the queen. In 1876 +he was appointed canon of Westminster and rector of St Margaret's, +Westminster. He took his D.D. degree in 1874, the first under the new +regulations at Cambridge. Farrar began his literary labours with the +publication of his schoolboy story Eric in 1858, succeeded in the +following year by _Julian Home_ and _Lyrics of Life_, and in 1862 by _St +Winifred's; or the World of School_. He had already published a work on +_The Origin of Language_, and followed it up by a series of works on +grammar and scholastic philology, including _Chapters on Language_ +(1865); _Greek Grammar Rules_ (1865); _Greek Syntax_ (1866); and +_Families of Speech_ (1869). He edited _Essays on a Liberal Education in +1868_; and published _Seekers after God_ in the Sunday Library (1869). +It was by his theological works, however, that Farrar attained his +greatest popularity. His Hulsean lectures were published in 1870 under +the title of _The Witness of History to Christ_. _The Life of Christ_, +which was published in 1874, speedily passed through a great number of +editions, and is still in much demand. It reveals considerable powers of +imagination and eloquence, and was partly inspired by a personal +knowledge of the sacred localities depicted. In 1877 appeared _In the +Days of My Youth_, sermons preached in the chapel of Marlborough +College; and during the same year his volume of sermons on _Eternal +Hope_--in which he called in question the dogma of everlasting +punishment--caused much controversy in religious circles and did much to +mollify the harsh theology of an earlier age. There is little doubt that +his boldness and liberality of thought barred his elevation to the +episcopate. In 1879 appeared _The Life and Works of St Paul_, and this +was succeeded in 1882 by _The Early Days of Christianity_. Then came in +order of publication the following works: _Everyday Christian Life; or, +Sermons by the Way_ (1887); _Lives of the Fathers_ (1888); _Sketches of +Church History_ (1889); _Darkness and Dawn_, a story of the Neronic +persecution (1891); _The Voice from Sinai_ (1892); _The Life of Christ +as Represented in Art_ (1894); a work on Daniel (1895); _Gathering +Clouds_, a tale of the days of Chrysostom (1896); and _The Bible, its +Meaning and Supremacy_ (1896). Farrar was a copious contributor of +articles to various magazines, encyclopaedias and theological +commentaries. In 1883 he was made archdeacon of Westminster and rural +dean; in 1885 he was appointed Bampton lecturer at Oxford, and took for +his subject "The History of Interpretation." He was appointed dean of +Canterbury in 1895. From 1890 to 1895 he was chaplain to the speaker of +the House of Commons, and in 1894 he was appointed deputy-clerk of the +closet to Queen Victoria. He died at Canterbury on the 22nd of March +1903. + +As a theologian Farrar occupied a position midway between the +Evangelical party and the Broad Church; while as a somewhat rhetorical +preacher and writer he exerted a commanding influence over wide circles +of readers. He was an ardent temperance and social reformer, and was one +of the founders of the institution known as the Anglican Brotherhood, a +religious band with modern aims and objects. + + See his _Life_, by his son R. Farrar (1904). + + + + +FARREN, ELIZABETH (c. 1759-1829), English actress, was the daughter of +George Farren, an actor. Her first London appearance was in 1777 as Miss +Hardcastle in _She Stoops to Conquer_. Subsequent successes established +her reputation and she became the natural successor to Mrs Abington +when the latter left Drury Lane in 1782. The parts of Hermione, Olivia, +Portia and Juliet were in her repertory, but her Lady Betty Modish, Lady +Townly, Lady Fanciful, Lady Teazle and similar parts were her +favourites. In 1797 she married Edward, 12th earl of Derby (1752-1834). + + + + +FARREN, WILLIAM (1786-1861), English actor, was born on the 13th of May +1786, the son of an actor (b. 1725) of the same name, who played leading +rôles from 1784 to 1795 at Covent Garden. His first appearance on the +stage was at Plymouth at the Theatre Royal, then under the management of +his brother, in _Love à la mode_. His first London appearance was in +1818 at Covent Garden as Sir Peter Teazle, a part with which his name is +always associated. He played at Covent Garden every winter until 1828, +and began in 1824 a series of summer engagements at the Haymarket which +also lasted some years. At these two theatres he played an immense +variety of comedy characters. From 1828 until 1837 he was at Drury Lane, +where he essayed a wider range, including Polonius and Caesar. He was +again at Covent Garden for a few years, and next joined Benjamin Webster +at the Haymarket, as stage-manager as well as actor. In 1843 at the +close of his performance of the title-part in Mark Lemon's _Old Parr_, +he was stricken with paralysis on the stage. He was, however, able to +reappear the following year, and he remained at the Haymarket ten years +more, though his acting never again reached its former level. For a time +he managed the Strand, and, 1850-1853, was lessee of the Olympic. During +his later years he confined himself to old men parts, in which he was +unrivalled. In 1855 he made his final appearance at the Haymarket, as +Lord Ogleby in a scene from the _Clandestine Marriage_. He died in +London on the 24th of September 1861. In 1825 he had married the actress +Mrs Faucit, mother of Miss Helena Saville Faucit (Lady Martin), and he +left two sons, Henry (1826-1860) and William (1825-1908), both actors. +The former was the father of Ellen [Nellie] Farren (1848-1904), long +famous for boy's parts in Gaiety musical burlesques, in the days of +Edward Terry and Fred Leslie. As Jack Sheppard, and in similar rôles, +she had a unique position at the Gaiety, and was an unrivalled public +favourite. From 1892 her health failed, and her retirement, coupled with +Fred Leslie's death, brought to an end the type of Gaiety burlesque +associated with them. + + + + +FARRER, THOMAS HENRY FARRER, 1ST BARON (1819-1899), English civil +servant and statistician, was the son of Thomas Farrer, a solicitor in +Lincoln's Inn Fields. Born in London on the 24th of June 1819, he was +educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in +1840. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1844, but retired +from practice in the course of a few years. He entered the public +service in 1850 as secretary to the naval (renamed in 1853 the marine) +department of the Board of Trade. In 1865 he was promoted to be one of +the joint secretaries of the Board of Trade, and in 1867 became +permanent secretary. His tenure of this office, which he held for +upwards of twenty years, was marked by many reforms and an energetic +administration. Not only was he an advanced Liberal in politics, but an +uncompromising Free-trader of the strictest school. He was created a +baronet for his services at the Board of Trade in 1883, and in 1886 he +retired from office. During the same year he published a work entitled +_Free Trade versus Fair Trade_, in which he dealt with an economic +controversy then greatly agitating the public mind. He had already, in +1883, written a volume on _The State in its Relation to Trade_. In 1889 +he was co-opted by the Progressives an alderman of the London County +Council, of which he became vice-chairman in 1890. His efficiency and +ability in this capacity were warmly recognized; but in the course of +time divergencies arose between his personal views and those of many of +his colleagues. The tendency towards socialistic legislation which +became apparent was quite at variance with his principles of individual +enterprise and responsibility. He consequently resigned his position. In +1893 he was raised to the peerage. From this time forward he devoted +much of his energy and leisure to advocating his views at the Cobden +Club, the Political Economy Club, on the platform, and in the public +press. Especially were his efforts directed against the opinions of the +Fair Trade League, and upon this and other controversies on economic +questions he wrote able, clear, and uncompromising letters, which left +no doubt that he still adhered to the doctrines of free trade as +advocated by its earliest exponents. In 1898 he published his _Studies +in Currency_. He died at Abinger Hall, Dorking, on the 11th of October +1899. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son Thomas Cecil (b. +1859). + + + + +FARRIER, and FARRIERY (from Lat. _ferrarius_, a blacksmith, _ferrum_, +iron). Farrier is the name given generally either to the professional +shoer of horses or in a more extended sense to a practitioner of the +veterinary art; and farriery is the term for his business. Primarily the +art of farriery is identical with that of the blacksmith, in so far as +he makes and fixes shoes on horses (see HORSE-SHOES); he is liable in +law for negligence, as one who holds himself out as skilled; and he has +a lien on the animal for his expenses. William the Conqueror is supposed +to have introduced horse-shoeing into England, and the art had an +important place through the middle ages, the days of chivalry, and the +later developments of equitation. In modern times it has been closely +allied with the general progress in veterinary science, and in the +knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot and hoof. + + See Fisher, _The Farrier_ (1893); Lungwitz, _Text-Book of + Horse-shoeing_ (Eng. trans., 1898). + + + + +FARS (the name _Farsistan_ is not used), one of the five _mamlikats_ +(great provinces) of Persia, extending along the northern shore of the +Persian Gulf and bounded on the west by Arabistan, on the north by +Isfahan and on the east by Kerman. It lies between 49° 30' and 56° 10' +E. and 26° 20' and 31° 45' N. and has an area of nearly 60,000 sq. m. +Fars is the same word as the Greek _Persis_, and, originally the name of +only a part of the Persian empire (Iran), has become the name which +Europeans have applied to the whole (see PERSIS). The province is +popularly, but not for administrative purposes, divided according to +climate into _germsir_ and _sardsir_, or the warm and cold regions. The +former extends from the sea to the central chain of hills and contains +all the lowlands and many mountainous districts, some of the latter +rising to an elevation of between 3000 and 4000 ft. and the _sardsir_ +comprises the remaining and northern districts of the province. + +In Arrian's relation of the voyage of Nearchus (_Indica_, 40), these two +regions are well described. "The first part of Persis which lies along +the Persian Gulf is hot, sandy and barren and only the date palm thrives +there. The other part comprehends inner Persis lying northwards; it +enjoys a pleasant climate and has fertile and well-watered plains, +gardens with trees of all kinds, rich pasturages and forests abounding +with game; with the exception of the olive all fruits are produced in +profusion, particularly the vine. Horses and other draught animals are +reared in the province, and there are several lakes frequented by +water-fowl, and streams of clear water flow through it, as for instance +the Kyros (Kur) formed by the junction of the Medos and Araxes." + +The mountains of Fars may be considered as a continuation of the Zagros +and run parallel to the shores of the Persian Gulf. They comprise +several ranges which the roads from the sea to the interior have to +cross at right angles, thereby rendering communication and transport +very difficult. The highest of the mountains of Fars (14,000 ft.) is the +Kuh Dina in the north-western part of the province. Of the rivers of +Fars only three important ones flow into the sea: (1) the Mand (Arrian's +Sitakos), Karaaghach in its upper course; (2) the Shapur or Khisht river +(Granis); (3) the Tab (Oroatis). Some rivers, notably the Kur (Kyros, +Araxes) which flows into the Bakhtegan lake east of Shiraz, drain into +inland depressions or lakes. + +The capital of the province is Shiraz, and the subdivision in districts, +the chief places of the districts and their estimated population, and +the number of inhabited villages in each as they appear in lists dated +1884 and 1905 are shown on the following page. + + +---+-----------------------+-------------------------+-----------+ + | | | Chief Place or Seat of | Number of | + | | | Government. | inhabited | + | | Name of District. +---------------+---------+ Villages | + | | | Name. | Popula- | in | + | | | | tion. | District. | + +---+-----------------------+---------------+---------+-----------+ + | 1 | Abadeh Iklid | Abadeh | 4,000 | 33 | + | 2 | Abadeh-Tashk | Tashk | 600 | 8 | + | 3 | Abarj | Dashtek | 2,000 | 6 | + | 4 | Abbasi | | | | + | | (1) Bander Abbasi[1] | | | | + | | and villages | Bander Abbasi | 10,000 | 14 | + | | (2) Issin and Tazian | Issin | | 6 | + | | (3) Shamil | Shamil | 1,000 | 18 | + | | (4) Moghistan | Ziarat | | 10 | + | | (5) Minab | Minab | 4,000 | 23 | + | 5 | Afzar | Ni-mdeh | | 12 | + | 6 | 'Alemrud | Sabzpushan | 1,000 | 16 | + | 7 | Arb'ah (the four) | | | | + | | (1) Deh Rud | | | | + | | (2) Deh Ram | Deh Ram | 1,500 | 19 | + | | (3) Hengam | | | | + | | (4) Rudbal | | | | + | 8 | Ardakan | Ardakan | 5,000 | 10 | + | 9 | Arsinjan | Arsinjan | 5,000 | 25 | + |10 | Asir | Asir | 500 | 10 | + |11 | Baiza | Baiza | 2,000 | 55 | + |12 | Bi-dshahr and Juvi-m | Bidshahr | 3,000 | 23 | + |13 | Bovanat | Surian | 500 | 23 | + |14 | Darab | Darab | 5,000 | 62 | + |15 | Dashti | | | | + | | (1) Bardistan | Bander Dair | 1,000 | 28 | + | | (2) Buluk | Bushgan | | 18 | + | | (3) Mandistan | Kaki | 1,500 | 40 | + | | (4) Tassuj | Tang Bagh | 500 | 11 | + | | (5) Shumbeh | Shumbeh | | 15 | + |16 | Dashtistan | | | | + | | (1) Angali | Haftjush | | 10 | + | | (2) Ahrom | Ahrom | 1,500 | 5 | + | | (3) Borazjan | Borazjan | 4,000 | 19 | + | | (4) Bushire[1] | Bushire | 25,000 | 20 | + | | (5) Daliki | Daliki | 1,500 | 7 | + | | (6) Gonavah | Gonavah | 1,000 | 12 | + | | (7) Hayat Daud | Bander Rig | 1,000 | 6 | + | | (8) Khurmuj | Khurmuj | 1,000 | 5 | + | | (9) Rud Hillah | Kelat Sukhteh | | 10 | + | | (10) Shaban Kareh | Deh Kohneh | | 27 | + | | (11) Tangistan | Tangistan | 1,000 | 31 | + | | (12) Zengeneh | Samal | 750 | 4 | + | | (13) Zirah | Zirah | | 6 | + |17 | Dizkurd | Cherkes | 500 | 6 | + |18 | Famur | Pagah | 300 | 3 | + |19 | Ferrashband | Ferrashband | 1,000 | 14 | + |20 | Fessa | Fessa | 5,000 | 40 | + |21 | Firuzabad | Firuzabad | 4,000 | 20 | + |22 | Gillehdar | Gillehdar | 1,000 | 43 | + |23 | Humeh of Shiraz | Zerkan | 1,000 | 89 | + |24 | Istahbanat | Istahbanat | 10,000 | 12 | + |25 | Jahrum | Jahrum | 10,000 | 33 | + |26 | Jireh | Ishfayikan | | 23 | + |27 | Kamfiruz | Palangeri | | 34 | + |28 | Kamin | Kalilek | | 11 | + |29 | Kazerun | Kazerun | 8,000 | 46 | + |30 | Kavar | Kavar | | 26 | + |31 | Kir and Karzin | Kir | 1,000 | 23 | + |32 | Khafr | Khafr | 1,000 | 41 | + |33 | Khajeh | Zanjiran | 500 | 15 | + |34 | Khisht | Khisht | 2,500 | 25 | + |35 | Khunj | Khunj | 1,500 | 27 | + |36 | Kongan | Bander Kongan | | 12 | + |37 | Kuh Gilu and Behbahan | Behbahan | 10,000 | 182 | + |38 | Kurbal | Gavkan | 600 | 67 | + |39 | Kuh i Marreh Shikeft | Shikeft | | 41 | + |40 | Kunkuri | Kazian | | 29 | + |41 | Laristan | | | | + | | (1) Lar | Lar | 8,000 | 34 | + | | (2) Bikhah Ihsham | Bairam | | 11 | + | | (3) Bikhah Fal | Ishkenan | | 10 | + | | (4) Jehangiriyeh | Bastak | 4,000 | 30 | + | | (5) Shib Kuh | Bander Charak | | 36 | + | | (6) Fumistan or | | | | + | | Gavbandi | Gavbandi | | 13 | + | | (7) Kauristan | Kauristan | | 4 | + | | (8) Lingah[1] | Bander Lingah | 10,000 | 11 | + | | (9) Mazayijan | Mazayijan | | 6 | + |42 | Mahur Milati | Jemalgird | | 5 | + |43 | Maimand | Maimand | 5,000 | 14 | + |44 | Maliki | Bander Assalu | 1,000 | 25 | + |45 | Mamasenni (Shulistan) | | | | + | | (1) Bekesh \ | | | 8 | + | | (2) Javidi or Javi | | | | 6 | + | | (3) Dushmanziaris | | | | 16 | + | | (4) Rustami >| Kal'ah Safid | | 26 | + | | (5) Fahlian | | | | 7 | + | | (6) Kakan / | | | 5 | + |46 | Mayin | Mayin | | 8 | + |47 | Mervast and Herat | Mervast | | 14 | + |48 | Mervdasht | | | | + | | (1) Upper Khafrek \ | | | 14 | + | | (2) Lower Khafrek >| Fathabad | 1,250 | 16 | + | | (3) Mervdasht / | | | 22 | + |49 | Meshhed Mader Suliman | Murghab | 800 | 6 | + |50 | Niriz | Niriz | 9,000 | 24 | + |51 | Ramjird | Jashian | | 36 | + |52 | Rudan and Ahmedi | Dehbariz | | 21 | + |53 | Sab'ah (the seven) | | | | + | | (1) Bivunj (Bi-vanej)| Durz | | 14 | + | | (2) Hasanabad | Hasanabad | | 7 | + | | (3) Tarom | Tarun | 2,000 | 15 | + | | (4) Faraghan | Faraghan | 1,500 | 13 | + | | (5) Forg | Forg | 3,000 | 18 | + | | (6) Fin and Guhrah | Fin | | 13 | + | | (7) Gileh Gah (aban- | | | | + | | doned) Ziaret | Ziaret | 1,000 | 11 | + |54 | Sarchahan | | | | + |55 | Sarhad Chahar Dungeh | \ | | | + | | (1) Dasht Ujan | | | | | + | | (2) Dasht Khosro va | | | | | + | | Shirin | > Kushk Zard | | 31 | + | | (3) Dasht Khungasht | | | | | + | | (4) Dasht Kushk Zard | / | | | + |56 | Sarhad Shesh Nahiyeh | | | | + | | (1) Padina (foot of | | | | + | | Mount Dina | Khur \ | | | + | | (2) Henna | Henna | | | | + | | (3) Samiram | Samiram | | | | + | | (4) Felard | Felard > | | 24 | + | | (5) Vardasht | Germabad | | | | + | | (6) Vank | Vank / | | | + |57 | Sarvistan | Sarvistan | 4,500 | 23 | + |58 | Shiraz (town) in 1884 | |53,607[2]| | + |59 | Siyakh | Darinjan | | 13 | + |60 | Simkan | Duzeh | | 28 | + +---+-----------------------+---------------+---------+-----------+ + +The above sixty districts are grouped into eighteen sub-provinces under +governors appointed by the governor-general of Fars, but the towns of +Bushire, Lingah and Bander Abbasi, together with the villages in their +immediate neighbourhood, form a separate government known as that of the +"Persian Gulf Ports" (Benadir i Khalij i Fars), under a governor +appointed from Teheran. The population of the province has been +estimated at 750,000 and the yearly revenue it pays to the state amounts +to about £150,000. Many districts are fertile, but some, particularly +those in the south-eastern part of the province, do not produce +sufficient grain for the requirements of the sparse population. In +consequence of droughts, ravages of locusts and misgovernment by local +governors the province has been much impoverished and hundreds of +villages are in ruins and deserted. About a third of the population is +composed of turbulent and lawless nomads who, when on the march between +their winter and summer camping grounds, frequently render the roads +insecure and occasionally plunder whole districts, leaving the +inhabitants without means of subsistence. + +The province produces much wheat, barley, rice, millet, cotton, but the +authorities every now and then prohibiting the export of cereals, the +people generally sow just as much as they think will suffice for their +own wants. Much tobacco of excellent quality, principally for +consumption in Persia, is also grown (especially in Fessa, Darab and +Jahrom) and a considerable quantity of opium, much of it for export to +China, is produced. Salt, lime and gypsum are abundant. There are also +some oil wells at Daliki, near Bushire, but several attempts to tap the +oil have been unsuccessful. There are no valuable oyster-banks in +Persian waters, and all the Persian Gulf pearls are obtained from banks +on the coast of Arabia and near Bahrein. (A. H.-S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Are forming separate administrative division of "Persian Gulf + Ports." + + [2] Persian census in 1884; 25,284 males, 28,323 females. + + + + +FARTHING (A.S. _feórtha_, fourth, +_ing_, diminutive), the smallest +English coin, equal to the fourth of a penny. It became a regular part +of the coinage from the reign of Edward I., and was, up to the reign of +Mary, a silver coin. No farthing was struck in the reign of Elizabeth, +but a silver three-farthing piece was issued in that reign, with a +profile bust of the queen crowned, with a rose behind her head, and +inscribed "E.D.G. Rosa sine spina." The copper farthing was first +introduced in the reign of James I., a patent being given to Lord +Harington of Exton in 1613 for the issue of copper tokens of this +denomination. It was nominally of six grains' weight, but was usually +heavier. Properly, however, the copper farthing dates from the reign of +Charles II., in whose reign also was issued a tin farthing, with a small +copper plug in the centre, and an inscription on the edge, "Nummorum +famulus 1684." No farthings were actually issued in the reign of Queen +Anne, though a number of patterns were prepared (see NUMISMATICS: +_MEDIEVAL SECTION, ENGLAND_). In 1860 the copper farthing was superseded +by one struck in bronze. In 1842 a proclamation was issued giving +currency to half-farthings, and there were several issues, but they were +demonetized in 1869. In 1897 the practice was adopted of darkening +farthings before issue, to prevent their being mistaken for +half-sovereigns. + + + + +FARTHINGALE (from the O. Fr. _verdagalle_, or _vertugalle_, a corruption +of the Spanish name of the article, _verdagado_, from _verdago_, a rod +or stick), a case or hoop, originally of bent rods, but afterwards made +of whalebone, upon which were hung the voluminous skirts of a woman's +dress. The fashion was introduced into England from Spain in the 16th +century. In its most exaggerated shape, at the beginning of the 17th +century, the top of the farthingale formed a flat circular surface +projecting at right angles to the bodice (see COSTUME). + + + + +FARUKHABAD, FARRAKHABAD, or FURRUCKABAD, a city and district of +British India in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The city is +near the right bank of the Ganges, 87 m. by rail from Cawnpore. It forms +a joint municipality with Fatehgarh, the civil headquarters of the +district with a military cantonment. Pop. (1901) 67,338. At Fatehgarh is +the government gun-carriage factory; and other industries include +cotton-printing and the manufacture of gold lace, metal vessels and +tents. + +The DISTRICT OF FARUKHABAD has an area of 1685 sq. m. It is a flat +alluvial plain in the middle Doab. The principal rivers are: the Ganges, +which has a course of 87 m. either bordering on or passing through the +district, but is not at all times navigable by large boats throughout +its entire course; the Kali-nadi (84 m.) and the Isan-nadi (42 m.), both +tributaries of the Ganges; and the Arind-nadi, which, after a course of +20 m. in the south of the district, passes into Cawnpore. The principal +products are rice, wheat, barley, millets, pulses, cotton, sugar-cane, +potatoes, &c. The grain crops, however, are insufficient for local +wants, and grain is largely imported from Oudh and Rohilkhand. The +district is, therefore, liable to famine, and it was severely visited by +this calamity six times during the 19th century--in 1803-1804, +1815-1816, 1825-1826, 1837-1838, 1868-1869 and 1899-1900. Farukhabad is +one of the healthiest districts in the Doab, but fevers are prevalent +during August and September. The average annual mean temperature is +almost 80° F.; the average annual rainfall, 29.4 in. + +In the early part of the 18th century, when the Mogul empire was +breaking up, Mahommed Khan, a Bangash Afghan from a village near +Kaimganj, governor of Allahabad and later of Malwa, established a +considerable state of which the present district of Farukhabad was the +nucleus, founding the city of Farukhabad in 1714. After his death in +1743, his son and successor Kaim Khan was embroiled by Safdar Jang, the +nawab wazir of Oudh, with the Rohillas, in battle with whom he lost his +life in 1749. In 1750 his brother, Ahmad Khan, recovered the Farukhabad +territories; but Safdar Jang called in the Mahrattas, and a struggle for +the possession of the country began, which ended in 1771, on the death +of Ahmad Khan, by its becoming tributary to Oudh. In 1801 the nawab +wazir ceded to the British his lands in this district, with the tribute +due from the nawab of Farukhabad, who gave up his sovereign rights in +1802. In 1804 the Mahrattas, under Holkar, ravaged this tract, but were +utterly routed by Lord Lake at the town of Farukhabad. During the mutiny +Farukhabad shared the fate of other districts, and passed entirely out +of British hands for a time. The native troops, who had for some time +previously evinced a seditious spirit, finally broke into rebellion on +the 18th of June 1857, and placed the titular nawab of Farukhabad on the +throne. The English military residents took shelter in the fort, which +they held until the 4th of July, when, the fort being undermined, they +endeavoured to escape by the river. One boat succeeded in reaching +Cawnpore, but only to fall into the hands of Nana. Its occupants were +made prisoners, and perished in the massacre of the 10th of July. The +other boat was stopped on its progress down the river, and all those in +it were captured or killed, except four who escaped. The prisoners were +conveyed back to Fatehgarh, and murdered there by the nawab on the 19th +of July. The rebels were defeated in several engagements, and on the 3rd +of January 1858 the English troops recaptured Fatehgarh fort; but it was +not till May that order was thoroughly re-established. In 1901 the +population was 925,812, showing an increase of 8% in one decade. Part of +the district is watered by distributaries of the Ganges canal; it is +traversed throughout its length by the Agra-Cawnpore line of the +Rajputana railway, and is also served by a branch of the East Indian +system. Tobacco, opium, potatoes and fruit, cotton-prints, scent and +saltpetre are among the principal exports. + + + + +FASCES, in Roman antiquities, bundles of elm or birch rods from which +the head of an axe projected, fastened together by a red strap. Nothing +is known of their origin, the tradition that represents them as borrowed +by one of the kings from Etruria resting on insufficient grounds. As the +emblem of official authority, they were carried by the lictors, in the +left hand and on the left shoulder, before the higher Roman magistrates; +at the funeral of a deceased magistrate they were carried behind the +bier. The lictors and the fasces were so inseparably connected that they +came to be used as synonymous terms. The fasces originally represented +the power over life and limb possessed by the kings, and after the +abolition of the monarchy, the consuls, like the kings, were preceded by +twelve fasces. Within the precincts of the city the axe was removed, in +recognition of the right of appeal (_provocat-io_) to the people in a +matter of life and death; outside Rome, however, each consul retained +the axe, and was preceded by his own lictors, not merely by a single +_accensus_ (supernumerary), as was originally the case within the city +when he was not officiating. Later, the lictors preceded the officiating +consul, and walked behind the other. Valerius Publicola, the champion of +popular rights, further established the custom that the fasces should be +lowered before the people, as the real representatives of sovereignty +(Livy ii. 7; Florus i. 9; Plutarch, _Publicola_, 10); lowering the +fasces was also the manner in which an inferior saluted a superior +magistrate. A dictator, as taking the place of the two consuls, had 24 +fasces (including the axe even within the city); most of the other +magistrates had fasces varying in number, with the exception of the +censors, who, as possessing no executive authority, had none. Fasces +were given to the Flamen Dialis and (after 42 B.C.) even to the Vestals. +During the times of the republic, a victorious general, who had been +saluted by the title of imperator by his soldiers, had his fasces +crowned with laurel (Cicero, _Pro Ligario_, 3). Later, under the empire, +when the emperor received the title for life on his accession, it became +restricted to him, and the laurel was regarded as distinctive of the +imperial fasces (see Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, i., 1887, p. +373). + + + + +FASCIA (Latin for a bandage or fillet), a term used for many objects +which resemble a band in shape; thus in anatomy it is applied to the +layers of fibrous connective tissue which sheathe the muscles or cover +various parts or organs in the body, and in zoology, and particularly in +ornithology, to bands or stripes of colour. In architecture the word is +used of the bands into which the architrave of the Ionic and Corinthian +orders is subdivided; their origin would seem to have been derived from +the superimposing of two or more beams of timber to span the opening +between columns and to support a superincumbent weight; the upper beam +projected slightly in front of the lower, and similar projections were +continued in the stone or marble beam though in one block. In the Roman +Corinthian order the fasciae, still projecting one in front of the +other, were subdivided by small mouldings sometimes carved. The several +bands are known as the first or upper fascia, the second or middle +fascia and the third or lower fascia. The term is sometimes applied to +flat projecting bands in Renaissance architecture when employed as +string courses. It is also used, though more commonly in the form +"facia," of the band or plate over a shop-front, on which the name and +occupation of the tradesman is written. + + + + +FASCINATION (from Lat. _fascinare_, to bewitch, probably connected with +the Gr. [Greek: baskainein], to speak ill of, to bewitch), the art of +enchanting or bewitching, especially through the influence of the "evil +eye," and so properly of the exercise of an evil influence over the +reason or will. The word is thus used of the supposed paralysing +attraction exercised by some reptiles on their victims. It is also +applied to a particular hypnotic condition, marked by muscular +contraction, but with consciousness and power of remembrance left. In a +quite general sense, fascination means the exercise of any charm or +strong attraction. + + + + +FASCINE (from the Lat. _fascina_, _fascis_, a bundle of sticks), a large +faggot of brushwood used in the revetments of earthworks and for other +purposes of military engineering. The British service pattern of fascine +is 18 ft. long; it is tied as tightly as possible at short intervals, +and the usual diameter is 9 in. Similar bundles of wood formed part of +the foundations of the early lake-dwellings, and in modern engineering +fascines are used in making rough roads over marshy ground and in +building river and sea walls and breakwaters. + + + + +FASHION (adapted from Fr. _façon_, Lat. _factio_, making, _facere_, to +do or make), the action of making, hence the shape or form which +anything takes in the process of making. It is thus used in the sense of +the pattern, kind, sort, manner or mode in which a thing is done. It is +particularly used of the common or customary way in which a thing is +done, and so is applied to the manner or custom prevalent at or +characteristic of a particular period, especially of the manner of +dress, &c., current at a particular period in any rank of society, for +which the French term is _modes_ (see COSTUME). + + + + +FASHODA (renamed, 1904, KODOK), a post on the west bank of the Upper +Nile, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 9° 53' N., 32° 8' E., 459 m. S., by +river, of Khartum. It is the headquarters of the mudiria (province) of +the Upper Nile. The station is built on a flat peninsula connected by a +narrow strip of land with a ridge which runs parallel with the river. +The surrounding country is mostly deep swamp and the station is most +unhealthy; mosquitoes are present in millions. The climate is always +damp and the temperature rarely below 98° in the shade. The government +offices are well-built brick structures. In front of the station is a +long low island, and when the Nile is at its lowest this channel becomes +dry. Several roads from Kordofan converge on the Nile at this point, and +near the station is the residence of the _mek_, or king, of the Shilluk +tribe, whose designation of the post was adopted when it was decided to +abandon the use of Fashoda. At Lul, 18 m. farther up stream, is an +Austrian Roman Catholic mission station. + +An Egyptian military post was established at Fashoda in 1865. It was +then a trading station of some importance, slaves being the chief +commodity dealt in. In 1883-1884 the place fell into the hands of the +Mahdists. On the 10th of July 1898 it was occupied by a French force +from the Congo under Commandant J.B. Marchand, a circumstance which gave +rise to a state of great tension between Great Britain and France. On +the 11th of December following the French force withdrew, returning +home via Abyssinia (see AFRICA, § 5, and EGYPT: _History_, and +_Military Operations_). + + + + +FAST AND LOOSE, a cheating game played at fairs by sharpers. A strap, +usually in the form of a belt, is rolled or doubled up with a loop in +the centre, and laid edgewise on a table. The swindler then bets that +the loop cannot be caught with a stick or skewer as he unrolls the belt. +As this looks to be easy to do the bet is often taken, but the sharper +unrolls the belt in such a manner as to make the catching of the loop +practically impossible. Centuries ago it was much practised by gipsies, +a circumstance alluded to by Shakespeare in _Anthony and Cleopatra_ (iv. +12): + + "Like a right gipsy, hath, at fast and loose, + Beguiled me to the very heart of loss." + +From this game is taken the colloquial expression "to play fast and +loose." At the present day it is called "prick the garter" or "prick the +loop." + + + + +FASTI, in Roman antiquities, plural of the Latin adjective _fastus_, but +more commonly used as a substantive, derived from _fas_, meaning what is +binding, or allowable, by divine law, as opposed to _jus_, or human law. +_Fasti dies_ thus came to mean the days on which law business might be +transacted without impiety, corresponding to our own "lawful days"; the +opposite of the _dies fasti_ were the _dies nefasti_, on which, on +various religious grounds, the courts could not sit. The word _fasti_ +itself then came to be used to denote lists or registers of various +kinds, which may be divided into two great classes. + +1. _Fasti Diurni_, divided into _urbani_ and _rustici_, a kind of +official year-book, with dates and directions for religious ceremonies, +court-days, market-days, divisions of the month, and the like. Until 304 +B.C. the lore of the _calendaria_ remained the exclusive and lucrative +monopoly of the priesthood; but in that year Gnaeus Flavius, a +pontifical secretary, introduced the custom of publishing in the forum +tables containing the requisite information, besides brief references to +victories, triumphs, prodigies, &c. This list was the origin of the +public Roman calendar, in which the days were divided into weeks of +eight days each, and indicated by the letters A-H. Each day was marked +by a certain letter to show its nature; thus the letters F., N., N.P., +F.P., Q. Rex C.F., C., EN., stood for _fastus_, _nefastus_, _nefastus_ +in some unexplained sense, _fastus priore_, _quando rex_ (_sacrorum_) +_comitiavit fastus_, _comitialis_ and _intercisus_. The _dies intercisi_ +were partly _fasti_ and partly _nefasti_. Ovid's _Fasti_ is a poetical +description of the Roman festivals of the first six months, written to +illustrate the Fasti published by Julius Caesar after he remodelled the +Roman year. Upon the cultivators fewer feasts, sacrifices, ceremonies +and holidays were enjoined than on the inhabitants of cities; and the +rustic fasti contained little more than the ceremonies of the calends, +nones and ides, the fairs, signs of zodiac, increase and decrease of the +days, the tutelary gods of each month, and certain directions for rustic +labours to be performed each month. + +2. _Fasti Magistrales_, _Annales_ or _Historici_, were concerned with +the several feasts, and everything relating to the gods, religion and +the magistrates; to the emperors, their birthdays, offices, days +consecrated to them, with feasts and ceremonies established in their +honour or for their prosperity. They came to be denominated _magni_, by +way of distinction from the bare calendar, or _fasti diurni_. Of this +class, the _fasti consulares_, for example, were a chronicle or register +of time, in which the several years were denoted by the respective +consuls, with the principal events which happened during their +consulates. The _fasti triumphales_ and _sacerdotales_ contained a list +in chronological order of persons who had obtained a triumph, together +with the name of the conquered people, and of the priests. The word +_fasti_ thus came to be used in the general sense of "annals" or +"historical records." A famous specimen of the same class are the _fasti +Capitolini_, so called because they were deposited in the Capitol by +Alexander Farnese, after their excavation from the Roman forum in 1547. +They are chiefly a nominal list of statesmen, victories, triumphs, &c., +from the expulsion of the kings to the death of Augustus. A considerable +number of fasti of the first class have also been discovered; but none +of them appear to be older than the time of Augustus. The Praenestine +calendar, discovered in 1770, arranged by the famous grammarian Verrius +Flaccus, contains the months of January, March, April and December, and +a portion of February. The tablets give an account of festivals, as also +of the triumphs of Augustus and Tiberius. There are still two complete +calendars in existence, an official list by Furius Dionysius Philocalus +(A.D. 354), and a Christian version of the official calendar, made by +Polemius Silvius (A.D. 448). But some kinds of fasti included under the +second general head were, from the very beginning, written for +publication. The _Annales Pontificum_--different from the _calendaria_ +properly so called--were "annually exhibited in public on a white table, +on which the memorable events of the year, with special mention of the +prodigies, were set down in the briefest possible manner." Any one was +allowed to copy them. Like the pontifices, the augurs also had their +books, _libri augurales_. In fact, all the state offices had their fasti +corresponding in character to the consular fasti named above. + + For the best text and account of the fragments of the Fasti see + _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i. (2nd ed.); on the subject + generally, Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, §§ 74, 75, + and article by Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire + des antiquités_. + + + + +FASTING (from "fast," derived from old Teutonic _fastêjan_; synonyms +being the Gr. [Greek: nêsteuein], late Lat. _jejunare_), an act which is +most accurately defined as an abstention from meat, drink and all +natural food for a determined period. So it is defined by the Church of +England, in the 16th homily, on the authority of the Council of +Chalcedon[1] and of the primitive church generally. In a looser sense +the word is employed to denote abstinence from certain kinds of food +merely; and this meaning, which in ordinary usage is probably the more +prevalent, seems also to be at least tolerated by the Church of England +when it speaks of "fast or abstinence days," as if fasting and +abstinence were synonymous.[2] More vaguely still, the word is +occasionally used as an equivalent for moral self-restraint generally. +This secondary and metaphorical sense ([Greek: nêsteuein kakotêtos]) +occurs in one of the fragments of Empedocles. For the physiology of +fasting, see DIETETICS; NUTRITION; also CORPULENCE. + +Starvation itself (see also HUNGER and THIRST) is of the nature of a +disease which may be prevented by diet; nevertheless there are connected +with it a few peculiarities of scientific and practical interest. +"Inedia," as it is called in the nomenclature of diseases by the London +College of Physicians, is of two kinds, arising from _want of food_ and +from _want of water_. When entirely deprived of nutriment the human body +is ordinarily capable of supporting life under ordinary circumstances +for little more than a week. In the spring of 1869 this was tried on the +person of a "fasting girl" in South Wales. The parents made a show of +their child, decking her out like a bride on a bed, and asserting that +she had eaten no food for two years. Some reckless enthusiasts for truth +set four trustworthy hospital nurses to watch her; the Celtic obstinacy +of the parents was roused, and in defence of their imposture they +allowed death to take place in eight days. Their trial and conviction +for manslaughter may be found in the daily periodicals of the date; but, +strange to say, the experimental physiologists and nurses escaped +scot-free. There is no doubt that in this instance the unnatural +quietude, the grave-like silence, and the dim religious light in which +the victim was kept contributed to deter death. + +One thing which remarkably prolongs life is a supply of water. Dogs +furnished with as much as they wished to drink were found by M. Chossat +(_Sur l'inanition_, Paris, 1843) to live three times as long as those +who were deprived of solids and liquids at the same time. Even wetting +the skin with sea-water has been found useful by shipwrecked sailors. +Four men and a boy of fourteen who got shut in the Tynewydd mine near +Porth, in South Wales, in the winter of 1876-1877 for ten days without +food, were not only alive when released, but several of them were able +to walk, and all subsequently recovered. The thorough saturation of the +narrow space with aqueous vapour, and the presence of drain water in the +cutting, were probably their chief preservatives--assisted by the high +even temperature always found in the deeper headings of coal mines, and +by the enormous compression of the confined air. This doubtless +prevented evaporation, and retarded vital processes dependent upon +oxidation. The accumulation of carbonic acid in the breathed air would +also have a similar arrestive power over destructive assimilation. These +prisoners do not seem to have felt any of the severer pangs of hunger, +for they were not tempted to eat their candles. With the instinctive +feeling that darkness adds a horror to death, they preferred to use them +for light. At the wreck of the "Medusa" frigate in 1816, fifteen people +survived on a raft for thirteen days without food. + +It is a paradoxical fact, that the supply of the stomach even from the +substance of the starving individual's body should tend to prolong life. +In April 1874 a case was recorded of exposure in an open boat for 32 +days of three men and two boys, with only ten days' provisions, +exclusive of old boots and jelly-fish. They had a fight in their +delirium, and one was severely wounded. As the blood gushed out he +lapped it up; and instead of suffering the fatal weakness which might +have been expected from the haemorrhage, he seems to have done well. +Experiments were performed by a French physiologist, M. Anselmier +(_Archives gén. de médecine_, 1860, vol. i. p. 169), with the object of +trying to preserve the lives of dogs by what he calls "artificial +autophagy." He fed them on the blood taken from their own veins daily, +depriving them of all other food, and he found that the fatal cooling +incident to starvation was thus postponed, and existence prolonged. Life +lasted till the emaciation had proceeded to six-tenths of the animal's +weight, as in Chossat's experiments, extending to the fourteenth day, +instead of ending on the tenth day, as was the case with other dogs +which were not bled. + +Various people have tried, generally for exhibition purposes, how long +they could fast from food with the aid merely of water or some medicinal +preparation; but these exhibitions cannot be held to have proved +anything of importance. A man named Jacques in this way fasted at +Edinburgh for thirty days in 1888, and in London for forty-two days in +1890, and for fifty days in 1891; and an Italian named Succi fasted for +forty days in 1890. + +_Religious Fasts._--Fasting is of special interest when considered as a +discipline voluntarily submitted to for moral and religious ends. As +such it is very widely diffused. Its modes and motives vary considerably +according to climate, race, civilization and other circumstances; but it +would be difficult to name any religious system of any description in +which it is wholly unrecognized.[3] The origin of the practice is very +obscure.[4] In his _Principles of Sociology_ Herbert Spencer collected, +from the accounts we have of various savage tribes in widely separated +parts of the globe, a considerable body of evidence, from which he +suggested that it may have arisen out of the custom of providing +refreshments for the dead, either by actually feeding the corpse, or by +leaving eatables and drinkables for its use. It is suggested that the +fasting which was at first the natural and inevitable result of such +sacrifice on behalf of the dead may eventually have come to be regarded +as an indispensable concomitant of all sacrifice, and so have survived +as a well-established usage long after the original cause had ceased to +operate.[5] But this theory is repudiated by the best authorities; +indeed its extreme precariousness at once becomes evident when it is +remembered that, now at least, it is usual for religious fasts to +precede rather than to follow sacrificial and funeral feasts, if +observed at all in connexion with these. Spencer himself (p. 284) admits +that "probably the practice arises in more ways than one," and proceeds +to supplement the theory already given by another--that adopted by E.B. +Tylor--to the effect that it originated in the desire of the primitive +man to bring on at will certain abnormal nervous conditions favourable +to the seeing of those visions and the dreaming of those dreams which +are supposed to give the soul direct access to the objective realities +of the spiritual world.[6] Probably, if we leave out of sight the very +numerous and obvious cases in which fasting, originally the natural +reflex result of grief, fear or other strong emotion, has come to be the +usual conventional symbol of these, we shall find that the practice is +generally resorted to, either as a means of somehow exalting the higher +faculties at the expense of the lower, or as an act of homage to some +object of worship. The axiom of the Amazulu, that "the continually +stuffed body cannot see secret things," meets even now with pretty +general acceptance; and if the notion that it is precisely the food +which the worshipper foregoes that makes the deity more vigorous to do +battle for his human friend be confined only to a few scattered tribes +of savages, the general proposition that "fasting is a work of reverence +toward God" may be said to be an article of the Catholic faith.[7] + +Although fasting as a religious rite is to be met with almost +everywhere, there are comparatively few religions, and those only of the +more developed kind, which appoint definite public fasts, and make them +binding at fixed seasons upon all the faithful. Brahmanism, for example, +does not appear to enforce any stated fast upon the laity.[8] Among the +ancient Egyptians fasting seems to have been associated with many +religious festivals, notably with that of Isis (Herod. ii. 40), but it +does not appear that, so far as the common people were concerned, the +observance of these festivals (which were purely local) was compulsory. +The [Greek: nêsteia] on the third day of the Thesmophoria at Athens was +observed only by the women attending the festival (who were permitted to +eat cakes made of sesame and honey). It is doubtful whether the fast +mentioned by Livy (xxxvi. 37) was intended to be general or sacerdotal +merely. + +_Jewish Fasts._--While remarkable for the cheerful, non-ascetic +character of their worship, the Jews were no less distinguished from all +the nations of antiquity by their annual solemn fast appointed to be +observed on the 10th day of the 7th month (Tisri), the penalty of +disobedience being death. The rules, as laid down in Lev. xvi. 29-34, +xxiii. 27-32 and Numb. xxix. 7-11, include a special injunction of +strict abstinence ("ye shall afflict your souls"[9]) from evening to +evening. This fast was intimately associated with the chief feast of the +year. Before that feast could be entered upon, the sins of the people +had to be confessed and (sacramentally) expiated. The fast was a +suitable concomitant of that contrition which befitted the occasion. The +practice of stated fasting was not in any other case enjoined by the +law; and it is generally understood to have been forbidden on +Sabbath.[10] At the same time, private and occasional fasting, being +regarded as a natural and legitimate instinct, was regulated rather than +repressed. The only other provision about fasting in the Pentateuch is +of a regulative nature, Numb. xxx. 14 (13), to the effect that a vow +made by a woman "to afflict the soul" may in certain circumstances be +cancelled by her husband. + +The history of Israel from Moses to Ezra furnishes a large number of +instances in which the fasting instinct was obeyed both publicly and +privately, locally and nationally, under the influence of sorrow, or +fear, or passionate desire. See, for example, Judg. xx. 26; 1 Sam. vii. +6 (where the national fast was conjoined with the ceremony of pouring +out water before the Lord); Jer. xxxvi. 6, 9; and 2 Sam. xii. 16.[11] +Sometimes the observance of such fasts extended over a considerable +period of time, during which, of course, the stricter _jejunium_ was +conjoined with _abstinentia_ (Dan. x. 2). Sometimes they lasted only for +a day. In Jonah iii. 6, 7, we have an illustrative example of the rigour +with which a strict fast might be observed; and such passages as Joel +ii. and Isa. lviii. 5 enable us to picture with some vividness the +outward accompaniments of a Jewish fast day before the exile. + +During the exile many occasional fasts were doubtless observed by the +scattered communities, in sorrowful commemoration of the various sad +events which had issued in the downfall of the kingdom of Judah. Of +these, four appear to have passed into general use--the fasts of the +10th, 4th, 5th and 7th months--commemorating the beginning of the siege +of Jerusalem, the capture of the city, the destruction of the temple, +the assassination of Gedaliah. As time rolled on they became invested +with increasing sanctity; and though the prophet Zechariah, when +consulted about them at the close of the exile (Zech. viii. 19), had by +no means encouraged the observance of them, the rebuilding of the temple +does not appear to have been considered an achievement of sufficient +importance to warrant their discontinuance. It is worthy of remark that +Ezekiel's prophetic legislation contains no reference to any fast day; +the book of Esther (ix. 31), on the other hand, records the institution +of a new fast on the 13th of the 12th month. + +In the post-exile period private fasting was much practised by the +pious, and encouraged by the religious sentiment of the time (see Judith +viii. 6; Tob. xii. 8, and context; Sirach xxxiv. 26, Luke ii. 37 and +xviii. 12). The last reference contains an allusion to the weekly fasts +which were observed on the 2nd and 5th days of each week, in +commemoration, it was said, of the ascent and descent of Moses at Sinai. +The real origin of these fasts and the date of their introduction are +alike uncertain; it is manifest, however, that the observance of them +was voluntary, and never made a matter of universal obligation. It is +probable that the Sadducees, if not also the Essenes, wholly neglected +them. The second book (_Seder Moed_) of the Mishna contains two +tractates bearing upon the subject of fasting. One (_Yoma_, "the day") +deals exclusively with the rites which were to be observed on the great +day of expiation or atonement the other (_Taanith_, "fast") is devoted +to the other fasts, and deals especially with the manner in which +occasional fasting is to be gone about if no rain shall have fallen on +or before the 17th day of Marcheschwan. It is enacted that in such a +case the rabbis shall begin with a light fast of three days (Monday, +Thursday, Monday), i.e. a fast during which it is lawful to work, and +also to wash and anoint the person. Then, in the event of a continued +drought, fasts of increasing intensity are ordered; and as a last resort +the ark is to be brought into the street and sprinkled with ashes, the +heads of the Nasi and Ab-beth-din being at the same time similarly +sprinkled.[12] In no case was any fast to be allowed to interfere with +new-moon or other fixed festival. Another institution treated with +considerable fulness in the treatise _Taanith_ is that of the [Hebrew: +anshei maamad] (_viri stationis_), who are represented as having been +laymen severally representing the twenty-four classes or families into +which the whole commonwealth of the laity was divided. They used to +attend the temple in rotation, and be present at the sacrifices; and as +this duty fell to each in his turn, the men of the class or family which +he represented were expected in their several cities and places of abode +to engage themselves in religious exercises, and especially in fasting. +The suggestion will readily occur that here may be the origin of the +Christian _stationes_. But neither Tertullian nor any other of the +fathers seems to have been aware of the existence of any such +institution among the Jews; and very probably the story about it may +have been a comparatively late invention. It ought to be borne in mind +that the Aramaic portion of the _Megillath Taanith_ (a document +considerably older than the treatises in the Mishna) gives a catalogue +only of the days on which fasting was forbidden. The Hebrew part +(commented on by Maimonides), in which numerous fasts are recommended, +is of considerably later date. See Reland, _Antiq. Hebr._ p. iv. c. 10; +Derenbourg, _Hist. de Palestine_, p. 439. + +_Practice of the Early Christian Church._--Jesus Himself did not +inculcate asceticism in His teaching, and the absence of that +distinctive element from His practice was sometimes a subject of hostile +remark (Matt. xi. 19). We read, indeed, that on one occasion He fasted +forty days and forty nights; but the expression, which is an obscure +one, possibly means nothing more than that He endured the privations +ordinarily involved in a stay in the wilderness. While we have no reason +to doubt that He observed the one great national fast prescribed in the +written law of Moses, we have express notice that neither He nor His +disciples were in the habit of observing the other fasts which custom +and tradition had established. See Mark ii. 18, where the correct +reading appears to be--"The disciples of John, and the Pharisees, were +fasting" (some customary fast). He never formally forbade fasting, but +neither did He ever enjoin it. He assumed that, in certain circumstances +of sorrow and need, the fasting instinct would sometimes be felt by the +community and the individual; what He was chiefly concerned about was to +warn His followers against the mistaken aims which His contemporaries +were so apt to contemplate in their fasting (Matt. vi. 16-18). In one +passage, indeed, He has been understood as practically commanding resort +to the practice in certain circumstances. It ought to be noted, however, +that Matt. xvii. 21 is probably spurious; and that in Mark ix. 29 the +words "and fasting" are omitted by Westcott and Hort as well as by +Tischendorf on the evidence of the Cod. Sinaiticus (first hand) and Cod. +Vaticanus.[13] The reference to "the fast" in Acts xxvii. 9 has +generally been held to indicate that the apostles continued to observe +the yearly Jewish fast. But this inference is by no means a necessary +one. According to Acts xiii. 2, 3, xiv. 23, they conjoined fasting with +prayer at ordinations, and doubtless also on some other solemn +occasions; but at the same time the liberty of the Christian "in respect +of an holiday, or of the new moon, or of the Sabbath" was strongly +insisted on, by one of them at least, who declared that meat whether +taken or abstained from commendeth not to God (Col. ii. 16-23; 1 Cor. +viii. 8; Rom. xiv. 14-22; 1 Tim. iv. 3-5). The fastings to which the +apostle Paul alludes in 2 Cor. vi. 5, xi. 27, were rather of the nature +of inevitable hardships cheerfully endured in the discharge of his +sacred calling. The words which appear to encourage fasting in 1 Cor. +vii. 5 are absent from all the oldest manuscripts and are now omitted by +all critics;[14] and on the whole the precept and practice of the New +Testament, while recognizing the propriety of occasional and +extraordinary fasts, seem to be decidedly hostile to the imposition of +any of a stated, obligatory and general kind. + +The usage of the Christian church during the earlier centuries was in +this, as in so many other matters, influenced by traditional Jewish +feeling, and by the force of old habit, quite as much as by any direct +apostolic authority or supposed divine command. Habitual temperance was +of course in all cases regarded as an absolute duty; and "the +bridegroom" being absent, the present life was regarded as being in a +sense one continual "fast." Fasting in the stricter sense was not +unknown; but it is certain that it did not at first occupy nearly so +prominent a place in Christian ritual as that to which it afterwards +attained. There are early traces of the customary observance of the +Wednesday and Friday fasts--the _dies stationum_ (Clem. Alex. _Strom._ +vii. 877), and also of a "quadragesimal" fast before Easter. But the +very passage which proves the early origin of "quadragesima," +conclusively shows how uncertain it was in its character, and how unlike +the Catholic "Lent." Irenaeus, quoted by Eusebius (v. 24), informs us +with reference to the customary yearly celebration of the mystery of the +resurrection of our Lord, that disputes prevailed not only with respect +to the day, but also with respect to the manner of fasting in connexion +with it. "For some think that they ought to fast only one day, some two, +some more days; some compute their day as consisting of _forty hours_ +night and day; and this diversity existing among those that observe it +is not a matter that has just sprung up in our times, but long ago among +those before us." It was not pretended that the apostles had legislated +on the matter, but the general and natural feeling that the +anniversaries of the crucifixion and the resurrection of Christ ought to +be celebrated by Christians took expression in a variety of ways +according to the differing tastes of individuals. No other stated fasts, +besides those already mentioned, can be adduced from the time before +Irenaeus; but there was also a tendency--not unnatural in itself, and +already sanctioned by Jewish practice--to fast by way of preparation for +any season of peculiar privilege. Thus, according to Justin Martyr +(_Apol._ ii. 93), catechumens were accustomed to fast before baptism, +and the church fasted with them. To the same feeling the quadragesimal +fast which (as already stated) preceded the joyful feast of the +resurrection, is to be, in part at least, attributed. As early as the +time of Tertullian it was also usual for communicants to prepare +themselves by fasting for receiving the eucharist. But that Christian +fasts had not yet attained to the exaggerated importance which they +afterwards assumed is strikingly shown in the well-known _Shepherd of +Hermas_ (lib. iii. sim. v.), where it is declared that "with merely +outward fasting nothing is done for true virtue"; the believer is +exhorted chiefly to abstain from evil and seek to cleanse himself from +feelings of covetousness, and impurity, and revenge: "on the day that +thou fastest content thyself with bread, vegetables and water, and thank +God for these. But reckon up on this day what thy meal would otherwise +have cost thee, and give the amount that it comes to to some poor widow +or orphan, or to the poor." The right of bishops to ordain special +fasts, "ex aliqua sollicitudinis ecclesiasticae causa" (Tertullian), was +also recognized. + +_Later Practice of the Church._--According to an expression preserved by +Eusebius (_H.E._ v. 18), Montanus was the first to give laws (to the +church) on fasting. Such language, though rhetorical in form, is +substantially correct. The treatise of Tertullian,--_Concerning Fasting: +against the Carnal_,--written as it was under Montanistic influence, is +doubly interesting, first as showing how free the practice of the church +down to that time had been, and then as foreshadowing the burdensome +legislation which was destined to succeed. In that treatise (c. 15) he +approves indeed of the church practice of not fasting on Saturdays and +Sundays (as elsewhere, _De corona_, c. 3, he had expressed his +concurrence in the other practice of observing the entire period between +Easter and Pentecost as a season of joy); but otherwise he evinces great +dissatisfaction with the indifference of the church as to the number, +duration and severity of her fasts.[15] The church thus came to be more +and more involved in discussions as to the number of days to be +observed, especially in "Lent," as fast days, as to the hour at which a +fast ought to terminate (whether at the 3rd or at the 9th hour), as to +the rigour with which each fast ought to be observed (whether by +abstinence from flesh merely, _abstinentia_, or by abstinence from +lacticinia, _xerophagia_, or by literal _jejunium_), and as to the +penalties by which the laws of fasting ought to be enforced. Almost a +century, however, elapsed between the composition of the treatise of +Tertullian (_cir._ 212) and the first recorded instances of +ecclesiastical legislation on the subject. These, while far from +indicating that the church had attained unanimity on the points at +issue, show progress in the direction of the later practice of +catholicism. About the year 306 the synod of Illiberis in its 26th canon +decided in favour of the observance of the Saturday fast.[16] The +council of Ancyra in 314, on the other hand, found it necessary to +legislate in a somewhat different direction,--by its 14th canon +enjoining its priests and clerks at least to taste meat at the love +feasts.[17] The synod of Laodicea framed several rules with regard to +the observance of "Lent," such as that "during Lent the bread shall not +be offered except on Saturday and Sunday" (can. 49), that "the fast +shall not be relaxed on the Thursday of the last week of Lent, thus +dishonouring the whole season; but the fast shall be kept throughout the +whole period" (can. 50), that "during the fast no feasts of the martyrs +shall be celebrated" (can. 51), and that "no wedding or birthday feasts +shall be celebrated during Lent" (can. 52). The synod of Hippo (393 +A.D.) enacted that the sacrament of the altar should always be taken +fasting, except on the Thursday before Easter. Protests in favour of +freedom were occasionally raised, not always in a very wise manner, or +on very wise grounds, by various individuals such as Eustathius of +Sebaste (c. 350), Aerius of Pontus (c. 375), and Jovinian, a Roman monk +(c. 388). Of the Eustathians, for example (whose connexion with +Eustathius can hardly be doubted), the complaint was made that "they +fast on Sundays, but eat on the fast-days of the church." They were +condemned by the synod of Gangra in Paphlagonia in the following +canons:--Can. 19, "If any one fast on Sunday, let him be anathema."[18] +Can. 20, "If any one do not keep the fasts universally commanded and +observed by the whole church, let him be anathema." Jovinian was very +moderate. He "did not allow himself to be hurried on by an inconsiderate +zeal to condemn fasting, the life of celibacy, monachism, considered +purely in themselves.... He merely sought to show that men were wrong +in recommending so highly and indiscriminately the life of celibacy and +fasting, though he was ready to admit that both under certain +circumstances might be good and useful" (Neander). He was nevertheless +condemned (390) both by Pope Siricius at a synod in Rome, and by Ambrose +at another in Milan. The views of Aerius, according to the +representations of his bitter opponent Epiphanius (_Haer._ 75, "Adv. +Aerium"), seem on this head at least, though unpopular, to have been +characterized by great wisdom and sobriety. He did not condemn fasting +altogether, but thought that it ought to be resorted to in the spirit of +gospel freedom according as each occasion should arise. He found fault +with the church for having substituted for Christian liberty a yoke of +Jewish bondage.[19] + +Towards the beginning of the 5th century we find Socrates (439) +enumerating (_H.E._ v. 22) a long catalogue of the different fasting +practices of the church. The Romans fasted three weeks continuously +before Easter (Saturdays and Sundays excepted). In Illyria, Achaia and +Alexandria the quadragesimal fast lasted six weeks. Others (the +Constantinopolitans) began their fasts seven weeks before Easter, but +fasted only on alternate weeks, five days at a time. Corresponding +differences as to the manner of abstinence occurred. Some abstained from +all living creatures; others ate fish; others fish and fowl. Some +abstained from eggs and fruit; some confined themselves to bread; some +would not take even that. Some fasted till three in the afternoon, and +then took whatever they pleased. "Other nations," adds the historian, +"observe other customs in their fasts, and that for various reasons. And +since no one can show any written rule about this, it is plain the +apostles left this matter free to every one's liberty and choice, that +no one should be compelled to do a good thing out of necessity and +fear." When Leo the Great became pope in 440, a period of more rigid +uniformity began. The imperial authority of Valentinian helped to bring +the whole West at least into submission to the see of Rome; and +ecclesiastical enactments had, more than formerly, the support of the +civil power. Though the introduction of the four Ember seasons was not +entirely due to him, as has sometimes been asserted, it is certain that +their widespread observance was due to his influence, and to that of his +successors, especially of Gregory the Great. The tendency to increased +rigour may be discerned in the 2nd canon of the synod of Orleans (541), +which declares that every Christian is bound to observe the fast of +Lent, and, in case of failure to do so, is to be punished according to +the laws of the church by his spiritual superior; in the 9th canon of +the synod of Toledo (653), which declares the eating of flesh during +Lent to be a mortal sin; in Charlemagne's law for the newly conquered +Saxony, which attaches the penalty of death to wanton disregard of the +holy season.[20] Baronius mentions that in the 11th century those who +ate flesh during Lent were liable to have their teeth knocked out. But +it ought to be remembered that this severity of the law early began to +be tempered by the power to grant dispensations. The so-called Butter +Towers (_Tours de beurre_) of Rouen, 1485-1507, Bourges and other +cities, are said to have been built with money raised by sale of +dispensations to eat _lacticinia_ on fast days. + +It is probable that the apparent severity of the medieval Latin Church +on this subject was largely due to the real strictness of the Greek +Church, which, under the patriarch Photius in 864, had taken what was +virtually a new departure in its fasting praxis. The rigour of the fasts +of the modern Greek Church is well known; and it can on the whole be +traced back to that comparatively early date. Of the nine fundamental +laws of that church ([Greek: ennea parangelmata tês ekklêsias]) two are +concerned with fasting. Besides fasts of an occasional and extraordinary +nature, the following are recognized as of stated and universal +obligation:--(1) The Wednesday and Friday fasts throughout the year +(with the exception of the period between Christmas and Epiphany, the +Easter week, the week after Whitsunday, the third week after Epiphany); +(2) The great yearly fasts, viz. that of Lent, lasting 48 days, from the +Monday of Sexagesima to Easter eve; that of Advent, 39 days, from +November 15 to Christmas eve; that of the Theotokos ([Greek: nêsteia tês +Theotokou]), from August 1 to August 15; that of the Holy Apostles, +lasting a variable number of days from the Monday after Trinity; (3) The +minor yearly fasts before Epiphany, before Whitsunday, before the feasts +of the transfiguration, the invention of the cross, the beheading of +John the Baptist. During even the least rigid of these the use of flesh +and lacticinia is strictly forbidden; fish, oil and wine are +occasionally conceded, but not before two o'clock in the afternoon. The +practice of the Coptic church is almost identical with this. A week +before the Great Fast (Lent), a fast of three days is observed in +commemoration of that of the Ninevites, mentioned in the book of Jonah. +Some of the Copts are said to observe it by total abstinence during the +whole period. The Great Fast continues fifty-five days; nothing is eaten +except bread and vegetables, and that only in the afternoon, when church +prayers are over. The Fast of the Nativity lasts for twenty-eight days +before Christmas; that of the Apostles for a variable number of days +from the Feast of the Ascension; and that of the Virgin for fifteen days +before the Assumption. All Wednesdays and Fridays are also fast days +except those that occur in the period between Easter and Whitsunday. The +Armenians are equally strict; but (adds Rycaut) "the times seem so +confused and without rule that they can scarce be recounted, unless by +those who live amongst them, and strictly observe them, it being the +chief care of the priest, whose learning principally consists in knowing +the appointed times of fasting and feasting, the which they never omit +on Sundays to publish unto the people."[21] + +At the council of Trent no more than a passing allusion was made to the +subject of fasting. The faithful were simply enjoined to submit +themselves to church authority on the subject; and the clergy were +exhorted to urge their flocks to the observance of frequent jejunia, as +conducive to the mortification of the flesh, and as assuredly securing +the divine favour. R.F.R. Bellarmine (_De jejunio_) distinguishes +_jejunium spirituale_ (_abstinentia a vitiis_), _jejunium morale_ +(_parsimonia et temperantia cibi et potus_), _jejunium naturale_ +(_abstinentia ab omni prorsus cibo et potu, quacunque ratione sumpto_), +and _jejunium ecclesiasticum_. The last he defines simply as an +abstinence from food in conformity with the rule of the church. It may +be either voluntary or compulsory; and compulsory either because of a +vow or because of a command. But the definition given by Alexander +Halensis, which is much fuller, still retains its authority:--"Jejunium +est abstinentia a cibo et potu secundum formam ecclesiae, intuitu +satisfaciendi pro peccato et acquirendi vitam aeternam." It was to this +last clause that the Reformers most seriously objected. They did not +deny that fasting might be a good thing, nor did they maintain that the +church or the authority might not ordain fasts, though they deprecated +the imposition of needless burdens on the conscience. What they +protested against was the theory of the opus operatum et meritorium as +applied to fasting. As matter of fact, the Reformed churches in no case +gave up the custom of observing fast days, though by some churches the +number of such days was greatly reduced. In many parts of Germany the +seasons of Lent and Advent are still marked by the use of emblems of +mourning in the churches, by the frequency of certain phrases (Kyrie +eleison, Agnus Dei) and the absence of others (Hallelujah, Gloria in +excelsis) in the liturgical services, by abstinence from some of the +usual social festivities, and by the non-celebration of marriages. And +occasional fasts are more or less familiar. The Church of England has +retained a considerable list of fasts; though Hooker (_E.P._ v. 72) had +to contend with some who, while approving of fastings undertaken "of +men's own free and voluntary accord as their particular devotion doth +move them thereunto," yet "yearly or weekly fasts such as ours in the +Church of England they allow no further than as the temporal state of +the land doth require the same for the maintenance of seafaring men and +preservation of cattle; because the decay of the one and the waste of +the other could not well be prevented but by a politic order appointing +some such usual change of diet as ours is." + +In the practice of modern Roman Catholicism the following are recognized +as fasting days, that is to say, days on which one meal only, and that +not of flesh, may be taken in the course of twenty-four hours:--The +forty days of Lent (Sundays excepted), all the Ember days, the +Wednesdays and Fridays in Advent, and the vigils of certain feasts, +namely, those of Whitsuntide, of St Peter and St Paul, of the Assumption +of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of All Saints and of Christmas day. The +following are simply days of abstinence, that is to say, days on which +flesh at all events must not be eaten:--The Sundays in Lent, the three +Rogation days, the feast of St Mark (unless it falls in Easter week), +and all Fridays which are not days of fasting. In the Anglican Church, +the "days of fasting or abstinence" are the forty days of Lent, the +Ember days, the Rogation days, and all the Fridays in the year, except +Christmas day. The evens or vigils before Christmas, the Purification of +the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, +Easter day, Ascension day, Pentecost, St Matthias, the Nativity of St +John Baptist, St Peter, St James, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St Simon +and St Jude, St Andrew, St Thomas, and All Saints are also recognized as +"fast days." By the 64th canon it is enacted that "every parson, vicar +or curate, shall in his several charge declare to the people every +Sunday at the time appointed in the communion-book [which is, after the +Nicene creed has been repeated] whether there be any holy-days or +fast-days the week following." The 72nd canon ordains that "no minister +or ministers shall, without licence and direction of the bishop under +hand and seal, appoint or keep any solemn fasts, either publicly or in +any private houses, other than such as by law are or by public authority +shall be appointed, nor shall be wittingly present at any of them under +pain of suspension for the first fault, of excommunication for the +second, and of deposition from the ministry for the third." While +strongly discouraging the arbitrary multiplication of public or private +fasts, the English Church seems to leave to the discretion of the +individual conscience every question as to the manner in which the fasts +she formally enjoins are to be observed. In this connexion the homily +_Of Fasting_ may be again referred to. By a statute of the reign of +Queen Elizabeth it was enacted that none should eat flesh on "fish days" +(the Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays throughout the year) without a +licence, under a penalty. In the Scottish Presbyterian churches days of +"fasting, humiliation and prayer" are observed by ecclesiastical +appointment in each parish once or twice every year on some day of the +week preceding the Sunday fixed for the administration of the sacrament +of the Lord's Supper. In some of the New England States, it has been +usual for the governor to appoint by proclamation at some time in spring +a day of fasting, when religious services are conducted in the churches. +National fasts have more than once been observed on special occasions +both in this country and in the United States of America. + +On the subject of fasting the views of Aerius are to a large extent +shared by modern Protestant moralists. R. Rothe, for example, who on +this point may be regarded as a representative thinker, rejects the idea +that fasting is a thing meritorious in itself, and is very doubtful of +its value even as an aid to devotional feeling. Of course when bodily +health and other circumstances require it, it becomes a duty; and as a +means of self-discipline it may be used with due regard to the claims of +other duties, and to the fitness of things. In this last aspect, +however, habitual temperance will generally be found to be much more +beneficial than occasional fasting. It is extremely questionable, in +particular, whether fasting be so efficient as it is sometimes supposed +to be in protecting against temptation to fleshly sin. The practice has +a well-ascertained tendency to excite the imagination; and in so far as +it disturbs that healthy and well-balanced interaction of body and mind +which is the best or at least the normal condition for the practice of +virtue, it is to be deprecated rather than encouraged (_Theologische +Ethik_, sec. 873-875). + +_Mahommedan Fasts._--Among the Mahommedans, the month Ramadan, in which +the first part of the Koran is said to have been received, is by command +of the prophet observed as a fast with extraordinary rigour. No food or +drink of any kind is permitted to be taken from daybreak until the +appearance of the stars at nightfall. Extending as it does over the +whole "month of raging heat," such a fast manifestly involves +considerable self-denial; and it is absolutely binding upon all the +faithful whether at home or abroad. Should its observance at the +appointed time be interfered with by sickness or any other cause, the +fast must be kept as soon afterwards as possible for a like number of +days. It is the only one which Mahommedanism enjoins; but the doctors of +the law recommend a considerable number of voluntary fasts, as for +example on the tenth day of the month Moharram. This day, called the +"Yom Ashoora," is held sacred on many accounts:--"because it is believed +to be the day on which the first meeting of Adam and Eve took place +after they were cast out of paradise; and that on which Noah went out +from the ark; also because several other great events are said to have +happened on this day; and because the ancient Arabs, before the time of +the prophet, observed it by fasting. But what, in the opinion of most +modern Moslems, and especially the Persians, confers the greatest +sanctity on the day of Ashoora is the fact of its being that on which +El-Hoseyn, the prophet's grandson, was slain a martyr at the battle of +the plain of Karbala." It is the practice of many Moslems to fast on +this day, and some do so on the preceding day also. Mahomet himself +called fasting the "gate of religion," and forbade it only on the two +great festivals, namely, on that which immediately follows Ramadan and +on that which succeeds the pilgrimage. (See Lane, _Modern Egyptians_, +chaps, iii., xxiv.