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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Coming of Coal, by Robert W. Bruere
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Coming of Coal
+
+Author: Robert W. Bruere
+
+Release Date: June 15, 2011 [EBook #36432]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMING OF COAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jens Nordmann, Larry B. Harrison and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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+
+                           Transcriber's Notes:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+A list of all corrections applied to the text has been added at the
+end of the text.
+
+
+                                Formatting:
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+
+                 [Illustration: COAL FIELDS OF THE WORLD]
+
+
+
+
+                            THE COMING OF COAL
+
+
+                                    BY
+
+                             ROBERT W. BRUČRE
+
+                   OF THE BUREAU OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH
+
+
+                               Prepared for
+                     The Educational Committee of the
+                Commission on the Church and Social Service
+                                  of the
+                          Federal Council of the
+                            Churches of Christ
+                                in America
+
+
+
+
+                            =ASSOCIATION PRESS=
+
+                       NEW YORK: 347 MADISON AVENUE
+
+                                   1922
+
+
+
+
+                   COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY ROBERT W. BRUČRE
+
+
+                  PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+                                 FOREWORD
+
+
+This book, important in subject and scientific in method, appears under
+religious auspices for a very definite reason. The Educational Committee
+of the Federal Council of Churches has sought to find concrete
+expression for those Christian principles which are too often confined
+to abstract statement. Christian ethics are well understood in theory.
+There is need now for a science of Christian conduct through which we
+may realize ethical ideals in our working life.
+
+Because of its basic character and its present importance in the public
+mind the coal industry offers a field for this endeavor. Hence the
+Educational Committee presents through the medium of the Press of the
+Young Men's Christian Association, this book, addressed particularly to
+the people of the churches of America.
+
+                                         THE EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE.
+
+
+
+
+                             TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+  CHAPTER                                                        PAGE
+
+      I. Challenge of Power                                         1
+     II. Coming of Coal                                             4
+    III. Drama of Civilization                                     10
+     IV. Coal in America                                           22
+      V. Awakening of the Miners                                   34
+     VI. Struggle for Organization                                 50
+    VII. Rise of Democracy                                         66
+   VIII. Rivals of Coal                                            78
+     IX. The Technical Revolution                                  90
+      X. The Strait Gate                                          102
+         Bibliography                                             114
+         Index                                                    120
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+                         THE CHALLENGE OF POWER
+
+
+Scientists tell us that the energy poured by the sun on the Desert of
+Sahara in a single day exceeds by fourfold the energy stored in the
+annual production of all the coal fields in the world. They dream of a
+time when the radiant energy of the sun will be captured and turned to
+the uses of man. Then the wheels of our myriad machines will spin with
+the sun and the stars. In the soft whirr of their motors men will hear
+the music of the spheres.
+
+When that time comes, will it signal the triumph of man's will over
+nature, the end of the brute struggle with hunger? Will it find our
+ideals of cooperation, service, and brotherhood ripe for practical
+application? Or will it mark a new intensification of the exploitation
+of man by men, of the clash of groups for power, of international wars
+for possession? Shall we have the spiritual capacity to match our
+technical achievement? Shall we know what we mean when we pray Thy
+Kingdom Come on Earth as IT IS in Heaven?
+
+That prayer was old on the lips of men when a comparable gift was
+discovered. During ages without number the shifting seas and the
+slow-moving mountains had pressed down the sun's vintage in the coal
+beds of the earth. Less than two centuries ago the steam engine
+harnessed coal to the looms of England. With coal came iron and steel,
+and with steel and steam came the industrial revolution, its factories
+massed in cities, its railroads weaving manufacturing centers together,
+its steel ships and cables and telegraph wires unfolding and integrating
+the economic life of the world. In western Europe especially it
+converted an age-long economic deficit into an economic surplus. For the
+first time in human history it brought the possibility of the good life
+to every man's door. But it found men spiritually unprepared. The
+ancient bread hunger was still upon them. As in the tribal days men
+warred upon one another for food, so now they warred upon one another
+for coal and the incredible spawn of coal. For coal means food,
+clothing, houses, ships, railroads, newspapers, chemicals, and guns.
+With the coming of coal and coal-driven machinery the earth and the
+fullness thereof was unlocked for the service of man. There was not only
+the possibility of the good life for each but also of a noble,
+well-ordered civilization for all. But instead of establishing
+civilization on foundations of mutual aid, service, and brotherhood, men
+turned their cities into shambles of childhood, poverty was embittered,
+civil strife in mine, mill, and factory became endemic, wars on an
+unprecedented scale engaged nations and groups of nations. The World War
+and the famine and widespread desolation that followed gave tragic
+evidence of our spiritual unpreparedness.
+
+Yet it would be as falsely sentimental to set up a golden age as a
+heightening background for the evils that came with coal as it would be
+to ignore or gloze over those evils. Economic insecurity, poverty,
+disease, wars, and blighted childhood are as old as human existence. The
+world is a better, richer, more vibrant, and thrilling abode since coal
+came than it was before. The indictment of our coal age can be justly
+based, not upon what it has destroyed, but rather upon what it has
+missed,--upon its spiritually blind, its bungling and inadequate use of
+a gift more magnificent than any allotted to man since grain was first
+sown to the harvest and ground at a mill. An indictment that involves
+all mankind is hardly an indictment at all. It is rather a confession of
+our common human limitations, a recognition of the tragic circumstances
+of our spiritual growth. It will be answered when we as individuals and
+nations and groups of nations, set ourselves to turn the wisdom of
+experience to account in building a civilization worthy of a world that
+moves through infinite space with the sun and the marching stars.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER II
+
+                            THE COMING OF COAL
+
+
+The making of all the coal in the earth began when the sun hurled the
+earth into its orbit. Before there were vertebrates in the sea, or
+animals, or plants of any kind on land--fully one hundred and fifty
+million years ago--low foldings and depressions appeared on the earth
+where the Appalachian Mountains now are. Following the lines of what has
+become the Atlantic, vast ridges appeared. Ages later swamp forests grew
+in the intervening valleys, bearing and shedding the spores and thick,
+somber leaves still traceable in the lower carboniferous strata. In that
+time, a shallow sea covered what is now the Mississippi Valley in whose
+sludgy shoals more swamp forests grew. Along the inland seas and ocean
+beaches of Europe and Asia, the tides, the winds, and rains slowly
+spread the clay for still other swamp forests. When the lush plant life
+of the carboniferous age came out of the marshy ooze, it spread along
+the edges of the land, crept up the long estuaries between the rising
+and sinking hills and on into the landlocked seas. The rocks beneath and
+about these carboniferous forests rose and sank age through age, cycle
+through cycle. When they sank slowly, tangled morasses formed; when they
+sank rapidly, the inrushing water killed the plants and buried them
+under a covering of silt. When the rocky strata rose again, the swamp
+forests crept back to their old places, and again bore and shed their
+fernlike leaves, their spores and great scarred trunks upon the oozy
+bottom now scores or hundreds of feet above the level on which their
+ancestors had stood ages before.
+
+Then, some seventy million years ago, a geographical revolution
+convulsed what is now northeastern America. The great trough running
+parallel to the Atlantic, where swamp forests had grown and died and
+grown again, gave way under the ever-increasing load. The ridges at its
+sides pressed in upon it, crumpled it into giant folds, broke it, pushed
+its shattered edges out in mighty over-thrusts, released molten rock to
+flow up and over its torn surface. The whole titanic mass was racked and
+twisted with pressure and heat until what had been a slowly subsiding
+sea-bottom, covered with decaying swamp vegetation, rose on the
+shoulders of the newborn Appalachian Mountains, then a lofty range of
+clean, stark peaks stretching from Newfoundland to Arkansas,--two
+thousand miles.
+
+And with this great geographical revolution, the work of making coal in
+eastern North America was finished. From the softest bituminous to the
+hardest anthracite, that work was done.
+
+But in other parts of the world, the dense carboniferous forests
+continued to grow for another fifty or more million years. In the
+shallows of the Mississippi Valley, on the shores of the island that is
+now Colorado, the coal plants grew and died with the seasonal march of
+the sun. In parts of Europe, Russia, and China, coal continued to form.
+
+And then came another geographical revolution, some twenty million years
+ago, that raised up the Rockies and the Andes along the western border
+of the Americas, tore and twisted and upturned the rocks of Europe and
+Asia, until with the exception of a few odd pockets where small swamp
+forests lived on for a time, the coal making of the whole earth was
+ended.
+
+Twenty million years ago, all the coal we have or shall have had been
+packed away beneath the ribs of the earth, in seams varying in height
+from sixty feet to the thickness of a blade of grass. In many places the
+flat layers in which it was first deposited had been thrown into
+overlapping folds. Some of it had been subjected to comparatively little
+heat and to the pressure only of the rocky strata above it; this is the
+bituminous, which is still rich in oils, gas, tar--unreleased volatile
+matter. Some had been crushed by the weight of uplifted mountains,
+roasted, fused, and burned by molten lava and volcanic flame; this is
+anthracite, which is almost pure carbon and ash. Some had been exposed
+to greater pressure still, to intenser heat; this is graphite, which can
+no longer be burned at all.
+
+The distribution of coal in the world by quality and quantity has been,
+next to climate and the fertility of the soil, the physical fact of most
+decisive importance in the history of modern civilization. For countless
+ages coal lay practically unused in the earth. Then, sometime between
+1750 and 1760, an intricate interlocking of circumstances set coal to
+rule the world, not through new discoveries of coal itself but rather
+through improvements in spinning and weaving machinery which made
+possible the massing of large numbers of spinners and weavers for
+large-scale production if power could be found to drive the new machines
+for them. The steam engine had already been invented, but it was still a
+tentative thing, a primitive type, wondered at and experimented with.
+Coal had been used, but only in a few favored spots where it cropped
+out on the earth's surface, or was washed ashore by the sea, and then
+only as a domestic fuel. It was at the call of the master weavers and
+spinners of England that the steam engine was set to run the machines;
+then to furnish a blast so that coal might be used to cheapen the
+smelting of iron and steel so that more machines might be made; then to
+pump out the deepening mines so that more and more power to keep the
+machines running might be won. Steam raising was coal's first great play
+for power and it is the work through which it still holds its industrial
+supremacy. Between 1800 and 1900 coal-driven engines multiplied until by
+the end of the century they were producing energy equivalent to seventy
+million horse-power; during the first twenty years of the twentieth
+century, their power-producing capacity more than doubled. So coal
+wrought the industrial revolution, the greatest revolution in all human
+history, which transformed social and economic life as radically as the
+geographical revolution transformed the earth's surface.
+
+"It introduced a new race of men," writes H. de B. Gibbins, "men who
+work with machinery instead of with their hands, who cluster together in
+cities instead of spreading over the land, men who trade with those of
+other nations as readily as with those of their own town, men whose
+workshops are moved by the great forces of nature and whose market is no
+longer the city or country but the world itself."
+
+Measured by the crude standards of gross wealth and numbers, the people
+of the earth have flourished mightily since the dominion of coal began.
+The aggregate wealth of the world has increased to fabulous proportions.
+The average expectation of life among Western peoples has doubled.
+Between 1800 and 1910 the world's population rose from approximately
+640,000,000 to 1,616,000,000. The population of England, which had
+increased only fifteen per cent from 1651 to 1751, increased two hundred
+per cent during the next century. Between 1816 and 1910, the population
+of France increased fifty per cent, of Germany three hundred per cent,
+of the United States seventeen hundred per cent.
+
+Moreover the drive of coal's energy immensely stimulated men's inventive
+faculties. It transformed Kay's "flying shuttle" and Hargreaves'
+"spinning jenny" from clever toys into instruments of large-scale
+production, the crude steam engines of Newcomen and Watt into the great
+modern locomotive and the turbine engine; it made possible the
+large-scale production of telegraph wires and ocean cables, the cylinder
+press and typesetting machines, the electrical dynamo, the
+internal-combustion engine, the aeroplane, and even the space-ranging
+modern telescope. It lifted the veil from the seven seas, broke down the
+physical barriers between the peoples of the earth, forged the steel
+framework of national and international government. The commercial and
+political primacy which England held for more than one hundred and fifty
+years rested upon her abundant fields of easily accessible coal. The
+cosmic energy flowing out from her mines spread her trade and her
+surplus population to the four corners of the earth and made her
+triumphant over Spain and Holland--nations poor in coal. The coal of
+Westphalia, associated with the iron ores of Lorraine, welded the States
+of Germany into the empire of the latter nineteenth century and hurled
+her green-grey armies across her frontiers in the mad adventure of 1914.
+The vast, rich coal fields of North America have transformed the United
+States from an agricultural appanage of Europe into the foremost
+manufacturing and commercial nation in the world. The future of Russia
+lies largely in the coal fields of the Donetz basin. The imperfectly
+surveyed coal and ore fields of China and Siberia are probably the
+strongest of the magnets drawing the Powers into the problem of the
+Pacific. Coal and the continuing industrial revolution are still shaping
+the destiny of mankind.
+
+But in the history of the human race the fact of transcending
+significance is the presence in man of instincts, emotions, mind,
+reason, will, conscious hunger, and conscious love of one's
+neighbor,--all the constituents of that personality of supreme worth
+whose ceaseless struggle for mastery over the forces of nature, for
+escape from hunger, want, and war into a world of plenty, beauty, mutual
+aid, and service is the epic of civilization. The value of coal, as of
+all material things, finds its true measure not in numbers or
+horse-power units, but in its effect upon the soul of man, the fullness
+of opportunity enjoyed by each individual for self-realization and
+service, the progress of the race toward brotherhood. The ultimate
+appraisal of the coal age will be determined by the issue of the
+struggle between bread hunger and love in the soul of man--the struggle
+between his acquisitive instinct and his growing consciousness of kind.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER III
+
+                         THE DRAMA OF CIVILIZATION
+
+
+Coal embodies our chance of a world civilization. It is the material
+form in which the possibility of peace and ease, beauty and learning,
+cooperation and brotherhood, have come to the human race.
+
+Before coal was harnessed to the looms of England, before the stored
+energy of the sun replaced hand labor at the wheels and gears of her
+newly invented machines, there was no such thing as a world
+civilization. There was indeed nothing to base a world civilization
+upon, for civilization implies leisure consciously to cooperate with
+other people, to make life not merely endurable but beautiful and
+pleasant as well, leisure to subordinate the instinct to acquire to the
+instinct to enjoy, the acquisitive instinct to the consciousness of
+kind--and the race as a whole had its entire attention focussed on the
+effort to get enough food and clothing and shelter so that it would live
+and not die. For only as the acquisitive instinct was dominant and
+successful could men survive either singly or in groups, before the
+coming of coal.
+
+The limits of civilization were primarily the mechanical limitations of
+man's ability to produce. So long as his only ways to drive machinery
+were by wind and water, the strength of domesticated animals, and his
+own brawn, it was almost impossible for him to accumulate sufficient
+reserves of food and clothing so that instead of thinking what he
+should eat and what he should put on, he could think a little of how to
+make life good. And whenever by some fortunate chance a group of men did
+get together a small hoard, parallel with the growth of each tiny
+surplus grew the hatred of the outside groups who wished to possess it,
+and the need to defend it by force. So that when here and there through
+the centuries pocketed civilizations did arise, they were civilizations
+perpetually armed for defence and with the sword in their hands. And
+though the spirit of man in such places as India and Egypt, in China,
+Persia, Palestine, Greece, Carthage, Rome, and the free Italian cities,
+as soon as the pressure was removed ever so little, did flower into
+religion and art and science, these favored oases were surrounded by
+crowding, hungry multitudes who pressed in and in till at last every one
+of these was overwhelmed.
+
+Before the coming of coal man had to satisfy his longing for peace and
+knowledge and companionship through his dreams. These have come down to
+us in the legends of India and Israel, China, Greece, and our own Nordic
+ancestors which perpetually play about the fabulous treasure--the Golden
+Fleece, the land of milk and honey, the Volsung's miraculous
+hoard--pathetic symbols of plenty, liberation, and the possibility of
+brotherhood. But until coal came there was no way to make these dreams
+come true. For survival was only to the strong, or to the cunning, or to
+those who were willing to grow fat on the leanness of others, and every
+respite from the basic business of keeping alive was extravagantly paid
+for either by oneself or another--before coal came.
+
+But with the coming of coal there rose the possibility of producing more
+than enough to keep everybody alive. A tireless bond servant had been
+given to the race whose power grew as it was called on, until now in
+the United States where coal is used most indefatigably, each family has
+the equivalent of thirty human servants, whose use does not need to
+involve the exploitation of man by man. For the first time there is the
+possibility of all having enough,--of a world surplus on which to base
+civilization.
+
+It was too much to expect that this possibility should be understood by
+a race which had never before got further than to see that if their
+family, their town, their nation, was to have ease and plenty, it must
+be quick to get as much of the world's store of food and goods as it
+could,--and to acquire them in spite of the fact that the other groups,
+who were hot after them also, might perish if they did not get their
+share. They did not see that with the coming of coal the supply was
+practically unlimited, and so it was not man's sense of brotherhood but
+his acquisitive instinct, checked and balked for ages, that first found
+channels of release when coal came.
+
+After the coming of coal this acquisitive instinct expanded with cosmic
+force. For the first time in history, men and nations thrilled with the
+manifest possibility of their escape from the ancient menace of hunger
+into a world of measureless plenty. In their greedy rush for possession,
+men within nations trampled one another under foot, and nations girded
+themselves for world dominion. And as wealth flowed into the village,
+the town, and the nation, all men exulted, those who themselves had
+nothing as well as those who grew rich. For famine still hovered beyond
+the horizon, and the very presence in the community of an economic
+surplus, by whomever owned, gave all men a sense of security as though
+at last they had won the miraculous hoard of their dreams, through the
+coming of coal.
+
+It was inevitable that in this cumulative drive of the acquisitive
+instinct with the long-sought surplus almost in sight, the attitude of
+mind established and glorified during the ages when war was the common
+alternative to hunger, should carry over into factories and mines. The
+methods of war,--the ruthless sacrifice of part of the community for the
+benefit of the rest,--were the only methods men understood. The new
+possibility had arrived but the old habit of mind remained. With the
+coming of coal and the beginning of the industrial revolution, no one
+dreamed that the time for the cessation of human sacrifice had arrived.
+When the mines were first opened, the slave trade still flourished with
+almost universal sanction.
+
+"It is a slight fact," wrote Lecky, "but full of ghastly significance as
+illustrating the state of feeling at the time, that the ship in which
+Hawkins sailed on his second expedition to open the English slave trade
+was called _The Jesus_."
+
+This voyage was made a hundred years before the harnessing of coal, but
+in the middle of the eighteenth century and far into the nineteenth much
+the same state of feeling widely prevailed. The first miners in Scotland
+were serfs; the first miners in northern England were bondsmen who sold
+themselves by the year and were forbidden by law to leave the mine to
+which they were bound.
+
+"At that time," write J. L. and Barbara Hammond, basing their account on
+the report of the Parliamentary Committee on the Employment of Children
+and Young Persons (1842), "boys were employed everywhere, girls in
+certain districts, Lancashire, Cheshire, the West Riding, and South
+Wales, besides Scotland. Children were employed as trappers, that is to
+open and shut the doors that guided the draught of air through the
+mine; as fillers, that is to fill the skips and carriages when the men
+have hewn the coal; and as pushers, or hurriers, that is, to push the
+trucks along from the workers to the foot of the shaft. But in some
+mines these trucks were drawn instead of being pushed. 'A girdle is put
+round the naked waist, to which a chain from the carriage is hooked and
+passed between the legs, and the boys crawl on their hands and knees,
+drawing the carriage after them.' In the early days of the century this
+arrangement was very common, and women and girls were so employed. By
+1842 it was more usual to have small iron railways, and the carriages
+were pushed along them. The trapping was done everywhere by children,
+generally from five to eight years of age. A girl of eight years old
+described her day: 'I'm a trapper in the Gamber Pit. I have to trap
+without a light, and I'm scared. I go at four and sometimes half-past
+three in the morning and come out at five and half-past. I never go to
+sleep. Sometimes I sing when I've light, but not in the dark; I dare not
+sing then....' In the West Riding the work of hurrying or pushing the
+corves was often done by girls at the time of the report: 'Chained,
+belted, harnessed like dogs in a go-cart, black, saturated with wet, and
+more than half naked--crawling upon their hands and feet, and dragging
+their heavy loads behind them--they present an appearance indescribably
+disgusting and unnatural.' ... The children who suffered most were the
+apprentices from the workhouse; 'these lads are made to go where other
+men will not let their own children go. If they will not do it, they
+take them to the magistrates who commit them to prison.' ... In mines
+with thick seams it was usual to make good roads, but in less profitable
+mines the roads were just large enough to enable small children to get
+the corves along them.... It was reported that there was much more
+cruelty in the Halifax pits than in those of Leeds and Braseford. A
+sub-commissioner met a boy crying and bleeding from a wound in the
+cheek, and his master explained 'that the child is one of the slow ones,
+who would only move when he saw blood, and that by throwing a piece of
+coal at him for that purpose he had accomplished his object, and that he
+often adopted the like means.'"