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "The Fathers assembled there ... decreed in that council that + every person, as well in his private as public fast, should continue + all the day without meat and drink, till after the evening prayer. + And whosoever did eat or drink before the evening prayer was ended + should be accounted and reputed not to consider the purity of his + fast. This canon teacheth so evidently how fasting was used in the + primitive church as by words it cannot be more plainly expressed" + (_Of Good Works; and first, of Fasting._) + + [2] As indeed they are, etymologically; but, prior to the + Reformation, a conventional distinction between _abstinentia_ and + _jejunium naturale_ had long been recognized. "Exceptio eduliorum + quorundam portionale jejunium est" (Tertullian). + + [3] Confucianism ought perhaps to be named as one. Zoroastrianism is + frequently given as another, but hardly correctly. In the Liber + _Sad-der_, indeed (Porta xxv.), we read, "Cavendum est tibi a + jejunio; nam a mane ad vesperam nihil comedere non est bonum in + religione nostra"; but according to the Père de Chinon (Lyons, 1671) + the Parsee religion enjoins, upon the priesthood at least, no fewer + than five yearly fasts. See Hyde, _Veterum Persarum religio_, pp. + 449, 548 (ed. 1700). + + [4] During the middle ages the prevalent notion was that it had its + origin in paradise. The germ at least of this idea is to be found in + Tertullian, who says: "Acceperat Adam a Deo legem non gustandi de + arbore agnitionis boni et mali, moriturus si gustasset; verum et ipse + tunc in psychicum reversus ... facilius ventri quam Deo cessit, + pabulo potius quam praecepto annuit, salutem gula vendidit, + manducavit denique et periit, salvus alioquin si uni arbusculae + jejunare maluisset" (_De jejuniis_, c. 3). + + [5] _Principles of Sociology_, i. pp. 170, 284, 285. Compare the + passage in the appendix from Hanusch, _Slavischer Mythus_, p. 408. + + [6] Spencer, _Prin. of Sociology_, i. 256, &c.; E.B. Tylor, + _Primitive Culture_, i. 277, 402; ii. 372, &c. + + [7] Hooker, E.P. v. 72. In the Westminster Assembly's Larger + Catechism fasting is mentioned among the duties required by the + second commandment. + + [8] The Brahmans themselves on the eleventh day after the full moon + and the eleventh day after the new "abstain for sixty hours from + every kind of sustenance"; and some have a special fast every Monday + in November. See Picart, _The Religion and Manners of the Brahmins_. + + [9] [Hebrew: nefesh] is here to be taken as substantially equivalent + to "desire," "appetite." + + [10] See Judith viii. 6. "And yet it may be a question whether they + (the Jews) did not always fast upon Sabbath," says Hooker (_E.P._ v. + 72, 7), who gives a curious array of evidence pointing in this + direction. He even makes use of Neh. viii. 9-12, which might be + thought to tell the other way. Justinian's phrase, "Sabbata Judaeorum + a Mose in omne aevum jejunio dicata" (l. xxxvi. c. 2; comp. + Suetonius, _Augustus_, 76) may be accounted for by the fact that the + day of atonement is called Sabbat Sabbatôn ("a perfect Sabbath"). + + [11] There is, as Graf (_Gesch. Bücher des A.T._ p. 41) has pointed + out, no direct evidence that the fast on the 10th of the 7th month + was ever observed before the exile. But the inference which he draws + from this silence of the historical books is manifestly a precarious + one at best. Bleek calls Lev. xvi. "ein deutliches Beispiel + Mosaïscher Abfassung" (_Einleitung_, p. 31, ed. 1878). + + [12] The allusion to the ark warns us to be cautious in assuming the + laws of the Mishna to have been ever in force. + + [13] The idea, however, is found in the _Clementine Homilies_, ix. 9. + Compare Tertullian _De jejuniis_, c. 8: "Docuit etiam adversus + diriora daemonia jejuniis praeliandum." + + [14] On the manuscript evidence the words "I was fasting," in Acts x. + 30, must also be regarded as doubtful. They are rejected by Lachmann, + Tregelles and Tischendorf. + + [15] Quinam isti (adversarii) sint, semel nominabo: exteriores et + interiores botuli psychicorum.... Arguunt nos quod _jejunia propria_ + custodiamus, quod stationes plerumque in vesperam _producamus_, quod + etiam _xerophagias_ observemus, siccantes cibum ab omni carne et omni + jurulentia et uvidioribus quibusque pomis, nec quid vinositatis vel + edamus vel potemus; lavacri quoque abstinentiam congruentem arido + victui. + + [16] The language of the canon is ambiguous; but this interpretation + seems to be preferable, especially in view of canon 23, which enacts + that _jejunii superpositiones_ are to be observed in all months + except July and August. See Hefele, _Councils_, i. 148 (Engl. trs.). + + [17] Compare the 52nd [51st] of the Apostolical canons. "If any + bishop or presbyter or deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal + catalogue, abstains from flesh and wine, not for his own exercise but + out of hatred of the things, forgetting that all things were very + good ... either let him reform, or let him be deprived and be cast + out of the church. So also a layman." To this particular canon Hefele + is disposed to assign a very early date. + + [18] Compare canon 64 of the (supposed) fourth synod of Carthage: "He + who fasts on Sunday is not accounted a Catholic" (Hefele, ii. 415). + + [19] Priscillian, whose widespread heresy evoked from the synod of + Saragossa (418) the canon, "No one shall fast on Sunday, nor may any + one absent himself from church during Lent and hold a festival of his + own," appears, on the question of fasting, not to have differed from + the Encratites and various other sects of Manichean tendency (c. + 406). + + [20] Cap. iii. pro partib. Saxoniae: "Si quis sanctum quadragesimale + jejunium pro despectu Christianitatis contempserit et carnem + comederit, morte moriatur. Sed tamen consideretur a sacerdote ne + forte causa necessitatis hoc cuilibet proveniat, ut carnem comedat." + See Augusti, _Christliche Archäologie_, x. p. 374. + + [21] See Fink's article "Fasten" in Ersch and Gruber's + _Encyclopädie_; Lane, _Modern Egyptians_; and Rycaut, _Present State + of the Armenian Church_. + + + + +FASTOLF, SIR JOHN (d. 1459), English soldier, has enjoyed a more lasting +reputation as in some part the prototype of Shakespeare's Falstaff. He +was son of a Norfolk gentleman, John Fastolf of Caister, is said to have +been squire to Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, before 1398, served with +Thomas of Lancaster in Ireland during 1405 and 1406, and in 1408 made a +fortunate marriage with Millicent, widow of Sir Stephen Scrope of Castle +Combe in Wiltshire. In 1413 he was serving in Gascony, and took part in +all the subsequent campaigns of Henry V. in France. He must have earned +a good repute as a soldier, for in 1423 he was made governor of Maine +and Anjou, and in February 1426 created a knight of the Garter. But +later in this year he was superseded in his command by John Talbot. +After a visit to England in 1428, he returned to the war, and on the +12th of February 1429 when in charge of the convoy for the English army +before Orleans defeated the French and Scots at the "battle of +herrings." On the 18th of June of the same year an English force under +the command of Fastolf and Talbot suffered a serious defeat at Patay. +According to the French historian Waurin, who was present, the disaster +was due to Talbot's rashness, and Fastolf only fled when resistance was +hopeless. Other accounts charge him with cowardice, and it is true that +John of Bedford at first deprived him of the Garter, though after +inquiry he was honourably reinstated. This incident was made +unfavourable use of by Shakespeare in _Henry VI._ (pt. i. act iv. sc. +i.). Fastolf continued to serve with honour in France, and was trusted +both by Bedford and by Richard of York. He only came home finally in +1440, when past sixty years of age. But the scandal against him +continued, and during Cade's rebellion in 1451 he was charged with +having been the cause of the English disasters through minishing the +garrisons of Normandy. It is suggested that he had made much money in +the war by the hire of troops, and in his later days he showed himself a +grasping man of business. A servant wrote of him:--"cruel and vengible +he hath been ever, and for the most part without pity and mercy" +(_Paston Letters_, i. 389). Besides his share in his wife's property he +had large estates in Norfolk and Suffolk, and a house at Southwark, +where he also owned the Boar's Head Inn. He died at Caister on the 5th +of November 1459. There is some reason to suppose that Fastolf favoured +Lollardry, and this circumstance with the tradition of his braggart +cowardice may have suggested the use of his name for the boon companion +of Prince Hal, when Shakespeare found it expedient to drop that of +Oldcastle. In the first two folios the name of the historical character +in the first part of _Henry VI._ is given as "Falstaffe" not Fastolf. +Other points of resemblance between the historic Fastolf and the +Falstaff of the dramatist are to be found in their service under Thomas +Mowbray, and association with a Boar's Head Inn. But Falstaff is in no +true sense a dramatization of the real soldier. + + The facts of Fastolf's early career are to be found chiefly in the + chronicles of Monstrelet and Waurin. For his later life there is much + material, including a number of his own letters, in the _Paston + Letters_. There is a full life by W. Oldys in the _Biographia + Britannica_ (1st ed., enlarged by Gough in Kippis's edition). See also + Dawson Turner's _History of Caister Castle_, Scrope's _History of + Castle Combe_, J. Gairdner's essay _On the Historical Element in + Shakespeare's Falstaff_, ap. _Studies in English History_, Sidney + Lee's article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, and D.W. + Duthie, _The Case of Sir John Fastolf and other Historical Studies_ + (1907). (C. L. K.) + + + + +FAT (O.E. _fáett_; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch +_vet_, Ger. _Fett_, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek [Greek: +piôn] and [Greek: piaros], and Sanskrit _pivan_), the name given to +certain animal and vegetable products which are oily solids at ordinary +temperatures, and are chemically distinguished as being the glyceryl +esters of various fatty acids, of which the most important are stearic, +palmitic, and oleic; it is to be noticed that they are non-nitrogenous. +Fat is a normal constituent of animal tissue, being found even before +birth; it occurs especially in the intra-muscular, the abdominal and the +subcutaneous connective tissues. In the vegetable kingdom fats +especially occur in the seeds and fruits, and sometimes in the roots. +Physiological subjects concerned with the part played by fats in living +animals are treated in the articles CONNECTIVE TISSUES; NUTRITION; +CORPULENCE; METABOLIC DISEASES. The fats are chemically similar to the +fixed oils, from which they are roughly distinguished by being solids +and not liquids (see OILS). While all fats have received industrial +applications, foremost importance must be accorded to the fats of the +domestic animals--the sheep, cow, ox and calf. These, which are +extracted from the bones and skins in the first operation in the +manufacture of glue, are the raw materials of the soap, candle and +glycerin industries. + + + + +FATALISM (Lat. _fatum_, that which is spoken, decreed), strictly the +doctrine that all things happen according to a prearranged fate, +necessity or inexorable decree. It has frequently been confused with +determinism (q.v.), which, however, differs from it categorically in +assigning a certain function to the will. The essence of the fatalistic +doctrine is that it assigns no place at all to the initiative of the +individual, or to rational sequence of events. Thus an oriental may +believe that he is fated to die on a particular day; he believes that, +whatever he does and in spite of all precautions he may take, nothing +can avert the disaster. The idea of an omnipotent fate overruling all +affairs of men is present in various forms in practically all religious +systems. Thus Homer assumes a single fate ([Greek: Moira]), an +impersonal power which makes all human concerns subject to the gods: it +is not powerful over the gods, however, for Zeus is spoken of as +weighing out the fate of men (_Il._ xxii. 209, viii. 69). Hesiod has +three Fates ([Greek: Moirai]), daughters of Night, Clotho, Lachesis and +Atropos. In Aeschylus fate is powerful even over the gods. The +Epicureans regarded fate as blind chance, while to the Stoics everything +is subject to an absolute rational law. + +The doctrine of fate appears also in what are known as the higher +religions, e.g. Christianity and Mahommedanism. In the former the ideas +of personality and infinite power have vanished, all power being +conceived as inherent in God. It is recognized that the moral individual +must have some kind of initiative, and yet since God is omnipotent and +omniscient man must be conceived as in some sense foreordained to a +certain moral, mental and physical development. In the history of the +Christian church emphasis has from time to time been laid specially on +the latter aspect of human life (cf. the doctrines of election, +foreordination, determinism). Even those theologians, however, who have +laid special stress on the limitations of the human will have repudiated +the strictly fatalistic doctrine which is characteristic of Oriental +thought and is the negation of all human initiative (see PREDESTINATION; +AUGUSTINE, SAINT; WILL). In Islam fate is an absolute power, known as +_Kismet_, or _Nasib_, which is conceived as inexorable and transcending +all the physical laws of the universe. The most striking feature of the +Oriental fatalism is its complete indifference to material +circumstances: men accept prosperity and misfortune with calmness as the +decree of fate. + + + + +FATE, in Roman mythology, the spoken word (_fatum_) of Jupiter, the +unalterable will of heaven. The plural (_Fata_, the Fates) was used for +the "destinies" of individuals or cities, and then for the three +goddesses who controlled them. Thus, Fata Scribunda were the goddesses +who wrote down a man's destiny at his birth. In this connexion, however, +Fata may be singular, the masculine and feminine _Fatus_, _Fata_, being +the usual forms in popular and ceremonial language. The Fates were also +called Parcae, the attributes of both being the same as those of the +Greek Moerae. + + + + +FATEHPUR, FATHIPUR or FUTTEHPOOR, a town and district of British India, +in the Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The town is 73 m. by +rail N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 19,281. The district has an area of +1618 sq. m. It is situated in the extreme south-eastern corner of the +Doab or tract of country between the Ganges and the Jumna, which +respectively mark its northern and southern boundaries. The whole +district consists of an alluvial plain formed by the deposits of the two +great rivers. The central part is almost perfectly level, and consists +of highly cultivated land interspersed with jungle and with tracts +impregnated with saltpetre (_usar_). A ridge of higher land, forming the +watershed of the district, runs along it from east to west at an average +distance of about 5 m. from the Ganges. Fatehpur therefore consists of +two inclined planes, the one 5 m. broad, sloping down rapidly to the +Ganges, and the other from 15 to 20 m. broad, falling gradually to the +Jumna. The country near the banks of the two rivers is cut up into +ravines and nullahs running in all directions, and is almost entirely +uncultivable. Besides the Ganges and Jumna the only rivers of importance +are the Pandu, a tributary of the Ganges, and the Arind and Nun, which +both fall into the Jumna. The climate is more humid than in the other +districts of the Doab, and although fevers are common, it is not +considered an unhealthy district. The average annual rainfall is 34 in. + +The tract in which this district is comprised was conquered in 1194 by +the Pathans; but subsequently, after a desperate resistance, it was +wrested from them by the Moguls. In the 18th century it formed a part of +the _subah_ of Korah, and was under the government of the wazir of Oudh. +In 1736 it was overrun by the Mahrattas, who retained possession of it +until, in 1750, they were ousted by the Pathans of Fatehpur. In 1753 it +was reconquered by the nawab of Oudh. In 1765, by a treaty between the +East India Company and the nawab, Korah was made over to the Delhi +emperor, who retained it till 1774, when it was again restored to the +nawab wazir's dominions. Finally in 1801, the nawab, by treaty, +reconveyed it to the Company in commutation of the amount which he had +stipulated to pay in return for the defence of his country. In June 1857 +the district rose in rebellion, and the usual murders of Europeans took +place. Order was established after the fall of Lucknow, on the return of +Lord Clyde's army to Cawnpore. In 1901 the population was 686,391, +showing a decrease of 2% in the decade. The district is traversed by the +main line of the East Indian railway from Allahabad to Cawnpore. Trade +is mainly agricultural, but the town of Fatehpur is noted for the +manufacture of ornamental whips, and Jafarganj for artistic curtains, +&c. + + + + +FATEHPUR SIKRI, a town in the Agra district in the United Provinces of +India, on the road from Agra to Jaipur. Pop. (1901) 7147. It is a ruined +city, and is interesting only from an archaeological point of view. It +was founded by Akbar in 1569 as a thank-offering for the birth of a son, +Selim, afterwards the emperor Jahangir, foretold by Selim Chisti, a +famous Mahommedan saint. The principal building is the great mosque, +which is said by Fergusson to be hardly surpassed by any in India. "It +measures 550 ft. east and west by 470 ft. north and south, over all. The +mosque itself, 250 ft. by 80 ft., is crowned by three domes. In its +courtyard, which measures 350 ft. by 440 ft., stand two tombs. One is +that of Selim Chisti, built of white marble, and the windows with +pierced tracery of the most exquisite geometrical patterns. It possesses +besides a deep cornice of marble, supported by brackets of the most +elaborate design. The other tomb, that of Nawab Islam Khan, is soberer +and in excellent taste, but quite eclipsed by its surroundings. Even +these parts, however, are surpassed in magnificence by the southern +gateway. As it stands on a rising ground, when looked at from below its +appearance is noble beyond that of any portal attached to any mosque in +India, perhaps in the whole world." Among other more noteworthy +buildings the following may be mentioned. The palace of Jodh Bai, the +Rajput wife of Akbar, consists of a courtyard surrounded by a gallery, +above which rise buildings roofed with blue enamel. A rich gateway gives +access to a terrace on which are the "houses of Birbal and Miriam"; and +beyond these is another courtyard, where are Akbar's private apartments +and the exquisite palace of the Turkish sultana. Here are also the Panch +Mahal or five-storeyed building, consisting of five galleries in tiers, +and the audience chamber. The special feature in the architecture of the +city is the softness of the red sandstone, which could be carved almost +as easily as wood, and so lent itself readily to the elaborate Hindu +embellishment. Fatehpur Sikri was a favourite residence of Akbar +throughout his reign, and his establishment here was of great +magnificence. After Akbar's death Fatehpur Sikri was deserted within 50 +years of its foundation. The reason for this was that frequent cause in +the East, lack of water. The only water obtainable was so brackish and +corroding as to cause great mortality among the inhabitants. The +buildings are situated within an enclosure, walled on three sides and +about 7 m. in circumference. They are all now more or less in ruins, and +their elaborate painting and other decoration has largely perished, but +some modern restoration has been effected. + + See E.B. Havell, _A Handbook to Agra and the Taj, Sikandra, Fatehpur + Sikri_, &c. (1904). + + + + +FATHER, the begetter of a child, the male parent. The word is common to +Teutonic languages, and, like the other words for close family +relationship, mother, brother, son, sister, daughter, appears in most +Indo-European languages. The O. Eng. form is _fæder_, and it appears in +Ger. _Vater_, Dutch _vader_, Gr. [Greek: patêr], Lat. _pater_, whence +Romanic Fr. _père_, Span. _padre_, &c. The word is used of male +ancestors more remote than the actual male parent, and of ancestors in +general. It is applied to God, as the Father of Jesus Christ, and as the +Creator of the world, and is thus the orthodox term for the First Person +of the Trinity. Of the transferred uses of the word many have religious +reference; thus it is used of the Christian writers, usually confined to +those of the first five centuries, the Fathers of the Church (see +below), of whom those who flourished at the end of, or just after the +age of, the apostles are known as the Apostolic Fathers. One who stands +as a spiritual parent to another is his "father," e.g. godfather, or in +the title of bishops or archbishops, Right or Most Reverend Father in +God. The pope is, in the Roman Church, the Holy Father. In the Roman +Church, father is strictly applied to a "regular," a member of one of +the religious orders, and so always in Europe, in English usage, often +applied to a confessor, whether regular or secular, and to any Roman +priest, and sometimes used of sub-members of a religious society or +fraternity in the English Church. Of transferred uses, other than +religious, may be mentioned the application to the first founders of an +institution, constitution, epoch, &c. Thus the earliest settlers of +North America are the Pilgrim Fathers, and the framers of the United +States constitution are the Fathers of the Constitution. In ancient Rome +the members of the senate are the _Patres conscripti_, the "Conscript +fathers." The senior member or doyen of a society is often called the +father. Thus the member of the English House of Commons, and similarly, +of the House of Representatives in the United States, America, who has +sat for the longest period uninterruptedly, is the Father of the House. + + + + +FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The use of the word "father" as a title of +respect is found in the Old Testament, where it is applied to patriarchs +(Gen. l. 24 (Septuagint); Exod. iii. 13, 15; Deut. i. 8), priests (Judg. +xvii. 10, xviii. 19), prophets (2 Kings ii. 12, vi. 21, xiii. 14), and +distinguished ancestors (_Ecclus_. xliv. 1). In the time of our Lord the +scribes claimed the name with an arrogance which He disapproved (Matt. +xxiii. 9); in the rabbinic literature "the fathers" are the more eminent +of the earlier rabbis whose sayings were handed down for the guidance of +posterity.[1] The Christian Church, warned perhaps by the words of +Christ, appears at first to have avoided a similar use of the term, +while St Paul, St Peter and St John speak of their converts as spiritual +children (1 Cor. iv. 14 f., Gal. iv. 19, 1 Pet. v. 13, 1 John ii. 12); +they did not assume, so far as we know, the official style of "fathers +in God." Nor is this title found in the age which succeeded to that of +the apostles. When Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was martyred (A.D. 155), +the crowd shouted, "This is the father of the Christians"[2]; but the +words were probably prompted by the Jews, who took a prominent part in +the martyrdom, and who naturally viewed Polycarp in the light of a great +Christian rabbi, and gave him the title which their own teachers bore. +In the next century members of the episcopal order were sometimes +addressed in this manner: thus Cyprian is styled _papas_ or _papa_ by +his Roman correspondents.[3] The bishops who sat in the great councils +of the 4th century were known as "the 318 fathers" of Nicaea, and "the +150 fathers" of Constantinople. Meanwhile the custom was growing up of +appealing to eminent Church writers of a past generation under this +name. Thus Athanasius writes (_ad Afros_ vi.): "We have the testimony of +fathers (the two Dionysii, bishops of Alexandria and Rome, who wrote in +the previous century) for the use of the word [Greek: homoousios]." Such +quotations were multiplied, as theologians learnt to depend increasingly +upon their predecessors, until the testimony of "our holy father" +Athanasius, or Gregory the Divine, or John the Golden-mouthed, came to +be regarded as decisive in reference to controverted points of faith and +practice. + +In the narrower sense thus indicated the "fathers" of the Church are the +great bishops and other eminent Christian teachers of the earlier +centuries, who were conspicuous for soundness of judgment and sanctity +of life, and whose writings remained as a court of appeal for their +successors. A list of fathers drawn up on this principle will begin with +the Christian writers of the 1st century whose writings are not included +in the New Testament: where it ought to end is a more difficult point to +determine. Perhaps the balance of opinion is in favour of regarding +Gregory the Great (d. 604) as the last of the Latin fathers, and John of +Damascus (d. c. 760) as the last of the fathers of the Greek Church. A +more liberal estimate might include John Scotus Erigena or even Anselm +or Bernard of Clairvaux in the West and Photius in the East. The abbé +Migne carried his Latin patrology down to the time of Innocent III. (d. +1216), and his Greek patrology to the fall of Constantinople (1453); +but, while this large extension of the field is much to the advantage of +his readers, it undoubtedly stretches the meaning of _patrologia_ far +beyond its natural limits. For ordinary purposes it is best to make the +patristic period conterminous with the life of the ancient Catholic +Church. In the West the Church enters the medieval stage of its history +with the death of Gregory, while in the East even John of Damascus is +rather a compiler of patristic teaching than a true "father." + +A further question arises. Are all the Christian writers of a given +period to be included among the "fathers," or those only who wrote on +religious subjects, and of whose orthodoxy there is no doubt? Migne, +following the example of the editors of _bibliothecae pat-rum_ who +preceded him, swept into his great collection all the Christian writings +which fell within his period; but he is careful to state upon his +title-page that his patrologies include the ecclesiastical writers as +well as the fathers and doctors of the Church. For a comprehensive use +of the term "ecclesiastical writers" he has the authority of Jerome, who +enumerates among them[4] such heresiarchs or leaders of schism as +Tatian, Bardaisan, Novatus, Donatus, Photinus and Eunomius. This may not +be logical, but long usage has made it permissible or even necessary. It +is often difficult, if not impracticable, to draw the line between +orthodox writers and heterodox; on which side, it might be asked, is +Origen to be placed? and in the case of a writer like Tertullian who +left the Church in middle life, are we to admit certain of his works +into our patrology and refuse a place to others? It is clear that in the +circumstances the terms "father," "patristic," "patrology" must be used +with much elasticity, since it is now too late to substitute for them +any more comprehensive terms. + +By the "fathers," then, we understand the whole of extant Christian +literature from the time of the apostles to the rise of scholasticism or +the beginning of the middle ages. However we may interpret the lower +limit of this period, the literature which it embraces is immense. Some +method of subdivision is necessary, and the simplest and most obvious is +that which breaks the whole into two great parts, the ante-Nicene and +the post-Nicene. This is not an arbitrary cleavage; the Council of +Nicaea (A.D. 325) is the watershed which actually separates two great +tracts of Christian literature. The ante-Nicene age yields priceless +records of the early struggles of Christianity; from it we have received +specimens of the early apologetic and the early polemic of the Church, +the first essays of Christian philosophy, Christian correspondence, +Christian biblical interpretation: we owe to it the works of Justin, +Irenaeus, the Alexandrian Clement, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian. In these +products of the 2nd and 3rd centuries there is much which in its own way +was not surpassed by any of the later patristic writings. Yet the +post-Nicene literature, considered as literature, reaches a far higher +level. Both in East and West, the 4th and 5th centuries form the golden +age of dogmatic theology, of homiletic preaching, of exposition, of +letter-writing, of Church history, of religious poetry. Two causes may +be assigned for this fact. The conversion of the empire gave the members +of the Church leisure and opportunities for the cultivation of literary +taste, and gradually drew the educated classes within the pale of the +Christian society. Moreover, the great Christological controversies of +the age tended to encourage in Christian writers and preachers an +intellectual acuteness and an accuracy of thought and expression of +which the earlier centuries had not felt the need. + +The ante-Nicene period of patristic literature opens with the "apostolic +fathers,"[5] i.e. the Church writers who flourished toward the end of +the apostolic age and during the half century that followed it, +including Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna and +the author known as "Barnabas." Their writings, like those of the +apostles, are epistolary; but editions of the apostolic fathers now +usually admit also the early Church order known as the _Didache_, the +allegory entitled the _Shepherd_, and a short anonymous apology +addressed to one Diognetus. A second group, known as the "Greek +Apologists," embraces Aristides, Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras and +Theophilus; and a third consists of the early polemical writers, +Irenaeus and Hippolytus. Next come the great Alexandrians, Clement, +Origen, Dionysius; the Carthaginians, Tertullian and Cyprian; the +Romans, Minucius Felix and Novatian; the last four laid the foundations +of a Latin Christian literature. Even the stormy days of the last +persecution yielded some considerable writers, such as Methodius in the +East and Lactantius in the West. This list is far from complete; the +principal collections of the ante-Nicene fathers include not a few minor +and anonymous writers, and the fragments of many others whose works as a +whole have perished. + +In the post-Nicene period the literary output of the Church was greater. +Only the more representative names can be mentioned here. From +Alexandria we get Athanasius, Didymus and Cyril; from Cyrene, Synesius; +from Antioch, Theodore of Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom and Theodoret; +from Palestine, Eusebius of Caesarea and Cyril of Jerusalem; from +Cappadocia, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus. The Latin +West was scarcely less productive; it is enough to mention Hilary of +Poitiers, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Leo of Rome, Jerome, +Rufinus, and a father lately restored to his place in patristic +literature, Niceta of Remesiana.[6] Gaul alone has a goodly list of +Christian authors to show: John Cassian, Vincent of Lerins, Hilary of +Arles, Prosper of Aquitaine, Salvian of Marseilles, Sidonius Apollinaris +of Auvergne, Caesarius of Arles, Gregory of Tours. The period ends in +the West with two great Italian names, Cassiodorus and Pope Gregory I., +after Leo the greatest of papal theologians. + +The reader to whom the study is new will gain some idea of the bulk of +the extant patristic literature, if we add that in Migne's collection +ninety-six large volumes are occupied with the Greek fathers from +Clement of Rome to John of Damascus, and seventy-six with the Latin +fathers from Tertullian to Gregory the Great.[7] + +For a discussion of the more important fathers the student is referred +to the articles which deal with them separately. In this place it is +enough to consider the general influence of the patristic writings upon +Christian doctrine and biblical interpretation. Can any authority be +claimed for their teaching or their exegesis, other than that which +belongs to the best writers of every age. The decree of the council of +Trent[8] (_ut nemo ... contra unanimum consensum patrum ipsam scripturam +sacram interpretari audeat_) is studiously moderate, and yet it seems to +rule that under certain circumstances it is not permitted to the Church +of later times to carry the science of biblical interpretation beyond +the point which it had reached at the end of the patristic period. Roman +Catholic writers,[9] however, have explained the prohibition to apply to +matters of faith only, and in that case the Tridentine decree is little +else than another form of the Vincentian canon which has been widely +accepted in the Anglican communion: _curandum est ut id teneamus quod +ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est_. The fathers of the +first six or seven centuries, so far as they agree, may be fairly taken +to represent the main stream of Christian tradition and belief during +the period when the apostolic teaching took shape in the great creeds +and dogmatic decisions of Christendom. The English reformers realized +this fact; and notwithstanding their insistence on the unique authority +of the canon of Scripture, their appeal to the fathers as +representatives of the teaching of the undivided Church was as +wholehearted as that of the Tridentine divines. Thus the English canon +of 1571 directs preachers "to take heed that they do not teach anything +in their sermons as though they would have it completely held and +believed by the people, save what is agreeable to the doctrine of the +Old and New Testaments, and what the Catholic Fathers and ancient +Bishops have gathered from that doctrine." Depreciation of the fathers +was characteristic, not of the Anglican reformation, but of the revolt +against some of its fundamental principles which was led by the Puritan +reaction.[10] + +Now that the smoke of these controversies has passed away, it is +possible to form a clearer judgment upon the merits of the patristic +writings. They are no longer used as an armoury from which opposite +sides may draw effective weapons, offensive or defensive; nor on the +other hand are they cast aside as the rubbish of an ignorant and +superstitious age. All patristic students now recognize the great +inequality of these authors, and admit that they are not free from the +faults of their times; it is not denied that much of their exegesis is +untenable, or that their logic is often feeble and their rhetoric +offensive to modern taste. But against these disadvantages may be set +the unique services which the fathers still render to Christian +scholars. Their works comprise the whole literature of our faith during +the decisive centuries which followed the apostolic age. They are +important witnesses to the text of the New Testament, to the history of +the canon, and to the history of interpretation. It is to their pages +that we owe nearly all that we know of the life of ancient Christianity. +We see in them the thought of the ancient Church taking shape in the +minds of her bishops and doctors; and in many cases they express the +results of the great doctrinal controversies of their age in language +which leaves little to be desired.[11] + + AUTHORITIES.--The earliest writer on patristics was Jerome, whose book + _De viris illustribus_ gives a brief account of one hundred and + thirty-five Church writers, beginning with St Peter and ending with + himself. Jerome's work was continued successively by Gennadius of + Marseilles, Isidore of Seville, and Ildefonsus of Toledo; the + last-named writer brings the list down to the middle of the 7th + century. Since the revival of learning books on the fathers have been + numerous; among the more recent and most accessible of these we may + mention Smith and Wace's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_, + Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyklopädie_, Bardenhewer's _Patrologie_ and + _Geschichte der altkirchlichen Litteratur_, Harnack's _Geschichte der + altchristlichen Litteratur bei Eusebius_ and Ehrard's _Die + altchristliche Litteratur und ihre Erforschung_. A record of patristic + collections and editions down to 1839 may be found in Dowling's + _Notitia Scriptorum SS. Patrum_. The contents of the volumes of + Migne's patrologies are given in the _Catalogue général des livres de + l'abbé Migne_, and a useful list in alphabetical order of the writers + in the Greek _Patrologia_ has been compiled by Dr J.B. Pearson + (Cambridge, 1882). Migne's texts are not always satisfactory, but + since the completion of his great undertaking two important + collections have been begun on critical lines--the Vienna edition of + the Latin Church writers,[12] and the Berlin edition of the Greek + writers of the ante-Nicene period.[13] + + For English readers there are three series of translations from the + fathers, which cover much of the ground; the Oxford _Library of the + Fathers_, the _Ante Nicene Christian Library_ and the _Select Library + of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_. Satisfactory lexicons of patristic + Greek and Latin are still a desideratum: but assistance may be + obtained in the study of the Greek fathers from Suicer's _Thesaurus_, + the _Lexicon of Byzantine Greek_ by E.A. Sophocles, and the _Lexicon + Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum_ of Van Herwerden; whilst the new + great _Latin Lexicon_, published by the Berlin Academy, is calculated + to meet the needs of students of Latin patristic literature. For a + fuller list of books useful to the reader of the Greek and Latin + fathers see H.B. Swete's _Patristic Study_ (2nd ed., 1902). + (H. B. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Buxtorf, s.v. _Abh_, and cf. the title of the tract _Pirke + Aboth_ (ed. Taylor, p. 3). + + [2] _Polyc. Mart_. 8. + + [3] _Studia biblica_, iv. p. 273. + + [4] In his book _De viris illustribus_. + + [5] The term _patres apostolici_ is due to the patristic scholars of + the 17th century: see Lightfoot, _St Clement of Rome_, i. p. 3. + "Sub-apostolic" is perhaps a more accurate designation. + + [6] The _editio princeps_ of Niceta's works was published by Dr A.E. + Burn in 1905. + + [7] The Greek patrology contains, however, besides the text, a Latin + translation, and in both patrologies there is much editorial matter. + + [8] Sess. iv. + + [9] E.G. Möhler, _Symbolism_ (E. tr.) § 42. + + [10] See J.J. Blunt, _Right Use of the Fathers_, p. 15 ff. + + [11] See Stanton, _Place of Authority in Religion_, p. 165 f. + + [12] _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum_. + + [13] _Griechischen christlichen Schriftstellern der ersten drei + Jahrhunderte_. + + + + +FATHOM (a word common, in various forms, to Scandinavian and Teutonic +languages; cf. Danish _favn_, Dutch _vaam_ and Ger. _Faden_, and meaning +"the arms extended"; the ultimate origin is a root _pet_, seen in the +Gr. [Greek: petannunai], to spread), a measure of length, being the +distance from the tip of one middle finger to the tip of the other, when +the arms are stretched out to their widest extent. This length has been +standardized to a measure of 6 ft., and as such is used mainly in +soundings as a unit for measuring the depth of the sea. "Fathom" is also +used in the measurement of timber, when it is equivalent to 6 ft. sq.; +similarly, in mining, a fathom is a portion of ground running the whole +thickness of the vein of ore, and is 6 ft. in breadth and thickness. The +verb "to fathom," i.e. to sound or measure with a fathom-line, is used +figuratively, meaning to go into a subject deeply, to penetrate, or to +explore thoroughly. + + + + +FATIMITES, or FATIMIDES, the name of a dynasty called after Fatima, +daughter of the prophet Mahomet, from whom and her husband the caliph +Ali, son of Abu Talib, they claimed descent. The dynasty is also called +'Obaidi (Ubaidi) after 'Obaidallah, the first sovereign, and 'Alawi, a +title which it shares with other dynasties claiming the same ancestry. +For a list of sovereigns see EGYPT, section _History_ (Mahommedan +period); three, however, must be prefixed who reigned in north-western +Africa before the annexation of Egypt: al-Mahdi 'Obaidallah 297 (909); +al-Qa'im Mahommed 322 (934); al-Mansur Isma'il 334 (945). + +The dynasty owed its rise to the attachment to the family of the prophet +which was widespread in the Moslem world, and the belief that the +sovereignty was the right of one of its members. Owing, however, to the +absence of the principle of primogeniture there was difference of +opinion as to the person whose claim should be enforced, and a number of +sects arose maintaining the rights of different branches of the family. +The Fatimites were supported by those who regarded the sovereignty as +vested in Isma'il, son of Ja'far al-Sadiq, great-great-grandson of Ali, +through his second son Hosain (Husain). Of this Isma'il the first +Fatimite caliph was supposed to be the great-grandson. The line of +ancestors between him and Isma'il is, however, variously given, even his +father's name being quite uncertain, and in some of the pedigrees even +Isma'il does not figure. Apparently when the family first became of +political importance their Alid descent was not disputed at Bagdad, and +the poet al-Sharif al-Radi (d. A.H. 406: A.D. 1015), in whose family the +office of Naqib (registrar of the Alids) was hereditary, appears to have +acknowledged it (_Diwan_, ed. Beirut, p. 972). When their success became +a menace to the caliphs of Bagdad, genealogists were employed to +demonstrate the falsity of the claim, and a considerable literature, +both official and unofficial, rose in consequence. The founder of the +dynasty was made out to be a scion of a family of heretics from whom the +terrible Carmathian sect had originated: later on (perhaps owing to the +rôle played by Jacob, son of Killis, in bringing the Fatimites to +Egypt), the founder was made out to have been a Jew, either as having +been adopted by the heretic supposed to be his father, or as having been +made to personate the real 'Obaidallah, who had been killed in +captivity. While the stories that make him of either Jewish or +Carmathian origin may be neglected, as the product of malice, the +uncertainty of the genealogies offered by their partisans renders any +positive solution of the problem impossible. What seems to be clear is +that secretly within the Abbasid empire propaganda was carried on in +favour of one or other Alid aspirant, and the danger which any such +aspirant incurred by coming forward openly led to his whereabouts being +concealed except from a very few adherents. What is known then is that +towards the end of the 3rd Islamic century the leader of the sect of +Isma'i-lites (Assassins, q.v.) who afterwards mounted a throne, lived at +Salamia, near Emesa (Homs), having agents spread over Arabia, Persia and +Syria, and frequently receiving visits from pious adherents, who had +been on pilgrimage to the grave of Hosain (Husain). Such visitors +received directions and orders such as are usual in secret societies. +One of these agents, Abu Abdallah al-Hosain called al-Shi'i, said to +have filled the office of censor (_muhtasib_) at Basra, received orders +to carry on a mission in Arabia, and at Mecca is said to have made the +acquaintance of some members of the Berber tribe Kutama, south of the +bay of Bougie. These persons persuaded him to travel home with them in +the character of teacher of the Koran, but according to some authorities +the ground had already been prepared there for a political mission. He +arrived in the Kutama country in June 893, and appears very soon to have +been made chief, thereby exciting the suspicion of the Aghlabite ruler +of Kairawan, Ibrahim b. Ahmad, which, however, was soon allayed. His +success provoked a civil war among the Berbers, but he was protected by +a chief named Hasan b. Harun, and displayed sufficient military ability +to win respect. Nine years after his arrival he made use of the unrest +following on the death of the Aghlabite Ibrahim to attack the town of +Mila, which he took by treachery, and turned into his capital; the son +and successor of Ibrahim, Abu'l-'Abbas 'Abdallah, sent his son al-Ahwal +to deal with the new power, and he defeated al-Shi'i in some battles, +but in 903 al-Ahwal was recalled by his brother Ziyadatallah, who had +usurped the throne, and put to death. + +At some time after his first successes al-Shi'i sent a messenger +(apparently his brother) to the head of his sect at Salamia, bidding him +come to the Kutama country, and place himself at the head of affairs, +since al-Shi'i's followers had been taught to pay homage to a Mahdi who +would at some time be shown them. It is said that 'Obaidallah, who now +held this post, was known to the court at Bagdad, and that on the news +of his departure orders were sent to the governor of Egypt to arrest +him; but by skilful simulation 'Obaidallah succeeded in escaping this +danger, and with his escort reached Tripoli safely. Instructions had by +this time reached the Aghlabite Ziyadatallah to be on the watch for the +Mahdi, who was finally arrested at Sijilmasa (Tafilalt) in the year A.H. +292 (A.D. 905); his companion, al-Shi'i's brother, had been arrested at +an earlier point, and the Mahdi's journey to the south-west must have +been to elude pursuit. + +The invitation to the Mahdi turned out to have been premature; for +Ziyadatallah had sent a powerful army to oppose al-Shi'i, which, making +Constantine its headquarters, had driven al-Shi'i into the mountains: +after six months al-Shi'i secured an opportunity for attacking it, and +won a complete victory. Early in 906 another army was sent to deal with +al-Shi'i, and an earnest appeal came from the caliph Muqtafi (Moktafi), +addressed to all the Moslems of Africa, to aid Ziyadatallah against the +usurper. The operations of the Aghlabite prince were unproductive of any +decided result, and by September 906 al-Shi'i had got possession of the +important fortress Tubna and some others. Further forces were +immediately sent to the front by Ziyadatallah, but these were defeated +by al-Shi'i and his officers, to whom other towns capitulated, till +Ziyadatallah found it prudent to retire from Al-Urbus or Laribus, which +had been his headquarters, and entrench himself in Raqqada, one of the +two capitals of his kingdom, Kairawan being the other. Ziyadatallah is +charged by the chroniclers with dissoluteness and levity, and even +cowardice: after his retreat the fortresses and towns in what now +constitute the department of Constantine and in Tunisia fell fast into +al-Shi'i's hands, and he was soon able to threaten Raqqada itself. + +By March 909 Raqqada had become untenable, and Ziyadatallah resolved to +flee from his kingdom; taking with him his chief possessions, he made +for Egypt, and thence to 'Irak: his final fate is uncertain. The cities +Raqqada and Kairawan were immediately occupied by Al-Shi'i, who +proceeded to send governors to the other places of importance in what +had been the Aghlabite kingdom, and to strike new coins, which, however, +bore no sovereign's name. Orders were given that the Shi'ite +peculiarities should be introduced into public worship. + +In May 909 al-Shi'i led a tremendous army westwards to the kingdom of +Tahert, where he put an end to the Rustamite dynasty, and appointed a +governor of his own: he thence proceeded to Sijilmasa where 'Obaidallah +lay imprisoned, with the intention of releasing him and placing him on +the throne. After a brief attempt at resistance, the governor fled, and +al-Shi'i entered the city, released 'Obaidallah and presented him to the +army as the long-promised Imam. The day is given as the 26th of August +909. 'Obaidallah had been in prison more than three years. Whether his +identity with the Mahdi for whom al-Shi'i had been fighting was known to +the governor of Sijilmasa is uncertain. If it was, the governor and his +master the Aghlabite sovereign might have been expected to make use of +their knowledge and outwit al-Shi'i by putting his Mahdi to death. +Opponents of the Fatimites assert that this was actually done, and that +the Mahdi presented to the army was not the real 'Obaidallah, but (as +usual) a Jewish captive, who had been suborned to play the rôle. + +The chief command was now assumed by 'Obaidallah, who took the title +"al-Mahdi, Commander of the Faithful," thereby claiming the headship of +the whole Moslem world: Raqqada was at the first made the seat of the +court, and the Shi'ite doctrines were enforced on the inhabitants, not +without encountering some opposition. Revolts which arose in different +parts of the Aghlabite kingdom were, however, speedily quelled. + +The course followed by 'Obaidallah in governing independently of +al-Shi'i soon led to dissatisfaction on the part of the latter, who, +urged on it is said by his brother, decided to dethrone their Mahdi, and +on the occasion of an expedition to Ténés, which al-Shi'i- commanded, +organized a conspiracy with that end. The conspiracy was betrayed to +'Obaidallah, who took steps to defeat it, and on the last day of July +911 contrived to assassinate both al-Shi'i and his brother. Thus the +procedure which had characterized the accession of the 'Abbasid dynasty +was repeated. It has been conjectured that these assassinations lost the +Fatimites the support of the organization that continued to exist in the +East, whence the Carmathians figure as an independent and even hostile +community, though they appear to have been amenable to the influence of +the African caliph. + +'Obaidallah had now to face the dissatisfaction of the tribes whose +allegiance al-Shi'i had won, especially the Kutama, Zenata and Lawata: +the uprising of the first assumed formidable proportions, and they even +elected a Mahdi of their own, one Kadu b. Mu'arik al-Mawati, who +promulgated a new revelation for their guidance. They were finally +defeated by 'Obaidallah's son Abu'l-Qasim Mahommed, who took +Constantine, and succeeded in capturing the new Mahdi, whom he brought +to Raqqada. Other opponents were got rid of by 'Obaidallah by ruthless +executions. By the middle of the year 913 by his own and his son's +efforts he had brought his kingdom into order. After the style of most +founders of dynasties he then selected a site for a new capital, to be +called after his title Mahdia (q.v.), on a peninsula called Hamma (Cape +Africa) S.S.E. of Kairawan. Eight years were spent in fortifying this +place, which in 921 was made the capital of the empire. + +After defeating internal enemies 'Obaidallah turned his attention to the +remaining 'Abbasid possessions in Africa, and his general Habasah b. +Yusuf in the year 913 advanced along the northern coast, taking various +places, including the important town of Barca, his progress, it is said, +being marked by great cruelty. He then advanced towards Egypt, and +towards the end of July 914, being reinforced by Abu'l-Qasim, afterwards +al-Qa'im, entered Alexandria. The danger led to measures of unusual +energy being taken by the Bagdad caliph Moqtadir, an army being sent to +Egypt under Mu'nis, and a special post being organized between that +country and Bagdad to convey messages uninterruptedly. The Fatimite +forces were defeated, partly owing to the insubordination of the general +Habasah, in the winter of 914, and returned to Barca and Kairawan with +great loss. + +A second expedition was undertaken against Egypt in the year 919, and on +the 10th of July Alexandria was entered by Abu'l-Qasim, who then +advanced southward, seizing the Fayum and Ushmunain (Eshmunain). He was +presently reinforced by a fleet, which, however, was defeated at Rosetta +in March of the year 920 by a fleet despatched from Tarsus by the +'Abbasid caliph Moqtadir, most of the vessels being burned. Through the +energetic measures of the caliph, who sent repeated reinforcements to +Fostat, Abu'l-Qasim was compelled in the spring of 921 to evacuate the +places which he had seized, and return to the west with the remains of +his army, which had suffered much from plague as well as defeat on the +field. On his return he found that the court had migrated from Raqqada +to the new capital Mahdia (q.v.). Meanwhile other expeditions had been +despatched by 'Obaidallah towards the west, and Nekor (Nakur) and Fez +had been forced to acknowledge his sovereignty. + +The remaining years of 'Obaidallah's reign were largely spent in dealing +with uprisings in various parts of his dominions, the success of which +at times reduced the territory in which he was recognized to a small +area. + +'Obaidallah died on the 4th of March 933, and was succeeded by +Abu'l-Qasim, who took the title al-Qa'im biamr allah. He immediately +after his accession occupied himself with the reconquest of Fez and +Nekor, which had revolted during the last years of the former caliph. He +also despatched a fleet under Ya'qub b. Ishaq, which ravaged the coast +of France, took Genoa, and plundered the coast of Calabria before +returning to Africa. A third attempt made by him to take Egypt resulted +in a disastrous defeat at Dhat al-Human, after which the remains of the +expedition retreated in disorder to Barca. + +The later years of the reign of Qa'im were troubled by the uprising of +Abu Yazid Makhlad al-Zenati, a leader who during the former reign had +acquired a following among the tribes inhabiting the Jebel Aures, +including adherents of the 'Ibadi sect. After having fled for a time to +Mecca, this person returned in 937 to Tauzar (Touzer), the original seat +of his operations, and was imprisoned by Qa'im's order. His sons, aided +by the powerful tribe Zenata, succeeded in forcing the prison, and +releasing their father, who continued to organize a conspiracy on a vast +scale, and by the end of 943 was strong enough to take the field against +the Fatimite sovereign, whom he drove out of Kairawan. Abu Yazid +proclaimed himself a champion of Sunni doctrine against the Shi'is, and +ordered the legal system of Malik to be restored in place of that +introduced by the Fatimites. Apparently the doctrines of the latter has +as yet won little popularity, and Abu Yazid won an enormous following, +except among the Kutama, who remained faithful to Qa'im. On the last day +of October 944, an engagement was fought between Kairawan and Mahdia at +a place called al-Akhawan, which resulted in the rout of Qa'im's forces, +and the caliph's being shortly after shut up in his capital, the suburbs +of which he defended by a trench. Abu Yazid's forces were ill-suited to +maintain a protracted siege, and since, owing to the former caliph's +forethought, the capital was in a condition to hold out for a long time, +many of them deserted and the besiegers gained no permanent advantage. +After the siege had lasted some ten months Abu Yazid was compelled to +raise it (September 945); the struggle, however, did not end with that +event, and for a time the caliph and Abu Yazid continued to fight with +varying fortune, while anarchy prevailed over most of the caliph's +dominions. On the 13th of January 946, Abu Yazid shut up Qa'im's forces +in Susa which he began to besiege, and attempted to take by storm. + +On the 18th of May 945, while Abu Yazid was besieging Susa, the caliph +al-Qa'im died at Mahdia, and was succeeded by his son Isma'il, who took +the title Mansur. He almost immediately relieved Susa by sending a +fleet, which joining with the garrison inflicted a severe defeat on Abu +Yazid, who had to evacuate Kairawan also; but though the cities were +mainly in the hands of Fatimite prefects, Abu Yazid was able to maintain +the field for more than two years longer, while his followers were +steadily decreasing in numbers, and he was repeatedly driven into +fastnesses of the Sahara. In August 947 his last stronghold was taken, +and he died of wounds received in defending it. His sons carried on some +desultory warfare against Mansur after their father's death. A town +called Man[s.]ura or Sabra was built adjoining Kairawan to celebrate the +decisive victory over Abu Yazid, which, however, did not long preserve +its name. The exhausted condition of north-west Africa due to the +protracted civil war required some years of peace for recuperation, and +further exploits are not recorded for Mansur, who died on the 19th of +March 952. + +His son, Abu Tamim Ma'add, was twenty-two years of age at the time, and +succeeded his father with the title Mo'izz lidin allah. His authority +was acknowledged over the greater part of the region now constituting +Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, as well as Sicily, and he appears to have +had serious thoughts of endeavouring to annex Spain. At an early period +in his reign he made Jauhar, who had been secretary under the former +caliph, commander of the forces, and the services rendered by this +person to the dynasty made him count as its second founder after +al-Shi'i. In the years 958 and 959 he was sent westwards to reduce Fez +and other places where the authority of the Fatimite caliph had been +repudiated, and after a successful expedition advanced as far as the +Atlantic. As early as 966 the plan of attempting a fresh invasion of +Egypt was conceived, and preparations made for its execution; but it was +delayed, it is said at the request of the caliph's mother, who wished to +make a pilgrimage to Mecca first; and her honourable treatment by Kafur +when she passed through Egypt induced the caliph to postpone the +invasion till that sovereign's death. + +In August 972 Mo'izz resolved to follow Jauhar's pressing invitation to +enter his new capital Cairo. With his arrival there the centre of the +Fatimite power was transferred from Mahdia and Kairawan to Egypt, and +their original dominion became a province called al-Maghrib, which +immediately fell into the hands of a hereditary dynasty, the Zeirids, +acknowledging Fatimite suzerainty. The first sovereign was Bulukkin, +also called Abu'l-Futuh Yusuf, appointed by Mo'izz as his viceroy on the +occasion of his departure for Egypt: separate prefects were appointed +for Sicily and Tripoli; and at the first the minister of finance was to +be an official independent of the governor of the Maghrib. On the death +of Bulukkin in 984 he was succeeded by a son who took the royal title +al-Mansur, under whose rule an attempt was made by the Kutama, +instigated by the caliph, to shake off the yoke of the Zeirids, who +originated from the Sanhaja tribe. This attempt was defeated by the +energy of Mansur in 988; and the sovereignty of the Fatimites in the +Maghrib became more and more confined to recognition in public prayer +and on coins, and the payment of tribute and the giving of presents to +the viziers at Cairo. The fourth ruler of the Zeirid dynasty, called +Mo'izz, endeavoured to substitute 'Abbasid suzerainty for Fatimite: his +land was invaded by Arab colonies sent by the Fatimite caliph, with whom +in 1051 Mo'izz fought a decisive engagement, after which the dominion of +the Zeirids was restricted to the territory adjoining Mahdia; a number +of smaller kingdoms rising up around them. The Zeirids were finally +overthrown by Roger II. of Sicily in 1148. + +After the death of al-Adid, the last Fatimite caliph in Egypt, some +attempts were made to place on the throne a member of the family, and at +one time there seemed a chance of the Assassins, who formed a branch of +the Fatimite sect, assisting in this project. In 1174 a conspiracy for +the restoration of the dynasty was organized by 'Umarah of Yemen, a +court poet, with the aid of eight officials of the government: it was +discovered and those who were implicated were executed. Two persons +claiming Fatimite descent took the royal titles al-Mo'tasim billah and +al-Hamid lillah in the years 1175 and 1176 respectively; and as late as +1192 we hear of pretenders in Egypt. Some members of the family are +traceable till near the end of the 7th century of Islam. + +The doctrines of the Fatimites as a sect, apart from their claim to the +sovereignty in Islam, are little known, and we are not justified in +identifying them with those of the Assassins, the Carmathians or the +Druses, though all these sects are connected with them in origin. A +famous account is given by Maqrizi of a system of education by which the +neophyte had doubts gently instilled into his mind till he was prepared +to have the allegorical meaning of the Koran set before him, and to +substitute some form of natural for revealed religion. In most accounts +of the early days of the community it is stated that the permission of +wine-drinking and licentiousness, and the community of wives and +property formed part of its tenets. There is little in the recorded +practice of the Fatimite state to confirm or justify these assertions; +and they appear to have differed from orthodox Moslems rather in small +details of ritual and law than in deep matters of doctrine. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Wüstenfeld, _Geschichte der Fatimiden Chalifen_ + (Göttingen, 1881); E. Mercier, _Histoire de l'Afrique Septentrionale_ + (Paris, 1888); M.J. de Goeje, _Mémoire sur les Carmathes de Bahrain et + les Fatimides_ (2nd ed., Leiden, 1886); P. Casanova, "Mémoire sur les + derniers Fatimides," _Mém. Miss. archéologique au Caire_, vol. vi.; + for the lives of 'Obaidallah and Abu Yazi-d, Cherbonneau in the + _Journal Asiatique_, sér. iv. vol. 20, and sér. v. vol. 5. See also + EGYPT: _History_, sect. Mahommedan. (D. S. M.*) + + + + +FAUBOURG, the French name for a portion of a town which lies outside the +walls, hence properly a suburb. The name survives in certain parts of +Paris, such as the Faubourg St Antoine, and the Faubourg St Germain, +&c., which have long since ceased to be suburbs and have become portions +of the town itself. The origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier +spelling _faux-bourg_, and the occurrence in medieval Latin of +_falsus-burgus_ (see Ducange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Falsus-Burgus"), was +taken as showing its obvious origin and meaning, the sham or +quasi-borough. The generally accepted derivation is from _fors_, outside +(Lat. _foris_, outside the gates), and _bourg_. It is suggested that the +word is the French adaptation of the Ger. _Pfahlbürger_, the burghers of +the pale, i.e. outside the walls but within the pale. + + + + +FAUCES (a Latin plural word for "throat"; the singular _faux_ is rarely +found), in anatomy, the hinder part of the mouth, which leads into the +pharynx; also an architectural term given by Vitruvius to narrow +passages on either side of the tablinum, through which access could be +obtained from the atrium to the peristylar court in the rear. + + + + +FAUCHER, LÉONARD JOSEPH [LÉON] (1803-1854), French politician and +economist, was born at Limoges on the 8th of September 1803. When he was +nine years old the family removed to Toulouse, where the boy was sent to +school. His parents were separated in 1816, and Léon Faucher, who +resisted his father's attempts to put him to a trade, helped to support +himself and his mother during the rest of his school career by designing +embroidery and needlework. As a private tutor in Paris he continued his +studies in the direction of archaeology and history, but with the +revolution of 1830 he was drawn into active political journalism on the +Liberal side. He was on the staff of the _Temps_ from 1830 to 1833, when +he became editor of the _Constitutionnel_ for a short time. A Sunday +journal of his own, _Le Bien public_, proved a disastrous financial +failure; and his political independence having caused his retirement +from the _Constitutionnel_, he joined in 1834 the _Courrier français_, +of which he was editor from 1839 until 1842, when the paper changed +hands. Faucher belonged in policy to the dynastic Left, and consistently +preached moderation to the more ardent Liberals. On resigning his +connexion with the _Courrier français_ he gave his attention chiefly to +economic questions. He advocated a customs union between the Latin +countries to counter-balance the German Zollverein, and in view of the +impracticability of such a measure narrowed his proposal in 1842 to a +customs union between France and Belgium. In 1843 he visited England to +study the English social system, publishing the results of his +investigations in a famous series of _Études sur l'Angleterre_ (2 vols., +1845), published originally in the _Revue des deux mondes_. He helped to +organize the Bordeaux association for free-trade propaganda, and it was +as an advocate of free trade that he was elected in 1847 to the chamber +of deputies for Reims. After the revolution of 1848 he entered the +Constituent Assembly for the department of Marne, where he opposed many +Republican measures--the limitation of the hours of labour, the creation +of the national relief works in Paris, the abolition of the death +penalty and others. Under the presidency of Louis Napoleon he became +minister of public works, and then minister of the interior, but his +action in seeking to influence the coming elections by a circular letter +addressed to the prefects was censured by the Constituent Assembly, and +he was compelled to resign office on the 14th of May 1849. In 1851 he +was again minister of the interior until Napoleon declared his intention +of resorting to universal suffrage. After the _coup d'état_ of December +he refused a seat in the consultative commission instituted by Napoleon. +He had been elected a member of the Academy of Moral and Political +Science in 1849, and his retirement from politics permitted a return to +his writings on economics. He had been to Italy in search of health in +1854, and was returning to Paris on business when he was seized by +typhoid at Marseilles, where he died on the 14th of December 1854. + + His miscellaneous writings were collected (2 vols., 1856) as _Melanges + d'économie politique et de finance_, and his speeches in the + legislature are printed in vol. ii. of _Léon Faucher, biographie et + correspondance_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., Paris, 1875). + + + + +FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1530-1601), French historian and antiquary, was born at +Paris on the 3rd of July 1530. Of his early life few particulars are +known. He applied himself to the study of the early French chroniclers, +and proposed to publish extracts which would throw light on the first +periods of the monarchy. During the civil wars he lost a large part of +his books and manuscripts in a riot, and was compelled to leave Paris. +He then settled at Marseilles. Attaching himself afterwards to Cardinal +de Tournon, he accompanied him in 1554 to Italy, whence he was several +times sent on embassies to the king, with reports on the siege of Siena. +His services at length procured him the post of president of the chambre +des monnaies, and thus enabled him to resume his literary studies. +Having become embarrassed with debt, he found it necessary, at the age +of seventy, to sell his office; but the king, amused with an epigram, +gave him a pension, with the title of historiographer of France. Fauchet +has the reputation of an impartial and scrupulously accurate writer; and +in his works are to be found important facts not easily accessible +elsewhere. He was, however, entirely uncritical, and his style is +singularly inelegant. His principal works (1579, 1599) treat of Gaulish +and French antiquities, of the dignities and magistrates of France, of +the origin of the French language and poetry, of the liberties of the +Gallican church, &c. A collected edition was published in 1610. Fauchet +took part in a translation of the _Annals_ of Tacitus (1582). He died at +Paris about the close of 1601. + + + + +FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1744-1793), French revolutionary bishop, was born at +Dornes (Nièvre) on the 22nd of September 1744. He was a curate of the +church of St Roch, Paris, when he was engaged as tutor to the children +of the marquis of Choiseul, brother of Louis XV.'s minister, an +appointment which proved to be the first step to fortune. He was +successively grand vicar to the archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the +king, and abbot of Montfort-Lacarre. The "philosophic" tone of his +sermons caused his dismissal from court in 1788 before he became a +popular speaker in the Parisian sections. He was one of the leaders of +the attack on the Bastille, and on the 5th of August 1789 he delivered +an eloquent discourse by way of funeral sermon for the citizens slain on +the 14th of July, taking as his text the words of St Paul, "Ye have been +called to liberty." He blessed the tricolour flag for the National +Guard, and in September was elected to the Commune, from which he +retired in October 1790. During the next winter he organized within the +Palais Royal the "Social Club of the Society of the Friends of Truth," +presiding over crowded meetings under the self-assumed title of +_procureur général de la vérité_. Nevertheless, events were marching +faster than his opinions, and the last occasion on which he carried his +public with him was in a sermon preached at Notre Dame on the 14th of +February 1791. In May he became constitutional bishop of Calvados, and +was presently returned by the department to the Legislative Assembly, +and afterwards to the Convention. At the king's trial he voted for the +appeal to the people and for the penalty of imprisonment. He protested +against the execution of Louis XVI. in the _Journal des amis_ (January +26, 1793), and next month was denounced to the Convention for +prohibiting married priests from the exercise of the priesthood in his +diocese. He remained secretary to the Convention until the accusation of +the Girondists in May 1793. In July he was imprisoned on the charge of +supporting the federalist movement at Caen, and of complicity with +Charlotte Corday, whom he had taken to see a sitting of the Convention +on her arrival in Paris. Of the second of these charges he was certainly +innocent. With the Girondist deputies he was brought before the +revolutionary tribunal on the 30th of October, and was guillotined on +the following day. + + See _Mémoires ... ou Lettres de Claude Fauchet_ (5th ed., 1793); + _Notes sur Claude Fauchet_ (Caen, 1842). + + + + +FAUCIT, HELENA SAVILLE (1817-1898), English actress, the daughter of +John Saville Faucit, an actor, was born in London. Her first London +appearance was made on the 5th of January 1836 at Covent Garden as Julia +in _The Hunchback_. Her success in this was so definitely confirmed by +her subsequent acting of Juliet, Lady Teazle, Beatrice, Imogen and +Hermione, that within eighteen months she was engaged by Macready as +leading lady at Covent Garden. There, besides appearing in several +Shakespearian characters, she created the heroine's part in Lytton's +_Duchess de la Vallière_ (1836), _Lady of Lyons_ (1838), _Richelieu_ +(1839), _The Sea Captain_ (1839), _Money_ (1840), and Browning's +_Strafford_ (1837). After a visit to Paris and a short season at the +Haymarket, she joined the Drury Lane company under Macready early in +1842. There she played Lady Macbeth, Constance in _King John_, Desdemona +and Imogen, and took part in the first production of Westland Marston's +_Patrician's Daughter_ (1842) and Browning's _Blot on the Scutcheon_ +(1843). Among her successful tours was included a visit to Paris in +1844-1845, where she acted with Macready in several Shakespearian plays. +In 1851 she was married to Mr (afterwards Sir) Theodore Martin, but +still acted occasionally for charity. One of her last appearances was as +Beatrice, on the opening of the Shakespeare Memorial at +Stratford-on-Avon on the 23rd of April 1879. In 1881 there appeared in +_Blackwood's Magazine_ the first of her _Letters on some of +Shakespeare's Heroines_, which were published in book form as _On Some +of Shakespeare's Female Characters_ (1885). Lady Martin died at her home +near Llangollen in Wales on the 31st of October 1898. There is a tablet +to her in the Shakespeare Memorial with a portrait figure, and the +marble pulpit in the Shakespeare church--with her portrait as Saint +Helena--was given in her memory by her husband. + + See Sir Theodore Martin's _Helena Faucit_ (1900). + + + + +FAUJAS DE SAINT-FOND, BARTHÉLEMY (1741-1819), French geologist and +traveller, was born at Montélimart on the 17th of May 1741. He was +educated at the Jesuits' College at Lyons; afterwards he went to +Grenoble, applied himself to the study of law, and was admitted advocate +to the parliament. He rose to be president of the seneschal's court +(1765), a post which he honourably filled, but the duties of which +became irksome, as he had early developed a love of nature and his +favourite relaxation was found in visits to the Alps. There he began to +study the forms, structure, composition and superposition of rocks. In +1775 he discovered in the Velay a rich deposit of pozzuolana, which in +due course was worked by the government. In 1776 he put himself in +communication with Buffon, who was not slow to perceive the value of his +labours. Invited by Buffon to Paris, he quitted the law, and was +appointed by Louis XVI. assistant naturalist to the museum, to which +office was added some years later (1785, 1788) that of royal +commissioner for mines. One of the most important of his works was the +_Recherches sur les volcans éteints du Vivarais et du Velay_, which +appeared in 1778. In this work, rich in facts and observations, he +developed his theory of the origin of volcanoes. In his capacity of +commissioner for mines Faujas travelled in almost all the countries of +Europe, everywhere devoting attention to the nature and constituents of +the rocks. It was he who first recognized the volcanic nature of the +basaltic columns of the cave of Fingal (Staffa), although the island was +visited in 1772 by Sir Joseph Banks, who remarked that the stone "is a +coarse kind of _Basaltes_, very much resembling the Giants' Causeway in +Ireland" (Pennant's _Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the Hebrides_). +Faujas's _Voyage en Angleterre, en Écosse et aux Îles Hébrides_ (1797) +is full of interest--containing anecdotes of Sir Joseph Banks and Dr +John Whitehurst, and an amusing account of "The Dinner of an Academic +Club" (the Royal Society), and has been translated into English (2 +vols., 1799). Having been nominated in 1793 professor at the Jardin des +Plantes, he held this post till he was nearly eighty years of age, +retiring in 1818 to his estate of Saint-Fond in Dauphiné. Faujas took a +warm interest in the balloon experiments of the brothers Montgolfier, +and published a very complete _Description des expériences de la machine +aérostatique de MM. Montgolfier_, &c. (1783, 1784). He contributed many +scientific memoirs to the _Annales_ and the _Mémoires_ of the museum of +natural history. Among his separate works, in addition to those already +named are--_Histoire naturelle de la province de Dauphiné_ (1781, 1782); +_Minéralogie des volcans_ (1784); and _Essai de géologie_ (1803-1809). +Faujas died on the 18th of July 1819. + + + + +FAULT (Mid. Eng. _faute_, through the French, from the popular Latin use +of _fallere_, to fail; the original _l_ of the Latin being replaced in +English in the 15th century), a failing, mistake or defect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of clean-cut fault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of strata, bent at a line of fault.] + +In geology, the term is given to a plane of dislocation in a portion of +the earth's crust; synonyms used in mining are "trouble," "throw" and +"heave"; the German equivalent is _Verwerfung_, and the French _faille_. +Faults on a small scale are sometimes sharply-defined planes,[1] as if +the rocks had been sliced through and fitted together again after being +shifted (fig. 1). In such cases, however, the harder portions of the +dislocated rocks will usually be found "slickensided." More frequently +some disturbance has occurred on one or both sides of the fault. +Sometimes in a series of strata the beds on the side which has been +pushed up are bent down against the fault, while those on the opposite +side are bent up (fig. 2). Most commonly the rocks on both sides are +considerably broken, jumbled and crumpled, so that the line of fracture +is marked by a belt or wall-like mass of fragmentary rock, _fault-rock_, +which may be several yards in breadth. Faults are to be distinguished +from joints and fissures by the fact that there must have been a +movement of the rock on one side of the fault-plane relatively to that +on the other side. The trace of a fault-plane at the surface of the +earth is a line (or belt of fault-rock), which in geological mapping is +often spoken of as a "fault-line" or "line of fault." Fig. 3 represents +the plan of a simple fault; quite frequently, however, the main fault +subdivides at the extremities into a number of minor faults (fig. 4), or +the main fault may be accompanied by lateral subordinate faults (fig. +5), some varieties of which have been termed _flaws_ or _Blatts_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plan of simple fault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of a fault splitting into minor faults.] + +"Fault-planes" are sometimes perpendicular to the horizon, but more +usually they are inclined at a greater or lesser angle. The angle made +by the fault-plane with the vertical is the _hade_ of the fault (if the +angle of inclination were measured from the horizon, as in determining +the "dip" of strata, this would be expressed as the "dip of the fault"). +In figs. 1 and 2 the faults are hading towards the right of the reader. +The amount of dislocation as measured along a fault-plane is the +_displacement_ of the fault (for an illustration of these terms see fig. +18, where they are applied to a thrust fault); the vertical displacement +is the _throw_ (Fr. _rejet_); the horizontal displacement, which even +with vertical movement must arise in all cases where the faults are not +perpendicular to the horizon and the strata are not horizontal, is known +as the _heave_. In fig. 6 the displacement is equal to the throw in the +fault A; in the fault B the displacement is more than twice as great as +in A, while the throw is the same in both; the fault A has no heave, in +B it is considerable. The rock on that side of a fault which has dropped +relatively to the rock on the other is said to be upon the downthrow +side of the fault; conversely, the relatively uplifted portion is the +upthrow side. The two fault faces are known as the "hanging-wall" and +the "foot-wall." + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of main fault, with branches.