+
+The entire community sanctioned these practices, not the employers only;
+for generations even the miners themselves acquiesced in them. Those who
+were sacrificed in the mines and factories were victims of the entire
+consuming community's war against hunger; the furious drive of the
+acquisitive instinct on the one hand, and also of the passionate longing
+of all men to escape from economic bondage into security, plenty,
+economic and spiritual freedom. It was war of a disastrous sort but the
+world of that day saw no alternative,--could see no alternative from the
+experience of the race. Until as individuals, and nations and
+associations of nations, we have won a stable economic surplus and the
+spiritual maturity to use and distribute that surplus for the benefit of
+the whole community, we shall not in our hearts condemn war as immoral,
+whether it be a military or an industrial war. Always we shall contrive
+to believe that what is necessary for us is necessarily good.
+
+People in general deplored the horrors of mining just as before the
+coming of coal they had deplored the horrors of the wars they had waged
+in order to survive, but the fact remained that if the golden promise of
+the industrial revolution was to be realized they must have coal, and
+what other way was there to get it? At least part of the world was
+living in comfort and security.
+
+As a matter of fact a fair share of the community attained reasonable
+comfort after the coming of coal. The acquisitive instinct succeeded in
+piling up a vast permanent capital which was enjoyed by a large
+proportion of the human race. It had not come through increased
+production alone. Raiding and exploitation, both commercial and
+military, had helped mightily, for the old method of feeding yourself
+from your neighbor's hoard was tremendously accelerated for those
+peoples whose manufactures and transportation were driven by the power
+of coal. That the exploited peoples suffered in proportion as the
+raiding peoples prospered is, of course, true, but among the dominant
+peoples themselves the acquisitive instinct had begotten a mutual
+consciousness. Throughout those parts of the world where coal had
+induced the industrial revolution, a common civilization had sprung up.
+Parallel with the triumphant acquisitive instinct had developed the
+spirit of brotherhood and mutual aid which limited and controlled it.
+The feeling of fellowship which breeds civilization was practically
+coextensive with the augmented surplus produced through the coming of
+coal. Coal-driven transportation was good enough so that a famine in one
+land could be met by the heavy crops from another place: the fighting of
+disease, the utilization of patents, the exchange of ideas, of luxuries,
+of scientific knowledge, of passports, of fashions, and of food, became
+international throughout a large part of the world. Mankind began to
+approach a world civilization because since the coming of coal to kill
+or starve was no longer the inevitable choice.
+
+That this alternative has even a chance of operating is due to the play
+and interplay of the two great fundamental instincts in the soul of
+man--the acquisitive instinct through which he learned to use coal to
+pile up the material surplus that made civilization possible; and that
+other impulse, an offspring of the acquisitive instinct, which has swung
+into opposition to its parent but without whose help that parent could
+never have achieved a surplus on a large scale, the instinct of
+brotherhood, of mutual aid, of cooperation. For without cooperation
+among men there would have been lacking the tremendous advantage of
+division of labor and mass production, and no surplus, however large and
+secure it might have been, could have resulted in civilization except
+through mutual aid. Men learned to work together in order to survive;
+they learned to enjoy the results of their labor together in order to
+become civilized. These two impulses are woven together in man's history
+from the start and it is according as one or the other predominates that
+we develop a civilization on the basis of our economic surplus, or
+merely continue to exist and fight. This instinct of mutual aid is as
+truly a cosmic force as the acquisitive instinct.
+
+"The original and elementary subjective fact in society is the
+consciousness of kind," writes Professor Giddings, "... It is the basis
+of class distinction, of innumerable forms of alliance, of rules of
+intercourse, and of peculiarities of policy.... It is about the
+consciousness of kind as a determining principle, that all other motives
+organize themselves in the evolution of social choice, social volition,
+or social policy."
+
+In any attempt to understand the function of coal in the development of
+human society, it is necessary to remember the universal democratic
+tendency of men similarly circumstanced, to organize into defensive and
+offensive groups. They organize into bar associations, medical
+societies, religious denominations, manufacturers' associations, and
+trade unions in obedience to a principle as pervasive in the animate as
+the force of gravitation is in the material world. While the primary
+driving force behind each group as it organizes is the acquisitive
+instinct, the natural reaching out for the means of subsistence, for
+wages, fees, profits; for food, clothing, shelter, then for more food,
+more clothing, better shelter, still the actual attainment of the
+surplus makes possible the widening operation of the consciousness of
+kind, and turns men's minds toward all those attributes that are
+characteristic of the good life in which both the individual personality
+and also the spiritual being of the group, the nation, and the race find
+fruition. For an economic surplus is merely the condition of the good
+life, and the end to which the human spirit forever strives to direct
+the use of the surplus, is the good life itself--a worthy civilization.
+
+If the consciousness of kind had spread evenly like a rising tide drawn
+by the swelling surplus of the age of coal, a world civilization might
+have quickly come. But it worked unevenly and erratically. Sometimes it
+spread thinly over whole nations in the form of political beliefs and
+produced theoretical democracies functioning through the franchise.
+Sometimes it left the forms of government severely monarchical and
+produced a spotty economic growth in the form of cooperative societies
+that functioned in response to the everyday bread and butter needs.
+Sometimes it brought those having similar occupations together in guilds
+and trade unions, that tended to ignore mere political boundaries and
+make men internationally conscious of each other through the way they
+got their living. But everywhere the rising consciousness of kind came
+upon obstructions and divisions. Waves hurrying up innocent-looking
+estuaries would come upon other streams from the same great source, and
+meet in spluttering, frothing conflict: a long even swell of brotherly
+feeling would break over some rock of ancestral race prejudice in
+disaster and bloodshed; mutual aid rose in a murky troubled sea, wave
+against wave, one current trying to beat another current back. People
+united into a political nation opposed themselves violently to those
+united into some economic class within it. Men were driven apart when
+the interests of their group conflicted with the interests of other
+groups almost as strongly as they were drawn together by common interest
+within their own organization.
+
+And always the rise of any new group within a fairly comfortable
+community met opposition from some already established group whose
+privileges, powers, and possessions the new group tended to infringe.
+They inevitably appeared like an invading tribe bent on pillage, and the
+community gathered shoulder to shoulder to resist them, every thought
+and muscle set to repel what they saw as an attack on the common surplus
+and in defence of those whose guardianship of the common hoard had
+afforded them a new measure of comfort.
+
+This has been particularly true of all organizations, due to the spread
+of consciousness of kind among the workers and their efforts to get for
+themselves a larger share of the benefits of the common surplus. Very
+rarely has the community been able to see that what was distributed in
+the form of advanced wages and better conditions was not necessarily
+taken away from the community as a whole.
+
+When the coal miners, actuated by the consciousness of kind, began to
+organize for mutual aid and defence, the community at large as well as
+the mine owners condemned them as subversive conspirators, not only
+against their lawful masters, but also against the general peace and
+well-being of the nation, which was quite obviously flourishing,--piling
+up a surplus with national security as a by-product,--by reason of the
+thousands of tons of coal which the newly organized group might
+conceivably curtail. It was the community as a whole, not the employers
+only, that sanctioned the use of the courts and the military against the
+miners' union, as they would have countenanced their use against
+soldiers who mutinied.
+
+Only slowly is our community, to which the coming of coal has given the
+chance to develop a world civilization, beginning to see that neither
+the acquisitive instinct through which men pile up a surplus, nor the
+consciousness of kind through which they organize to build up a
+civilization, is the result of individual perversity or caprice. Unions
+and employers' associations arise in obedience to a fundamental law of
+human conduct, they are the means by which society wins its way out of
+chaos and anarchy into peace and orderly government. Through such group
+organizations men develop the understanding of one another and of the
+community at large, which is the foundation of brotherhood and civilized
+life. It is through them that the community develops standards of
+living; it is through them that the ideals of cooperation acquire
+reality. It is by the acquisitive instinct that men live; it is by the
+consciousness of kind, the instinct of mutual aid and cooperation, that
+men are transformed into human beings. The interplay of these forces
+makes the history of civilization--of nations and the great basic
+industries within the nations. They are the flying shuttles with which
+man at Time's loom weaves "the living garment of God."
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IV
+
+                              COAL IN AMERICA
+
+
+The human significance of coal lies in the effect which the release of
+its energy has exercised upon the struggle between the acquisitive
+instinct and the consciousness of kind for ascendancy over the soul of
+man. Through its creature, the industrial revolution, it has given man
+command of an economic surplus and set him free to win the good life for
+each individual and to substitute mutual aid for war in international
+relations if he will.
+
+But the first effect of coal was not to usher in the good life but to
+intensify the ancient struggle, widening its stage from pocketed
+civilizations to the world. For more than a hundred and fifty years, the
+abundant and readily accessible coal of Great Britain made her the
+protagonist in the world drama. Her acquisitive instinct, charged with
+cosmic energy, shot lines of imperial expansion out across the seas to
+America, India, Australia, China, and Africa. Her coal-created wealth
+enabled her to maintain the mastery of the ocean highways which she had
+won from Spain and Holland and to hold it against Napoleonic France and
+later against imperial Germany. It gave her an economic surplus upon the
+basis of which the consciousness of kind welded her people into one
+nation and ended the civil wars which from the time of the Danish
+invasion and the landing of William the Conqueror had kept each little
+group within the island armed against every other little group. And it
+transformed her with jarring rapidity into a country that lived by
+manufacture and by trade and supported a far larger population than
+could have lived upon the island if it had been merely an agricultural
+country raising its own food.
+
+In order that this swelling population might go on getting coal out of
+the mines and turning out products from the factories it must be
+adequately and cheaply fed. The place where its food came from was
+chiefly America. During the hundred and fifty years of England's
+primacy, America was not only her granary but increasingly the granary
+of other nations, and the great reservoir for all their overflowing
+populations. For the industrial revolution in England was followed by
+the harnessing of coal in France, then in Germany, then later in Japan,
+and this set in motion among them the processes of imperial expansion,
+whose friction and clash culminated in the World War.
+
+It was as necessary to the success of the industrial revolution,
+particularly in specialized little England, that the surplus populations
+which were poured by the million into America should send back food to
+Europe, as it was that their factory machines should have coal to drive
+them. This interdependence was not conscious, not a deliberate effort on
+either side, but it was an extremely practical fact nevertheless. In
+order that England might live by trade, some other land must live by
+agriculture, and during the first hundred and fifty years of the
+industrial revolution that land was America.
+
+To live by agriculture was an easy thing in the New World, easier than
+it had ever been anywhere before,--to live and to feed a continent
+besides. For America is the only great modern nation whose history is
+written not against a background of famine but against a background of
+economic abundance. After the first thin stream of colonial adventurers
+and exiles for conscience' sake had established themselves upon the
+Atlantic coast, her seemingly boundless domain opened up before the
+hungry millions of Europe like the promised land of milk and honey.
+Unlike the peoples of the great Asiatic and European folk-wanderings,
+they found no comparably developed peoples to bar their way. As they
+spread from the Atlantic to the Blue Ridge and Alleghenies, then along
+the Great Lakes and down the Ohio; on across the Mississippi, the Kansas
+prairies, the Great Desert, the Sierras and Rockies to California and
+the Golden Gate, they found only hunting tribes or the fading remnants
+of cliff-dwelling and primitive agricultural clans. These they could
+meet not only with effective weapons of defence but also with a highly
+developed agricultural technique.
+
+At first America's planless prosperity had little to do with coal and
+nothing at all with manufacture. It was a prosperity made up of the sum
+of her food products, and men skimmed the soil and the forests with only
+one thought, to make that sum immediately great. Exploitation got into
+their blood. It was the method by which they grew rich, and when the
+wealth of the coal deposits was added to the wealth of the fields and
+forests, they carried the same methods of planless exploitation over
+into the coal mines. England must still depend on them for food, but
+they did not have to depend so abjectly on her for manufactures after
+the industrial revolution crossed the Atlantic at the call of the
+Pennsylvania coal fields.
+
+After the industrial revolution harnessed their unique reservoirs of
+coal, the people of the United States enjoyed a degree of economic
+security such as no other people ever enjoyed. Had they been
+spiritually prepared, they might have used this economic abundance to
+establish brotherhood among men. But after all, they themselves were
+Europeans who had fled from the ancient tyranny of hunger. To them
+America was naturally more an escape from that haunting menace than a
+challenge to the good life. Here and there, as in the Puritan theocracy,
+they heard and tried to obey the challenge. But they were not prepared.
+
+The hungry immigrant millions swarmed across the continent, laying waste
+the forests, skimming the fresh fertile soil, growing prosperous by
+destruction rather than by thrift and planful use. They caroused and
+swaggered like prodigals. They glorified mere acquisition, measuring a
+man's worth by the money he owned. As they filled the continent, the old
+world fever of imperial expansion entered their blood. They seized Cuba
+and the Philippines, Haiti and Santo Domingo. They set about building
+the greatest navy in the world. After a few faltering efforts to lead
+the warring nations to peace through conference and conciliation, they
+threw the weight of their wealth and numbers into the balance and with
+fire and sword imposed a victorious peace. And they were able to do this
+in the last analysis because of the enormous power of their coal supply,
+for coal in a modern industrial civilization means guns and munitions of
+war, transportation systems to set armies in the field, and the ability
+to supply them after they get there. America's coal-wrought wealth made
+her decisive in battle. Even so today her unique reserves of coal make
+her the arbiter between peace and war. Possessed of the richest coal
+fields in the world, she holds the destiny of the nations in her hands.
+For coal has grown to mean food and clothing and shelter,
+transportation and communication, and the economic surplus and the
+leisure without which science, invention, art, representative
+government, democratic education, and enlightened organized religion
+would atrophy and perish.
+
+Since coal means all these things, and since America owns the world's
+greatest available reserves of coal, it is obvious that the manner in
+which her people develop and govern their coal fields is of crucial
+importance, not only to themselves, but also to the rest of the world.
+Before the United States entered the World War, her people were hardly
+aware of this fact; even the momentous experience of the war has but
+dimly impressed its meaning upon the national mind.
+
+Our coal measures underlie an area of more than four hundred and sixty
+thousand square miles. They contain almost four thousand billion tons of
+lignite, bituminous, semibituminous, anthracite, and semianthracite
+coals. About two-fifths of the world's annual output is mined in the
+United States.
+
+The very abundance of the supply has made us enormously wasteful in its
+exploitation, as we have been wasteful in the exploitation of our
+forests. Unlike the forests, coal once destroyed does not grow again.
+The most valuable of our coals are in the Appalachian bituminous fields
+that stretch from northern Pennsylvania to Alabama, and in which some of
+the best sections have already been gutted and abandoned. In our greedy
+grasp for wealth, we have left one ton of coal to waste underground for
+every ton we have brought to the surface. More than one hundred and
+fifty thousand miners have been drawn into the mines in excess of
+efficient requirements. Planless overexpansion of the industry has
+resulted in such irregular operation of plant and equipment that for
+more than a generation the miners have lost an average of ninety-three
+days in the working year of three hundred and eight days, and a needless
+overhead charge has been imposed upon the consumer which Mr. F. G. Tryon
+of the U. S. Geological Survey calculates at a million dollars for each
+working day. Planless exploitation has made the most basic of our basic
+industries the prey of technical inefficiency and social unrest, the
+extent of which we as a people ignored until they threatened national
+and international disaster at the crisis of the war.
+
+This trouble might have gone on some time longer undiagnosed if we had
+not met our first modern national emergency in 1917. Of necessity the
+weight of the military structure was added to the weight of the
+industrial civil structure and the combined load was more than the coal
+industry could bear. It bent and broke under it, and in order to
+prosecute the war, the government was forced to take hold of the
+formless inchoate thing and reshape it into a stable prop for the
+national need. As a first step it was necessary to find out what this
+great unwieldy coal industry was.
+
+Coal mines are systems of tunnels driven into the veins where they crop
+out along the slopes of hills, or from the foot of shafts sunk through
+the overlying strata. These tunnels run for miles underground. Secondary
+tunnels run from the main tunnel or heading into the rooms where the
+miners work. The surveyor's diagram of a mine looks like a crushed
+centipede. The getting of coal out of the mines, after it has been
+picked or blasted down by the miner, like its distribution after it is
+brought to the surface, is almost entirely a problem of transportation.
+
+Even in times of peace our railroad transportation was an intricate and
+complicated thing. It had been repeatedly regulated and re-regulated to
+bring it more in line with community needs. Among other regulations was
+a law, designed to give the public the benefit of as much competition
+between operators as possible, which required the railroads to furnish
+sidings and cars to all coal mines in proportion to their production,
+with a preferential provision for new operations. The double demand for
+coal sent up prices and the rise in prices led to the opening of new
+coal mines and the re-working of old abandoned ones. All the eleven
+thousand mines, scattered more or less at random over thousands of
+square miles of territory, clamored for their legal quota of cars and
+transportation to market. This competitive din aggravated the confusion
+upon our already overtaxed railroads. At the critical moment when the
+essential movement of troops and munitions was straining the resources
+of the railroads, the sprawling coal industry made their task
+impossible.
+
+In peace times one-third of our ordinary bituminous production is used
+to generate steam for transportation, and more than one-third of all the
+tonnage carried by the railroads is coal. The weight of the coal which
+the railroads normally carry is double the weight of iron ore, steel,
+lumber, wheat, corn, oats, and hay combined. The problem of hauling this
+huge load is needlessly complicated by competitive cross-shipments of
+coal from one mining state into or across another. The producers of
+Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Indiana sell their coal in from eighteen to
+twenty states, many of them coal-mining states. A part of this
+cross-shipment is necessary, because certain mining states like
+Illinois, for example, do not produce the grade of coking coal which
+their steel plants need and which must, therefore, be brought from West
+Virginia or southern Pennsylvania. But most of it is due to blind
+competitive planlessness and waste.
+
+Upon this tangled mesh the critical demands of the war placed a crushing
+burden. The nation's safety made it imperative not only that coal should
+be produced, but that it should be delivered where it was needed. The
+miners were digging more coal than had ever been produced before, yet
+cries of coal shortage went up from domestic consumers and manufacturers
+all over the land. The railroads themselves resorted to the confiscation
+of coal in transit to keep their engines running. To avert impending
+catastrophe to the nation and the world, the national consciousness of
+kind asserted itself over the acquisitive instinct of individuals and
+groups, and through the federal government created the Fuel
+Administration which brought the mines under unified public control and
+converted the coal industry, for the period of the war, into a unified
+public service.
+
+From the high central tower of the Fuel Administration, the people of
+the United States for the first time caught a fleeting glimpse of the
+coal industry as a whole and of the relation it bears to the national
+and international industrial life. They discovered that coal bears much
+the same relation to our modern industrial structure that the water
+supply bears to the life of a great municipality. When America entered
+the war, she resembled with respect to her primary source of mechanical
+energy a municipality dependent for its water supply upon eleven
+thousand separate wells, owned and operated primarily in their
+individual interests by thousands of enterprising individuals, with
+hundreds of separate delivery systems jostling in the highways that
+needed to be kept clear for soldiers and guns, its people bidding
+against one another, offering fabulous prices for water, yet parched
+with thirst.
+
+"Basic industries and transportation," writes Dr. Garfield, in
+describing what he saw as head of the Fuel Administration, "were caught
+in a vicious circle. Steel could not be manufactured without coke, coke
+could not be made without coal; coal could not be commercially produced
+without transportation; transportation was dependent upon coal....
+Industrially we were in a wild scramble of manufacture, production, and
+shipment.... It was no longer a question of withholding coal from
+non-war industries but rather a question whether any coal could much
+longer get through to any consumer."
+
+With eleven thousand coal mines in operation, the engines of the nation
+were running cold for lack of coal.
+
+Created to avert impending catastrophe, the Fuel Administration went
+about the service of the nation much as an engineer would tackle the job
+of converting eleven thousand wells into a modern system of water
+supply. It dealt with the coal fields as a single great reservoir of
+fuel and power. It worked out a budget covering the needs of the
+essential industries, the railroads, steel plants, munition factories,
+gas and electric utilities, as well as the domestic consumers. It made
+maps charting the coal-producing and coal-consuming territories, divided
+the nation into regional zones, established these zones as fuel
+reservoirs, created a distributing organization by zones and states like
+a great system of water mains. It called the experienced operators and
+technical managers into public service and entrusted to them the
+technical problems of production and distribution. It fixed prices
+limiting profits to an estimated fair return. It converted the miners'
+union and the operators' organizations into administrative arms of the
+government for the industry, with committees for conference and
+conciliation at the mines, and in the various producing districts,
+heading up in a Bureau of Labor at Washington as a final court of appeal
+for the adjustment of disputes over wages and working conditions.