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Section of a vertical and inclined fault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Reversed fault, Liddesdale.] + +The relationship that exists between the hade and the direction of throw +has led to the classification of faults into "normal faults," which hade +under the downthrow side, or in other words, those in which the +hanging-wall has dropped; and "reversed faults," which hade beneath the +upthrow side, that is to say, the foot-wall exhibits a relative sinking. +Normal faults are exemplified in figs. 1, 2, and 6; in the latter the +masses A and B are on the downthrow sides, C is upthrown. Fig. 7 +represents a small reversed fault. Normal faults are so called because +they are more generally prevalent than the other type; they are +sometimes designated "drop" or "gravity" faults, but these are +misleading expressions and should be discountenanced. Normal faults are +regarded as the result of stretching of the crust, hence they have been +called "tension" faults as distinguished from reversed faults, which are +assumed to be due to pressure. It is needful, however, to exercise great +caution in accepting this view except in a restricted and localized +sense, for there are many instances in which the two forms are +intimately associated (see fig. 8), and a whole complex system of faults +may be the result of horizontal (tangential) pressure alone or even of +direct vertical uplift. It is often tacitly assumed that most normal +and reversed faults are due to simple vertical movements of the +fractured crust-blocks; but this is by no means the case. What is +actually observed in examining a fault is the _apparent_ direction of +motion; but the present position of the dislocated masses is the result +of _real_ motion or series of motions, which have taken place along the +fault-plane at various angles from horizontal to vertical; frequently it +can be shown that these movements have been extremely complicated. The +striations and "slickensides" on the faces of a fault indicate only the +direction of the last movement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram of gently undulating strata cut by a +fault, with alternate throw in opposite directions.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Section of strata cut by step faults.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Trough faults.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Plan of a strike fault.] + +A broad monoclinal fold is sometimes observed to pass into a fault of +gradually increasing throw; such a fault is occasionally regarded as +pivoted at one end. Again, a faulted mass may be on the downthrow side +towards one end, and on the upthrow side towards the other, the movement +having taken place about an axis approximately normal to the +fault-plane, the "pivot" in this case being near the centre. From an +example of this kind it is evident that the same fault may at the same +time be both "normal" and "reversed" (see fig. 8). When the principal +movement along a highly inclined fault-plane has been approximately +horizontal, the fault has been variously styled a _lateral-shift_, +_transcurrent fault_, _transverse thrust_ or a _heave fault_. The +horizontal component in faulting movements is more common than is often +supposed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Section across the plan, fig. 11.] + +A single normal fault of large throw is sometimes replaced by a series +of close parallel faults, each throwing a small amount in the same +direction; if these subordinate faults occur within a narrow width of +ground they are known as _distribution faults_; if they are more widely +separated they are called _step faults_ (fig. 9). Occasionally two +normal faults hade towards one another and intersect, and the rock mass +between them has been let down; this is described as a _trough fault_ +(fig. 10). A fault running parallel to the strike of bedded rocks is a +_strike fault_; one which runs along the direction of the dip is a _dip +fault_; a so-called _diagonal fault_ takes a direction intermediate +between these two directions. Although the effects of these types of +fault upon the outcrops of strata differ, there are no intrinsic +differences between the faults themselves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Plan of strata cut by a dip fault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Plan of strata traversed by a diminishing +strike fault.] + +The effect of normal faults upon the outcrop may be thus briefly +summarized:--a strike fault that hades with the direction of the dip may +cause beds to be cut out at the surface on the upthrow side; if it hades +against the dip direction it may repeat some of the beds on the upthrow +side (figs. 11 and 12). With dip faults the crop is carried forward +(down the dip) on the upthrow side. The perpendicular distance between +the crop of the bed (dike or vein) on opposite sides of the fault is the +"offset." The offset decreases with increasing angle of dip and +increases with increase in the throw of the fault (fig. 13). Faults +which run obliquely across the direction of dip, if they hade with the +dip of the strata, will produce offset with "gap" between the outcrops; +if they hade in the opposite direction to the dip, offset with "overlap" +is caused: in the latter case the crop moves forward (down dip) on the +denuded upthrow side, in the former it moves backward. The effect of a +strike fault of diminishing throw is seen in fig. 14. Faults crossing +folded strata cause the outcrops to approach on the upthrow side of a +syncline and tend to separate the outcrops of an anticline (figs. 15, +16, 17). + +In the majority of cases the upthrown side of a fault has been so +reduced by denudation as to leave no sharp upstanding ridge; but +examples are known where the upthrown side still exists as a prominent +cliff-like face of rock, a "fault-scarp"; familiar instances occur in +the Basin ranges of Utah, Nevada, &c., and many smaller examples have +been observed in the areas affected by recent earthquakes in Japan, San +Francisco and other places. But although there may be no sharp cliff, +the effect of faulting upon topographic forms is abundantly evident +wherever a harder series of strata has been brought in juxtaposition to +softer rocks. By certain French writers, the upstanding side of a +faulted piece of ground is said to have a _regard_, thus the faults of +the Jura Mountains have a "_regard français_," and in the same region it +has been observed that in curved faults the convexity is directed the +same way as the _regard_. Occasionally one or more parallel faults have +let down an intervening strip of rock, thereby forming "fault valleys" +or _Graben_ (_Grabensenken_); the Great Rift Valley is a striking +example. On the other hand, a large area of rock is sometimes lifted up, +or surrounded by a system of faults, which have let down the encircling +ground; such a fault-block is known also as a _horst_; a considerable +area of Greenland stands up in this manner. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Plan of an anticline (A) and syncline (S), +dislocated by a fault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Section along the upcast side of the fault in +fig. 15.] + +Faults have often an important influence upon water-supply by bringing +impervious beds up against pervious ones or vice versa, thus forming +underground dams or reservoirs, or allowing water to flow away that +would otherwise be conserved. Springs often rise along the outcrop of a +fault. In coal and metal mining it is evident from what has already been +said that faults must act sometimes beneficially, sometimes the reverse. +It is a common occurrence for fault-fissures and fault-rock to appear as +valuable mineral lodes through the infilling or impregnation of the +spaces and broken ground with mineral ores. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Section along the downcast side of same fault.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Diagram to illustrate the terminology of faults +and thrusts.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Section of a very large thrust in the Durness +Eriboll district, Scotland.] + +In certain regions which have been subjected to very great crustal +disturbance a type of fault is found which possesses a very low +hade--sometimes only a few degrees from the horizontal--and, like a +reversed fault, hades beneath the upthrown mass; these are termed +_thrusts, overthrusts_, or _overthrust faults_ (Fr. _recouvrements, +failles de chevauchement, charriages_; Ger. _Überschiebungen, +Übersprünge, Wechsel, Fallenverwerfungen_). Thrusts should not be +confused with reversed faults, which have a strong hade. Thrusts play a +very important part in the N.W. highlands of Scotland, the Scandinavian +highlands, the western Alps, the Appalachians, the Belgian coal region, +&c. By the action of thrusts enormous masses of rock have been pushed +almost horizontally over underlying rocks, in some cases for several +miles. One of the largest of the Scandinavian thrust masses is 1120 m. +long, 80 m. broad, and 5000 ft. thick. In Scotland three grades of +thrusts are recognized, maximum, major, and minor thrusts; the last have +very generally been truncated by those of greater magnitude. Some of +these great thrusts have received distinguishing names, e.g. the Moine +thrust (fig. 19) and the Ben More thrust; similarly in the coal basin of +Mons and Valenciennes we find the _faille de Boussu_ and the _Grande +faille du midi_. Overturned folds are frequently seen passing into +thrusts. Bayley Willis has classified thrusts as (1) Shear thrusts, (2) +Break thrusts, (3) Stretch thrusts, and (4) Erosion thrusts. + +Dr J.E. Marr ("Notes on the Geology of the English Lake District," +_Proc. Geol. Assoc._, 1900) has described a type of fault which may be +regarded as the converse of a thrust fault. If we consider a series of +rock masses A, B, C--of which A is the oldest and undermost--undergoing +thrusting, say from south to north, should the mass C be prevented from +moving forward as rapidly as B, a low-hading fault may form between C +and B and the mass C may lag behind; similarly the mass B may lag behind +A. Such faults Dr Marr calls "lag faults." A mass of rock suffering +thrusting or lagging may yield unequally in its several parts, and those +portions tending to travel more rapidly than the adjoining masses in the +same sheet may be cut off by fractures. Thus the faster-moving blocks +will be separated from the slower ones by faults approximately normal to +the plane of movement: these are described as "tear faults." + +Faults may occur in rocks of all ages; small local dislocations are +observable even in glacial deposits, alluvium and loess. A region of +faulting may continue to be so through more than one geological period. +Little is known of the mechanism of faulting or of the causes that +produce it; the majority of the text-book explanations will not bear +scrutiny, and there is room for extended observation and research. The +sudden yielding of the strata along a plane of faulting is a familiar +cause of earthquakes. + + See E. de Margerie and A. Heim, _Les Dislocations de l'écorce + terrestre_ (Zürich, 1888); A. Rothpletz, _Geotektonische Probleme_ + (Stuttgart, 1894); B. Willis, "The Mechanics of Appalachian + Structure," _13th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey_ (1891-1892, pub. 1893). + A prolonged discussion of the subject is given in _Economic Geology_, + Lancaster, Pa., U.S.A., vols. i. and ii. (1906, 1907). + (A. Ge.; J. A. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The _fault-plane_ is not a plane surface in the mathematical + sense; it may curve irregularly in more than one direction. + + + + +FAUNA, the name, in Roman mythology, of a country goddess of the fields +and cattle, known sometimes as the sister, sometimes as the wife of the +god Faunus; hence the term is used collectively for all the animals in +any given geographical area or geological period, or for an enumeration +of the same. It thus corresponds to the term "flora" in respect to plant +life. + + + + +FAUNTLEROY, HENRY (1785-1824), English banker and forger, was born in +1785. After seven years as a clerk in the London bank of Marsh, Sibbald +& Co., of which his father was one of the founders, he was taken into +partnership, and the whole business of the firm was left in his hands. +In 1824 the bank suspended payment. Fauntleroy was arrested on the +charge of appropriating trust funds by forging the trustees' signatures, +and was committed for trial, it being freely rumoured that he had +appropriated £250,000, which he had squandered in debauchery. He was +tried at the Old Bailey, and, the case against him having been proved, +he admitted his guilt, but pleaded that he had used the misappropriated +funds to pay his firm's debts. He was found guilty and sentenced to be +hanged. Seventeen merchants and bankers gave evidence as to his general +integrity at the trial, and after his conviction powerful influence was +brought to bear on his behalf, and his case was twice argued before +judges on points of law. An Italian named Angelini even offered to take +Fauntleroy's place on the scaffold. The efforts of his many friends +were, however, unavailing, and he was executed on the 30th of November +1824. A wholly unfounded rumour was widely credited for some time +subsequently to the effect that he had escaped strangulation by +inserting a silver tube in his throat, and was living comfortably +abroad. + + See A. Griffith's _Chronicles of Newgate_, ii. 294-300, and Pierce + Egan's _Account of the Trial of Mr Fauntleroy_. + + + + + +FAUNUS (i.e. the "kindly," from Lat. _favere_, or the "speaker," from +_fari_), an old Italian rural deity, the bestower of fruitfulness on +fields and cattle. As such he is akin to or identical with Inuus +("fructifier") and Lupercus (see LUPERCALIA). Faunus also revealed the +secrets of the future by strange sounds from the woods, or by visions +communicated to those who slept within his precincts in the skin of +sacrificed lambs; he was then called Fatuus, and with him was associated +his wife or daughter Fatua. Under Greek influence he was identified with +Pan, and just as there was supposed to be a number of Panisci, so the +existence of many Fauni was assumed--misshapen and mischievous goblins +of the forest, with pointed ears, tails and goat's feet, who loved to +torment sleepers with hideous nightmares. In poetical tradition Faunus +is an old king of Latium, the son of Picus (Mars) and father of Latinus, +the teacher of agriculture and cattle-breeding, and the introducer of +the religious system of the country, honoured after death as a tutelary +divinity. Two festivals called Faunalia were celebrated in honour of +Faunus, one on the 13th of February in his temple on the island in the +Tiber, the other in the country on the 5th of December (Ovid, _Fasti_, +ii. 193; Horace, _Odes_, iii. 18. 10). At these goats were sacrificed to +him with libations of wine and milk, and he was implored to be +propitious to fields and flocks. The peasants and slaves at the same +time amused themselves with dancing in the meadows. + + + + +FAURE, FRANÇOIS FÉLIX (1841-1899), President of the French Republic, was +born in Paris on the 30th of January 1841, being the son of a small +furniture maker. Having started as a tanner and merchant at Havre, he +acquired considerable wealth, was elected to the National Assembly on +the 21st of August 1881, and took his seat as a member of the Left, +interesting himself chiefly in matters concerning economics, railways +and the navy. In November 1882 he became under-secretary for the +colonies in M. Ferry's ministry, and retained the post till 1885. He +held the same post in M. Tirard's ministry in 1888, and in 1893 was made +vice-president of the chamber. In 1894 he obtained cabinet rank as +minister of marine in the administration of M. Dupuy. In the January +following he was unexpectedly elected president of the Republic upon the +resignation of M. Casimir-Périer. The principal cause of his elevation +was the determination of the various sections of the moderate republican +party to exclude M. Brisson, who had had a majority of votes on the +first ballot, but had failed to obtain an absolute majority. To +accomplish this end it was necessary to unite among themselves, and +union could only be secured by the nomination of some one who offended +nobody. M. Faure answered perfectly to this description. His fine +presence and his tact on ceremonial occasions rendered the state some +service when in 1896 he received the Tsar of Russia at Paris, and in +1897 returned his visit, after which meeting the momentous +Franco-Russian alliance was publicly announced. The latter days of M. +Faure's presidency were embittered by the Dreyfus affair, which he was +determined to regard as _chose jugée_. But at a critical moment in the +proceedings his death occurred suddenly, from apoplexy, on the 16th of +February 1899. With all his faults, and in spite of no slight amount of +personal vanity, President Faure was a shrewd political observer and a +good man of business. After his death, some alleged extracts from his +private journals, dealing with French policy, were published in the +Paris press. + + See E. Maillard, _Le Président F. Faure_ (Paris, 1897); P. Bluysen, + _Félix Faure intime_ (1898); and F. Martin-Ginouvier, _F. Faure devant + l'histoire_ (1895). + + + + +FAURÉ, GABRIEL (1845- ), French musical composer, was born at Pamiers +on the 13th of May 1845. He studied at the school of sacred music +directed by Niedermeyer, first under Dietsch, and subsequently under +Saint-Saëns. He became "maître de chapelle" at the church of the +Madeleine in 1877, and organist in 1896. His works include a symphony in +D minor (Op. 40), two quartets for piano and strings (Opp. 15 and 45), a +suite for orchestra (Op. 12), sonata for violin and piano (Op. 13), +concerto for violin (Op. 14), berceuse for violin, élégie for +violoncello, pavane for orchestra, incidental music for Alexandre Dumas' +_Caligula_ and De Haraucourt's _Shylock_, a requiem, a cantata, _The +Birth of Venus_, produced at the Leeds festival in 1898, a quantity of +piano music, and a large number of songs. Fauré occupies a place by +himself among modern French composers. He delights in the _imprévu_, and +loves to wander through labyrinthine harmonies. There can be no denying +the intense fascination and remarkable originality of his music. His +muse is essentially aristocratic, and suggests the surroundings of the +boudoir and the perfume of the hot-house. + + + + +FAURIEL, CLAUDE CHARLES (1772-1844), French historian, philologist and +critic, was born at St Étienne on the 21st of October 1772. Though the +son of a poor joiner, he received a good education in the Oratorian +colleges of Tournon and Lyons. He was twice in the army--at Perpignan in +1793, and in 1796-1797 at Briançon, as private secretary to General J. +Servan de Gerbey (1741-1808); but he preferred the civil service and the +companionship of his friends and his books. In 1794 he returned to St +Étienne, where, but only for a short period, he filled a municipal +office; and from 1797 to 1799 he devoted himself to strenuous study, +more especially of the literature and history, both ancient and modern, +of Greece and Italy. Having paid a visit to Paris in 1799, he was +introduced to Fouché, minister of police, who induced him to become his +private secretary. Though he discharged the duties of this office to +Fouché's satisfaction, his strength was overtasked by his continued +application to study, and he found it necessary in 1801 to recruit his +health by a three months' trip in the south. In resigning his office in +the following year he was actuated as much by these considerations as by +the scruples he put forward in serving longer under Napoleon, when the +latter, in violation of strict republican principles, became consul for +life. This is clearly shown by the fragments of Memoirs discovered by +Ludovic Lalanne and published in 1886. + +Some articles which Fauriel published in the _Décade philosophique_ +(1800) on a work of Madame de Staël's--_De la littérature considerée +dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales_--led to an intimate +friendship with her. About 1802 he contracted with Madame de Condorcet a +liaison which lasted till her death (1822). It was said of him at the +time that he gave up all his energies to love, friendship and learning. +The salon of Mme de Condorcet was throughout the Consulate and the first +Empire a rallying point for the dissentient republicans. Fauriel was +introduced by Madame de Staël to the literary circle of Auteuil, which +gathered round Destutt de Tracy. Those who enjoyed his closest intimacy +were the physiologist Cabanis (Madame de Condorcet's brother-in-law), +the poet Manzoni, the publicist Benjamin Constant, and Guizot. Later +Tracy introduced to him Aug. Thierry (1821) and perhaps Thiers and +Mignet. During his connexion with Auteuil, Fauriel's attention was +naturally turned to philosophy, and for some years he was engaged on a +history of Stoicism, which was never completed, all the papers connected +with it having accidentally perished in 1814. He also studied Arabic, +Sanskrit and the old South French dialects. He published in 1810 a +translation of the _Parthenais_ of the Danish poet Baggesen, with a +preface on the various kinds of poetry; in 1823 translations of two +tragedies of Manzoni, with a preface "_Sur la théorie de l'art +dramatique_"; and in 1824-1825 his translation of the popular songs of +modern Greece, with a "_Discours préliminaire_" on popular poetry. + +The Revolution of July, which put his friends in power, opened to him +the career of higher education. In 1830 he became professor of foreign +literature at the Sorbonne. The _Histoire de la Gaule méridionale sous +la domination des conquerants germains_ (4 vols., 1836) was the only +completed section of a general history of southern Gaul which he had +projected. In 1836 he was elected a member of the Academy of +Inscriptions, and in 1837 he published (with an introduction the +conclusions of which would not now all be endorsed) a translation of a +Provençal poem on the Albigensian war. He died on the 15th of July 1844. +After his death his friend Mary Clarke (afterwards Madame J. Möhl) +published his _Histoire de la littérature provençale_ (3 vols., +1846)--his lectures for 1831-1832. Fauriel was biased in this work by +his preconceived and somewhat fanciful theory that Provence was the +cradle of the _chansons de geste_ and even of the Round Table romances; +but he gave a great stimulus to the scientific study of Old French and +Provençal. _Dante et les origines de la langue et de la littérature +italiennes_ (2 vols.) was published in 1854. + + Fauriel's _Mémoires_, found with Condorcet's papers, are in the + Institute library. They were written at latest in 1804, and include + some interesting fragments on the close of the consulate, Moreau, &c. + Though anonymous, Lalanne, who published them (_Les Derniers Jours du + Consulat_, 1886), proved them to be in the same handwriting as a + letter of Fauriel's in 1803. The same library has Fauriel's + correspondence, catalogued by Ad. Régnier (1900). Benjamin Constant's + letters (1802-1823) were published by Victor Glachant in 1906. For + Fauriel's correspondence with Guizot see _Nouvelle Rev._ (Dec. 1, + 1901, by V. Glachant), and for his love-letters to Miss Clarke + (1822-1844) the _Revue des deux mondes_ (1908-1909) by E. Rod. See + further Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits contemporains_, ii.; Antoine + Guillois, _Le Salon de Mme Helvétius_ (1894) and _La Marquise de + Condorcet_ (1897); O'Meara, _Un Salon à Paris: Mme Möhl_ (undated); + and J.B. Galley, _Claude Fauriel_ (1909). + + + + +FAUST, or FAUSTUS, the name of a magician and charlatan of the 16th +century, famous in legend and in literature. The historical Faust forms +little more than the nucleus round which a great mass of legendary and +imaginative material gradually accumulated. That such a person existed +there is, however, sufficient proof.[1] He is first mentioned in a +letter, dated August 20, 1507, of the learned Benedictine Johann +Tritheim or Trithemius (1462-1516), abbot of Spanheim, to the +mathematician and astrologer Johann Windung, at Hasfurt, who had +apparently written about him. Trithemius, himself reputed a magician, +and the author of a mystical work (published at Darmstadt in 1621 under +the title of _Steganographica_ and burnt by order of the Spanish +Inquisition), speaks contemptuously of Faust, who called himself +Magister Georgius Sabellicus Faustus Junior, as a fool rather than a +philosopher (_fatuum non philosophum_), a vain babbler, vagabond and +mountebank who ought to be whipped, and who had fled from the city +rather than confront him. The insane conceit of the man was proved by +his boast that, were all the works of Aristotle and Plato blotted from +the memory of men, he could restore them with greater elegance, and that +Christ's miracles were nothing to marvel at, since he could do the like +whenever and as often as he pleased; his debased character by the fact +that he had been forced to flee from the school of which he had been +appointed master by the discovery of his unnatural crimes. The same +unflattering estimate is contained in the second extant notice of Faust, +in a letter of the jurist and canon Konrad Mudt (Mutianus Rufus), of the +3rd of October 1513, to Heinrich Urbanus. Mudt, like Trithemius, simply +regards Faust as a charlatan. Similar is the judgment of another +contemporary, Philipp Begardi, who in the fourth chapter of his _Index +sanitatis_ (Worms, 1539) ranks Faust, with Theophrastus Paracelsus, +among the "wicked, cheating, useless and unlearned doctors." + +It was Johann Gast (d. 1572), a worthy Protestant pastor of Basel, who +like Mudt claims to have come into personal contact with Faust, who in +his _Sermones convivales_ (Basel, 1543) first credited the magician with +genuine supernatural qualities. Gast, a man of some learning and much +superstition, believed Faust to be in league with the devil, by whom +about 1525 he was ultimately carried off, and declared the performing +horse and dog by which the necromancer was accompanied to be familiar +and evil spirits. Further information was given to the world by Johann +Mannel or Manlius (d. 1560), councillor and historian to the emperor +Maximilian II., in his _Locorum communium collectanea_ (Basel, undated). +Manlius reports a conversation of Melanchthon, which there is no reason +to suspect of being other than genuine, in which the Reformer speaks of +Faust as "a disgraceful beast and sewer of many devils," as having been +born at Kundling (Kundlingen or Knittlingen), a little town near his own +native town (of Bretten), and as having studied magic at Cracow. The +rest of the information given can hardly be regarded as historical, +though Melanchthon, who, like Luther, was no whit less superstitious +than most people of his time, evidently believed it to be so. According +to him, among other marvels, Faust was killed by the devil wringing his +neck. While he lived he had taken about with him a dog, which was really +a devil. A similar opinion would seem to have been held of Faust by +Luther also, who in Widmann's Faust-book is mentioned as having declared +that, by God's help, he had been able to ward off the evils which Faust +with his sorceries had sought to put upon him. The passage, with the +omission of Faust's name, occurs word for word in Luther's Table-talk +(ed. C.E. Förstemann, vol. i. p. 50). It is not improbable, then, that +Widmann, in supplying the name of the necromancer omitted in the +Table-talk, may be giving a fuller account of the conversation. +Bullinger also, in his _Theatrum de beneficiis_ (Frankf., 1569) mentions +Faust as one of those "of whom the Scriptures speak, in various places, +calling them _magi_." Lastly Johann Weiher, Wierus or Piscinarius +(1515-1588)--a pupil of Cornelius Agrippa, body physician to the duke of +Cleves and a man of enlightenment, who opposed the persecution of +witches--in his _De praestigiis daemonum_ (Basel, 1563, &c.), speaks of +Faust as a drunken vagabond who had studied magic at Cracow, and before +1540 had practised "this beautiful art shamelessly up and down Germany, +with unspeakable deceit, many lies and great effect." He goes on to tell +how the magician had revenged himself on an unhappy parish priest, who +had refused to supply him any longer with drink, by giving him a +depilatory which removed not only the beard but the skin, and further, +how he had insulted a poor wretch, for no better reason than that he had +a black beard, by greeting him as his cousin the devil. Of his +superhuman powers Weiher evidently believes nothing, but he tells the +tale of his being found dead with his neck wrung, after the whole house +had been shaken by a terrific din. + +The sources above mentioned, which were but the first of numerous works +on Faust, of more or less value, appearing throughout the next two +centuries, give a sufficient picture of the man as he appeared to his +contemporaries: a wandering charlatan who lived by his wits, +cheiromantist, astrologer, diviner, spiritualist medium, alchemist, or, +to the more credulous, a necromancer whose supernatural gifts were the +outcome of a foul pact with the enemy of mankind. Whatever his +character, his efforts to secure a widespread notoriety had, by the time +of his death, certainly succeeded. By the latter part of the 16th +century he had become the necromancer _par excellence_, and all that +legend had to tell about the great wizards of the middle ages, Virgil, +Pope Silvester, Roger Bacon, Michael Scot, or the mythic Klingsor, had +become for ever associated with his name. When in 1587, the oldest +Faust-book was published, the Faust legend was, in all essential +particulars, already complete. + +The origin of the main elements of the legend must be sought far back in +the middle ages and beyond. The idea of a compact with the devil, for +the purpose of obtaining superhuman power or knowledge, is of Jewish +origin, dating from the centuries immediately before and after the +Christian era which produced the Talmud, the Kabbalah and such magical +books as that of Enoch. In the mystical rites--in which blood, as the +seat of life, played a great part--that accompanied the incantations +with which the Jewish magicians evoked the Satanim--the lowest grade of +those elemental spirits (shedim) who have their existence beyond the +dimensions of time and space--we have the prototypes and originals of +all the ceremonies which occupy the books of magic down to the various +versions of the _Höllenzwang_ ascribed to Faust. The other principle +underlying the Faust legend, the belief in the essentially evil +character of purely human learning, has existed ever since the triumph +of Christianity set divine revelation above human science. The legend of +Theophilus--a Cilician archdeacon of the 6th century, who sold his soul +to Satan for no better reason than to clear himself of a false charge +brought against him by his bishop--was immensely popular throughout the +middle ages, and in the 8th century formed the theme of a poem in Latin +hexameters by the nun Hroswitha of Gandersheim, who, especially in her +description of the ritual of Satan's court, displays a sufficiently +lively and original imagination. Equally widespread were the legends +which gathered round the great name of Gerbert (Pope Silvester II.). +Gerbert's vast erudition, like Roger Bacon's so far in advance of his +age, naturally cast upon him the suspicion of traffic with the infernal +powers; and in due course the suspicion developed into the tale, +embellished with circumstantial and harrowing details, of a compact with +the arch-fiend, by which the scholar had obtained the summit of earthly +ambition at the cost of his immortal soul. These are but the two most +notable of many similar stories,[2] and, in an age when the belief in +witchcraft and the ubiquitous activity of devils was still universal, it +is natural that they should have been retold in all good faith of a +notorious wizard who was himself at no pains to deny their essential +truth. The Faust legend, however, owes something of its peculiar +significance also to the special conditions of the age which gave it +birth: the age of the Renaissance and the Reformation. The opinion that +the religious reformers were the champions of liberty of thought against +the obscurantism of Rome is the outgrowth of later experience. To +themselves they were the protagonists of "the pure Word of God" against +the corruptions of a church defiled by the world and the devil, and the +sceptical spirit of Italian humanism was as abhorrent to them as to the +Catholic reactionaries by whom it was again trampled under foot. If +then, in Goethe's drama, Faust ultimately develops into the type of the +unsatisfied yearning of the human intellect for "more than earthly meat +and drink," this was because the great German humanist deliberately +infused into the old story a spirit absolutely opposed to that by which +it had originally been inspired. The Faust of the early Faust-books, of +the ballads, the dramas and the puppet-plays innumerable which grew out +of them, is irrevocably damned because he deliberately prefers human to +"divine" knowledge; "he laid the Holy Scriptures behind the door and +under the bench, refused to be called doctor of Theology, but preferred +to be styled doctor of Medicine." The orthodox moral of the earliest +versions is preserved to the last in the puppet-plays. The Voice to the +right cries: "Faust! Faust! desist from this proposal! Go on with the +study of Theology, and you will be the happiest of mortals." The Voice +to the left answers: "Faust! Faust! leave the study of Theology. Betake +you to Necromancy, and you will be the happiest of mortals!" The Faust +legend was, in fact, the creation of orthodox Protestantism; its moral, +the inevitable doom which follows the wilful revolt of the intellect +against divine authority as represented by the Holy Scriptures and its +accredited interpreters. Faust, the contemner of Holy Writ, is set up as +a foil to Luther, the champion of the new orthodoxy, who with +well-directed inkpot worsted the devil when he sought to interrupt the +sacred work of rendering the Bible into the vulgar tongue. + +It was doubtless this orthodox and Protestant character of the Faust +story which contributed to its immense and immediate popularity in the +Protestant countries. The first edition of the _Historia von D. Johann +Fausten_, by an unknown compiler, published by Johann Spies at Frankfort +in 1587, sold out at once. Though only placed on the market in the +autumn, before the year was out it had been reprinted in four pirated +editions. In the following year a rhymed version was printed at +Tübingen, a second edition was published by Spies at Frankfort and a +version in low German by J.J. Balhorn at Lübeck. Reprints and amended +versions continued to appear in Germany every year, till they culminated +in the pedantic compilation of Georg Rudolf Widmann, who obscured the +dramatic interest of the story by an excessive display of erudition and +by his well-meant efforts to elaborate the orthodox moral. Widmann's +version of 1599 formed the basis of that of Johann Nicholaus Pfitzer, +published at Nuremberg in 1674, which passed through six editions, the +last appearing in 1726. Like Widmann, Pfitzer was more zealous for +imparting information than for perfecting a work of art, though he had +the good taste to restore the episode of the evocation of Helen, which +Widmann had expunged as unfit for Christian readers. Lastly there +appeared, about 1712, what was to prove the most popular of all the +Faust-books: _The League with the Devil established by the world-famous +Arch-necromancer and Wizard Dr Johann Faust_. By a Christian Believer +(_Christlich Meynenden_). This version, which bore the obviously false +date of 1525, passed through many editions, and was circulated at all +the fairs in Germany. Abroad the success of the story was scarcely less +striking. A Danish version appeared in 1588; in England the _History of +the Damnable Life and Deserved Death of Dr John Faustus_ was published +some time between 1588 and 1594; in France the translation of Victor +Palma Cayet was published at Paris in 1592 and, in the course of the +next two hundred years, went through fifteen editions; the oldest Dutch +and Flemish versions are dated 1592; and in 1612 a Czech translation was +published at Prague. + +Besides the popular histories of Faust, all more or less founded on the +original edition of Spies, numerous ballads on the same subject were +also soon in circulation. Of these the most interesting for the English +reader is A _Ballad of the life and death of Dr Faustus the great +congerer_, published in 1588 with the imprimatur of the learned Aylmer, +bishop of London. This ballad is supposed to have preceded the English +version of Spies's Faust-book, mentioned above, on which Marlowe's drama +was founded. + +To Christopher Marlowe, it would appear, belongs the honour of first +realizing the great dramatic possibilities of the Faust legend. _The +Tragicall History of D. Faustus as it hath bene acted by the Right +Honourable the Earle of Nottingham his servants_ was first published by +Thomas Bushall at London in 1604. As Marlowe died in 1593, the play must +have been written shortly after the appearance of the English version of +the Faust story on which it was based. The first recorded performance +was on the 30th of September 1594. + +As Marlowe's _Faustus_ is the first, so it is imcomparably the finest of +the Faust dramas which preceded Goethe's masterpiece. Like most of +Marlowe's work it is, indeed, very unequal. At certain moments the poet +seems to realize the great possibilities of the story, only to sacrifice +them to the necessity for humouring the prevailing public taste of the +age. Faustus, who in one scene turns disillusioned from the ordinary +fountains of knowledge, or flies in a dragon-drawn chariot through the +Empyrean to search out the mysteries of the heavens, in another is made +to use his superhuman powers to satisfy the taste of the groundlings for +senseless buffoonery, to swindle a horse-dealer, or cheat an ale-wife of +her score; while Protestant orthodoxy is conciliated by irrelevant +insults to the Roman Church and by the final catastrophe, when Faustus +pays for his revolt against the Word of God by the forfeit of his soul. +This conception, which followed that of the popular Faust histories, +underlay all further developments of the Faust drama for nearly two +hundred years. Of the serious stage plays founded on this theme, +Marlowe's _Faustus_ remains the sole authentic example until near the +end of the 18th century; but there is plenty of evidence to prove that +in Germany the _Comedy of Dr Faust_, in one form or another, was and +continued to be a popular item in the repertories of theatrical +companies until far into the 18th century. It is supposed, with good +reason, that the German versions were based on those introduced into the +country by English strolling players early in the 17th century. However +this may be, the dramatic versions of the Faust legend followed much the +same course as the prose histories. Just as these gradually degenerated +into chap-books hawked at fairs, so the dramas were replaced by +puppet-plays, handed down by tradition through generations of showmen, +retaining their original broad characteristics, but subject to infinite +modification in detail. In this way, in the puppet-shows, the +traditional Faust story retained its popularity until far into the 19th +century, long after, in the sphere of literature, Goethe had for ever +raised it to quite another plane. + +It was natural that during the literary revival in Germany in the 18th +century, when German writers were eagerly on the look-out for subjects +to form the material of a truly national literature, the Faust legend +should have attracted their attention. Lessing was the first to point +out its great possibilities;[3] and he himself wrote a Faust drama, of +which unfortunately only a fragment remains, the MS. of the completed +work having been lost in the author's lifetime. None the less, to +Lessing, not to Goethe, is due the new point of view from which the +story was approached by most of those who, after about the year 1770, +attempted to tell it. The traditional Faust legend represented the +sternly orthodox attitude of the Protestant reformers. Even the +mitigating elements which the middle ages had permitted had been +banished by the stern logic of the theologians of the New Religion. +Theophilus had been saved in the end by the intervention of the Blessed +Virgin; Pope Silvester, according to one version of the legend, had +likewise been snatched from the jaws of hell at the last moment. Faust +was irrevocably damned, since the attractions of the _studium +theologicum_ proved insufficient to counteract the fascinations of the +classic Helen. But if he was to become, in the 18th century, the type of +the human intellect face to face with the deep problems of human life, +it was intolerable that his struggles should issue in eternal +reprobation. Error and heresy had ceased to be regarded as crimes; and +stereotyped orthodoxy, to the age of the Encyclopaedists, represented +nothing more than the atrophy of the human intellect. _Es irrt der +Mensch so lang er strebt_, which sums up in one pregnant line the spirit +of Goethe's _Faust_, sums up also the spirit of the age which killed +with ridicule the last efforts of persecuting piety, and saw the birth +of modern science. Lessing, in short, proclaimed that the final end of +Faust must be, not his damnation, but his salvation. This revolutionary +conception is the measure of Goethe's debt to Lessing. The essential +change which Goethe himself introduced into the story is in the nature +of the pact between Faust and Mephistopheles, and in the character of +Mephistopheles himself. The Mephistopheles of Marlowe, as of the old +Faust-books, for all his brave buffoonery, is a melancholy devil, with a +soul above the unsavoury hell in which he is forced to pass a hopeless +existence. "Tell me," says Faust, in the puppet-play, to Mephistopheles, +"what would you do if you could attain to everlasting salvation?" And +the devil answers, "Hear and despair! Were I able to attain everlasting +salvation, I would mount to heaven on a ladder, though every rung were a +razor edge!" Goethe's Mephistopheles would have made no such reply. +There is nothing of the fallen angel about him; he is perfectly content +with his past, his present and his future; and he appears before the +throne of God with the same easy insolence as he exhibits in Dame +Martha's back-garden. He is, in fact, according to his own definition, +the Spirit of Denial, the impersonation of that utter scepticism which +can see no distinction between high and low, between good and bad, and +is therefore without aspiration because it knows no "divine discontent." +And the compact which Faust makes with this spirit is from the first +doomed to be void. Faustus had bartered away his soul for a definite +period of pleasure and power. The conception that underlies the compact +of Faust with Mephistopheles is far more subtle. He had sought happiness +vainly in the higher intellectual and spiritual pursuits; he is content +to seek it on a lower plane since Mephistopheles gives him the chance; +but he is confident that nothing that "such a poor devil" can offer him +could give him that moment of supreme satisfaction for which he craves. +He goes through the traditional mummery of signing the bond with +scornful submission; for he knows that his damnation will not be the +outcome of any formal compact, but will follow inevitably, and only +then, when his soul has grown to be satisfied with what Mephistopheles +can purvey him. + + "Canst thou with lying flattery rule me + Until self-pleased myself I see, + Canst thou with pleasure mock and fool me, + Let that hour be the last for me! + When thus I hail the moment flying: + 'Ah, still delay, thou art so fair!' + Then bind me in thy chains undying, + My final ruin then declare!"[4] + +It is because Mephistopheles fails to give him this self-satisfaction +or to absorb his being in the pleasures he provides, that the compact +comes to nothing. When, at last, Faust cries to the passing moment to +remain, it is because he has forgotten self in enthusiasm for a great +and beneficent work, in a state of mind the very antithesis of all that +Mephistopheles represents. In the old Faust-books, Faust had been given +plenty of opportunity for repentance, but the inducements had been no +higher than the exhibition of a throne in heaven on the one hand and the +tortures of hell on the other. Goethe's _Faust_, for all its Christian +setting, departs widely from this orthodox standpoint. Faust shows no +signs of "repentance"; he simply emerges by the innate force of his +character from a lower into a higher state. The triumph, foretold by +"the Lord" in the opening scene, was inevitable from the first, since, +though + + "'Man errs so long as he is striving, + A good man through obscurest aspiration + Is ever conscious of the one true way.'" + +A man, in short, must be judged not by the sins and follies which may be +but accidents of his career, but by the character which is its essential +outcome. + +This idea, which inspired also the kindred theme of Browning's +_Paracelsus_, is the main development introduced by Goethe into the +Faust legend. The episode of Gretchen, for all its tragic interest, does +not belong to the legend at all; and it is difficult to deny the +pertinency of Charles Lamb's criticism, "What has Margaret to do with +Faust?" Yet in spite of all that may be said of the irrelevancies, and +of the discussions of themes of merely ephemeral interest, with which +Goethe overloaded especially the second part of the poem, his _Faust_ +remains for the modern world the final form of the legend out of which +it grew, the magnificent expression of the broad humanism which, even in +spheres accounted orthodox, has tended to replace the peculiar _studium +theologicum_ which inspired the early Faust-books. + + See Karl Engel, _Zusammenstellung der Faust-Schriften vom 16. + Jahrhundert bis Mitte 1884_--a second edition of the _Bibliotheca + Faustiana_ (1874)--(Oldenburg, 1885), a complete bibliography of all + published matter concerned, even somewhat remotely, with Faust; + Goethe's _Faust_, with introduction and notes by K.J. Schröer (2nd + ed., Heilbronn, 1886); Carl Kiesewetter, _Faust in der Geschichte und + Tradition_ (Leipzig, 1893). The last book, besides being a critical + study of the material for the historical and legendary story of Faust, + aims at estimating the relation of the Faust-legend to the whole + subject of occultism, ancient and modern. It is a mine of information + on necromancy and its kindred subjects, as well as on eminent + theurgists, wizards, crystal-gazers and the like of all ages. + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The opinion, long maintained by some, that he was identical with + Johann Fust, the printer, is now universally rejected. + + [2] Many are given in Kiesewetter's _Faust_, p. 112, &c. + + [3] In the _Literaturbrief_ of Feb. 16, 1759. + + [4] Bayard Taylor's trans. + + + + +FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERIA, the younger, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and +wife of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She is accused by Dio Cassius and +Capitolinus of gross profligacy, and was reputed to have instigated the +revolt of Avidius Cassius against her husband. She died in 175 or 176 +(so Clinton, _Fasti rom._) at Halala, near Mount Taurus, in Cappadocia, +whither she had accompanied Aurelius. Charitable schools for orphan +girls (hence called _Faustinianae_) were founded in her honour, like +those established by her father Antoninus in honour of his wife, the +elder Faustina. Her statue was placed in the temple of Venus, and she +was numbered among the tutelary deities of Rome. From the fact that +Aurelius was always devoted to her and was heartbroken at her death, it +has been inferred that the unfavourable estimate of the historians is +prejudiced or at least mistaken. + + See Capitolinus, _Marcus Aurelius_; Dio Cassius lxxi. 22, lxxiv. 3; E. + Renan, in _Mélanges d'histoire et des voyages_, 169-195. + + + + +FAVARA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 5 m. E. of +Girgenti by road. Pop. (1901) 20,398. It possesses a fine castle of the +Chiaramonte family, erected in 1280. The town has a considerable +agricultural trade, and there are sulphur and other mines in the +neighbourhood. + + + + +FAVART, CHARLES SIMON (1710-1792), French dramatist, was born in Paris +on the 13th of November 1710, the son of a pastry-cook. He was educated +at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and after his father's death carried +on the business for a time. His first success in literature was _La +France délivrée par la Pucelle d'Orléans_, a poem which obtained a prize +of the Académie des Jeux Flor ux. After the production of his first +vaudeville, _Les Deux Jumelles_ (1734), circumstances enabled him to +relinquish business and devote himself entirely to the drama. He +provided many pieces anonymously for the lesser theatres, and first put +his name to _La Chercheuse d'esprit_, which was produced in 1741. Among +his most successful works were _Annette et Lubin, Le Coq du village_ +(1743), _Ninette à la cour_ (1753), _Les Trois Sultanes_ (1761) and +_L'Anglais à Bordeaux_ (1763). Favart became director of the Opéra +Comique, and in 1745 married MARIE JUSTINE BENOÎTE DURONCERAY +(1727-1772), a beautiful young dancer, singer and actress, who as "Mlle +Chantilly" had made a successful début the year before. By their united +talents and labours the Opéra Comique rose to such a height of success +that it aroused the jealousy of the rival Comédie Italienne and was +suppressed. Favart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal +of Maurice de Saxe, and undertook the direction of a troupe of comedians +which was to accompany his army into Flanders. It was part of his duty +to compose from time to time impromptu verses on the events of the +campaign, amusing and stimulating the spirits of the men. So popular +were Favart and his troupe that the enemy became desirous of hearing his +company and sharing his services, and permission was given to gratify +them, battles and comedies thus curiously alternating with each other. +But the marshal, who was an admirer of Mme Favart, began to persecute +her with his attentions. To escape him she went to Paris, and the wrath +of Saxe fell upon the husband. A _lettre de cachet_ was issued against +him, but he fled to Strassburg and found concealment in a cellar. Mme +Favart meanwhile had been established by the marshal in a house at +Vaugirard; but as she proved a fickle mistress she was suddenly arrested +and confined in a convent, where she was brought to unconditional +surrender in the beginning of 1750. Before the year was out the marshal +died, and Mme Favart reappeared at the Comédie Italienne, where for +twenty years she was the favourite actress. To her is largely due the +beginnings of the change in this theatre to performances of a lyric type +adapted from Italian models, which developed later into the genuine +French comic opera. She was also a bold reformer in matters of stage +costume, playing the peasant with bare arms, in wooden shoes and linen +dress, and not, as heretofore, in court costume with enormous hoops, +diamonds and long white kid gloves. With her husband, and other authors, +she collaborated in a number of successful pieces, and one--_La Fille +mal gardée_--she produced alone. + +Favart survived his wife twenty years. After the marshal's death in 1750 +he had returned to Paris, and resumed his pursuits as a dramatist. It +was at this time that the abbé de Voisenon became intimate with him and +took part in his labours, to what extent is uncertain. He had grown +nearly blind in his last days, and died in Paris on the 12th of May +1792. His plays have been several times republished in various editions +and selections (1763-1772, 12 vols.; 1810, 3 vols.; 1813; 1853). His +correspondence (1759-1763) with Count Durazzo, director of theatres at +Vienna, was published in 1808 as _Mémoires et correspondance littéraire, +dramatique et anecdotique de C.S. Favart_. It furnishes valuable +information on the state of the literary and theatrical worlds in the +18th century. + +Favart's second son, CHARLES NICOLAS JOSEPH JUSTIN FAVART (1749-1806), +was an actor of moderate talent at the Comédie Française for fifteen +years. He wrote a number of successful plays:--_Le Diable boiteux_ +(1782), _Le Mariage singulier_ (1787) and, with his father, _La +Vieillesse d'Annette_ (1791). His son Antoine Pierre Charles Favart +(1780-1867) was in the diplomatic service, and assisted in editing his +grandfather's memoirs; he was a playwright and painter as well. + + + + +FAVERSHAM, a market town and river-port, member of the Cinque Port of +Dover, and municipal borough in the Faversham parliamentary division of +Kent, England, on a creek of the Swale, 9 m. W.N.W. of Canterbury on the +South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 11,290. The church of St +Mary of Charity, restored by Sir G.G. Scott in 1874, is of Early English +architecture, and has some remains on one of the columns of frescoes of +the same period, while the 14th-century paintings in the chancel are in +better preservation. Some of the brasses are very fine, and there is one +commemorating King Stephen, as well as a tomb said to be his. He was +buried at the abbey he founded here, of which only a wall and the +foundations below ground remain. At Davington, close to Faversham, there +are remains, incorporated in a residence, of the cloisters and other +parts of a Benedictine priory founded in 1153. Faversham has a free +grammar school founded in 1527 and removed to its present site in 1877. +Faversham Creek is navigable up to the town for vessels of 200 tons. The +shipping trade is considerable, chiefly in coal, timber and agricultural +produce. The oyster fisheries are important, and are managed by a very +ancient gild, the Company of Free Dredgermen of the Hundred and Manor of +Faversham. Brewing, brickmaking and the manufacture of cement are also +carried on, and there are several large powder mills in the vicinity. +The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, +686 acres. + +There was a Romano-British village on the site of Faversham. The town +(Fauresfeld, Faveresham) owed its early importance to its situation as a +port on the Swale, to the fertile country surrounding it, and to the +neighbourhood of Watling Street. In 811 it was called the king's town, +and a witenagemot was held here under Æthelstan. In 1086 it was assessed +as royal demesne, and a market was held here at this date. An abbey was +built by Stephen in 1147, in which he and Matilda were buried. They had +endowed it with the manor and hundred of Faversham; this grant caused +many disputes between the abbot and men of Faversham concerning the +abbot's jurisdiction. Faversham was probably a member of Dover from the +earliest association of the Cinque Ports, certainly as early as Henry +III., who in 1252 granted among other liberties of the Cinque Ports that +the barons of Faversham should plead only in Shepway Court, but ten +years later transferred certain pleas to the abbot's court. In this +reign also the abbot appointed the mayor, but from the reign of Edward +I. he was elected by the freemen and then installed by the abbot. The +corporation was prescriptive, and a hallmote held in 1293 was attended +by a mayor and twelve jurats. All the liberties of the Cinque Ports were +granted to the barons of Faversham by Edward I. in 1302, and confirmed +by Edward III. in 1365, and by later monarchs. The governing charter +till 1835 was that of Henry VIII., granted in 1545 and confirmed by +Edward VI. + + + + +FAVORINUS (2nd century A.D.), Greek sophist and philosopher, flourished +during the reign of Hadrian. A Gaul by birth, he was a native of Arelate +(Arles), but at an early age began his lifelong travels through Greece, +Italy and the East. His extensive knowledge, combined with great +oratorical powers, raised him to eminence both in Athens and in Rome. +With Plutarch, who dedicated to him his treatise [Greek: Peri tou prôtou +psychrou], with Herodes Atticus, to whom he bequeathed his library at +Rome, with Demetrius the Cynic, Cornelius Fronto, Aulus Gellius, and +with Hadrian himself, he lived on intimate terms; his great rival, whom +he violently attacked in his later years, was Polemon of Smyrna. It was +Favorinus who, on being silenced by Hadrian in an argument in which the +sophist might easily have refuted his adversary, subsequently explained +that it was foolish to criticize the logic of the master of thirty +legions. When the servile Athenians, feigning to share the emperor's +displeasure with the sophist, pulled down a statue which they had +erected to him, Favorinus remarked that if only Socrates also had had a +statue at Athens, he might have been spared the hemlock. Of the very +numerous works of Favorinus, we possess only a few fragments (unless the +[Greek: Korinthiakos logos] attributed to his tutor Dio Chrysostom is by +him), preserved by Aulus Gellius, Diogenes Laërtius, Philostratus, and +Suïdas, the second of whom borrows from his [Greek: Pantodapê historia] +(miscellaneous history) and his [Greek: Apomnêmoneumata] (memoirs). As a +philosopher, Favorinus belonged to the sceptical school; his most +important work in this connexion appears to have been [Greek: +Purrhôneioi tropoi] (the Pyrrhonean Tropes) in ten books, in which he +endeavours to show that the methods of Pyrrho were useful to those who +intended to practise in the law courts. + + See Philostratus, _Vitae sophistarum_, i. 8; Suïdas, _s.v._; frags. in + C.W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ iii. 4; monographs by L. Legré + (1900), T. Colardeau (1903). + + + + +FAVRAS, THOMAS DE MAHY, MARQUIS DE (1744-1790), French royalist, was +born on the 26th of March 1744, at Blois. He belonged to a poor family +whose nobility dated from the 12th century. At seventeen he was a +captain of dragoons, and saw some service in the closing campaign of the +Seven Years' War. In 1772 he became first lieutenant of the Swiss guards +of the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.). Unable to meet the +expenses of his rank, which was equivalent to the grade of colonel in +the army, he retired in 1775. He married in 1776 Victoria Hedwig +Caroline, princess of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg, whose mother, deserted +by her husband Prince Carl Ludwig in 1749, had found refuge with her +daughter in the house of Marshal Soubise. After his marriage he went to +Vienna to press the restitution of his wife's rights, and spent some +time in Warsaw. In 1787 he was authorized to raise a patriotic legion to +help the Dutch against the stadtholder William IV. and his Prussian +allies. Returning to Paris at the outbreak of the Revolution, he became +implicated in schemes for the escape of Louis XVI. from Paris and the +dominance of the National Assembly. He was commissioned by the count of +Provence through one of his gentlemen, the comte de la Châtre, to +negotiate a loan of two million francs from the bankers Schaumel and +Sartorius. Favras took into his confidence certain officers by whom he +was betrayed; and, with his wife, he was arrested on Christmas Eve 1789 +and imprisoned in the Abbaye. A fortnight later they were separated, +Favras being removed to the Châtelet. It was stated in a leaflet +circulated throughout Paris that Favras had organized a plot of which +the count of Provence was the moving spirit. A force of 30,000 was to be +raised, La Fayette and Bailly, the mayor of Paris, were to be +assassinated, and Paris was to be starved into submission by cutting off +supplies. The count hastened publicly to disavow Favras in a speech +delivered before the commune of Paris and in a letter to the National +Assembly, although there is no reasonable doubt of his complicity in the +plot that did exist. In the course of a trial of nearly two months' +duration the witnesses disagreed, and even the editor of the +_Révolutions de Paris_ (No. 30) admitted that the evidence was +insufficient but an armed attempt of the Royalists on the Châtelet on +the 26th of January, which was defeated by La Fayette, roused the +suspicious temper of the Parisians to fury, and on the 18th of February +1790, in spite of the courageous defence of his counsel, Favras was +condemned to be hanged. He refused to give any information of the +alleged plot, and the sentence was carried out on the Place de Grève the +next day, to the delight of the populace, since it was the first +instance when no distinction in the mode of execution was allowed +between noble and commoner. Favras was generally regarded as a martyr to +his refusal to implicate the count of Provence, and Madame de Favras was +pensioned by Louis XVI. She left France, and her son Charles de Favras +served in the Austrian and the Russian armies. He received an allowance +from Louis XVIII. Her daughter Caroline married Rüdiger, Freiherr von +Stillfried Ratènic, in 1805. + +The official _dossier_ of Favras's trial for high treason against the +nation disappeared from the Châtelet, but its substance is preserved in +the papers of a clerk. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For particulars see A. Tuetey, _Répertoire général des + sources manuscrites de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution + Française_ (vol. i., 1890, pp. 175-177); M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de + l'histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution Française_ (vol. i. pp. + 196-198, 1890). His brother, M. Mahy de Cormère, published a _Mémoire + justificatif_ in 1790 and a _Justification_ in 1791. See also a memoir + by Eduard, Freiherr v. Stillfried Ratènic (Vienna, 1881), and an + article by Alexis de Valon in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (15th June + 1851). + + + + +FAVRE, JEAN ALPHONSE (1815-1890), Swiss geologist, was born at Geneva on +the 31st of March 1815. He was for many years professor of geology in +the academy at Geneva, and afterwards president of the Federal +Commission with charge of the geological map of Switzerland. One of his +earliest papers was _On the Anthracites of the Alps_ (1841), and later +he gave special attention to the geology of Savoy and of Mont Blanc, and +to the ancient glacial phenomena of those Alpine regions. His +elucidation of the geological structure demonstrated that certain +anomalous occurrences of fossils were due to repeated interfoldings of +the strata and to complicated overthrust faults. In 1867 he published +_Recherches géologiques dans les parties de la Savoie, du Piémont et de +la Suisse voisines du Mont Blanc_. He died at Geneva in June 1890. + +His son ERNEST FAVRE (b. 1845) has written on the palaeontology and +geology of Galicia, Savoy and the Fribourg Alps, and of the Caucasus and +Crimea. + + + + +FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL (1809-1880), French statesman, was born at +Lyons on the 21st of March 1809, and began his career as an advocate. +From the time of the revolution of 1830 he openly declared himself a +republican, and in political trials he seized the opportunity to express +his opinions. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected deputy for +Lyons to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat among the moderate +republicans, voting against the socialists. When Louis Napoleon was +elected President of France, Favre made himself conspicuous by his +opposition, and on the 2nd of December 1851 he tried with Victor Hugo +and others to organize an armed resistance in the streets of Paris. +After the _coup d'état_ he withdrew from politics, resumed his +profession, and distinguished himself by his defence of Felice Orsini, +the perpetrator of the attack against the life of Napoleon III. In 1858 +he was elected deputy for Paris, and was one of the "Five" who gave the +signal for the republican opposition to the Empire. In 1863 he became +the head of his party, and delivered a number of addresses denouncing +the Mexican expedition and the occupation of Rome. These addresses, +eloquent, clear and incisive, won him a seat in the French Academy in +1867. With Thiers he opposed the declaration of war against Prussia in +1870, and at the news of the defeat of Napoleon III. at Sedan he +demanded from the Legislative Assembly the deposition of the emperor. In +the government of National Defence he became vice-president under +General Trochu, and minister of foreign affairs, with the onerous task +of negotiating peace with victorious Germany. He proved to be less +adroit as a diplomat than he had been as an orator, and committed +several irreparable blunders. His famous statement on the 6th of +September 1870 that he "would not yield to Germany an inch of territory +nor a single stone of the fortresses" was a piece of oratory which +Bismarck met on the 19th by his declaration to Favre that the cession of +Alsace and of Lorraine was the indispensable condition of peace. He also +made the mistake of not having an assembly elected which would have more +regular powers than the government of National Defence, and of opposing +the removal of the government from Paris during the siege. In the peace +negotiations he allowed Bismarck to get the better of him, and arranged +for the armistice of the 28th of June 1871 without knowing the situation +of the armies, and without consulting the government at Bordeaux. By a +grave oversight he neglected to inform Gambetta that the army of the +East (80,000 men) was not included in the armistice, and it was thus +obliged to retreat to neutral territory. He gave no proof whatever of +diplomatic skill in the negotiations for the treaty of Frankfort, and it +was Bismarck who imposed all the conditions. He withdrew from the +ministry, discredited, on the 2nd of August 1871, but remained in the +chamber of deputies. Elected senator on the 30th of January 1876, he +continued to support the government of the republic against the +reactionary opposition, until his death on the 20th of January 1880. + +His work include many speeches and addresses, notably _La Liberté de la +Presse_ (1849), _Défense de F. Orsini_ (1866), _Discours de réception à +l'Académie française_ (1868), _Discours sur la liberté intérieure_ +(1869). In _Le Gouvernement de la Défense Nationale_, 3 vols., +1871-1875, he explained his rôle in 1870-1871. After his death his +family published his speeches in 8 volumes. + + See G. Hanotaux, _Histoire de la France contemporaine_ (1903, &c.); + also E. Benoît-Lévy, _Jules Favre_ (1884). + + + + +FAVUS (Lat. for honeycomb), a disease of the scalp, but occurring +occasionally on any part of the skin, and even at times on mucous +membranes. The uncomplicated appearance is that of a number of +yellowish, circular, cup-shaped crusts (scutula) grouped in patches like +a piece of honeycomb, each about the size of a split pea, with a hair +projecting in the centre. These increase in size and become crusted +over, so that the characteristic lesion can only be seen round the edge +of the scab. Growth continues to take place for several months, when +scab and scutulum come away, leaving a shining bare patch destitute of +hair. The disease is essentially chronic, lasting from ten to twenty +years. It is caused by the growth of a fungus, and pathologically is the +reaction of the tissues to the growth. It was the first disease in which +a fungus was discovered--by J.L. Schönlein in 1839; the discovery was +published in a brief note of twenty lines in _Müllers Archiv_ for that +year (p. 82), the fungus having been subsequently named by R. Remak +_Achorion Schönleinii_ after its discoverer. The achorion consists of +slender, mycelial threads matted together, bearing oval, nucleated +gonidia either free or jointed. The spores would appear to enter through +the unbroken cutaneous surface, and to germinate mostly in and around +the hair-follicle and sometimes in the shaft of the hair. In 1892 two +other species of the fungus were described by P.G. Unna and Frank, the +_Favus griseus_, giving rise to greyish-yellow scutula, and the _Favus +sulphureus celerior_, causing sulphur-yellow scutula of a rapid growth. +Favus is commonest among the poorer Jews of Russia, Poland, Hungary, +Galicia and the East, and among the same class of Mahommedans in Turkey, +Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Egypt, Algiers, &c. It is not rare in the +southern departments of France, in some parts of Italy, and in Scotland. +It is spread by contagion, usually from cats, often, however, from mice, +fowls or dogs. Lack of personal cleanliness is an almost necessary +factor in its development, but any one in delicate health, especially if +suffering from phthisis, seems especially liable to contract it. Before +treatment can be begun the scabs must be removed by means of carbolized +oil, and the head thoroughly cleansed with soft soap. The cure is then +brought about by the judicious use of parasiticides. If the nails are +affected, avulsion will probably be needed before the disease can be +reached. + + + + +FAWCETT, HENRY (1833-1884), English politician and economist, was born +at Salisbury on the 25th of August 1833. His father, William Fawcett, a +native of Kirkby Lonsdale, in Westmorland, started life as a draper's +assistant at Salisbury, opened a draper's shop on his own account in the +market-place there in 1825, married a solicitor's daughter of the city, +became a prominent local man, took a farm, developed his north-country +sporting instincts, and displayed his shrewdness by successful +speculations in Cornish mining. His second son, Henry, inherited a full +measure of his shrewdness, along with his masculine energy, his +straightforwardness, his perseverance and his fondness for fishing. The +father was active in electioneering matters, and his wife was an ardent +reformer. Henry Fawcett was educated locally and at King's College +school, London, and proceeded to Peterhouse, Cambridge, in October 1852, +migrating in 1853 to Trinity Hall. He was seventh wrangler in 1856, and +was elected to a fellowship at his college. + +He had already attained some prominence as an orator at the Cambridge +Union. Before he left school he had formed the ambition of entering +parliament, and, being a poor man, he resolved to approach the House of +Commons through a career at the bar. He had already entered Lincoln's +Inn. His prospects, however, were shattered by a calamity which befell +him in September 1858, when two stray pellets from his father's +fowling-piece passed through the glasses he was wearing and blinded him +for life. Within ten minutes after his accident he had made up his mind +"to stick to his old pursuits as much as possible." He kept up all +recreations contributing to the enjoyment of life; he fished, rowed, +skated, took abundant walking and horse exercise, and learnt to play +cards with marked packs. Soon after his accident he established his +headquarters at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, entered cordially into the +social life of the college, and came to be regarded by many as a typical +Cambridge man. He gave up mathematics (for which he had little +aptitude), and specialized in political economy. He paid comparatively +little attention to economic history, but he was in the main a devout +believer in economic theory, as represented by Ricardo and his school. +The later philosophy of the subject he believed to be summed up in one +book, Mill's _Principles of Political Economy_, which he regarded as the +indispensable "vade mecum" of every politician. He was not a great +reader, and Mill probably never had a serious rival in his regard, +though he was much impressed by Buckle's _History of Civilization_ and +Darwin's _Origin of Species_ when they severally appeared. He made a +great impression in 1859 with a paper at the British Association, and he +soon became a familiar figure there and at various lecture halls in the +north as an exponent of orthodox economic theory. Of the sincerity of +his faith he gave the strongest evidence by his desire at all times to +give a practical application to his views and submit them to the test of +experiment. Among Mill's disciples he was, no doubt, far inferior as an +economic thinker to Cairnes, but as a popularizer of the system and a +demonstrator of its principles by concrete examples he had no rival. His +power of exposition was illustrated in his _Manual of Political Economy_ +(1863), of which in twenty years as many as 20,000 copies were sold. +Alexander Macmillan had suggested the book, and it appeared just in time +to serve as a credential, when, in the autumn of 1863, Fawcett stood and +was elected for the Chair of Political Economy at Cambridge. The +appointment attached him permanently to Cambridge, gave him an income, +and showed that he was competent to discharge duties from which a blind +man is often considered to be debarred. He was already a member of the +Political Economy Club, and was becoming well known in political circles +as an advanced Radical. In January 1863, after a spirited though +abortive attempt in Southwark, he was only narrowly beaten for the +borough of Cambridge. Early in 1864 he was adopted as one of the Liberal +candidates at Brighton, and at the general election of 1865 he was +elected by a large majority. Shortly after his election he became +engaged to Millicent, daughter of Mr Newson Garrett of Aldeburgh, +Suffolk, and in 1867 he was married. Mrs Fawcett (b. 1847) became well +known for her social and literary work, and especially as an advocate, +in the press and on the platform, of women's suffrage and the higher +education and independent employment of women. And after her husband's +death, as well as during his lifetime, she was a prominent leader in +these movements. + +Fawcett entered parliament just in time to see the close of Palmerston's +career and to hail the adoption by Gladstone of a programme of reform to +which most of the _laissez-faire_ economists gave assent. He was soon +known as a forcible speaker, and quickly overcame the imputation that he +was academic and doctrinaire, though it is true that a certain monotony +in delivery often gave a slightly too didactic tone to his discourses. +But it was as the uncompromising critic of the political shifts and +expedients of his leaders that he attracted most attention. He +constantly insisted upon the right of exercising private judgment, and +he especially devoted himself to the defence of causes which, as he +thought, were neglected both by his official leaders and by his Radical +comrades. Re-elected for Brighton to the parliament of 1868-1874, he +greatly hampered the government by his persistence in urging the +abolition of clerical fellowships and the payment of election expenses +out of the rates, and by opposing the "permissive compulsion" clauses of +the Elementary Education Bill, and the exclusion of agricultural +children from the scope of the act. His hatred of weak concessions made +him the terror of parliamentary wirepullers, and in 1871 he was not +undeservedly spoken of in _The Times_ as the most "thorough Radical now +in the House." His liberal ideals were further shocked by the methods by +which Gladstone achieved the abolition of Army Purchase. His disgust at +the supineness of the cabinet in dealing with the problems of Indian +finance and the growing evil of Commons Enclosures were added to the +catalogue of grievances which Fawcett drew up in a powerful article, "On +the Present Position of the Government," in the _Fortnightly Review_ for +November 1871. In 1867 he had opposed the expenses of a ball given to +the sultan at the India office being charged upon the Indian budget. In +1870 he similarly opposed the taxation of the Indian revenue with the +cost of presents distributed by the duke of Edinburgh in India. In 1871 +he went alone into the lobby to vote against the dowry granted to the +princess Louise. The soundness of his principles was not impeached, but +his leaders looked askance at him, and from 1871 he was severely shunned +by the government whips. Their suspicion was justified when in 1873 +Fawcett took a leading share in opposing Gladstone's scheme for +university education in Ireland as too denominational, and so +contributed largely to a conclusive defeat of the Gladstone ministry. + +From 1869 to 1880 Fawcett concentrated his energies upon two important +subjects which had not hitherto been deemed worthy of serious +parliamentary attention. The first of these was the preservation of +commons, especially those near large towns; and the second was the +responsibility of the British government for the amendment of Indian +finance. In both cases the success which he obtained exhibited the +sterling sense and shrewdness which made up such a great part of +Fawcett's character. In the first case Fawcett's great triumph was the +enforcement of the general principle that each annual Enclosure Act must +be scrutinized by parliament and judged in the light of its conformity +to the interests of the community at large. Probably no one did more +than he did to prevent the disafforestation of Epping Forest and of the +New Forest. From 1869 he regularly attended the meetings of the Commons +Preservation Society, and he remained to the end one of its staunchest +supporters. His intervention in the matter of Indian finance, which +gained him the sobriquet of the "member for India," led to no definite +legislative achievements, but it called forth the best energies of his +mind and helped to rouse an apathetic and ignorant public to its duties +and responsibilities. Fawcett was defeated at Brighton in February 1874. +Two months later, however, he was elected for Hackney, and retained the +seat during his life. He was promptly replaced on the Indian Finance +Committee, and continued his searching inquiries with a view to promote +a stricter economy in the Indian budget, and a more effective +responsibility in the management of Indian accounts. + +As an opponent of the Disraeli government (1874-1880) Fawcett came more +into line with the Liberal leaders. In foreign politics he gave a +general adhesion to Gladstone's views, but he continued to devote much +attention to Indian matters, and it was during this period that he +produced two of his best publications. His _Free Trade and Protection_ +(1878) illustrated his continued loyalty to Cobdenite ideas. At the same +time his admiration for Palmerston and his repugnance to schemes of Home +Rule show that he was not by any means a peace-at-any-price man. He +thought that the Cobdenites had deserved well of their country, but he +always maintained that their foreign politics were biased to excess by +purely commercial considerations. As befitted a writer whose linguistic +gifts were of the slenderest, Fawcett's English was a sound homespun, +clear and unpretentious. In a vigorous employment of the vernacular he +approached Cobbett, whose writing he justly admired. The second +publication was his _Indian Finance_ (1880), three essays reprinted from +the _Nineteenth Century_, with an introduction and appendix. When the +Liberal party returned to power in 1880 Gladstone offered Fawcett a +place in the new government as postmaster-general (without a seat in the +cabinet). On Egyptian and other questions of foreign policy Fawcett was +often far from being in full harmony with his leaders, but his position +in the government naturally enforced reserve. He was, moreover, fully +absorbed by his new administrative functions. He gained the sympathy of +a class which he had hitherto done little to conciliate, that of public +officials, and he showed himself a most capable head of a public +department. To his readiness in adopting suggestions, and his +determination to push business through instead of allowing it to remain +permanently in the stage of preparation and circumlocution, the public +is mainly indebted for five substantial postal reforms:--(1) The parcels +post, (2) postal orders, (3) sixpenny telegrams, (4) the banking of +small savings by means of stamps, (5) increased facilities for life +insurance and annuities. In connexion with these last two improvements +Fawcett, in 1880, with the assistance of Mr James Cardin, took great +pains in drawing up a small pamphlet called _Aids to Thrift_, of which +over a million copies were circulated gratis. A very useful minor +innovation of his provided for the announcement on every pillar-box of +the time of the "next collection." In the post office, as elsewhere, he +was a strong advocate of the employment of women. Proportional +representation and the extension of franchise to women were both +political doctrines which he adopted very early in his career, and never +abandoned. Honours were showered upon him during his later years. He was +made an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, a fellow of the Royal Society, and +was in 1883 elected lord rector of Glasgow University. But the stress of +departmental work soon began to tell upon his health. In the autumn of +1882 he had a sharp attack of diphtheria complicated by typhoid, from +which he never properly recovered. He resumed his activities, but on the +6th of November 1884 he succumbed at Cambridge to an attack of +congestion of the lungs. He was buried in Trumpington churchyard, near +Cambridge, and to his memory were erected a monument in Westminster +Abbey, a statue in Salisbury market-place, and a drinking fountain on +the Thames embankment. + +In economic matters Fawcett's position can best be described as +transitional. He believed in co-operation almost as a panacea. In other +matters he clung to the old _laissez-faire_ theorists, and was a strong +anti-socialist, with serious doubts about free education, though he +supported the Factory Acts and wished their extension to agriculture. +Apparent inconsistencies were harmonized to a great extent by his +dominating anxiety to increase the well-being of the poor. One of his +noblest traits was his kindliness and genuine affection for the humble +and oppressed, country labourers and the like, for whom his sympathies +seemed always on the increase. Another was his disposition to interest +himself in and to befriend younger men. In the great affliction of his +youth Fawcett bore himself with a fortitude which it would be difficult +to parallel. The effect of his blindness was, as the event proved, the +reverse of calamitous. It brought the great aim and purpose of his life +to maturity at an earlier date than would otherwise have been possible, +and it had a mellowing influence upon his character of an exceptional +and beneficent kind. As a youth he was rough and canny, with a suspicion +of harshness. The kindness evoked by his misfortune, a strongly +reciprocated family affection, a growing capacity for making and keeping +friends--these and other causes tended to ripen all that was best, and +apparently that only, in a strong but somewhat stern character. His +acerbity passed away, and in later life was reserved exclusively for +official witnesses before parliamentary committees. Frank, helpful, +conscientious to a fault, a shrewd gossip, and a staunch friend, he was +a man whom no one could help liking. Several of his letters to his +father and mother at different periods of his career are preserved in +Leslie Stephen's admirable _Life_ (1885), and show a goodness of heart, +together with a homely simplicity of nature, which is most touching. In +appearance Fawcett was gaunt and tall, over 6 ft. 3 in. in height, large +of bone, and massive in limb. (T. Se.) + + + + +FAWCETT, JOHN (1768-1837), English actor and playwright, was born on the +29th of August 1768, the son of an actor of the same name (d. 1793). At +the age of eighteen he ran away from school and appeared at Margate as +Courtall in _The Belle's Stratagem_; afterwards he joined Tate +Wilkinson's company and turned from tragedy to low comedy parts. In 1791 +he appeared at Covent Garden, and in 1794 at the Haymarket. Colman, then +manager of that house, wrote a number of parts designed to suit his +talents, and two of Fawcett's greatest successes were as Dr. Pangloss in +_The Heir at Law_ (1797) and as Dr Ollapod in _The Poor Gentleman_ +(1798). He retired from the stage in 1830. + + + + +FAWKES, FRANCIS (1720-1777), English poet and divine, was born at +Warmsworth, near Doncaster, Yorkshire, where his father was rector, and +was baptized on the 4th of April 1720. After studying at Jesus College, +Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. in 1745, he took holy orders, and was +successively curate of Bramham, curate of Croydon, vicar of Orpington, +and rector of Hayes, and finally was made one of the chaplains to the +princess of Wales. His first publication is said to have been _Bramham +Park, a Poem_, in 1745; a volume of poems and translations appeared in +1761; and _Partridge Shooting_, an eclogue, in 1764. His translations of +the minor Greek poets--Anacreon, Sappho, Bion and Moschus, Musaeus, +Theocritus and Apollonius--acquired for him considerable fame, but they +are less likely to be remembered than his fine song, "Dear Tom, this +brown jug, that now foams with mild ale." Fawkes died on the 26th of +August 1777. + + + + +FAWKES, GUY (1570-1606), English "gunpowder plot" conspirator, son of +Edward Fawkes of York, a member of a good Yorkshire family and advocate +of the archbishop of York's consistory court, was baptized at St Michael +le Belfrey at York on the 16th of April 1570. His parents were +Protestants, and he was educated at the free school at York, where, it +is said, John and Christopher Wright and the Jesuit Tesimond _alias_ +Greenway, afterwards implicated in the conspiracy, were his +schoolfellows. On his father's death in 1579 he inherited his property. +Soon afterwards his mother married, as her second husband, Dionis +Baynbrigge of Scotton in Yorkshire, to which place the family removed. +Fawkes's stepfather was connected with many Roman Catholic families, and +was probably a Roman Catholic himself, and Fawkes himself became a +zealous adherent of the old faith. Soon after he had come of age he +disposed of his property, and in 1593 went to Flanders and enlisted in +the Spanish army, assisting at the capture of Calais by the Spanish in +1596 and gaining some military reputation. According to Father Greenway +he was "a man of great piety, of exemplary temperance, of mild and +cheerful demeanour, an enemy of broils and disputes, a faithful friend +and remarkable for his punctual attendance upon religious observances," +while his society was "sought by all the most distinguished in the +archduke's camp for nobility and virtue." He is described as "tall, with +brown hair and auburn beard." + +In 1604 Thomas Winter, at the instance of Catesby, in whose mind the +gunpowder plot had now taken definite shape, introduced himself to +Fawkes in Flanders, and as "a confident gentleman," "best able for this +business," brought him on to England as assistant in the conspiracy. +Shortly afterwards he was initiated into the plot, after taking an oath +of secrecy, meeting Catesby, Thomas Winter, Thomas Percy and John Wright +at a house behind St Clement's (see GUNPOWDER PLOT and CATESBY, ROBERT). +Owing to the fact of his being unknown in London, to his exceptional +courage and coolness, and probably to his experience in the wars and at +sieges, the actual accomplishment of the design was entrusted to Fawkes, +and when the house adjoining the parliament house was hired in Percy's +name, he took charge of it as Percy's servant, under the name of Johnson +He acted as sentinel while the others worked at the mine in December +1604, probably directing their operations, and on the discovery of the +adjoining cellar, situated immediately beneath the House of Lords, he +arranged in it the barrels of gunpowder, which he covered over with +firewood and coals and with iron bars to increase the force of the +explosion. When all was ready in May 1605 Fawkes was despatched to +Flanders to acquaint Sir William Stanley, the betrayer of Deventer, and +the intriguer Owen with the plot. He returned in August and brought +fresh gunpowder into the cellars to replace any which might be spoilt by +damp. A slow match was prepared which would give him a quarter of an +hour in which to escape from the explosion. On Saturday, the 26th of +October, Lord Monteagle (q.v.) received the mysterious letter which +revealed the conspiracy and of which the conspirators received +information the following day. They, nevertheless, after some +hesitation, hoping that the government would despise the warning, +determined to proceed with their plans, and were encouraged in their +resolution by Fawkes, who visited the cellar on the 30th and reported +that nothing had been moved or touched. He returned accordingly to his +lonely and perilous vigil on the 4th of November. On that day the earl +of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, visited the vault, accompanied by +Monteagle, remarked the quantity of faggots, and asked Fawkes, now +described as "a very tall and desperate fellow," who it was that rented +the cellar. Percy's name, which Fawkes gave, aroused fresh suspicions +and they retired to inform the king. At about ten o' clock Robert Keyes +brought Fawkes from Percy a watch, that he might know how the anxious +hours were passing, and very shortly afterwards he was arrested, and the +gunpowder discovered, by Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate. +Fawkes was brought into the king's bedchamber, where the ministers had +hastily assembled, at one o'clock. He maintained an attitude of defiance +and of "Roman resolution," smiled scornfully at his questioners, making +no secret of his intentions, replied to the king, who asked why he would +kill him, that the pope had excommunicated him, that "dangerous diseases +require a desperate remedy," adding fiercely to the Scottish courtiers +who surrounded him that "one of his objects was to blow back the Scots +into Scotland." His only regret was the failure of the scheme. "He +carrieth himself," writes Salisbury to Sir Charles Cornwallis, +ambassador at Madrid, "without any feare or perturbation ...; under all +this action he is noe more dismayed, nay scarce any more troubled than +if he was taken for a poor robbery upon the highway," declaring "that he +is ready to die, and rather wisheth 10,000 deaths, than willingly to +accuse his master or any other." He refused stubbornly on the following +days to give information concerning his accomplices; on the 8th he gave +a narrative of the plot, but it was not till the 9th, when the fugitive +conspirators had been taken at Holbeche, that torture could wring from +him their names. His imperfect signature to his confession of this date, +consisting only of his Christian name and written in a faint and +trembling hand, is probably a ghastly testimony to the severity of the +torture ("_per gradus ad ima_") which James had ordered to be applied if +he would not otherwise confess and the "gentler tortures" were +unavailing,--a horrible practice unrecognized by the law of England, but +usually employed and justified at this time in cases of treason to +obtain information. He was tried, together with the two Winters, John +Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, Robert Keyes and Thomas Bates, before a special +commission in Westminster Hall on the 27th of January 1606. In this case +there could be no defence and he was found guilty. He suffered death in +company with Thomas Winter, Rokewood and Keyes on the 31st, being drawn +on a hurdle from the Tower to the Parliament House, opposite which he +was executed. He made a short speech on the scaffold, expressing his +repentance, and mounted the ladder last and with assistance, being weak +from torture and illness. The usual barbarities practised upon him after +he had been cut down from the gallows were inflicted on a body from +which all life had already fled. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hist. of England_, by S.R. Gardiner, vol. i.; and the + same author's _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897); _What was the + Gunpowder Plot?_ by J. Gerard (1897); _The Gunpowder Plot_, by D. + Jardine (1857); _Calendar of State Pap. Dom. 1603-1610; State Trials_, + vol. ii.; _Archaeologia_, xii. 200; R. Winwood's _Memorials; Notes and + Queries_, vi. ser. vii. 233, viii. 136; _The Fawkeses of York in the + 16th Century_, by R. Davies (1850); _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and + authorities cited there. The official account (untrustworthy in + details) is the _True and Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings + against the late most Barbarous Traitors_ (1606), reprinted by Bishop + Barlow of Lincoln as _The Gunpowder Treason_ (1679). See also + GUNPOWDER PLOT. + + The lantern said to be Guy Fawkes's is in the Bodleian library at + Oxford. (P. C. Y.) + + + + +FÁY, ANDRÁS (1786-1864), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the 30th +of May 1786, at Kohány in the county of Zemplin, and was educated for +the law at the Protestant college of Sárospatak. His _Mesék_ (_Fables_), +the first edition of which appeared at Vienna in 1820, evinced his +powers of satire and invention, and won him the well-merited applause of +his countrymen. These fables, which, on account of their originality and +simplicity, caused Fáy to be regarded as the Hungarian Aesop, were +translated into German by Petz (Raab, 1825), and partly into English by +E.D. Butler, _Hungarian Poems and Fables_ (London, 1877). Fáy wrote also +numerous poems, the chief of which are to be found in the collections +_Bokréta_ (_Nosegay_) (Pest, 1807), and _Fris Bokréta_ (_Fresh Nosegay_) +(Pest, 1818). He also composed plays and romances and tales. In 1835 Fáy +was elected to the Hungarian diet, and was for a time the leader of the +opposition party. It is to him that the Pest Savings Bank owes its +origin, and he was one of the chief founders of the Hungarian National +theatre. He died on the 26th of July 1864. His earlier works were +collected at Pest (1843-1844, 8 vols.). The most noteworthy of his later +works is a humorous novel entitled _Jávor orvos és Bakator Ambrus +szolgáia_ (_Jávor the Doctor and his servant Ambrose Bakator_), (Pest +1855, 2 vols.). + + + + +FAYAL (_Faial_), a Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part +of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 22,262; area, 63 sq. m. Fayal, +i.e. "the beech wood," was so called from the former abundance of the +_Myrica faya_, which its discoverers mistook for beech trees. It is one +of the most frequented of the Azores, for it lies directly in the track +of vessels crossing the Atlantic, and has an excellent harbour at Horta +(q.v.), a town of 6574 inhabitants. Cedros (3278) and Féteira (2002) are +the other chief towns. The so-called "Fayal wine," which was largely +exported from the Azores in the 19th century, was really the produce of +Pico, a larger island lying to the east. The women of Fayal manufacture +fine lace from the agave thread. They also execute carvings in +snow-white fig-tree pith, and carry on the finer kinds of basket-making. +A small valley, called Flemengos, perpetuates the name of the Flemish +settlers, who have left their mark on the physical appearance of the +inhabitants. (See AZORES.) + + + + +FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Arkansas, +U.S.A., about 150 m. N.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1890) 2942; (1900) 4061; +(1910) 4471. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco railway. The +city lies about 1400 ft. above the sea, in the Ozark Mountain region. +There is much fine scenery in the neighbourhood, there are mineral +springs near by, and the place has become known as a summer resort. +Fayetteville is the seat of the University of Arkansas (incorporated +1871; opened 1872; co-educational), which includes the following +departments: at Fayetteville, a college of liberal arts, science and +engineering, a conservatory of music and art, a preparatory school, and +an agricultural college and agricultural experiment station; at Little +Rock, a medical school and a law school, and at Pine Bluff, the Branch +Normal College for negroes. In 1908 the university had 122 instructors +and a total enrolment of 1725 students. In Fayetteville there are a +National cemetery with 1236 soldiers' graves (782 "unknown") and a +Confederate cemetery with 725 graves and a memorial monument. In the +vicinity of Fayetteville there are deposits of coal; and the city is in +a fine fruit-growing region, apples being the principal crop. Much of +the surrounding country is still covered with timber. Among manufactures +are lumber, spokes, handles, waggons, lime, evaporated fruit and flour. + +The first settlement on the site of what is now Fayetteville was made +between 1820 and 1825; when Washington county was created in 1828 the +place became the county-seat, and it was called Washington Court-house +until 1829, when it received its present name. The citizens of +Fayetteville were mainly Confederate sympathizers; Fayetteville was +raided by Federal cavalry on the 14th of July 1862, and was permanently +occupied by Federal troops in the autumn of the same year. Confederate +cavalry under Brigadier-General William Lewis Cabell attacked the city +on the 18th of April 1863, but were driven off. The town was burned in +August 1863, and shelled on the 3rd of November 1864, after the battle +of Pea Ridge, by a detachment of General Price's army. Fayetteville was +incorporated as a town in 1841, and in 1859 received a city charter, +which was abolished by act of the Legislature in 1867; under a general +law of 1869 the town was re-incorporated; and in 1906 it became a city +of the first class. + + + + +FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cumberland county, North +Carolina, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Cape Fear river (at the head of +steamboat navigation), about 80 m. N.W. of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 4222; +(1900) 4670, including 2221 negroes; (1910) 7045. It is served by the +Atlantic Coast Line railway and the short Raleigh & Southport railway, +and by steamboat lines to Wilmington. A scheme was set on foot for the +improvement by canalization of the Cape Fear river above Wilmington +under a Federal project of 1902, which provided for a channel 8 ft. deep +at low water from Wilmington to Fayetteville. Below Wilmington the +improvement of the river channel, 270 ft. wide and 16 ft. deep, was +completed in 1889, and the project of 1889 provided for an increase in +depth to 20 ft. Pine forests surround the town, and oaks and elms of +more than a century's growth shade its streets. Fayetteville has two +hospitals (each with a training school for nurses), and is the seat of a +state coloured normal school and of the Donaldson military school. +Several creeks and the upper Cape Fear river furnish considerable +water-power, and in or near Fayetteville are manufactories of cotton +goods, silk, lumber, wooden-ware, turpentine, carriages, wagons, +ploughs, edge tools and flour. In the earlier half of the 19th century +Fayetteville was a great inland market for the western part of the +state, for eastern Tennessee and for south-western Virginia. There is a +large vineyard in the vicinity; truck-gardening is an important industry +in the surrounding country; and Fayetteville is a shipping centre for +small fruits and vegetables, especially lettuce, melons and berries. The +municipality owns its water-works and its electric-lighting plant. The +vicinity was settled between 1729 and 1747 by Highlanders, the +settlement called Cross Creek lying within the present limits of +Fayetteville. In 1762, by an act of the assembly, a town was laid out +including Cross Creek, and was named Campbelltown (or "Campbeltown"); +but in 1784, when Lafayette visited the town, its name was changed in +his honour to Fayetteville, though the name Cross Creek continued to be +used locally for many years. Flora McDonald, the famous Scottish +heroine, came to Campbelltown in April 1775 with her husband and +children, and here she seems to have lived during the remainder of that +year. The general assembly of the state met at Fayetteville in 1787, +1788 and 1789 (Newbern, Tarboro, Hillsboro and Fayetteville all being +rivals at this time for the honour of becoming the permanent capital); +and in 1789 the Federal constitution was here ratified for North +Carolina. In 1831 most of the town was burned. At the outbreak of the +Civil War, the state authorities seized the United States Arsenal at +Fayetteville, which contained 37,000 muskets and a complete equipment +for a battery of light artillery. In March 1865 General W.T. Sherman and +his army took possession of the town, destroyed the arsenal, and did +considerable damage to property. Fayetteville was chartered as a city in +1893. A serious flood occurred in August 1908. + + + + +FAYRER, SIR JOSEPH, Bart. (1824-1907), English physician, was born at +Plymouth on the 6th of December 1824. After studying medicine at Charing +Cross hospital, London, he was in 1847 appointed medical officer of +H.M.S. "Victory," and soon afterwards accompanied the 3rd Lord +Mount-Edgcumbe on a tour through Europe, in the course of which he saw +fighting at Palmero and Rome. Appointed an assistant surgeon in Bengal +in 1850, he went through the Burmese campaign of 1852 and was political +assistant and Residency surgeon at Lucknow during the Mutiny. From 1859 +to 1872 he was professor of surgery at the Medical College of Calcutta, +and when the prince of Wales made his tour in India he was appointed to +accompany him as physician. Returning from India, he acted as president +of the Medical Board of the India office from 1874 to 1895, and in 1896 +he was created a baronet. Sir Joseph Fayrer, who became a fellow of the +Royal Society in 1877, wrote much on subjects connected with the +practice of medicine in India, and was especially known for his studies +on the poisonous snakes of that country and on the physiological effects +produced by their virus (_Thanatophidia of India_, 1872). In 1900 +appeared his _Recollections of my Life_. He died at Falmouth on the 21st +of May 1907. + + + + +FAYUM, a mudiria (province) of Upper Egypt, having an area of 490 sq. m. +and a population (1907) of 441,583. The capital, Medinet-el-Fayum, is 81 +m. S.S.W. of Cairo by rail. The Fayum proper is an oasis in the Libyan +Desert, its eastern border being about 15 m. west of the Nile. It is +connected with that river by the Bahr Yusuf, which reaches the oasis +through a gap in the hills separating the province from the Nile Valley. +South-west of the Fayum, and forming part of the mudiria, is the Gharak +depression. Another depression, entirely barren, the Wadi Rayan, +covering 280 sq. m., lies west of the Gharak. The whole region is below +sea-level, and save for the gap mentioned is encircled by the Libyan +hills. The lowest part of the province, the north-west end, is occupied +by the Birket el Kerun, or Lake of the Horns, whose surface level is 140 +ft. below that of the sea. The lake covers about 78 sq. m. + +Differing from the typical oasis, whose fertility depends on water +obtained from springs, the cultivated land in the Fayum is formed of +Nile mud brought down by the Bahr Yusuf. From this channel, 15 m. in +length from Lahun, at the entrance of the gap in the hills, to Medina, +several canals branch off and by these the province is irrigated, the +drainage water flowing into the Birket el Kerun. Over 400 sq. m. of the +Fayum is cultivated, the chief crops being cereals and cotton. The +completion of the Assuan dam by ensuring a fuller supply of water +enabled 20,000 acres of land, previously unirrigated and untaxed, to be +brought under cultivation in the three years 1903-1905. Three crops are +obtained in twenty months. The province is noted for its figs and +grapes, the figs being of exceptionally good quality. Olives are also +cultivated. Rose trees are very numerous and most of the attar of roses +of Egypt is manufactured in the province. The Fayum also possesses an +excellent breed of sheep. Lake Kerun abounds in fish, notably the +_bulti_ (Nile carp), of which considerable quantities are sent to Cairo. + +Medinet el-Fayum (or Medina), the capital of the province, is a great +agricultural centre, with a population which increased from 26,000 in +1882 to 37,320 in 1907, and has several large bazaars, mosques, baths +and a much-frequented weekly market. The Bahr Yusuf runs through the +town, its banks lined with houses. There are two bridges over the +stream: one of three arches, which carries the main street and bazaar, +and one of two arches over which is built the Kait Bey mosque. Mounds +north of the town mark the site of Arsinoë, earlier Crocodilopolis, +where was worshipped the sacred crocodile kept in the Lake of Moeris. +Besides Medina there are several other towns in the province, among them +Senuris and Tomia to the north of Medina and Senaru and Abuksa on the +road to the lake, all served by railways. There are also, especially in +the neighbourhood of the lake, many ruins of ancient villages and +cities. The Fayum is the site of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) of the +ancient Egyptians--a lake of which Birket el Kerun is the shrunken +remnant. + + See _The Fayum and Lake Moeris_, by Major (Sir) R.H. Brown, R.E. + (London, 1892), a valuable contribution as to the condition of the + province at that date, its connexion with Lake Moeris and its + possibilities in the future; _The Assuân Reservoir and Lake Moeris_ + (London, 1904), by Sir William Willcocks--with text in English, French + and Arabic--a consideration of irrigation possibilities; _The + Topography and Geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt_, by H.J.L. + Beadnell (Cairo, 1905). + + + + +FAZOGLI, or FAZOKL, a district of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, cut by 11° +N. and bounded E. and S. by Abyssinia. It forms part of the foot-hills +of the Abyssinian plateau and is traversed by the Blue Nile and its +affluent the Tumat. Immediately south is the auriferous Beni Shangul +country. The chief gold-washings lie (in Abyssinian territory) on the +west slope of the hills draining to the White Nile. Here is the steep +Jebel-Dul, which appears to contain rich gold-bearing reefs, as gold is +found in all the ravines on its flanks. The auriferous region extends +into Sudanese territory, gold dust being found in all the khors coming +from Jebel Faronge on the S.E. frontier. The inhabitants of Fazogli, who +are governed, under the Sudan administration, by their own meks or +kings, are Berta and other Shangalla tribes with an admixture of Funj +blood, the country having been conquered by the Funj rulers of Sennar at +the close of the 15th century. There are also Arab settlements. +Fazogli, the residence of the principal mek, is a straggling town built +some 800 yds. from the left bank of the Blue Nile near the Tumat +confluence, 434 m. by river above Khartum and opposite Famaka, the +headquarters of the Egyptians in this region between 1839 and 1883. +Above Famaka and near the Abyssinian frontier is the prosperous town of +Kiri, while Abu Shaneina on the Nile below Fazogli is the spot where the +trade route from Beni Shangul strikes the river. The chief imports from +Abyssinia are coffee, cattle, transport animals and gold. Durra and +tobacco are the principal crops. The local currency includes rings of +gold, specially made as a circulating medium. + + + + +FEA, CARLO (1753-1836), Italian archaeologist, was born at Pigna in +Piedmont on the 2nd of February 1753, and studied law in Rome. He +received the degree of doctor of laws from the university of La +Sapienza, but archaeology gradually absorbed his attention, and with the +view of obtaining better opportunities for his researches in 1798 he +took orders. For political reasons he was obliged to take refuge in +Florence; on his return in 1799 he was imprisoned by the Neapolitans, at +that time in occupation of Rome, as a Jacobin, but shortly afterwards +liberated and appointed Commissario delle Antichità and librarian to +Prince Chigi. He died at Rome on the 18th of March 1836. + + Fea revised, with notes, an Italian translation of J.J. Winckelmann's + Geschichte der Kunst, and also added notes to some of G.L. Bianconi's + works. Among his original writings the principal are:--_Miscellanea + filologica, critica, e antiquaria_; _L'Integrità del Panteone + rivendicata a M. Agrippa_; _Frammenti di fasti consolari_; _Iscrizioni + di monumenti pubblichi_; and _Descrizione di Roma_. + + + + +FEARNE, CHARLES (1742-1794), English jurist, son of Charles Fearne, +judge-advocate of the admiralty, was born in London in 1742, and was +educated at Westminster school. He adopted the legal profession, but, +though well fitted by his talents to succeed as a barrister, he +neglected his profession and devoted most of his attention and his +patrimony to the prosecution of scientific experiments, with the vain +hope of achieving discoveries which would reward him for his pains and +expense. He died in 1794, leaving his widow and family in necessitous +circumstances. His _Essay on the Learning of Contingent Remainders and +Executory Devises_, the work which has made his reputation as a legal +authority, and which has passed through numerous editions, was called +forth by a decision of Lord Mansfield in the case of _Perrin v. Blake_, +and had the effect of reversing that decision. + + A volume entitled _Fearne's Posthumous Works_ was published by + subscription in 1797 for the benefit of his widow. + + + + +FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. A festival or feast[1] is a day or series of days +specially and publicly set apart for religious observances. Whether its +occurrence be casual or periodic, whether its ritual be grave or gay, +carnal as the orgies of Baal and Astarte, or spiritual as the worship of +a Puritan Sabbath, it is to be regarded as a festival or "holy day" as +long as it is professedly held in the name of religion. + +To trace the festivals of the world through all their variations would +be to trace the entire history of human religion and human civilization. +Where no religion is, there can of course be no feasts; and without +civilization any attempt at festival-keeping must necessarily be fitful +and comparatively futile. But as religion develops, festivals develop +with it, and assume their distinctive character; and an advancing +civilization, at least in its earlier stages, will generally be found to +increase their number, enrich their ritual, fix more precisely the time +and order of their recurrence, and widen the area of their observance. + +Some uncivilized tribes, such as the Juángs of Bengal, the Fuegians and +the Andamanese, have been described as having no word for God, no idea +of a future state, and consequently no religious ceremonies of any kind +whatever. But such cases, doubtful at the best, are confessedly +exceptional. In the vast majority of instances observed and recorded, +the religiosity of the savage is conspicuous. Even when incapable of +higher manifestations, it can at least take the form of reverence for +the dead; the grave-heap can become an altar on which offerings of food +for the departed may be placed, and where in acts of public and private +worship the gifts of survivors may be accompanied with praises and with +prayers. That the custom of ghost-propitiation by some sort of sacrifice +is even now very widely diffused among the lower races at least, and +that there are also many curious "survivals" of such a habit to be +traced among highly civilized modern nations, has been abundantly shown +of late by numerous collectors of folk-lore and students of sociology; +and indications of the same phenomena can be readily pointed out in the +Rig-Veda, the Zend-Avesta and the Pentateuch, as well as in the known +usages of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.[2] In many cases the +ceremonial observed is of the simplest; but it ever tends to become more +elaborate; and above all it calls for repetition, and repetition, too, +at regular intervals. Whenever this last demand has made itself felt, a +calendar begins to take shape. The simplest calendar is obviously the +lunar. "The Naga tribes of Assam celebrate their funeral feasts month by +month, laying food and drink on the graves of the departed." But it soon +comes to be combined with the solar. Thus the Karens, "while habitually +making oblations, have also annual feasts for the dead, at which they +ask the spirits to eat and drink." The natives of the Mexican valley in +November lay animals, edibles and flowers on the graves of their dead +relatives and friends. The common people in China have a similar custom +on the arrival of the winter solstice. The ancient Peruvians had the +custom of periodically assembling the embalmed bodies of their dead +emperors in the great square of the capital to be feasted in company +with the people. The Athenians had their annual [Greek: Nekusia] or +[Greek: Nemeseia] and the Romans their _Feralia_ and _Lemuralia_. The +Egyptians observed their three "festivals of the seasons," twelve +"festivals of the month," and twelve "festivals of the half month," in +honour of their dead. The Parsees, too, were required to render their +afringans (blessings which were to be recited over a meal to which an +angel or the spirit of a deceased person was invited) at each of the six +seasons of the year, and also on certain other days.[3] + +In the majority of recorded instances, the religious feeling of the +savage has been found to express itself in other forms besides that of +reverence towards the dead. The oldest literatures of the world, at all +events, whether Aryan or Semitic, embody a religion of a much higher +type than ancestor worship. The hymns of the Rig-Veda, for example, +while not without traces of the other, yet indicate chiefly a worship of +the powers of nature, connected with the regular recurrence of the +seasons. Thus in iv. 57 we have a hymn designed for use at the +commencement of the ploughing time;[4] and in the _Aitareya-Brâhmana_, +the earliest treatise on Hindu ceremonial, we already find a complete +series of sattras or sacrificial sessions exactly following the course +of the solar year. They are divided into two distinct sections, each +consisting of six months of thirty days each. The sacrifices are allowed +to commence only at certain lucky constellations and in certain months. +So, for instance, as a rule, no great sacrifice can commence during the +sun's southern progress. The great sacrifices generally take place in +spring, in the months of April and May.[5] In the Parsee Scriptures[6] +the year is divided into six seasons or gahanbârs of two months each, +concluding with February, the season at which "great expiatory +sacrifices were offered for the growth of the whole creation in the last +two months of the year." We have no means of knowing precisely what were +the arrangements of the Phoenician calendar, but it is generally +admitted that the worship was solar, the principal festivals taking +place in spring and in autumn. Among the most characteristic +celebrations of the Egyptians were those which took place at the [Greek: +aphanismos] or disappearance of Osiris in October or November, at the +search for his remains, and their discovery about the winter solstice, +and at the date of his supposed entrance into the moon at the beginning +of spring. The Phrygian festivals were also arranged on the theory that +the deity was asleep during the winter and awake during the summer; in +the autumn they celebrated his retiring to rest, and in spring with +mirth and revelry they roused him from his slumbers.[7] The seasonal +character of the Teutonic Ostern, the Celtic Beltein and the +Scandinavian Yule is obvious. Nor was the habit of observing such +festivals peculiar to the Aryan or the Semitic race. The Mexicans, who +were remarkable for the perfection of their calendar, in addition to +this had an elaborate system of movable and immovable feasts distributed +over the entire year; the principal festivals, however, in honour of +their chief gods, Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, were held in +May, June and December. Still more plainly connected with the +revolutions of the seasons was the public worship of the ancient +Peruvians, who, besides the ordinary feast at each new moon, observed +four solar festivals annually. Of these the most important was the +Yntip-Raymi (Sun-feast), which, preceded by a three days' fast, began +with the summer solstice, and lasted for nine days. Its ceremonies have +been often described. A similar but less important festival was held at +the winter solstice. The Cusqui-Raymi, held after seedtime, as the maize +began to appear, was celebrated with sacrifices and banquets, music and +dancing. A fourth great festival, called Citua, held on the first new +moon after the autumnal equinox, was preceded by a strict fast and +special observances intended for purposes of purification and expiation, +after which the festivities lasted until the moon entered her second +quarter. + +_Greek Festivals._--Perhaps the annual Attic festival in honour of +Erechtheus alluded to in the _Iliad_ (ii. 550) ought to be regarded as +an instance of ancestor-worship; but the seasonal character of the +[Greek: heortê] or new-moon feast in _Od._ xx. 156, and of the [Greek: +thalusia] or harvest-festival in _Il._ ix. 533, is generally +acknowledged. The older Homeric poems, however, give no such express +indications of a fully-developed system of festivals as are to be met +with in the so-called "Homeric" hymns, in the _Works and Days_ of +Hesiod, in the pages of Herodotus, and so abundantly in most authors of +the subsequent period; and it is manifest that the calendar of Homer or +even of Herodotus must have been a much simpler matter than that of the +Tarentines, for example, came to be, of whom we are told by Strabo that +their holidays were in excess of their working days. Each demos of +ancient Greece during the historical period had its own local festivals +([Greek: heortai dêmotikai]), often largely attended and splendidly +solemnized, the usages of which, though essentially alike, differed very +considerably in details. These details have in many cases been wholly +lost, and in others have reached us only in a very fragmentary state. +But with regard to the Athenian calendar, the most interesting of all, +our means of information are fortunately very copious. It included some +50 or 60 days on which all business, and especially the administration +of justice, was by order of the magistrates suspended. Among these +[Greek: hieromêniai] were included--in Gamelion (January), the _Lenaea_ +or festival of vats in honour of Dionysus; in Anthesterion (February), +the _Anthesteria_, also in honour of Dionysus, lasting three days +(Pithoigia, Choes and Chytri); the _Diasia_ in honour of Zeus, and the +lesser _Eleusinia_; in Elaphebolion (March), the _Pandia_ (? of Zeus), +the _Elaphebolia_ of Artemis, and the greater _Dionysia_; in Munychion, +the _Munychia_ of Artemis as the moon goddess ([Greek: Mounuchia]) and +the _Delphinia_ of Apollo; in Thargelion (May), the _Thargelia_ of +Apollo and the _Plynteria_ and _Callynteria_ of Athena; in Scirophorion +(June), the _Diipolia_ of Zeus and the _Scirophoria_ of Athena; in +Hekatombaion, hecatombs were offered to Apollo the summer-god, and the +_Cronia_ of Cronus and the _Panathenaea_ of Athena were held; in +Metageitnion, the _Metageitnia_ of Apollo; in Boëdromion, the +_Boëdromia_ of Apollo the helper,[8] the _Nekusia_ or _Nemeseia_ (the +festival of the dead), and the greater _Eleusinia_; in Pyanepsion, the +_Pyanepsia_ of Apollo, the _Oschophoria_ of Dionysus (probably), the +_Chalkeia_ or _Athenaea_ of Athena, the _Thesmophoria_ of Demeter, and +the _Apaturia_; in Maimacterion, the _Maimacteria_ of Zeus; and in +Poseideon (December), the lesser _Dionysia_. + +Of these some are commemorative of historical events, and one at least +may perhaps be regarded as a relic of ancestor-worship; but the great +majority are nature-festivals, associating themselves in the manner that +has already been indicated with the phenomena of the seasons, the +equinoxes and the solstices.[9] In addition to their numerous public +festivals, the Greeks held various family celebrations, also called +[Greek: heortai], in connexion with weddings, births and similar domestic +occurrences. For the great national [Greek: panêgureis]--Olympian, +Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian--see the article GAMES, CLASSICAL. + +_Roman Festivals._--For the purpose of holding _comitia_ and +administering justice, the days of the Roman year were regarded as being +either _dies fasti_ or _dies nefasti_--the _dies fasti_ being the days +on which it was lawful for the praetors to administer justice in the +public courts, while on the _dies nefasti_ neither courts of justice nor +meetings of _comitia_ were allowed to be held. Some days were _fasti_ +during one portion and _nefasti_ during another; these were called _dies +intercisi_. For the purposes of religion a different division of the +year was made; the days were treated as _festi_ or as _profesti_,--the +former being consecrated to acts of public worship, such as sacrifices, +banquets and games, while the latter (whether _fasti_ or _nefasti_) were +not specially claimed for religious purposes. The _dies festi_ or +_feriae publicae_[10] were either _stativae_, _conceptivae_ or +_imperativae_. The _stativae_ were such as were observed regularly, each +on a definite day; the _conceptivae_ were observed annually on days +fixed by the authorities for the time being; the _imperativae_ were +publicly appointed as occasion called for them. In the Augustan age the +_feriae stativae_ were very numerous, as may be seen from what we +possess of the _Fasti_ of Ovid. The number was somewhat fluctuating. +Festivals frequently fell into desuetude or were revived, were increased +or diminished, were shortened or prolonged at the will of the emperor, +or under the caprice of the popular taste. Thus Augustus restored the +Compitalia and Lupercalia; while Marcus Antoninus in his turn found it +expedient to diminish the number of holidays. + +The following is an enumeration of the stated festivals as given by Ovid +and contemporary writers. The first day of January was observed somewhat +as is the modern New Year's day: clients sent presents to their patrons, +slaves to their masters, friends and relatives to one another. On the +9th the _Agonalia_ were held, apparently in honour of Janus. On the 11th +the _Carmentalia_ were kept as a half-holiday, but principally by women; +so also on the 15th. On the 13th of February were the _Faunalia_, on the +15th the _Lupercalia_, on the 17th the _Quirinalia_, on the 18th the +_Feralia_, on the 23rd (at one time the last day of the Roman year) the +_Terminalia_, on the 24th the _Regifugium_ or _Fugalia_, and on the 27th +the _Equiria_ (of Mars). On the 1st of March were the _Matronalia_, on +the 14th a repetition of the _Equiria_, on the 15th the festival of Anna +Perenna, on the 17th the _Liberalia_ or _Agonalia_, and from the 19th to +the 23rd the _Quinquatria_ (of Minerva). On the 4th of April were the +_Megalesia_ (of Cybele), on the 12th the _Cerealia_, on the 21st the +_Palilia_, on the 23rd the _Vinalia_, on the 25th the _Robigalia_, and +on the 28th the _Floralia_. The 1st of May was the festival of the +_Lares Praestites_; on the 9th, 11th and 13th the _Lemuria_ were +celebrated; on the 12th the _Ludi Martiales_, and on the 15th those of +Mercury. June 5 was sacred to _Semo Sancus_; the _Vestalia_ occurred on +the 9th, the _Matralia_ on the 11th, and the _Quinquatrus Minusculae_ +on the 13th. The _Ludi Apollinares_ were on the 5th, and the +_Neptunalia_ on the 23rd of July. On the 13th of August were the +_Nemoralia_, in honour of Diana; on the 18th the _Consualia_, on the +19th the _Vinalia Rustica_, and on the 23rd the _Vulcanalia_. The _Ludi +Magni_, in honour of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, began on September 4. +The _Meditrinalia_ (new wine) were on the 11th of October, the +_Faunalia_ on the 13th, and the _Equiria_ on the 15th. The _Epulum +Jovis_ was on 13th November. The December festivals were--on the 5th +_Faunalia_, and towards the close _Opalia_, _Saturnalia_, _Larentalia_. + +The calendar as it stood at the Augustan age was known to contain many +comparatively recent accessions, brought in under the influence of two +"closely allied powers, the foreign priest and the foreign cook" +(Mommsen). The _Megalesia_, for example, had been introduced 204 B.C. +The _Ludi Apollinares_ could not be traced farther back than 208 B.C. +The _Floralia_ and _Cerealia_ had not come in much earlier. Among the +oldest feasts were undoubtedly the _Lupercalia_, in honour of Lupercus, +the god of fertility; the _Equiria_, in honour of Mars; the _Palilia_; +the great September festival; and the _Saturnalia_. + +Among the feriae conceptivae were the very ancient _feriae Latinae_, +held in honour of Jupiter on the Alban Mount, and attended by all the +higher magistrates and the whole body of the senate. The time of their +celebration greatly depended on the state of affairs at Rome, as the +consuls were not allowed to take the field until they had held the +_Latinae_, which were regarded as days of a sacred truce. The _feriae +sementivae_ were held in the spring, and the _Ambarvalia_ in autumn, +both in honour of Ceres. The _Paganalia_ of each _pagus_, and the +_Compitalia_ of each _vicus_ were also _conceptivae_. Of _feriae +imperativae_,--that is to say, festivals appointed by the senate, or +magistrates, or higher priests to commemorate some great event or avert +some threatened disaster,--the best known is the _Novendiale_, which +used to be celebrated as often as stones fell from heaven (Livy xxi. 62, +xxv. 7, &c.). In addition to all those already mentioned, there +occasionally occurred _ludi votivi_, which were celebrated in fulfilment +of a vow; _ludi funebres_, sometimes given by private persons; and _ludi +seculares_, to celebrate certain periods marked off in the Etrusco-Roman +religion. + +_Feasts of the Jews_.--By Old Testament writers a festival or feast is +generally called either [Hebrew: hag] (compare the Arabic Hadj), from +[Hebrew: hagag] to rejoice, or [Hebrew: moed], from [Hebrew: yaad], to +appoint. The words [Hebrew: shabat] and [Hebrew: mikra kodesh] are also +occasionally used. In the Talmud the three principal feasts are called +[Hebrew: regalim], after Exod. xxiii. 14. Of the Jewish feasts which are +usually traced to a pre-Mosaic origin the most important and +characteristic was the weekly Sabbath, but special importance was also +attached from a very early date to the lunar periods. It is probable +that other festivals also, of a seasonal character, were observed (see +Exod. v. 1). In common with most others, the Mosaic system of annual +feasts groups itself readily around the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. +In Lev. xxiii., where the list is most fully given, they seem to be +arranged with a conscious reference to the sacred number seven (compare +Numb. xxviii.). Those belonging to the vernal equinox are three in +number; a preparatory day, that of the Passover, leads up to the +principal festival, that of unleavened bread, which again is followed by +an after-feast, that of Pentecost (see PASSOVER, PENTECOST). Those of +the autumnal equinox are four; a preparatory day on the new moon of the +seventh month (the Feast of Trumpets) is followed by a great day of +rest, the day of Atonement (which, however, was hardly a _festival_ in +the stricter sense of the word), by the Feast of Tabernacles, and by a +great concluding day (Lev. xxiii. 36; John vii. 37). If the feast of the +Passover be excepted, it will be seen that all these celebrations or +commemorations associate themselves more readily with natural than with +historical events.[11] There was also a considerable number of +post-Mosaic festivals, of which the principal were that of the +Dedication (described in 1 Macc. iv. 52-59; comp. John x. 22) and that +of Purim, the origin of which is given in the book of Esther (ix. 20 +seq.). It has probably no connexion with the Persian festival Furdigán +(see ESTHER).[12] + +_Earlier Christian Festivals._--While making it abundantly manifest that +Christ and his disciples observed the appointed Jewish feasts, the New +Testament nowhere records the formal institution of any distinctively +Christian festival. But we have unambiguous evidence of the actual +observance, from a very early period, of the first day of the week as a +holy day (John xx. 19, 26; 1 Cor. xvi. 2; Acts xx. 7; Rev. i. 10). Pliny +in his letter to Trajan describes the Christians of Bithynia as meeting +for religious purposes on a set day; that this day was Sunday is put +beyond all reasonable doubt by such a passage as that in the _Apology_ +of Justin Martyr, where he says that "on Sunday ([Greek: tê tou hêliou +legomenê hêmera]) all the Christians living either in the city or the +country met together." The Jewish element, in some churches at least, +and especially in the East, was strong enough to secure that, along with +the _dies dominica_, the seventh day should continue to be kept holy. +Thus in the _Apostolic Constitutions_ (ii. 59) we find the Saturday +specially mentioned along with the Sunday as a day for the assembling of +the church; in v. 15 it is ordained that there shall be no fasting on +Saturday, while in viii. 33 it is added that both on Saturday and Sunday +slaves are to have rest from their labours. The 16th canon of the +council of Laodicea almost certainly means that solemn public service +was to be held on Saturday as well as on Sunday. In other quarters, +however, the tendency to regard both days as equally sacred met with +considerable resistance. The 36th canon of the council of Illiberis, for +example, deciding that Saturday should be observed as a fast-day, was +doubtless intended to enforce the distinction between Saturday and +Sunday. At Milan in Ambrose's time Saturday was observed as a festival; +but Pope Innocent is found writing to the bishop of Eugubium to urge +that it should be kept as a fast. Ultimately the Christian church came +to recognize but one weekly festival. + +The numerous yearly festivals of the later Christian church, when +historically investigated, can be traced to very small beginnings. +Indeed, while it appears to be tolerably certain that Jewish Christians +for the most part retained all the festivals which had been instituted +under the old dispensation, it is not at all probable that either they +or their Gentile brethren recognized any yearly feasts as of +distinctively Christian origin or obligation. It cannot be doubted, +however, that gradually, in the course of the 2nd century, the universal +church came to observe the anniversaries of the death and resurrection +of Christ--the [Greek: pascha staurôsimon] and the [Greek: pascha +hanastasimon], as they were respectively called (see EASTER and GOOD +FRIDAY). Not long afterwards Whitsunday also came to be fixed in the +usage of Christendom as a great annual festival. Even Origen (in the 8th +book _Against Celsus_) enumerates as Christian festivals the Sunday, the +[Greek: paraskeuê], the Passover with the feast of the Resurrection, and +Pentecost; under which latter term, however, he includes the whole +period between Easter and Whitsuntide. About Cyprian's time we find +individual Christians commemorating their departed friends, and whole +churches commemorating their martyrs; in particular, there are traces of +a local and partial observance of the feast of the Innocents. Christmas +day and Epiphany were among the later introductions, the feast of the +Epiphany being somewhat the earlier of the two. Both are alluded to +indeed by Clemens Alexandrinus (i. 340), but only in a way which +indicates that even in his time the precise date of Christ's birth was +unknown, that its anniversary was not usually observed, and that the day +of his baptism was kept as a festival only by the followers of Basilides +(see EPIPHANY). + +When we come down to the 4th century we find that, among the 50 days +between Easter and Pentecost, Ascension Day has come into new +prominence. Augustine, for example, enumerates as anniversaries +celebrated by the whole church those of Christ's passion, resurrection +and ascension, along with that of the outpouring of the Holy Ghost, +while he is silent with regard to Christmas and Epiphany. The general +tendency of this and the following centuries was largely to increase the +festivals of the Church, and by legislation to make them more fixed and +uniform. Many passages, indeed, could be quoted from Chrysostom, Jerome +and Augustine to show that these fathers had not by any means forgotten +that comparative freedom with regard to outward observances was one of +the distinctive excellences of Christianity as contrasted with Judaism +and the various heathen systems (compare Socrates, _H.E._ v. 22). But +there were many special circumstances which seemed to the leaders of the +Church at that time to necessitate the permission and even legislative +sanction of a large number of new feasts. The innovations of heretics +sometimes seemed to call for rectification by the institution of more +orthodox observances; in other instances the propensity of rude and +uneducated converts from paganism to cling to the festal rites of their +forefathers proved to be invincible, so that it was seen to be necessary +to seek to adapt the old usages to the new worship rather than to +abolish them altogether;[13] moreover, although the empire had become +Christian, it was manifestly expedient that the old holidays should be +recognized as much as possible in the new arrangements of the calendar. +Constantine soon after his conversion enacted that on the _dies +dominica_ there should be no suits or trials in law; Theodosius the +Great added a prohibition of all public shows on that day, and +Theodosius the younger extended the prohibition to Epiphany and the +anniversaries of martyrdoms, which at that time included the festivals +of St Stephen, and of St Peter and St Paul, as also that of the +Maccabees. In the 21st canon of the council of Agde (506), besides +Easter, Christmas, Epiphany, Ascension and Pentecost, we find the +Nativity of John the Baptist already mentioned as one of the more +important festivals on which attendance at church was regarded as +obligatory. To these were added, in the centuries immediately following, +the feasts of the Annunciation, the Purification, and the Assumption of +the Virgin; as well as those of the Circumcision, of St Michael and of +All Saints. + +Festivals were in practice distinguished from ordinary days in the +following ways: all public and judicial business was suspended,[14] as +well as every kind of game or amusement which might interfere with +devotion; the churches were specially decorated; Christians were +expected to attend public worship, attired in their best dress; love +feasts were celebrated, and the rich were accustomed to show special +kindness to the poor; fasting was strictly forbidden, and public prayers +were said in a standing posture. + +_Later Practice._--In the present calendar of the Roman Catholic Church +the number of feast days is very large. Each is celebrated by an +appropriate office, which, according to its character, is either duplex, +semi-duplex or simplex. A duplex again may be either of the first class +or of the second, or a major or a minor. The distinctions of ritual for +each of these are given with great minuteness in the general rubrics of +the breviary; they turn chiefly on the number of Psalms to be sung and +of lessons to be read, on the manner in which the antiphons are to be +given and on similar details. The duplicia of the first class are the +Nativity, the Epiphany, Easter with the three preceding and two +following days, the Ascension, Whitsunday and the two following days, +Corpus Christi, the Nativity of John Baptist, Saints Peter and Paul, the +Assumption of the Virgin, All Saints, and, for each church, the feast +proper to its patron or title and the feast of its dedication. The +duplicia of the second class are the Circumcision, the feast of the Holy +Name of Jesus, of the Holy Trinity, and of the Most Precious Blood of +Christ, the feasts of the Purification, Annunciation, Visitation, +Nativity and Conception of the Virgin, the Natalitia of the Twelve +Apostles, the feasts of the Evangelists, of St Stephen, of the Holy +Innocents, of St Joseph and of the Patrocinium of Joseph, of St +Lawrence, of the Invention of the Cross and of the Dedication of St +Michael. The Dominicae majores of the first class are the first Sunday +in Advent, the first in Lent, Passion Sunday, Palm Sunday, Easter +Sunday, Dominica in Albis, Whitsunday and Trinity Sunday; the Dominicae +majores of the second class are the second, third and fourth in Advent, +Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays, and the second, +third and fourth Sundays in Lent. + +In the canons and decrees of the council of Trent repeated allusions are +made to the feast days, and their fitness, when properly observed, to +promote piety. Those entrusted with the cure of souls are urged to see +that the feasts of the Church be devoutly and religiously observed, the +faithful are enjoined to attend public worship on Sundays and on the +greater festivals at least, and parish priests are bidden to expound to +the people on such days some of the things which have been read in the +office for the day. Since the council of Trent the practice of the +Church with respect to the prohibition of servile work on holidays has +varied considerably in different Catholic countries, and even in the +same country at different times. Thus in 1577, in the diocese of Lyons, +there were almost forty annual festivals of a compulsory character. By +the concordat of 1802 the number of such festivals was for France +reduced to four, namely, Christmas day, Ascension day, the Assumption of +the Virgin, and All Saints day. + +The calendar of the Greek Church is even fuller than that of the Latin, +especially as regards the [Greek: heortai tôn hagiôn]. Thus on the last +Sunday in Advent the feast of All Saints of the Old Covenant is +celebrated; while Adam and Eve, Job, Elijah, Isaiah, &c., have separate +days. The distinctions of ritual are analogous to those in the Western +Church. In the Coptic Church there are seven great festivals, Christmas, +Epiphany, the Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Ascension and +Whitsunday, on all of which the Copts "wear new clothes (or the best +they have), feast and give alms" (Lane). They also observe, as minor +festivals, Maundy Thursday, Holy Saturday, the feast of the Apostles +(11th July), and that of the Discovery of the Cross. + +In common with most of the churches of the Reformation, the Church of +England retained a certain number of feasts besides all Sundays in the +year. They are, besides Monday and Tuesday both in Easter-week and +Whitsun-week, as follows: the Circumcision, the Epiphany, the Conversion +of St Paul, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin, St Matthias the +Apostle, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, St Mark the Evangelist, +St Philip and St James (Apostles), the Ascension, St Barnabas, the +Nativity of St John Baptist, St Peter the Apostle, St James the Apostle, +St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St Michael and all Angels, St Luke the +Evangelist, St Simon and St Jude, All Saints, St Andrew, St Thomas, +Christmas, St Stephen, St John the Evangelist, the Holy Innocents. The +13th canon enjoins that all manner of persons within the Church of +England shall from henceforth celebrate and keep the Lord's day, +commonly called Sunday, and other holy days, according to God's holy +will and pleasure, and the orders of the Church of England prescribed in +that behalf, that is, in hearing the Word of God read and taught, in +private and public prayers, in acknowledging their offences to God and +amendment of the same, in reconciling themselves charitably to their +neighbours where displeasure hath been, in oftentimes receiving the +communion of the body and blood of Christ, in visiting of the poor and +sick, using all godly and sober conversation. (Compare Hooker, _E.P._ v. +70.) In the _Directory for the Public Worship of God_ which was drawn up +by the Westminster Assembly, and accepted by the Church of Scotland in +1645, there is an appendix which declares that there is no day commanded +in Scripture to be kept holy under the gospel but the Lord's day, which +is the Christian Sabbath; festival days, vulgarly called holy-days, +having no warrant in the Word of God, are not to be continued; +nevertheless it is lawful and necessary, upon special emergent +occasions, to separate a day or days for public fasting or thanksgiving, +as the several eminent and extraordinary dispensations of God's +providence shall administer cause and opportunity to his people. + +Several attempts have been made at various times in western Europe to +reorganize the festival system on some other scheme than the Christian. +Thus at the time of the French Revolution, during the period of +Robespierre's ascendancy, it was proposed to substitute a tenth day +(Décadi) for the weekly rest, and to introduce the following new +festivals: that of the Supreme Being and of Nature, of the Human Race, +of the French people, of the Benefactors of Mankind, of Freedom and +Equality, of the Martyrs of Freedom, of the Republic, of the Freedom of +the World, of Patriotism, of Hatred of Tyrants and Traitors, of Truth, +of Justice, of Modesty, of Fame and Immortality, of Friendship, of +Temperance, of Heroism, of Fidelity, of Unselfishness, of Stoicism, of +Love, of Conjugal Fidelity, of Filial Affection, of Childhood, of Youth, +of Manhood, of Old Age, of Misfortune, of Agriculture, of Industry, of +our Forefathers, of Posterity and Felicity. The proposal, however, was +never fully carried out, and soon fell into oblivion. + +_Mahommedan Festivals._--These are chiefly two--the 'Eed es-Sagheer (or +minor festival) and the 'Eed el-Kebeer (or great festival), sometimes +called 'Eed el-Kurban. The former, which lasts for three days, +immediately follows the month Ramadan, and is generally the more joyful +of the two; the latter begins on the tenth of Zu-l-Heggeh (the last +month of the Mahommedan year), and lasts for three or four days. Besides +these festivals they usually keep holy the first ten days of Moharram +(the first month of the year), especially the tenth day, called Yom +Ashoora; the birthday of the prophet, on the twelfth day of the third +month; the birthday of El-Hoseyn, in the fourth month; the anniversary +of the prophet's miraculous ascension into heaven, in the seventh month; +and one or two other anniversaries. Friday, called the day of El-Gumah +(the assembly), is a day of public worship; but it is not usual to +abstain from public business on that day except during the time of +prayer. + +_Hindu and Buddhist Festivals._--In modern India the leading popular +festivals are the Holí, which is held in March or April and lasts for +five days, and the Dasahara, which occurs in October. Although in its +origin Buddhism was a deliberate reaction against all ceremonial, it +does not now refuse to observe festivals. By Buddhists in China, for +example, three days in the year are especially observed in honour of the +Buddha,--the eighth day of the second month, when he left his home; the +eighth day of the fourth month, the anniversary of his birthday; and the +eighth of the twelfth, when he attained to perfection and entered +Nirvana. In Siam the eighth and fifteenth days of every month are +considered holy, and are observed as days for rest and worship. At Trut, +the festival of the close of the year, visiting and play-going are +universal. The new year (January) is celebrated for three days; in +February is another holiday; in April is a sort of Lent, ushering in the +rainy season; on the last day of June presents are made of cakes of the +new rice; in August is the festival of the angel of the river, "whose +forgiveness is then asked for every act by which the waters of the +Meinam have been rendered impure." See Bowring's _Siam_ and Carné's +_Travels in Indo-China and the Chinese Empire_. Copious details of the +elaborate festival-system of the Chinese may be found in Doolittle's +_Social Life of the Chinese_. + + LITERATURE.--For Christian feasts see K.A. H. Kellner, _Heortologie_ + (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906); Hippolyte Delehaye, _Les Légendes + hagiographiques_ (Brussels, 1905); J. Rendel Harris, _The Cult of the + Heavenly Twins_ (Cambridge, 1906); de Rossi-Duchesne, _Martyrologium + Hieronymianum_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "To feast" is simply to keep a festum or festival. The etymology + of the word is uncertain; but probably it has no connexion with the + Gr. [Greek: hestian]. + + [2] See Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i. 170, 280, 306. + + [3] Haug, _Parsis_, 224, 225. + + [4] "May the heavens, the waters, the firmament, be kind to us; may + the lord of the field be gracious to us.... May the oxen (draw) + happily, the men labour happily; may the traces bind happily, wield + the goad happily" (Wilson's translation, iii. 224). + + [5] See Haug's _Aitareya-brâhmanam of the Rig-Veda_; Max Müller's + _Chips from a German Workshop_, i. 115. + + [6] Visperad. See Haug, _Parsis_, 192; Richardson's _Dissertation on + the Language, &c., of Eastern Nations_, p. 184; Morier's _Journey + through Persia_. + + [7] Plutarch, _De Iside et Osiride_; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 21. + + [8] In this month the anniversaries of the battle of Marathon, and of + the downfall of the thirty tyrants, were also publicly celebrated. + + [9] See Schoemann, _Griechische Altertümer_, ii. 439 seq.; Mommsen + _Heortologie_. + + [10] _Feriae privatae_, such as anniversaries of births, deaths, and + the like, were observed by separate clans, families or individuals. + + [11] In the "parallel" passages, there is considerable variety in the + designation and arrangement of these feasts. While Ex. xii. + approximates most closely to Lev. xxiii. and Num. xxviii., Ex. xxiii. + has stronger affinities with Deut. xvi. The relations of these + passages are largely discussed by Graf, _Die geschichtlichen Bücher + des A. T._, pp. 34-41, and by other recent critics. + + [12] On the whole subject of Jewish festivals see Reland, _Antiq. + Hebr._; Knobel, _Leviticus_ (c. 23); George, _Die jüdischen Feste_; + Edersheim, _The Temple; its Ministry and Services_; Ewald, + _Altertümer des Volkes Israël_; articles in Bible dictionaries. + + [13] As, at a later period (601), Gregory the Great instructed his + Anglo-Saxon missionaries so to Christianize the temples, festivals, + &c., of the heathen "ut durae mentes gradibus vel passibus, non autem + saltibus, eleventur." + + [14] Manumission, however, was lawful on any day. + + + + +FEATHER (O. Eng. _fether_, Ger. _Feder_, from an Indo-European root seen +also in Gr. [Greek: pteron], and [Greek: petesthai], to fly), a horny +outgrowth of the skin of birds homologous with the scale of the reptile. +The body-covering of birds is, without exception, comprised of feathers, +and by this character alone birds may be distinguished from all other +animals. + +The most perfect form of feather is made up of a long, tapering rod, +fringed on either side, for the greater part of its length, by a +secondary series of slender and tapering rods forming a more or less +acute angle with the central axis. This fringe is known as the +_vexillum_ or "vane" (fig. 1 a). The central axis is divisible into two +distinct parts,--a hollow, cylindrical, transparent _calamus_, or +"quill," the base of which is inserted into the skin, and a solid, +quadrangular _rhachis_ or "shaft" which supports the vane. At the lower +end of the quill is a small hole--the lower _umbilicus_--through which +the nutritive pulp passes during the growth of the feather: while at the +upper end, where it passes into the shaft, a similar hole will be +found,--the upper _umbilicus_--and from this the last remains of the +capsules which contained the nutritive pulp may sometimes be seen +protruding. If the quill is cut open a series of these capsules will be +found fitting one into the other throughout the whole length of the +tubular chamber. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Diagrams of Feather-Barbs. + + a, Outline of a feather showing the relation of the barbs and barbules + to the central axis or shaft. + + b, Section across two of the barbs shown in a, highly magnified. + + c, Two barbules of the posterior series--seen only in cross-section in + b. + + d, A barbule of the anterior series. + + e, Section across the base of three anterior barbules showing + attachment to barb. + + f, A portion of the hooklet of the anterior series showing the method + of interlocking with the barbules of the posterior series.] + +The rods comprising the lateral fringe, or vane, are known as the _rami_ +or the "barbs," and will be found, on microscopic examination, to be +lath-shaped and to taper to a point. Further, each barb supports a +double series of smaller outgrowths known as the _radii_, or "barbules"; +so that each barb may be likened to a feather in miniature. These +"barbules," however, differ markedly in structure on the two sides of +the barb, those pointing towards the tip of the feather--the "anterior +barbules"--being ribbon-shaped from the base outwards for about half +their length, when they become cut up to form a series of long and very +delicate hooklets (fig. 1 d). On the opposite side of the barb the +barbules are also ribbon-shaped for about half their length, but the +ribbon is curved trough-fashion, so that the whole series of posterior +barbules forms a number of deep valleys, and into these the hooklets are +thrust so as to catch hold of the upper edges of the troughs, which are +set so that the upper edge is towards the upper, and the lower edge +towards the under surface of the feather. The manner in which this +beautiful mechanism works may be seen in fig. 1 b. + +In one of the primary or "quill" feathers of the wing of a crane, each +barb of the inner side of the vane was found to bear about 600 pairs of +barbules, which would make about 800,000 barbules for the inner web of +the vane alone, or more than a million for the whole feather (H.F. +Gadow). It is to the agency of these hooklets alone that the +closely-knit, elastic vanes of the flight feathers and the body feathers +are due. Where these hooklets are wanting the barbs do not adhere +together, resulting in a loose "discontinuous" vane such as, for +example, is found in the plumes of the ostrich. + +Many feathers, in addition to the main axis, bear a second, generally +much shorter axis, supporting a loose discontinuous vane; this shorter +branch is known as the "aftershaft" and arises from the under surface of +the feather. Only in the cassowary and emu among adult birds is the +aftershaft as large as the main shaft. + +There are several different kinds of feathers--contour feathers, +semiplumes, down-feathers, filoplumes and powder-down. Contour feathers, +as their name implies, are those which form the contour or outline of +the body, and are all that can generally be seen. Those which form the +"flight feathers" of the wing, and the tail feathers, are the most +perfectly developed. Semiplumes are degenerate contour feathers. The +down-feathers are generally completely hidden by the contour feathers: +they form in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, a thick underclothing +comparable to the under-fur of mammals such as the seals. In all cases +they are of a loose, soft, "fluffy" structure, the barbs being of great +length and slenderness, while the barbules are often long and provided +with knob-like thickenings answering to the hooklets of the more +perfectly developed contour feathers; these thickenings help to "felt" +the separate down-feathers together, the barbs of one down-feather +interlocking with those of its neighbour. Down-feathers differ from +semiplumes both in their relation to contour feathers and in that they +do not possess a main axis, all the barbs arising from a common centre. + +Filoplumes are degenerate structures having a superficial resemblance to +hairs, but they always bear a minute vane at the tip. They occur in all +birds, in clusters of varying number, about the bases of contour +feathers. In some birds they attain a great length, and may project +beyond the contour feathers, sometimes forming conspicuous white +patches, as for example in the necks of cormorants. In their early +stages of development they often possess a large aftershaft made up of a +number of barbs, but these quickly disappear, leaving only the +degenerate main shaft. The eyelashes and bristles round the mouth found +in many birds appear to be akin to filoplumes. + +Powder-down feathers are degenerate down-feathers which appear to +secrete a dry, waxy kind of powder. This powder rapidly disintegrates +and becomes distributed over the plumage, adding thereto a quite +peculiar bloom. In birds of the heron tribe powder-down feathers have +reached a high degree of development, forming large patches in the +breast and thighs, while in some hawks, and in the parrots, these +mysterious feathers are scattered singly over the greater part of the +body. + + + Nestling down. + +The nature of the covering of nestling birds is of a more complex +character than has hitherto been suspected. The majority of young birds, +as is well known, either emerge from the egg clothed in down-feathers, +or they develop these within a day or two afterwards. But this covering, +though superficially similar in all, may, as a matter of fact, differ +widely in its constitution, even in closely related forms, while only in +a very few species can the complete history of these feathers be made +out. + +The brown or tawny owl (_Syrnium aluco_) is one of these. At hatching, +the young of this species is thickly clad in white, woolly +down-feathers, of the character known as umbelliform--that is to say, +the central axis or main shaft is wanting, so that the barbs all start +from a common centre. These feathers occupy the position of the +ultimate contour feathers. They are shortly replaced by a second +down-like covering, superficially resembling, and generally regarded as, +true down. But they differ in that their barbs spring from a central +axis as in typical contour feathers. Feathers of this last description +indeed have now made their appearance in the shape of the "flight" or +quill feathers (_remiges_) and of the tail feathers. This plumage is +worn until the autumn, when the downy feathers give place to the +characteristic adult plumage. The down feathers which appear at +hatching-time are known as _pre-pennae_, or _pre-plumulae_, as the case +may be; the first generation of pre-pennae, in the case of the tawny owl +for example, is made up of _protoptyles_, while the succeeding plumage +is made up of _mesoptyles_, and these in turn give place to the +_teleoptyles_ or adult feathers. The two forms of nestling +plumage--pre-pennae and pre-plumulae--may be collectively called +"neossoptyles," a term coined by H.F. Gadow to distinguish the plumage +of the nestling from that of the adult--the "teleoptyle" plumage. + +As a rule the nestling develops but one of these generations of +neossoptyles, and this generally answers to the mesoptyle plumage, +though this is of a degenerate type. In some birds, as in the Megapodes, +the "protoptyle" or first of these two generations of pre-pennae is +developed and shed while the chick is yet in the shell, so that at +hatching the mesoptyle plumage is well developed. But in the majority of +birds, probably, the mesoptyle plumage only is developed, while the +earlier, and apparently more degenerate, dress is suppressed. In the +penguins both of these nestling plumages are developed, but the +mesoptyle dress has degenerated so that umbelliform feathers now take +the place of feathers having a central axis. + +The Anatidae show traces of the earlier, first generation of feathers in +one or two species only, e.g. _Cloëphaga rubidiceps_. In all the +remaining species mesoptyles only occur. And this is true also of the +game-birds. In both the Tinamous, the duck-tribe and the game-birds this +mesoptyle plumage shows, in different species, every gradation between +feathers having a well-developed main shaft and aftershaft, and those +which are mere umbelliform tufts. + +As development proceeds and the contour feathers make their appearance +they thrust the mesoptyle feathers out of their follicles--the pockets +in the skin in which they were rooted--and these will often be found +adhering to the tips of the contour feathers for many weeks after the +bird has left the nest. This occurs because the development of the +contour feather begins before that of the mesoptyles has completed. + +The plumage in nestling birds is still further complicated by the fact +that it may be almost, or entirely, composed of pre-plumulae; that is to +say, of down-feathers which are later succeeded by adult +_down-feathers_. This is the case among the accipitrine birds for +example, and thereby it differs entirely from that of the owls, which +develop neither pre-plumulae nor adult down. The cormorants are, so far +as is known, the only birds which have a nestling plumage composed +entirely of pre-plumulae. + + + The colours of feathers. + +In variety and brilliancy the colours of birds are not surpassed by +those of any other group of animals. Yet the pigments to which these +colours are due are but few in number, while a large number of the most +resplendent hues are produced by structural peculiarities of the +colourless horny surface of the feathers, and hence are known as +subjective or optical colours. + +The principal colour pigments are (a) _melanin pigments_, derived +possibly from the haemoglobin of the blood, but more probably from the +blood plasma, and (b) _lipochrome_ or "fat" pigments, which are regarded +as reserve products; though in the case of birds it is exceedingly +doubtful whether they have this significance. + +The melanin pigments (_zoomelanin_) occur in the form of granules and +give rise to the black, brown and grey tones; or they may combine with +those of the lipochrome series. + +The lipochrome pigments (_zoonerythrin_ and _zooxanthin_) tend to be +diffused throughout the substance of the feather, and give rise +respectively to the red and yellow colours. + +In addition to these must be reckoned _turacin_, a reddish-purple +pigment consisting of the same elements as zoomelanin, but remarkable +for the fact that it contains from 5 to 8% of copper, which can be +extracted by a weak alkaline solution, such as ammonia, and with the +addition of acetic acid it can be filtered off as a metallic red or blue +powder. The presence of metallic copper is indicated by the green flame +of these red feathers when burnt. Turacin was discovered by Sir A.H. +Church in the quill-feathers of the wings of Touracoes or "plantain +eaters." These feathers, he showed, lose their colour after they have +become wet, but regain it on drying. But turacin is not, as was +supposed, confined to the feathers of the plantain eaters, since it has +been obtained from a cuckoo, _Dasylophus superciliosus_. + +What effect food may have on colour in birds in a wild state we have no +means of knowing, but it is significant that flamingoes and linnets in +confinement never regain their bright hues after their first moult in +captivity. If cayenne pepper be mixed with the food of certain strains +of canaries, from the time the birds are hatched onwards, the yellow +colour of the feathers becomes intensified, till it takes on a deep +orange hue. Bullfinches, if fed on hemp-seed, turn black. According to +Darwin, the natives of the Amazonian region feed the common green parrot +on the fat of large Siluroid fishes, and as a result the feathers become +beautifully variegated with red and yellow. Similarly, in the Malay +Archipelago, the natives of Gilolo change the colours of another parrot. + +With but rare exceptions bright colours are confined to the exposed +portions of the plumage, but in some of the Bustards the down is of a +bright pink colour. + + + Structural colours. + +Structural colours include all metallic or prismatic colours, blue, +green, white, some yellows, and, in part, glossy black. In metallic +feathers the radii (barbules) are modified in various ways, frequently +to form flattened, overlapping plates or tiles, while the surfaces of +the plates are either smooth, finely striated or pitted. But, save only +in the case of white feathers, beneath this colourless, glazed outer +coat there is always a layer of pigment. + +The only green pigment known to occur in feathers is _turacoverdin_, +found in the feathers of the plantain eaters; it contains a relatively +large amount of iron, but no copper. In all other cases the green colour +of feathers is due to yellow, orange or greyish-brown pigment occurring +with a special superstructure consisting of narrow ridges, as in some +parrots and pittas (ant-thrushes), or the surface of the barbs and +barbules is smooth and transparent, while between it and the pigment +there exists a layer of small polygonal, colourless bodies having highly +refractory, and often striated, surfaces. + +Blue is unknown as a pigment in feathers. Blue feathers contain only +orange or brownish pigment (Gadow), the blue colour being caused by the +combination of pigment corpuscles and colourless striated polygonal +bodies, as in green feathers. + +While in many birds the coloration takes the form either of a uniform +hue or of bands and patches of colour more or less brilliant, in others +the coloration is sombre, and made up of dark longitudinal stripes or +transverse bars on a lighter ground. The latter is the more primitive, +and there seems good reason to believe that longitudinal stripes +preceded transverse bars. This is indicated by the fact that the +nestlings of the more primitive groups are longitudinally striped, and +that young hawks in their first plumage are so striped, while the adults +are barred. + +There is also evidence to show that the evolution of brilliant plumage +began with the males, and has, in many cases, been more or less +perfectly acquired by the females, and also by the young, as for example +in the kingfishers, where parents and offspring wear the same livery. +Often, where the parents are alike in plumage, the young wear a +different and duller livery, as in the case of the common starling +(_Sturnus vulgaris_). But where the female differs from the male in +coloration the young resemble the female parent. + +The physiological explanation of complete disappearance of pigment in +adult life, e.g. gannet, is not yet apparent. + + + Moulting. + +At least once annually birds renew their feathers completely by a +process known as a moult. Until the new feathers have attained at least +half their full length they are invested in a soft sheath, and, as +development proceeds, the sheath breaks up from the tip of the feather +downwards, so that for a time the new feathers have almost a brush-like +appearance. Generally this replacement takes place gradually, new and +old feathers occurring side by side, and on this account it is not +always possible to see whether a moult is proceeding without raising the +old feathers. + +The "quill" feathers of the wing and tail are renewed in pairs, so that +flight is little, if at all, impaired, the change taking place in the +wing from the region of the wrist inwards, as to the primaries, and from +the body outwards, towards the tip of the wing, as to the secondaries. +In certain birds, however, as in the duck tribe and the rails, for +example, all the quill-feathers of the wing are shed at once, so that +for some time flight is impossible. + +In the penguins this simultaneous method of moulting is carried still +further. That is to say, the old feathers covering the body are not +replaced gradually, but _en masse_. This method of ecdysis is, however, +still further remarkable in that the old feathers do not drop out, to be +succeeded by spine-like stumps which, later, split at the tip, +liberating the barbs of the new feathers. They are, on the contrary, +thrust out upon the tips of the new feathers, the barbs of which are +never enclosed within an envelope such as that just described. When +their growth has practically completed, and not till then, the old +feathers are removed in large patches by the aid of the bird's beak; +exposing thereby a perfectly developed plumage. In the cassowary, and +emeu, the old feathers similarly adhere for a time to the tips of the +new; but in these birds the feathers are moulted singly as in other +birds. + +Some birds moult twice within the year, the additional moult taking +place in the spring, as in the case of the "warblers" (Sylviidae) and +Limicolae, for example. But when this is the case the spring moult is +only partial, since the quill feathers of the wings and the tail +feathers are not renewed. + +At this spring moult a special "nuptial" plumage is often assumed, as +for example in many of the Limicolae, e.g. god-wits, knots, dunlin, +ruff. + +The sequel to this habit of assuming a nuptial dress is an interesting +one. Briefly, this plumage, at first assumed at the mating period by the +males only, and doffed soon after the young appear, has become retained +for longer and longer periods, so that the succeeding plumage, often +conspicuously dull compared with the nuptial dress, is worn only for a +few weeks, instead of many months, as in the case of many of the ducks, +for example; wherein the males, as soon as the young are hatched, assume +what C. Waterton has aptly called an "eclipse" dress. This, instead of +being worn till the following spring, as in the waders, is shed again in +the autumn and replaced by what answers to the waders' "nuptial" dress. +In the game-birds but a trace of this "eclipse" plumage remains; and +this, apparently, only in jungle-fowl, the common grey partridge +(_Perdix cinerea_) and the blackcock (_Lyrurus_), in whose case the head +and neck for a short period following the breeding season are clothed +only by dull feathers. Further, this more highly developed plumage +becomes transferred, first to the female, then to the young, so that, in +many groups, the dull phase of plumage is entirely eliminated. + +But the assumption at the breeding season of a conspicuously brilliant +plumage is not always due to a moult. In many birds, notably many +Passerines, this change is brought about by shedding the tips of the +feathers, which are of a duller hue than the rest of the feather. In +this way the bright rose pink of the linnet's breast, the blue and black +head of the chaffinch, and the black throat and chestnut-and-black +markings of the back of the sparrow, are assumed--to mention but a few +instances. These birds moult but once a year, in the autumn, when the +new feathers have broad brown fringes; as the spring advances these drop +off, and with them the barbicels from the barbules of the upper surface +of the feather, thus revealing the hidden tints. + +According to some authorities, however, some birds acquire a change of +colour without a moult by the ascent of pigment from the base of the +feather. The black head assumed by many gulls in the spring is, for +example, said to be gained in this way. There is, however, not only no +good evidence in support of the contention, but the whole structure of +the feather is against the probability of any such change taking place. + + + The development of feathers. + + Feathers correspond with the scales of reptiles rather than with the + hairs of mammals, as is shown by their development. They make their + first appearance in the developing chick at about the sixth day of + incubation, in the shape of small papillae. In section each papilla is + found to be made up of a cluster of dermal cells--that is to say, of + cells of the deeper layer of the skin--capped by cells of the + epidermis. These last form a single superficial layer of flattened + cells--the _epitrichium_--overlaying the cells of the Malpighian + layer, which are cylindrical in shape and rapidly increase to form + several layers. As development proceeds the papillae assume a + cone-shape with its apex directed backwards, while the base of this + cone sinks down into the skin, or rather is carried down by the growth + of the Malpighian cells, so that the cone is now sunk in a deep pit. + Thereby these Malpighian cells become divided into two portions: (1) + those taking part in the formation of the walls of the pit or "feather + follicle," and (2) those enclosed within the cone. These last surround + the central mass or core formed by the dermis. This mass constitutes + the nutritive pulp for the development of the growing feather, and is + highly vascular. The cells of the Malpighian layer within the cone now + become differentiated into three layers. (1) An inner, extremely thin, + forming a delicate sheath for the pulp, and found in the fully + developed feather in the form of a series of hollow, transparent caps + enclosed within the calamus; (2) a thick layer which forms the feather + itself; and (3) a thin layer which forms the investing sheath of the + feather. It is this sheath which gives the curious spine-covered + character to many nestling birds and birds in moult. As growth + proceeds the cells of this middle layer arrange themselves in + longitudinal rows to form the barbs, while the barbules are formed by + a secondary splitting. At their bases these rudimentary barbs meet to + form the calamus. Finally the tips of the barbs break through the + investing sheath and the fully formed down-feather emerges. + + A part of the pulp and Malpighian cells remains over after the + complete growth of the down-feather, and from this succeeding + generations of feathers are developed. The process of this development + differs from that just outlined chiefly in this: that of the + longitudinal rows which in the down-feather form the barbs, two on the + dorsal and two on the ventral aspect of the interior of the cylinder + become stronger than the rest, combining to form the main-and + after-shaft respectively. The remainder of the rods form the barbs and + barbules as in the down-feather. + + The reproductive power of the feather follicle appears to be almost + inexhaustible, since it is not diminished appreciably by age, nor + restricted to definite moulting periods, as is shown by the cruel and + now obsolete custom of plucking geese alive, no less than three times + annually, for the sake of their feathers. The growth of the feathers + is, however, certainly affected by the general health of the bird, + mal-nutrition causing the appearance of peculiar transverse V-shaped + grooves, at more or less regular intervals, along the whole length of + the feather. These are known as "hunger-marks," a name given by + falconers, to whom this defect was well known. + + It would seem that while the feather germ may be artificially + stimulated to produce three successive generations of feathers within + a year, it may, on the other hand, be induced artificially to maintain + a continuous activity extending over long periods. That is to say, the + normal quiescent period, and periodic moult, may be suspended, so that + the feather maintains a steady and continuous growth till it attains a + length of several feet. The only known instance of this kind is that + furnished by a domesticated breed of jungle-fowl known as the + "Japanese long-tailed fowls" or as "Yokohamas." In this breed the + upper tail coverts are in some way, as yet unknown to Europeans, + induced to go on growing until they have attained a length of from 12 + to 18 or even 20 ft.! In this abnormal growth the "hackles" of the + lower part of the back also share, though they do not attain a similar + length. + + The feathers of birds are not uniformly distributed over the body, but + grow only along certain definite tracts known as _pterylae_, leaving + bare spaces or _apteria_. These pterylae differ considerably in their + conformation in different groups of birds, and hence are of service in + systematic ornithology. + + The principal pterylae are as follows:-- + + (1) The head tract (_pt. capitis_), which embraces the head only. + + (2) The spinal tract (_pt. spinalis_), which extends the whole length + of the vertical column. It is one of the most variable in its + modifications, especially in so far as the region from the base of the + neck to the tail is concerned. In its simplest form it runs down the + back in the form of a band of almost uniform width, but generally it + expands considerably in the lumbar region, as in Passeres. Frequently + it is divided into two portions; an upper, terminating in the region + of the middle of the back in a fork, and a lower, which commences + either as a fork, e.g. plover, barbet, or as a median band, e.g. + swallow. Very commonly the dorsal region of this tract encloses a more + or less extensive featherless space (_apterion_), e.g. swift, auk. + While, as a rule, the dorsal region of this tract is relatively + narrow, it is in some of great breadth, e.g. grebe, pigeon, coly. + + (3) The ventral tract (_pt. ventralis_), which presents almost as many + variations as the spinal tract. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Pterylosis of the plover.] + + In its simplest form it runs from the throat backwards in the form of + a median band as far as the base of the neck where it divides, sending + a branch to each side of the breast. This branch commonly again + divides into a short, broad outer branch which lodges the "flank" + feathers, and a long, narrow, inner branch which runs backwards to + join its fellow of the opposite side in front of the cloacal aperture. + This branch lodges the abdominal feathers. The median space which + divides the inner branches of the tract may be continued forwards as + far as the middle of the neck, or even up to the throat, e.g. plover. + Only in a few cases is the neck continuously covered by the fusion of + the dorsal and ventral tracts, e.g. flamingo, Anseres, Ciconidae, + Pygopodes. + + For convenience sake the cervical portions of the spinal and ventral + tracts are generally regarded as separate tracts, the _pt. colli + dorsalis_ and _pt. colli ventralis_ respectively. + + (4) The humeral tract (_pt. humeralis_), which gives rise to the + "scapular" feathers. + + (5) The femoral tract (_pt. femoralis_), which forms an oblique band + across the thigh. + + (6) The crural tract (_pt. cruralis_), which clothes the rest of the + leg. + + (7) The tail tract (_pt. caudalis_), including the tail feathers and + their coverts; and + + (8) The wing tract (_pt. alaris_). The wing tract presents many + peculiar features. Each segment--arm, forearm and hand--bears feathers + essential to flight, and these are divided into _remiges_, or "quill" + feathers, and _tectrices_, or "coverts." + + The remiges of the arm, more commonly described as "tertiaries," are, + technically, collectively known as the _parapteron_ and _hypopteron_, + and are composed respectively of long, quill-like feathers forming a + double series, the former arranged along the upper, and the latter + along the lower aspect of the humerus. They serve to fill up the gap + which, in long-winged birds, would otherwise occur during flight + between the quill-feathers of the forearm and the body, a gap which + would make flight impossible. In short-winged birds these two series + are extremely reduced. + + The remiges range in number from 16, as in humming-birds, to 48 as in + the albatross, according, in short, to the length of the wing. But + these numerical differences depend, in flying birds, rather upon the + length of the forearm, since the quills of the hand never exceed 12 + and never fall below 10, though the tenth may be reduced to a mere + vestige. + + The quills of the forearm are known as "secondaries," those of the + hand as "primaries." The former are attached by their bases at + relatively wide distances apart to the ulna, while the primaries are + crowded close together and attached to the skeleton of the hand. The + six or seven which rest upon the fused metacarpals II.-III. are known + as "metacarpals." The next succeeding feather is borne by the phalanx + of digit III. and hence is known as the addigital. Phalanx i. of digit + II. always supports two quills, the "middigitals," while the remaining + feathers--one or two--are borne by the last phalanx of digit II. and + are known as pre-digitals, while the whole series of primaries are + known as the metacarpo-digitals. + + In their relation one to another the remiges, it must be noted, are + always so placed that they overlap one another, the free edge of each, + when the wing is seen from its upper surface, being turned towards the + tip of the wing. Thus, in flight, the air passes through the wing as + it is raised, while in the downstroke the feathers are forced together + to form a homogeneous surface. + + Birds which fly much have the outer primaries of great length, giving + the wing a pointed shape, as in swifts, while in species which fly but + little, or frequent thickets, the outer primaries are very short, + giving the wing a rounded appearance. This adaptation to environment + is commonly lost sight of by taxonomers, who not infrequently use the + form of the wing as a factor in classification. + + The tectrices, or covert feathers of the wing, are arranged in several + series, decreasing in size from behind forwards. The number of rows on + the dorsal aspect and the method of their overlap, afford characters + of general importance in classification. + + The first row of the series is formed by the _major coverts_; these, + like the primaries, have their free-edges directed towards the tip of + the wing, and hence are said to have a distal overlap. The next row is + formed by the _median coverts_. These, on the forearm, commonly + overlap as to the outer half of the row distally, and as to the inner + half proximally. On the hand this series is incomplete. Beyond the + median are four or five rows of coverts known as the _minor coverts_. + These may have either a proximal or a distal overlap. The remaining + rows of small feathers are known as the _marginal coverts_, and they + always have a distal overlap. + + The three or four large quill-like feathers borne by the thumb form + what is known as the "bastard-wing," _ala spuria_. + + The coverts of the under follow an arrangement similar to that of the + upper surface, but the minor coverts are commonly but feebly + developed, leaving a more or less bare space which is covered by the + great elongation of the marginal series. + + One noteworthy fact about the coverts of the under side of the wing is + that all save the major and median coverts have what answers to the + dorsal surfaces of the feather turned towards the body, and what + answers to the ventral surface of the feather turned towards the under + surface of the wing. In the major and median coverts, however, the + ventral surfaces of these feathers are turned ventralwards, that is to + say, in the extended wing they, like the remiges, have the ventral + surfaces turned downwards or towards the body in the closed wing. + + But the most remarkable fact in connexion with the pterylosis of the + wing is the fact that in all, save the Passerine and Galliform types, + and some few other isolated exceptions, the secondary series of + remiges appears always to lack the fifth remex, counting from the + wrist inwards, inasmuch as, when such wings are examined, there is + always found, in the place of the fifth remex, a pair of major coverts + only, while throughout the rest of the series each such pair of + coverts embraces a quill. + + This extraordinary fact was first discovered by the French naturalist + Z. Gerbe, and was later rediscovered by R.S. Wray. Neither of these, + however, was able to offer any explanation thereof. This, however, has + since been attempted, simultaneously, by P.C. Mitchell and W.P. + Pycraft. The former has aptly coined the word _diastataxic_ to denote + the gap in the series, and _eutaxic_ to denote such wings as have an + uninterrupted series of quills. While both authors agree that there is + no evidence of any loss in the number of the quills in diastataxic + wings, they differ in the interpretation as to which of the two + conditions is the more primitive and the means by which the gap has + been brought about. + + According to Mitchell the diastataxic is the more primitive condition, + and he has conclusively shown a way in which diastataxic wings may + become eutaxic. Pycraft on the other hand contends that the + diastataxic wing has been derived from the eutaxic type, and has + produced evidence showing, on the one hand, the method by which this + transition is effected, and on the other that by which the diastataxic + wing may again recover the eutaxic condition, though in this last + particular the evidence adduced by Mitchell is much more complete. The + matter is, however, one of considerable difficulty, but is well worth + further investigation. + + The wings of struthious birds differ from those of the Carinatae, just + described, in many ways. All are degenerate and quite useless as + organs of flight. In some cases indeed they have become reduced to + mere vestiges. + + Those of the ostrich and Rhea are the least degraded. + + In the ostrich ankylosis has prevented the flexion of the hand at the + wrist joint so that the quills--primaries and secondaries--form an + unbroken series of about forty in number. Of these sixteen belong to + the primary or metacarpo-digital series, a number exceeding that of + any other bird. What the significance of this may be with regard to + the primitive wing it is impossible to say at present. The coverts, in + their disposition, bear a general resemblance to those of Carinate + wings; but they differ on account of the great length of the feathers + and the absence of any definite overlap. + + The wing of the South American Rhea more nearly resembles that of + flying birds since the hand can be flexed at the wrist joint, and the + primaries are twelve in number, as in grebes, and some storks, for + example. + + The coverts, as in the African ostrich, are remarkable for their great + length, those representing the major series being as long as the + remiges, a fact probably due to the shortening of the latter. They are + not, however, arranged in quincunx, as is the rule among the + Carinatae, but in parallel, transverse rows, in which respect they + resemble the owls. + + In both ostrich and Rhea, as well as in all the other struthious + birds, the under surface of the wing is entirely bare. + + The wing of the cassowary, emeu and apteryx has undergone complete + degeneration; so much so that only a vestige of the hand remains. + + Remiges in the cassowary are represented by a few spine-like + shafts--three primaries and two secondaries. These are really + hypertrophied calami. This is shown by the fact that in the nestling + these remiges have a normal calamus, rhachis and vane; but as + development proceeds the rhachis with its vane sloughs off, while the + calamus becomes enormously lengthened and solid. + + In the emeu the wing is less atrophied than in the cassowary, but is + not yet completely degenerate. Altogether seventeen remiges are + represented, of which seven correspond to primaries. Since, however, + these feathers have each an aftershaft as long as the main shaft--like + the rest of the body feathers--it may be that they answer not to + remiges, but to major coverts. + + The wing of apteryx, like that of the cassowary, has become extremely + reduced. The remiges are thirteen in number, four of which answer to + primaries. These feathers are specially interesting, inasmuch as they + retain throughout life a stage corresponding to that seen in the very + young cassowary, the calamus being greatly swollen, and supporting a + very degenerate rhachis and vane. + + The penguins afford another object-lesson in degeneration of this + kind. Here the wing has become transformed into a paddle, clothed on + both sides with a covering of small, close-set feathers. A pollex is + wanting, as in the cassowary, emeu and apteryx, while it is impossible + to say whether remiges are represented or not. + + AUTHORITIES.--The following authors should be consulted for further + details on this subject:-- + + _For General Reference as to Structure, Colour, Development and + Pterylosis._--H. Gadow, in Newton's _Dictionary of Birds_ (1896); W.P. + Pycraft, "The Interlocking of the Barbs of Feathers," _Natural + Science_ (1893). + + _On the Colours of Feathers._--J.L. Bonhote, "On Moult and Colour + Change in Birds," _Ibis_ (1900); A.H. Church, "Researches on Turacin, + an Animal Pigment containing Copper," _Phil. Trans._ clix. (1870), pt. + ii.; H. Gadow, "The Coloration of Feathers as affected by Structure," + _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (1882); Newbegin, _Colour in Nature_ (1898); R.M. + Strong, "The Development of Color in the Definitive Feather," _Bull. + Mus. Zool. Harvard College_, vol. xl. + + _On Moulting._--J. Dwight, "The Sequences of Plumage and Moults of the + Passerine Birds of New York," _Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci._, vol. xiii. + (1900); W.E. De Winton, "On the Moulting of the King Penguin," _Proc. + Zool. Soc._ (1898-1899); W.P. Pycraft, "On some Points in the Anatomy + of the Emperor and Adélie Penguins," _Report National Antarctic + Expedition_, vol. ii. (1907). + + _On Development of Embryonic, Nestling and Adult Feathers._--T.H. + Studer, "Die Entwicklung der Federn," _Inaug.-Diss._ (Bern, 1873); + "Beiträge zur Entwickl. der Feder," _Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool._, Bd. + xxx.; J.T. Cunningham, "Observations and Experiments on Japanese + Long-tailed Fowls," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (1903); H.R. Davies, "Beitrag + zur Entwicklung der Feder," _Morph. Jahrb._ xiv. (1888), xv. (1889); + W.P. Pycraft, "A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the Morphology + of the Owls," _Trans. Linn. Soc._ (1898); W.P. Pycraft, "A + Contribution towards our Knowledge of the Pterytography of the + Megapodii," _Report Willey's Zoological Results_, pt. iv. (1900); W.P. + Pycraft, "Nestling Birds and some of the Problems they Present," + _British Birds_ (1907). + + _On Pterylosis._--H. Gadow, "Remarks on the Numbers and on the + Phylogenetic Development of the Remiges of Birds," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ + (1888); Z. Gerbe, "Sur les plumes du vol et leur mue," _Bull. Soc. + Zool. France_, vol. ii. (1877); J.G. Goodchild, "The Cubital Coverts + of the Euornithae in relation to Taxonomy," _Proc. Roy. Phys. Edinb._ + vol. x. (1890-1891); Meijere, "Über die Federn der Vögel," _Morphol. + Jahrb._ xxiii. (1895); P.C. Mitchell, "On so-called 'Quintocubitalism' + in the Wing of Birds," _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ vol. xxvii. (1899); + "On the Anatomy of the Kingfishers, with special reference to the + Conditions known as Eutaxy and Diastataxy," _Ibis_ (1901); C.L. + Nitzsch, "Pterytography," _Ray Soc._ (1867); W.P. Pycraft, "Some Facts + concerning the so-called 'Aquintocubitalism' of the Bird's Wing," + _Journ. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxvii.; C.J. Sundevall, "On the Wings of + Birds," _Ibis_ (1886); R.S. Wray, "On some Points in the Morphology of + the Wings of Birds," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (1887). (W. P. P.) + +_Commercial Applications of Feathers._--The chief purposes for which +feathers become commercially valuable may be comprehended under four +divisions:--(1) bed and upholstery feathers; (2) quills for writing; (3) +ornamental feathers; and (4) miscellaneous uses of feathers. + +_Bed and Upholstery Feathers._--The qualities which render feathers +available for stuffing beds, cushions, &c., are lightness elasticity, +freedom from matting and softness. These are combined in the most +satisfactory degree in the feathers of the goose and of several other +allied aquatic birds, whose bodies are protected with a warm downy +covering. Goose feathers and down, when plucked in spring from the +living bird, are most esteemed, being at once more elastic, cleaner and +less liable to taint than those obtained from the bodies of killed +geese. The down of the eider duck, _Anas mollissima_, is valued above +all other substances for lightness, softness and elasticity; but it has +some tendency to mat, and is consequently more used for quilts and in +articles of clothing than unmixed for stuffing beds. The feathers of +swans, ducks and of the common domestic fowl are also largely employed +for beds; but in the case of the latter bird, which is of course +non-aquatic, the feathers are harsher and less downy than are those of +the natatorial birds generally. Feathers which possess strong or stiff +shafts cannot without some preliminary preparation be used for stuffing +purposes, as the stiff points they present would not only be highly +uncomfortable, but would also pierce and cause the escape of the +feathers from any covering in which they might be enclosed. The barbs +are therefore stripped or cut from these feathers, and when so prepared +they, in common with soft feathers and downs, undergo a careful process +of drying and cleaning, without which they would acquire an offensive +smell, readily attract damp, and harbour vermin. The drying is generally +done in highly heated apartments or stoves, and subsequently the +feathers are smartly beaten with a stick, and shaken in a sieve to +separate all dust and small debris. + +_Quills for Writing._--The earliest period at which the use of quill +feathers for writing purposes is recorded is the 6th century; and from +that time till the introduction of steel pens in the early part of the +19th century they formed the principal writing implements of civilized +communities. It has always been from the goose that quills have been +chiefly obtained, although the swan, crow, eagle, owl, hawk and turkey +all have more or less been laid under contribution. Swan quills, indeed +are better and more costly than are those from the goose, and for fine +lines crow quills have been much employed. Only the five outer wing +feathers of the goose are useful for writing, and of these the second +and third are the best, while left-wing quills are also generally more +esteemed than those of the right wing, from the fact that they curve +outward and away from the writer using them. Quills obtained in spring, +by plucking or otherwise, from living birds are by far the best, those +taken from dead geese, more especially if fattened, being comparatively +worthless. To take away the natural greasiness to remove the superficial +and internal pellicles of skin, and to give the necessary qualities of +hardness and elasticity, quills require to undergo some processes of +preparation. The essential operation consists in heating them, generally +in a fine sand-bath, to from 130° to 180° F. according to circumstances, +and scraping them under pressure while still soft from heat, whereby the +outer skin is removed and the inner shrivelled up. If the heating has +been properly effected, the quills are found on cooling to have become +hard, elastic and somewhat brittle. While the quills are soft and hot, +lozenge-shaped patterns, ornamental designs, and names are easily and +permanently impressed on them by pressure with suitable instruments or +designs in metal stamps. + +_Ornamental Feathers._--Feathers do not appear to have been much used, +in Europe at least, for ornamental purposes till the close of the 13th +century. They are found in the conical caps worn in England during the +reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.; but not till the period of Henry +V. did they take their place as a part of military costume. Towards the +close of the 15th century the fashion of wearing feathers in both civil +and military life was carried to an almost ludicrous excess. In the time +of Henry VIII. they first appeared in the bonnets of ladies; and during +Elizabeth's reign feathers began to occupy an important place as +head-dress ornaments of women. From that time down to the present, +feathers of endless variety have continued to be leading articles of +ornamentation in female head-attire; but, except for military plumes, +they have long ceased to be worn in ordinary male costume. At the +present day, the feathers of numerous birds are, in one way or another, +turned to account by ladies for the purpose of personal ornament. +Ostrich feathers, however, hold, as they have always held, a pre-eminent +position among ornamental feathers; and the ostrich is the only bird +which may be said to be reared exclusively for the sake of its feathers. +Ostrich farming is one of the established industries of South Africa, +and is also practised in Kordofan and other semi-desert regions of North +Africa, in Argentina, and in Arizona and California in North America. +The feathers are generally plucked from the living animal--a process +which does not appear to cause any great inconvenience. In the male +bird, the long feathers of the rump and wings are white, and the short +feathers of the body are jet black; while the rump and wing feathers of +the female are white tinged with a dusky grey, the general body colour +being the latter hue. The feathers of the male are consequently much +more valuable than those of the female, and they are separately +classified in commerce. The art of the plumassier embraces the cleaning, +bleaching, dyeing, curling and making up of ostrich and other plumes and +feathers. White feathers are simply washed in bundles in hot soapy +water, run through pure warm water, exposed to sulphurous fumes for +bleaching, thereafter blued with indigo solution, rinsed in pure cold +water, and hung up to dry. When dry the shafts are pared or scraped down +to give the feathers greater flexibility, and the barbs are curled by +drawing them singly over the face of a blunt knife or by the cautious +application of a heated iron. Dull-coloured feathers are usually dyed +black. Feathers which are dyed light colours are first bleached by +exposure in the open air. Much ingenuity is displayed in the making up +of plumes, with the general result of producing the appearance of full, +rich, and long feathers from inferior varieties and from scraps and +fragments of ostrich feathers; and so dexterously can factitious plumes +be prepared that only an experienced person is able to detect the +fabrication. + +In addition to those of the ostrich, the feathers of certain other birds +form articles of steady commercial demand. Among these are the feathers +of the South American ostrich, _Rhea americana_, the marabout feathers +of India obtained from _Leptoptilos argala_ and _L. javanica_, the +aigrettes of the heron, the feathers of the various species of birds of +paradise, and of numerous species of humming-birds. Swan-down and the +skins of various penguins and grebes and of the albatross are used, like +fur, for muffs and collarettes. + +The Chinese excel in the preparation of artificial flowers and other +ornaments from bright natural-coloured or dyed feathers; and the French +also skilfully work fragments of feathers into bouquets of artificial +flowers, imitation butterflies, &c. + +_Miscellaneous Applications of Feathers._--Quills of various sizes are +extensively employed as holders for the sable and camel hair brushes +used by artists, &c. Feather brushes and dusters are made from the +wing-feathers of the domestic fowl and other birds; those of a superior +quality, under the name of vulture dusters, being really made of +American ostrich feathers. A minor application of feathers is found in +the dressing of artificial fly-hooks for fishing. As steel pens came +into general use it became an object of considerable importance to find +applications for the supplanted goose-quills, and a large field of +employment for them was found in the preparation of toothpicks. + (J. Pa; W. P. P.) + + + + +FEATHERSTONE, an urban district in the Osgoldcross parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 6 m. E. of Wakefield +on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 12,093. The +industrial population is employed in large collieries in the vicinity; +and here, on the 7th of September 1893, serious riots during a strike +resulted in the destruction of some of the colliery works belonging to +Lord Masham, and were not quelled without military intervention and some +bloodshed. + + + + +FEATLEY (or FAIRCLOUGH) DANIEL (1582-1645), English divine, was born at +Charlton, Oxfordshire, on the 15th of March 1582. He was a scholar of +Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and probationer fellow in 1602, after +which he went to France as chaplain to the English ambassador. For some +years he was domestic chaplain to George Abbot, archbishop of +Canterbury, and held also the rectories of Lambeth (1619), Allhallows, +Bread Street (c. 1622), and Acton (1627), this last after leaving the +archbishop's service in 1625. His varied activities included a +"scholastick duel" with James I. in 1625, and the publication of (1) the +report of a conference with some Jesuits in 1624, (2) a devotional +manual entitled _Ancilla Pietatis_ (1626), (3) _Mystica Clavis, a Key +opening divers Difficult Texts of Scripture in 70 Sermons_ (1636). He +was appointed provost of Chelsea College in 1630, and in 1641 was one of +the sub-committee "to settle religion." In the course of this work he +had a disputation with four Baptists at Southwark which he commemorated +in his book [Greek: Katabaptistai kataptystoi], _The Dippers dipt or +the Anabaptists duckt and plunged over head and ears_ (1645). He sat in +the Westminster Assembly 1643, and was the last of the Episcopal members +to remain. For revealing its proceedings he was expelled and imprisoned. +He died at Chelsea on the 17th of April 1645. + + + + +FEBRONIANISM, the name given to a powerful movement within the Roman +Catholic Church in Germany, in the latter part of the 18th century, +directed towards the "nationalizing" of Catholicism, the restriction of +the monarchical power usurped by the papacy at the expense of the +episcopate, and the reunion of the dissident churches with Catholic +Christendom. It was thus, in its main tendencies, the equivalent of what +in France is known as Gallicanism (q.v.). The name is derived from the +pseudonym of "Justinus Febronius" adopted by Johann Nikolaus von +Hontheim (q.v.), coadjutor bishop of Treves (Trier), in publishing his +work _De statu ecclesiae et legitima potestate Romani pontificis_. This +book, which roused a vast amount of excitement and controversy at the +time, exercised an immense influence on opinion within the Roman +Catholic Church, and the principles it proclaimed were put into practice +by the rulers of that Church in various countries during the latter part +of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. + +The main propositions defended by "Febronius" were as follows. The +constitution of the Church is not, by Christ's institution, monarchical, +and the pope, though entitled to a certain primacy, is subordinate to +the universal Church. Though as the "centre of unity" he may be regarded +as the guardian and champion of the ecclesiastical law, and though he +may _propose_ laws, and send legates on the affairs of his primacy, his +sovereignty (_principatus_) over the Church is not one of jurisdiction, +but of order and collaboration (_ordinis et consociationis_). The Roman +(ultramontane) doctrine of papal infallibility is not accepted "by the +other Catholic Churches" and, moreover, "has no practical utility." The +Church is based on the one episcopacy common to all bishops, the pope +being only _primus inter pares_. It follows that the pope is subject to +general councils, in which the bishops are his colleagues +(_conjudices_), not merely his consultors; nor has he the exclusive +right to summon such councils. The decrees of general councils need not +be confirmed by the pope nor can they be altered by him; on the other +hand, appeal may be made from papal decisions to a general council. As +for the rights of the popes in such matters as appeals, reservations, +the confirmation, translation and deposition of bishops, these belong +properly to the bishops in provincial synods, and were usurped by the +papacy gradually as the result of a variety of causes, notably of the +False Decretals. For the health of the Church it is therefore necessary +to restore matters to their condition before the False Decretals, and to +give to the episcopate its due authority. The main obstacle to this is +not the pope himself, but the Curia, and this must be fought by all +possible means, especially by thorough popular education (_primum +adversus abusum ecclesiasticae potestatis remedium_), and by the +assembling of national and provincial synods, the neglect of which is +the main cause of the Church's woes. If the pope will not move in the +matter, the princes, and notably the emperor, must act in co-operation +with the bishops, summon national councils even against the pope's will, +defy his excommunication, and in the last resort refuse obedience in +those matters over which the papacy has usurped jurisdiction. + +It will be seen that the views of Febronius had but little originality. +In the main they were those that predominated in the great general +councils of Constance and Basel in the 15th century; but they were +backed by him with such a wealth of learning, and they fitted so well +into the intellectual and political conditions of the time, that they +found a widespread acceptance. The book, indeed, was at once condemned +at Rome (February 1764), and by a brief of the 21st of May the pope +commanded all the bishops of Germany to suppress it. The papal +condemnation met with a very mixed reception; in some dioceses the order +to prohibit the book was ignored, in others action upon it was postponed +pending an independent examination, in yet others (nine in all) it was +at once obeyed "for political reasons," though even in these the +forbidden book became the "breviary of the governments." The Febronian +doctrine, in fact, exactly fitted the views of the German bishops, which +were by no means disinterested. It must be remembered that the bishops +were at this time great secular princes rather than Catholic prelates; +with rare exceptions, they made no pretence of carrying out their +spiritual duties; they shared to the full in the somewhat shallow +"enlightenment" of the age. As princes of the Empire they had asserted +their practical independence of the emperor; they were irked by what +they considered the unjustifiable interference of the Curia with their +sovereign prerogatives, and wished to establish their independence of +the pope also. In the ranks of the hierarchy, then, selfish motives +combined with others more respectable to secure the acceptance of the +Febronian position. Among secular rulers the welcome given to it was +even less equivocal. Even so devout a sovereign as Maria Theresa refused +to allow "Febronius" to be forbidden in the Habsburg dominions; her son, +the emperor Joseph II., applied the Febronian principles with +remorseless thoroughness. In Venice, in Tuscany, in Naples, in Portugal, +they inspired the vigorous efforts of "enlightened despots" to reform +the Church from above; and they gave a fresh impetus to the movement +against the Jesuits, which, under pressure of the secular governments, +culminated in the suppression of the Society by Pope Clement XIV. in +1773. "Febronius," too, inspired the proceedings of two notable +ecclesiastical assemblies, both held in the year 1786. The reforming +synod which met at Pistoia under the presidency of the bishop, Scipione +de' Ricci, is dealt with elsewhere (see PISTOIA). The other was the +so-called congress of Ems, a meeting of the delegates of the four German +archbishops, which resulted, on the 25th of August, in the celebrated +"Punctation of Ems," subsequently ratified and issued by the +archbishops. This document was the outcome of several years of +controversy between the archbishops and the papal nuncios, aroused by +what was considered the unjustifiable interference of the latter in the +affairs of the German dioceses. In 1769 the three archbishop-electors of +Mainz, Cologne and Treves (Trier) had drawn up in thirty articles their +complaints against the Curia, and after submitting them to the emperor +Joseph II., had forwarded them to the new pope, Clement XIV. These +articles, though "Febronius" was prohibited in the archdioceses, were +wholly Febronian in tone; and, indeed, Bishop von Hontheim himself took +an active part in the diplomatic negotiations which were their outcome. +In drawing up the "Punctation" he took no active part, but it was wholly +inspired by his principles. It consisted of XXIII. articles, which may +be summarized as follows. Bishops have, in virtue of their God-given +powers, full authority within their dioceses in all matters of +dispensation, patronage and the like; papal bulls, briefs, &c., and the +decrees of the Roman Congregations are only of binding force in each +diocese when sanctioned by the bishop; nunciatures, as hitherto +conceived, are to cease; the oath of allegiance to the pope demanded of +bishops since Gregory VII.'s time is to be altered so as to bring it +into conformity with episcopal rights; annates and the fees payable for +the pallium and confirmation are to be lowered and, in the event of the +pallium or confirmation being refused, German archbishops and bishops +are to be free to exercise their office under the protection of the +emperor; with the Church tribunals of first and second instance +(episcopal and metropolitan) the nuncios are not to interfere, and, +though appeal to Rome is allowed under certain "national" safe-guards, +the opinion is expressed that it would be better to set up in each +archdiocese a final court of appeal representing the provincial synod; +finally the emperor is prayed to use his influence with the pope to +secure the assembly of a national council in order to remove the +grievances left unredressed by the council of Trent. + +Whether this manifesto would have led to a reconstitution of the Roman +Catholic Church on permanently Febronian lines must for ever remain +doubtful. The French Revolution intervened; the German Church went down +in the storm: and in 1803 the secularizations carried out by order of +the First Consul put an end to the temporal ambitions of its prelates. +Febronianism indeed, survived. Karl Theodor von Dalberg, prince primate +of the Confederation of the Rhine, upheld its principles throughout the +Napoleonic epoch and hoped to establish them in the new Germany to be +created by the congress of Vienna. He sent to this assembly, as +representative of the German Church, Bishop von Wessenberg, who in his +diocese of Constance had not hesitated to apply Febronian principles in +reforming, on his own authority, the services and discipline of the +Church. But the times were not favourable for such experiments. The tide +of reaction after the Revolutionary turmoil was setting strongly in the +direction of traditional authority, in religion as in politics; and that +ultramontane movement which, before the century was ended, was to +dominate the Church, was already showing signs of vigorous life. +Moreover, the great national German Church of which Dalberg had a +vision--with himself as primate--did not appeal to the German princes, +tenacious of their newly acquired status as European powers. One by one +these entered into concordats with Rome, and Febronianism from an +aggressive policy subsided into a speculative opinion. As such it +survived strongly, especially in the universities (Bonn especially had +been, from its foundation in 1774, very Febronian), and it reasserted +itself vigorously in the attitude of many of the most learned German +prelates and professors towards the question of the definition of the +dogma of papal infallibility in 1870. It was, in fact, against the +Febronian position that the decrees of the Vatican Council were +deliberately directed, and their promulgation marked the triumph of the +ultramontane view (see VATICAN COUNCIL, ULTRAMONTANISM, PAPACY). In +Germany, indeed, the struggle against the papal monarchy was carried on +for a while by the governments on the so-called _Kulturkampf_, the Old +Catholics representing militant Febronianism. The latter, however, since +Bismarck "went to Canossa," have sunk into a respectable but +comparatively obscure sect, and Febronianism, though it still has some +hold on opinion within the Church in the chapters and universities of +the Rhine provinces, is practically extinct in Germany. Its revival +under the guise of so-called Modernism drew from Pope Pius X. in 1908 +the scathing condemnation embodied in the encyclical _Pascendi gregis_. + + AUTHORITIES.--See Justinus Febronius, _De statu ecclesiae et legitima + potestae Romani pontificis_ (Bullioni, 1765), second and enlarged + edition, with new prefaces addressed to Pope Clement XIII., to + Christian kings and princes, to the bishops of the Catholic Church, + and to doctors of theology and canon law; three additional volumes, + published in 1770, 1772 and 1774 at Frankfort, are devoted to + vindications of the original work against the critics. In the _Revue + des deux mondes_ for July 1903 (tome xvi. p. 266) is an interesting + article under the title of "L'Allemagne Catholique," from the papal + point of view, by Georges Goyau. For the congress of Ems see + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (Leipzig, 1898), s.v. "Emser + Kongress." Further references are given in the article on Hontheim + (q.v.). (W. A. P.) + + + + +FEBRUARY, the second month of the modern calendar. In ordinary years it +contains 28 days; but in bissextile or leap year, by the addition of the +intercalary day, it consists of 29 days. This month was not in the +Romulian calendar. In the reign of Numa two months were added to the +year, namely, January at the beginning, and February at the end; and +this arrangement was continued until 452 B.C., when the decemvirs placed +February after January. The ancient name of _Februarius_ was derived +from _februare_, to purify, or from _Februa_, the Roman festival of +general expiation and lustration, which was celebrated during the latter +part of this month. In February also the Lupercalia were held, and women +were purified by the priests of Pan Lyceus at that festival. The +Anglo-Saxons called this month Sprout-Kale from the sprouting of the +cabbage at this season. Later it was known as _Solmonath_, because of +the return of the sun from the low latitudes. The most generally noted +days of February are the following:--the 2nd, Candlemas day, one of the +fixed quarter days used in Scotland; the 14th, St Valentine's day; and +the 24th, St Matthias. The church festival of St Matthias was formerly +observed on the 25th of February in bissextile years, but it is now +invariably celebrated on the 24th. + + + + +FEBVRE, ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC (1835- ), French actor, was born in Paris, +and after the usual apprenticeship in the provinces and in several +Parisian theatres in small parts, was called to the Comédie Française in +1866, where he made his début as Philip II. in _Don Juan d'Autriche_. He +soon became the most popular leading man in Paris, not only in the +classical répertoire, but in contemporary novelties. In 1894 he toured +the principal cities of Europe, and, in 1895, of America. He was also a +composer of light music for the piano, and published several books of +varying merit. He married Mdlle Harville, daughter of one of his +predecessors at the Comédie Française, herself a well-known actress. + + + + +FÉCAMP, a seaport and bathing resort of northern France, in the +department of Seine-Inférieure, 28 m. N.N.E. of Havre on the Western +railway. Pop. (1906) 15,872. The town, which is situated on the English +Channel at the mouth of the small river Fécamp, consists almost entirely +of one street upwards of 2 m. in length. It occupies the bottom and +sides of a narrow valley opening out towards the sea between high +cliffs. The most important building is the abbey church of La Trinité, +dating for the most part from 1175 to 1225. The central tower and the +south portal (13th century) are the chief features of its simple +exterior; in the interior, the decorative work, notably the +chapel-screens and some fine stained glass, is remarkable. The +hotel-de-ville with a municipal museum and library occupy the remains of +the abbey buildings (18th century). The church of St Étienne (16th +century) and the Benedictine liqueur distillery,[1] a modern building +which also contains a museum, are of some interest. A tribunal and +chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators and a nautical school, +are among the public institutions. The port consists of an entrance +channel nearly 400 yds. long leading to a tidal harbour and docks +capable of receiving ships drawing 26 ft. at spring-tide, 19 ft. at +neap-tide. Fishing for herring and mackerel is carried on and the town +equips a large fleet for the codbanks of Newfoundland and Iceland. The +chief exports are oil-cake, flint, cod and Benedictine liqueur. Imports +include coal, timber, tar and hemp. Steam sawing, metal-founding, +fish-salting, shipbuilding and repairing, and the manufacture of +ship's-biscuits and fishing-nets are among the industries. + +The town of Fécamp grew up round the nunnery founded in 658 to guard the +relic of the True Blood which, according to the legend, was found in the +trunk of a fig-tree drifted from Palestine to this spot, and which still +remains the most precious treasure of the church. The original convent +was destroyed by the Northmen, but was re-established by Duke William +Longsword as a house of canons regular, which shortly afterwards was +converted into a Benedictine monastery. King Richard I. greatly enlarged +this, and rebuilt the church. The town achieved some prosperity under +the dukes of Normandy, who improved its harbour, but after the +annexation of Normandy to France it was overshadowed by the rising port +of Havre. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The liqueur is said to have been manufactured by the Benedictine + monks of the abbey as far back as 1510; since the Revolution it has + been produced commercially by a secular company. The familiar legend + D.O.M. (_Deo Optimo Maximo_) on the bottles preserves the memory of + its original makers. + + + + +FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR (1801-1887), German experimental psychologist, +was born on the 19th of April 1801 at Gross-Särchen, near Muskau, in +Lower Lusatia, where his father was pastor. He was educated at Sorau and +Dresden and at the university of Leipzig, in which city he spent the +rest of his life. In 1834 he was appointed professor of physics, but in +1839 contracted an affection of the eyes while studying the phenomena of +colour and vision, and, after much suffering, resigned. Subsequently +recovering, he turned to the study of mind and the relations between +body and mind, giving public lectures on the subjects of which his books +treat. He died at Leipzig on the 18th of November 1887. Among his works +may be mentioned: _Das Büchlein vom Leben nach dem Tode_ (1836, 5th ed., +1903), which has been translated into English; _Nanna, oder über das +Seelenleben der Pflanzen_ (1848, 3rd ed., 1903); _Zendavesta, oder_ +_über die Dinge des Himmels und des Jenseits_ (1851, 2nd ed. by +Lasswitz, 1901); _Über die physikalische und philosophische Atomenlehre_ +(1853, 2nd ed., 1864); _Elemente der Psychophysik_ (1860, 2nd ed., +1889); _Vorschule der Ästhetik_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1898); _Die Tagesansicht +gegenüber der Nachtansicht_ (1879). He also published chemical and +physical papers, and translated chemical works by J.B. Biot and L.J. +Thénard from the French. A different but essential side of his character +is seen in his poems and humorous pieces, such as the _Vergleichende +Anatomie der Engel_ (1825), written under the pseudonym of "Dr Mises." +Fechner's epoch-making work was his _Elemente der Psychophysik_ (1860). +He starts from the Spinozistic thought that bodily facts and conscious +facts, though not reducible one to the other, are different sides of one +reality. His originality lies in trying to discover an exact +mathematical relation between them. The most famous outcome of his +inquiries is the law known as Weber's or Fechner's law which may be +expressed as follows:--"In order that the intensity of a sensation may +increase in arithmetical progression, the stimulus must increase in +geometrical progression." Though holding good within certain limits +only, the law has been found immensely useful. Unfortunately, from the +tenable theory that the intensity of a sensation increases by definite +additions of stimulus, Fechner was led on to postulate a unit of +sensation, so that any sensation S might be regarded as composed of n +units. Sensations, he argued, thus being representable by numbers, +psychology may become an "exact" science, susceptible of mathematical +treatment. His general formula for getting at the number of units in any +sensation is S = C log R, where S stands for the sensation, R for the +stimulus numerically estimated, and C for a constant that must be +separately determined by experiment in each particular order of +sensibility. This reasoning of Fechner's has given rise to a great mass +of controversy, but the fundamental mistake in it is simple. Though +stimuli are composite, sensations are not. "Every sensation," says +Professor James, "presents itself as an indivisible unit; and it is +quite impossible to read any clear meaning into the notion that they are +masses of units combined." Still, the idea of the exact measurement of +sensation has been a fruitful one, and mainly through his influence on +Wundt, Fechner was the father of that "new" psychology of laboratories +which investigates human faculties with the aid of exact scientific +apparatus. Though he has had a vast influence in this special +department, the disciples of his general philosophy are few. His +world-conception is highly animistic. He feels the thrill of life +everywhere, in plants, earth, stars, the total universe. Man stands +midway between the souls of plants and the souls of stars, who are +angels. God, the soul of the universe, must be conceived as having an +existence analogous to men. Natural laws are just the modes of the +unfolding of God's perfection. In his last work Fechner, aged but full +of hope, contrasts this joyous "daylight view" of the world with the +dead, dreary "night view" of materialism. Fechner's work in aesthetics +is also important. He conducted experiments to show that certain +abstract forms and proportions are naturally pleasing to our senses, and +gave some new illustrations of the working of aesthetic association. +Fechner's position in reference to predecessors and contemporaries is +not very sharply defined. He was remotely a disciple of Schelling, +learnt much from Herbart and Weisse, and decidedly rejected Hegel and +the monadism of Lotze. + + See W. Wundt, _G. Th. Fechner_ (Leipzig, 1901); A. Elsas, "Zum + Andenken G. Th. Fechners," in _Grenzbote_, 1888; J.E. Kuntze, _G. Th. + Fechner_ (Leipzig, 1892); Karl Lasswitz, _G. Th. Fechner_ (Stuttgart, + 1896 and 1902); E.B. Titchener, _Experimental Psychology_ (New York, + 1905); G.F. Stout, _Manual of Psychology_ (1898), bk. ii. ch. vii.; R. + Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Phil._ (Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 601 foll.; + H. Höffding, _Hist. of Mod. Phil._ (Eng. trans., 1900), vol. ii. pp. + 524 foll.; Liebe, _Fechners Metaphysik, im Umriss dargestellt_ (1903). + (H. St.) + + + + +FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT (1824-1879), Anglo-French actor, was born, +probably in London, on the 23rd of October 1824, of French parents, +although his mother was of Piedmontese and his father of German +extraction. The boy would probably have devoted himself to a sculptor's +life but for the accident of a striking success made in some private +theatricals. The result was an engagement in 1841 to play in a +travelling company that was going to Italy. The tour was a failure, and +the company broke up; whereupon Fechter returned home and worked +assiduously at sculpture. At the same time he attended classes at the +Conservatoire with the view of gaining admission to the Comédie +Française. Late in 1844 he won the grand medal of the Académie des +Beaux-Arts with a piece of sculpture, and was admitted to make his debut +at the Comédie Française as Seide in Voltaire's _Mahomet_ and Valère in +Molière's _Tartuffe_. He acquitted himself with credit; but, tired of +the small parts he found himself condemned to play, returned again to +his sculptor's studio in 1846. In that year he accepted an engagement to +play with a French company in Berlin, where he made his first decisive +success as an actor. On his return to Paris in the following year he +married the actress Eléonore Rabut (d. 1895). Previously he had appeared +for some months in London, in a season of French classical plays given +at the St James's theatre. In Paris for the next ten years he fulfilled +a series of successful engagements at various theatres, his chief +triumph being his creation at the Vaudeville on the 2nd of February 1852 +of the part of Armand Duval in _La Dame aux camélias_. For nearly two +years (1857-1858) Fechter was manager of the Odéon, where he produced +_Tartuffe_ and other classical plays. Having received tempting offers to +act in English at the Princess's theatre, London, he made a diligent +study of the language, and appeared there on the 27th of October 1860 in +an English version of Victor Hugo's Ruy Blas. This was followed by _The +Corsican Brothers_ and _Don César de Bazan_; and on the 20th of March +1861 he first attempted _Hamlet_. The result was an extraordinary +triumph, the play running for 115 nights. This was followed by +_Othello_, in which he played alternately the Moor and Iago. In 1863 he +became lessee of the Lyceum theatre, which he opened with _The Duke's +Motto_; this was followed by _The King's Butterfly_, _The Mountebank_ +(in which his son Paul, a boy of seven, appeared), _The Roadside Inn_, +_The Master of Ravenswood_, _The Corsican Brothers_ (in the original +French version, in which he had created the parts of Louis and Fabian +dei Franchi) and _The Lady of Lyons_. After this he appeared at the +Adelphi (1868) as Obenreizer in _No Thoroughfare_, by Charles Dickens +and Wilkie Collins, as Edmond Dantes in _Monte Cristo_, and as Count de +Leyrac in _Black and White_, a play in which the actor himself +collaborated with Wilkie Collins. In 1870 he visited the United States, +where (with the exception of a visit to London in 1872) he remained till +his death. His first appearance in New York was at Niblo's Garden in the +title rôle of _Ruy Blas_. He played in the United States between 1870 +and 1876 in most of the parts in which he had won his chief triumphs in +England, making at various times attempts at management, rarely +successful, owing to his ungovernable temper. The last three years of +his life were spent in seclusion on a farm which he had bought at +Rockland Centre, near Quakertown, Pennsylvania, where he died on the 5th +of August 1879. A bust of the actor by himself is in the Garrick Club, +London. + + + + +FECKENHAM, JOHN (c. 1515-1584), English ecclesiastic, last abbot of +Westminster, was born at Feckenham, Worcestershire, of ancestors who, by +their wills, seem to have been substantial yeomen. The family name was +Howman, but, according to the English custom, Feckenham, on monastic +profession, changed it for the territorial name by which he is always +known. Learning his letters first from the parish priest, he was sent at +an early age to the claustral school at Evesham and thence, in his +eighteenth year, to Gloucester Hall, Oxford, as a Benedictine student. +After taking his degree in arts, he returned to the abbey, where he was +professed; but he was at the university again in 1537 and took his B.D. +on the 11th of June 1539. Returning to Evesham he was there when the +abbey was surrendered to the king (27th of January 1540); and then, with +a pension of £10 a year, he once more went back to Oxford, but soon +after became chaplain to Bishop Bell of Worcester and then served Bonner +in that same capacity from 1543 to 1549. In 1544 Bonner gave him the +living of Solihull; and Feckenham established a reputation as a preacher +and a disputant of keen intellect but unvarying charity. About 1549 +Cranmer sent him to the Tower of London, and while there "he was +borrowed out of prison" to take part in seven public disputations +against Hooper, Jewel and others. Released by Queen Mary (5th of +September 1553), he returned to Bonner and became prebendary of St +Paul's, rector of Finchley, then of Greenford Magna, chaplain and +confessor to the queen, and dean of St Paul's (10th of March 1554). He +took part, with much charity and mildness, in the Oxford disputes +against Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley; but he had no liking for the fierce +bigotry and bloody measures then in force against Protestants. Feckenham +used all his influence with Mary "to procure pardon of the faults or +mitigation of the punishment for poor Protestants" (Fuller), and he was +sent by the queen to prepare Lady Jane Grey for death. When Elizabeth +was sent to the Tower (18th of March 1554), Feckenham interceded for her +life and liberty, even at the cost of displeasing the queen. + +The royal abbey of Westminster having been restored to its primitive +use, Feckenham was appointed abbot, and the old life began again within +its hallowed walls on the 21st of November 1556. The abbey school was +reopened and the shrine of St Edward restored. On the accession of +Elizabeth Feckenham consistently opposed all the legislation for changes +in religion, and, when the hour of trial came, he refused the oath of +supremacy, rejecting also Elizabeth's offer to remain with his monks at +Westminster if he would conform to the new laws. The abbey was dissolved +(12th of July 1559), and within a year Feckenham was sent by Archbishop +Parker to the Tower (20th of May 1560), according to Jewel, "for having +obstinately refused attendance on public worship and everywhere +declaiming and railing against that religion which we now profess" +(Parker Society, first series, p. 79). Henceforth, except for some brief +periods when he was a prisoner at large, Feckenham spent the rest of his +life in confinement either in some recognized prison, or in the more +distasteful and equally rigorous keeping of the bishops of Winchester +and Ely. After fourteen years' confinement, he was released on bail and +lived in Holborn, where his benevolence was shown by all manner of works +of charity. "He relieved the poor wheresoever he came, so that flies +flock not thicker to spilt honey than beggars constantly crowd about +him" (Fuller). He set up a public aqueduct in Holborn, and a hospice for +the poor at Bath; he distributed every day to the sick the milk of +twelve cows, took care of orphans, and encouraged manly sports on +Sundays among the youth of London by giving prizes. In 1577 he was +committed to the care of Cox of Ely with strict rules for his treatment; +and the bishop (1578) could find no fault with him except that "he was a +gentle person but in the popish religion too, too obstinate." In 1580 he +was removed to Wisbeach Castle, and there exercised such an influence of +charity and peace among his fellow-prisoners that was remembered when, +in after years, the notorious Wisbeach Stirs broke out under the Jesuit +Weston. Even here Feckenham found a means of doing public good; at his +own cost he repaired the road and set up a market cross in the town. +After twenty-four years of suffering for his conscience he died in +prison and was buried in an unknown grave in the parish church at +Wisbeach on the 16th of October 1584. + + The fullest account of Feckenham is to be found in E. Taunton's + _English Black Monks of St Benedict_ (London, 1897), vol. i. pp. + 160-222. (E. Tn.) + + + + +FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAVLOVICH (1844-1873), Russian naturalist and +traveller, well known for his explorations in central Asia, was born at +Irkutsk, in Siberia, on the 7th of February 1844; and, after attending +the gymnasium of his native town, proceeded to the university of Moscow, +for the study more especially of zoology and geology. In 1868 he +travelled through Turkestan, the district of the lower Syr-Darya and +Samarkand; and shortly after his return he set out for Khokand, where he +visited a large portion of territory till then unknown. Soon after his +return to Europe he perished on Mont Blanc while engaged in an +exploring tour in Switzerland, on the 15th of September 1873. + + Accounts of the explorations and discoveries of Fedchenko have been + published by the Russian government,--his _Journeys in Turkestan_ in + 1874, _In the Khanat of Khokand_ in 1875, and _Botanical Discoveries_ + in 1876. See Petermann's _Mittheilungen_ (1872-1874). + + + + +FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (Lat. _foedus_, a league), a form of government of +which the essential principle is that there is a union of two or more +states under one central body for certain permanent common objects. In +the most perfect form of federation the states agree to delegate to a +supreme federal government certain powers or functions inherent in +themselves in their sovereign or separate capacity, and the federal +government, in turn, in the exercise of those specific powers acts +directly, not only on the communities making up the federation, but on +each individual citizen. So far as concerns the residue of powers +unallotted to the central or federal authority, the separate states +retain unimpaired their individual sovereignty, and the citizens of a +federation consequently owe a double allegiance, one to the state, and +the other to the federal government. They live under two sets of laws, +the laws of the state and the laws of the federal government (J. Bryce, +_Studies in History and Jurisprudence_, ii. 490). The word +"confederation," as distinct from "federation" has been sometimes, +though not universally, used to distinguish from such a federal state +(_Bundesstaat_) a mere union of states (_Staatenbund_) for mutual aid, +and the promotion of interests common to all (see CONFEDERATION). + +The history of federal government practically begins with Greece. This, +however, is due to the fact that the Greek federations are the only ones +of which we have any detailed information. The obvious importance, +especially to scattered villages or tribes, of systematic joint action +in the face of a common danger makes it reasonable to infer that +federation in its elementary forms was a widespread device. This view is +strengthened by what we can gather of the conditions obtaining in such +districts as Aetolia, Acarnania and Samnium, as in modern times among +primitive peoples and tribes. The relatively detailed information which +we possess concerning the federal governments of Greece makes it +necessary to pay special attention to them. + +In ancient Greece the most striking tendency of political development +was the maintenance of separate city states, each striving for absolute +autonomy, though all spoke practically the same language and shared to +some extent in the same traditions, interests and dangers. This +centrifugal tendency is most marked in the cases of the more important +states, Athens, Sparta, Argos, Corinth, but Greek history is full of +examples of small states deliberately sacrificing what must have been +obvious commercial advantage for the sake of a precarious autonomy. Such +examples as existed of even semi-federal union were very loose in +structure, and the selfishness of the component units was the +predominant feature. Thus the Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese was +not really a federation except in the broadest sense. The states did, it +is true, meet occasionally for discussion, but their relation, which had +no real existence save in cases of immediate common danger, was really +that between a paramount leader and unwilling and suspicious allies. The +Athenian empire again was a thinly disguised autocracy. The synod (see +DELIAN LEAGUE) of the "allies" soon degenerated into a mere form; of +comprehensive united policy there was none, at all events after the +League had achieved its original purpose of expelling the Persians from +Europe. + +None the less it is possible, even in the early days of political +development in Greece, to find some traces of a tendency towards united +action. Thus the unions of individual villages, known as synoecisms, +such as took place in Attica and Elis in early times were partly of a +federal character: they resulted in the establishment of a common +administration, and no doubt in some degree of commercial and military +unity. On the other hand, it is likely that these unions lacked the +characteristic of federation in that the units could hardly be described +as having any sovereign power: at the most they had some municipal +autonomy as in the case of the Cleisthenic demes. The union was rather +national than federal. Again the Amphictyonic unions had one of the +characteristic elements of federation, namely that they were free +sovereign states combining for a particular purpose with an elaborate +system of representation (see AMPHICTYONY). But these unions, at all +events in historic times, were mainly concerned with religion, and the +authority of the councils did not seriously affect the autonomy of the +individual states. + +Thus among the city-states as well as among scattered villages the +principle of cohesion was not unknown. On the other hand the golden mean +between an easily dissoluble relationship, more like an alliance than a +federation, and a national system resulting from synoecism was +practically never attained in early Greek history. There are, however, +examples in Greece proper, and one, Lycia in Asia Minor, of real federal +unions. The chief Greek federations were those of Thessaly, Boeotia, +Acarnania, Olynthus, Arcadia, Aetolia, Achaea, the most important as +well as the most complete in respect of organization being the Aetolian +League and the Achaean League. + +1. The Thessalian League originated in the deliberate choice by village +aristocracies of a single monarch who belonged from time to time to +several of the so-called Heracleid families. Soon after the Persian War +this monarchy (dynasty of the Aleuadae, Herod, v. 63 and vii. 6) +disappeared, and in 424 we find Athens in alliance with a sort of +democratic federal council representing [Greek: to koinon thettalôn] +(cf. Thuc. i. 102, ii. 22, iv. 78), and probably composed of delegates +from the towns. The local feudal nobles, however, seem to have put an +end to this government by council, and a dictator (_tagus_) was +appointed, with authority over the whole military force of the +federation. Three such officers, Lycophron, Jason and Alexander, all of +Pherae, endeavoured vainly to administer the collective affairs of the +federation, the last by means of a revived republican council. The final +failure of this scheme coincided with the disappearance of Thessaly as a +sovereign state (see THESSALY). + +2. The form and the history of the Boeotian federation are treated fully +under Boeotia (q.v.). It may probably have originated in religious +associations, but the guiding power throughout was the imperial policy +of Thebes, especially during its short-lived supremacy after 379 B.C. + +3. The federation of Acarnania is of peculiar interest as being formed +by scattered villages or tribes, without settled, still less fortified, +habitation. In the early part of the 4th century a [Greek: koinon tôn +Akarnanôn] met at Stratus (Xen. _Hell._ iv. 6. 4). Late in the same +century towns began to form, without, however, disturbing the +federation, which existed as late as the 2nd century B.C., governed by a +representative council ([Greek: boula]), and a common assembly ([Greek: +koinon]) at which any citizen might be present. + +4. The foundation of the Olynthian federation was due to the need of +protection against the northern invaders (see OLYNTHUS). It was in many +respects based on liberal principles, but Olynthus did not hesitate to +exercise force against recalcitrants such as Acanthus. + +5. The 4th century Arcadian league, which was no doubt a revival of an +older federation, was the result of the struggle for supremacy between +Thebes and Sparta. The defeat of Sparta at Leuctra removed the pressure +which had kept separate the Arcadian tribes, and [Greek: to koinon tôn +Arkadôn] was established in the new city, Megalopolis (q.v., also +Arcadia). + +6 and 7. The Aetolian and Achaean leagues (see AETOLIA, and ACHAEAN +LEAGUE) were in all respects more important than the preceding and +constitute a new epoch in European politics. Both belong to a period in +Greek history when the great city states had exhausted themselves in the +futile struggle against Macedon and Rome, and both represent a conscious +popular determination in the direction of systematic government. This +characteristic is curious in the Aetolian tribes which were famous in +all time for habitual brigandage; there was, however, among them the +strong link of a racial feeling. The governing council ([Greek: to +koinon tôn Aitôlôn]) was the permanent representative body; there was +also a popular assembly ([Greek: panaitôlikon]), partly of a primary, +partly of a representative kind, any one being free to attend, but each +state having only one official representative and one vote. Of all the +federal governments of Greece, this league was the most certainly +democratic in constitution. There was a complete system of federal +officers, at the head of whom was a Strategus entrusted with powers both +military and civil. This officer was annually elected, and, though the +chief executive authority, was strictly limited in the federal +deliberations to presidential functions (cf. Livy xxxv. 25, "ne praetor, +quum de bello consuluisset, ipse sententiam diceret"). The Achaean +League was likewise highly organized; joint action was strictly limited, +and the individual cities had sovereign power over internal affairs. +There were federal officers, all the military forces of the cities were +controlled by the league, and federal finance was quite separate from +city finance. + +8. Of the Lycian federation, its origin and duration, practically +nothing is known. We know of it in 188-168 B.C. as dependent on Rhodes, +and, from 168 till the time when the emperor Claudius absorbed it in the +provincial system, as an independent state under Roman protection. The +federation was a remarkable example of a typical Hellenic development +among a non-Hellenic people. Strabo (p. 665) informs us that the +federation, composed of twenty-three cities, was governed by a council +([Greek: koinon synedrion]) which assembled from time to time at that +city which was most convenient for the purpose in hand. The cities were +represented according to size by one, two or three delegates, and bore +proportionate shares in financial responsibility. The Lycian league was, +therefore, in this respect rather national than federal. + +Of ancient federal government outside Greece we know very little. The +history of Italy supplies a few examples, of which the chief is perhaps +the league of the cities of Latium (q.v.; see also ETRURIA). + + See E.A. Freeman, _Federal Government in Greece and Rome_ (2nd ed., + 1893, J.B. Bury), and works quoted in the special articles. + +Among the later European confederations the Swiss republic is one of the +most interesting. As now constituted it consists of twenty-two sovereign +states or cantons. The government is vested in two legislative chambers, +a senate or council of state (_Ständerat_), and a national council +(_Nationalrat_), constituting unitedly the federal assembly. The +executive council (_Bundesrat_) of seven members elects the president +and vice-president for a term of three years (see SWITZERLAND: +_GOVERNMENT_). Before the French Revolution the German empire was a +complex confederation, with the states divided into electoral colleges, +consisting--(1) of the ecclesiastical electors and of the secular +electors, including the king of Bohemia; (2) of the spiritual and +temporal princes of the empire next in rank to the electors; and (3) of +the free imperial cities. The emperor was elected by the first college +alone. This imposing confederation came to an end by the conquests of +Napoleon; and the Confederation of the Rhine was established in 1806 +with the French emperor as protector. But in 1815 the Germanic +confederation (_Deutscher Bund_) was established by the congress of +Vienna, which in its turn has been displaced by the present German +empire. This, in its new organization, conferred on Germany the +long-coveted unity and coherence the lack of which had been a source of +weakness. The constitution dates, in its latest form, from the treaties +entered into at Versailles in 1871. A federation was then organized with +the king of Prussia as president, under the hereditary title of German +emperor. Delegates of the various federated governments form the +Bundesrath; the Reichstag, or popular assembly, is directly chosen by +the people by universal suffrage; and the two assemblies constitute the +federal parliament. This body has power to legislate for the whole +empire in reference to all matters connected with the army, navy, postal +service, customs, coinage, &c., all political laws affecting citizens, +and all general questions of commerce, navigation, passports, &c. The +emperor represents the federation in all international relations, with +the chancellor as first minister of the empire, and has power, with +consent of the Bundesrath, to declare war in name of the empire. + +The United States of America more nearly resembles the Swiss +confederacy, though retaining marks of its English origin. The original +thirteen states were colonies wholly independent of each other. By the +Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union adopted by the Continental +Congress in 1777, and in effect in 1781-1789, the states bound +themselves in a league of common defence. By the written Constitution, +drafted in 1787 and in operation since 1789, a stronger and more +centralized union was established--in theory a federal republic formed +by the voluntary combination of sovereign states. A common citizenship +was recognized for the whole union; but the federal government was to +exercise only such powers as were expressly delegated to it (Amendment +of 1791). The powers of the central government are entrusted to three +distinct authorities--executive, legislative and judicial. The +president, elected for a term of four years by electors chosen for that +purpose by each state, is the executive head of the republic. The +vice-president, _ex officio_ president of the Senate, assumes the +presidency in case of resignation or death. Legislative power is vested +in a Congress, consisting of two Houses: a Senate, composed of two +members elected by each state for a term of six years; and a House of +Representatives, consisting of representatives in numbers proportionate +to the population of each state, holding their seats for two years. The +supreme judicial authority is vested in a Supreme Court, which consists +of a chief justice and eight associate justices, all appointed for life +by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. + +The extension of responsible constitutional government by Great Britain +to her chief colonies, under a governor or viceregal representative of +the crown, has been followed in British North America by the union of +the Canadian, maritime and Pacific provinces under a federal +government--with a senate, the members of which are nominated by the +crown, and a house of commons elected by the different provinces +according to their relative population. The governor-general is +appointed by the crown for a term of five years, and represents the +sovereign in all matters of federal government. The lieutenant-governors +of the provinces are nominated by him; and all local legislation is +carried on by the provincial parliaments. The remarkable federation of +the Dominion of Canada which was thus originated presented the unique +feature of a federal union of provinces practically exercising sovereign +rights in relation to all local self-government, and sustaining a +constitutional autonomy, while cherishing the colonial relationship to +Great Britain. + +The Commonwealth of Australia (q.v.), proclaimed in 1901, is another +interesting example of self-governing states federating into a united +whole. There is, however, a striking difference to be observed in the +powers of the federal governments of Canada and Australia. The federal +parliament of Canada has jurisdiction over all matters not specially +assigned to the local legislatures, while the federal parliament of +Australia has only such jurisdiction as is expressly vested in it or is +not expressly withdrawn from the local legislatures. This jurisdiction +is undoubtedly extensive, comprising among others, power to legislate +concerning trade and industry, criminal law, taxation, quarantine, +marriage and divorce, weights and measures, legal tender, copyrights and +patents, and naturalization and aliens. There was also an early attempt +to federate the South African colonies, and an act was passed for that +purpose (South African Act 1877), but it expired on the 18th of August +1882, without having been brought into effect by the sovereign in +council; in 1908, however, the Closer Union movement (see SOUTH AFRICA) +ripened, and in 1909 a federating Act was successfully passed. + + See also Bluntschli, _The Theory of the State_; W. Wilson, _The + State_; Wheaton, _International Law_. + + + + +FEDERALIST PARTY, in American politics, the party that organized the +national government of the United States under the constitution of 1787. +It may be regarded as, in various important respects, the lineal +predecessor of the American Whig and Republican parties. The name +_Federalists_ (see ANTI-FEDERALISTS) was first given to those who +championed the adoption of the Constitution. They brought to the support +of that instrument "the areas of intercourse and wealth" (Libby), the +influence of the commercial towns, the greater planters, the army +officers, creditors and property-holders generally,--in short, of +interests that had felt the evils of the weak government of the +Confederation,--and also of some few true nationalists (few, because +there was as yet no general national feeling), actuated by political +principles of centralization independently of motives of expediency and +self-interest. Most of the Federalists of 1787-1788 became members of +the later Federalist Party. + +The Federalist Party, which may be regarded as definitely organized +practically from 1791, was led, leaving Washington aside, by Alexander +Hamilton (q.v.) and John Adams. A nationalization of the new central +government to the full extent warranted by a broad construction of the +powers granted to it by the constitution, and a correspondingly strict +construction of the powers reserved to the states and the citizens, were +the basic principles of Hamilton's policy. The friends of individual +liberty and local government naturally found in the assumption by the +central government of even the minimum of its granted powers constant +stimulus to their fears (see DEMOCRATIC PARTY); while the financial +measures of Hamilton--whose wish for extreme centralization was nowise +satisfied by the government actually created in 1787--were calculated to +force an immediate and firm assumption by that government, to the limit, +of every power it could be held to possess. To the Republicans +(Democratic Republicans) they seemed intended to cause a usurpation of +powers ungranted. Hence these measures became the issues on which the +first American parties were formed. Their effect was supplemented by the +division into French and British sympathizers; the Republicans approving +the aims and condoning the excesses of the French Revolution, the +Federalists siding with British reaction against French democracy. The +Federalists controlled the government until 1801. They, having the great +opportunity of initiative, organized it in all its branches, giving it +an administrative machinery that in the main endures to-day; established +the doctrine of national neutrality toward European conflicts (although +the variance of Federalist and Republican opinion on this point was +largely factitious); and fixed the practice of a liberal construction of +the Constitution,[1]--not only by Congress, but above all by the United +States Supreme Court, which, under the lead of John Marshall (who had +been appointed chief-justice by Pres. John Adams), impressed enduringly +on the national system large portions of the Federalist doctrine. These +are the great claims of the party to memory. After 1801 it never +regained power. In attempts to do so, alike in national and in state +politics, it impaired its morale by internal dissension, by intrigues, +and by inconsistent factious opposition to Democratic measures on +grounds of ultra-strict construction. It took up, too, the Democratic +weapon of states' rights, and in New England carried sectionalism +dangerously near secession in 1808, and in 1812-1814, during the +movement, in opposition to the war of 1812, which culminated in the +Hartford Convention (see HARTFORD). It lost, more and more, its +influence and usefulness, and by 1817 was practically dead as a national +party, although in Massachusetts it lingered in power until 1823. It is +sometimes said that Federalism died because the Republicans took over +its principles of nationality. Rather it fell because its great leaders, +John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, became bitter enemies; because +neither was even distantly comparable to Jefferson as a party leader; +because the party could not hold the support of its original commercial, +manufacturing and general business elements; because the party opposed +sectionalism to a growing nationalism on the issues that ended in the +war of 1812; and, above all, because the principles of the party's +leaders (e.g. of Hamilton) were out of harmony, in various respects, +with American ideals. Their conservatism became increasingly a +reactionary fear of democracy; indeed, it is not a strained construction +of the times to regard the entire Federalist period from the American +point of view as reactionary--a reaction against the doctrines of +natural rights, individualism, and states' rights, and the financial +looseness of the period of the War of Independence and the succeeding +years of the Confederation. The Federalists were charged by the +Republicans with being aristocrats and monarchists, and it is certain +that their leaders (who were really a very remarkable body of men) +distrusted democratic government; that their Sedition Law was outrageous +in itself, and (as well as the Alien Law) bad as a party measure; that +in disputes with Great Britain they were true English Tories when +contrasted with the friendly attitude toward America held by many +English Liberals; and that they persisted in New England as a +pro-British, aristocratic social-cult long after they lost effective +political influence. In short, the country was already thoroughly +democratic in spirit, while Federalism stood for obsolescent social +ideas and was infected with political "Toryism" fatally against the +times. + + Besides the standard general histories see O.G. Libby, _Geographical + Distribution of the Vote of the Thirteen States on the Federal + Constitution_, 1787-1788 (Madison, Wis., 1894); the _Memoirs_ of + Oliver Wolcott (ed. by Gibbs); C.D. Hazen, _Contemporary American + Opinion of the French Revolution_ ("J.H.U. Studies," Baltimore, 1897); + Henry Adams, _Documents relating to New England Federalism_, 1800-1815 + (Boston, 1878); A.E. Morse, _The Federalist Party in Massachusetts_ + (Princeton, N.J., 1909); and the biographies and writings of George + Cabot, Fisher Ames, Gouverneur Morris, John Jay, Rufus King, Timothy + Pickering, Theodore Sedgwick, C.C. Pinckney and J.A. Bayard. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Even the Democratic party has generally been liberal; although + less so in theory (hardly less so in practice) than its opponents. + + + + +FEDERICI, CAMILLO (1749-1802), Italian dramatist and actor, was born at +Garessio, a small town in Piedmont, on the 9th of April 1749. His real +name was Giovanni Battista Viassolo, and that by which he is now known +and which he transmitted to his children was taken from the title of one +of his first pieces, _Camillo e Federico_. He was educated at Turin, and +showed at an early age a great fondness for literature and especially +for the theatre. The praises bestowed on his early attempts determined +his choice of a career, and he obtained engagements with several +companies both as writer and actor. He made a happy marriage in 1777, +and soon after left the stage and devoted himself entirely to +composition. He settled at Padua, and the reputation of his numerous +comedies rapidly spread in Italy, and for a time seemed to eclipse that +of his predecessors. Most of his pieces were of the melodramatic class, +and he too often resorted to the same means of exciting interest and +curiosity. He caught, however, something of the new spirit which was +manifesting itself in German dramatic literature in the works of +Schiller, Iffland and Kotzebue, and the moral tone of his plays is +generally healthy. Fortune did not smile upon him; but he found a +helpful friend in a wealthy merchant of Padua, Francis Barisan, for +whose private theatre he wrote many pieces. He was attacked in 1791 with +a dangerous malady which disabled him for several years; and he had the +misfortune to see his works, in the absence of any copyright law, +published by others without his permission. At length, in 1802, he +undertook to prepare a collected edition; but of this four volumes only +were completed when he was again attacked with illness, and died at +Padua (December 23). + + The publication of his works was completed in 14 volumes in 1816. + Another edition in 26 volumes was published at Florence in 1826-1827. + A biographical memoir of Federici by Neymar appeared at Venice in + 1838. + + + + +FEE, an estate in land held of a superior lord on condition of the +performance of homage or service (see FEUDALISM). In English law "fee" +signifies an estate of inheritance (i.e. an estate descendable to the +heirs of the grantee so long as there are any in existence) as opposed +to an estate for life. It is divisible into three species: (1) fee +simple; (2) conditional fee; (3) fee tail. (See ESTATE.) A fee farm rent +is the rent reserved on granting a fee farm, i.e. land in fee simple, to +be held by the tenant and his heirs at a yearly rent. It is generally at +least one-fourth of the value of the land at the time of its +reservation. (See RENT.) + +The word "fee" has also the sense of remuneration for services, +especially the _honorarium_ paid to a doctor, lawyer or member of any +other profession. It is also used of a fixed sum paid for the right to +enter for an examination, or on admission to membership of a university +or other society. This sense of the word is taken by the _New English +Dictionary_ to be due to a use of "fee" in its feudal sense, and to +represent a sum paid to the holder of an office "in fee." + +The etymology of the Med. Lat. _feudum_, _feodum_ or _feum_, of its +French equivalent _fief_, and English "fee," in Scots law "feu" (q.v.), +is extremely obscure. (See the _New English Dictionary_, s.v. "Fee.") +There is a common Teutonic word represented in Old English as _feoh_ or +_féo_, in Old High German as _fehu_, meaning property in the shape of +cattle (cf. modern Ger. _Vieh_, Dutch _vee_). The old Aryan _péku_ gives +Sanskrit _paçu_, Lat. _pecus_, cattle, whence _pecunia_, money. The O. +Eng. _feoh_, in the sense of money, possibly survives in "fee," +honorarium, though this is not the view of the _New English Dictionary_. +The common explanation of the Med. Lat. _feudum_ or _feodum_, of which +Ducange (_Glossarium_, s.v.) gives an example from a constitution of the +emperor Charles the Fat of the year 884, is that it is formed from the +Teutonic _fehu_, property, and _ôd_, wealth (cf. ALLODIUM and UDAL). +This would apparently restrict the original meaning to movable property, +while the early applications of _feudum_ are to the enjoyment of +something granted in return for service (_beneficium_). Another theory +takes the origin to be _fehu_ alone, in a particular sense of wages, +payment for services. This leaves the _d-_ of _feudum_ unexplained. Some +have taken the origin to be a verbal form _feudare_ = _feum dare_. +Another theory finds the source in the O. High Ger. _fehôn_, to eat, +feed upon, "take for one's enjoyment." + + + + +FEHLING, HERMANN VON (1812-1885), German chemist, was born at Lübeck on +the 9th of June 1812. With the intention of taking up pharmacy he +entered Heidelberg University about 1835, and after graduating went to +Giessen as _préparateur_ to Liebig, with whom he elucidated the +composition of paraldehyde and metaldehyde. In 1839 on Liebig's +recommendation he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in the +polytechnic at Stuttgart, and held it till within three years of his +death, which happened at Stuttgart on the 1st of July 1885. His earlier +work included an investigation of succinic acid, and the preparation of +phenyl cyanide (benzonitrile), the simplest nitrile of the aromatic +series; but later his time was mainly occupied with questions of +technology and public health rather than with pure chemistry. Among the +analytical methods worked up by him the best known is that for the +estimation of sugars by "Fehling's solution," which consists of a +solution of cupric sulphate mixed with alkali and potassium-sodium +tartrate (Rochelle salt). He was a contributor to the _Handwörterbuch_ +of Liebig, Wöhler and Poggendorff, and to the Graham-Otto _Textbook of +Chemistry_, and for many years was a member of the committee of revision +of the _Pharmacopoeia Germanica_. + + + + +FEHMARN, an island of Germany, belonging to the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, in the Baltic, separated from the north-east corner +of Holstein by a strait known as the Fehmarn-Sund, less than a quarter +of a mile in breadth. It is a gently undulating tract of country, about +120 sq. m. in area, bare of forest but containing excellent +pasture-land, and rears cattle in considerable numbers. Pop. 10,000. + + + + +FEHMIC COURTS (Ger. _Femgerichte_, or _Vehmgerichte_, of disputed +origin, but probably, according to J. Grimm, from O. High Ger. _feme_ or +_feime_, a court of justice), certain tribunals which, during the middle +ages, exercised a powerful and sometimes sinister jurisdiction in +Germany, and more especially in Westphalia. Their origin is uncertain, +but is traceable to the time of Charlemagne and in all probability to +the old Teutonic free courts. They were, indeed, also known as free +courts (_Freigerichte_), a name due to the fact that all free-born men +were eligible for membership and also to the fact that they claimed +certain exceptional liberties. Their jurisdiction they owed to the +emperor, from whom they received the power of life and death +(_Blutbann_) which they exercised in his name. The sessions were often +held in secret, whence the names of secret court (_heimliches Gericht_, +_Stillgericht_, &c.); and these the uninitiated were forbidden to +attend, on pain of death, which led to the designation forbidden courts +(_verbotene Gerichte_). Legend and romance have combined to exaggerate +the sinister reputation of the Fehmic courts; but modern historical +research has largely discounted this, proving that they never employed +torture, that their sittings were only sometimes secret, and that their +meeting-places were always well known. They were, in fact, a survival of +an ancient and venerable German institution; and if, during a certain +period, they exercised something like a reign of terror over a great +part of Germany, the cause of this lay in the sickness of the times, +which called for some powerful organization to combat the growing feudal +anarchy. Such an organization the Westphalian free courts, with their +discipline of terror and elaborate system of secret service, were well +calculated to supply. Everywhere else the power of life and death, +originally reserved to the emperor alone, had been usurped by the +territorial nobles; only in Westphalia, called "the Red Earth" because +here the imperial blood-ban was still valid, were capital sentences +passed and executed by the Fehmic courts in the emperor's name alone. + +The system, though ancient, began to become of importance only after the +division of the duchy of Saxony on the fall of Henry the Lion, when the +archbishop of Cologne, duke of Westphalia from 1180 onwards, placed +himself as representative of the emperor at the head of the Fehme. The +organization now rapidly spread. Every free man, born in lawful wedlock, +and neither excommunicate nor outlaw, was eligible for membership. +Princes and nobles were initiated; and in 1429 even the emperor +Sigismund himself became "a true and proper _Freischöffe_ of the Holy +Roman Empire." By the middle of the 14th century these _Freischöffen_ +(Latin _scabini_), sworn associates of the Fehme, were scattered in +thousands throughout the length and breadth of Germany, known to each +other by secret signs and pass-words, and all of them pledged to serve +the summons of the secret courts and to execute their judgment. + +The organization of the Fehme was elaborate. The head of each centre of +jurisdiction (_Freistuhl_), often a secular or spiritual prince, +sometimes a civic community, was known as the _Stuhlherr_, the +archbishop of Cologne being, as stated above, supreme over all +(_Oberststuhlherr_). The actual president of the court was the +_Freigraf_ (free count) chosen for life by the _Stuhlherr_ from among +the _Freischöffen_, who formed the great body of the initiated. Of these +the lowest rank were the _Fronboten_ or _Freifronen_, charged with the +maintenance of order in the courts and the duty of carrying out the +commands of the _Freigraf_. The immense development of the Fehme is +explained by the privileges of the _Freischöffen_; for they were subject +to no jurisdiction but those of the Westphalian courts, whether as +accused or accuser they had access to the secret sessions, and they +shared in the discussions of the general chapter as to the policy of the +society. At their initiation these swore to support the Fehme with all +their powers, to guard its secrets, and to bring before its tribunal +anything within its competence that they might discover. They were then +initiated into the secret signs by which members recognized each other, +and were presented with a rope and with a knife on which were engraved +the mystic letters S.S.G.G., supposed to mean _Strick_, _Stein_, _Gras_, +_Grün_ (rope, stone, grass, green). + +The procedure of the Fehmic courts was practically that of the ancient +German courts generally. The place of session, known as the _Freistuhl_ +(free seat), was usually a hillock, or some other well-known and +accessible spot. The _Freigraf_ and _Schöffen_ occupied the bench, +before which a table, with a sword and rope upon it, was placed. The +court was held by day and, unless the session was declared secret, all +freemen, whether initiated or not, were admitted. The accusation was in +the old German form; but only a _Freischöffe_ could act as accuser. If +the offence came under the competence of the court, i.e. was punishable +by death, a summons to the accused was issued under the seal of the +_Freigraf_. This was not usually served on him personally, but was +nailed to his door, or to some convenient place where he was certain to +pass. Six weeks and three days' grace were allowed, according to the old +Saxon law, and the summons was thrice repeated. If the accused appeared, +the accuser stated the case, and the investigation proceeded by the +examination of witnesses as in an ordinary court of law. The judgment +was put into execution on the spot if that was possible. The secret +court, from whose procedure the whole institution has acquired its evil +reputation, was closed to all but the initiated, although these were so +numerous as to secure quasi-publicity; any one not a member on being +discovered was instantly put to death, and the members present were +bound under the same penalty not to disclose what took place. Crimes of +a serious nature, and especially those that were deemed unfit for +ordinary judicial investigation--such as heresy and witchcraft--fell +within its jurisdiction, as also did appeals by persons condemned in the +open courts, and likewise the cases before those tribunals in which the +accused had not appeared. The accused if a member could clear himself by +his own oath, unless he had revealed the secrets of the Fehme. If he +were one of the uninitiated it was necessary for him to bring forward +witnesses to his innocence from among the initiated, whose number varied +according to the number on the side of the accuser, but twenty-one in +favour of innocence necessarily secured an acquittal. The only +punishment which the secret court could inflict was death. If the +accused appeared, the sentence was carried into execution at once; if he +did not appear, it was quickly made known to the whole body, and the +_Freischöffe_ who was the first to meet the condemned was bound to put +him to death. This was usually done by hanging, the nearest tree serving +for gallows. A knife with the cabalistic letters was left beside the +corpse to show that the deed was not a murder. + +That an organization of this character should have outlived its +usefulness and issued in intolerable abuses was inevitable. With the +growing power of the territorial sovereigns and the gradual improvement +of the ordinary process of justice, the functions of the Fehmic courts +were superseded. By the action of the emperor Maximilian and of other +German princes they were, in the 16th century, once more restricted to +Westphalia, and here, too, they were brought under the jurisdiction of +the ordinary courts, and finally confined to mere police duties. With +these functions, however, but with the old forms long since robbed of +their impressiveness, they survived into the 19th century. They were +finally abolished by order of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, in +1811. The last _Freigraf_ died in 1835. + + AUTHORITIES.--P. Wigand, _Das Femgericht Westfalens_ (Hamm, 1825, 2nd + ed., Halle, 1893); L. Tross, _Sammlung merkwürdiger Urkunden für die + Geschichte der Femgerichte_ (Hanover, 1826); F.P. Usener, _Die frei- + und heimlichen Gerichte Westfalens_ (Frankfort, 1832); K.G. von + Wächter, _Beiträge zur deutschen Gesch., insbesondere ... des + deutschen Strafrechts_ (Tübingen, 1845); O. Wächter, F_emgerichte und + Hexenprozesse in Deutschland_ (Stuttgart, 1882); T. Lindner, _Die + Feme_ (Münster and Paderborn, 1888); F. Thudichum, _Femgericht und + Inquisition_ (Giessen, 1889) whose theory concerning the origin of the + _Fehme_ is combated in T. Lindner's _Der angebliche Ursprung der + Femgerichte aus der Inquisition_ (Paderborn, 1890). For works on + individual aspects see further Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde_ (ed. + Leipzig, 1906), p. 401; also _ib._ supplementary vol. (1907), p. 78. + + + + +FEHRBELLIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Rhine, +40 m. N.W. from Berlin on the railway to Neu-Ruppin. Pop. (1905) 1602. +It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church and some small +industries, among them that of wooden shoes. Fehrbellin is memorable in +history as the scene of the famous victory gained, on the 18th of June +1675, by the great elector, Frederick William of Prussia, over the +Swedes under Field-Marshal Wrangel. A monument was erected in 1879 on +the field of battle, near the village of Hakenberg, to commemorate this +great feat of arms. + + See A. von Witzleben and P. Hassel, _Zum 200-jährigen Gedenktag von + Fehrbellin_ (Berlin, 1875); G. Sello, "Fehrbellin," in _Deutsche + Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften_, vii.; M. Jähns, "Der Grosse + Kurfürst bei Fehrbellin, &c.," in _Hohenzollern Jahrbuch_, i. + + + + +FEIJÓO Y MONTENEGRO, BENITO JERÓNIMO (1676-1764), Spanish monk and +scholar was born at Santa María de Melias, near Orense, on the 8th of +October 1676. At the age of twelve he entered the Benedictine order, +devoted himself to study, and waged war against the superstition and +ignorance of his countrymen in the _Teatro crí-tico_ (1726-1739) and the +_Cartas eruditas_ (1742-1760). These exposures of a retrograde system +called forth embittered protests from narrow-minded patriots like +Salvador José Maner, and others; but the opposition was futile, and +Feijóo's services to the cause of knowledge were universally recognized +long before his death, which took place at Oviedo on the 26th of +September 1764. He was not a great genius, nor a writer of transcendent +merit; his name is connected with no important discovery, and his style +is undistinguished. But he uprooted many popular errors, awakened an +interest in scientific methods, and is justly regarded as the initiator +of educational reform in Spain. + + + + +FEITH, RHIJNVIS (1753-1824), Dutch poet, was born of an aristocratic +family at Zwolle, the capital of the province Overijssel, on the 7th of +February 1753. He was educated at Harderwijk and at the university of +Leiden, where he took his degree in 1770. In 1772 he settled at his +birthplace, and married. In 1780, in his twenty-seventh year, he became +burgomaster of Zwolle. He built a luxurious villa, which he named +Boschwijk, in the outskirts of the town, and there he lived in the +greatest comfort. His first important production was _Julia_, in 1783, a +novel written in emulation of _Werther_, and steeped in _Weltschmerz_ +and despair. This was followed by the tragedy of _Thirsa_ (1784); +_Ferdinand and Constantia_ (1785), another _Werther_ novel; and _The +Patriots_ (1784), a tragedy. Bilderdijk and other writers attacked his +morbid melancholy, and Johannes Kinker (1764-1845) parodied his novels, +but his vogue continued. In 1791 he published a tragedy of _Lady Jane +Grey_; in 1792 a didactic poem, _The Grave_, in four cantos; in 1793 +_Inez de Castro_; in 1796 to 1814 five volumes of _Odes and +Miscellaneous Poems_; and in 1802 _Old Age_, in six cantos. He died at +Zwolle on the 8th of February 1824. + + His works were collected (Rotterdam, 11 vols.) in 1824, with a + biographical notice by N.G. van Kampen. + + + + +FEJÉR, GYORGY (1766-1851), Hungarian author, was born on the 23rd of +April 1766, at Keszthely, in the county of Zala. He studied philosophy +at Pest, and theology at Pressburg; eventually, in 1808, he obtained a +theological professorship at Pest University. Ten years later (1818) he +became chief director of the educational circle of Raab, and in 1824 was +appointed librarian to the university of Pest. Fejér's works, which are +nearly all written either in Latin or Hungarian, exceed one hundred and +eighty in number. His most important work, _Codex diplomaticus Hungariae +ecclesiasticus ac civilis_, published from 1829 to 1844, in eleven +so-called tomes, really exceeds forty volumes. It consists of old +documents and charters from A.D. 104 to the end of 1439, and forms an +extraordinary monument of patient industry. This work and many others +relating to Hungarian national history have placed Fejér in the foremost +rank of Hungarian historians. He died on the 2nd of July 1851. His +latest works were _A Kunok eredete_ (_The Origin of the Huns_), and _A +politikai forradalmak okai_ (_The Causes of Political Revolutions_), +both published in 1850. The latter production, on account of its liberal +tendencies, was suppressed by the Austrian government. + + See _Magyar Irók: Életrajz-gyüjtemény_ (Pest, 1856), and _A Magyar + nemzeti irodalomtörténet vázlata_ (Pest, 1861). + + + + +FELANITX, or FELANICHE, a town of Spain, in the south-east of the island +of Majorca, Balearic Islands; about 5 m. inland from its harbour, Puerto +Colon. Pop. (1900) 11,294. A range of low hills intervenes between +Felanitx and the Mediterranean; upon one summit, the Puig de San +Sebastian, stands a Moorish castle with a remarkable series of +subterranean vaults. From the 3rd century B.C., and possibly for a +longer period, earthenware water-coolers and other pottery have been +manufactured in the town, and many of the vessels produced are +noteworthy for their beauty of form and antiquity of design. There is a +thriving trade in wine, fruit, wheat, cattle, brandy, chalk and soap. + + + + +FELDKIRCH, a small town in the Austrian province of the Vorarlberg, some +20 m. S. of the S. end of the Lake of Constance. It is situated in a +green hollow, on the Ill river, between the two narrow rocky gorges +through which it flows out into the broad valley of the Rhine. Hence, +though containing only about 4000 inhabitants (German-speaking and +Romanist), the town is of great military importance, since it commands +the entrance into Tirol from the west, over the Arlberg Pass (5912 ft.), +and has been the scene of many conflicts, the last in 1799, when the +French, under Oudinot and Masséna, were driven back by the Austrians +under Hotze and Jellachich. It is a picturesque little town, +overshadowed by the old castle of Schattenburg (now a poor-house), built +about 1200 by the count of Montfort, whose descendant in 1375 sold it to +the Habsburgs. The town contains many administrative offices, and is the +residence of a suffragan bishop, who acts as vicar-general of the +diocesan, the bishop of Brixen. Among the principal buildings are the +parish church, dating from 1487, and possessing a "Descent from the +Cross" (1521), which has been attributed to Holbein, the great Jesuit +educational establishment called "Stella Matutina," and a Capuchin +convent and church. There is a considerable amount of transit trade at +Feldkirch, which by rail is 11 m. from Buchs (Switzerland), through the +principality of Liechtenstein, 24 m. from Bregenz, and 99½ m. from +Innsbruck by tunnel beneath the Arlberg Pass. The town also possesses +numerous industrial establishments, such as factories for +cotton-spinning, weaving, bell-founding, dyeing, &c. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +FÉLIBIEN, ANDRÉ (1610-1695), sieur des Avaux et de Javercy, French +architect and historiographer, was born at Chartres in May 1619. At the +age of fourteen he went to Paris to continue his studies; and in 1647 he +was sent to Rome in the capacity of secretary of embassy to the Marquis +de Marueil. His residence at Rome he turned to good account by diligent +study of its ancient monuments, by examination of the literary treasures +of its libraries, and by cultivating the acquaintance of men eminent in +literature and in art, with whom he was brought into contact through his +translation of Cardinal Barberini's _Life of Pius V_. Among his friends +was Nicholas Poussin, whose counsels were of great value to him. On his +return to France he married, and was ultimately induced, in the hope of +employment and honours, to settle in Paris. Both Fouquet and Colbert in +their turn recognized his abilities; and he was one of the first members +(1663) of the Academy of Inscriptions. Three years later Colbert procured +him the appointment of historiographer to the king. In 1671 he was named +secretary to the newly-founded Academy of Architecture, and in 1673 +keeper of the cabinet of antiques in the palace of Brion. To these +offices was afterwards added by Louvois that of deputy controller-general +of roads and bridges. Félibien found time in the midst of his official +duties for study and research, and produced many literary works. Among +these the best and the most generally known is the _Entretiens sur les +vies et sur les ouvrages des plus excellents peintres anciens et +modernes_, which appeared in successive livraisons, the first in 1666, +and the fifth in 1688. It was republished with several additions at +Amsterdam in 1706, and again at Trévoux in 1725. Félibien wrote also +_Origine de la peinture_ (1660), _Principes de l'architecture, de la +sculpture, de la peinture_, &c. (1676-1690), and descriptions of +Versailles, of La Trappe, and of the pictures and statues of the royal +residences. Among other literary works, he edited the _Conférences_ of +the Academy of Painting, and translated the _Castle of the Soul_ from the +Spanish of St Theresa. His personal character commanded the highest +esteem, agreeing with the motto which he adopted--_Bene facere et vera +dicere_. He died in Paris on the 11th of June 1695. + +His son, Jean François Félibien (c. 1658-1733), was also an architect +who left a number of works on his subject; and a younger son, Michel +Félibien (c. 1666-1719), was a Benedictine of Saint Germain-des-Prés +whose fame rests on his _Histoire de l'abbaye royale de S. Denys en +France_, and also his _L'Histoire de la ville de Paris_ in 5 vols., a +work indispensable to the student of Paris. + + + + +FELIX, the name of five popes. + +FELIX I., pope from January 269 until his death in January 274. He has +been claimed as a martyr, and as such his name is given in the Roman +calendar and elsewhere, but his title to this honour is by no means +proved, and he has been probably confused with another bishop of the +same name. He appears in connexion with the dispute in the church of +Antioch between Paul of Samosata, who had been deprived of his bishopric +by a council of bishops for heresy, and his successor Domnus. Paul +refused to give way, and in 272 the emperor Aurelian was asked to decide +between the rivals. He ordered the church building to be given to the +bishop who was "recognized by the bishops of Italy and of the city of +Rome" (Felix). See Eusebius, _Hist. Ecc._ vii. 30. + +FELIX II., antipope, was in 356 raised from the archdeaconate of Rome to +the papal chair, when Liberius was banished by the emperor Constantius +for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against +Athanasius. His election was contrary to the wishes both of the clergy +and of the people, and the consecration ceremony was performed by +certain prelates belonging to the court. In 357 Constantius, at the +urgent request of an influential deputation of Roman ladies, agreed to +the release of Liberius on condition that he signed the semi-Arian +creed. Constantius also issued an edict to the effect that the two +bishops should rule conjointly, but Liberius, on his entrance into Rome +in the following year, was received by all classes with so much +enthusiasm that Felix found it necessary to retire at once from Rome. +Regarding the remainder of his life little is known, and the accounts +handed down are contradictory, but he appears to have spent the most of +it in retirement at his estate near Porto. He died in 365. + +FELIX III., pope, was descended from one of the most influential +families of Rome, and was a direct ancestor of Gregory the Great. He +succeeded Simplicius in the papal chair on the 2nd of March 483. His +first act was to repudiate the Henoticon, a deed of union, originating, +it is supposed, with Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, and published +by the emperor Zeno with the view of allaying the strife between the +Monophysites and their opponents in the Eastern church. He also +addressed a letter of remonstrance to Acacius; but the latter proved +refractory, and sentence of deposition was passed against him. As +Acacius, however, had the support of the emperor, a schism arose between +the Eastern and Western churches, which lasted for 34 years. Felix died +in 492. + +FELIX IV., pope, a native of Beneventum, was, on the death of John in +526, raised to the papal chair by the emperor Theodoric in opposition to +the wishes of the clergy and people. His election was followed by +serious riots. To prevent a recrudescence of these, Felix, on his +death-bed, thought it advisable to nominate his own successor. His +choice fell upon the archdeacon Boniface (pope as Boniface II.). But +this proceeding was contrary to all tradition and roused very serious +opposition. Out of two old buildings adapted by him to Christian +worship, Felix made the church of SS. Cosimo and Damiano, near the Via +Sacra. He died in September 530. + +FELIX V., the name taken by Amadeus (1383-1451), duke of Savoy, when he +was elected pope in opposition to Eugenius IV. in 1439. Amadeus was born +at Chambéry on the 4th of December 1383, and succeeded his father, +Amadeus VII., as count of Savoy in 1391. Having added largely to his +patrimonial possessions he became very powerful, and in 1416 the German +king Sigismund erected Savoy into a duchy; after this elevation Amadeus +added Piedmont to his dominions. Then suddenly, in 1434, the duke +retired to a hermitage at Ripaille, near Thonon, resigning his duchy to +his son Louis (d. 1465), although he seems to have taken some part in +its subsequent administration. It is said, but some historians doubt the +story, that, instead of leading a life of asceticism, he spent his +revenues in furthering his own luxury and enjoyment. In 1439, when Pope +Eugenius IV. was deposed by the council of Basel, Amadeus, although not +in orders, was chosen as his successor, and was crowned in the following +year as Felix V. In the stormy conflict between the rival popes which +followed, the German king, Frederick IV., after some hesitation sided +with Eugenius, and having steadily lost ground Felix renounced his claim +to the pontificate in 1449 in favour of Nicholas V., who had been +elected on the death of Eugenius. He induced Nicholas, however, to +appoint him as apostolic vicar-general in Savoy, Piedmont and other +parts of his own dominions, and to make him a cardinal. Amadeus died at +Geneva on the 7th of January 1451. + + + + +FELIX, a missionary bishop from Burgundy, sent into East Anglia by +Honorius of Canterbury (630-631). Under King Sigebert his mission was +successful, and he became first bishop of East Anglia, with a see at +Dunwich, where he died and was buried, 647-648. It is noteworthy that +the Irish monk Furseus preached in East Anglia at the same time, and +Bede notices the admiration of Felix for Aidan. + + See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer), ii. 15, iii. 18, 20, 25; _Saxon + Chronicle_ (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 636. + + + + +FELIX, of Urgella (fl. 8th century), Spanish bishop, the friend of +Elipandus and the propagator of his views in the great Adoptian +Controversy (see ADOPTIANISM). + + + + +FELIX, of Valois (1127-1212), one of the founders of the monastic order +of Trinitarians or Redemptionists, was born in the district of Valois, +France, on the 19th of April 1127. In early manhood he became a hermit +in the forest of Galeresse, where he remained till his sixty-first year, +when his disciple Jean de Matha (1160-1213) suggested to him the idea of +establishing an order of monks who should devote their lives to the +redemption of Christian captives from the Saracens. They journeyed to +Rome about the end of 1197, obtained the sanction of the pope, and on +their return to France founded the monastery of Cerfroi in Picardy. +Felix remained to govern and propagate the order, while Jean de Matha +superintended the foreign journeys. A subordinate establishment was also +founded by Felix in Paris near a chapel dedicated to St Mathurin, on +which account his monks were also called St Mathurins. He died at +Cerfroi on the 4th of November 1212, and was canonized. + + + + +FELIX, ANTONIUS, Roman procurator of Judaea (A.D. 52-60), in succession +to Ventidius Cumanus. He was a freedman either of the emperor +Claudius--according to which theory Josephus (_Antiq._ xx. 7) calls him +Claudius Felix--or more probably of the empress Antonia. On entering his +province he induced Drusilla, wife of Azizus of Homs (Emesa), to leave +her husband and live with him as his wife. His cruelty and +licentiousness, coupled with his accessibility to bribes, led to a great +increase of crime in Judaea. To put down the Zealots he favoured an even +more violent sect, the Sicarii ("Dagger-men"), by whose aid he contrived +the murder of the high-priest Jonathan. The period of his rule was +marked by internal feuds and disturbances, which he put down with +severity. The apostle Paul, after being apprehended in Jerusalem, was +sent to be judged before Felix at Caesarea, and kept in custody for two +years (Acts xxiv.). On returning to Rome, Felix was accused of having +taken advantage of a dispute between the Jews and Syrians of Caesarea to +slay and plunder the inhabitants, but through the intercession of his +brother, the freedman Pallas, who had great influence with the emperor +Nero, he escaped unpunished. + + See Tacitus, _Annals_, xx. 54, _Hist._ v. 9; Suetonius, _Claudius_, + 28; E. Schürer, _History of the Jewish People_ (1890-1891); article in + Hastings' _Dict. of the Bible_ (A. Robertson); commentaries on the + Acts of the Apostles; Sir W.M. Ramsay, _St Paul the Traveller_; Carl + v. Weizsäcker, _Apostolic Age_ (Eng. trans., 1894); art. JEWS. + + + + +FÉLIX, LIA (1830- ), French actress, was the third sister and the +pupil of the great Rachel. She had hardly been given any trial when, by +chance, she was called on to create the leading woman's part in +Lamartine's _Toussaint Louverture_ at the Porte St Martin on the 6th of +April 1850. The play did not make a hit, but the young actress was +favourably noticed, and several important parts were immediately +entrusted to her. She soon came to be recognized as one of the best +comediennes in Paris. Rachel took Lia to America with her to play second +parts, and on returning to Paris she played at several of the principal +theatres, although her health compelled her to retire for several years. +When she reappeared at the Gaiété in the title-rôle of Jules Barbier's +_Jeanne d'Arc_ she had an enormous success. + + + + +FELIXSTOWE, a seaside resort of Suffolk, England; fronting both to the +North Sea and to the estuary of the Orwell, where there are piers. Pop. +of urban district of Felixstowe and Walton (1901), 5815. It is 85 m. +N.E. by E. from London by a branch line from Ipswich of the Great +Eastern railway; and is in the Woodbridge parliamentary division of the +county. It has good golf links, and is much frequented by visitors for +its bracing climate and sea-bathing. There is a small dock, and +phosphate of lime is extensively dug in the neighbourhood and exported +for use as manure. The neighbouring village of Walton, a short distance +inland, receives many visitors. The vicinity has yielded numerous Roman +remains, and there was a Roman fort in the neighbourhood (now destroyed +by the sea), forming part of the coast defence of the Litus Saxonicum in +the 4th century. + + + + +FELL, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, son of Samuel Fell, dean of +Christ Church, Oxford, was born at Longworth in Berkshire and received +his first education at the free school at Thame in Oxfordshire. In 1636 +he obtained a studentship at Christ Church, and in 1640 he was specially +allowed by Archbishop Laud on account of his "known desert," when +wanting one term's residence, to proceed to his degree of B.A. He +obtained his M.A. in 1643 and took holy orders (deacon 1647, priest +1649). During the Civil War he bore arms for the king and held a +commission as ensign. In 1648 he was deprived of his studentship by the +parliamentary visitors, and during the next few years he resided chiefly +at Oxford with his brother-in-law, Dr T. Willis, at whose house opposite +Merton College he and his friends Allestree and Dolben kept up the +service of the Church of England through the Commonwealth. + +At the Restoration Fell was made prebendary of Chichester, canon of +Christ Church (July 27, 1660), dean (Nov. 30), master of St Oswald's +hospital, Worcester, chaplain to the king, and D.D. He filled the office +of vice-chancellor from 1666 to 1669, and was consecrated bishop of +Oxford, in 1676, retaining his deanery _in commendam_. Some years later +he declined the primacy of Ireland. Fell showed himself a most capable +and vigorous administrator in his various high employments, and a worthy +disciple of Archbishop Laud. He restored in the university the good +order instituted by the archbishop, which in the Commonwealth had given +place to anarchy and a general disregard of authority. He ejected the +intruders from his college or else "fixed them in loyal principles." "He +was the most zealous man of his time for the Church of England," says +Wood, "and none that I yet know of did go beyond him in the performance +of the rules belonging thereunto." He attended chapel four times a day, +restored to the services, not without some opposition, the organ and +surplice, and insisted on the proper academical dress which had fallen +into disuse. He was active in recovering church property, and by his +directions a children's catechism was drawn up by Thomas Marshall for +use in his diocese. "As he was among the first of our clergy," says +Burnet, "that apprehended the design of bringing in popery, so he was +one of the most zealous against it." He was forward in making converts +from the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists. On the other hand, it is +recorded to his honour that he opposed successfully the incorporation of +Titus Oates as D.D. in the university in October 1679; and according to +the testimony of William Nichols, his secretary, he disapproved of the +Exclusion Bill. He excluded the undergraduates, whose presence had been +irregularly permitted, from convocation. He obliged the students to +attend lectures, instituted reforms in the performances of the public +exercises in the schools, kept the examiners up to their duties, and +himself attended the examinations. He encouraged the students to act +plays. He entirely suppressed "_coursing_," i.e. disputations in which +the rival parties "ran down opponents in arguments," and which commonly +ended in blows and disturbances. He was an excellent disciplinarian and +possessed a special talent for the education of young men, many of whom +he received into his own family and watched over their progress with +paternal care. Tom Browne, author of the _Dialogues of the Dead_, about +to be expelled from Oxford for some offence, was pardoned by Fell on the +condition of his translating extempore the 33rd epigram from Martial:-- + + "Non amo te, Sabidi, nec possum dicere quare; + Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te." + +To which he immediately replied with the well-known lines:-- + + "I do not love you, Dr Fell, + But why, I cannot tell, + But this I know full well, + I do not love you, Dr Fell."[1] + +Delinquents, however, were not always treated thus mildly by Fell, and +Acton Cremer, for the crime of courting a wife while only a bachelor of +arts, was set as an imposition the translation into English of the whole +of Scheffer's history of Lapland. As vice-chancellor, Fell himself +visited the drinking taverns and ordered out the students. In the +university elections he showed great energy in suppressing corruption. + +Fell's building operations almost rivalled the plans of the great +ecclesiastical architects of the middle ages. In his own college he +completed in 1665 the north side of Wolsey's great quadrangle, already +begun by his father but abandoned during the Commonwealth; he rebuilt in +1672 the east side of the Chaplain's quadrangle "with a straight passage +under it leading from the cloister into the field," occupied now by the +new Meadow Buildings; the lodgings of the canon of the 3rd stall in the +passage uniting the Tom and Peckwater quadrangles (c. 1674); a long +building joining the Chaplain's quadrangle on the east side in +1677-1678; and lastly the great tower gate, begun in June 1681 on the +foundation laid by Wolsey and finished in November 1682, to which the +bell "great Tom," after being recast, was transferred from the cathedral +in 1683. In 1670 he planted and laid out the Broad Walk. He spent large +sums of his own on these works, gave £500 for the restoration of Banbury +church, erected a church at St Oswald's, Worcester, and the parsonage +house at Woodstock at his own expense, and rebuilt Cuddesdon palace. +Fell disapproved of the use of St Mary's church for secular purposes, +and promoted the building of the Sheldonian theatre by Archbishop +Sheldon. He was treasurer during its construction, presided at the +formal opening on the 9th of July 1669, and was nominated with Wren +curator in July 1670. In the theatre was placed the University Press, +the establishment of which had been a favourite project of Laud, which +now engaged a large share of Fell's energy and attention, and which as +curator he practically controlled. "Were it not you ken Mr Dean +extraordinarily well," writes Sir L. Jenkins to J. Williamson in 1672, +"it were impossible to imagine how assiduous and drudging he is about +his press."[2] He sent for type and printers from Holland, declaring +that "the foundation of all success must be laid in doing things well, +which I am sure will not be done with English letters." Many works, +including a Bible, editions of the classics and of the early fathers, +were produced under his direction and editing, and his press became +noted not only in England but abroad. He published annually one work, +generally a classical author annotated by himself, which he distributed +to all the students of his college on New Year's day. On one occasion he +surprised the Press in printing surreptitiously Aretino's _Postures_, +when he seized and destroyed the plates and impressions. Ever "an eager +defender and maintainer of the university and its privileges," he was +hostile to the Royal Society, which he regarded as a possible rival, and +in 1686 he gave an absolute refusal to Obadiah Walker, afterwards the +Roman Catholic master of University College, though licensed by James +II., to print books, declaring he would as soon "part with his bed from +under him" as his press. He conducted it on strict business principles, +and to the criticism that more great works were not produced replied +that they would not sell. He was, however, not free from fads, and his +new spelling (of which one feature was the substitution of _i_ for _y_ +in such words as _eies_, _daies_, _maiest_) met with great disapproval. + +Fell also did much to encourage learning in the university. While still +a young man at Christ Church he had shown both his zeal and his charity +by reading gratuitously with the poor and neglected students of the +college. He bore himself a high reputation as a Grecian, a Latinist and +a philologist, and he found time, in spite of his great public +employments, to bring out with the collaboration of others his great +edition of St Cyprian in 1682, an English translation of _The Unity of +the Church_ in 1681, editions of _Nemesius of Emesa_ (1671), of _Aratus +and of Eratosthenes_ (1672), _Theocritus_ (1676), _Alcinous on Plato_ +(1677), _St Clement's Epistles to the Corinthians_ (1677), _Athenagoras_ +(1682), _Clemens Alexandrinus_ (1683), _St Theophilus of Antioch_ +(1684), _Grammatica rationis sive institutiones logicae_ (1673 and +1685), and a critical edition of the New Testament in 1675. The first +volumes of _Rerum Anglicarum scriptores_ and of _Historiae Britannicae_, +&c. were compiled under his patronage in 1684. He had the MSS. of St. +Augustine in the Bodleian and other libraries at Oxford generously +collated for the use of the Benedictines at Paris, then preparing a new +edition of the father. + +Fell spent such large sums in his building, in his noble patronage of +learning, and in charities, that sometimes there was little left for his +private use. Occasionally in his schemes he showed greater zeal than +prudence. He was the originator of a mission to India which was warmly +taken up by the East India Company. He undertook himself to train as +missionaries four scholars at Oxford, procured a set of Arabic types, +and issued from these the Gospels and Acts in the Malay language in +1677. But this was scarcely the best method of communicating the gospel +to the natives of India, and the mission collapsed. He affected to +despise public opinion, and was masterful and despotic in his dealings +with others, especially with those upon whom he was conferring favours. +Having generously undertaken at his own charge to publish a Latin +version of Wood's _History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford_, +with the object of presenting the history of the university in a manner +worthy of the great subject to European readers, and of extending its +fame abroad, he arrogated to himself the right of editing the work. "He +would correct, alter, dash out what he pleased.... He was a great man +and carried all things at his pleasure." In particular he struck out all +the passages which Wood had inserted in praise of Hobbes, and +substituted some disparaging epithets. He called the philosopher's +_Leviathan_ "monstrosissimus" and "publico damno notissimus." To the +printed remonstrance of Hobbes, Fell inserted an insulting reply in the +_History_ to "irritabile illud et vanissimum Malmesburiense animal," and +to the complaint of Wood at this usage answered only that Hobbes "was an +old man, had one foot in the grave; that he should mind his latter end, +and not trouble the world any more with his papers." In small things as +in great he loved to rule and direct. "Let not Fell," writes R. South to +R. Bathurst, "have the fingering and altering of them (i.e. his Latin +verses), for I think that, bating the want of _siquidems_ and +_quinetiams_, they are as good as his Worship can make." Wood styles him +"a valde vult person." He was not content with ruling his own college, +but desired to govern the whole university. He prevented Gilbert +Ironside, who "was not pliable to his humour," from holding the office +of vice-chancellor. He "endeavoured to carry all things by a high hand; +scorn'd in the least to court the Masters when he had to have anything +pass'd the convocation. Severe to other colleges, blind as to his own, +very partiall and with good words, and flatterers and tell-tales could +get anything out of him." According to Bishop Burnet, who praises his +character and his administration, Fell was "a little too much heated in +the matter of our disputes with the dissenters." "He had much zeal for +reforming abuses, and managed it perhaps with too much heat and in too +peremptory a way." "But," he adds, "we have so little of that among us +that no wonder if such men are censured by those who love not such +patterns nor such severe task-masters." And Wood, whose adverse +criticism must be discounted a little on account of the personal +dispute,--after declaring that Fell "was exceeding partial in his +government even to corruption; went thro' thick and thin; grasped at all +yet did nothing perfect or effectually; cared not what people said of +him, was in many things very rude and in most pedantic and +pedagogical,"--concludes with the acknowledgment, "yet still aimed at +the public good." Roger North, who paid Fell a visit at Oxford, speaks +of him in terms of enthusiasm:--"The great Dr Fell, who was truly great +in all his circumstances, capacities, undertakings and learning, and +above all for his superabundant public spirit and goodwill.... O the +felicity of that age and place when his authority swayed!" + +In November 1684, at the command of the king, Fell deprived Locke, who +had incurred the royal displeasure by his friendship with Shaftesbury, +and was suspected as the author of certain seditious pamphlets, of his +studentship at Christ Church, summarily and without hearing his defence. +Fell had in former years cultivated Locke's friendship, had kept up a +correspondence with him, and in 1663 had written a testimonial in his +favour; and the ready compliance of one who could on occasion offer a +stout resistance to any invasion of the privileges of the university has +been severely criticised. It must, however, be remembered in extenuation +that the legal status of a person on the foundation of a collegiate body +had not then been decided in the law-courts. With regard to the justice +of the proceeding Fell had evidently some doubts, and he afterwards +expressed his regret for the step which he was now compelled to take. +But such scruples, however strong, would, with a man of Fell's political +and religious opinions, yield immediately to an order from the +sovereign, who possessed special authority in this case as a visitor to +the college; and such subservience, however strange to modern notions, +would probably only be considered natural and proper at that period. + +Fell, who had never married, died on the 10th of July 1686, worn out, +according to Wood, by his overwhelming public duties. He was buried in +the divinity chapel in the cathedral, below the seat which he had so +often occupied when living, where a monument and an epitaph, now moved +elsewhere, were placed to his memory. "His death," writes John Evelyn, +"was an extraordinary losse to the poore church at this time"; but for +himself Fell was fortunate in the time of his departure; for a few +months more of life would have necessitated a choice, most painful to a +man of his character and creed, between fidelity to his sovereign and to +his church. With all his faults, which were the defects which often +attend eminent qualities such as his, Fell was a great man, "the +greatest governor," according to Speaker Onslow, "that has ever been +since his time in either of the universities," and of his own college, +to which he left several exhibitions for the maintenance of poor +scholars, he was a second founder. He was a worthy upholder of the +Laudian tradition at Oxford, an enlightened and untiring patron of +learning, and a man of exemplary morals and great piety which remained +unsullied in the midst of a busy life and much contact with the world. A +sum of money was left by John Cross to perpetuate Fell's memory by an +annual speech in his praise, but the _Felii laudes_ have been +discontinued since 1866. There are two interesting pictures of Fell at +Christ Church, one where he is represented with his two friends +Allestree and Dolben, and another by Vandyck. The statue placed on the +N.E. angle of the Great Quadrangle bears no likeness to the bishop, who +is described by Hearne as a "thin grave man." + +Besides the learned works already mentioned Fell wrote the lives of his +friends Dr Henry Hammond (1661), Richard Allestree, prefixed to his +edition of the latter's sermons (1684), and Dr Thomas Willis, in Latin. +His _Seasonable advice to Protestants showing the necessity of +maintaining the Established Religion in opposition to Popery_ was +published in 1688. Some of his sermons, which Evelyn found dull, were +printed, including _Character of the Last Daies_, preached before the +king, 1675, and a _Sermon preached before the House of Peers Dec. 22, +1680_. _The Interest of England stated_ (1659), advocating the +restoration of the king,[3] and _The Vanity of Scoffing_ (1674), are +also attributed to him. Fell probably had some share in the composition +of _The Whole Duty of Man_, and in the subsequent works published under +the name of the author of _The Whole Duty_, which included _Reasons of +the Decay of Christian Piety_, _The Ladies Calling_, _The Gentleman's +Calling_, _The Government of the Tongue_, _The Art of Contentment_, and +_The Lively Oracles given us_, all of which were published in one volume +with notes and a preface by Fell in 1684. + + AUTHORITIES.--Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_ and _Fasti_ (ed. Bliss); + Wood's _Life and Times_, ed. by A. Clark; Burnet's _Hist. of His Own + Time_, ed. 1833; J. Welch, _Alumni Westmonasterienses_; Thomas Hearne, + _Collections_, ed. by C.E. Doble and others; _History of the Univ. of + Oxford_ (1814); _Christ Church_, by Rev. H.L. Thompson; _Fortnightly + Review_, lix. 689 (May 1896); _Macmillan's Magazine_ (Aug. 1875); _A + Specimen of the several sorts of Letter given to the University by + Dr J. F(ell)_ (1695); _Notes and Queries_, ser. vi. 2, and ser. vii. + 166; _Calendars of State Papers, Dom. Series_ (1660-1675). Fell's + books and papers were bequeathed by his nephew Henry Jones to the + Bodleian library. A few of his letters are to be found in _Add. MSS._ + Brit. Mus. 11046, and some are printed in _Life of James II._, by Ch. + J. Fox, _Appendix_; _Gent. Mag._ 77, p. 633; _Academy_, 8, p. 141; + _Athenaeum_ for 1887 (2), p. 311; J. Gutch, _Collectanea Curiosa_, i. + 269; and in _Cal. of State Papers, Dom. Series_. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] J.T. Browne, _Works_ (9th ed. by J. Drake), iv. 99-100; T. Forde, + _Virtus rediviva_ (1661), 106. + + [2] _Cal. of State Pap. Dom._, 1672, p. 478, and 1670, p. 26. + + [3] F. Maseres, _Tracts of the Civil War_, ii. 673. + + + + +FELL. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _fel_, from Low Lat. _fello_, felon), +savage, ruthless, deadly; only used now in poetry. (2) (Of Scandinavian +origin, cf. Danish _fjeld_, probably connected with a Teutonic root +appearing in German _fels_, rock), a hill, as in the names of mountains +in the Lake District in England, e.g. Scawfell; also a lofty moorland +down. (3) (A word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _fell_, and +Dutch _vel_, cognate with Lat. _pellis_, skin), the pelt or hide of an +animal, with the hair or wool and skin; also used of any thick shaggy +covering, like a matted fleece. (4) To cause to "fall," a word common to +Teutonic languages and akin to the root of the Lat. _fallere_ and Gr. +[Greek: sphallein], to cause to stumble, to deceive. As a substantive +"fell" is used of a flat seam laid level with the surface of the fabric; +also, in weaving, of the end of the web. + + + + +FELLAH (pl. Fellahin), Arabic for "ploughman" or "tiller," the word used +in Arabic-speaking countries to designate peasantry. It is employed +especially of the peasantry of Egypt, "Fellahin" in modern English usage +being almost equivalent to "Egyptians." In Egypt the name is applied to +the peasantry as opposed to the Arabs of the desert (and even those who +have settled on the land), the Turks and the townsfolk. Fellah is used +by the Arabs as a term of reproach, somewhat like the English "boor," +but rather implying a slavish disposition; the fellahin, however, are +not ashamed of the name and may pride themselves on being of good fellah +descent, as a "fellah of a fellah." They may be classified as +Hamito-Semites, and preserve to some extent the blood of the ancient +Egyptians. They form the bulk of the population of Egypt and are mainly +Mahommedan, though some villages in Upper Egypt are almost exclusively +Copt (Christian). Their hybridism is well shown by their great +divergence of colour, fellahin in the Delta being sometimes lighter than +Arabs, while in Upper Egypt the prevailing complexion is dark brown. The +average fellah is somewhat above medium height, big-boned, of clumsy but +powerful build, with head and face of fine oval shape, cheek-bones high, +forehead broad, short flattish nose with wide nostrils, and black but +not woolly hair. The eyebrows are always straight and smooth, never +bushy. The mouth is thick-lipped and large but well formed. The eyes are +large and black, and are remarkable for the closeness of the eyelashes. +The women and girls are particularly noted for their graceful and +slender figures and their fine carriage, due to the custom of carrying +burdens, especially water-jars, on their heads. The men's heads are +usually shaved. The women are not as a rule closely veiled: they +generally paint the lips a deep blue, and tattoo a floral device on the +chin, sometimes on the forehead and other parts of the body. All but the +poorest wear necklaces of cheap pearls, coins or gilt disks. The men +wear a blue or brown cotton shirt, linen drawers and a plain skull-cap, +or on occasion the tarbush or fez, round which sometimes a turban is +wound; the women wear a single cotton smock. The common fellah's home is +a mere mud hut, roofed with durra straw. Inside are a few mats, a +sheepskin, baskets and some earthenware and wooden vessels. He lives +almost entirely on vegetables, millet bread, beans, lentils, dates and +onions. But some of the sheikhs are wealthy, and have large houses built +of crude brick and whitewashed with lime, with courtyard, many +apartments and good furniture. The fellah is laborious in the fields, +and abominates absence from his occupations, which generally means loss +of money to him. Military service on the old oriental plan was both +ruinous and distasteful to him; hence voluntary mutilations to avoid +conscription were formerly common and the ingrained prejudice against +military service remains. Trained by British officers the fellahin make, +however, excellent soldiers, as was proved in the Sudan campaigns of +1896-98. The fellah is intelligent, cheerful and sober, and as +hospitable as his poverty allows. (See COPTS and EGYPT.) + + + + +FELLENBERG, PHILIPP EMANUEL VON (1771-1844), Swiss educationist, was +born on the 27th of June 1771 at Bern, in Switzerland. His father was of +patrician family, and a man of importance in his canton, and his mother +was a grand-daughter of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. From his mother and +from Pfeffel, the blind poet of Colmar, he received a better education +than falls to the lot of most boys, while the intimacy of his father +with Pestalozzi gave to his mind that bent which it afterwards followed. +In 1790 he entered the university of Tübingen, where he distinguished +himself by his rapid progress in legal studies. On account of his health +he afterwards undertook a walking tour in Switzerland and the adjoining +portions of France, Swabia and Tirol, visiting the hamlets and +farmhouses, mingling in the labours and occupations of the peasants and +mechanics, and partaking of their rude fare and lodging. After the +downfall of Robespierre, he went to Paris and remained there long enough +to be assured of the storm impending over his native country. This he +did his best to avert, but his warnings were disregarded, and +Switzerland was lost before any efficient means could be taken for its +safety. Fellenberg, who had hastily raised a levy _en masse_, was +proscribed; a price was set upon his head, and he was compelled to fly +into Germany. Shortly afterwards, however, he was recalled by his +countrymen, and sent on a mission to Paris to remonstrate against the +rapacity and cruelty of the agents of the French republic. But in this +and other diplomatic offices which he held for a short time, he was +witness to so much corruption and intrigue that his mind revolted from +the idea of a political life, and he returned home with the intention of +devoting himself wholly to the education of the young. With this +resolution he purchased in 1799 the estate of Hofwyl, near Bern, +intending to make agriculture the basis of a new system which he had +projected, for elevating the lower and rightly training the higher +orders of the state, and welding them together in a closer union than +had hitherto been deemed attainable. For some time he carried on his +labours in conjunction with Pestalozzi, but incompatibility of +disposition soon induced them to separate. The scheme of Fellenberg at +first excited a large amount of ridicule, but gradually it began to +attract the notice of foreign countries; and pupils, some of them of the +highest rank, began to flock to him from every country in Europe, both +for the purpose of studying agriculture and to profit by the high moral +training which he associated with his educational system. For forty-five +years Fellenberg, assisted by his wife, continued his educational +labours, and finally raised his institution to the highest point of +prosperity and usefulness. He died on the 21st of November 1844. + + See Hamm, _Fellenberg's Leben und Wirken_ (Bern, 1845); and Schoni, + _Der Stifter von Hofwyl, Leben und Wirken Fellenberg's_. + + + + +FELLER, FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE (1735-1802), Belgian author, was born at +Brussels on the 18th of August 1735. In 1752 he entered a school of the +Jesuits at Reims, where he manifested a great aptitude for mathematics +and physical science. He commenced his novitiate two years afterwards, +and in testimony of his admiration for the apostle of India added Xavier +to his surname. On the expiry of his novitiate he became professor at +Luxembourg, and afterwards at Liége. In 1764 he was appointed to the +professorship of theology at Tyrnau in Hungary, but in 1771 he returned +to Belgium and continued to discharge his professorial duties at Liége +till the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773. The remainder of his life +he devoted to study, travel and literature. On the invasion of Belgium +by the French in 1794 he went to Paderborn, and remained there two +years, after which he took up his residence at Ratisbon, where he died +on the 23rd of May 1802. + + Feller's works exceed 120 volumes. In 1773 he published, under the + assumed name Flexier de Reval (an anagram of Xavier de Feller), his + _Catéchisme philosophique_; and his principal work _Dictionnaire + historique et littéraire_ (published in 1781 at Liége in 8 volumes, + and afterwards several times reprinted and continued down to 1848), + appeared under the same name. Among his other works the most important + are _Cours de morale chrétienne et de littérature religieuse_ and his + _Coup d'oeil sur congrès d'Ems_. The _Journal historique et + littéraire_, published at Luxembourg and Liége from 1774 to 1794 in 70 + volumes, was edited and in great part written by him. + + + + +FELLING, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary division of +Durham, England, forming an eastern suburb of Gateshead. Pop. (1901) +22,467. Its large industrial population is employed in the neighbouring +collieries and the various attendant manufactures. + + + + +FELLOE, the outer rim of a wheel, to which the spokes are attached. The +word is sometimes spelled and usually pronounced "felly." It is a +Teutonic word, in O. Eng. _felg_, cognate with Dutch _velge_, Ger. +_Felge_; the original Teutonic root from which these are derived +probably meant "to fit together." + + + + +FELLOW, properly and by origin a partner or associate, hence a +companion, comrade or mate, as in "fellow-man," "fellow-countryman," &c. +The word from the 15th century has also been applied, generally and +colloquially, to any male person, often in a contemptuous or pitying +sense. The Old English _féolage_ meant a partner in a business, i.e. one +who lays (_lag_) money or property (_féoh_, fee) together for a common +purpose. The word was, therefore, the natural equivalent for _socius_, a +member of the foundation of an incorporated college, as Eton, or a +college at a university. In the earlier history of universities both the +senior and junior members of a college were known as "scholars," but +later, as now, "scholar" was restricted to those members of the +foundation still in _statu pupillari_, and "fellow" to those senior +graduate members who have been elected to the foundation by the +corporate body, sharing in the government and receiving a fixed +emolument out of the revenues of the college. It is in this sense that +"fellow" is used at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and +Trinity, Dublin. At these universities the college teaching is performed +by those fellows who are also "tutors." At other universities the term +is applied to the members of the governing body or to the holders of +certain sums of money for a fixed number of years to be devoted to +special study or research. By analogy the word is also used of the +members of various learned societies and institutions. + + + + +FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860), British archaeologist, was born in +August 1799 at Nottingham, where his family had an estate. When fourteen +he drew sketches to illustrate a trip to the ruins of Newstead Abbey, +which afterwards appeared on the title-page of Moore's _Life of Lord +Byron_. In 1820 he settled in London, where he became an active member +of the British Association. In 1827 he discovered the modern ascent of +Mont Blanc. After the death of his mother in 1832 he passed the greater +portion of his time in Italy, Greece and the Levant. The numerous +sketches he executed were largely used in illustrating C_hilde Harold_. +In 1838 he went to Asia Minor, making Smyrna his headquarters. His +explorations in the interior and the south led him to districts +practically unknown to Europeans, and he thus discovered ruins of a +number of ancient cities. He entered Lycia and explored the Xanthus from +the mouth at Patara upwards. Nine miles from Patara he discovered the +ruins of Xanthus, the ancient capital of Lycia, finely situated on +hills, and abounding in magnificent remains. About 15 m. farther up he +came upon the ruins of Tlos. After taking sketches of the most +interesting objects and copying a number of inscriptions, he returned to +Smyrna through Caria and Lydia. The publication of _A Journal written +during an Excursion in Asia Minor_ (London, 1839) roused such interest +that Lord Palmerston, at the request of the British Museum authorities, +asked the British consul at Constantinople to get leave from the sultan +to ship a number of the Lycian works of art. Late in 1839 Fellows, under +the auspices of the British Museum, again set out for Lycia, accompanied +by George Scharf, who assisted him in sketching. This second visit +resulted in the discovery of thirteen ancient cities, and in 1841 +appeared _An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, being a Journal kept +during a Second Excursion in Asia Minor_. A third visit was made late in +1841, after Fellows had obtained a _firman_ by personal application at +Constantinople. He shipped a number of works of art for England, and in +the fourth and most famous expedition (1844) twenty-seven cases of +marbles were despatched to the British Museum. His chief discoveries +were at Xanthus, Pinara, Patara, Tlos, Myra and Olympus. In 1844 he +presented to the British Museum his portfolios, accounts of his +expeditions, and specimens of natural history illustrative of Lycia. In +1845 he was knighted "as an acknowledgment of his services in the +removal of the Xanthian antiquities to this country." He paid his own +expenses in all his journeys and received no public reward. Fellows was +twice married. He died in London on the 8th of November 1860. + + In addition to the works above mentioned, Fellows published the + following: _The Xanthian Marbles; their Acquisition and Transmission + to England_ (1843), a refutation of false statements that had been + published; _An Account of the Ionic Trophy Monument excavated at + Xanthus_ (1848); a cheap edition of his two _Journals_, entitled + _Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, particularly in the Province of + Lycia_ (1852); and _Coins of Ancient Lycia before the Reign of + Alexander; with an Essay on the Relative Dates of the Lycian Monuments + in the British Museum_ (1855). See C. Brown's _Lives of + Nottinghamshire Worthies_ (1882), pp. 352-353, and _Journ. of Roy. + Geog. Soc._, 1861. + + + + +FELO DE SE (M.L. a felon, i.e. murderer, of himself), one who commits +murder upon himself. The technical conditions of murder apply to this +crime; e.g., "if one commits any unlawful malicious act, the consequence +of which is his own death, as if attempting to kill another he runs upon +his antagonist's sword, or shooting at another the gun bursts and kills +himself," he is a _felo de se_. The horror inspired by this crime led to +the revolting punishment of an "ignominious burial on the highway, with +a stake driven through the body." This was abolished by an act of 1823, +which ordered the burial of the body of a person found to be _felo de +se_ within 24 hours after the coroner's inquest, between the hours of 9 +and 12 at night, and without Christian rites of sepulture. This act was +again superseded in 1882 by the Interments (_Felo de se_) Act, which +permits the interment of any _felo de se_ in the churchyard or other +burial ground of the parish or place in which by the law or custom of +England he might have been interred but for the verdict. The interment +is carried out in accordance with the Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880 +(see BURIAL and BURIAL ACTS). The act does not authorize the performance +of any of the rites of Christian burial, but a special form of service +may be used. Formerly the goods and chattels, but not the land, of a +_felo de se_ were forfeited to the crown, but such forfeitures were +abolished by the Forfeiture Act 1870. (See also SUICIDE.) + + + + +FELONY (O. Fr. _felonie_, from _felon_, a word meaning "wicked," common +to Romanic languages, cf. Italian _fello_, _fellone_, the ultimate +origin of which is obscure, but is possibly connected either with Lat. +_fel_, gall, or _fallere_, to deceive. The English "fell" cruel or +fierce, is also connected; and the Greek [Greek: phêlus], an impostor, +has also been suggested). Legal writers have sought to throw light on +the nature of felony by examining the supposed etymology of the word. +Coke says it is _crimen animo felleo perpetratum_ [a crime committed +with malicious or evil intent (_fee lohn_)]. Spelman connects it with +the word _fee_, signifying fief or feud; and felony in this way would be +equivalent to _pretium feudi_, an act for which a man lost or gave up +his fee (see Stephen's _Commentaries_, vol. iv. p. 7). And acts +involving forfeiture were styled felonies in feudal law, although they +had nothing of a criminal character about them. A breach of duty on the +part of the vassal, neglect of service, delay in seeking investiture, +and the like were felonies: so were injuries by the lord against the +vassal. Modern writers are now disposed to accept Coke's definition. In +English law, crimes are usually classified as treason, felony, +misdemeanour and summary offence. Some writers--and with some +justice--treat treason merely as a grave form of felony and it is so +dealt with in the Juries Detention Act 1897. But owing to legislation in +and since the time of William and Mary, the procedure for the trial of +most forms of treason differs from that of felony. The expression +summary offence is ambiguous. Many offences which are at common law or +by statute felonies, or misdemeanours indictable at common law or by +statute, may under certain conditions be tried by a court of summary +jurisdiction (q.v.), and many merely statutory offences which would +ordinarily be punishable summarily may at the election of the accused be +tried by a jury on indictment (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, s. 17). + +The question whether a particular offence is felony or misdemeanour can +be answered only by reference to the history of the offence and not by +any logical test. For instance, killing a horse in an unlicensed place +is still felony under a statute of 1786. But most crimes described as +felonies are or have been capital offences at common law or by statute, +and have also entailed on the offender attaint and forfeiture of goods. +A few felonies were not punishable by death, e.g. petty larceny and +mayhem. Where an offence is declared a felony by statute, the common law +punishments and incidents of trial attach, unless other statutory +provision is made (Blackstone, _Commentaries_, iv. 94). + +The chief common law _felonies_ are: homicide, rape, larceny (i.e. in +ordinary language, theft), robbery (i.e. theft with violence), burglary +and kindred offences. Counterfeiting the coin has been made a felony +instead of being treason; and forgery of most documents has been made a +felony instead of being, as it was at common law, a misdemeanour. At the +beginning of the 19th century felony was almost equivalent to capital +crime; but during that century capital punishment was abolished as to +all felonies, except wilful murder, piracy with violence (7 W. IV. & 1 +Vict. c. 88, s. 2) and offences against the Dockyards, &c., Protection +Act 1772; and by the Forfeiture Act 1870, a felon no longer forfeits +land or goods on conviction, though forfeiture on outlawry is not +abolished. The usual punishment for felony under the present law is +penal servitude or imprisonment with or without hard labour. "Every +person convicted of any felony for which no punishment is specially +provided by the law in force for the time being is liable upon +conviction thereof to be sentenced to penal servitude for any period not +exceeding seven years, or to be imprisoned with or without hard labour +for any term not exceeding two years" (Stephen, _Dig. Cr. Law_ (6th +ed.), art 18, Penal Servitude Act 1891). A felon may not be fined or +whipped on conviction nor put under recognizance to keep the peace or be +of good behaviour except under statutory provision. (See Offences +against the Person Act 1861, ss. 5. 71.) + +The result of legislative changes is that at the present time the only +practical distinctions between felony and misdemeanour are:-- + +1. That a private person may arrest a felon without judicial authority +and that bail on arrest is granted as a matter of discretion and not as +of right. Any one who has obtained a drove of oxen or a flock of sheep +by false pretences may go quietly on his way and no one, not even a +peace officer, can apprehend him without a warrant, but if a man offers +to sell another a bit of dead fence supposed to have been stolen, he not +only may but is required to be apprehended by that person (Greaves, +_Criminal Law Consolidation Acts_). (See ARREST, BAIL.) + +2. That on an indictment for felony counts may not be joined for +different felonies unless they form part of the same transaction. (See +INDICTMENT.) + +3. That on a trial for felony the accused has a right peremptorily to +challenge, or object to, the jurors called to try him, up to the number +of twenty. (See JURY.) + +4. That a felon cannot be tried _in absentia_, and that the jury who try +him may not separate during the trial without leave of the court, which +may not be given in cases of murder. + +5. That a special jury cannot be empanelled to try a felony. + +6. That peers charged with felony are tried in a special manner. (See +PEERAGE.) + +7. That the costs of prosecuting all felonies (except treason felony) +are paid out of public funds: and that a felon may be condemned to pay +the costs of his prosecution and to compensate up to £100 for any loss +of property suffered by any person through or by means of the felony. In +the Criminal Code Bills of 1878-1880 it was proposed to abolish the term +felony altogether: and in the Queensland Criminal Code 1899 the term +"crime" is substituted, and within its connotation are included not only +treason and piracy but also perjury. + +8. That a sentence of a felon to death, or to penal servitude or +imprisonment with hard labour or for over twelve months, involves loss +of and disqualification for certain offices until the sentence has been +served or a free pardon obtained. (Forfeiture Act 1870.) + +It is a misdemeanour (i.) to compound a felony or to agree for valuable +consideration not to prosecute or to show favour in such prosecution; +(ii.) to omit to inform the authorities of a felony known to have been +committed (see MISPRISION), and, (iii.) not to assist in the arrest of a +felon at the call of an officer of the law. (See CRIMINAL LAW; +MISDEMEANOUR; MISPRISION.) + + + + +FELSITE, in petrology, a term which has long been generally used by +geologists, especially in England, to designate fine-grained igneous +rocks of acid (or subacid) composition. As a rule their ingredients are +not determinable by the unaided eye, but they are principally felspar +and quartz as very minute particles. The rocks are pale-coloured +(yellowish or reddish as a rule), hard, splintery, much jointed and +occasionally nodular. Many felsites contain porphyritic crystals of +clear quartz in rounded blebs, more or less idiomorphic felspar, and +occasionally biotite. Others are entirely fine-grained and micro- or +crypto-crystalline. Occasionally they show a fluxional banding; they may +also be spherulitic or vesicular. Those which carry porphyritic quartz +are known as quartz-felsites; the term soda-felsites has been applied to +similar fine-grained rocks rich in soda-felspar. + +Although there are few objections to the employment of felsite as a field +designation for rocks having the above characters, it lacks definiteness, +and has been discarded by many petrologists as unsuited for the exact +description of rocks, especially when their microscopic characters are +taken into consideration. The felsites accordingly are broken up into +"granite-porphyries," "orthophyres" and "orthoclase-porphyries," +"felsitic-rhyolites," "keratophyres," "granophyres," "micro-granites," +&c. But felsite or microfelsite is still the generally accepted +designation for that very fine-grained, almost crypto-crystalline +substance which forms the ground-mass of so many rhyolites, dacites and +porphyries. + +In the hand specimen it is a dull, lustreless, stony-looking aggregate. +Under the microscope even with high powers and the very thinnest modern +sections, it often cannot be resolved into its components. In places it +may contain determinable minute crystals of quartz; less commonly it may +show grains which can be proved to be felspar, but usually it consists +of an ultra-microscopic aggregate of fibres, threads and grains, which +react to polarized light in a feeble and indefinite manner. Spherulitic, +spotted, streaky and fluidal structures may appear in it, and many +different varieties have been established on such characters as these +but without much validity. + +Its association with the acid rocks, its hardness, method of weathering +and chemical composition, indicate that it is an intermixture of quartz +and acid felspar, and the occasional presence of these two minerals in +well-defined grains confirms this. Moreover, in many dikes, while the +ground-mass is microcrystalline and consists of quartz and felspar near +the centre of the mass, towards the margins, where it has been rapidly +chilled by contact with the cold surrounding rocks, it is felsitic. The +very great viscosity of acid magmas prevents their molecules, especially +when cooling takes place suddenly, from arranging themselves to form +discrete crystals, and is the principal cause of the production of +felsitic ground-masses. In extreme cases these conditions hinder +crystallization altogether, and glassy rocks result. Some rocks are +felsitic in parts but elsewhere glassy; and it is not always clear +whether the felsite is an original substance or has arisen by the +devitrification of primary glass. The presence of perlitic structure in +some of these felsites points to the latter conclusion, and the results +of an examination of ancient glasses and of artificial glass which has +been slowly cooled are in accordance with this view. It has been argued +that felsite is a eutectic mixture of quartz and felspar, such that when +solidification takes place and the excess of felspar (or quartz) has +crystallized out it remains liquid till the temperature has fallen to +its freezing point, and then consolidates simultaneously. This may be +so, but analyses show that it has not always the same composition and +consequently that the conditions which determine its formation are not +quite simple. Felsitic rocks are sometimes silicified and have their +matrix replaced by granular aggregates of cloudy quartz. (J. S. F.) + + + + +FELSPAR, or FELDSPAR, a name applied to a group of mineral silicates of +much importance as rock-constituents. The name, taken from the Ger. +_Feldspath_, was originally written with a "d" but in 1794 it was +written "felspar" by R. Kirwan, on the assumption that it denoted a +mineral of the "fels" rather than of the "field," and this corrupted +form is now in common use in England. By some of the earlier +mineralogists it was written "feltspar," from the Swedish form +_fältspat_. + +The felspar-group is divided into two subgroups according to the +symmetry of the crystals. Although the crystals of all felspars present +a general resemblance in habit, they are usually regarded as belonging +to two systems, some felspars being monoclinic and others anorthic. +Figures of the crystals are given in the articles on the different +species. Two cleavages are generally well marked. In the monoclinic or +monosymmetric felspars these, being parallel to the basal pinacoid and +clinopinacoid, necessarily make an angle of 90°, whence the name +orthoclase applied to these minerals; whilst in the anorthic or +asymmetric felspars the corresponding angle is never exactly 90°, and +from this obliquity of the principal cleavages they are termed +plagioclase (see ORTHOCLASE and PLAGIOCLASE). There are consequently two +series of felspars, one termed orthoclastic or orthotomous, and the +other plagioclastic or clinotomous. F.E. Mallard suggested that all +felspars are really asymmetric, and that orthoclase presents only a +pseudo-monosymmetric habit, due to twinning. Twin-crystals are very +common in all the felspars, as explained under their respective +headings. + +The two divisions of the felspar-group founded on differences of +crystalline symmetry are subdivided according to chemical composition. +All the felspars are silicates containing aluminium with some other +metallic base or bases, generally potassium, sodium or calcium, rarely +barium, but never magnesium or iron. The monoclinic series includes +common potash-felspar or orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) and hyalophane, a rare +felspar containing barium (K2BaAl4Si8O24). The anorthic series includes +at one end the soda-felspar albite (NaAlSi3O8) and at the other +extremity the lime-felspar anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8). It was suggested by +G. Tschermak in 1864 that the other plagioclastic felspars are +isomorphous mixtures in various proportion of albite (Ab) and anorthite +(An). These intermediate members are the lime-soda felspars known as +oligoclase, andesine, labradorite and bytownite. There are also placed +in the anorthic class a potash-felspar called microcline, and a rare +soda-potash-felspar known as anorthoclase. + +The specific gravity of the felspars has been shown by G. Tschermak and +V. Goldschmidt to vary according to their chemical composition, rising +steadily from 2.57 in orthoclase to 2.75 in anorthite. All the felspars +have a hardness of 6 to 6.5, being therefore rather less hard than +quartz. Pure felspar is colourless, but the mineral is usually white, +yellow, red or green. Certain felspars are used as ornamental stones on +account of their colour (see AMAZON STONE). Other felspars are prized +for their pearly opalescence (see MOONSTONE), or for their play of +iridescent colours (see LABRADORITE), or for their spangled appearance, +like aventurine (see SUN-STONE). + +Felspar is much used in the manufacture of porcelain by reason of its +fusibility. In England the material employed is mostly orthoclase from +Scandinavia, often known as "Swedish spar." The high translucency of +"ivory porcelain" depends on the large proportion of felspar in the +body. The mineral is also an important constituent of most ceramic +glazes. The melting points of felspars have been investigated by Prof. +J. Joly, Prof. C. A. Doelter y Cisterich and especially by A.L. Day and +E.T. Allen in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute at +Washington. + +Among the applications of felspar is that of pure orthoclase in the +manufacture of artificial teeth. + +Felspar readily suffers chemical alteration, yielding kaolin (q.v.). The +turbidity of orthoclase is usually due to partial kaolinization. +Secondary mica is also a common result of alteration, and among other +products are pinite, epidote, saussurite, chlorite, wollastonite and +various zeolites. + + See ALBITE, AMAZON STONE, ANDESINE, ANORTHITE, BYTOWNITE, LABRADORITE, + MICROCLINE, MOONSTONE, OLIGOCLASE, ORTHOCLASE, PLAGIOCLASE, SUN-STONE. + + + + +FELSTED, or FELSTEAD, a village of Essex, England, between Dunmow and +Braintree, and 10 m. from Chelmsford; with a station on the Great +Eastern railway. Felsted is only noteworthy by reason of its important +public school, dating back to its foundation as a grammar school in 1564 +by Richard 1st Baron Rich, who as lord chancellor and chancellor of the +court of augmentations had enriched himself with the spoil of the +adjoining abbey and priory of Little Leez at the dissolution of the +monasteries. It became a notable educational centre for Puritan families +in the 17th century, numbering a hundred or more pupils, under Martin +Holbeach (1600-1670), headmaster from 1627-1649, and his successors C. +Glasscock (from 1650 to 1690), and Simon Lydiatt (1690 to 1702). John +Wallis and Isaac Barrow were educated here, and also four sons of Oliver +Cromwell, Robert, Oliver, Richard (the Protector), and Henry. Another +era of prosperity set in under the headmastership of William Trivett +(1745-1830) between 1778 and 1794; but under his successors W.J. Carless +(from 1794 to 1813) and E. Squire (from 1813 to 1829) the numbers +dwindled. As the result of the discovery by T. Surridge (headmaster +1835-1850), from research among the records, that a larger income was +really due to the foundation, a reorganization took place by act of +parliament, and in 1851, under the headmastership of Rev. A.H. +Wratislaw, the school was put under a new governing body (a revised +scheme coming into operation in 1876). The result under Rev. W.S. +Grignon (1823-1907), the headmaster from 1856 to 1875, who may be +considered almost the second founder, was the rapid development of +Felsted into one of the regular public schools of the modern English +type. New buildings on an elaborate scale arose, the numbers increased +to more than 200, and a complete transformation took place, which was +carried on under his successors D.S. Ingram (from 1875 to 1890), H.A. +Dalton (to 1906), and F. Stephenson, under whom large extensions to the +buildings and playing-fields were made. + + See John Sargeaunt, _History of Felsted School_ (1889); and _Alumni + Felstedienses_, by R.J. Beevor, E.T. Roberts and others (1903). + + + + +FELT (cognate with Ger. _Filz_, Du. _vilt_, Swed. and Dan. _filt_; the +root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. _filtrum_, "filter"), a +fabric produced by the "matting" or "felting" together of fibrous +materials such as wools, hairs, furs, &c. Most textile fibres (see +FIBRES) possess the quality of matting to some extent, but wools, furs +and some few hairs are the only fibres which can be felted +satisfactorily. It is probable that the quality of felting must be +attributed to the scale structure and waviness of the wools, furs and +hairs referred to. When it is desired to incorporate non-felting fibres +in felt cloths, wool must be employed to "carry" them. + +There are two distinct classes of felts, viz. woven or +"thread-structure" felts, and "fibre" or true felts. In the manufacture +of thread-structure felts, wools possessing the quality of felting in a +high degree are naturally selected, carefully scoured so that the +felting quality is not seriously damaged, spun into woollen yarn +possessing the necessary fibre arrangement and twist, woven into cloth +of such a character that subsequently satisfactory shrinking or felting +may be effected, and finally scoured, milled in the stocks of machine of +both, dyed and finished on the lines of an ordinary woven fabric. The +lighter styles of woven felts may be composed of a single cloth only, +but for the heavier styles two or more cloths are woven, one on top of +the other, at one and the same time, arrangements being made to stitch +the cloths together during the weaving operation. + +Fibre felts are exceedingly interesting from the historical point of +view. It is now generally admitted that the art of weaving preceded +that of spinning, and it must further be conceded that the art of +felting preceded that of weaving, so that the felt fabric is probably +one of the oldest of the various styles of recognized fabrics. The +inhabitants of the middle and northern regions of Asia seem to have +employed felt from time immemorial, as clothing and also as a covering +for their habitations. Most of the classical writers refer to it and +some of them actually describe its manufacture. Felt was also largely +employed by the ancients for their hats, outer garments, and sometimes +as a species of armour. + +Fibre felts may be divided into three classes, viz. ordinary felts; hat +felts; and impregnated felts. As all felts are based upon the ordinary +felt, the process of manufacture of this will first be described. Of the +wools employed the principal are:--East Indian, German or mid-European, +New Zealand cross-breds, and Australian, Cape and Buenos Aires merinos. +Vegetable fibres and silk are also employed, but wool must be used to +"carry" them; thus a good felting wool may be made to carry its own +weight of cotton, hemp, &c. Hairs and furs are principally used in the +hat felts. The average loss upon the wool from the raw state to the +finished felt is 40 to 50%. The order of the manufacturing processes is +as follows:--mixing, willowing, teasing, scribbling and carding. It is +interesting to note that it is not usual to scour felting wools. This is +not because they are really clean--some are dirty--but because the +felting property is liable to be interfered with in the scouring +operation. Some wools, however, must be scoured to ensure satisfactory +working in the machines. From the card the wool is delivered as a +gossamer-like film from 50 to 60 in. wide on to an endless sheet from 30 +to 60 yds. long, upon which the felt is built up film upon film until +the required thickness--perhaps 4 in.--is obtained. To harden this +somewhat tender sheet of felt it is now passed through an ironing +process, effected by either steam-heated rollers--to which a rotatory +and vibratory motion is given--playing upon the continually +drawn-through cloth; or a huge vibrating flat-iron, to which the cloth +is automatically fed, held in position and then wound up while the +following length to be treated is drawn under the iron. Soaping, fulling +or "felting" and the ordinary finishing operations--including dyeing and +printing if desirable--now follow, so that ultimately a strong firm +fabric is turned out. It must be admitted, however, that the strength is +much greater lengthwise than cross-wise, owing to the parallelization of +the fibres induced in the scribbling and carding operations. Of course, +the true felting or contraction occurs in the fulling or felting stock, +the fabric being perpetually "hammered" in the presence of fulling +agents such as soap, fuller's earth, &c., for a considerable time. The +reduction in width, length and thickness is remarkable. This may be +controlled within certain limits. The principal styles of ordinary +fibre-felts are--linings for coats, furniture and rubber shoes; +saddlery; seatings for carriages and pews; carpets, surrounds and +under-felts for carpets; mantles, dresses and table-cloths; +felt-slippers; mattress felts; chest-preservers, and shoulder-pads; +steam-engine packing, motor-car and anti-vibration felts, shipbuilding +felts; drawing-roller felts and gun-wad felts. + +Hat felts may be divided into two classes, viz. those made from wool and +fur respectively. Wool "bodies" used for the lower quality hats are +manufactured in the same way as ordinary felts, but the "shape" upon +which the film issuing from the carder is built up takes the form of a +double cone and thus approximates to the shape of the two hats +ultimately formed. The shape is further controlled and developed in the +fulling or felting operation. In the fur hat felts an air-blast is +employed to carry the finely separated fibres on to the shape required, +upon which shape the fibres are held in position by suction until the +required thickness is obtained. The structure is then further developed +and "stiffened," i.e. impregnated with certain stiffening agents +according to requirements. If desirable the exterior fibres blown on to +any shape may be of a different material from the body fabric. + +Impregnated felts are simply felts made in the ordinary way but +subsequently impregnated with certain agents which give a special +quality to the fabric. Messrs McNeill & Co., of London, were the +originators of "asphalted-felt" for roofing and, among other styles, +place on the market sheathing felt, inodorous felt, dry hair felt, +foundation felt, &c., &c. A later development, however, is the +impregnated iron-felt manufactured by Messrs Mitchells, Ashworth, +Stansfield & Co., of Waterfoot, near Manchester, who not only produce +from 70 to 80% of the ordinary felts manufactured in Great Britain, but +also place on the market several specialties of which this "iron-felt" +is largely used in the construction of bridges, &c., and as a substitute +for rubber, it being apparently more durable. (A. F. B.) + + + + +FELTHAM, or FELLTHAM, OWEN (d. 1668), English moralist, was the son of +Thomas Feltham or Felltham of Mutford in Suffolk. The date of his birth +is given variously as 1602 and 1609. He is famous chiefly as the author +of a volume entitled _Resolves, Divine, Moral and Political_, containing +one hundred short and pithy essays. To later issues of the _Resolves_ +Feltham appended _Lusoria_, a collection of forty poems. Hardly anything +is known of his life except that T. Randolph, the adopted "son" of Ben +Jonson, addressed a poem of compliment to him, and became his friend, +and that Feltham attacked Ben Jonson in an ode shortly before the aged +poet's death, but contributed a flattering elegy to the _Jonsonus +Virbius_ in 1638. Early in life Feltham visited Flanders, and published +observations in 1652 under the title of _A Brief Character of the Low +Countries_. He was a strict high-churchman and a royalist; he even +described Charles I. as "Christ the Second." Hallam stigmatized Feltham +as one of our worst writers. He has not, indeed, the elegance of Bacon, +whom he emulated, and he is often obscure and affected; but his copious +imagery and genuine penetration give his reflections a certain charm. To +the middle classes of the 17th century he seemed a heaven-sent +philosopher and guide, and was only less popular than Francis Quarles +the poet. + + Eleven editions of the _Resolves_ appeared before 1700. Later. + editions by James Cumming (London, 1806; much garbled; has account of + Feltham's life and writings), and O. Smeaton in "Temple Classics" + series (London, 1904). + + + + +FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY (1807-1862), American classical scholar, was +born on the 6th of November 1807, in West Newbury, Massachusetts. He +graduated at Harvard College in 1827, having taught school in the winter +vacations of his sophomore and junior years. After teaching in the +Livingstone high school of Geneseo, New York, for two years, he became +tutor at Harvard in 1829, university professor of Greek in 1832, and +Eliot professor of Greek literature in 1834. In 1860 he succeeded James +Walker as president of Harvard, which position he held until his death, +at Chester, Pennsylvania, on the 26th of February 1862. Dr Felton edited +many classical texts. His annotations on Wolf's text of the _Iliad_ +(1833) are especially valuable. _Greece, Ancient and Modern_ (2 vols., +1867), forty-nine lectures before the Lowell Institute, is scholarly, +able and suggestive of the author's personality. Among his miscellaneous +publications are the American edition of Sir William Smith's _History of +Greece_ (1855); translations of Menzel's _German Literature_ (1840), of +Munk's _Metres of the Greeks and Romans_ (1844), and of Guyot's _Earth +and Man_ (1849); and _Familiar Letters from Europe_ (1865). + + + + +FELTON, JOHN (c. 1595-1628), assassin of the 1st duke of Buckingham, was +a member of an old Suffolk family established at Playford. The date of +his birth and the name of his father are unknown, but his mother was +Eleanor, daughter of William Wright, mayor of Durham. He entered the +army, and served as lieutenant in the expedition to Cadiz commanded by +Sir Edward Cecil in 1625. His career seems to have been ill-starred and +unfortunate from the beginning. His left hand was early disabled by a +wound, and a morose temper rendered him unpopular and prevented his +advancement. Every application made to Buckingham for his promotion was +refused, on account of an enmity, according to Sir Simonds D'Ewes, which +existed between Felton and Sir Henry Hungate, a favourite of Buckingham. +To his personal application that he could not live without a captaincy +Buckingham replied harshly "that he might hang." Whether he took part +in the expedition to Rhé in 1627 is uncertain, but there is no doubt +that he continued to be refused promotion, and that even his scanty pay +earned during the Cadiz adventure was not received. Exasperated by his +ill-treatment, his discontent sharpened by poverty, and his hatred of +Buckingham intensified by a study of the Commons "Remonstrances" of the +previous June, and by a work published by Eglesham, the physician of +James I., in which Buckingham was accused of poisoning the king, Felton +determined to effect his assassination. He bought a tenpenny knife on +Tower Hill, and on his way through Fleet Street he left his name in a +church to be prayed for as "a man much discontented in mind." He arrived +at Portsmouth at 9 o'clock in the morning of the 23rd of August 1628, +and immediately proceeded to No. 10 High Street, where Buckingham was +lodged. Here mingling with the crowd of applicants and unnoticed he +stabbed the duke, who immediately fell dead. Though escape would have +been easy he confessed the deed and was seized and conveyed to the +Tower, his journey thither, such was the unpopularity of the duke, being +accompanied by cries of "God bless thee" from the people. Charles and +Laud desired he should be racked, but the illegal torture was prevented +by the judges. He was tried before the king's bench on the 27th of +November, pleaded guilty, and was hanged the next day, his body being +exposed in chains subsequently at Portsmouth. + + + + +FELTRE, MORTO DA, Italian painter of the Venetian school, who worked at +the close of the 15th century and beginning of the 16th. His real name +appears to have been Pietro Luzzo; he is also known by the name Zarato +or Zarotto, either from the place of his death or because his father, a +surgeon, was in Zara during the son's childhood: whether he was termed +Morto (dead) from his joyless temperament is a disputed point. He may +probably have studied painting first in Venice, but under what master is +uncertain. At an early age he went to Rome, and investigated the +ancient, especially the subterranean remains, and thence to Pozzuoli, +where he painted from the decorations of antique crypts or "grotte." The +style of fanciful arabesque which he formed for himself from these +studies gained the name of "grottesche," whence comes the term +"grotesque"; not, indeed, that Morto was the first painter of arabesque +in the Italian Renaissance, for art of this kind had, apart from his +influence, been fully developed, both in painting and in sculpture, +towards 1480, but he may have powerfully aided its diffusion southwards. +His works were received with much favour in Rome. He afterwards went to +Florence, and painted some fine grotesques in the Palazzo Pubblico. +Returning to Venice towards 1505, he assisted Giorgione in painting the +Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and seems to have remained with him till 1511. If +we may trust Ridolfi, Morto eloped with the mistress of Giorgione, whose +grief at this transaction brought him to the grave; the allegation, +however, is hardly reconcilable with other accounts. It may have been in +1515 that Morto returned to his native Feltre, then in a very ruinous +condition from the ravages of war in 1509. There he executed various +works, including some frescoes, still partly extant, and considered to +be almost worthy of the hand of Raphael, in the loggia beside San +Stefano. Towards the age of forty-five, Morto, unquiet and dissatisfied, +abandoned painting and took to soldiering in the service of the Venetian +republic. He was made captain of a troop of two hundred men; and +fighting valorously, he is said to have died at Zara in Dalmatia, in +1519. This story, and especially the date of it, are questionable: there +is some reason to think that Morto was painting as late as 1522. One of +his pictures is in the Berlin museum, an allegorical subject of "Peace +and War." Andrea Feltrini was his pupil and assistant as a decorative +painter. + + + + +FELTRE (anc. _Feltria_), a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in +the province of Belluno, 20 m. W.S.W. of it by rail, situated on an +isolated hill, 885 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 5468 (town), 15,243 +(commune). The cathedral has a fine polygonal apse of the 16th century. +The Palazzo del Consiglio, now a theatre, is attributed to Palladio. At +one end of the chief square of the town, the Piazza Maggiore, is the +cistern by which the town is supplied with water, and a large fountain. +There are some remains of the medieval castle. The ancient Feltria, +which lay on the road (Via Claudia) from Opitergium to Tridentum, does +not seem to have been a place of any importance under the Romans. +Vittorino dei Rambaldoni da Feltre (1378-1446) was a famous educator and +philosopher of his time. + + + + +FELUCCA (an Italian word; in forms like the Span. _faluca_, Fr. +_felouque_, it appears in other languages; it is probably of Arabic +origin, cf. _fulk_, a ship, and _falaka_, to be round; the modern Arabic +form is _falukah_), a type of vessel used in the Mediterranean for +coasters or fishing-boats. It is a long, low and narrow undecked vessel, +built for speed, and propelled by oars or sails. The sails are +lateen-shaped and carried on one or two masts placed far forward (see +BOAT). + + + + +FEMALE, the correlative of "male," the sex which performs the function +of conceiving and bearing as opposed to the begetting of young. The word +in Middle English is _femelle_, adopted from the French from the Lat. +_femella_, which is a diminutive, and in classical Latin used strictly +as such, of _femina_, a woman. The present termination in English is due +to a connexion in ideas with "male." In various mechanical devices, +where two corresponding parts work within the other, the receiving part +is often known as the "female," as for example in the "male" and "female +screw." The O. Fr. _feme_, modern _femme_, occurs in legal phraseology +in _feme covert_, a married woman, i.e. one protected or covered by a +husband, and in _feme sole_, one not so protected, a widow or spinster +(see WOMEN and HUSBAND AND WIFE). + + + + +FEMERELL, properly FUMERELL (from O. Fr. _fumeraille_, Lat. _fumus_, +smoke), the old English term given to the lantern in the ridge of a hall +roof for the purpose of letting out the smoke of the fire kindled on a +central hearth. + + + + +FENCING. If by "fencing"--the art of fence, i.e. of defence or +offence--were meant generally the dexterous use of the sword, the +subject would be wide indeed; as wide, in fact, as the history of the +sword (q.v.) itself. But, in its modern acceptation, the meaning of the +word has become considerably restricted. The scope of investigation must +therefore be confined to one kind of swordsmanship only: to that which +depends on the regulated, artificial conditions of "single combat." It +is indeed this play, hemmed in by many restrictions, which we have come +to mean more specially by "fencing." It differs, of course, in many +respects, from what may be called the art of fighting in the light of +nature. But as its restrictions are among the very elements which work +to the perfection of the play, it is undoubtedly in the history of +swordsmanship as applied to duelling (see DUEL) that we shall trace the +higher development of the art. + +It may be said that the history of fencing, therefore, would be +tantamount to the history of private duelling. Now, this is an ethical +subject; one, again, which would carry the investigation too far; and it +need not be taken up farther back than the middle of the 16th century, +when, on the disuse of the medieval wager of battle, the practice of +_private duelling_ began to take an assured footing in a warlike +society. It is curious to mark that the first cultivation of refined +cunning in fence dates from that period, which corresponds +chronologically with the general disuse of armour, both in battle and in +more private encounters. It is still more curious to note that, in order +to fit himself to meet what was an illegal but aristocratic obligation, +the gallant of those days had to appeal to a class of men hitherto +little considered: to those plebeian adepts, in fact, who for +generations had cultivated skill in the use of hand weapons, on foot and +without armour. Thus it came to pass that the earliest masters of fence +in all countries, namely, the masters of the art of conducting skilfully +what was essentially considered as an honourable encounter, were almost +invariably to be found among a somewhat dishonoured gentry--gladiators, +free companions, professional champions, more or less openly recognized, +or bravoes of the most uncompromising character. + +In Germany, which may be considered the cradle of systematic +swordsmanship, these teachers of the sword had, as early as the 15th +century, formed themselves into gilds; among which the best known were +the _Marxbrüder_, or the Associates of St Marcus of Löwenberg, who had +their headquarters at Frankfort, and branches in all the more important +towns. Similarly, in Spain and in northern Italy, professional swordsmen +were at various times allowed to form themselves into recognized or at +least tolerated associations. + +In England "swordmen" had been looked upon with especial disfavour by +the powers that were, until Henry VIII., who was a great lover of all +manly exercises, found it likewise advisable to turn their obnoxious +existence to a disciplined and profitable channel by regularizing their +position. The most redoubtable masters were allowed to form themselves +into a company, with powers to increase their numbers with suitable and +duly tried men, in imitation of the world-famed German _Marxbrüder_ or +_Marcusbrüder_. Under these conditions they were granted the lucrative +monopoly of teaching the art of fight in England. The enormous +privileges that the king, in course of time, conferred on his +Corporation of Masters of Defence very soon enabled it to put down or +absorb all the more ferocious of independent swashbucklers, and thereby +to impart to the profession a moderate degree of respectability under +the coat of arms granted by the royal heralds: gules a sword pendant +argent. + +It was in the midst of such corporations and in the fighting dens of +independent swordsmen, therefore, that sprouted the first buds of +systematic swordsmanship. Among the professional fencers, curiously and +happily for the historian, there seem to have been a few with a literary +turn of mind. + +The oldest manuscripts of fence belong to Italy and Germany. They deal +with the methods of carrying out single combats on foot, with any of the +most generally accepted weapons--long sword and short sword, dagger and +every kind of knives, mace, long and short staff, axes, &c.,--and with +the tricks of wrestling recommendable therefor. Among the most +comprehensive in their scope may be mentioned _Il Fior di battaglia di +Maestro Fiore dei Liberi da Premariaco_; a work which, although +illustrated with truly Italian taste and grace, shows, as far as its +fighting style is concerned, unmistakable marks of German influence. The +text of the MS. bears the date 1410, but the writer was known to be +flourishing as a master of fence as early as 1383. A reprint of this +invaluable codex has been published, under the care of Francesco Donati, +by the _Istituto Italiano d' Arti Grafiche_. Another is the better known +_Thalhofer's Fecht Buch, gerichtliche und andere Zweykämpfe darstellend_ +(1467), a reprint of which, with its 268 plates in facsimile, was +brought out by Gustave Hergsell in Prague. The oldest printed book is +likewise German: _Ergründung der ritterlicher Kunst der Fechterei, von +Andreas Paurnfeindt, Freifechter zu Wien_ (1516). This work, which is +exceedingly rare, is a very complete exponent of the ways of wielding +long and short blades to the utmost of their lethal capacity. It was +reproduced (under various titles, very confusing to the bibliographer) +in Frankfort, Augsburg, Strassburg, and finally done into French under +the name of _La Noble science des joueurs d'épée_, published in Paris +and Antwerp, 1535. + +Following the Germans, the oldest printed books of fence are Italian. +The first French book on the sword is known to be a translation from the +German. Curiously enough, the second, and one of the most notable, _Le +Traité de l'épée seule, mère de toutes armes_, of the Sieur de St +Didier, published in Paris in 1573, can be shown to be a transparent +adaptation of two Italian treatises, the _Trattato di scienza d' arme_ +of Camillo Agrippa, and Grassi's _Ragione di adoperar sicuramente +l'arme_, &c. + +It is about this time, namely, the latter half of the 16th century, that +swordsmanship pure and simple may be said to find its origin; for then a +great change is perceptible in the nature and tendency of fence books: +they dissociate themselves from indecorous wrestling tricks, and +approximate more and more to the consideration of what we understand by +swordsmanship. The older works expounded the art of fighting generally; +taught the reader a number of valuable, if not "gentlemanlike," dodges +for overcoming an adversary _at all manner of weapons_: now the +lucubrations of fence-masters deal almost exclusively with the walking +sword, that is, the duelling weapon--with the rapier in fact, both with +and without its lieutenant, the dagger. + +It must be remembered that at this period private duelling and cavalier +quarrelsomeness amounted to a perfect mania. The fencing master was no +longer merely a teacher of efficacious, if rascally, tricks; he was +becoming a model of gallant deportment; in many cases he was even a +recognized arbiter on matters of honour. He was often a gentleman +himself: at all events he posed as such. + +Although the Germans were always redoubtable adepts at the rougher games +of swordsmanship, it is in Italy that is to be found development of that +nimbler, more regulated, more cunning, better controlled, kind of play +which we have learned to associate with the term "fencing." It was from +Italy that the art of fence first spread over Europe: not from Spain, as +it has been asserted by many writers. The Italians--if we take their +early books as evidence, and the fact that their phraseology was adopted +by all Europe--were the first to perceive (as soon as the problem of +armour-breaking ceased to be the most important one in fight) the +superior efficiency of the point. They accordingly reduced the breadth +of their sword, modified the hilt portion thereof to admit of readier +thrust action, and relegated the cut to quite a secondary position in +their system. With this lighter weapon they devised in course of time +that brilliant cunning play known as rapier fence. + +The rapier was ultimately adopted everywhere by men of courtly habit; +but, in England at least, it was not accepted without murmur and +vituperation from the older fighting class of swordsmen, especially from +the members and admirers of the English Corporation of Defence Masters. +As a body Englishmen were as conservative then as they are now. They +knew the value of what they had as their own, and distrusted +innovations, especially from foreign quarters. The old sword and the +buckler were reckoned as your true English weapons: they always went +together--in fact sword and buckler play in the 16th century was +evidently held to be as national a game as boxing came to be in a later +age. Many are the allusions in contemporary dramatic literature to this +characteristic national distrust of continental innovations. There is +the well-known passage in Porter's play, _The Two Angry Women of +Abingdon_, for instance: "Sword and buckler fight," says a sturdy Briton +(in much the same tone of disgust as a British lover of fisticuffs might +now assume when talking of a French "Mounseer's" foil play), "begins to +grow out of use. I am sorry for it. I shall never see good manhood +again. If it be once gone, this poking fight with rapier and dagger will +come up. Then the tall man (that is, a courageous man and a good +sword-and-buckler man) will be spitted like a cat or a rabbit!" The +long-sword, that is, the two-hander, was also an essentially national +weapon. It was a right-down pleasing and sturdy implement, recalling in +good steel the vernacular quarter-staff of old. It required thews and +sinews, and, incidentally, much beef and ale. The long-sword man looked +perhaps with even greater disfavour than the smaller swashbuckler upon +the new-fangled "bird-spit." "Tut, man," says Justice Shallow, typical +_laudator_ of the good bygone days, on hearing of the ridiculous +Frenchman's skill with his rapier, "I could have told you more. In these +times you stand on distance, your passes, stoccadoes, and I know not +what; 'tis the heart, Master Page; 'tis here, 'tis here. I have seen the +time, with my long-sword, I would have made you four tall fellows skip +like rats." + +Now, sword-and-buckler and long-sword play was no doubt a manly pursuit +and a useful. But, as an every-day companion, the long-sword was +incongruous to a fastidious cavalier; and, again, the buckler, +indispensable adjunct to the broad swashing blade of home production, +was hardly more suitable. In Elizabethan days it soon became obvious +that the buckler was inadmissible as an item of gentlemanly attire. It +was accordingly left to the body attendant; and the gallant took kindly +to the fine rapier of Milanese or Toledan make. On the other hand, it is +not difficult to understand the rapid popularity gained among the gentry +by this nimble rapier, so much reviled by the older fighting men. The +rapier, in fact, came in with the taste for "cavalíero" style, and may +be looked upon as its fit outward symbol already in the days of Queen +Mary. In Elizabeth's reign it was firmly established as your only +gentlemanlike weapon. + +The rapier was decidedly a foreigner; yet it suited the Elizabethan age, +for it was decorative as well as practical. Its play was picturesque, +fantastic--almost euphuistic, one might say--in comparison with the +matter-of-fact hanger of older days. Its phraseology had a quaint, rich, +southern smack, which connoted outlandish experience and gave those +conversant with its intricate distinctions that marvellous character, at +once precious and ruffling, which was so highly appreciated by the +cavalier youth of the time. The rapier in its heyday was an admirable +weapon to look at, a delicious one to wield. And, besides, in proper +hands, it was undoubtedly one that was most conclusive. It was, in +short, as elegant and deadly as its predecessors were sturdy and brutal. + +By the time that the most perfect, namely, the Italian, rapier fence +came to be generally taught in England--that is, during the last third +of Elizabeth's reign--the theory of swordsmanship, as applied to a +single combat, after having passed through many phases of imperfection, +was already tolerably simple and practical. (The exact story of its +evolution may be found in a work now included in Bohn's Libraries, +_Schools and Masters of Fence_.) What may be considered as one of the +cardinal actions of regulated sword-play on foot, namely, the lunge, had +already been discovered. Although a great many movements which, +according to modern notions, would be considered not only unnecessary +but actually pernicious, still formed part of the system, it may be +doubted whether, considering the character of the weapon, anything very +much better could be devised, even in our present state of knowledge. + +For it must be remembered that the evolution of the forms of the sword +and of the theories concerning its most efficient use are closely +connected. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to decide whether the +change in the shape of the weapon was the result of a development of a +theory; or whether new theories were elaborated to fit alterations in +these shapes due to fashion or any other reason. + +When systematic fence came over to England it was already much +simplified (it should be noted that improvement in the art, from its +earliest days down to the present time, seems always to have been in the +direction of simplification); yet, for more than a century from the +appearance of the first real treatise, simplification never reached that +point which would render impossible a belief in the undoubted efficacy +of those "secret thrusts," of that "universal parry," of those +ineluctable passes, which every master professed to teach. These +precious secrets remain long, among a certain shady class of swordsmen, +an object of untiring study, carried on with much the same faith and +zest as the quest of the alchemist for his powder of projection, or of +the Merchant Adventurer for El Dorado. There can, of course, be no such +thing as an insuperable pass, a secret thrust or parry; every attack +_can_ be parried, every parry can be deceived by suitable movements. Yet +there was some justification for the belief in the existence of secrets +of swordsmanship in days when, as a rule, lessons of fence were given in +jealous privacy; constant practice at one particular pass, especially +with the long rapier, which required a great deal of muscular strength, +might render any peculiarly fierce, sudden and audacious stroke +excessively dangerous to one who did not happen to have opposed that +stroke before. Undoubtedly there was little in Elizabethan +fencing-schools of what we understand in modern days by loose-play +between the pupils; practice was almost invariably conducted between +scholar and teacher in private; and thus the opportunities for watching +or testing any particular fencer's play were few. Such an opportunity +would, as a rule, only occur on occasions of an earnest fight; and the +possessor of a specially handy thrust (if it came off at all) would of +course take good care that his opponent should not live to ponder over +the secret. The secret, such as it was, remained. In this guise it was +inevitable that an almost superstitious belief in "secret foynes," in +the _botte secrète_ of certain practised duellists, should arise. + +Be that as it may, there is no doubt that towards the end of the 16th +century there were many free-lances in the field of arms who professed +to teach, in exchange for much gold, strokes that were not to be +parried. From one truculent personage, whom Brantôme mentions, Tappa the +Milanese, you could learn how to cut (if it so took your fancy) both +eyes out of your adversary's face with a _rinverso tondo_, or circular +"reverse of the point." From Caizo, another Italian teacher, at one time +much favoured by the French court, lessons were to be had in the special +art of ham-stringing. Caizo's _botte secrète_ seems to have been nothing +more nor less than a _falso manco_, that is, a left-handed drawing cut, +at the inside of the knee. But, as practised and taught by him, it was +infallible. This stroke has come down to us as _le coup de Jarnac_--a +stroke, be it said, which, notwithstanding its bad name, was quite as +fair as any in rapier fence. One Le Flamand, a French master in Paris, +was reputed the inventor of a jerky time-thrust at the adversary's +brows, which was a certainty. This special foyne, which was merely an +_imbrocata_ at the head, has become legendary in the fencing world as +_la botte de Nevers_. English fencers have their own legends about "the +very butcher of a silk button," and this brings us to the first writer +on the rapier in England, Vincenzio Saviolo, the great expounder of that +Italianated fence which was so obnoxious to the old masters, withal so +much admired of Elizabethan courtiers; the man, in short, who--there +seems to be much internal evidence to show it--was Shakespeare's fencing +master. + +Vincenzio was not the only foreign master of note established in London +during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign. One, Signor Rocco, had, we +hear, a very gorgeously appointed academy in Warwick Lane, near St +Paul's, where he coined money rapidly at the expense of gulls and +gallants alike. But this man came to grief ultimately in an encounter +with the long-sword with an old-fashioned English master of defence. +Another popular teacher was a certain "Geronimo"; but he also met with a +melancholy and premature end by the hands of one Cheefe, "a tall man in +his fight and natural English," says George Silver, the champion of the +Corporation of Masters of Defence. Saviolo, however, seems to have +remained unconquered. In his work (_Vincentio Saviolo, his practise, in +two bookes, the first intreating of the use of the Rapier and Dagger, +the second of Honor and honorable quarrels._ London. Printed by John +Wolfe, 1595) are expounded in a most typical manner the principles of +rapier play. + +The fencing phraseology of Elizabethan times is highly picturesque, but +with difficulty intelligible in the absence of practical demonstration. +Without going into technical details it may be pointed out that the long +Elizabethan rapier, however admirably balanced it might otherwise be, +was still too heavy to admit of quick parries with the blade itself. +Thrusts, as a rule, had to be avoided by body movements, by ducking, or +by a vault aside (_incartata_), or beaten away with the left hand, the +hand being protected with a gauntlet or armed with a dagger. In fact, +one may say that the chief characteristic of Elizabethan sword-play was +the concerted action of the left hand parrying while the right delivered +the attack. Benvolio's description of Tybalt's fight is graphic:-- + + "With piercing steel he tilts at bold Mercutio's breast, + Who, all as hot, turns deadly point to point, + And with a martial scorn, with one hand beats + Cold death aside, and with the other + Sends it back to Tybalt, whose dexterity + Retorts it...." + +Of these body movements, in Saviolo's days, the most approved were: the +_incartata_, just mentioned; the pass (the "passado," in the ruffling +Anglo-Italian jargon), that is, passing of one foot in front of the +other whilst delivering the attack; the _botta lunga_, or lunge; and the +_caricado_, which was a far-reaching combination of the two. Of +systematic sword movements there were six: _stocata_, a thrust delivered +with nails upwards; _imbrocata_, with nails down; _punta-reversa_, any +thrust delivered from the left side of the body; _mandritto_, a cut from +the right; _rinverso_, one from the left; _stramazone_, a right-down +blow with the point of the sword. + +The new art of fence, as systematized by the principles of rapier play, +was on the whole already accepted in England during the last decade of +the 16th century, and was, as we know, destined to endure. Nevertheless, +there were still many partisans of the older school: lovers of the +national short-sword and the buckler. Their tenets are to be found +embodied, in very strenuous language, by the George Silver mentioned +above, a member, it would seem, of the now dwindling company of Masters +of Defence, in his small work: _Paradoxe of Defence, wherein is proved +the true ground of fight to be in the short ancient weapons, etc._ +Printed in London, 1599. (The work has been reprinted by Messrs George +Bell & Sons.) + +The Italians were undoubtedly the leaders in sword-play; but, towards +the beginning of the 17th century, the Spaniards developed a peculiar +school of their own, which for a short while was all the mode in England +as well as in France. The last trace, be it stated, of that school is +now extinct. Yet the Spaniard of cavalier days was undoubtedly a +formidable duellist; that was no doubt owing to the quality of the man, +not of his art. The Italian's fence was artistic; the Spaniard's +dexterity was essentially scientific. In Spain were to be found +typically those "Captains of Complements," who not only understood in +their most intricate mazes the proper "dependencies" for the cartel, but +also the mathematical certainties for the "reason demonstrative." These +Spanish books are marvellously pedantic; one may as well say it, frankly +ridiculous. Spanish masters instructed their scholars on mathematical +lines, with the help of diagrams drawn on the floor within a circle, the +radius of which bore certain cryptic proportions to length of human arms +and Spanish swords. The circle was inscribed in squares and intersected +by sundry chords bearing occult but, it was held, incontrovertible +relations to probabilities of strokes and parries. The scholar was to +step from certain intersections to certain others. If this stepping was +correctly done the result was a foregone victory. "A villain," exclaims +Mercutio, indignantly, "who fights by the book of arithmetic." +Elizabethan comedies bring us many an echo of its great expounder of +mathematical swordsmanship, the magnificent Carranza, the _primer +inventor de la Ciencia de las Armas_, the writer of treatises so +abstruse on "the first and second cause," in questions of honour and +swording, that they have never been quite understood to this day. + +Perhaps the most curious matter in connexion with the Spanish fence is +that the most splendid treatise of the sword published in the French +language is in reality purely Spanish (we have seen that the first was +German, and the second an adaptation of Italian treatises). This third +work, _Académie de l'épée de Girard Thibault, d'Anvers, etc._, is indeed +a monument; one of the biggest books ever printed, and beyond compare +the biggest book of fence. It was issued in 1628 by the Leiden Elzevirs, +and took fifteen years to complete. Nine reigning princes and a vast +number of private gentlemen subscribed to meet its stupendous expenses. + +This work was spoken of as a "monument." It may, in some respects, be +looked upon as the funeral monument of the old rapier fence; for soon +after that period rose an entirely new school, one adapted to the use of +a less portentous weapon, the small-sword of French pattern; a school +destined to endure, and to lead to the perfection of our modern +_escrime_. + +The evolution of this new school is an instance of the influence of +fashion upon the shape of the sword, and hence upon theories concerning +its use. The French school of fencing may be said to owe its origin to +the adoption, under Louis XIV., of the short court-sword in place of the +over-long wide-hilted rapier of the older style. With a weapon of such +reduced dimensions, of such reduced weight, the advantage of the dagger +as a fencing adjunct at once ceased to be felt. The dagger, last Gothic +remnant, disappeared accordingly; and there arose rapidly a new system +of play, in which most of the defensive actions were performed by the +blade alone; in which, at the same time (the reduction in the size and +weight of the weapon rendering the efficiency of the edge almost +nugatory in comparison with that of the point), all cutting action was +ultimately discarded. + +It is from that date, namely, from the last third of the 17th century, +that the sword, as a fighting implement, becomes differentiated into two +very different directions. The military weapon becomes the back-sword or +sabre; the walking companion and duelling weapon becomes what we now +understand by the small-sword. Two utterly different kinds of fence are +practised: one, that of the back-sword; the other, what we would now +call foil-play. + +The magnificent old cut and thrust rapier still flourished, it is true, +in parts of Italy and Spain; but by the end of the 17th century it had +already become an object of ridicule in the eyes of all persons addicted +to _bon ton_--and it must be remembered that _bon ton_, on the Continent +everywhere and even in England, at that time, was French _ton_. The +walking sword, fit for a gentleman's side, was therefore the small-sword +of Versailles pattern. Its use had to be learnt from French masters of +deportment; the old magniloquent Italo-Spanish rapier jargon was +forgotten; French terms, barbarized into _carte_, _tierce_, _sagoon_, +_flanquonade_, and so forth, were alone understood. In fact, French +fencing became as indispensable an accomplishment to the Georgian +gentlemen as the fine Italianated foyning had been to the Elizabethan. + +The new French sword-play was, it must be owned, very neat, quiet, +precise, and, if anything, even more deadly than the old fence. It was +perfect as a decorous mode of fight, and as well suited to the lace +ruffles, to the high perruque and the red heels of the "beau" as the +long cup-hilted rapier had been to the booted and spurred "cavalier." +The essence of its play was nimbleness of wrist; it required quickness +of spirit rather than muscular vigour. It is to be noted, however, that +the same sort of popular opposition met the invasion of French fencing, +in post-Restoration days, that had been offered to the new-fangled +Italian rapier a century earlier. During the Parliamentary period the +rapier and its attendant dagger had practically disappeared; they were +not true warlike weapons, their chief virtue was for duelling or sudden +encounters. But the stout English back-sword survived; and with it a +very definite school of back-sword play. Under Charles II., the +amusement of stage or prize-fighting with swords had become _à la mode_. +Courteous assaults at many weapons, of course rebated, had been frequent +functions under the auspices of the Corporation of Masters of Defence +during the second half of the 16th century; it is (be it remarked) in +such sword-matches on the scaffold that we find the origin of our modern +prize-fights at fisticuffs. The first instance known of a challenge at +sharps on the fighting stage is seen in a cartel sent by George Silver +and Toby his son, as champions of the Corporation of Masters of Defence, +to