+
+For the period of the war, the coal industry functioned as a cooperative
+public service. The coal budget, based upon a detailed analysis of the
+country's resources and needs, set a definite standard of performance
+both for the industry and the railroads, and made it possible for them
+to cooperate intelligently. The zones served as tools for the control
+and direction of the flow of coal called for by the budget. Mr. C. E.
+Lesher, Director of the Bureau of Statistics of the Distribution
+Division, writes: "In the short period of a few months after the work of
+the Fuel Administration was begun, it was determined that the
+requirements of the United States for bituminous coal in the coal year
+ended March, 1919, were 624,000,000 net tons, compared with a production
+in 1917 of 552,000,000 tons of bituminous coal, and for anthracite
+100,000,000 net tons, but slightly more than in 1917.... To provide coal
+was the problem of the Distribution Division of the Fuel Administration;
+to provide transportation was the problem of the Railroad
+Administration.... The adoption of the zoning system represented the
+supreme effort of the Railroad Administration to overcome the
+transportation tangle in connection with coal.... So closely did the
+officials of the two administrations work, and so effective were the
+measures employed, that the results surprised all.... The Director of
+Operations of the Railroad Administration in May, when production of
+bituminous coal was averaging 11,500,000 tons a week, believed that
+11,800,000 was the highest that could be expected in 1918, as the
+railroads were believed to have reached their maximum capacity. Within a
+month records of 12,500,000 tons a week were reached, and in July, and
+again in September, the 13,000,000 ton mark was passed.... When the
+armistice was declared, New England, farthest from the mines, with an
+average of 20 weeks' supply, was literally gorged with soft coal, and
+eastern New York and Pennsylvania, with from 6 to 9 weeks' stock, had
+abundant supplies.... From April 1 to July 6, 1918, rail shipments to
+New England were 3,058,000 net tons, or 98 per cent of the schedule of
+3,150,000 tons; on September 28, shipments were 6,164,000 tons, or 105
+per cent of the schedule for that date. The schedule for shipments to
+tidewater from April 1 to July 1 called for 11,916,000 net tons. By
+December 21 shipments were 9 per cent ahead of the program. The Lake
+program called for 28,000,000 tons of cargo coal; a total of 28,153,000
+tons was supplied. With similar precision and certainty munition
+factories, arsenals, powder works, and by-product plants were kept
+running, while stocks were accumulated, insuring uninterrupted
+operations throughout the winter. In the same manner retail dealers were
+given supplies for their domestic trade. Such results were possible only
+because of complete control of shipments and the full information on
+which to proceed."
+
+This was an amazing and illuminating demonstration of the fact that our
+greatest national resource could be administered for the benefit of the
+whole nation. It was no longer a mere possibility, the thing had been
+done.
+
+It has been said that this achievement was possible because during the
+war the people had a common object which so challenged their higher
+ideals that they were able to subordinate their individual and special
+group interests to the service of the nation, to make their
+consciousness of kind as a people triumphant over the acquisitive
+instinct. Again it is said that human nature being what it is, similar
+unselfish consecration is not to be expected in the sluggish days of
+peace. But if the historical record teaches us anything it is the
+essential falseness of this assertion. That record shows us the gradual
+irresistible spread of the consciousness of kind from one realm of human
+activity to another as the acquisition of a surplus makes this possible.
+It shows human understanding reaching out to give all men religious
+freedom, to assure them equal political rights; shows it asserting human
+brotherhood in the right to education, health, happiness--and these
+things not under the stress of war, but in the conditions of peace. The
+possibility hangs not on any technical inability, but on the better
+preparedness of the minds of men, on their clearer vision, their ability
+to see the spiritual implications of their technical triumphs.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER V
+
+                        THE AWAKENING OF THE MINERS
+
+
+With the declaration of the armistice and the removal of the incentive
+to cooperation in public service which the war gave, the Fuel
+Administration and its elaborate system of statistical control of
+production and distribution was broken up as rapidly as it had been
+organized. During the war, there had been gross examples of profiteering
+just as there had been occasional local strikes, but by and large the
+operators like the miners had conducted themselves conscientiously as
+servants of the republic. To a remarkable degree they subordinated their
+acquisitive instinct to their consciousness of kind as citizens of the
+nation whose life was threatened from without. But within a year after
+the armistice, speculative profiteering was rampant and the coal
+industry was paralyzed by a general strike. Mr. Herbert Hoover,
+addressing the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers,
+described the situation as a "national emergency," due to the fact that
+"this industry, considered as a whole, is one of the worst functioning
+industries in the United States."
+
+How shall we account for this wide, swift swing of the pendulum?
+Operators and owners who had offered their skill to the government
+during the national crisis, rebelled against all further "interference
+with their private business." They rebelled not only against price
+fixing and the regulation of distribution, but even against all
+attempts on the part of governmental agencies to keep congress and the
+public informed of the elementary facts of ownership, costs, wages,
+prices, and profits, without which public opinion is helplessly blind.
+They sued out an injunction against the Federal Trade Commission to
+block its efforts to search out and publish these essential facts. The
+unions also chafed under governmental restraint upon their freedom of
+action, especially when the government lifted its limitation on prices
+and left the consumer at the mercy of an open market. As prices and
+profits mounted, they felt entitled to commensurate wage increases. The
+war, they said, was over though peace had not been formally declared,
+and they demanded release from the restraints of wartime legislation so
+that they might freely exercise their economic pressure to secure wage
+increases as the operators were taking increased profits. For the first
+time in almost a generation they laid down their tools, and finally
+submitted to the arbitration of federal commissions only under threat of
+an injunction and the imprisonment of their leaders. Economic war and
+group rivalry took the place of cooperation in public service.
+
+The main reason for this violent reaction is probably to be found in the
+fact that our modern democracies, the United States in particular, were
+born in rebellion against the autocratic authority of the feudal state,
+the fear and hatred of which still attaches even to our representative
+government. The memory of the Stuarts and Bourbons and Hohenzollerns is
+still fresh in the modern democratic consciousness, and accounts for the
+maxim that the government is best which governs least. Through the
+revolutions of the eighteenth century the merchants, manufacturers, and
+business men wrested from the monarch his autocratic power, and it is
+against this same power as exercised by the owners of property that the
+organized labor movement is today in rebellion. But as against the state
+when it exercises such autocratic authority as during the war it
+exercised through the Fuel Administration, both groups, owners and
+workers, unite. They assert the right of self-government within their
+industry. Like the economists and business men of the nineteenth
+century, they contend that the conflict and balance of their selfish
+interests will by some mysterious provision of nature neutralize and
+resolve these selfishnesses to the advantage of the community. The
+essence of this acquisitive philosophy is expressed in the quaint
+nineteenth-century maxim that "greed is held in check by greed, and the
+desire for gain sets limits to itself." But this leaves the service of
+the community at the mercy of a blind conflict of forces within the
+industry, as formerly it was at the mercy of force exercised by the
+monarch who was the state, and the public is increasingly dissatisfied
+with the result. The public service conception of industry, and
+especially of such basic industries as coal, is rapidly taking
+possession of the public mind. People are coming to see that the
+uncontrolled conflict of forces, like autocratic force itself, is
+incompatible with the principle of service. Neither will force exercised
+by the state through the courts solve the difficulty. Compulsion is
+contrary to the spirit and genius of democracy. The great problem of our
+generation is to discover how industrial freedom can be reconciled with
+the service of the public. For an answer we shall have to look into the
+spirit and structure of such government as our industries have
+themselves evolved. For democracy is not, as its earlier critics
+declared, synonymous with anarchy. Democracy is a government of laws,
+not of men; and laws in a democracy are not emanations of superior
+minds, but the codified experience of the people.
+
+As we approach the problem of government in our basic industries as in
+the nation, we discover two seemingly conflicting tendencies, two great
+elements in our population apparently pulling in opposite directions. In
+the question of national security and defence, the one instinctively
+follows the ancient tradition of European nations, piling up armies and
+navies, and striving to make America the most formidable military power
+in the world; the second leans to a policy of reconciliation, striving
+by conference and understandings with other nations to prevent
+disagreements and to avert wars. The first makes it a matter of national
+honor to emphasize individual American rights on land and sea, the
+property rights of Americans, our financial and economic interests in
+backward countries, and the military force necessary to enforce those
+interests; the second aims to establish international relations in which
+such rights and interests shall be secure to all nations without the
+constant threat of force. To the one, the world is an arena in which to
+fight or starve is the eternal choice; to the second, the world is a
+communion table at which all men are brothers.
+
+These same tendencies, these same manifestations of the acquisitive
+instinct and the consciousness of kind, appear in the record of our
+basic coal industry. As the industrial revolution got into full swing in
+America, during and immediately following the Civil War, there was a
+rush for the possession of the coal mines comparable to the rush for
+land. Among the men who won possession, there were some who were keenly
+aware of the public obligations of ownership, who in friendly
+cooperation with their employes strove to develop their properties in
+the interest of the public as well as of their employes and themselves.
+But owners and miners alike took their spiritual color from their social
+environment and in the soul of the people the acquisitive instinct
+remained in the ascendant. Men did not go into business or swing their
+tools for their health. Their first duty, as they saw it, was to make
+all the money they could as fast as they could, and to put themselves
+and those dependent upon them on easy street. "God helps them," they
+said, "who help themselves." They gutted the richest veins for quick
+profit, as our forests and new lands had been gutted. More mines were
+opened than the nation could possibly use. There was a gluttonous
+overdevelopment of the industry which swung up and down in high peaks
+and low plunges of prosperity and depression, high prices and "no
+market," feverish employment and long stretches of intermittent work,
+which for hundreds of thousands of miners meant no work at all, and for
+many operators meant bankruptcy. The level of government in the industry
+was in all essential respects the level of hunting tribes.
+
+During the early days of the industry, the miners, like American manual
+workers in general, were under the popular illusion that democracy meant
+the passing of a permanent working class. With the Declaration of
+Independence the old social stratification of feudal Europe had been
+wiped out forever. There was plenty of room at the top. Everybody might
+with perseverance and thrift get to the top. This illusion took on
+considerable substance from the fact that when the industrial revolution
+first invaded the coal fields America still offered great tracts of
+unoccupied lands to satisfy the universal land hunger, whereas in
+England, for example, the policy of enclosure barred poor men from such
+untilled land as there was. This circumstance accounts for the slow and
+erratic development of group organization among American miners as
+compared with the English. There were many cases like that of the
+bituminous miners in Maryland, who went into the mines; took wages and
+working conditions as they found them; organized; fought for better
+wages and working conditions; accumulated a little money; and then,
+instead of using it to build a permanent organization, broke away for
+the free lands of the West.
+
+"Their ambition in life," writes Andrew Roy, himself at the time a
+miner, "was to save enough money to buy a farm in Iowa or Wisconsin.
+They would go back to the mines in the autumn after harvesting, work all
+winter, and return with their fresh stake in the spring. None of them
+ever returned permanently to the mines."
+
+But as the fertile lands were preempted and America became increasingly
+a manufacturing nation, the coal industry acquired a measure of
+stability and drew into the mining communities an increasing body of men
+for whom mining was to be a life's work. The condition of life for these
+permanent miners was largely determined by the camps or villages which
+the companies built at the mines. These were generally mean, cheap,
+temporary affairs. For the faster the miner works, the faster he skims
+the cream, leaving the more inaccessible coal to waste where it lies,
+the greater the profit, the better the wages, and the sooner the mine is
+worked out and abandoned. This, and the caprice of the market in its
+effect upon the overexpanded industry, meant that the miner must live in
+his knapsack always prepared to move; and it meant cheap homes and a
+mean domestic equipment, houses or shacks that might be abandoned
+without serious loss. To this day the great majority of mining villages
+have the worst characteristics of city slums intensified by the
+isolation and loneliness of the country, once beautiful, but now
+stripped of its forests, its streams running black with the sulphurous
+waste of the mines. Such moderately attractive cities as Scranton,
+Wilkes-Barre, and Hazleton in the anthracite region are exceptional. The
+mining towns that sprawl between Scranton and Wilkes-Barre, or that
+follow the Panther Creek Valley, are incredibly hideous things. And what
+is true of the compact and peculiarly prosperous anthracite region is
+even more true of the sprawling bituminous fields.
+
+The isolation and transitory character of the mining towns made the
+miners almost completely dependent upon the owners of the mines not only
+for homes but also for tools and powder; all their mining, as well as
+their household, supplies. To this day in the non-union fields of West
+Virginia the operators finance and control, not only the stores, but the
+schools, the hospitals, the doctors, the churches, and the police.
+Independent merchants were slow to invest their fortunes in such
+difficult ground, and since the company store was a convenient means of
+supplementing the profit from the mines, independent merchants were not
+encouraged to compete. These conditions tended on the one hand to breed
+arbitrary management,--autocracy sometimes benevolent, sometimes
+tyrannical,--and on the other, restlessness, discontent, and the spirit
+of individual and organized revolt. It set the consciousness of kind in
+action among the miners especially, and resulted in innumerable local
+lockouts and strikes.
+
+A sequence of such local struggles occurred in the Blossburg district of
+Pennsylvania in the '60's and '70's. The Civil War created an abnormal
+demand for coal, and sent up the price as well as the cost of living
+generally. In 1863 the miners of the district organized and succeeded in
+raising their wage rate from thirty-five cents to a dollar and ten cents
+a ton. At the end of the war, the market broke and the coal fields were
+flooded with returning soldiers. To protect the standard of living to
+which during the war they had attained, the miners decided upon a
+defensive offensive and demanded a further increase of fifteen cents a
+ton. The operators insisted upon the liquidation of labor. A strike
+followed. The owners ordered the miners to vacate their company houses.
+They refused. The local courts issued writs of eviction. To avoid a
+clash with the sheriff and his deputies, the miners made a holiday in
+the hills, leaving their hearthstones to their wives. By passive
+resistance and otherwise, the women held their castles. Then the
+operators appealed to the governor who sent in the famous Bucktail
+regiment just victoriously back from the war. They put the miners, their
+families, and their household goods on the street. The strike was
+broken. Such miners as were not deported or blacklisted were compelled
+to accept the terms that were offered, including a pledge to abandon and
+keep out of their union. So the pendulum swung in 1865.
+
+In 1873 the swing was reversed. Most of the mine owners of Blossburg
+were also either bankers or retail merchants through their company
+stores. They were hard hit by the panic of 1873. Without consultation or
+warning they announced an arbitrary reduction in wages and deferred
+payment of wages already due. In November they posted notices that the
+miners might get such goods as they absolutely needed at the company
+stores, but that no wages would be paid until the following April. Then
+the miners again drew together in a union. The operators organized in
+opposition. A lockout strike followed. Strike breakers were brought in,
+principally a group of recent Swedish immigrants, and marched to a
+barracks especially prepared for them.
+
+"The strikers gathered on the public highway in front of the barracks,"
+says Andrew Roy, "and insisted on the right to talk with the
+strikebreakers through one of their interpreters. The managers declined
+to allow this to be done. But finally a Swedish miner got in among them,
+and within an hour, the whole of the imported men marched out upon the
+highway and joined the strikers. The strangers were formed into line,
+with a Scotch piper at their head, who marched them out of town to the
+stirring tune of the McGregors' Gathering."
+
+Prevailing public opinion in the '70's, like the prevailing judicial
+interpretation of the law, frowned upon concerted action by the workers
+as having the nature of a conspiracy much as the concerted action of the
+commoners in monarchical days was frowned upon as conspiracy. But
+curious sorts of circumstances have occasionally arisen to modify
+opinion in one case as in the other. The Boston Tea Party is our
+historical example in the political realm. In Blossburg, before this
+strike of 1873, the miners had been compelled to take their pay in
+company scrip. Except at the company store, this scrip was worth only
+from seventy to ninety cents on the dollar.
+
+"When farmers came into mining towns," writes Andrew Roy out of his own
+experience, "prospective purchasers of their produce would ask them,
+'Will you take scrip?' And if the answer was in the affirmative, a
+dicker would immediately be entered into as to the amount of discount to
+be allowed."
+
+Independent merchants had gradually ventured into Blossburg. To them
+the scrip was a competitive injury. When the operators limited the
+miners to credit at the company stores, the independent merchants
+protested to the Treasury Department of the United States that the
+compulsory circulation of company scrip was an illegal infringement of a
+governmental function. The governor of Pennsylvania took alarm at this
+appeal over his head and sent the State Secretary of Internal Affairs to
+investigate. He made a report condemning the operators' practice. The
+attendant publicity scandalized public opinion and turned it to the
+miners' side. This time the strike was won.
+
+So by ebb and flow of the consciousness of kind, the elements of a
+governing structure, the balance of forces between the operators and the
+miners, gradually formed within the industry. But in the main the
+balance was determined by public opinion; and public opinion, like the
+law, was by inherited tradition upon the side of the owners, the
+accepted custodians of property and the national wealth. Episodes like
+the use of company scrip tended to even the balance. And more important
+still in their effect upon the traditional hostility of public opinion
+toward the unions in their infringement upon the vested rights and
+privileges of the owners were the great mine disasters.
+
+Some of our coal crops out at the surface in places where through the
+ages wind and weather have worn away the overlying clay, stone, and
+slate. This can be gathered like wood in the forest without danger. The
+amount of such coal is commercially unimportant. Some lies only a few
+feet underground so that it is possible to take it by stripping away the
+thin overlying material and blast and scoop it out with a steam shovel.
+There are some stripping mines in the anthracite field and a
+considerable number in the alluvial plains of the West. But the great
+bulk of our coal is reached by driving drifts or headings into the veins
+through the sides of hills or by sinking shafts scores, or hundreds, or
+thousands of feet down through the earth to where the coal lies. From
+the mouth of the drift or the foot of the shaft, a tunnel or main
+heading or gangway is driven on and on into the coal usually for miles,
+with secondary tunnels giving off the main heading into the pitch-black
+rooms where the miners work. In the cryptlike terminal rooms, the miner
+with his buddy undercuts the "face" of the coal with his pick or with an
+undercutting machine, drills shot-holes into the face, sets his charge
+of powder and tamps it in, and then shoots the coal down. Sometimes, for
+the sake of speed, he shoots it down without undercutting, and in the
+anthracite mines where the coal is too hard for undercutting, direct
+shooting from the face is the general practice. This blasting of a
+friable and inflammable substance fills the cellared air with minute
+particles of highly explosive dust. As the mines go deeper and further
+away from the opening they accumulate gas and underground water. The
+greatest number of injuries and deaths in the mines, and coal mining is
+among the most hazardous of all occupations, result from the falling of
+overhanging rock and coal; but the catastrophies which have shocked
+public opinion into a sympathetic attitude toward the commoners of the
+mines do not come from this steady death toll but have resulted from
+explosions or fires that have trapped and suffocated or burned their
+scores and hundreds.
+
+It seems incredible, in view of the known hazards of underground work,
+that there should ever have been opposition to the installation of all
+available safeguards. But it must be remembered that we are still very
+close to primitive man, that the consciousness of kind and the instinct
+of brotherhood are still hard pressed by the primal acquisitive
+instinct. In America in spite of potential plenty the community's first
+preoccupation was escape from hunger, the winning of individual and
+national economic security. The prevailing attitude toward death and
+injury in the mines was, and to a great extent still is, much the same
+as the prevailing attitude toward death and injury in battle. In
+ordinary days of peace we do not glorify the soldier. Similarly, it is
+only at time of disaster that our sympathetic understanding goes out to
+the shock troops in our war against nature, the men who with pick and
+powder win coal underground.
+
+"So numerous and heartrending," says Roy, "had these accidents become
+(in the anthracite field) that the miners of Schuylkill county in the
+year 1858 appealed to the legislature for the passage of a law to
+provide for official supervision of the mines, and a bill for the
+purpose was introduced the same year; but it found no countenance, and
+never came to a vote. In 1866 it was again introduced, and passed the
+lower house, but it was defeated in the Senate. In 1869 it was
+reintroduced, passed both houses and received the approval of the
+governor of the state. It provided for _one_ mine inspector for
+Schuylkill county, _the other counties being left out_. The law had been
+in operation only a few months when the Avondale shaft in the adjoining
+county of Luzerne took fire and suffocated every soul in the mine
+including two daring miners who went down the mine after the fire, in
+the hope of rescuing some of the entombed men. The shaft had but one
+opening.... The whole underground force of the mine, 109 souls, were
+suffocated to death by the gases emanating from the burning woodwork in
+the shaft and the breakers on top of it.... No catastrophe ever occurred
+in this country which created a greater sensation than this mining
+horror. The public press united in demanding the passage of all laws
+necessary for the protection of the health and lives of the miners....
+When the legislature met in the following January a committee of
+representative miners was sent to Harrisburg to have a mining bill
+enacted into law for the proper security of the lives, health, and
+safety of the anthracite miners of Pennsylvania, which was promptly
+done."
+
+Stirred by the Avondale disaster, the miners of the Mahoning Valley in
+Ohio had a bill introduced into the Ohio legislature calling for two
+separate openings in all mines employing more than ten men underground,
+for the forced circulation to the face of the coal of at least one
+hundred cubic feet of air per minute for each underground worker, the
+daily inspection of all gaseous mines by a fireviewer before the miners
+were allowed to enter, the appointment of four state mine inspectors,
+and the right of the miners to appoint a check-weighman at their own
+expense to see that their coal was fairly weighed at the tipple. As soon
+as the bill was printed, a committee of thirteen operators representing
+every mining district in the state, supported by legal counsel and the
+state geologist, appeared in opposition. Their contention was that the
+miners of the state did not want the law, that the bill was the
+invention of professional demagogues and labor agitators who sponged a
+fat living off the ignorance and cupidity of their misguided followers,
+that there was neither gas nor bad air in Ohio mines, that the lives and
+fortunes of the miners were safe in the hands of their employers, that
+the bill was special legislation and unconstitutional and that if
+enacted by the General Assembly of Ohio it would be set aside by the
+Supreme Court. The bill was defeated, but a commission of inquiry was
+appointed. At the next session of the General Assembly the miners' bill
+was reintroduced and passed by a unanimous vote. But before it was sent
+to the governor, the operators again sent a committee to defeat it. It
+was amended and all provision for state inspection of the mines stricken
+out. In the following June a disaster occurred in a mine in Portage
+county owned by the member of the legislature who had emasculated the
+bill. This mine, too, had but one opening which an accidental fire
+converted into a furnace. There were twenty-one men in the mine. Ten
+were burned to death and the eleven who managed to escape through the
+smoke and flame were terribly injured. The miners' bill was reintroduced
+and again opposed. Judge Hoadly, afterwards governor of Ohio, speaking
+in opposition very accurately expressed the prevailing state of mind.
+"We have tried to make men sober and moral by law," he said, "and now we
+are going to try to surround them with protection against carelessness
+and danger, and enable them to shut their eyes and walk in darkness,
+satisfied with the care and protection of the state. I admit that there
+is a line to which the right of the legislature--the duty of the
+legislature--may go without infringing on the natural right of the
+citizen; but what I want to suggest as the safe side, is to leave the
+people free, and to allow mishap and disaster to have its natural effect
+as the penalty for and the cure of the evils which result from
+negligence which causes mishap and disaster." But in spite of this
+persuasive reasoning, the miners' bill, after years of effort, was
+finally enacted into law.
+
+Thus slowly the consciousness of kind worked through the public to the
+miners, under the influence of such understanding as mining
+catastrophies shocked into the public mind. But the main force that made
+for the improvement of their conditions of work, for the development of
+standards of living among them and of orderly processes of government
+within the industry as a whole was the operation of the consciousness of
+kind within their own group.
+
+The processes of civilization like all cosmic processes are slow. The
+period of recorded history is but a minute in the unnumbered years of
+man's life upon earth. It was by slow stages that the blind herd
+instinct which sends wolves hunting in packs and leads birds to migrate
+in flocks merged into the consciousness of kind and the spirit of
+service among men. So in the coal industry, the miners organized slowly,
+first in local groups, then by districts, then on a national scale with
+the beginnings of international affiliations. They drew together into
+unions, broke apart, drew together again. As they acquired strength,
+their interests came into conflict with the interests of the coal
+owners. There were strikes and lockouts, local joint agreements, then
+strikes and lockouts again, then other agreements for arbitration and
+conciliation, then more strikes and lockouts. That process still goes on
+as in the bitter civil war in West Virginia. But in the main it reached
+a culmination so far as the coal industry is concerned when in 1902
+President Roosevelt intervened in the interests of the consumers,
+asserted a balance of power between and over the two groups, and
+established the foundations of orderly government within the industry.
+The processes by which representative government has grown up within the
+industry run closely parallel with the processes by which the
+parliamentary government arose in the European political states, with
+property owners performing the very important function of technical
+organization and development which in the early stages of national life
+the monarch and his executives performed, and the miners playing the
+rôle of the commoners. It is upon this historical structure that the
+future of the industry as a public service depends.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER VI
+
+                      THE STRUGGLE FOR ORGANIZATION
+
+
+In their volume on The Church and Industrial Reconstruction, the
+Committee on the War and the Religious Outlook, an interdenominational
+group appointed by the joint action of the Federal Council of Churches
+and the General Wartime Commission of the Churches, declare that
+"Democracy is the attempt to realize this fundamental right of every
+personality to self-expression through cooperation with others in a
+common task. In the political sphere it has already found large
+recognition.... It applies, or should apply, in the sphere of organized
+religion, which is the Church. It applies in the sphere of industry.
+Indeed, it may be of relatively small significance for men to have the
+right of political self-expression, unless they have similar opportunity
+for self-expression in their daily work. For the conditions which affect
+them in industry touch them more closely than the concerns of the
+state."
+
+It is for this reason that the study of the growth of democratic
+organization and government in industry inevitably stresses the growth
+of organization and orderly processes among the workers, the commoners
+of industry. The political revolution of the eighteenth century
+emancipated the owners of property from the autocratic control of the
+monarchical state. But, as Sidney and Beatrice Webb have pointed out,
+"the framers of the United States Constitution, like the various
+parties in the French Revolution of 1789, saw no resemblance or analogy
+between the personal power which they drove from the castle, the altar,
+and the throne, and that which they left unchecked in the farm, the
+factory, and the mine. Even at the present day, after a century of
+revolution, the great mass of middle-and upper-class 'Liberals' all over
+the world see no more inconsistency between democracy and unrestrained
+capitalist enterprise, than Washington and Jefferson did between
+democracy and slave-owning. The 'dim, inarticulate' multitude of
+manual-working wage-earners have, from the outset, felt their way to a
+different view. To them, the uncontrolled power wielded by the owners of
+the means of production, able to withhold from the manual worker all
+chance of subsistence unless he accepted their terms, meant a far more
+genuine loss of liberty, and a far keener sense of personal subjection,
+than the official jurisdiction of the magistrate, or the far-off,
+impalpable rule of the king. The captains of industry, like the kings of
+yore, are honestly unable to understand why their personal power should
+be interfered with.... The agitation for freedom of combination and
+factory legislation has been, in reality, a demand for a 'constitution'
+in the industrial realm."
+
+What the Committee on the War and the Religious Outlook and the Webbs
+state in slightly different language explains why the history of
+constitutional government in industry is fundamentally the history of
+the rise of the workers through their unions and collective bargaining
+toward a democratic equality of status with their employers.
+
+As soon as the mining communities became sufficiently stable to allow
+the consciousness of kind to operate, the miners began to organize into
+small local groups for mutual aid, to care for one another in sickness,
+to bury one another at death, and to improve their wages and working
+conditions. But it was not until after the industrial revolution got
+under full headway during and immediately after the Civil War that they
+became actively conscious of a community of interest over wide areas.
+For the structure of modern democratic government in industry as in
+nations and among nations, depends upon railroads, the postal and
+telegraph service, and other means of communication. A strong impetus
+and a definite direction was given to the existing tendency toward
+organization by the steady infiltration of miners from Great Britain
+where constitutional government in the coal industry had already made
+considerable progress and where the miners were firmly organized. The
+miners held their first national convention in St. Louis, Missouri, in
+January, 1861. The call had been issued by Daniel Weaver, an English
+trade-unionist, who after the failure of the Chartist movement had
+settled in the coal fields of Illinois.
+
+"The necessity of an association of miners and of those branches of
+industry immediately connected with mining operations, having for its
+object the physical, mental, and social elevation of the miner, has long
+been felt by the thinking portion of the miners generally," said Weaver
+in his call. "Union is the great fundamental principle by which every
+object of importance is to be accomplished. Man is a social being and if
+left to himself in an isolated condition is one of the weakest of
+creatures, but when associated with his kind he works wonders.... There
+is an electric sympathy kindled, the attractive forces inherent in human
+nature are called into action and a stream of generous emotion binds
+together and animates the whole.... Our unity is essential to the
+attainment of our rights and the amelioration of our present
+condition.... Our safety, our remedy, our protection, our dearest
+interests, and the social well-being of our families, present and
+future, depend upon our unity, our duty, and our regard for each other."
+
+The convention formed the American Miners' Association, elected Weaver
+secretary and Thomas Lloyd, another English immigrant, president. A
+considerable number of miners in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
+and Maryland joined the union, which exerted a mild influence upon the
+legislatures of the several states. But the Association was a national
+organization in name only. The miners had not yet learned to work
+together under the direction of their own leaders. The organization was
+not strong enough to withstand the break in the labor market and the
+anti-union drive that attended the flood of returning soldiers at the
+end of the Civil War. Moreover, the American public regarded the trade
+union as an alien institution, the evil creation of "foreigners" and
+alien "agitators." It was held to be contrary to the genius of American
+life that workers should combine to interfere with the sanctity of
+property and the prerogatives that inhered in that sanctity just as it
+had been so held in England a century before. Even by the great majority
+of wage workers as by the public at large the accepted theory, carried
+over from the feudal tradition of Europe, was that the rights and
+interests of both would be best protected and cared for "by the
+Christian men to whom God has given control of the property interests of
+the country."
+
+Under stress of the panic of 1873, and after a series of unsuccessful
+strikes to maintain wages, the American Miners' Association went to
+pieces. But local unions, generally known as "Miners' and Laborers'
+Benevolent Associations," kept up a struggling existence. The strongest
+of these was the Workingmen's Benevolent Association, a consolidation of
+all the local unions in the anthracite field. It was largely the
+creation of John Siney, an Englishbred Irishman, among the keenest minds
+the labor movement has produced. One of the first acts of this
+Benevolent Association was to declare a suspension of work in order to
+relieve the mines of the glut of coal which had resulted from the slack
+industrial period following the Civil War. This maneuver met with
+condemnation of the press and from the operators, who did not,
+nevertheless, regard it with entire disfavor, since it had a
+considerable effect in maintaining prices as well as wages. As soon as
+the suspension had accomplished its purpose the miners returned to work,
+and immediately thereafter John Siney succeeded in persuading the
+anthracite owners to enter a conference with representatives of the
+union. The first joint meeting of operators and miners was held in
+Scranton in 1869, and as a result of this conference the first joint
+agreement ever made between American miners and operators for the
+establishment of a wage scale was signed on July 29, 1870, by five
+members of the Anthracite Board of Trade and five representatives of the
+Workingmen's Benevolent Association.
+
+This unique achievement made Siney a national figure. Local leaders in
+all parts of the country appealed to him to call another national
+convention. On his initiative, the Miners' National Association was
+constituted by the convention held in Youngstown, Ohio, in October,
+1873. The convention elected Siney president. National headquarters
+were opened in Cleveland.
+
+Wearied with endless strikes the convention had made arbitration,
+conciliation, and cooperation the basic principles of their
+constitution. Fortified with these principles, Siney and an associate
+visited the offices of all the coal companies in Cleveland. All except
+one of the operators turned them down. They would have nothing to do
+with a union. The exception was Marcus A. Hanna. When Siney assured
+Hanna that no strike would be called without previous resort to
+arbitration and that the officers of the union would order the men to
+keep at work even if an award went against them, Hanna accepted their
+proposition and undertook to bring the other operators into line. In
+spite of the widespread depression in the coal trade the National
+Association grew rapidly. Twenty-one thousand members were represented
+at the second convention held in Cleveland in October, 1874. But
+notwithstanding Hanna's great influence, many of the operators remained
+hostile to the union. Toward the close of 1874, the operators of the
+Tuscarawas Valley in Ohio announced a wage cut from ninety to seventy
+cents a ton. The miners determined to strike. Siney induced them to
+resort to arbitration. The umpire admitted a reduction to seventy-one
+cents. The miners were bitter against the decision which had gone almost
+completely against them. Only the great influence of Siney restrained
+them from striking at once.
+
+Then one of the operators, the Crawford Coal Company, took advantage of
+the discontent. This company had refused to join Hanna and his
+associates in dealing with the union. During the arbitration
+proceedings, the Crawford Company locked out their men for demanding a
+check-weighman, and appealed to the operators' association for support.
+The associated operators refused. The Crawford Company then offered
+their locked-out men an advance of nine cents a ton above the rate fixed
+for the union miners by the arbitration award. The acquisitive instinct
+was stronger than the consciousness of kind among the non-union miners.
+They accepted and went back to work.
+
+This turn of the wheel broke Siney's control over the organization. His
+followers threatened to desert unless he repudiated the arbitration
+award. He refused. But his executive board, in a desperate effort to
+save the union, overruled him and yielded. Strikes and lockouts followed
+in quick succession. Hanna was as helpless as Siney. Strike breakers
+were imported, under cover men and troops were brought in. Arbitration,
+constitutional government, and the union went on the rocks.
+
+Similar misfortune attended Siney's pioneer efforts to establish the
+union and constitutional government in his home district at Clearfield,
+Pennsylvania. No sooner had the miners joined the National Association
+than they expected Siney and his fellow executives to achieve quick
+redress of their grievances and to force an advance in wages. They grew
+impatient with the slow processes of negotiation. They struck against
+the advice of Siney. Immediately the operators in the Clearfield
+district followed the precedent of Tuscarawas. They brought in strike
+breakers and troops. A brief civil war followed. Some heads were broken.
+The strike was lost. In spite of his heroic efforts to keep the peace
+and to establish orderly processes of government, Siney was arrested for
+conspiracy and thrown into jail. The morale of the Miners' National
+Association was broken, and like its predecessors it went by the board.
+
+Like the tides of the sea, the consciousness of kind ebbed and flowed
+among the miners. They drew together into local, state, and national
+organizations, held for brief periods, and then scattered again under
+the impact of the operators supported by prevailing public opinion. They
+had not become fully group conscious; neither had the public come to
+recognize their unions as essential arms of constitutional government
+within the industry.
+
+In the bounteous days of national expansion, in the exuberant '70's and
+'80's, a vague belief was abroad that America would never develop a
+permanent working class. Every man was "as good as" another, and the
+hustling, self-made business man was the American ideal. In accord with
+this theory was one of the significant actions of the Miners' National
+Association, an attempt to buy coal lands to be operated by the miners,
+not as a workers' cooperative association, but as a corporation of
+business men. During the '70's and the '80's also the Knights of Labor
+built up a great following among the wage-workers, largely on the
+philosophy that if they kept free of "class-conscious" trade unions and
+went in for a mass movement of all workers, they could by some strange
+alchemy of the American spirit rise to the status of independent
+business men. The Knights of Labor played much the same rôle among the
+wage-workers that the various "populist" movements played among the
+farmers before the development of such group-conscious tendencies as
+those which in our day have developed the farmers' cooperative societies
+and the agricultural bloc.
+
+The labor movement as we know it today in America began when in 1886
+Samuel Gompers became first president of the American Federation of
+Labor, an office which with the interruption of a single year he has
+held ever since. Mr. Gompers led the wage-workers to a frank acceptance
+of the prevailing business and acquisitive ideals as the basis, not of
+individual escape from the working class, but of their consolidation
+into trade unions for the businesslike control and sale of their craft
+skill through collective bargaining. It is significant that the
+immediate precursor of the American Federation of Labor--the Organized
+Trades Unions of the United States of America and Canada, over whose
+councils Mr. Gompers exercised great influence--demanded the legal
+incorporation of trade unions and a protective tariff for American
+labor, as well as the prohibition of child labor under fourteen, the
+eight-hour day, the abolition of conspiracy laws, and the other reforms
+which constitute the present program of organized labor. By the frank
+recognition of the basic force of the acquisitive instinct in human
+nature, the realistic leaders of the new labor movement were able to
+release and consolidate the consciousness of kind for effective
+operation within the wage-working group.
+
+The influence of this new philosophy made itself felt throughout all the
+skilled trades and notably among the miners. After the break-up of the
+Miners' National Association, the miners maintained state organizations
+in Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and in several other states. They
+steadily took the initiative in seeking conferences and negotiations
+with the operators of their districts. In spite of the failure of
+arbitration under the pioneering leadership of Siney, they supported the
+agitation which resulted in the Trade Tribunal Act of Pennsylvania
+(1883), and the similar arbitration act of Ohio (1885).
+
+But the process of overdevelopment which has always characterized the
+American coal industry created sharp fluctuations of prosperity and
+market depression and afforded an unstable basis for the establishment
+of the machinery of orderly government. Both miners and operators showed
+a tendency to run wild. Conferences were held, arbitration agreements
+occasionally entered into, but now one side, now the other, repudiated
+the awards as the fluctuating market sent prices erratically up and
+down. The needs of the community have always called for the integration
+of the industry, but the happy-go-lucky American spirit persistently
+shied away from public regulation as long as the acquisitive instinct
+could be satisfied at however great a cost in profligate use and waste.
+But this very overdevelopment, with its destructive effect upon wages
+and regularity of employment, continually brought the miners back to a
+consciousness of the need for national organization.
+
+In 1885, John McBride, president of the Ohio Miners' State Union, and
+later, for a single term, president of the American Federation of Labor,
+issued a call to the miners of the United States to meet in convention
+on the ninth of September in Indianapolis. Seven states sent delegates.
+The National Federation of Miners and Mine Laborers was formed and its
+Executive Board issued a call _to the mine operators of the United
+States and territories_ inviting them to a joint meeting for the purpose
+of adjusting market and mining prices in such a way as to avoid strikes
+and lockouts, and to give to each party an increased profit from the
+sale of coal. Only one operator, Mr. W. P. Rend of Chicago, paid any
+attention to this call. He inspired the miners to persevere. They sent
+out a second invitation. A dozen or so operators met with the executive
+board in Chicago and agreed upon a joint call for a national joint
+convention to be held in Pittsburgh in December.
+
+"The undersigned committee," the invitation said, "consisting of three
+mine owners, and three delegates representing the miners' organization,
+were appointed to make a general public presentation of the objects and
+purposes of this convention, and to extend an invitation to all those
+engaged in coal mining in America, to lend their active cooperation
+toward the establishment of harmony and friendship between capital and
+labor in this large and important industry.... Apart and in conflict
+capital and labor become agents of evil, while united they create
+blessings of plenty and prosperity.... Capital represents the
+accumulation, or savings, of past labor, while labor is the most sacred
+part of capital.... It is evident that the general standard of reward
+for labor has sunk too low.... It is equally true that the widespread
+depression of business, the overproduction of coal, and the consequent
+severe competition have caused the capital invested in mines to yield
+little or no profitable returns. The constant reductions of wages that
+have lately taken place have afforded no relief to capital, and, indeed,
+have tended to increase its embarrassments.... This is the first
+movement of a national character in America, taken with the intention of
+the establishment of labor conciliation...."
+
+In response to this call a small joint meeting was held in Pittsburgh in
+December. It adjourned for a second conference in Columbus, Ohio, in
+February, 1886. Here the operators were represented by seventy-seven
+delegates, principally from Ohio, but also from Pennsylvania, Indiana,
+Illinois, Maryland, and West Virginia. They adopted a national wage
+scale, established a national board of arbitration, and provided for the
+creation of similar state boards to maintain industrial peace and to
+develop the structure and processes of constitutional government.
+
+The agreement held and worked in spite of the opposition of groups of
+operators, notably in the West Virginia field and the steel district of
+Pittsburgh, and the individualistic lethargy of many of the miners. The
+new philosophy of business trade unionism gripped the miners, made the
+trade union policy triumphant over the vaguely utopian policy of the
+Knights of Labor, and resulted in the consolidation of the miners'
+organizations into the United Mine Workers of America in 1890. But the
+process of overdevelopment continued in the industry. The workings of
+the joint machinery creaked and faltered under the impact of strikes and
+lockouts due in the main to market fluctuations, and for a decade the
+United Mine Workers, in spite of periods of prosperity and rapid growth,
+was perpetually threatened with the fate of its predecessors.
+
+This fate was averted by the economic developments which had converted
+the compact anthracite field into a virtual monopoly under the combined
+control of the anthracite railroads and the great banking houses of the
+East that owned the railroads. While the bituminous industry sprawled
+and overdeveloped, the anthracite combination gradually restricted the
+production of anthracite to the calculable demand of the market. This
+made for stability in the anthracite field, which is reflected in the
+fact that while even today the average working year in the bituminous
+fields is approximately two hundred and fifteen days,--an average
+working day when spread over the year, of less than four hours,--the
+working year in the anthracite field gradually rose until today it holds
+steady at something more than two hundred and sixty days a year.
+
+This stability enabled the anthracite miners to accumulate an economic
+surplus above their immediate needs and set the consciousness of kind in
+vigorous operation among them. By 1900 they had developed the nucleus of
+a strong organization. Their wages, however, had lagged behind the wages
+of the miners in the better-organized bituminous fields. On their
+demand, the national officers of the United Mine Workers called a
+convention of anthracite representatives in Hazleton, Pennsylvania, "to
+devise means by which a joint convention of operators and miners can be
+held" to consider the upward readjustment of the anthracite wage scale
+and "methods to abolish the pernicious system now in vogue in the
+anthracite region by which a part of the earnings of the mine workers is
+taken from them by the infamous system of dockage, and by the practice
+of compelling mine workers to load more than 2240 pounds for a ton." The
+operators disregarded the convention's invitation to a joint conference.
+The men struck. The operators made concessions but refused to deal with
+the union. The men accepted the concessions and returned to work. During
+the next two years they fortified their treasury and prepared to strike
+again. John Mitchell had become president of the United Mine Workers. In
+February, 1902, he addressed a circular letter to the presidents of the
+anthracite railroads inviting them to a joint conference. The railroad
+presidents refused to have anything to do with the union. The anthracite
+miners then made a public proposal that the issues should be submitted
+to the arbitration of the Industrial Branch of the National Civic
+Federation, of which Senator Hanna was chairman, or of Archbishop
+Ireland, Bishop Potter, and one other person to be selected by these
+two. But all such tentatives were also rejected by the operators. It was
+about this time that Mr. George F. Baer, president of the Philadelphia
+and Reading Coal Company and of the Reading Railway System, made his
+interesting declaration that "the rights and interests of the laboring
+man will be protected and cared for, not by the labor agitators, but by
+the Christian men to whom God has given the control of the property
+interests of the country."
+
+Efforts at conference and arbitration having failed, the anthracite
+miners called a strike. Only a minority of the men had previously joined
+the union, but ninety men in a hundred obeyed the strike call. The
+bituminous miners were eager to declare a sympathetic strike, but they
+had collective agreements in the more important fields and their
+president, John Mitchell, and their secretary, William B. Wilson,
+afterwards Secretary of Labor in President Wilson's cabinet, insisted
+upon honoring these contracts. Trade union discipline had grown stronger
+since the days of Siney and Mitchell's counsel prevailed. The anthracite
+strike dragged on throughout the summer. Winter was approaching.
+President Roosevelt decided to intervene. There was no precedent for
+such intervention in the coal industry, which though basic to the
+industrial life of the nation, was held sacred to the traditional rights
+of private ownership and business initiative. In his address to the
+miners and operators, President Roosevelt expressed his sense of the
+unprecedented character of his action.
+
+"As long," he said, "as there seemed to be a reasonable hope that these
+matters could be adjusted between the parties it did not seem proper for
+me to interfere in any way. I disclaim any right or duty to interfere in
+any way, upon legal grounds or upon any official relation that I bear to
+the situation. But the urgency and the terrible nature of the
+catastrophe impending, where a large portion of our people, in the shape
+of a winter fuel famine, are concerned, impel me after anxious thought
+to believe that my duty requires me to use whatever influence I
+personally can bring to bear to end a situation which has become
+literally impossible."
+
+In spite of his disavowal of legal authority or official responsibility,
+President Roosevelt's action was publicly regarded as the official
+action of the nation's chief executive. It gave the public its first
+intimation of the status of coal as that of a public utility. It stamped
+upon the coal industry the character of an essential public service
+which has attached to it ever since. Backed by public opinion, which
+would have sustained him if he had declared the existence of a public
+emergency and had taken over the anthracite industry as the government
+did the entire coal industry during the war, he was able to force the
+submission of the dispute to a commission of arbitration by whose
+decision both sides pledged themselves to abide. The strike was settled.
+A machinery of government was established and put into operation. As the
+result of President Roosevelt's action, collective bargaining was for
+the first time given public sanction not only in the anthracite field
+but throughout the coal industry. For seventeen years, and indeed, with
+the exception of a brief interval in 1919, for twenty years, peace and
+constitutional government prevailed not only in the anthracite field,
+but, with the exception of a few districts, notably certain counties in
+West Virginia and the coking fields subsidiary to the steel industry in
+Pennsylvania, Colorado, and Alabama, throughout the bituminous fields
+also.
+
+The structure of this government and its basic laws are written into
+collective contracts, which, together with the policies formulated by
+the two parties through their national organizations, must be our guides
+in the quest for an answer to the question as to how, short of the
+autocratic control of the Fuel Administration, the coal industry is to
+be developed into an integrated, dependably governed, public service.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER VII
+
+                           THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY
+
+
+The historians of the growth of democratic government in the coal
+industry generally date the establishment of collective bargaining as a
+permanent institution from 1898, when the operators of the Central
+Competitive Field--Western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois--in
+a joint conference with the representatives of the United Mine Workers
+of America entered into an agreement which with minor modifications was
+periodically renewed from that time onward. From that year to 1922
+operators and miners alike recognized the agreement in the Central
+Competitive Field as basic to the agreements in all other fields and the
+central competitive conference as the necessary prelude to all other
+conferences. But it was President Roosevelt and the Anthracite Strike
+Commission which he appointed that lifted human relationships within the
+industry out of the limbo of frontier strife and periodic guerrilla
+warfare and stamped them with the quasi-public character of a
+self-governing constitutional democracy.
+
+From the beginning, certain of the coal owners, notably those in
+sections of West Virginia and Alabama, whose coking coals make them
+economically subsidiary to the steel industry, have held strongly to the
+autocratic powers and privileges which the conception of property
+carried over from the pre-revolutionary monarchical days when the king
+was generally recognized, _Dei gratia_, as the custodian of the national
+hoard. But the Roosevelt Commission took the stand which has
+increasingly won public acceptance, that autocracy in industry is
+incompatible with democracy in the political state, and that they must
+both rise or fall together. Forms may change, but it may be taken as
+axiomatic that if democracy is the law determining the evolution of
+political civilization,--if it is the condition of the full development
+of the individual personality and the attainment of the good life and
+human brotherhood,--it will survive and grow in industry as well as in
+the political realm. It is from this principle of democratic evolution,
+and not from the strikes and lock-outs and barterings over wages, hours,
+and profits incidental to its development, that collective bargaining
+and industrial democracy derive their fundamental significance.
+
+In appointing the Commission "at the request both of the operators and
+of the miners," President Roosevelt asked them not only to pass upon the
+questions in controversy, but also "to establish the relations between
+the employers and the wage workers in the anthracite fields on a just
+and permanent basis."
+
+In arbitrating the immediate questions in dispute,--questions of wages,
+hours, and working conditions,--the Commission, even after months of
+hearings at which hundreds of witnesses appeared, found themselves in
+the usual predicament of arbitrators and the lay public in such
+circumstances. The facts about the industry,--its capital investment,
+its financial organization, its earnings and profits, the cost of living
+in the district, the organization of work in the mines, the character of
+the work, the skill which it required, and its attendant hazards,--had
+never been scientifically determined. Then as now these essential facts
+were held to lie within the sacred province of private business
+enterprise and not within the legitimate scope of public inquiry and
+revelation. In instance after instance, they found that statistics of
+the kind presented were "rather too inexact for a satisfactory basis on
+which to make precise calculations." On the demands of the miners and
+the counter-demands of the operators, they were reluctantly constrained
+to adopt the usual refuge of arbitration tribunals set up in an
+emergency; they "split the difference." The miners, for example, asked
+for a twenty per cent increase in their rate of wages; the Commission
+granted them ten per cent. Other issues were not susceptible of such
+definite arbitrament, but in general the Commission, striving to hold
+the scales of justice even, followed the rule of fifty-fifty.
+
+In presenting their award, the Commission, keenly aware of the almost
+impossible burden which the absence of scientific knowledge with respect
+to this basic industry placed upon them, declared that "all through
+their investigations and deliberations the conviction had grown upon
+them that if they could evoke and confirm a more genuine spirit of good
+will, a more conciliatory disposition in the operators and their
+employes in their relations toward one another, they would do a better
+and more lasting work than any which mere rulings, however wise and
+just, may accomplish." It was with this end in view that they set up a
+scheme of constitutional democratic government within the industry.
+
+Quotation is often dull, but nothing can take the place of direct
+quotation in the case of a document of epoch-making importance. By way
+of justifying their action the Commission declared that "in the days
+when the employer had but a few employes, personal acquaintance and
+direct contact of the employer and employe resulted in mutual knowledge
+of the surrounding conditions and the desires of each. The development
+of the employers into large corporations has rendered such personal
+contact and acquaintance between the responsible employer and the
+individual employe no longer possible in the old sense. The tendency
+toward peace and good-fellowship which flows out of personal
+acquaintance or direct contact should not, however, be lost through this
+evolution of great combinations. There seems to be no medium through
+which to preserve it, so natural and efficient as that of an
+organization of employes governed by rules which represent the will of a
+properly constituted majority of its members, and officered by members
+selected for that purpose, and in whom authority to administer the rules
+and affairs of the union and its members is vested."
+
+The anthracite operators had conditioned their submission to the award
+of the Commission by refusing to be drawn into a collective agreement
+with the miners' national organization, the United Mine Workers of
+America. The Commission got around this technicality by constituting the
+anthracite district divisions of the union and the organized anthracite
+operators the two houses of the anthracite parliament. The democratic
+government which they set up is typical of the scheme of government
+which now prevails through eighty per cent of the coal industry, and
+which, while it is subject to the fluctuations characteristic of all
+democratic institutions, may be taken as permanent in principle.
+
+Again, because of its historical importance, the language of the
+Commission calls for direct quotation. The Commission decreed: "That any
+difficulty or disagreement arising under this award, either as to
+interpretation or application, or in any way growing out of the
+relations of the employers and employed, which can not be settled or
+adjusted by consultation between the superintendent or manager of the
+mine or mines and the miner or miners directly interested, or is of a
+scope too large to be so settled or adjusted, shall be referred to a
+permanent joint committee, to be called a board of conciliation, to
+consist of six persons, appointed as hereinafter provided. That is to
+say, if there shall be a division of the whole region into three
+districts, in each of which there shall exist an organization
+representing a majority of the mine workers of such district, one of
+said board of conciliation shall be appointed by each of said
+organizations, and three persons shall be appointed by the operators,
+the operators in each of said districts appointing one person.
+
+"The board of conciliation thus constituted shall take up and consider
+any question referred to it as aforesaid, hearing both parties to the
+controversy, and such evidence as may be laid before it by either party;
+and any award made by a majority of such board of conciliation shall be
+final and binding on all parties. If, however, the said board is unable
+to decide any question submitted, or point related thereto, that
+question or point shall be referred to an umpire, to be appointed, at
+the request of said board, by one of the circuit judges of the third
+judicial circuit of the United States, whose decision shall be final and
+binding in the premises.
+
+"The membership of said board shall at all times be kept complete,
+either the operators or the miners' organizations having the right, at
+any time when a controversy is not pending, to change their
+representation thereon.
+
+"At all hearings before said board the parties may be represented by
+such person or persons as they may respectively select.
+
+"No suspension of work shall take place, by lock-out or strike, pending
+the adjudication of any matter so taken up for adjustment."
+
+From the date of the Commission's award to 1919, when President Wilson
+created a similar commission to avert a threatened break, the anthracite
+operators and miners, who were invariably represented by the presidents
+of the three district organizations of the United Mine Workers of
+America, lived at peace under this constitution.
+
+The machinery of constitutional government thus given public sanction in
+the anthracite field is in its general outline and provisions typical of
+the machinery which through joint conference and negotiation the
+organized miners and operators have worked out throughout the greater
+part of the bituminous fields. The miners act under the authority of
+their national convention when it is in session and under the general
+direction of their national president and executive board, acting under
+laws devised by the national convention in the interval between the
+national convention's biennial sessions. Within the limitations set by
+the national laws of the organization, the four thousand local unions
+and the twenty-seven district unions exercise a degree of local autonomy
+analogous to the local autonomy of our cities, towns, counties, and
+states. In fact the entire national organization is built up from the
+mine committees at the individual mines, which, conjointly with the
+representative of the management at the mine, are the courts of original
+jurisdiction. As in the case of our states in relation to the federal
+government, these local bodies reserve all authority that is not
+specifically delegated to the national organization through its
+constitution and the action of the national convention, the
+representative national congress of the union. Unlike the President of
+the United States, the president of the United Mine Workers has no power
+to appoint and remove his cabinet--the National Executive Board--but
+through his power over the national organizers and the other agents of
+the national office, he is in a position to control the political
+machinery of the organization. By virtue of its form of organization,
+the miners' union has the virtues as well as the defects of our American
+political organization, defects which are the price of self-government
+and the educative processes of self-government.
+
+Because of the compact nature of the anthracite field and its domination
+by a small group of railroads, the operators of this field have acted in
+concert for many decades. But until 1917, the coal owners of the country
+had no national organization. In that year, for the purposes of
+negotiation with the federal government relative to the controlled
+production and price of bituminous coal, they organized the National
+Coal Association. Unlike the miners' national organization, this
+Association is not by its certificate of incorporation explicitly
+concerned with the wage contract or industrial relations as such. Its
+primary object is the "encouragement and fostering of the general
+welfare of the coal-mining industry" as a business enterprise. It is,
+however, acquiring many of the functions of the miners' union. In recent
+controversies it has actively assisted the local operators' associations
+in their dealings with their organized employes. And like the miners'
+national organization it actively concerns itself with the protection
+and advancement of the interests of its members in Congress and the
+state legislatures. But the immense extent of the bituminous coal fields
+and the highly competitive character of the industry, which has been
+artificially maintained by the Sherman law, has prevented the compact
+organization of the bituminous operators and has limited concerted
+action, especially in matters affecting the labor contract, almost
+entirely to local, state, and district associations. It is upon the
+miners' organization that the operators largely rely to equalize
+competitive conditions. For wages constitute the largest single item of
+cost in coal production and it is only through the ability of the
+miners' union to negotiate on a nation-wide basis that this burden can
+be equalized for the thousands of competing operators.
+
+The inability of the operators to achieve a national organization has
+not only contributed to the overdevelopment of the industry with
+consequences that became critically manifest during the war, but has
+also greatly complicated the struggle of the miners to establish
+collective negotiation and agreement on a national scale. In Illinois,
+for example, there are three operators' associations which have been
+organized to deal with labor. The oldest of these is the Illinois Coal
+Operators' Association formed in 1897. During a wage controversy in 1910
+the operators of the fifth and ninth Illinois districts broke away from
+the parent body and formed an association of their own. In 1914, the
+operators of the Springfield district organized the independent Central
+Illinois Coal Operators' Association. Diversity of mining conditions in
+the various sections of the Illinois coal field and the inability of the
+operators to equalize competitive costs without the help of the miners
+were responsible for these secessions. One of the objects enumerated in
+the constitution of the Central Illinois Coal Operators' Association is
+"to protect the interest of the members of this association in the
+making of district, state, and interstate contracts with the United Mine
+Workers, to the end that such members shall obtain scales, rates,
+prices, conditions, and _such differentials_ from the basic rates as the
+relative physical and other working conditions of the mines owned by
+them entitle them to." An identical clause appears in the constitution
+of the Coal Operators' Association of the fifth and ninth districts of
+Illinois. In 1910 the operators in these two districts were paying seven
+cents a ton more than other members of the parent association. They
+seceded and entered into a separate agreement with the union in the hope
+that the union would be able to abolish this unfavorable differential.
+The union succeeded only in reducing the differential to four cents.
+While these three associations compete with one another for terms with
+the miners' union within their own state, they cooperate in their common
+effort to secure from the miners terms that will place them at a
+competitive advantage as against operators in other states. This rivalry
+among the operators makes the diplomatic problem of the union's national
+officers a very difficult one and when groups of operators, like those
+in certain counties of West Virginia and Alabama, refuse to deal with
+the union at all and impose cut-rate wage scales upon their unorganized
+employes as a basis for cutting the price of coal in the limited market,
+the industry is thrown into confusion bordering upon anarchy. The
+operators in the organized fields hold the union responsible for its
+failure to organize the anti-union fields and so to equalize competitive
+conditions. Many of them decide that their only remedy is to break with
+the union and through individual bargaining with their employes when
+the labor market is overstocked force down wages and working conditions
+to the level of the anti-union fields. The organized miners are thus
+compelled to fight for their organization and the maintenance of their
+dearly won standard of living. Strikes and lockouts temporarily take the
+place of the orderly processes of joint negotiation, conciliation, and
+collective agreement as in the spring of 1922.
+
+The processes of conflict and cooperation through which government in
+industry, as in the state, evolves, are as truly cosmic processes as
+those through which the coal measures themselves were created, with the
+humanly significant difference that the processes of social evolution
+are, within certain limits, controllable by the will of man. The policy
+of democratic peoples and therefore of their governments is to allow the
+maximum freedom of development to government within industry compatible
+with the comfort and economic security of the community as a whole.
+Where the security of the community is threatened, the government tends
+to intervene as President Roosevelt did in the case of the anthracite
+controversy. And while the traditional bias of government and the
+law,--the bias which they inherited from the feudal society which
+existed when the industrial revolution began,--favors the owners of
+property to which a special sanctity still adheres, public opinion among
+peoples devoted to democracy in the political state increasingly tends
+to assert itself in favor of democracy in industry, and more especially
+such basic industries as the railroads and coal. It is for this reason
+that it is logical to assume that the point of view toward collective
+bargaining, expressed by President Roosevelt's Commission and
+incorporated into the social creeds of most of the Christian
+denominations, will ultimately prevail. And since collective bargaining
+and the orderly processes of government initiated by the joint labor
+contracts are the historical foundations of democracy in industry, it is
+also reasonable to infer that collective bargaining will increasingly
+become the rule in industrial relations.
+
+But there are large issues of momentous public concern which do not come
+within the scope of collective bargaining. Rule 15 in the standard
+agreement between the operators and the miners in the bituminous fields
+of central Pennsylvania specifically forbids the miners to concern
+themselves in any way with the problems of management and the technical
+equipment and organization of the mines. Because of the great abundance
+of coal, the industry had been developed by overexpansion and wasteful
+skimming rather than by the application of scientific methods to the
+mining of the best coal and its efficient utilization. Not only is one
+ton of coal left irrecoverably underground for every ton brought to the
+surface, but less than one-half of the economic value of coal is
+utilized by our primitive methods of consumption. In a time when it is
+possible to transform coal into gas and electricity at the mine and
+transport its fuel and power cheaply by pipe and wire, thirty per cent
+of our entire coal production is used for transportation by steam
+engines that harness up only from nine to twelve per cent of the energy
+in a ton of coal in a way that will actually pull a train--and a third
+of all the freight tonnage carried by the railroads is coal. Moreover
+our modern chemical industries, such as the dye industry, are based upon
+the substances contained in bituminous coal, most of which are wasted in
+our customary methods of consumption. These facts impose an immense
+burden of needless cost upon the consumer, and draw into the
+overexpanded coal industry tens of thousands of miners in excess of
+efficient requirements. The owners are therefore subject to wide
+fluctuations in the price of their product, the miners are the victims
+of intermittent and irregular employment with consequent uncertainty of
+earnings, and the public ultimately foots the bill, which, as has
+already been pointed out, Mr. F. G. Tryon of the U. S. Geological Survey
+calculates at one million dollars for each working day paid in
+unofficial and needless taxation, and the miners, by the terms of the
+collective agreement are explicitly debarred from all participation in
+the solution of these problems of management.
+
+As a remedy, bituminous operators have proposed that they shall be
+relieved of the restrictions of the Sherman law, so that they may
+combine to limit production and regulate distribution and prices as the
+anthracite owners have succeeded in doing. The miners, by resolution of
+their national convention, have proposed a policy of public ownership
+and democratic administration, the entrusting of the technical
+regulation and development of the mines to engineers appointed by the
+government and the administration of labor relations by a democratic
+tribunal composed of representatives of the technical management, the
+public, and the miners. The effectiveness of either policy would be
+contingent upon the application to the mines and their product of the
+scientific knowledge which has been rapidly accumulating during the last
+decade and very little of which is now applied to the industry. The
+character of the political reconstruction of the industry, which public
+necessity must sooner or later compel, will be largely determined by the
+outcome of the impending technical revolution in the production and
+utilization of coal.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VIII
+
+                              RIVALS OF COAL
+
+
+Until recently it has been taken for granted that there was plenty of
+coal. The industrial revolution rose and triumphed on the theory of an
+inexhaustible supply. Mines were opened casually here and there and such
+coal as was easy to get was taken from the reserves which were supposed
+to be bottomless. And men were poured into the mines, thousands in
+excess of the need. They were as plentiful as the coal. Because of these
+two things--the vast amount of coal and the cheap and abundant man
+power--the coal industry came through the industrial revolution which it
+created, without being itself revolutionized.
+
+Now the coal supply is large, but it is not by any means unlimited. No
+one can increase it. There is no way of manufacturing coal. The
+limitations of the supply were fixed by the geographical revolution.
+Twenty million years ago all the coal we have or shall have was packed
+away in the ribs of the earth in seams varying from sixty feet to the
+thickness of a blade of grass. It is estimated that we still have in the
+world more than seven thousand billion tons distributed as follows:
+
+               North America               5,073,431,000,000
+               Asia                        1,279,586,000,000
+               Europe                        784,190,000,000
+               Australasia                   170,410,000,000
+               Africa                         57,839,000,000
+               South America                  32,097,000,000
+                                           -----------------
+                             Total         7,397,553,000,000
+
+This seems like a vast amount which even wasteful production could
+hardly exhaust in thousands of years. But much of the supply is of such
+low grade as to be inefficient as a steam producer, much of it occurs at
+such deep levels or so remote from the centers of population as to be
+commercially unprofitable to mine. Mr. Floyd W. Parsons, formerly editor
+of the _Coal Age_, has warned us that "each year now witnesses the
+exhaustion of a number of high-grade coal areas. Far more mines
+producing better grades of coal are being worked out than there are new
+mines commencing to produce.... Operating companies are now going over
+their acreage, taking out pillars and working low-grade thin seams." And
+Mr. D. B. Rushmore, chief engineer in the power and mining department of
+the General Electric Company, calculates that if our coal consumption
+were to continue to increase at the apparently normal rate of seven per
+cent each year, the life of our known reserves would be as follows:
+
+  Eastern District, which includes the most accessible and
+  best quality of our fuel                                     59 years
+  Eastern, Central, and Southern Districts                     65 years
+  Entire U. S. and Alaska, two-thirds of this being low-grade
+  coals and lignites                                           84 years
+
+These figures are based upon the appraisals of the U. S. Geological
+Survey. They include coal in veins as shallow as fourteen inches, all
+coal whose ash content does not exceed thirty per cent, and all known
+deposits within six thousand feet of the surface. They are based on the
+optimistic assumption that two-thirds of the coal in the mines will be
+brought to the surface, a considerably higher recovery than has hitherto
+been achieved. Mr. Rushmore concludes that the evidence points
+unmistakably to an approaching scarcity of high-grade coal and
+increasingly higher prices.
+
+One of the greatest single causes of waste and increased prices is our
+antiquated system of distributing the energy contained in coal. It is
+estimated that every hundred tons of coal shipped involves the burning
+of ten tons in railroad locomotives. There is no longer any technical
+justification for transporting power in the enormously bulky form of
+coal when it could be much more efficiently distributed by pipe and wire
+in the form of gas and electricity. Even were it not enormously
+inefficient, there are definite physical limits beyond which the steam
+haulage of coal in bulk cannot be increased--certain bottle necks like
+that through which the Lehigh River flows, narrow edges like that along
+the Susquehanna, where no more slow puffing trains can go toiling up and
+down the slippery grades, because there is no more room for them on the
+tracks. Already the load upon the antiquated steam railroads is too
+heavy for them to bear, so that the system of transportation breaks down
+under every peak load and in every crisis such as that induced by the
+war.
+
+Moreover our methods of consumption are incredibly wasteful. Mr. George
+Otis Smith, Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, has prepared a
+chart showing that of every two thousand pounds of coal, six hundred
+pounds are lost in mining, one hundred and twenty-six pounds are
+consumed at the mine and en route to the boiler room, four hundred and
+forty-six pounds are lost in gases going up the stack, fifty-one pounds
+are lost by radiation and fifty-one in the ash pit, six hundred and
+fifty pounds are lost in converting heat energy into mechanical energy,
+and only seventy-six pounds out of the two thousand are actually
+converted into productive mechanical energy. After two hundred years of
+mechanical invention, we are still stupidly content to dissipate
+ninety-six per cent of the labor-saving value of coal.
+
+But even if the coal supply were unlimited, if every year a new crop
+grew to take the place of the one consumed, even if it were physically
+possible for the railroads to carry an ever-increasing load, the miners
+are not willing to get it out on the same old basis of low wages, high
+hazards, and demoralizing irregularity of employment. Man power has
+changed its own status. In 1919 the wages of common labor at the mines
+were fixed at seven and a half dollars a day. As wages go, this would
+have meant a reasonably fair standard of living if work in the mines had
+been steady. But during the last thirty years the mines have been idle
+an average of ninety-three days in every three hundred and eight working
+days in the year, and during 1921 the miner was fortunate who got as
+much as two days of work in the week, that is, fifteen dollars a week
+and seven hundred and eighty dollars a year. The hazards of mining have
+increased. The U. S. Bureau of Mines tells us that while in 1890 the
+death rate of coal miners was 2.15 for every thousand men employed, in
+1914 the rate had increased to 3.19. In 1890 between three and four
+miners were killed for every million tons mined; in 1914 between four
+and five miners were killed for every million tons. Labor is no longer
+content to be sacrificed in order to put an increasing stream of cheap
+coal into the fire boxes of engines that waste nine-tenths and more of
+their labor and so deprive them of the possibility of the good life
+according to American standards. They are taking stock and evaluating
+themselves. Some of their demands, like the six-hour day, five days a
+week, are socially unwise, but they represent a just protest against
+the demoralizing intermittency of employment. The demand is simply an
+effort to spread the actual hours of work evenly throughout the year.
+Already the conditions imposed by the unions in the interest of a
+reasonable standard of living act as a strong differential against the
+mining of difficult seams and poor grades of coal. They are rapidly
+getting into a position where they can dictate the conditions under
+which they will hazard their lives underground. And these are not
+conditions which the coal industry with its competitive overdevelopment,
+its load of parasite railroads, sales companies, company-owned houses
+and stores, its inefficient operating methods, and particularly its
+antiquated energy-producing equipment on which it must pay heavy
+interest, is prepared to meet.
+
+Because the supply of coal cannot much longer meet the cumulatively
+wasteful demands upon it; because the railroad system is breaking down
+under the increased bulk of coal to be transported; because the miners
+are increasingly insisting that the reward of their hazardous labor must
+give them a fair chance of the good life according to American standards
+of living; and because the community which must be served cannot
+indefinitely pay the price of inefficiency and waste, the present order
+in the coal industry is drawing to a close.
+
+The technicians have seen this impending change for a long time. Through
+their help the industrial revolution might have reorganized the coal
+industry decades ago under the pressure of an increasing demand for
+power, if it had not been held off by new discoveries of petroleum and
+natural gas. Petroleum, which had been used in a small way in many
+countries for centuries, first became an international commodity when
+Roumania began to ship it in 1857. It took on great industrial
+importance when the first American well, the famous Drake well in Oil
+Creek, Pennsylvania, was sunk in 1859. But in 1860 the world's total
+recorded production was less than five hundred and ten thousand barrels,
+of which five hundred thousand barrels are credited to the United
+States. By 1917 the world output had risen to nearly four hundred and
+fifty million barrels, of which the United States furnished nearly four
+hundred million.
+
+The coal and petroleum industries are closely interrelated. Coal and
+petroleum are largely interchangeable as sources of energy. Both can be
+used for fuel under boilers in their crude state, although crude oil is
+the more efficient; both provide an illuminating oil for use in lamps,
+although kerosene is so much better than coal oil as to have driven it
+out of the market; both furnish a satisfactory fuel for the
+internal-combustion engine, although benzol, a coal derivative, has not
+yet been recovered in sufficient quantities to make it a competitor of
+gasoline; both provide a fuel gas, although that derived from petroleum
+has the greater heat value. Ton for ton, petroleum has every advantage
+over coal, and there is every reason why it should drive coal out of its
+preeminent position in industry, except one--the limitations of the
+supply.
+
+For petroleum is far cheaper to produce, not only in terms of money, but
+in terms of human effort and life. Compare with the labor and hazard of
+opening and working a coal mine Pogue and Gilbert's description of the
+opening of an oil well.
+
+"Drilling an oil well is commonly done by means of a heavy string of
+tools, suspended at the end of a cable and given a churning motion by a
+walking beam rocked by a steam engine.... The steel tools, falling
+under their own weight, literally punch their way to the depth desired."
+
+The usual custom is for four men working two twelve-hour shifts to sink
+a well. Their work is to keep the engine that operates the drill
+running, to watch the operation, and to stoke the engine. The only
+danger is when the time has come to "shoot" the well. This is done only
+if the oil does not flow naturally when the oil-bearing strata are
+reached. The "shooting" consists in dropping a "go devil" upon canisters
+of nitroglycerine to blow out a cavity at the bottom in which oil may
+collect. If the charge explodes before it reaches the bottom of the
+well, it may blow back and wreck the derrick, and the timbers and
+"bull-wheel" may fall upon the men. This danger, which can be obviated
+by the simple process of the men going away until after the charge has
+exploded, is practically the only one connected with drilling for
+petroleum, except for the incidental danger which all handling of high
+explosives necessarily involves.
+
+A well costs only about one-tenth as much per foot of descent as a mine
+shaft; and it can be put down in much quicker time. When it is once in
+contact with the oil, operating expenses are trifling, for in many cases
+the oil reaches the surface under natural gas pressure, and in others it
+has merely to be pumped. There are not the expenses for breaking rock,
+timbering, or haulage, which are common in coal mining.
+
+So that in addition to being a better fuel than coal to burn under a
+steam boiler, petroleum mining is as healthful and safe an occupation as
+can be well found in contrast with the extremely dangerous work of the
+coal miner, and it can be far more quickly and more cheaply got out of
+the ground.
+
+It has other advantages.
+
+Coal, bituminous coal especially, is so bulky and so liable to
+spontaneous combustion that it is difficult to store. Petroleum, on the
+contrary, can be easily and satisfactorily stored in iron tanks which,
+standing about like great cheese boxes, are characteristic of the
+oil-producing country. Added to the advantage of easy storage is the
+much greater one of easy transportation. Unlike coal, the crude
+petroleum supply of the country makes no demand upon the railroads. Only
+under exceptional circumstances and for short distances is it hauled
+about in tank cars. It has its own independent system of pipe lines,
+after the manner of a great water supply. These systems connect the oil
+wells with the refineries, the markets, and the seaports.
+
+The pipe lines are ample to distribute the current production of oil. It
+is these pipe lines that have not only made the petroleum industry
+absolutely independent of the railroads, but through the low cost of
+their operation have lowered the cost of petroleum products. They have
+also made it possible to establish oil refineries near the points of
+consumption and have united widely separated fields.
+
+For all these reasons--because it is a more efficient fuel under steam
+boilers; because it can be produced more cheaply; because the work of
+mining it is easy and the danger is slight; and because having an
+independent transportation system of its own it makes no demand on the
+already overburdened railroads--petroleum might have superseded coal as
+the power that rules industry if there had been enough of it. Even as it
+is, petroleum has been able to meet a large part of the demand for fuel
+and so stand between the coal industry and the reorganization hanging
+over it.
+
+But we have been, if possible, more prodigal in our exploitation of our
+petroleum resources than of coal. There was an immediate market for all
+the petroleum that could be produced. The well-owner's chief anxiety was
+lest his neighbor, whose well tapped the same underground reservoir,
+should get the oil out before he did. So the exploiters of petroleum
+rushed on their quarry with an avidity never equalled by the exploiters
+of coal. While approximately one-half of the coal has been left in the
+ground through the eagerness of the owners to beat each other to market,
+from seventy to ninety per cent of the petroleum in the various fields
+has been lost from the same cause. And industry has seemed to take it
+for granted that because petroleum was being produced so rapidly, there
+was an unlimited supply. In 1916, many plants shifted from coal to fuel
+oil, because of the inability of the railroads to deliver coal. We have
+developed an oil-burning navy and are rapidly developing an oil-burning
+merchant marine. Ships and factory furnaces are competing with the
+internal-combustion engines of millions of automobiles and the hungry
+lamps of the countryside for the diminishing reserves of petroleum.
+Already the supply of crude petroleum is hard pressed by the demand for
+fuel oil. Already approximately one-half of the original petroleum
+supply of the United States is gone. In 1918, 460,721,000 barrels were
+taken, while it was estimated that 6,730,000,000 barrels remained in the
+ground, and the production during the two subsequent years was
+approximately 400,000,000 barrels annually. The petroleum reserve,
+converting barrels into tons, amounts to only 2/1000 of our reserves of
+coal. If we stopped mining coal tomorrow and let American petroleum take
+its place, all our petroleum resources would be exhausted in about
+fifteen months.
+
+And even if the supply of petroleum were far less limited than the
+experts estimate it to be, even if there were enough of it to last for
+many decades to come, the fact that it is practically the one lubricant
+of the industrial world makes it a social crime to burn it as a
+substitute for coal. Without it, every railroad wheel would run hot and
+stop; the great turbines in our ships and modern power plants move on
+bearings that are smothered in petroleum oil. And for petroleum as a
+lubricant there is no commercially available substitute.
+
+Closely associated with petroleum and originally derived from it, is
+natural gas. There is no way of telling how great the supply of this has
+been in the past, how much there is in reserve, or what the present
+outflow is, because the waste of natural gas has been and is notorious.
+We do know, however, that the per capita consumption in 1915, according
+to the U. S. Geological Survey, was approximately four times the
+consumption of artificial gas, and seven times that of the by-product
+coke-oven gas, and that its average price to the consumer was sixteen
+cents a thousand cubic feet as against ninety-one cents for artificial
+gas and ten cents for coke-oven gas. About one-third of the natural gas
+is used for domestic purposes, about two-thirds is used for manufacture.
+It is conservatively estimated that 100,000,000 gallons of gasoline can
+be recovered from it annually and it is the primary source of the lamp
+black from which all the printers' ink in present use is made. The
+supply of natural gas in reserve is not calculable, but since most of
+the wells show a diminished flow, it is believed to be on the way to
+exhaustion.
+
+Although the supplies of oil and gas have supplemented coal for half a
+century and protected the coal industry from the same sort of economic
+pressure which has forced reorganization upon most other enterprises,
+the time is at hand when they can no longer do so.
+
+The imaginative appeal of hydroelectric power has led many people to
+hope that water-power electricity would come to the aid of coal and
+possibly replace it. But Mr. Charles P. Steinmetz, of the General
+Electric Company, tells us that the total available water power of the
+United States has been variously estimated at from fifty to one hundred
+million horse-power, that is, from one-sixth to one-third of the
+horse-power equivalent of our present annual coal production. He has
+gone further and calculated the maximum possible value of all water
+power beyond which the ultimate skill of invention could never possibly
+go. If every raindrop which falls anywhere in the United States,
+allowing only for the amount of water needed by agriculture and the loss
+due to seepage and evaporation, were collected and all the power which
+it could develop in its journey to the sea were efficiently utilized,
+the resultant energy would amount to just about the same as the total
+which we get out of our present coal consumption for all purposes. Water
+power--hydroelectric energy--can never replace coal.
+
+The waste of both petroleum and gas has been largely due to the
+unrestrained acquisitive instinct seeking quick wealth in response to
+the cry of the steam engine for more and more fuel. They were drafted
+into service because they could do the work of coal and do it more
+efficiently. But their diminishing supply makes it impossible for them
+longer to stave off the impending technical revolution in the coal
+industry. The miners are growing restive under the evils of intermittent
+employment, uncertain income, and demoralizing conditions of living. The
+public begins to rebel against irregularity of supply and ruinously high
+prices. The antiquated transportation system creaks and staggers under a
+load which the advance of technical science makes it unnecessary for it
+longer to carry.
+
+All these, taken together with the still-increasing demand for power to
+drive on production and pile up a surplus on which to base an advancing
+civilization, are forcing a new technical revolution upon the coal
+industry.
+
+
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX
+
+                         THE TECHNICAL REVOLUTION
+
+
+The economic surplus which the industrial revolution of the latter
+eighteenth century created was the product of a crude, extensive
+exploitation of our natural resources. With the aid of the steam engine
+men skimmed the cream of the mines, the forests, and the new soil of the
+American continent.
+
+The wasteful use of our coal, paralleling as it did our increasing need
+for power, was hampering the industries of the country even before the
+war. After the breaking out of the conflict the overwhelming pressure
+for increased production could not be met. In a panic we pushed our old
+methods of coal exploitation further than ever before, drew on our oil
+and gas supplies to the utmost, and then in final desperation integrated
+the administrative side of the coal industry through the Fuel
+Administration.
+
+The relief this brought was immediate, although the chief work of the
+Fuel Administration was merely to systematize and coordinate the
+distribution of coal so that those who must have it would get it. For
+during wartime the factories must run, and the autocratic integration
+which the Fuel Administration accomplished created a seeming abundance
+by keeping the factory wheels of at least the essential industries
+turning.
+
+But the relief was only apparent--not actual. When the tumult of the
+war was over and we were back in still water, Secretary Lane announced
+that the enormous development of war industries had created an almost
+insatiable demand for power--a demand that was overreaching the
+available supply with such rapidity that had hostilities continued, it
+is certain that by 1920 we should have been facing an extreme power
+shortage. Integrated administration had done all it could but the
+problem of power to advance civilization--to build up a surplus through
+production--to give all men the chance of the good life, was still
+unsolved. Just as the integration by the Fuel Administration had
+deferred the acute power shortage during the war, so the business
+depression that followed the signing of the armistice is still holding
+it in check. And yet if civilization is to go on, our multitudinous
+factory wheels must turn again more swiftly and in increasing number,
+our looms must weave more and more cloth, and new cars and new ships
+must carry new millions of people to and fro. As yet we know no other
+material means through which to build up the good life than these
+whirling wheels.
+
+The technical experts have agreed that the problem must be solved
+through the integration of all our sources of fuel and power which they,
+like the Fuel Administration during the war, regard as a common
+reservoir like the water supply of a modern community, and through the
+reduction of both coal and water power to terms of their common
+denominator, electricity. As the result of Secretary Lane's prevision of
+the impending power shortage, Congress in 1921 made an appropriation for
+a preliminary survey by the technical experts of the power resources
+along the Atlantic seaboard from Washington to Boston and for one
+hundred and fifty miles inland. This territory has been called the
+"finishing shop" of America. It is of irregular coast line, giving good
+harbors for the shipping to carry its products overseas; its swift
+streams turned the first factory wheels in America; its mountain ranges
+are full of metals and easily accessible coal; and to this region the
+industrially trained peoples of Europe most naturally come. Obviously
+its factory wheels must turn.
+
+As a result of the survey of this region, engineers have worked out what
+is called the Superpower Plan. According to this, a giant network of
+wire will be woven over the territory between the Alleghenies and the
+Atlantic seaboard and charged with the very essence of power. Great
+steel towers, like those that now carry the currents generated at
+Niagara Falls, the Keokuk Dam on the Mississippi, and the Roosevelt Dam
+at the head of Salt River in the Arizona Desert, will stride through the
+valleys and across the mountains along a two-hundred-foot right of way.
+Instead of steel rails and puffing engines to convey industrial power,
+there will be only towers and copper wires. Instead of millions of tons
+of raw coal moving slowly along through bottle necks in the mountains
+and through congested freight yards, there will be the silent rush of
+uncounted electrons hurrying to the centers of production to do the work
+of man. Instead of spreading dirt and noise and ugliness, these new
+carriers of cosmic energy will be high harps for the wind.
+
+According to this plan of the Superpower Commission the main line of
+this new power system begins at Washington and follows the coast through
+the great centers of population--Baltimore, Wilmington, Philadelphia,
+Newark, New York, New Haven, Providence, Boston, and on up to
+Newburyport. Stretching away from this main line two principal inland
+lines are projected, one swinging off at Baltimore out to Harrisburg and
+up the anthracite valley to Scranton; another leaving the main line just
+before it reaches New York and stretching up the Hudson Valley to
+Poughkeepsie, Port Jervis, and Utica, tapping the hydroelectric
+generating stations in the Adirondacks, and connecting again through
+Pittsfield, Northampton, and Worcester with the main line in Boston.
+North and south cross lines mesh these secondary lines with the main
+line along the coast--one through Hartford and Waterbury to New Haven,
+and another from Worcester to Providence, with a short branch line to
+New Bedford. Back and forth across this network of high-tension wires
+will run the power to turn the factory wheels.
+
+About nine-tenths of this power will be the developed energy of coal.
+The Superpower Commission's plan calls for the establishment of great
+steam-generating plants near the mines where the coal will be used to
+fire steam engines which will turn dynamos and so convert the energy of
+coal into electricity and feed it to that great harp in the wind.
+Steam-generating plants to supply more distant consumers are projected
+at tidewater--that is at places to which coal can be delivered by
+coastwise steamers. Incidentally these tidewater plants involve a
+considerable amount of coal haulage from the mines to the seaports, and
+from the ports nearest the mines to the other ports along the coast;
+from the lower West Virginia fields, across the mountains, to the
+southern end of Chesapeake Bay and thence by boat northward along the
+coast to Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. En
+route this coal will be joined by other coal from the upper West
+Virginia and the lower Pennsylvania bituminous fields and also by coal
+from the middle Pennsylvania field which will have to be freighted
+through New Jersey to the Hudson ports, then again up Long Island Sound
+by steamdrawn barges. While great economies would be effected by the
+transformation of coal into electric energy at the superpower stations,
+both at the mines and at the tidewater ports, the plan of the Superpower
+Commission still involves the necessity of hauling millions of tons of
+raw coal from the mines to seaboard. This limitation the Commission held
+to be necessary, not only for the purpose of utilizing the comparatively
+small plants which existing public utility companies have already built,
+but because at the time their report was made the electrical engineers
+had not yet perfected means of transporting electricity for long
+distances without great leakage on the way. Since the Commission's
+survey was published, however, an invention has been announced which
+greatly increases the distance over which the high-voltage currents can
+be efficiently sent, so that it is now feasible to transmute a much
+larger proportion of coal into electricity at the mine. The plan for
+practically all the tidewater generating plants can be given up,
+together with the long, slow, costly process of carrying coal to them,
+and that ninety per cent of the electricity for the superpower system
+which is derived from coal can be generated directly at the mine.
+
+The other ten per cent according to the Commission's plan will be
+hydroelectric power. Generating stations are to be established at the
+rapids of the Potomac just above Washington; along the lower reaches of
+the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania and Maryland; along the upper courses of
+the Delaware and the Hudson; in the Adirondacks; and at intervals along
+the whole length of the Connecticut River. But the main dependence of
+the projected superpower system is still the bituminous coal supply
+which it is planned to keep at its old job of raising steam to drive the
+turbine engines which will in turn drive the electric dynamos.
+
+Besides the Commission's superpower plan for the Atlantic seaboard,
+other power systems have been sketched out, one centering around Helena
+in southern Illinois and designed to serve most of the Mississippi
+Valley, one near the northwest coast, another in California.
+
+The integration of water and coal is a long step toward the solution of
+the power problem, in that it not only brings a new force to supplement
+the coal supply but also saves the coal now used by steam locomotives to
+haul raw fuel to its millions of consumers. Moreover, it contemplates
+the electrification of all the railroads within the zone whose traffic
+is heavy enough to warrant it, and as it is estimated that two pounds of
+coal applied to an electric locomotive will do as much work as seven and
+one-half to eight and one-half pounds when applied to a steam
+locomotive, the amount of coal now used for transportation will be still
+further reduced. Through such beginnings as these projected superpower
+systems must come the comprehensive integration of the industry.
+
+But the Federal Commission's superpower plan as published is only a
+beginning. It is not enough merely to save the energy of coal, to
+relieve the congestion on the freight railroads, and to provide a
+common-carrier system for high-voltage electricity. There is needed also
+the more intensive utilization of the fuel supply. The plan of the
+Superpower Commission regards coal--bituminous coal especially--as
+nothing more than fuel. The industrial revolution was built upon the
+power of coal to fire the boilers in steam engines. But the use of coal
+for the generation of steam only is almost the least efficient way in
+which it can be utilized. From the point of view of national economy the
+better utilization of what are known as the by-product values of
+bituminous coal is quite as important as the establishment of an
+integrated power system.
+
+For coal is much more than potential power. Bituminous coal is the
+source of many of our most valuable mineral products and yet today, of
+the more than 500,000,000 tons annually produced, almost all is used
+exclusively for the production of power and all of its ingredients
+except the heat-producing elements are wasted. About one-twelfth of the
+bituminous coal--that which is now used for the production of coke in
+ovens that recover its by-product--must be excepted from this statement.
+Moreover, the 90,000,000 tons of anthracite mined every year are
+economically used because anthracite contains practically nothing but
+carbon and ash and its direct burning is the most efficient way in which
+it can be used if its energy content is thoroughly conserved. Omitting,
+then, the whole of the anthracite supply, and that bituminous which is
+already properly utilized, we still have more than 400,000,000 tons
+wastefully used every year--so wastefully that not only are all its
+commodity values destroyed, but its primary purpose of creating heat and
+industrial power is imperfectly served. In the effective integration of
+fuel and power it will become necessary to separate the energy-producing
+elements in bituminous coal--and also of the sub-bituminous coal, of
+lignite and peat, of which we have reserves amounting to the billions of
+tons--from those which have only a commodity value.
+
+In their report made for the Smithsonian Institution, Gilbert and Pogue
+point out that "there are in one ton of good bituminous coal, fifteen
+hundred pounds of smokeless fuel analogous to anthracite, ten thousand
+cubic feet of gas, twenty-two pounds of ammonium sulphate, two and
+one-half gallons of benzol, and nine gallons of tar" and that lignite
+gives almost as much of these commodities. Apart from the fuel values
+represented by the "smokeless fuel analogous to anthracite" the gas and
+benzol, the ammonium sulphate, and tar have unique values as
+fertilizers, and the source of those mineral elements from which our
+dyes and a large part of our modern medicines are made. The process used
+to extract these commodity values is similar to that which nature used
+in making anthracite, except that the volatile matter which the
+geological revolution drove off into the air is collected and utilized.
+
+The gas created by the process can be delivered by pipe lines over
+practically any distance to the centers of consumption, or, with the
+help of the internal-combustion engine, converted into electrical energy
+at the mine. Gas as a fuel has the great advantage that it eliminates
+both storage and haulage, and produces the same amount of heat from
+about one-half the amount of coal, and since it can be produced as
+needed all the year round it will go far to eliminate the seasonal
+character of coal mining. Moreover, wherever heat rather than light or
+power is desired, gas, in the present state of technical development, is
+even more economical than electricity. Under the by-product system the
+present annual coal output can be made to more than double its service
+in driving machinery and in addition it can be made to contribute
+heavily to our supply of fertilizers, motor fuel, and chemical
+products. It is estimated that the aggregate loss resulting from the
+present wasteful utilization of coal is over ten dollars a year for each
+inhabitant of the United States.
+
+The by-products of coal can play an important part in the fuel industry.
+Where it is thoroughly integrated they can help in financing the
+development of hydroelectricity to supplement the electricity produced
+from coal. For while the running expenses of a hydroelectric plant are
+little more than the interest on the capital invested, the amount of
+that capital is large. Also the establishment of gas plants at the mines
+is a costly thing. The temptation is to revamp and repair and reorganize
+the present outworn and wasteful system rather than make large new
+investments and scrap the old equipment. But in the commercial value of
+the by-products from bituminous coal lies the possibility of paying for
+the new power to turn our factory wheels by the sale of dyes and
+fertilizer and medicines and tar and explosives and perfumes and a
+hundred other things. So it is to the chemical laboratories that we look
+for the new values which may make a superpower system financially
+possible just as it is to the electrical workshop that we look for the
+inventions which will integrate it into one thing.
+
+But even the recovery and sale of the by-products of coal are not all
+that is involved in the new way of supplying the world with power. While
+gas can yield the full fuel value of coal in a more efficient form than
+solid fuel, as well as all the commodity values, if it is converted into
+power through the steam engine, at least one-half of its energy value is
+lost. To conserve its full value, gas must be burned in the
+internal-combustion engine, the most familiar type of which is the one
+we know under the hood of the automobile and the most efficient type is
+the Diesel engine which has made the by-product system industrially
+practical.
+
+The internal-combustion engine is a relatively simple device for
+transforming the energy in fuel into power directly instead of
+indirectly as the steam engine does, of turning wheels at first hand, of
+cutting out steam as a middleman. It greatly enlarges the range of fuel
+utilization because it can burn not only fuel gas and the lighter
+oils--gasoline, benzol, and their close kin--but also fuel alcohol, the
+supply of which though hitherto only slightly developed will last as
+long as the sun and rain make vegetation grow in the soil. Our future
+success in winning and holding an economic surplus upon which the
+opportunity for the good life and a world civilization depends, rests
+almost as largely upon the internal-combustion engine as the industrial
+revolution depended upon the steam engine of Newcomen and Watt.
+
+When the internal-combustion engine has been adequately developed, and
+that time is near at hand, it will be economically possible to establish
+the great superpower stations at the mines, to integrate the electricity
+flowing from their gas-driven dynamos with the flow from the
+hydroelectric stations on the great rivers and mountain streams, and to
+use the surplus gas and smokeless coal to supply the domestic consumer
+during the period of transition from our present wasteful fuel and power
+system to the new system which will give us heat and power with the turn
+of a button on an electric switch.
+
+In our solution of the fuel problem there must be an extension of such
+work as that of the Fuel Administration which integrated the
+administrative side of the industry as by a man in a high tower with all
+the resources and needs of the country spread beneath him. He must see
+all the sources of power as in a common reservoir--all the coal and oil
+and gas and water power--all the fuel alcohol and those subtle forces
+within the material atoms themselves which scientists dream of forcing
+to do the work of man. He must sort and deliver power to fill the need,
+this in the form of oil or gas sent through its own pipe line; this
+still in the bulky form of coal or coke by rail or water to those few
+industries which can take no substitute; and more and more of it
+transmuted into electricity and poured along the singing wires, or later
+perhaps through the pathways of the air itself, to turn the wheels of
+industry.
+
+And in addition to the actual pooling of the power resources of the
+country, there must come their intensive and economical use--economical
+by more standards than that of money alone--so that the miner who blasts
+the coal from the face, the man who sinks the oil well or runs the
+internal-combustion engine or strings the electric wires, will get in
+return for the thousands of tons of coal he has mined or the kilowatt
+hours he has generated from his dynamo, the material basis of the good
+life.
+
+This integrated industry of which the mining of coal, the projected
+superpower systems, the pumping of oil, the development of water power,
+and the organization and training of those who produce or consume power
+are essential parts, is the inevitable result of the development that
+has gone before. Just as the industrial revolution had its beginnings in
+the coordination of the steam engine, the coal mines, and the factory
+machinery, and its incentive in the drive of the acquisitive instinct to
+make existence possible; so this new industrial advance, the integration
+of the power that drives industry, is the logical result of the
+development of long-distance electric transmission, the intense
+utilization of the fuel supply, and the invention of the
+internal-combustion engine, and it may result not only in making
+existence possible but in making life good.
+
+
+
+
+                                 CHAPTER X
+
+                              THE STRAIT GATE
+
+
+Since the days when the cosmic energy of coal was first harnessed to the
+looms of England, mechanical contrivances of almost miraculous ingenuity
+have followed one another in such rapid succession that men have come to
+place undue reliance upon machinery for the solution of the difficult
+human problems that impede progress toward the good life and a worthy
+civilization. Just as the earlier generations failed in the spiritual
+preparedness necessary to the conversion of the technical triumphs of
+Newcomen and Watt, Fulton and Stephenson, and a host of others to the
+higher ends of civilization, so our generation shows a similar
+disposition to rely upon the wonder workers of mechanical science to
+save us from the disastrous consequences of muddling along in the field
+of human relations whether in industry, in the nation, or among the
+nations. But the good life is not to be won by mechanical invention
+alone. One of the outstanding lessons of the World War was that great
+inventions in the realm of the physical and chemical sciences may be
+destructive of the very civilization which it is their higher mission to
+serve. Unless we have the spiritual capacity to make the technique of
+science obedient to the commandment to love our neighbor as ourselves,
+superpower systems, high-voltage transmission, the internal-combustion
+engine, may again intensify the exploitation of man by man, the clash
+of groups for power, the brutality of international wars for
+possession.
+
+We men and women of the twentieth century have developed a complacent
+habit of priding ourselves upon our scientific open-mindedness, our
+respect for facts, our eagerness to accept the revelations of authentic
+scientific investigation and experiment. As we mount into the clouds on
+the wings of the aeroplane or catch the voice of the radio operator out
+of ethereal space, we have a tremendous sense of intellectual
+emancipation, a thrill of escape from ancient bigotries and
+superstitions. There is some warrant for this self-congratulatory
+attitude in so far as it relates to the physical sciences. We have
+reason to be proud that we have banished the primitive fears that led an
+earlier age to persecute men like Galileo for telling the truth with
+respect to the place of the earth in the stellar universe. We are
+sufficiently emancipated to know that the inventors of the dynamo, the
+turbine engine, the spectroscope, wireless telegraphy, and high-voltage
+electrical transmission are not guilty of heresy. When Steinmetz forges
+a thunderbolt and sends it crashing across his laboratory, we do not
+burn him for witchcraft. The inquirers into the nature of the atom, the
+structure of the cerebral ganglia, or the chemical composition of the
+nebulae in the Milky Way are free from medieval taboos.
+
+But unfortunately we have not developed an equally enlightened attitude
+toward the inquirers into the nature of human relations in politics or
+industry, or toward those who would apply the experimental method to the
+development and scientific reconstruction of industrial or political
+government. Terms like _trusts_, _the money power_, _trade unions_,
+_industrial autocracy_, _collective bargaining_, _socialism_,
+_bolshevism_, _private monopoly_, _public ownership_, stir all our
+ancient fears, resentments, and hates. Men may be unorthodox in the
+physical sciences; we are growing tolerant of unorthodoxy in religious
+opinion. But unorthodoxy in the realm of politics is still frowned upon.
+We still imprison men for their political and economic opinions when
+they challenge the finality of accepted institutions and especially when
+they advocate the fundamental reconstruction of accepted forms of
+political and economic government. Yet it is quite as true in the realm
+of human relations, as in that of the physical sciences, that the truth
+and the truth only can make us free. Human brotherhood can be achieved
+only through human understanding.
+
+It is a commonplace to say that the vigorous growth of democracy depends
+upon education. But much repetition has dulled the vital implications of
+the assertion. We tend to forget that a democracy that permits essential
+knowledge to be withheld from general circulation digs its own grave;
+that while men talk of emancipation and freedom, ignorance may forge
+chains for their enslavement. When any group within the community is
+permitted to treat facts essential to the development of right human
+relations as "trade secrets," education itself becomes stereotyped and
+sterile. Text-books and "lessons" become spiritually and intellectually
+empty, like the prayers which certain Eastern cults pin to wheels that
+spin idly in the wind.
+
+The authentic prophets of democracy have constantly striven to keep the
+channels of popular education free from the clogging muck of
+selfishness, superstition, and prejudice. They have had faith in the
+essential justice and ultimate wisdom of informed public opinion. Such
+men have appeared in government, among the coal owners, among the
+miners, who are the commoners of the coal industry.
+
+In 1914 the coal operators of Illinois and Indiana issued a _Statement
+of Facts_ for the enlightenment of the Government and the people. The
+normal state of the coal industry, they declared, was such as to
+"endanger the lives of the miners, waste the coal reserves, and deprive
+the operators of any hope of profit." They therefore appealed for
+"appropriate and definite governmental control" to the extent "at least
+of permitting all their activities to be known to the public." They thus
+approved of the action of Congress in creating the Federal Trade
+Commission "to gather and compile information concerning, and to
+investigate from time to time the organization, business, conduct,
+practices, and management of any corporation engaged in commerce ... and
+to make public from time to time such portions of the information
+obtained by it, except trade secrets and names of customers, as it shall
+deem expedient in the public interest." The coal operators went further
+than Congress since they made no reservations with respect to trade
+secrets. But after the armistice, the organized operators of the nation,
+through one of their members, secured an injunction restraining the
+Federal Trade Commission from prosecuting its work of investigation and
+publicity, the effect of which was to render the Federal Trade
+Commission Act null and void so far as the education of the public with
+respect to the coal industry was concerned. In the language of a
+senator, this action "tied the Government's hands and poked out its
+eyes."
+
+With a view to remedying certain of the major evils that interfered with
+the service of the coal industry to the nation, Senators Calder,
+Frelinghuysen, and Kenyon introduced bills and conducted public
+hearings. They had concluded that what Congress and the public needed to
+know if they were to legislate fairly and intelligently was the full
+truth about "ownership, production, distribution, stocks, investments,
+costs, sales, margins, and profits in the coal industry and trade." But
+in 1921, the organized operators of the country, feeling that they could
+conduct the industry most successfully without governmental supervision
+or the scrutiny of informed public opinion, opposed all attempts at
+legislation designed to accomplish the precise ends which in 1914 the
+operators of Illinois and Indiana regarded as essential to the best
+interests of all concerned. In reviewing the history of the efforts
+which he and his colleagues had made to get at and publish the facts,
+Senator Frelinghuysen reported to Congress that "though we made every
+concession that we felt justified in making, we find, after two years of
+conference and the price of coal still high, that practically all of
+these operators, organized and unorganized, are bitterly opposing the
+principle of these two bills--first, the season freight rate bill, and
+second the bill 'to aid in stabilizing the coal industry'--and have
+organized an elaborate propaganda with a view to bringing about their
+defeat.... The National Coal Association has been the chief defender of
+the coal trade since I became interested in the subject.... For a time I
+looked upon the men of this organization as fair and reasonable and I
+sympathized with their demand that the coal trade be permitted to work
+out its own salvation without Government interference, provided full
+statistics were obtainable regarding cost of production, transportation,
+and delivery to the humblest consumer. For a time they seemed willing
+to concede this. But I am finally and reluctantly convinced that my
+hope in that direction has always been a delusion."
+
+After devoting two years to a vain attempt to get at "full statistics,"
+Senator Frelinghuysen lost patience with the operators. But he forgot
+that many of their leaders still sincerely adhere to Mr. Baer's faith
+that God has entrusted the interests of the community to the owners of
+property and that congressional interference, even when limited to the
+ascertainment of statistics, is subversive not only of the status of the
+owners as trustees of the nation's fuel resources, but also of the
+public interest itself. This conviction of the operators is a fact that
+must be weighed without impatience like any fact in chemistry or
+physics.
+
+The position of many labor leaders is fundamentally the same as that of
+the operators. They have the traditional fear of the autocratic power
+which they believe to be inherent in the state. Like the operators, they
+are convinced that the public interest is best served when each and all
+of the groups within industry are left free to pursue their special
+interests with utmost aggressiveness, on the theory that the clash of
+many selfishnesses results, as by a law of nature, in the neutralization
+of selfishness and its conversion into public advantage. It is utopian
+folly, they say, to attempt to change "human nature," the dominant
+characteristic of which they hold to be the acquisitive instinct, and
+equally vain to attempt to modify the natural operation of the "law of
+supply and demand," which, in their judgment, transcends the
+"idealistic" law of service. They agree that it is unfortunate that this
+should be so, but since it is so, does it not behoove practical men to
+act accordingly? There are many men of this mind among the leaders and
+rank and file of the miners, as well as among the operators.
+
+But the creative impulse back of the organized labor movement is by
+virtue of necessity the democratic impulse, and where the democratic
+impulse is vigorous it feeds upon the consciousness of kind whose
+principal channel of growth is knowledge. In their national convention,
+held in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1919, the miners adopted a resolution
+calling upon the Government, "through Act of Congress, to acquire title
+to the coal properties within the United States now owned by private
+interests; by purchasing said properties at a figure representing the
+actual valuation of said properties, as determined upon investigation by
+accredited agents of the federal Government." They asked that "the coal
+mining industry be operated by the federal Government and that the
+miners be given equal representation upon such councils or commissions
+as may be delegated the authority to administer the affairs of the coal
+mining industry...." The stated object of the resolution was to secure
+the operation of the industry "in the interest of, and for the use and
+comfort of all of the people of the commonwealth ..." and "to prevent
+the profligate waste that is taking place under private ownership of
+these resources by having the Government take such steps as may be
+necessary providing for the nationalization of the coal mining industry
+of the United States."
+
+As to the relative merits of the policy of national ownership as
+advocated by the United Mine Workers of America, and the policy of free
+competition and unrestrained private initiative advocated by the
+organized operators, it is for the informed public ultimately to judge.
+For two years, the miners' nationalization resolution stood as the
+expression of a more or less vague aspiration, a more or less vague
+faith that public ownership would check overdevelopment and so eliminate
+the humanly demoralizing effects of intermittent production and
+irregularity of employment. Nationalization, the miners believed, would
+go far to correct the disastrous moral and physical effects of a
+situation which on an average of ninety-three days in each working year,
+deprives them of the opportunity to work.
+
+At their next national convention, held in Indianapolis in 1921, they
+themselves recognized the controversial nature of their nationalization
+policy. So they moved to less debatable ground. They created a
+Nationalization Research Committee to get at and secure the publication
+of facts. In his first public address as chairman of this
+Nationalization Research Committee, Mr. John Brophy, president of the
+organized miners in district No. 2, Central Pennsylvania, instead of
+dogmatizing about the miners' policy of public ownership and democratic
+administration as the infallible remedy for the evils of the coal
+industry, appealed to the public, the operators, and the miners "to stop
+theoretical squabbling and cooperate with us in making all facts about
+the industry available to the public. We believe in intelligently
+planned industry. We believe that the only method for the intelligent
+organization of the industry is nationalization. The employers disagree.
+In order to arrive at a decision we ask them to submit the facts to the
+American people, the only jury that has a right to pass judgment on the
+case.... We ask immediate legislation for centralized, continuous, and
+compulsory fact-finding in the coal industry."
+
+A democracy that acquiesces in its own ignorance of the elementary facts
+respecting an industry upon which, not only its own economic life, but
+also the economic life and civilized progress of the entire world so
+largely depends, betrays the high privilege and responsibility of a
+self-governing citizenship. Today neither the public nor the Government
+knows whether the coal industry is fairly capitalized, what the extent
+and value of the coal reserves are, whether depreciation and depletion
+charges are reasonable, or what are the profits and losses of the
+industry. Nobody knows whether the prices which the consumer is required
+to pay are fair and reasonable. Nobody knows precisely what the
+preventable wastes of the industry are. The annual wages of the miners
+are not subject to precise statistical statement, nor does anyone know
+the number of hours the miners work when the mines are in operation or
+the number of hours they are given opportunity to work. The statements
+we have are for the most part large averages based upon inductions from
+small cross-sections of the industry. The working conditions of the
+miners, the technical state of the organization of work underground, the
+cost of living at the more than eleven thousand mines, remain in the
+foggy realm of guesswork, estimate, and speculation. In the face of
+conditions which, as the operators of Illinois and Indiana stated in
+1914, "endanger the lives of the miners, waste the coal reserves, and
+deprive the operators of any hope of profit," the people, like the
+people's government, are ignorantly helpless. In the absence of
+essential information, the public especially at times of controversy
+within the industry is left to the mercy of prejudiced and partisan
+propaganda.
+
+"I think it is plain folly," Dr. Garfield, formerly head of the Fuel
+Administration, testified before the Senate Committee on Manufactures,
+"not to provide for a continuous finding of the facts as to the cost of
+production, as to the stocks of coal on hand, as to the working
+conditions in the mines, and as to the cost of living.... We cannot get
+along as a Government or as an industry, whether you think of it from
+the standpoint of the operators or mine workers, without knowing the
+facts, and the public is also vitally interested in these facts."
+
+The U. S. Geological Survey has in the past issued:
+
+1. Annual report on the production of coal by counties and by producing
+fields. 2. Annual report on the movement of coal, showing the state or
+locality to which coal produced in each district is shipped; and the
+origin, by producing fields, of the coal consumed in each state or
+locality. 3. Current reports at frequent intervals, showing production
+of coal, operating conditions at the mines, and the movement of coal by
+rail and by water to various consuming districts. 4. Occasional reports
+on stocks of coal in the hands of representative consumers. 5. Annual
+reports on consumption by the larger users. 6. Special reports.
+
+But while the methods to be used in these reports have been worked out,
+not all of them are being carried on permanently, the reason being lack
+of funds. The latest detailed annual report on the movement of coal is
+for 1918, and it is uncertain when another can be prepared. The current
+reports are inadequate and the reports on stocks and consumption are
+issued only at irregular intervals.
+
+Even the annual reports of production leave untouched many subjects of
+vital importance. We have no quantitative information, on a national
+scale, as to the amount of coal cleaned; the amount of mine-run, slack,
+and prepared sizes produced; the mechanical equipment of the mines; the
+depth of the coal workings; the distance the miner must traverse from
+mine mouth to working face; the dip of the coal seam; the tonnage
+produced by long-wall or room-and-pillar methods; the quantity of coal
+in the ground lost to the nation each year, in the roof, in pillars,
+because of squeezes; or the quantity lost in thin seams not now minable
+which are broken and fractured by the mining of lower seams. We do not
+know accurately how fast electrical haulage is replacing animal haulage
+underground, what progress the loading machine is making in relieving
+human backs of the labor of shoveling coal into cars. Of course, any
+operator and any miner knows of these things in a general way in his own
+locality, but such scattered, hazy, local knowledge will not suffice. We
+must have accurate information, national in scope.
+
+In the realm of the financing of coal companies the ignorance of the
+public is almost complete. We do not know the capital value of the coal
+deposits, nor the degree of concentration and control of ownership of
+mines or mineral. We do not even know who owns the coal beds. There is
+no list of the landholding companies who as landlords absorb in many
+districts the economic rent paid by the mines working favorable seams.
+We do not know the prevailing royalty rates, we do not know whether or
+not there is a soft-coal trust. The most basic of our American
+industries moves in fog by day and blackness by night.
+
+The social creeds of the Christian churches will remain the expressions
+of vague aspirations until they are supplemented by the knowledge
+essential to their concrete definition. Men and women who profess
+allegiance to the Great Commandments of Jesus have come to realize that
+the Kingdom of God on Earth, the Brotherhood of Man, cannot be built by
+fiat or verbal proclamation. The building of a worthy civilization is as
+definitely an engineering enterprise as the building of the Panama
+Canal. It demands a scientific procedure and a patient devotion as
+thoroughgoing as that which during the past two hundred years has gone
+into the development of the steam engine, the aeroplane, or high-tension
+electric transmission. The theory of nationalization, like the theory of
+collective bargaining and the traditional theory of progress by free
+competition, must each be tested, as the existing social and industrial
+order must be tested, in the light of painfully ascertained facts, and
+in terms of their effect upon the individual personality.
+
+For it is only in the light of the truth that we shall be able to build
+a civilization in which the individual personality may find full
+fruition. It is only by the aid of knowledge and human understanding
+that we shall be able to resolve the drama of civilization into a
+victory of the consciousness of kind over the warfaring acquisitive
+instinct. It is only by making the technique of science obedient to the
+Great Commandments of Jesus that we shall be able to build a
+civilization worthy of a world that moves through infinite space with
+the sun and the marching stars.
+
+
+
+
+                               WHAT TO READ
+
+                               A SELECT LIST
+
+
+  _American Economic Review_. New Haven, Conn. Supplement. March, 1921.
+
+  ARCHBALD, HUGH
+    $Four-Hour Day in Coal.$ N. Y. H. W. Wilson Co. 1922. 148 pp.
+
+  BLOCH, LOUIS
+    $Coal Miners' Insecurity;$ Facts about Irregularity of Employment in
+    the Bituminous Coal Industry in the United States. N. Y. Russell Sage
+    Foundation. 1922. 50 pp.
+
+  BROPHY, JOHN
+    See United Mine Workers of America, District No. 2, and United Mine
+    Workers of America, Nationalization Research Committee.
+
+  CAMPBELL, M. R.
+    $Coal Fields of the United States.$ Wash. Govt. Printing Office. 1917.
+    33 pp. (U. S. Geological Survey. Prof. paper. 100-4.) Map, tables,
+    diagrams.
+
+  COMMONS, J. R., ed.
+    $Trade Unionism and Labor Problems,$ 2d series. Boston. Ginn & Co.
+    1921. 838 pp.
+
+    Contains:
+    Edgar Sydenstricker. Settlement of Disputes under Agreement in the
+    Anthracite Industry. pp. 495-524.
+
+    Ethelbert Stewart. Equalizing Competitive Conditions. pp. 525-533.
+
+  COMMONS, J. R., and others
+    $History of Labour in the United States.$ N. Y. Macmillan Co. 1918.
+    2 vols.
+
+  ECKEL, E. C.
+    $Coal, Iron and War;$ A Study in Industrialism, Past and Future. N. Y.
+    Henry Holt & Co. 1920. 375 pp.
+
+  EVANS, CHRIS.
+    $History of the United Mine Workers of America from the Year 1860 to
+    1900.$ Indianapolis. United Mine Workers of America. 1920. 2 vols.
+
+  GIBBINS, H. DE B.
+    $Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.$ Phila.
+    Bradley-Garretson Co., Ltd. 1903. 524 pp.
+
+  GIDDINGS, F. H.
+    $Principles of Sociology.$ N. Y. Macmillan Co.
+
+  GILBERT, C. G., and POGUE, J. E.
+    $America's Power Resources;$ the Economic Significance of Coal, Oil and
+    Water Power. N. Y. Century Co. 1921. 326 pp.
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN. Coal Industry Commission
+    $Reports and Minutes of Evidence.$ London. H. M. Stationery Office.
+    1919. 3 vols. (Cmd. 359-361.)
+
+  HAMMOND, J. L., and BARBARA
+    $Skilled Labourer, 1760-1832.$ N. Y. Longmans, Green & Co. 1919.
+    397 pp.
+
+    $Town Labourer, 1760-1832.$ N. Y. Longmans, Green & Co. 1918. 346 pp.
+
+    $Village Labourer, 1760-1832;$ A New Civilization. N. Y. Longmans,
+    Green & Co. 1921. 342 pp.
+
+  HAPGOOD, POWERS
+    $In Non-Union Mines;$ the Diary of a Coal Digger. N. Y. Bureau of
+    Industrial Research. 1922. 48 pp.
+
+  HODGES, FRANK
+    $Nationalization of the Mines.$ N. Y. Thomas Seltzer. Prof. d. 1920.
+
+  LANE, W. D.
+    $Civil War in West Virginia;$ A Story of the Industrial Conflict in the
+    Coal Mines. N. Y. B. W. Huebsch. 1921. 128 pp.
+
+  LAUCK, W. J.
+    $Summary, Analysis and Statement Before the United States Anthracite
+    Coal Commission.$ Wash. United Mine Workers of America. 1920. 44 pp.
+
+    $The Trade Union as the Basis for Collective Bargaining,$ a Compilation
+    of Sanctions and Experiences. Wash. United Mine Workers of America.
+    1920. 171 pp.
+
+    $What a Living Wage Should Be as Determined by Authoritative Budget
+    Studies.$ Wash. United Mine Workers of America. 1920. 7 pp.
+
+  MITCHELL, JOHN
+    $Organized Labor, Its Problems, Purposes and Ideals and the Present and
+    Future of American Wage Earners.$ Phila. American Book and Bible House.
+    1903. 436 pp.
+
+  MOORE, E. S.
+    $Coal;$ its Properties, Analysis, Classification, Geology, Extraction,
+    Uses and Distribution. N. Y. John Wiley & Sons. 1922. 462 pp.
+
+  MURRAY, W. S., and others
+    $Superpower System for the Region between Boston and Washington.$ Wash.
+    Govt. Printing Office. 1921. 261 pp. (U. S. Geological Survey,
+    Professional Paper. 123.)
+
+  ROY, ANDREW
+    $History of the Coal Miners of the United States, from the Development
+    of the Mines to the Close of the Anthracite Strike of 1902.$ Columbus,
+    O. J. L. Trauger Printing Co. 1907.
+
+  SAWARD, FREDERICK W.
+    $Saward's Annual;$ a standard statistical review of the coal trade, by
+    Frederick W. Saward. N. Y. 1922. 254 pp.
+
+  SHALER, N. S.
+    $Man and the Earth.$ N. Y. Chautauqua Press. 1907. 240 pp.
+
+  SPUR, J. E., ed.
+    $Political and Commercial Geology and the World's Mineral Resources$;$
+    A Series of Studies by Specialists, 1st ed. N. Y. McGraw Book Co. 1920.
+
+    $Coal.$ By G. S. Rice and F. F. Grout. pp. 22-54.
+
+  SUFFERN, A. E.
+    $Conciliation and Arbitration in the Coal Industry of America.$
+    Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1915. 376 pp.
+
+  _Survey Graphic_. New York
+    $Coal Number.$ April, 1922.
+
+  UNITED MINE WORKERS OF AMERICA, DISTRICT NO. 2
+    $Facts!$ Clearfield, Pa. 1921. 16 pp.
+
+    $Government of Coal.$ Clearfield, Pa. 1921. 24 pp.
+
+    $Miners' Program.$ Clearfield, Pa. 1921. 6 pp.
+
+    $Why the Miners' Program?$ Clearfield, Pa. 1921. 10 pp.
+
+  UNITED MINE WORKERS OF AMERICA. Nationalization Research Committee
+    $Compulsory Information in Coal;$ a Fact-Finding Agency. Clearfield,
+    Pa. John Brophy, President, U. M. W. of A., District No. 2. 1922.
+    28 pp.
+
+  U. S. BITUMINOUS COAL COMMISSION
+    $Majority and Minority Reports.$ Wash. Govt. Printing Office. 1920.
+    120 pp.
+
+  U. S. CONGRESS. HOUSE. COMMITTEE ON LABOR
+    $Investigation of Wages and Working Conditions in the Coal-Mining
+    Industry.$ Hearings on H. R. 11022. Wash. Govt. Printing Office. 1922.
+    Vol. 1. 443 pp. Nolan Committee on Bland Bill.
+
+  U. S. CONGRESS. SENATE. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND LABOR
+    $West Virginia Coal Fields.$ Hearings pursuant to S. Res. 80. Wash.
+    Govt. Printing Office. 1921. 2 vols. (67th Cong., 1st Sess.)
+
+    $West Virginia Coal Fields.$ Personal views of Senator Kenyon and views
+    of Senators Sterling, Phipps, and Warren. Wash. Govt. Printing Office.
+    1922. 30 pp. (67th Cong., 2d Sess. S. Report No. 457.)
+
+  U. S. CONGRESS. SENATE. COMMITTEE ON INTERSTATE COMMERCE
+    $Increased Price of Coal.$ Hearings Before a Subcommittee Pursuant to
+    S. Res. 126. Wash. Govt. Printing Office. 1919. 4 vols. (66th Cong.,
+    1st Sess.) Frelinghuysen Committee.
+
+  U. S. CONGRESS. SENATE. COMMITTEE ON MANUFACTURES
+    $Publication of Production and Profits in Coal.$ Hearings on S. 4828.
+    Wash. Govt. Printing Office. 1921. 3 vols. (66th Cong., 3d Sess.) La
+    Follette Committee.
+
+  U. S. CONGRESS. SELECT COMMITTEE ON RECONSTRUCTION AND PRODUCTION
+    $Reconstruction and Production.$ Hearings pursuant to S. Res. 350.
+    Wash. Govt. Printing Office. 1921. 3 vols. (66th Cong., 3d Sess.)
+
+  U. S. FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION
+    $Cost Reports. Coal.$ June 30, 1919. Wash. Govt. Printing Office.
+    1919-1921.
+
+    $Report ... on Anthracite and Bituminous Coal.$ Wash. Govt. Printing
+    Office. 1917. 420 pp.
+
+  U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
+    $Mineral Resources of the United States.$ Wash. Govt. Printing Office.
+    1881-date.
+
+    $Weekly Report of Production.$ Wash. Geological Survey. 1917-date.
+
+  U. S. IMMIGRATION COMMISSION
+    $Reports; Immigrants in Industries.$ Wash. Govt. Printing  Office.
+    1911. Vols. 6, 7, 16.
+
+  WARNE, F. J.
+    $Coal-Mine Workers;$ a Study in Labor Organization. N. Y. Longmans,
+    Green & Co. 1905. 252 pp.
+
+  WEBB, SIDNEY and BEATRICE
+    $History of Trade Unionism.$ Rev. ed. extended to 1920. N. Y. Longmans,
+    Green & Co. 1920. 784 pp.
+
+  WEBB, SIDNEY
+    $Story of the Durham Miners (1662-1921).$ London. Fabian Society. 1921.
+    145 pp.
+
+
+                         COAL INDUSTRY--PERIODICALS
+
+_Coal Age_. (Weekly.) McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. N. Y. 10th Ave. and
+36th St. C. E. Lesher, editor.
+
+_Coal Review_. (Weekly.) Official organ of National Coal Association.
+Wash., D. C., Commercial National Bank Bldg., 14th and G Sts. John B.
+Pratt, editor.
+
+_United Mine Workers' Journal_. (Bi-monthly.) United Mine Workers of
+America. Merchants Bank Bldg. Indianapolis. Ellis Searles, editor.
+
+
+
+
+                                   INDEX
+
+
+                                                            PAGES
+     Accidents                                          44-47, 81
+     Acquisitive instinct                        9-12, 16, 18, 38
+     Agriculture                                            23-24
+     America                                                23-33
+     American Federation of Labor                           57-58
+     American miners' association                              53
+     Anthracite industry                                       54
+     Anthracite strike, 1902                     48, 62-64, 66-71
+     Arbitration and conciliation      48-49, 54-56, 58-59, 63-65
+     Associations                                           18-19
+       (See also Miners' unions; Operators' associations.)
+     Avondale disaster                                      45-46
+     Baer, George F. (quoted)                             63, 107
+     Blossburg, Pa.                                         41-42
+     Brophy, John                                             109
+     By-products of coal                                    96-99
+     Calder, William M.                                       106
+     Central competitive field                                 66
+     Child labor                                            13-15
+     Church and industry                                  50, 113
+     Civil War (U. S.)                                 37, 41, 53
+     Civilization                                           11-21
+     Clearfield, Pa.                                           56
+     Coal resources of U. S.                               26, 79
+     Coal resources of world                           8-9, 78-79
+     Collective bargaining                              54, 59-77
+     Committee on war and the religious outlook                50
+     Company stores                                         40-43
+     Consciousness of kind                            9-12, 16-21
+     Consumption of coal                                    80-81
+     Economic surplus                                2, 10-12, 15
+     England                                               22, 23
+     Exploitation of coal                              24, 27, 38
+     Fact finding                        35, 68, 105-107, 110-113
+     Federal trade commission                             35, 105
+     Finance                                                  112
+     Frelinghuysen, Joseph S.                             106-107
+     Fuel administration                             29-36, 90-91
+     Garfield, G. A. (quoted)                             30, 111
+     Geological survey                                    79, 111
+     Geology of coal                                          4-6
+     Giddings, F. H. (quoted)                                  17
+     Gilbert, Chester G. (quoted)                       83-84, 97
+     Gompers, Samuel                                        57-58
+     Government investigations                            106-107
+     Government regulation                                  27-36
+       (See also Fuel administration; Nationalization.)
+     Hammond, J. L. and Barbara (quoted)                    13-15
+     Hanna, Mark                                           55, 63
+     Hawkins, Sir John                                         13
+     Hazards                                            44-47, 81
+     Hoover, Herbert (quoted)                                  34
+     Immigrant miners                                          42
+     Imperialism                                               25
+     Industrial democracy                                   50-53
+     Industrial revolution                          2, 6-9, 22-23
+     Inventions                                            8, 102
+     Isolation                                                 40
+     Kenyon, William S.                                       106
+     Knights of labor                                      57, 61
+     Lane, Franklin K.                                         91
+     Leeky, W. E. H. (quoted)                                  13
+     Lesher, C. E. (quoted)                                 31-32
+     Lloyd, Thomas                                             53
+     Management                                                76
+     McBride, John                                             59
+     Mine inspection                                        44-48
+     Miners                                                 13-15
+     Miners' job                                            43-44
+     Miners' national association                           54-58
+     Miners' unions                              20, 38-49, 52-65
+     Mining law                                             44-48
+     Mining towns                                              40
+     Mitchell, John                                         61-65
+     National civic federation                                 63
+     National coal association                            72, 107
+     National federation of miners and mine laborers           59
+     Nationalization                                  77, 108-110
+     Natural gas                                            87-88
+     Operators                                         46-47, 105
+     Operators' associations                       72-75, 106-107
+     Overdevelopment                                    27-28, 59
+     Parsons, Floyd W. (quoted)                                79
+     Pennsylvania, Secretary of internal affairs               43
+     Petroleum                                              83-87
+     Pogue, Joseph E. (quoted)                          83-84, 97
+     Population and coal                                      7-8
+     Power                                         80, 88, 90-101
+     Power distribution                                        80
+     Public opinion                                        42, 44
+     Public utility, coal as a                          31-32, 64
+     Railroad administration                                31-32
+     Railroads                                      28, 31-32, 80
+     Rend, W. P.                                               59
+     Roosevelt, Theodore                         48, 63-64, 66-67
+     Roy, Andrew (quoted)                           39, 42, 44-45
+     Rushmore, D. B. (quoted)                                  79
+     Scrip                                                     42
+     Sherman law                                           73, 77
+     Shortage of coal                                          29
+     Siney, John                                        54-56, 58
+     Smith, G. O. (quoted)                                     80
+     Solar power                                                1
+     "Statement of facts"                                     105
+     Steel industry                                         65-66
+     Steinmetz, Charles P. (quoted)                            88
+     Strikes                          40-41, 48, 62-64, 66-71, 75
+     Superpower plan                               92-96, 100-101
+     Transportation of coal                         28, 31-32, 80
+     Tryon, F. G. (quoted)                                 27, 77
+     Unemployment                                              81
+     United mine workers of America                61-77, 108-109
+     War                                                    2, 26
+     Wastes                             26, 38, 59, 76, 80-82, 96
+     Water power                                               88
+     Weaver, Daniel                                         52-53
+     Webb, Beatrice and Sidney (quoted)                     50-51
+     West Virginia                          40, 48, 61, 65-66, 74
+     Wilson, William B.                                        63
+     Wilson, Woodrow                                           71
+     Workingmen's benevolent association                       54
+
+                     *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p 42: But curious sports -> sorts
+  p 60: that the wide-spread -> widespread
+  p 115: HAMMOND, J. L., -> [comma added]
+  p 115: Town Labourer, -> [semicolon changed to comma]
+  p 121: Naturalization -> Nationalization
+  p 121: McBride, John -> shift after Management
+  p 122: Parsons, Floyd W. -> shift after Overdevelopment
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Coming of Coal, by Robert W. Bruere
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