the obnoxious "Signors" Saviolo and Geronimo. As a matter of fact, +the latter, having apparently no wish to improve their excellent social +position or to risk forfeiting it, declined this invitation to a public +trial of skill. But the idea was right martial and pleasing to the +English mind, and the fashion of prize-fighting took the firm hold it +retained on English minds till stringent legislation, not so very long +ago, was brought to bear upon it. Be it as it may, this prize-fighting +with swords endured until middle Georgian days; when, under the impetus +given to fistic displays then by the renowned Figg (who was at one and +the same time the most formidable of English fencers and the first on +the long list of English pugilistic champions), back-swording became +relegated to the provinces, and ultimately dwindled into our bastard +"single-stick." + +Fencing, in its restricted sense of purely thrusting play, was always an +"academic" art in England. The first great advocate and exponent of the +new small-sword fence, as taught by the new French school, was Sir +William Hope of Balcomy, at one time deputy governor of Edinburgh +Castle, who wrote a great number of quaint treatises of great interest +to the "operative" as well as to the "speculative" fencer. Yet, oddly +enough, Sir William Hope was instrumental in endeavouring to push +through parliament a bill for the establishment of a court of honour, +the office of which was to have been the deciding of honourable +quarrels, whenever possible, without appeal to fencing skill. The House, +however, being at the time excited and busy on the question of the +union of Scotland and England, the bill never became act. + +To resume: since it began to be practised as a regulated art one may say +broadly that sword play has already passed through four main phases. The +first belongs to the early Tudor days of sword and buckler encounters, +whereof, if the best theoretical treatises appeared in Italy, the +sturdiest practical exponents were most probably found in the British +Isles. Then came the age of the rapier, coeval with the general disuse +of the buckler. There may be discerned the dawn of fencing proper, which +will fully arise when, in Caroline times, the outrageous length of the +tucke will at last be sufficiently reduced no longer to require the +dagger as a helpmate. The third was the age of the small-sword. With its +light, elegant and deadly practice we enter a new atmosphere, so to +speak, on fencing ground. Suppleness of wrist and precision of fingering +replace the ramping and traversing, the heavy forcing play, of the +Elizabethan. If the rapier age was well exemplified by Vincent Saviolo, +this one was typified, albeit perhaps at a time when it was already +somewhat on the wane, by the admirable Angelo Tremamondo Malevolti. + +In the early days of the small-sword age men still fenced in play as +they fought in earnest. But presently there appeared on the scene +(during the last years of the 18th century) an implement destined to +revolutionize the art and hopelessly to divide the practice of the +school from that of the field: that was the fencing mask. Before this +invention, small-sword play in the master's room was perforce +comparatively cautious, correct, sure and above all deliberate. The +long, excited, argumentative phrases of modern assaults were unknown; +and so was the almost inevitably consequent scrimmage. But under the +protection of the fencing mask a new school of foil-play was evolved, +one in which swiftness and inveteracy of attack and parry, of _riposte_, +_remise_, _counter-riposte_ and _reprise_, assumed an all-important +character. With the new style began to assert itself that utter +recklessness of "chance hits" which in our days so markedly +differentiates foil-practice from actual duelling. And this brings us to +the fourth phase, the fencing art, to what may be called the age of the +foil. + +If anything were required to demonstrate that foil-play has nowadays +passed into the state of what may be called fine art in athleticism, it +would be found in the rise of the method which French masters +particularize as _le jeu du terrain_, as duelling play in fact; a play +which differs as completely from academic foil-fencing as cross-country +riding in an unknown district from the _haute école_ of horsemanship in +the _manège_. By fencing, nowadays, that is by foil-play, we have come +to mean not simply fighting for hits, but a strictly regulated game +which, being quite conventional, does not take accidental hits into +consideration at all. This game requires for its perfect display a +combination of artificial circumstances, such as even floors, +featherweight weapons, and an unconditional acceptance of a number of +traditional conventions. Now, for the more utilitarian purposes of +duelling, the major part of the foil fencer's special achievement and +brilliancy has to be uncompromisingly sacrificed in the presence of the +brutal fact that thrusts in the face, or below the waist, _do_ count, +insomuch as they may kill; that _accidental_ hits in the arm or the leg +cannot be disregarded, for they may, and generally do, put a premature +stop to the bout. The "rub on the green" must be accepted, perforce, and +indeed often plays as important a part in the issue of the game as the +player's skill. The fact, however, that in earnest encounters all +conventionalities which determine the value of a hit vanish, does not in +any way justify the notion, prevalent among many, that a successful hit +justifies any method of planting the same; and that the mere discarding +of all convention in practical sword-play is sufficient to convert a bad +fencer into a dangerous duellist. + +It is the recognition of this fact (which, oddly enough, only came to be +generally admitted, and not without reluctance, by the masters of the +art during the last quarter of the 19th century) which has led to the +elaboration of the modified system of small-sword fence now known as +_épée_ play. The new system, after passing through various rather +extravagant phases of its own, gradually returned to the main principle +of sound foil-play, but shorn of all futile conventions as to the +relative values of hits. In _épée_ play a hit is a hit, whether +correctly delivered or reckless, whether intentional or the result of +mere chance, and must, at the cost of much caution and patience, be +guarded against. + +_Per contra_ the elaboration by the devotees of the _épée_ of a really +practical system of fence, that is, one applicable to trials in earnest, +has reacted upon the teaching of foil-play by the best masters of the +present day--a teaching which, without ceasing to be academical up to a +certain point, takes now cognisance of the necessity of defending every +part of the body as sedulously as the target of the breast, and, +moreover, of warding the many possibilities of chance hits in +_contretemps_. + +In both plays--in the highly refined, complicated and brilliant fence of +the first-class "foil," as well as in the simpler and more cautious +operations of the practised duellist--the one golden rule remains, that +one so quaintly expressed by M. Jourdain's _maître d'armes_ in Molière's +comedy: "Tout le secret des armes ne consiste qu'en deux choses, à +donner et à ne point recevoir." + +The point most usually lost sight of by sanguine and self-reliant +scorners of conventionalities is that, although with the sword it may be +comparatively easy at any time "to give," it is by no means easy to make +sure of "giving without receiving." The mutual simultaneous hit--the +_coup-double_--is, in fact, the dread pitfall of all sword-play. For +this reason, in courteous bouts, a hit has no real value, not only when +it is actually cancelled by a counter, but when it is delivered in such +a way as to admit of a counter. In short, the experience of ages and the +careful consideration of probabilities have given birth to the various +make-believes and restrictions that go to make sound foil-play. These +restrictions are destined to act in the same direction as the warning +presence of a sharp point instead of a button; and thus, as far as +possible, to prevent those mutual hits--the _contretemps_ of the old +masters--which mar the greater number of assaults. The proper observance +of those conventions, other things being equal, distinguishes the good +from the indifferent swordsman, the man who uses his head from him who +rushes blindly where angels fear to tread. So much for foil-play. + +In modern sword-play, on the other hand, is seen the usual tendency of +arts which have reached their climax of complication to return to +comparative simplicity. With reference to actual duelling, it is a +recognized thing that it would be the height of folly to attempt, sword +in hand, the complex attacks, the full-length lunges, the neat but +somewhat weak parries of the foil; so much so, that many have been led +to assert that, for its ultimate practical purpose (which logically is +that of duelling), the refined art of the foil, requiring so many years +of assiduous and methodical work, is next to useless. It is alleged, as +a proof, that many successful duellists have happened to be indifferent +performers on the fencing floor. Some even maintain that a few weeks' +special work in that restricted--very restricted--play, which alone can +be considered safe on the field of honour, will produce as good a +practical swordsman as any who have walked the schools for years. +Nothing can be further from the truth: were it but on the ground that +the greater includes the less; that the foil-fencer of standing who can +perform with ease and accuracy all the intricate movements of the +assault, who has trained his hand and eye to the lightning speed of the +well-handled foil, must logically prove more than a match for the more +purely practical but less trained devotees of the _épée de combat_. The +only difference for him in the two plays is that the latter is +incomparably slower in action, simpler; that it demands above all things +patience and caution; and especially that, instead of protecting his +breast only, the _épée_ fencer must beware of the wily attack, or the +chance hit, at _every_ part of his body, especially at his sword-hand. + +The difference which still exists between the French and Italian schools +of small-sword fence--by no means so wide, in point of theory, as +popularly supposed--is mainly due to the dissimilarity of the weapons +favoured by the two countries. The quillons, which are retained to this +day in the Italian _fioretto_ and _spada_, conduce to a freer use of +wrist-play and a straight arm. The French, on the other hand, having +long ago adopted the plain grip both for _fleuret_ and _épée_, have come +to rely more upon finger-play and a semi-bent arm. Both schools have +long laid claims to an overwhelming superiority, on theoretical ground, +over their rivals--claims which were unwarrantable. Indeed, of later +days, especially since the evolution of a special "duelling play," the +two schools show a decided tendency, notwithstanding the difference in +the grip of the weapons, towards a mutual assimilation of principles. + +As a duelling weapon--as one, that is to say, the practice of which +under the restrictive influence of conventions could become elaborated +into an art--the sabre (see SABRE-FENCING) returned to favour in some +countries at the close of the Napoleonic wars. Considered from the +historical point of view, the modern sabre, albeit now a very distant +cousin of the small-sword, is as direct a descendant as the latter +itself of the old cut-and-thrust rapier. It is curious, therefore, to +note that, just as the practice of the "small" or thrusting sword gave +rise to two rival schools, the French and the Italian, that of the sabre +or cutting sword (it can hardly be called the broadsword, the blade, for +the purposes of duelling play, having been reduced to slenderest +proportions) became split up into two main systems, Italian and German. +And further it is remarkable that the leading characteristics of the +latter should still be, in a manner, "severity" and steadfastness; and +that the former, the Italian, should rely, as of yore, specially upon +agility and insidious cunning. + +Concerning the latter-day evolution of that special and still more +conventional system of fence, the _Schläger_ or _Hau-rapier_ play +favoured by the German student, from that of the ancestral rapier, the +curious will find a critical account in an article entitled +"_Schlägerei_" which appeared in the _Saturday Review_, 5th of December +1885. + +See also the separate articles on CANE-FENCING (_canne_); +ÉPÉE-DE-COMBAT; FOIL-FENCING; SABRE-FENCING; and SINGLE-STICK. + + AUTHORITIES.--The bibliography of fencing is a copious subject; but it + has been very completely dealt with in the following works: + _Bibliotheca dimicatoria_, in the "Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling" + volume of the Badminton library (Longmans); _A Bibliography of Fencing + and Duelling_, by Carl A. Thimm (John Lane). For French works more + especially: _La Bibliographie de l'escrime_, by Vigeant (Paris, + Motteroz); and _Ma Collection d'escrime_, by the same (Paris, + Quantin). For Italian books: _Bibliografia generale della scherma_, by + Gelli (Firenza, Niccolai). For Spain and Portugal: _Libros de esgrima + españoles y portugueses_, by Leguina (Madrid, Los Huérfanos). Both M. + Vigeant's and Cav. Gelli's works deal with the subject generally; but + their entries are only critical, or even tolerably accurate, in the + case of books belonging to their own countries. Concerning the history + of the art, Egerton Castle's _Schools and Masters of Fence_ (George + Bell); Hutton's _The Sword and the Centuries_ (Grant Richards); and + Letainturier-Fradin's _Les Joueurs d'épée à travers les âges_ (Paris, + Flammarion) cover the ground, technically and ethically. As typical + exponents of the French and Italian schools respectively may be + mentioned here: _La Théorie de l'escrime_, by Prévost (Paris, de + Brunhof) (this is the work which was adopted in the Badminton volume + on Fencing), and _Trattato teorico-pratico della scherma_, by Parise + (Rome, Voghera). (E. Ca.) + + + + +FENDER, a metal guard or defence (whence the name) for a fire-place. +When the open hearth with its logs burning upon dogs or andirons was +replaced by the closed grate, the fender was devised as a finish to the +smaller fire-places, and as a safeguard against the dropping of cinders +upon the wooden floor, which was now much nearer to the fire. Fenders +are usually of steel, brass or iron, solid or pierced. Those made of +brass in the latter part of the 18th and the earlier part of the 19th +centuries are by far the most elegant and artistic. They usually had +three claw feet, and the pierced varieties were often cut into +arabesques or conventional patterns. The lyre and other motives of the +Empire style were much used during the prevalence of that fashion. The +modern fender is much lower and is often little more than a kerb; it is +now not infrequently of stone or marble, fixed to the floor. + + + + +FÉNELON, BERTRAND DE SALIGNAC, seigneur de la Mothe (1523-1589), French +diplomatist, came of an old family of Périgord. After serving in the +army he was sent ambassador to England in 1568. At the request of +Charles IX. he endeavoured to excuse to Elizabeth the massacre of St. +Bartholomew as a necessity caused by a plot which had been laid against +the life of the king of France. For some time after the death of Charles +IX. Fénelon was continued in his office, but he was recalled in 1575 +when Catherine de' Medici wished to bring about a marriage between +Elizabeth and the duke of Alençon, and thought that another ambassador +would have a better chance of success in the negotiation. In 1582 +Fénelon was charged with a new mission to England, then to Scotland, and +returned to France in 1583. He opposed the Protestants until the end of +the reign of Henry III., but espoused the cause of Henry IV. He died in +1589. His nephew in the sixth degree was the celebrated archbishop of +Cambrai. + + Fénelon is the author of a number of writings, among which those of + general importance are _Mémoires touchant l'Angleterre et la Suisse, + ou Sommaire de la négociation faite en Angleterre, l'an 1571_ + (containing a number of the letters of Charles and his mother, + relating to Queen Elizabeth, Queen Mary and the Bartholomew massacre), + published in the _Mémoires_ of Castelnau (Paris, 1659); _Négociations + de la Mothe Fénelon et de Michel, sieur de Mauvissière, en + Angleterre_; and _Dépêches de M. de la Mothe Fénelon, Instructions au + sieur de la Mauvissière_, both contained in the edition of Castelnau's + _Mémoires_, published at Brussels in 1731. The correspondence of + Fénelon was published at Paris in 1838-1841, in 7 vols. 8vo. + + See "Lettres de Catherine de' Médicis," edited by Hector de la + Ferrière (1880 seq.) in the _Collection de documents inédits sur + l'histoire de France_. + + + + +FÉNELON, FRANÇOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE (1651-1715), French writer and +archbishop of Cambrai, was born at the château of Fénelon in Périgord on +the 6th of August 1651. His father, Pons, comte de Fénelon, was a +country gentleman of ancient lineage, large family and small estate. +Owing to his delicate health the boy's early education was carried on at +home; though he was able to spend some time at the neighbouring +university of Cahors. In 1666 he came to Paris, under charge of his +father's brother, Antoine, marquis de Fénelon, a retired soldier of +distinction, well known for his religious zeal. Three years later he +entered the famous theological college of Saint Sulpice. Here, while +imbibing the somewhat mystical piety of the house, he had an excellent +chance of carrying on his beloved classical studies; indeed, at one time +he proposed to couple sacred and profane together, and go on a +missionary journey to the Levant. "There I shall once more make the +Apostle's voice heard in the Church of Corinth. I shall stand on that +Areopagus where St. Paul preached to the sages of this world an unknown +God. But I do not scorn to descend thence to the Piraeus, where Socrates +sketched the plan of his republic. I shall mount to the double summit of +Parnassus; I shall revel in the joys of Tempe." Family opposition, +however, put an end to this attractive prospect. Fénelon remained at +Saint Sulpice till 1679, when he was made "superior" of a "New Catholic" +sisterhood in Paris--an institution devoted to the conversion of +Huguenot ladies. Of his work here nothing is known for certain. +Presumably it was successful; since in the winter of 1685, just after +the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Fénelon was put at the head of a +number of priests, and sent on a mission to the Protestants of +Saintonge, the district immediately around the famous Huguenot citadel +of La Rochelle. To Fénelon such employment was clearly uncongenial; and +if he was rather too ready to employ unsavoury methods--such as bribery +and espionage--among his proselytes, his general conduct was kindly and +statesmanlike in no slight degree. But neither in his actions nor in his +writings is there the least trace of that belief in liberty of +conscience ascribed to him by 18th-century philosophers. Tender-hearted +he might be in practice; but toleration he declares synonymous with +"cowardly indulgence and false compassion." + +Meanwhile the marquis de Fénelon had introduced his nephew into the +devout section of the court, dominated by Mme de Maintenon. He became a +favourite disciple of Bossuet, and at the bishop's instance undertook to +refute certain metaphysical errors of Father Malebranche. Followed +thereon an independent philosophical _Treatise on the Existence of God_, +wherein Fénelon rewrote Descartes in the spirit of St Augustine. More +important were his _Dialogues on Eloquence_, wherein he entered an +eloquent plea for greater simplicity and naturalness in the pulpit, and +urged preachers to take the scriptural, natural style of Bossuet as +their model, rather than the coldly analytic eloquence of his great +rival, Bourdaloue. Still more important was his _Treatise on the +Education of Girls_, being the first systematic attempt ever made to +deal with that subject as a whole. Hence it was probably the most +influential of all Fénelon's books, and guided French ideas on the +question all through the 18th century. It holds a most judicious balance +between the two opposing parties of the time. On the one side were the +_précieuses_, enthusiasts for the "higher" education of their sex; on +the other were the heavy Philistines, so often portrayed by Molière, who +thought that the less girls knew the better they were likely to be. +Fénelon sums up in favour of the cultivated house-wife; his first object +was to persuade the mothers to take charge of their girls themselves, +and fit them to become wives and mothers in their turn. + +The book brought its author more than literary glory. In 1689 Fénelon +was gazetted tutor to the duke of Burgundy, eldest son of the dauphin, +and eventual heir to the crown. The character of this strange prince has +been drawn once for all by Saint-Simon. Shortly it may be said that he +was essentially a mass of contradictions--brilliant, passionate to the +point of mania, but utterly weak and unstable, capable of developing +into a saint or a monster, but quite incapable of becoming an ordinary +human being. Fénelon assailed him on the religious side, and managed to +transform him into a devotee, exceedingly affectionate, earnest and +religious, but woefully lacking in tact and common sense. In justice, +however, it should be added that his health was being steadily +undermined by a mysterious internal complaint, and that Fénelon's +tutorship came to an end on his disgrace in 1697, before the pupil was +fifteen. The abiding result of his tutorship is a code of carefully +graduated moral lessons--the _Fables_, the _Dialogues of the Dead_ (a +series of imaginary conversations between departed heroes), and finally +_Télémaque_, where the adventures of the son of Ulysses in search of a +father are made into a political novel with a purpose. Not, indeed, that +Fénelon meant his book to be the literal paper Constitution some of his +contemporaries thought it. Like other Utopias, it is an easy-going +compromise between dreams and possibilities. Its one object was to +broaden Burgundy's mind, and ever keep before his eyes the "great and +holy maxim that kings exist for the sake of their subjects, not subjects +for the sake of kings." Here and there Fénelon carries his philanthropy +to lengths curiously prophetic of the age of Rousseau--fervid +denunciation of war, belief in nature and fraternity of nations. And he +has a truly 18th-century belief in the all-efficiency of institutions. +Mentor proposes to "change the tastes and habits of the whole people, +and build up again from the very foundations." Fénelon is on firmer +ground when he leads a reaction against the "mercantile system" of +Colbert, with its crushing restrictions on trade; or when he sings the +praises of agriculture, in the hope of bringing back labour to the land, +and thereby ensuring the physical efficiency of the race. Valuable and +far-sighted as were these ideas, they fitted but ill into the scheme of +a romance. Seldom was Voltaire wider of the mark than when he called +_Télémaque_ a Greek poem in French prose. It is too _motivé_, too full +of ingenious contrivances, to be really Greek. As, in Fénelon's own +opinion, the great merit of Homer was his "amiable simplicity," so the +great merit of _Télémaque_ is the art that gives to each adventure its +hidden moral, to each scene some sly reflection on Versailles. Under +stress of these preoccupations, however, organic unity of structure went +very much to the wall, and _Télémaque_ is a grievous offender against +its author's own canons of literary taste. Not that it altogether lost +thereby. There is a curious richness in this prose, so full of rhythm +and harmony, that breaks at every moment into verse, as it drags itself +along its slow and weary way, half-fainting under an overload of +epithets. And although no single feature of the book is Greek, there +hangs round it a moral fragrance only to be called forth by one who had +fulfilled the vow of his youth, and learnt to breathe, as purely as on +"the double summit of Parnassus," the very essence of the antique. + +_Télémaque_ was published in 1699. Four years before, Fénelon had been +appointed archbishop of Cambrai, one of the richest benefices in France. +Very soon afterwards, however, came the great calamity of his life. In +the early days of his tutorship he had met the Quietist apostle, Mme +Guyon (q.v.), and had been much struck by some of her ideas. These he +developed along lines of his own, where Christian Neoplatonism curiously +mingles with theories of chivalry and disinterestedness, borrowed from +the _précieuses_ of his own time. His mystical principles are set out at +length in his _Maxims of the Saints_, published in 1697 (see QUIETISM). +Here he argues that the more love we have for ourselves, the less we can +spare for our Maker. Perfection lies in getting rid of self-hood +altogether--in never thinking of ourselves, or even of the relation in +which God stands to us. The saint does not love Christ as _his_ +Redeemer, but only as _the_ Redeemer of the human race. Bossuet (q.v.) +attacked this position as inconsistent with Christianity. Fénelon +promptly appealed to Rome, and after two years of bitter controversy his +book was condemned by Innocent XII. in 1699. As to the merits of the +controversy opinion will always be divided. On the point of doctrine all +good judges agree that Fénelon was wrong; though many still welcome the +_obiter dictum_ of Pope Innocent, that Fénelon erred by loving God too +much, and Bossuet by loving his neighbour too little. Of late years, +however, Bossuet has found powerful defenders; and if they have not +cleared his character from reproach, they have certainly managed to +prove that Fénelon's methods of controversy were not much better than +his. One of the results of the quarrel was Fénelon's banishment from +court; for Louis XIV. had ardently taken Bossuet's side, and brought all +the batteries of French influence to bear on the pope. Immediately on +the outbreak of the controversy, Fénelon was exiled to his diocese, and +during the last eighteen years of his life he was only once allowed to +leave it. + +To Cambrai, accordingly, all his energies were now directed. Even +Saint-Simon allows that his episcopal duties were perfectly performed. +Tours of inspection, repeated several times a year, brought him into +touch with every corner of his diocese. It was administered with great +strictness, and yet on broad and liberal lines. There was no +bureaucratic fussiness, no seeking after popularity; but every man, +whether great or small, was treated exactly as became his station in the +world. And Saint-Simon bears the same witness to his government of his +palace. There he lived with all the piety of a true pastor, yet with all +the dignity of a great nobleman, who was still on excellent terms with +the world. But his magnificence made no one angry, for it was kept up +chiefly for the sake of others, and was exactly proportionate to his +place. With all its luxuries and courtly ease, his house remained a true +bishop's palace, breathing the strictest discipline and restraint. And +of all this chastened dignity the archbishop was himself the +ever-present, ever-inimitable model--in all that he did the perfect +churchman, in all the high-bred noble, in all things, also, the author +of _Télémaque_. + +The one great blot on this ideal existence was his persecution of the +Jansenists (see JANSENISM). His theories of life were very different +from theirs; and they had taken a strong line against his _Maxims of the +Saints_, holding that visionary theories of perfection were ill-fitted +for a world where even the holiest could scarce be saved. To suppress +them, and to gain a better market for his own ideas, he was even ready +to strike up an alliance with the Jesuits, and force on a reluctant +France the doctrine of papal infallibility. His time was much better +employed in fitting his old pupil, Burgundy, for a kingship that never +came. Louis XIV. seldom allowed them to meet, but for years they +corresponded; and nothing is more admirable than the mingled tact and +firmness with which Fénelon spoke his mind about the prince's faults. +This exchange of letters became still more frequent in 1711, when the +wretched dauphin died and left Burgundy heir-apparent to the throne. +Fénelon now wrote a series of memorable criticisms on the government of +Louis XIV., accompanied by projects of reform, not always quite so wise. +For his practical political service was to act as an alarm-bell. Much +more clearly than most men, he saw that the Bourbons were tottering to +their fall, but how to prevent that fall he did not know. + +Not that any amount of knowledge would have availed. In 1712 Burgundy +died, and with him died all his tutor's hopes of reform. From this +moment his health began to fail, though he mustered strength enough to +write a remarkable _Letter to the French Academy_ in the autumn of 1714. +This is really a series of general reflections on the literary movement +of his time. As in his political theories, the critical element is much +stronger than the constructive. Fénelon was feeling his way away from +the rigid standards of Boileau to "a Sublime so simple and familiar that +all may understand it." But some of his methods were remarkably erratic; +he was anxious, for instance, to abolish verse, as unsuited to the +genius of the French. In other respects, however, he was far before his +age. The 17th century has treated literature as it treated politics and +religion; each of the three was cooped up in a water-tight compartment +by itself. Fénelon was one of the first to break down these +partition-walls, and insist on viewing all three as products of a single +spirit, seen at different angles. + +A few weeks after the _Letter_ was written, Fénelon met with a +carriage-accident, and the shock proved too much for his enfeebled +frame. On the 7th of January 1715 he died at the age of 63. Ever since, +his character has been a much-discussed enigma. Bossuet can only be +thought of as the high-priest of authority and common-sense; but Fénelon +has been made by turns into a sentimentalist, a mystical saint, an +18th-century _philosophe_, an ultramontane churchman and a hysterical +hypocrite. And each of these views, except the last, contains an element +of truth. More than most men, Fénelon "wanders between two worlds--one +dead, the other powerless to be born." He came just at a time when the +characteristic ideas of the 17th century--the ideas of Louis XIV., of +Bossuet and Boileau--had lost their savour, and before another creed +could arise to take their place. Hence, like most of those who break +away from an established order, he seems by turns a revolutionist and a +reactionary. Such a man expresses his ideas much better by word of mouth +than in the cold formality of print; and Fénelon's contemporaries +thought far more highly of his conversation than his books. That +downright, gossiping German princess, the duchess of Orleans, cared +little for the _Maxims_; but she was enraptured by their author, and his +"ugly face, all skin and bone, though he laughed and talked quite +unaffectedly and easily." An observer of very different mettle, the +great lawyer d'Aguesseau, dwells on the "noble singularity, that gave +him an almost prophetic air. Yet he was neither passionate nor +masterful. Though in reality he governed others, it was always by +seeming to give way; and he reigned in society as much by the attraction +of his manners as by the superior virtue of his parts. Under his hand +the most trifling subjects gained a new importance; yet he treated the +gravest with a touch so light that he seemed to have invented the +sciences rather than learnt them, for he was always a creator, always +original, and himself was imitable of none." Still better is +Saint-Simon's portrait of Fénelon as he appeared about the time of his +appointment to Cambrai--tall, thin, well-built, exceedingly pale, with a +great nose, eyes from which fire and genius poured in torrents, a face +curious and unlike any other, yet so striking and attractive that, once +seen, it could not be forgotten. There were to be found the most +contradictory qualities in perfect agreement with each other--gravity +and courtliness, earnestness and gaiety, the man of learning, the noble +and the bishop. But all centred in an air of high-bred dignity, of +graceful, polished seemliness and wit--it cost an effort to turn away +one's eyes. + + AUTHORITIES.--The best complete edition of Fénelon was brought out by + the abbé Gosselin of Saint Sulpice (10 vols., Paris, 1851). Gosselin + also edited the _Histoire de Fénelon_, by Cardinal Bausset (4 vols., + Paris, 1850). Modern authorities are _Fénelon à Cambrai_ (Paris, + 1885), by Emmanuel de Broglie; _Fénelon_, by Paul Janet (Paris, 1892); + _Bossuet et Fénelon_, by L. Crouslé (2 vols., Paris, 1894); J. + Lemaître, _Fénelon_ (1910). In English there are: _Fénelon, his + Friends and Enemies_, by E.K. Sanders (1901); and _François de + Fénelon_, by Lord St Cyres (1906); see also the _Quarterly Review_ for + January 1902, and M. Masson, _Fénelon et Madame Guyon_ (1907). + (St. C.) + + + + + +FENESTELLA, Roman historian and encyclopaedic writer, flourished in the +reign of Tiberius. If the notice in Jerome be correct, he lived from 52 +B.C. to A.D. 19 (according to others 35 B.C.-A.D. 36). Taking Varro for +his model, Fenestella was one of the chief representatives of the new +style of historical writing which, in the place of the brilliant +descriptive pictures of Livy, discussed curious and out-of-the-way +incidents and customs of political and social life, including literary +history. He was the author of an _Annales_, probably from the earliest +times down to his own days. The fragments indicate the great variety of +subjects discussed: the origin of the appeal to the people +(_provocatio_); the use of elephants in the circus games; the wearing of +gold rings; the introduction of the olive tree; the material for making +the toga; the cultivation of the soil; certain details as to the lives +of Cicero and Terence. The work was very much used (mention is made of +an abridged edition) by Pliny the elder, Asconius Pedianus (the +commentator on Cicero), Nonius, and the philologists. + + Fragments in H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum fragmenta_ (1883); see + also monographs by L. Mercklin (1844) and J. Poeth (1849); M. Schanz, + _Geschichte der röm. Litt._ ed. 2 (1901); Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman + Literature_, p. 259. A work published under the name of L. Fenestella + (_De magistratibus et sacerdotiis Romanorum_, 1510) is really by A.D. + Fiocchi, canon and papal secretary, and was subsequently published as + by him (under the latinized form of his name, Floccus), edited by + Aegidius Witsius (1561). + + + + +FENESTRATION (from O. Fr. _fenestre_, modern _fenêtre_, Lat. _fenestra_, +a window, connected with Gr. [Greek: phainein], to show), an +architectural term applied to the arrangement of windows on the front of +a building, more especially when, in the absence of columns or pilasters +separating them, they constitute its chief architectural embellishment. +The term "fenestral" is given to a frame or "chassis" on which oiled +paper or thin cloth was strained to keep out wind and rain when the +windows were not glazed. + + + + +FENIANS, or FENIAN BROTHERHOOD, the name of a modern Irish-American +revolutionary secret society, founded in America by John O'Mahony +(1816-1877) in 1858. The name was derived from an anglicized version of +_fiann_, _féinne_, the legendary band of warriors in Ireland led by the +hero Find Mac Cumaill (see FINN MAC COOL; and CELT: _Celtic Literature: +Irish_); and it was given to his organization of conspirators by +O'Mahony, who was a Celtic scholar and had translated Keating's _History +of Ireland_ in 1857. After the collapse of William Smith O'Brien's +attempted rising in 1848, O'Mahony, who was concerned in it, escaped +abroad, and since 1852 had been living in New York. James Stephens, +another of the "men of 1848," had established himself in Paris, and was +in correspondence with O'Mahony and other disaffected Irishmen at home +and abroad. A club called the Phoenix National and Literary Society, +with Jeremiah Donovan (afterwards known as O'Donovan Rossa) among its +more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skibbereen; and +under the influence of Stephens, who visited it in May 1858, it became +the centre of preparations for armed rebellion. About the same time +O'Mahony in the United States established the "Fenian Brotherhood," +whose members bound themselves by an oath of "allegiance to the Irish +Republic, now virtually established," and swore to take up arms when +called upon and to yield implicit obedience to the commands of their +superior officers. The object of Stephens, O'Mahony and other leaders of +the movement was to form a great league of Irishmen in all parts of the +world against British rule in Ireland. The organization was modelled on +that of the French Jacobins at the Revolution; there was a "Committee of +Public Safety" in Paris, with a number of subsidiary committees, and +affiliated clubs; its operations were conducted secretly by unknown and +irresponsible leaders; and it had ramifications in every part of the +world, the "Fenians," as they soon came to be generally called, being +found in Australia, South America, Canada, and above all in the United +States, as well as in the large centres of population in Great Britain +such as London, Manchester and Glasgow. It is, however, noteworthy that +Fenianism never gained much hold on the tenant-farmers or agricultural +labourers in Ireland, although the scurrilous press by which it was +supported preached a savage vendetta against the landowners, who were to +be shot down "as we shoot robbers and rats."[1] The movement was +denounced by the priests of the Catholic Church. + +It was, however, some few years after the foundation of the Fenian +Brotherhood before it made much headway, or at all events before much +was heard of it outside the organization itself, though it is probable +that large numbers of recruits had enrolled themselves in its "circles." +The Phoenix Club conspiracy in Kerry was easily crushed by the +government, who had accurate knowledge from an informer of what was +going on. Some twenty ringleaders were put on trial, including Donovan, +and when they pleaded guilty were, with a single exception, treated with +conspicuous leniency. But after a convention held at Chicago under +O'Mahony's presidency in November 1863 the movement began to show signs +of life. About the same time the _Irish People_, a revolutionary journal +of extreme violence, was started in Dublin by Stephens, and for two +years was allowed without molestation by the government to advocate +armed rebellion, and to appeal for aid to Irishmen who had had military +training in the American Civil War. At the close of that war in 1865 +numbers of Irish who had borne arms flocked to Ireland, and the plans +for a rising matured. The government, well served as usual by informers, +now took action. In September 1865 the _Irish People_ was suppressed, +and several of the more prominent Fenians were sentenced to terms of +penal servitude; Stephens, through the connivance of a prison warder, +escaped to France. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended in the beginning +of 1866, and a considerable number of persons were arrested. Stephens +issued a bombastic proclamation in America announcing an imminent +general rising in Ireland; but he was himself soon afterwards deposed by +his confederates, among whom dissension had broken out. A few +Irish-American officers, who landed at Cork in the expectation of +commanding an army against England, were locked up in gaol; some petty +disturbances in Limerick and Kerry were easily suppressed by the police. + +In the United States, however, the Fenian Brotherhood, now under the +presidency of W.R. Roberts, continued plotting. They raised money by the +issue of bonds in the name of the "Irish Republic," which were bought by +the credulous in the expectation of their being honoured when Ireland +should be "a nation once again." A large quantity of arms was purchased, +and preparations were openly made for a raid into Canada, which the +United States government took no steps to prevent. It was indeed +believed that President Andrew Johnson was not indisposed to turn the +movement to account in the settlement of the Alabama claims. The Fenian +"secretary for war" was General T.W. Sweeny (1820-1892), who temporarily +(Jan. 1865-Nov. 1866) was struck off the American army list. The command +of the expedition was entrusted to John O'Neill, who crossed the Niagara +river at the head of some 800 men on the 1st of June 1866, and captured +Fort Erie. But large numbers of his men deserted, and at Ridgeway the +Fenians were routed by a battalion of Canadian volunteers. On the 3rd of +June the remnant surrendered to the American warship "Michigan"; and the +tardy issue of President Johnson's proclamation enforcing the laws of +neutrality brought the raid to an ignominious end; the prisoners were +released, and the arms taken from the raiders were, according to Henri +Le Caron, "returned to the Fenian organization, only to be used for the +same purpose some four years later." In December 1867, John O'Neill +became president of the Brotherhood in America, which in the following +year held a great convention in Philadelphia attended by over 400 +properly accredited delegates, while 6000 Fenian soldiers, armed and in +uniform, paraded the streets. At this convention a second invasion of +Canada was determined upon; while the news of the Clerkenwell explosion +in London (see below) was a strong incentive to a vigorous policy. Le +Caron (q.v.), who, while acting as a secret agent of the English +government, held the position of "inspector-general of the Irish +Republican Army," asserts that he "distributed fifteen thousand stands +of arms and almost three million rounds of ammunition in the care of +the many trusted men stationed between Ogdensburg and St Albans," in +preparation for the intended raid. It took place in April 1870, and +proved a failure not less rapid or complete than the attempt of 1866. +The Fenians under O'Neill's command crossed the Canadian frontier near +Franklin, Vt., but were dispersed by a single volley from Canadian +volunteers; while O'Neill himself was promptly arrested by the United +States authorities acting under the orders of President Grant. + +Meantime in Ireland, after the suppression of the _Irish People_, +disaffection had continued to smoulder, and during the latter part of +1866 Stephens endeavoured to raise funds in America for a fresh rising +planned for the following year. A bold move on the part of the Fenian +"circles" in Lancashire had been concerted in co-operation with the +movement in Ireland. An attack was to be made on Chester, the arms +stored in the castle were to be seized, the telegraph wires cut, the +rolling stock on the railway to be appropriated for transport to +Holyhead, where shipping was to be seized and a descent made on Dublin +before the authorities should have time to interfere. This scheme was +frustrated by information given to the government by the informer John +Joseph Corydon, one of Stephens's most trusted agents. Some +insignificant outbreaks in the south and west of Ireland brought "the +rebellion of 1867" to an ignominious close. Most of the ringleaders were +arrested, but although some of them were sentenced to death none was +executed. On the 11th of September 1867, Colonel Thomas J. Kelly, +"deputy central organizer of the Irish Republic," one of the most +dangerous of the Fenian conspirators, was arrested in Manchester, +whither he had gone from Dublin to attend a council of the English +"centres," together with a companion, Captain Deasy. A plot to effect +the rescue of these prisoners was hatched by Edward O'Meaher Condon with +other Manchester Fenians; and on the 18th of September, while Kelly and +Deasy were being conveyed through the city from the court-house, the +prison van was attacked by Fenians armed with revolvers, and in the +scuffle police-sergeant Brett, who was seated inside the van, was shot +dead. Condon, Allen, Larkin, Maguire and O'Brien, who had taken a +prominent part in the rescue, were arrested. All five were sentenced to +death; but Condon, who was an American citizen, was respited at the +request of the United States government, his sentence being commuted to +penal servitude for life, and Maguire was granted a pardon. Allen, +Larkin, and O'Brien were hanged on the 23rd of November for the murder +of Brett. Attempts were made at the time, and have since been repeated, +to show that these men were unjustly sentenced, the contention of their +sympathizers being, first, that as "political offenders" they should not +have been treated as ordinary murderers; and, secondly, that as they had +no deliberate intention to kill the police-sergeant, the shot that +caused his death having been fired for the purpose of breaking open the +lock of the van, the crime was at worst that of manslaughter. But even +if these pleas rest on a correct statement of the facts they have no +legal validity, and they afford no warrant for the title of the +"Manchester martyrs" by which these criminals are remembered among the +more extreme nationalists in Ireland and America. Kelly and Deasy +escaped to the United States, where the former obtained employment in +the New York custom-house. + +In the same month, November 1867, one Richard Burke, who had been +employed by the Fenians to purchase arms in Birmingham, was arrested and +lodged in Clerkenwell prison in London. While he was awaiting trial a +wall of the prison was blown down by gunpowder, the explosion causing +the death of twelve persons, and the maiming of some hundred and twenty +others. This outrage, for which Michael Barrett suffered the death +penalty, powerfully influenced W.E. Gladstone in deciding that the +Protestant Church of Ireland should be disestablished as a concession to +Irish disaffection. In 1870, Michael Davitt (q.v.) was sentenced to +fifteen years' penal servitude for participation in the Fenian +conspiracy; and before he was released on ticket of leave the name +Fenian had become practically obsolete, though the "Irish Republican +Brotherhood" and other organizations in Ireland and abroad carried on +the same tradition and pursued the same policy in later years. In 1879, +John Devoy, a member of the Fenian Brotherhood, promoted a "new +departure" in America, by which the "physical force party" allied itself +with the "constitutional movement" under the leadership of C.S. Parnell +(q.v.); and the political conspiracy of the Fenians was combined with +the agrarian revolution inaugurated by the Land League. + + See William O'Connor Morris, _Ireland from 1798 to 1898_ (London, + 1898); _Two Centuries of Irish History, 1601-1870_, edited by R. Barry + O'Brien (London, 1907); Henri Le Caron, _Twenty-five Years in the + Secret Service_ (London, 1892); Patrick J.P. Tynan, _The Irish + National Invincibles and their Times_ (London, 1896); Justin M'Carthy, + _A History of our own Times_ (4 vols., London, 1880). (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] William O'Connor Morris, _Ireland 1798-1898_, p. 195. + + + + +FENNEL, _Foeniculum vulgare_ (also known as _F. capillaceum_), a +perennial plant of the natural order Umbelliferae, from 2 to 3 or (when +cultivated) 4 ft. in height, having leaves three or four times pinnate, +with numerous linear or awl-shaped segments, and glaucous compound +umbels of about 15 or 20 rays, with no involucres, and small yellow +flowers, the petals incurved at the tip. The fruit is laterally +compressed, five-ridged, and has a large single resin-canal or "vitta" +under each furrow. The plant appears to be of south European origin, but +is now met with in various parts of Britain and the rest of temperate +Europe, and in the west of Asia. The dried fruits of cultivated plants +from Malta have an aromatic taste and odour, and are used for the +preparation of fennel water, valued for its carminative properties. It +is given in doses of 1 to 2 oz., the active principle being a volatile +oil which is probably the same as oil of anise. The shoots of fennel are +eaten blanched, and the seeds are used for flavouring. The fennel seeds +of commerce are of several sorts. Sweet or Roman fennel seeds are the +produce of a tall perennial plant, with umbels of 25-30 rays, which is +cultivated near Nismes in the south of France; they are elliptical and +arched in form, about 2/5 in. long and a quarter as broad, and are +smooth externally, and of a colour approaching a pale green. Shorter and +straighter fruits are obtained from the annual variety of _F. vulgare_ +known as _F. Panmorium_ (_Panmuhuri_) or Indian fennel, and are employed +in India in curries, and for medicinal purposes. Other kinds are the +German or Saxon fruits, brownish-green in colour, and between 1/5 and +1/4 in. in length, and the broader but smaller fruits of the wild or +bitter fennel of the south of France. A variety of fennel, _F. dulce_, +having the stem compressed at the base, and the umbel 6-8 rayed, is +grown in kitchen-gardens for the sake of its leaves. + +Giant fennel is the name applied to the plant _Ferula communis_, a +member of the same natural order, and a fine herbaceous plant, native in +the Mediterranean region, where the pith of the stem is used as tinder. +Hog's or sow fennel is the species _Peucedanum officinale_, another +member of the Umbelliferae. + + + + +FENNER, DUDLEY (c. 1558-1587), English puritan divine, was born in Kent +and educated at Cambridge University. There he became an adherent of +Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603), and publicly expounded his presbyterian +views, with the result that he was obliged to leave Cambridge without +taking his degree. For some months he seems to have assisted the vicar +of Cranbrook, Kent, but it is doubtful whether he received ordination. +He next followed Cartwright to Antwerp, and, having received ordination +according to rite of the Reformed church, assisted Cartwright for +several years in preaching to the English congregation there. The +leniency shown by Archbishop Grindal to puritans encouraged him to +return to England, and he became curate of Cranbrook in 1583. In the +same year, however, he was one of seventeen Kentish ministers suspended +for refusing to sign an acknowledgment of the queen's supremacy and of +the authority of the Prayer Book and articles. He was imprisoned for a +time, but eventually regained his liberty and spent the remainder of his +life as chaplain in the Reformed church at Middleburgh. + + A list of his authentic works is given in Cooper's _Athenae + Cantabrigienses_ (Cambridge, 1858-1861). They rank among the best + expositions of the principles of puritanism. + + + + +FENNY STRATFORD, a market town in the Buckingham parliamentary division +of Buckinghamshire, England, 48 m. N.W. by N. of London on a branch of +the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4799. +It lies in an open valley on the west (left) bank of the Ouzel, where +the great north-western road from London, the Roman Watling Street, +crosses the stream, and is 1 m. E. of Bletchley, an important junction +on the main line of the North-Western railway. The church of St Martin +was built (c. 1730) on the site of an older church at the instance of Dr +Browne Willis, an eminent antiquary (d. 1760), buried here; but the +building has been greatly enlarged. A custom instituted by Willis on St +Martin's Day (November 11th) includes a service in the church, the +firing of some small cannon called the "Fenny Poppers," and other +celebrations. The trade of the town is mainly agricultural. + + + + +FENRIR, or FENRIS, in Scandinavian mythology, a water-demon in the shape +of a huge wolf. He was the offspring of Loki and the giantess Angurboda, +who bore two other children, Midgard the serpent, and Hel the goddess of +death. Fenrir grew so large that the gods were afraid of him and had him +chained up. But he broke the first two chains. The third, however, was +made of the sound of a cat's footsteps, a man's beard, the roots of a +mountain, a fish's breath and a bird's spittle. This magic bond was too +strong for him until Ragnarok (Judgment Day), when he escaped and +swallowed Odin and was in turn slain by Vidar, the latter's son. + + + + +FENS,[1] a district in the east of England, possessing a distinctive +history and peculiar characteristics. It lies west and south of the +Wash, in Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Norfolk, and +extends over more than 70 m. in length (Lincoln to Cambridge) and some +35 m. in maximum breadth. (Stamford to Brandon in Suffolk), its area +being considerably over half a million acres. Although low and flat, and +seamed by innumerable water-courses, the entire region is not, as the +Roman name of _Metaris Aestuarium_ would imply, a river estuary, but a +bay of the North Sea, silted up, of which the Wash is the last remaining +portion. Hydrographically, the Fens embrace the lower parts of the +drainage-basins of the rivers Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse; and +against these streams, as against the ocean, they are protected by +earthen embankments, 10 to 15 ft. high. As a rule the drainage water is +lifted off the Fens into the rivers by means of steam-pumps, formerly by +windmills. + +_General History._--According to fairly credible tradition, the first +systematic attempt to drain the Fens was made by the Romans. They dug a +catchwater drain (as the artificial fenland water-courses are called), +the Caer or Car Dyke, from Lincoln to Ramsey (or, according to Stukeley, +as far as Cambridge), along the western edge of the Fens, to carry off +the precipitation of the higher districts which border the fenland, and +constructed alongside the Welland and on the seashore earthen +embankments, of which some 150 m. survive. Mr S.H. Miller is disposed to +credit the native British inhabitants of the Fens with having executed +certain of these works. The Romans also carried causeways over the +country. After their departure from Britain in the first half of the 5th +century the Fens fell into neglect; and despite the preservation of the +woodlands for the purposes of the chase by the Norman and early +Plantagenet kings, and the unsuccessful attempt which Richard de Rulos, +chamberlain of William the Conqueror, made to drain Deeping Fen, the +fenland region became almost everywhere waterlogged, and relapsed to a +great extent into a state of nature. In addition to this it was ravaged +by serious inundations of the sea, for example, in the years 1178, 1248 +(or 1250), 1288, 1322, 1335, 1467, 1571. Yet the fenland was not +altogether a wilderness of reed-grown marsh and watery swamp. At various +spots, more particularly in the north and in the south, there existed +islands of firmer and higher ground, resting generally on the boulder +clays of the Glacial epochs and on the inter-Glacial gravels of the +Palaeolithic age. In these isolated localities members of the monastic +orders (especially at a later date the Cistercians) began to settle +after about the middle of the 7th century. At Medeshampstead (i.e. +Peterborough), Ely, Crowland, Ramsey, Thorney, Spalding, Peakirk, +Swineshead, Tattershall, Kirkstead, Bardney, Sempringham, Bourne and +numerous other places, they made settlements and built churches, +monasteries and abbeys. In spite of the incursions of the predatory +Northmen and Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries, and of the +disturbances consequent upon the establishment of the Camp of Refuge by +Hereward the Wake in the fens of the Isle of Ely in the 11th century, +these scattered outposts continued to shed rays of civilization across +the lonely Fenland down to the dissolution of the monasteries in the +reign of Henry VIII. Then they, too, were partly overtaken by the fate +which befell the rest of the Fens; and it was only in the end of the +18th and the beginning of the 19th century that the complete drainage +and reclamation of the Fen region was finally effected. Attempts on a +considerable scale were indeed made to reclaim them in the 17th century, +and the work as a whole forms one of the most remarkable chapters of the +industrial history of England. Thus, the reclamation of the Witham Fens +was taken up by Sir Anthony Thomas, the earl of Lindsey, Sir William +Killigrew, King Charles I., and others in 1631 and succeeding years; and +that of the Deeping or Welland Fens in 1638 by Sir W. Ayloff, Sir +Anthony Thomas and other "adventurers," after one Thomas Lovell had +ruined himself in a similar attempt in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The +earl of Lindsey received 24,000 acres for his work. Charles I., +declaring himself the "undertaker" of the Holland Fen, claimed 8000 out +of its 22,000 acres as his share. + +A larger work than these, however, was the drainage of the fens of the +Nene and the Great Ouse, comprehending the wide tract known as the +Bedford level. This district took name from the agreement of Francis, +earl of Bedford, the principal land-holder, and thirteen other +adventurers, with Charles I. in 1634, to drain the level, on condition +of receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. A partial attempt at +drainage had been made (1478-1490) by John Morton, when bishop of Ely, +who constructed Morton's Leam, from Peterborough to the sea, to carry +the waters of the Nene, but this also proved a failure. An act was +passed, moreover, in 1602 for effecting its reclamation; and Lord +Chief-Justice Popham (whose name is preserved in Popham's Eau, S.E. of +Wisbech) and a company of Londoners began the work in 1605; but the +first effectual attempt was that of 1634. The work was largely directed +by the Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden, who had begun work in the +Fens in 1621, and was knighted in 1628. + +Three years after the agreement of the earl of Bedford and his partners +with the king, after an outlay of £100,000 on the part of the company, +the contract was annulled, on the fraudulent plea that the works were +insufficient; and an offer was made by King Charles to undertake its +completion on condition of receiving 57,000 acres in addition to the +amount originally agreed on. This unjust attempt was frustrated by the +breaking out of the civil war; and no further attempt at drainage was +made until 1649, when the parliament reinstated the earl of Bedford's +successor in his father's rights. After an additional outlay of +£300,000, the adventurers received 95,000 acres of reclaimed land, +according to the contract, which, however, fell far short of repaying +the expense of the undertaking. In 1664 a royal charter was obtained to +incorporate the company, which still exists, and carries on the concern +under a governor, 6 bailiffs, 20 conservators, and a commonalty, each of +whom must possess 100 acres of land in the level, and has a voice in the +election of officers. The conservators must each possess not less than +280 acres, the governor and bailiffs each 400 acres. The original +adventurers had allotments of land according to their interest of the +original 95,000 acres; but Charles II., on granting the charter, took +care to secure to the crown a lot of 12,000 acres out of the 95,000, +which, however, is held under the directors, whereas the allotments are +not held in common, though subject to the laws of the corporation. The +level was divided in 1697 into three parts, called the North, Middle, +and South Levels--the second being separated from the others by the +Nene and Old Bedford rivers. + +These attempts failed owing to the determined opposition of the native +fenmen ("stilt-walkers"), whom the drainage and appropriation of the +unenclosed fenlands would deprive of valuable and long-enjoyed rights of +commonage, turbary (turf-cutting), fishing, fowling, &c. Oliver Cromwell +is said to have put himself at their head and succeeded in stopping all +the operations. When he became Protector, however, he sanctioned +Vermuyden's plans, and Scottish prisoners taken at Dunbar, and Dutch +prisoners taken by Blake in his victory over Van Tromp, were employed as +the workers. Vermuyden's system, however, was exclusively Dutch; and +while perfectly suited to Holland it did not meet all the necessities of +East Anglia. He confined his attention almost exclusively to the inland +draining and embankments, and did not provide sufficient outlet for the +waters themselves into the sea. + +Holland and other Fens on the west side of the Witham were finally +drained in 1767, although not without much rioting and lawlessness; and +a striking account of the wonderful improvements effected by a +generation later is recorded in Arthur Young's _General View of the +Agriculture of the County of Lincoln_ (London, 1799). The East, West and +Wildmore Fens on the east side of the Witham were drained in 1801-1807 +by John Rennie, who carried off the precipitation which fell on the +higher grounds by catchwater drains, on the principle of the Roman Car +Dyke, and improved the outfall of the river, so that it might the more +easily discharge the Fen water which flowed or was pumped into it. The +Welland or Deeping Fens were drained in 1794, 1801, 1824, 1837 and other +years. Almost the only portion of the original wild Fens now remaining +is Wicken Fen, which lies east of the river Cam and south-east of the +Isle of Ely. + +[Illustration: Map of the Fens.] + +_The Fen Rivers._--The preservation of the Fens depends in an intimate +and essential manner upon the preservation of the rivers, and especially +of their banks. The Witham, known originally as the Grant Avon, also +called the Lindis by Leyland (_Itinerary_, vol. vii. p. 41), and in Jean +Ingelow's _High Tide on the Lincolnshire Coast_, is some 80 m. long, and +drains an area of 1079 sq. m. It owes its present condition to +engineering works carried out in the years 1762-1764, 1865, 1881, and +especially in 1880-1884. In 1500 the river was dammed immediately above +Boston by a large sluice, the effect of which was not only to hinder +free navigation up to Lincoln (to which city sea-going vessels used to +penetrate in the 14th and 15th centuries), but also to choke the channel +below Boston with sedimentary matter. The sluice, or rather a new +structure made in 1764-1766, remains; but the river below Boston has +been materially improved (1880-1884), first by the construction of a new +outfall, 3 m. in length, whereby the channel was not only straightened, +but its current carried directly into deep water, without having to +battle against the often shifting sandbanks of the Wash; and secondly, +by the deepening and regulation of the river-bed up to Boston. The +Welland, which is about 70 m. long, and drains an area of 760 sq. m., +was made to assume its present shape and direction in 1620, 1638, 1650, +1794, and 1835 and following years. The most radical alteration took +place in 1794, when a new outfall was made from the confluence of the +Glen (30 m. long) to the Wash, a distance of nearly 3 m. The Nene, 90 m. +long, and draining an area of some 1077 sq. m., was first regulated by +Bishop Morton, and it was further improved in 1631, 1721, and +especially, under plans by Rennie and Telford, in 1827-1830 and 1832. +The work done from 1721 onward consisted in straightening the lower +reaches of the stream and in directing and deepening the outfall. The +Ouse (q.v.) or Great Ouse, the largest of the fenland rivers, seems to +have been deflected, at some unknown period, from a former channel +connecting via the Old Croft river with the Nene, into the Little Ouse +below Littleport; and the courses of the two streams are now linked +together by an elaborate network of artificial drains, the results of +the great engineering works carried out in the Bedford Level in the 17th +century. The old channel, starting from Earith, and known as the Old +West river, carries only a small stream until, at a point above Ely, it +joins the Cam. The salient features of the plan executed by +Vermuyden[2] for the earl of Bedford in the years 1632-1653 were as +follows: taking the division of the area made in 1697-1698 into (i.) the +North Level, between the river Welland and the river Nene; (ii.) the +Middle Level, between the Nene and the Old Bedford river (which was made +at this time, i.e. 1630); and (iii.) the South Level, from the Old +Bedford river to the south-eastern border of the fenland. In the North +Level the Welland was embanked, the New South Eau, Peakirk Drain, and +Shire Drain made, and the existing main drains deepened and regulated. +In the Middle Level the Nene was embanked from Peterborough to Guyhirn, +also the Ouse from Earith to Over, both places at the south-west edge of +the fenland; the New Bedford river was made from Earith to Denver, and +the north side of the Old Bedford river and the south side of the New +Bedford river were embanked, a long narrow "wash," or overflow basin, +being left between them; several large feeding-drains were dug, +including the Forty Foot or Vermuyden's Drain, the Sixteen Foot river, +Bevill's river, and the Twenty Foot river; and a new outfall was made +for the Nene, and Denver sluice (to dam the old circuitous Ouse) +constructed. In the South Level Sam's Cut was dug and the rivers were +embanked. Since that period the mouth of the Ouse has been straightened +above and below King's Lynn (1795-1821), a new straight cut made between +Ely and Littleport, the North Level Main Drain and the Middle Level +Drain constructed, and the meres of Ramsey, Whittlesey (1851-1852), +&c., drained and brought under cultivation. A considerable barge traffic +is maintained on the Ouse below St Ives, on the Cam up to Cambridge, the +Lark and Little Ouse, and the network of navigable cuts between the New +Bedford river and Peterborough. The Nene, though locked up to +Northampton, and connected from that point with the Grand Junction +canal, is practically unused above Wansford, and traffic is small except +below Wisbech. + +The effect of the drainage schemes has been to lower the level of the +fenlands generally by some 18 in., owing to the shrinkage of the peat +consequent upon the extraction of so much of its contained water; and +this again has tended, on the one hand, to diminish the speed and +erosive power of the fenland rivers, and, on the other, to choke up +their respective outfalls with the sedimentary matters which they +themselves sluggishly roll seawards. + +_The Wash._--From this it will be plain that the Wash (q.v.) is being +silted up by riverine detritus. The formation of new dry land, known at +first as "marsh," goes on, however, but slowly. During the centuries +since the Romans are believed to have constructed the sea-banks which +shut out the ocean, it is computed that an area of not more than 60,000 +to 70,000 acres has been won from the Wash, embanked, drained and +brought more or less under cultivation. The greatest gain has been at +the direct head of the bay, between the Welland and the Great Ouse, +where the average annual accretion is estimated at 10 to 11 lineal feet. +On the Lincolnshire coast, farther north, the average annual gain has +been not quite 2 ft.; whilst on the opposite Norfolk coast it has been +little more than 6 in. annually. On the whole, some 35,000 acres were +enclosed in the 17th century, about 19,000 acres during the 18th, and +about 10,000 acres during the 19th century. + +The first comprehensive scheme for regulating the outfall channels and +controlling the currents of the Fen rivers seems to be that proposed by +Nathaniel Kinderley in 1751. His idea[3] was to link the Nene with the +Ouse by means of a new cut to be made through the marshland, and guide +the united stream through a further new cut "under Wotten and Wolverton +through the Marshes till over against Inglesthorp or Snetsham, and there +discharge itself immediately into the Deeps of Lyn Channel." In a +similar way the Witham, "when it has received the Welland from +Spalding," was to be carried "to some convenient place over against +Wrangle or Friskney, where it may be discharged into Boston Deeps." This +scheme was still further improved upon by Sir John Rennie, who, in a +report which he drew up in 1839, recommended that the outfalls of all +four rivers should be directed by means of fascined channels into one +common outfall, and that the land lying between them should be enclosed +as rapidly as it consolidated. By this means he estimated that 150,000 +acres would be won to cultivation. But beyond one or two abortive or +half-hearted attempts, e.g. by the Lincolnshire Estuary Company in 1851, +and in 1876 and subsequent years by the Norfolk Estuary Company, no +serious effort has ever been made to execute either of these schemes. + +_Climate._--The annual mean temperature, as observed at Boston, in the +period 1864-1885, is 48.7° F.; January, 36.5°; July, 62.8°; and as +observed at Wisbech, for the period 1861-1875, 49.1°. The average mean +rainfall for the seventy-one years 1830-1900, at Boston, was 22.9 in.; +at Wisbech for the fifteen years 1860-1875, 24.2 in., and for the +fifteen years 1866-1880, 26.7 in.; and at Maxey near Peterborough, 21.7 +for the nineteen years 1882-1900. Previous to the drainage of the Fens, +ague, rheumatism, and other ailments incidental to a damp climate were +widely prevalent, but at the present day the Fen country is as healthy +as the rest of England; indeed, there is reason to believe that it is +conducive to longevity. + +_Historical Notes._--The earliest inhabitants of this region of whom we +have record were the British tribes of the Iceni confederation; the +Romans, who subdued them, called them Coriceni or Coritani. In Saxon +times the inhabitants of the Fens were known (e.g. to Bede) as Gyrvii, +and are described as traversing the country on stilts. Macaulay, writing +of the year 1689, gives to them the name of Breedlings, and describes +them as "a half-savage population ... who led an amphibious life, +sometimes wading, sometimes rowing, from one islet of firm ground to +another." In the end of the 18th century those who dwelt in the remoter +parts were scarcely more civilized, being known to their neighbours by +the expressive term of "Slodgers." These rude fen-dwellers have in all +ages been animated by a tenacious love of liberty. Boadicea, queen of +the Iceni, the worthy foe of the Romans; Hereward the Saxon, who defied +William the Conqueror; Cromwell and his Ironsides, are representative of +the fenman's spirit at its best. The fen peasantry showed a stubborn +defence of their rights, not only when they resisted the encroachments +and selfish appropriations of the "adventurers" in the 17th century, in +the Bedford Level, in Deeping Fen, and in the Witham Fens, and again in +the 18th century, when Holland Fen was finally enclosed, but also in the +Peasants' Rising of 1381, and in the Pilgrimage of Grace in the reign of +Henry VIII. So long as the Fens were unenclosed and thickly studded with +immense "forests" of reeds, and innumerable marshy pools and "rows" +(channels connecting the pools), they abounded in wild fowl, being +regularly frequented by various species of wild duck and geese, +garganies, polchards, shovelers, teals, widgeons, peewits, terns, +grebes, coots, water-hens, water-rails, red-shanks, lapwings, god-wits, +whimbrels, cranes, bitterns, herons, swans, ruffs and reeves. Vast +numbers of these were taken in decoys[4] and sent to the London markets. +At the same time equally vast quantities of tame geese were reared in +the Fens, and driven by road[5] to London to be killed at Michaelmas. +Their down, feathers and quills (for pens) were also a considerable +source of profit. The Fen waters, too, abounded in fresh-water fish, +especially pike, perch, bream, tench, rud, dace, roach, eels and +sticklebacks. The Witham, on whose banks so many monasteries stood, was +particularly famous for its pike; as were certain of the monastic waters +in the southern part of the Fens for their eels. The soil of the +reclaimed Fens is of exceptional fertility, being almost everywhere rich +in humus, which is capable not only of producing very heavy crops of +wheat and other corn, but also of fattening live-stock with peculiar +ease. Lincolnshire oxen were famous in Elizabeth's time, and are +specially singled out by Arthur Young,[6] the breed being the shorthorn. +Of the crops peculiar to the region it must suffice to mention the old +British dye-plant woad, which is still grown on a small scale in two or +three parishes immediately south of Boston; hemp, which was extensively +grown in the 18th century, but is not now planted; and peppermint, which +is occasionally grown, e.g. at Deeping and Wisbech. In the second half +of the 19th century the Fen country acquired a certain celebrity in the +world of sport from the encouragement it gave to speed skating. Whenever +practicable, championship and other racing meetings are held, chiefly at +Littleport and Spalding. The little village of Welney, between Ely and +Wisbech, has produced some of the most notable of the typical Fen +skaters, e.g. "Turkey" Smart and "Fish" Smart. + +Apart from fragmentary ruins of the former monastic buildings of +Crowland, Kirkstead and other places, the Fen country of Lincolnshire +(division of Holland) is especially remarkable for the size and beauty +of its parish churches, mostly built of Barnack rag from +Northamptonshire. Moreover, in the possession of such buildings as Ely +cathedral and the parish church of King's Lynn, other parts of the Fens +must be considered only less rich in ecclesiastical architecture. Using +these fine opportunities, the Fen folk have long cultivated the science +of campanology. + +_Dialect._--Owing to the comparative remoteness of their geographical +situation, and the relatively late period at which the Fens were +definitely enclosed, the Fenmen have preserved several dialectal +features of a distinctive character, not the least interesting being +their close kinship with the classical English of the present day. +Professor E.E. Freeman (_Longman's Magazine_, 1875) reminded modern +Englishmen that it was a native of the Fens, "a Bourne man, who gave the +English language its present shape." This was Robert Manning, or Robert +of Brunne, who in or about 1303 wrote _The Handlynge Synne_. Tennyson's +dialect poems, _The Northern Farmer_, &c., do not reproduce the pure Fen +dialect, but rather the dialect of the Wold district of mid +Lincolnshire. + + AUTHORITIES.--Sir William Dugdale, _History of Imbanking and Draining_ + (2nd ed., London, 1772); W. Elstobb, _A Historical Account of the + Great Level_ (Lynn, 1793); W. Chapman, _Facts and Remarks relative to + the Witham and the Welland_ (Boston, 1800); S. Wells, _History and + Drainage of the Great Level of the Fens_ (2 vols., London, 1828 and + 1830); P. Thompson, _History of Boston_ (Boston, 1856); Baldwin + Latham, _Papers on the Drainage of the Fens_, read before the Society + of Engineers, 3rd November 1862; N. and A. Goodman, _Handbook of Fen + Skating_ (London, 1882); Moore, _Associated Architectural Societies' + Reports and Papers_ (1893); _Fenland Notes and Queries_, and + _Lincolnshire Notes and Queries, passim_; W.H. Wheeler, _A History of + the Fens of South Lincolnshire_, pp. 223 et seq. (2nd ed., Boston, + 1897). Various phases of Fen life, mostly of the past, are described + in Charles Kingsley's _Hereward the Wake_ (Cambridge, 1866); Baring + Gould's _Cheap-Jack Zita_ (London, 1893); Manville Fenn's _Dick o' the + Fens_ (London, 1887); and J.T. Bealby's _A Daughter of the Fen_ + (London, 1896). (J. T. Be.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word "fen," a general term for low marshy land or bog, is + common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _ven_ or _veen_, Ger. + _Fenne_, _Fehn_, Goth. _fani_, mud; the Indo-European root is seen in + Gr. [Greek: pêlos], mud, Lat. _palus_, marsh. The word "bog" is from + the Irish or Gaelic bogach, formed from Celtic _bog_, soft, and + meaning therefore soft, swampy ground. + + [2] The principles upon which he proceeded are set forth in his + _Discourse touching the Draining of the Great Fennes_ (1642), + reprinted in _Fenland Notes and Queries_ (1898), pp. 26-38 and 81-87. + + [3] Set forth in _The Present State of the Navigation of the Towns of + Lyn, Wisbeach, Spalding and Boston_ (2nd ed., London, 1851), pp. 82 + seq. + + [4] For descriptions of these see Oldfield, Appendix, pp. 2-4, of _A + Topographical and Historical Account of Wainfleet_ (London, 1829); + and Miller and Skertchly, _The Fenland_, pp. 369-375. + + [5] See De Foe's account in _A Tour through the Eastern Counties_, + 1722 (1724-1725). + + [6] _General View_, pp. 174-194 and 288-304. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 36452-8.txt or 36452-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/4/5/36452/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |