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Title: Type
       Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices #1

Author: A. A. Stewart

Release Date: June 10, 2011 [EBook #36372]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ASCII

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TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART I. NO. 1




  TYPE

  A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT THE
  MECHANICAL FEATURES OF PRINTING
  TYPES: THEIR SIZES, FONT SCHEMES, &c.
  WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF
  THEIR MANUFACTURE

  COMPILED BY
  A. A. STEWART


  PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
  UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
  1918



  COPYRIGHT, 1918
  UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
  CHICAGO, ILL.

  Composition by
  PUPILS IN THE TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING
  NORTH END UNION, BOSTON




PREFACE


This treatise is the first of a series of text-books, published under
the general title of _Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices_,
which have been prepared under the auspices of the Committee on
Education of the United Typothetae of America, for the use of
printers' apprentices and students of typographic printing.

As will be noted by the table of contents, only the mechanical
features of type and the usual methods of its manufacture have been
considered here. No attempt has been made to review the history of
type-faces or the development of type-making processes. These phases
of the subject are considered in other publications of the series (see
p. 36) and in supplementary reading recommended for students (p. 28).

It is not what they are but what they can be made to do under the
control of trained intelligence and skilful hands that makes printer's
types of importance to the world. No tools used in modern industry
seem simpler than these little pieces of metal, yet they are the
product of the most highly specialized skill and ingeniously perfected
mechanisms. To the young printer their physical elements are matters
of first concern. An understanding of these elements may be only a
small part of his trade education, but it is important. The
possibilities and the limitations of type can be appreciated only by
thorough familiarity with the technical details and niceties provided
by the modern typefounder.

A special feature of this series of technical publications is the list
of Review Questions, which will be found at the end of each treatise
(see pp. 29-31). These questions cover the essential points in each
subject and will be of assistance to instructors, for examinations,
etc. A list of the other titles of the series, as well as a statement
of their plan and scope, will be found on pp. i-vii of this
publication.




CONTENTS

                               PAGE

  FEATURES OF A TYPE              7

  A FONT OF TYPE                  9

  SCHEME FOR JOB FONT            11

  SCHEME FOR 100-LB. FONT        12

  THE SIZES OF TYPE              13

  LINING TYPE FACES              16

  KERNED TYPES                   18

  SPACES AND QUADS               19

  HOW TYPE IS MADE               20

  THE LINOTYPE                   23

  THE MONOTYPE                   25

  INGREDIENTS OF TYPE METAL      26

  WOOD TYPE                      27

  SUPPLEMENTARY READING          28

  REVIEW QUESTIONS               29

  GLOSSARY OF TERMS              32




MECHANICAL FEATURES OF TYPE


Printing owes its development first and chiefly to movable metal
types. The so-called invention of printing was the discovery of a
method of making serviceable type in quantity. The idea of a separate
type for each letter of the alphabet was probably conceived long
before Gutenberg's time, but it remained for him and his associates to
devise an apparatus for making them quickly and accurately enough to
be of practical value. That apparatus was the type mold, which
experience has since proved to be the most efficient means of securing
exactness and uniformity in a number of small pieces of metal.

Type is made of an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony. Its length
(technically called height-to-paper) is .918 of an inch. Each type is
cast separately in a mold, and has the letter or printing character in
bold relief on one end.

[Illustration]

Exact uniformity of body is necessary in order that the types, when
composed in lines and pages, may be locked together by pressure at the
sides so as to make a compact mass. All types in a printing form must
be of the same height, so that their faces may present a uniformly
level surface from which an impression may be made that will show all
the characters clearly. A short type will print faintly or will not
print at all, while a long one will be unduly forced into the sheet.

[Illustration]

There are on an average about one hundred and fifty roman letters and
other characters required in ordinary book printing. These letters are
divided into a number of classes: full-body letters, ascending
letters, descending letters, short letters; and in some cases, small
capitals, which are larger than short letters but not so tall as
capitals or ascenders. Only a few letters, like J and Q, cover
nearly the entire surface on the end of the type; other letters, like
B h l i, cover the upper portion chiefly and leave a blank space at
the bottom; while the small letters, like a e o u v, occupy only the
middle portion of the surface; still others, like g y p, cover the
middle and lower portions of the surface. As all these irregular
shapes must be made to appear in line with each other, the type-body
on which they are made is larger than the letter. The blank parts
around the face of a letter are called the counter, the shoulder, and
the beard. The counter is the shallow place between the lines of the
face. The shoulder is the low flat part of the type around the face.
The beard is the sloping part between the face and the shoulder.

[Illustration:
  A A, the face
  B B, the serifs
  C C, the counter
  E, the pin-mark
  F F, the beard
  G, the shoulder
  H, the nick
  J J, the feet
  K, the groove]

An important feature of a type is the nick on the side of the body. In
many cases there may be two, three, or even four nicks on a type.
Usually all the types of a font have nicks that are identical in
number and position, and when the types are composed in lines these
nicks match each other and form continuous grooves on the lower part
of the line of type.

The nicks serve as guides to the compositor when taking the type from
the case to his composing stick, and they assist in distinguishing the
types of one font or face from those of another on the same size of
body.[1] Individual letters of different type faces sometimes bear
such close resemblance that they are more readily distinguished by
the nick or some other body-mark than by the face. A difference in
alignment of nicks in a line will readily show the presence of a
wrong-font letter. Typefounders sometimes make an extra nick on a few
small-capitals (o s v w x z) in order to distinguish these types from
the lower-case letters of the same font.


_A Font of Type_

A font of type is an assortment of one size and kind that is used
together. It is usually all the type in the composing-room of a
certain kind matching in body, nick, and face. A small font may be
held in one case, but several cases may be required for a font of
large quantity.

An ordinary font of roman type for book work will include these
characters:

_Roman Capitals_--
  A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AE [OE]

_Small Capitals_--
  A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AE [OE]

_Lower-case Letters_[2]--
  a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae [oe]
  [fi] [fl] [ff] [ffi] [ffl]

_Figures_--
  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 (or oldstyle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0)

_Marks of Punctuation_--Period . comma , colon : semi-colon ; hyphen -
apostrophe ' exclamation mark ! question mark ? parenthesis ( bracket [
The latter two are used in pairs () [], the second type being set in
reversed position.

_Quotation Marks_ are made by two inverted commas " at the beginning
and two apostrophes " at the end of the quoted matter. In some fonts
there is a double mark |"| |"| cast on single bodies, but these are
not often used.

_Dashes_--En - em -- two-em ---- three-em ------

_Reference Marks_--Asterisk or star * dagger [Symbol: dagger] double
dagger [Symbol: double dagger] section [Symbol: section] parallel ||
paragraph [Symbol: pilcrow] index (hand, or fist) [Symbol: right hand]

_Braces_--Two-em [Graphic: two-em brace] three-em [Graphic: three-em
brace] pieced braces [Graphic: pieced brace] made on em bodies, which
may be extended more or less with dashes [Graphic: longer pieced brace]

The dollar-mark $, short-and (or round-and) &, and sterling pound-mark
L are also included with all full fonts.

The character [ct] is an old-style ligature (two joined letters cast
on one type) made in some fonts of old-style faces. It is one of the
many letter combinations formerly common, in imitation of the work of
old manuscript writers.

Many styles of roman types have italic letters to match, but the
italic fonts include only capitals, lower-case, figures, and
punctuation marks:

_Italic Capitals_--
  _A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AE [OE]_

_Italic Lower-case_--
  _a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae [oe]_

_Italic Figures_--
  _1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0_ (_1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0_)

_Italic Points, etc._[3]--
  _. , : ; - ' ! ? ) $ &_

Small capitals are not made for italic fonts, except in rare cases.
When they are needed in composition, capitals of a smaller size of
type are justified into the text line.

Other extra characters, not included in ordinary fonts but which may
be added when required, are accented letters (a e e [=i] [=o] u etc.),
fractions 3/4 5/13 etc.), mathematical signs (+ x / = etc.),
superior (^{ab 42}) and inferior (_{ab 12}) letters and figures,
leaders (............), commercial signs (@ [Symbol: lb bar] [Symbol:
per sign] [Symbol: account of] c), and many other characters for
special kinds of printing.

Fonts of advertising, jobbing, and display types usually consist
of the capitals, lower-case letters, figures, and points, with
occasionally a few extra characters. For many recent styles of heavy
faces the founders furnish fractions, accented letters, and other
special characters to match in boldness of face, but these are not
included in ordinary letter-fonts.

The quantity of each character apportioned to a regular font is the
estimated average required for ordinary composition in the English
language. It is rare that more than a fraction of a small font can
be used in any piece of composition. No general scheme can meet the
needs of every kind of work; tables and statistical matter will need
extra figures, directories and other lists will call for surplus
capitals, dialogue matter will need more than the usual portion of
commas and apostrophes for quote-marks; even plain descriptive
composition will often call for extra "sorts." For these and other
peculiar kinds of composition extra quantities of some characters,
as well as other material, must be provided.

Ordinary roman and other faces used in large quantities are measured
by weight. The proportion of letters in a 100-pound font, showing
the proportions of each character, is given on the next page.
Miscellaneous faces used in small quantities are put up in fonts
containing a certain number of each letter, the size of the font
being designated by the number of capital A's and lower-case a's
it contains.

_Scheme for 15-A 30-a Job Font of 12-Point[4]_

  +------------+------------+---------------+
  |  CAPITALS  | LOWER-CASE |     POINTS    |
  |  A     15  |  a     30  | period     31 |
  |  B      6  |  b     12  | comma      31 |
  |  C     10  |  c     16  | colon       6 |
  |  D      8  |  d     18  | semi-colon  6 |
  |  E     18  |  e     40  | hyphen      9 |
  |  F      7  |  f     12  | apostrophe 13 |
  |  G      7  |  g     12  | !           9 |
  |  H      8  |  h     20  | ?           8 |
  |  I     15  |  i     30  | (           6 |
  |  J      5  |  j      8  |               |
  |  K      5  |  k      8  |    FIGURES    |
  |  L     10  |  l     20  |               |
  |  M      8  |  m     16  |  1          5 |
  |  N     15  |  n     30  |  2          4 |
  |  O     15  |  o     30  |  3          4 |
  |  P      8  |  p     12  |  4          4 |
  |  Q      3  |  q      6  |  5          4 |
  |  R     15  |  r     30  |  6          4 |
  |  S     15  |  s     30  |  7          4 |
  |  T     15  |  t     30  |  8          4 |
  |  U      8  |  u     16  |  9          5 |
  |  V      5  |  v      8  |  0          6 |
  |  W      6  |  w     12  |  $          4 |
  |  X      3  |  x      6  |  L          1 |
  |  Y      6  |  y     12  |               |
  |  Z      3  |  z      6  |               |
  |  &      6  | [fi]    3  |               |
  |            | [fl]    3  |               |
  |            | [ff]    3  |               |
  |            | [ffi]   2  |               |
  |            | [ffl]   2  |               |
  +------------+------------+---------------+

A WEIGHT FONT

_Proportion of Letters &c. in 100 lb. of Roman Type_

  +-----------+------------+--------------+--------------------+
  | CAPITALS  | SMALL CAPS.|  LOWER CASE  |  FIGURES           |
  |     _oz_  |      _oz_  |    _lb_ _oz_ |           _oz_     |
  | A   8-1/2 | A    2-1/2 | a     4    6 | 1           8      |
  | B   5     | B    1-1/2 | b     1    - | 2           6-1/2  |
  | C   7-1/2 | C    2     | c     1   14 | 3           5-1/2  |
  | D   6-1/2 | D    2     | d     3    - | 4           5      |
  | E  10     | E    3-1/2 | e     6    8 | 5           6-1/2  |
  | F   5     | F    1-1/2 | f     1    1 | 6           5      |
  | G   5-1/2 | G    1-1/2 | g     1    4 | 7           5      |
  | H   6-1/2 | H    2     | h     3    8 | 8           5      |
  | I   6     | I    1-3/4 | i     2   12 | 9           5      |
  | J   4-1/2 | J    1-1/4 | j     -    5 | 0          10      |
  | K   4     | K    1-1/4 | k     -    8 |             2      |
  | L   6     | L    2     | l     1    8 | L             1/2  |
  | M   7-1/2 | M    2-1/4 | m     2   10 |             -----  |
  | N   7-1/2 | N    2-1/2 | n     4    6 |             4_lb_  |
  | O   7-1/2 | O    2-1/2 | o     4    4 |                    |
  | P   6     | P    1-3/4 | p     1    6 |      POINTS        |
  | Q   2-1/2 | Q      3/4 | q     -    5 |          _lb_ _oz_ |
  | R   8     | R    2-1/4 | r     3    5 | period      1    - |
  | S   8     | S    2-1/4 | s     3    6 | comma       1    8 |
  | T   9     | T    2-1/2 | t     3   12 | colon       -    2 |
  | U   5     | U    1-1/2 | u     2    2 | semi-colon  -    3 |
  | V   3-1/2 | V    1     | v     -   14 | hyphen      -    9 |
  | W   7     | W    2     | w     1   10 | apostrophe  -    4 |
  | X   2     | X      3/4 | x     -    5 | !           -    2 |
  | Y   4-1/2 | Y    1-1/4 | y     1    4 | --          -    3 |
  | Z   2     | Z      1/2 | z     -    4 | (           -    2 |
  | AE     3/4 | AE      1/4 | ae     -    1 | [           -    1 |
  | [OE]  3/4 | [OE]   1/4 | [oe]  -    1 |             ------ |
  | &   3-1/2 | &    1     | [fi]  -    5 |             4    4 |
  |    ------ |      ----- | [ff]  -    4 |                    |
  |    10_lb_ |      3_lb_ | [ffi] -    4 | SPACES AND QUADS   |
  |-----------+------------| [fl]  -    3 |          _lb_ _oz_ |
  |                        | [ffl] -    3 | hair        -    2 |
  |    TOTALS      _lb_    |      ------- | 5-to-em     -   10 |
  | Capitals        10     |      58   12 | 4-to-em     1    - |
  | Small capitals   3     |              | 3-to-em     6    - |
  | Lower-case      58-3/4 |              | en-quad     2    4 |
  | Figures          4     |              | em   "      1   10 |
  | Points           4-1/4 |              | 2-em "      4    2 |
  | Spaces          20     |              | 3-em "      4    4 |
  |   and Quads    ------- |              |             ------ |
  |                100_lb_ |              |             20_lb_ |
  +------------------------+--------------+--------------------+

Weight fonts of body type are usually put up by the founders in
sections or parts of fonts as given in the above summary of totals,
so that one or more of these sections may be obtained to supplement
a font already in use.

It will be noted that braces, dashes, and reference-marks are omitted
in the above list. These characters, like fractions, commercial signs,
etc., are not now considered parts of ordinary fonts, but are put up
in separate packages and must be specially ordered when wanted.

Font schemes apportioned in quantities like the foregoing are more or
less closely adhered to for original packages of foundry-cast type. To
insure precision, when ordering, it is necessary to state not only the
quantity (by number of letters or weight) but also whether a complete
font or part of a complete font (capital font, lower-case font, or
figure font) is referred to.


_The Sizes of Type_

All printing type has, first, a name denoting its size, and second,
one denoting the style of its face. For instance, the type used for
the text of this book is 10-point (its size) Lining Caslon Oldstyle
(the foundry name of its face).

[Illustration]

The _size_ of a type is the vertical thickness of its body--the
thickness of a line up and down the page. The width of a type is its
_set_. Thus a 12-point en-quad is 12-point body and 6-point set, a
10-point figure of the thickness of an en quad is 10-point body and
5-point set, etc. The total length of a type, including feet and face,
is its _height-to-paper_.

American type sizes conform to a graduated scale known as the point
system. The unit of the system is a division of space called a
_point_, which is .0138+ (approximately 1/72) of an inch. Type bodies
are multiples of this point.

The usual sizes are graduated by points up to 12-point. Sizes above
18-point are multiples of 6-point up to 60-point (18, 24, 30, 36, 42,
48, 54, 60). Larger sizes are 72-point, 84-point (rare), 96-point,
120-point, and 144-point, the latter being the largest type commonly
cast in a mold.

[Illustration:

     Agate ABCDEFGHIJKLMabcdefghijklmnop
   6-point ABCDEFGHIJKabcdefehijklmnopqrstw
   8-point ABCDEFabcdefghijklmnop
  10-point ABCDEabcdefghijklmr
  12-point ABCDEabcdefghi
  14-point ABCDabcdghi
  18-point DEFcdjklu
  24-point BCabyc
  30-point Bangl
  36-point Bats
  42-point Bld
  48-point Ht

The above squares show one em of the sizes stated. The letters show
the size of face made on the body.]

In addition to the small sizes shown in the accompanying illustration,
there are some intermediate sizes like 5-1/2-point and 4-1/2-point,
and type as small as 3-point has been made. These are rare, however,
as type smaller than 5-1/2-point is not practicable for extended use.
These small sizes are employed for special purposes, like miniature
editions of books (parts of the Bible, prayer books, etc.) cut-in
notes, piece-fractions, small borders, special characters, and
occasional words or lines that are required to be put in the smallest
possible space. The size of type known as agate (fourteen lines to an
inch) is considered the common standard of measurement for newspaper
and magazine advertising space.

Many plain types for books, periodicals, etc., are made only in small
sizes. Certain faces are made in a few sizes only, while others are
made in more or less complete series from 6-point to 48-point. The
irregular sizes of 5-1/2-point, 7-point, 9-point, and 11-point are
mostly roman faces, with companion italics, and a few bolder styles
for headings and other display in combination with romans of the same
body. Many new faces are now made by founders in graded series from
6-point to 72-point, and in some cases even larger. Type faces adapted
to many kinds of work are made in nearly all the regular sizes, while
those faces designed for small and dainty work, like personal and
society cards and stationery, are made only in the smaller sizes of
the list.

Types are now often cast with faces larger or smaller than is commonly
made on the body, such as a 12-point face on 10-point body, giving the
effect of compactness; or an 8-point face made on a 10-point body,
which gives a lighter appearance as if opened with 2-point leads.
These are known as bastard types. Because of this irregularity in the
faces of types it is difficult to know the exact body-size of a type
by merely examining a printed sheet.

Borders, ornaments, florets, and decorative characters cast on
type-bodies are now made mostly in sizes based on the 6-point as
the unit (6, 12, 18, 24-point, and larger multiples), but 8-point,
10-point, and 14-point sizes are sometimes used.

Before the adoption of the point system, type sizes were named in
a haphazard way. Arbitrary names were given to certain sizes and in
many cases types of the same name made by different founders varied
so much in size that they could not be used together without great
inconvenience to the printer. Some of these old names still survive
and are applied to the point-system bodies which approximate the old
sizes.


  POINT SIZE   OLD NAME

  3-point      excelsior
  4-point      brilliant
  4-1/2-point  diamond
  5-point      pearl
  5-1/2-point  agate
  6-point      nonpareil
  7-point      minion
  8-point      brevier
  9-point      bourgeois
  10-point     long primer
  11-point     small pica
  12-point     pica
  14-point     english
  16-point     columbian
  18-point  {  great primer
            {  three-line nonpareil
  20-point     paragon
  22-point     two-line small pica
  24-point     two-line pica
  28-point     two-line english
  32-point     two-line columbian
  36-point     two-line great primer
  40-point     two-line paragon
  44-point     meridian
  48-point     canon, four-line pica

While these old names and their sizes are now nearly obsolete, young
printers should learn the names and associate them with their
corresponding sizes of the point system. In the foregoing list there
are several intermediate sizes (16, 20, 22, 28, 32, 40, 44-point)
rarely used for type of recent design. Fonts of these odd sizes may
be sometimes found, and there has been a size of 15-point made, but
little used. These odd sizes are, however, mostly old faces, scripts,
and black-letter, originally cast on old bodies and later, after the
introduction of the point system, made on new point-bodies which are
nearest to their original sizes.

The point system has been applied to the width of types, as well as
to the body-size; that is, the set of each type is fixed at a given
number of points or fraction thereof. This method simplifies in a
degree the process of accurate justification, as each line, though
containing various letters and spaces, is composed of the same number
of units. An advantage over the old method of unrelated widths is in
the saving of time in composition, by reducing the number of different
widths in the characters of the alphabet. By the old method each type
had its own special width; in a complete font there might be a hundred
or more different widths. By the modern point system those characters
which are nearly alike in width are made on the same set, or, if
different, the variation is governed by the standard unit.


_Lining Type Faces_

American founders have adopted the practice of casting type-faces on
uniform lining systems, variously known as American line, standard
line, uniform line, etc. The earlier practice was to cast the type of
a font so that the letters would align at the bottom only with their
mates of the same font, without reference to any other face of type.
When the compositor had occasion to use two or more different faces of
type in the same line, these faces were rarely in even alignment, but
were irregularly high or low, as shown in the accompanying example
[A]. This lack of uniformity made it necessary when a different
face was used in the line, as is often required in jobbing and
advertisements, to use thin leads, cards, or pieces of paper above and
below different parts of the type-line in order to get the faces in
line--an operation more or less troublesome and expensive. By the
modern lining system, the faces made on any given size of body are
cast to align with each other, as shown in the second example [B].
These different faces require no more adjustment than if they were
all of one font.

[Illustration:
  Showing irregular alignment of faces, the old method.
  Showing exact alignment of different faces, the modern way.]

On different sizes of type the shoulder, or blank space, at the bottom
of the letter increases gradually with the size of the type, so that a
word of small type placed beside a larger size must have some spacing
material below as well as above to keep it in its right alignment.
This necessary difference in the face-alignment of various sizes is
graduated by points, in the lining system, so that when more than one
size type is used in the same line the justification is made by using
point-body leads. This makes the use of slips of card and paper
unnecessary and secures greater accuracy and solidity of the composed
page.

[Illustration: 30-point to 6-point lined up with 1-point]

Faces of radically different style are not, however, all cast on the
same alignment, but are classified into three groups. One group
embraces the majority of type-faces, those having capitals and small
letters, g y p j. Another group embraces fonts of capitals only,
mostly faces known as title letters and combination lining faces
which, having no descenders, may be made lower on the body. A third
group includes those faces having long descenders, like script types,
which must be placed high on the body.

[Illustration:
  These types show letters cast on [A] the common line, [B] title line,
  [C] script line.]

A common class of "lining" types for job work are the combination
series, or those having two or more sizes of face (capitals only) cast
on bodies of the same size. Each face is made to line with the others
on the same body, and all the faces are readily used in combination,
with a single size of spaces and quads. In order that the type of each
face may be readily distinguished, the nicks are varied in number or
position--a single nick for one face, two nicks for another, etc.

[Illustration: AMERICAN LINING SYSTEM]

_Kerned Types_

When the face of a letter is so large that it projects over the
type-body, it is known as a kerned type. Letters of this kind are
common in italic and script fonts, and there are a few letters, like
f and j, in some oldstyle roman fonts which have the tip of the letter
overhang. Kerned types are a source of trouble because of the ease
with which these projections break off during composition, proofing,
etc. Yet they cannot be entirely dispensed with, especially in italic
and script faces having a definite slope, where the long letters would
have wide gaps on the side (as shown in the script line above) if they
were cast on bodies wide enough to hold the entire face. In some
styles of upright faces having extra long descending letters g, p, q,
y, these descenders may be kerned.

[Illustration:
  s l o p i n g sloping
  Showing why some letters must be made on kerned types.]

[Illustration:
  Large italic letters are sometimes mortised at the
  corners, instead of kerned, to allow the next letter to fit close.]

Modern type-makers try, by changing the shape of the letters slightly,
to avoid kerns as much as possible, because of the extra care and
expense involved in casting. Too often, unfortunately, this avoidance
of the kern, in order to meet mechanical convenience, is secured by
sacrificing the distinctive form of the letter.


_Spaces and Quads_

Short metal spaces and quads (from _quadrat_, a square), used for
blanks between words and elsewhere, are of various thicknesses, as
illustrated below. An em is a square of type body of any size. This
10-point em [Symbol: hollow square] is ten points square; a 10-point
three-to-em space is one third of the em, a four-to-em is one fourth,
etc. The en quad is really a thick space, though called a quad, and
is equal to half the em. Larger blanks are the two-em and three-em
quads, used to fill the last lines of paragraphs and other wide spaces.

[Illustration: 10-POINT SPACES AND QUADS
  hair space
  five-to-em
  four-to-em
  three-to-em
  en-quad
  em-quad
  two-em
  three-em]

The metal blanks shown here are the regular spaces and quads belonging
to a font of type of the size of 10-point. They enable the compositor
to obtain the many different spacings required to make lines the
required length, and to properly separate words and place them
wherever desired in the line. While these thicknesses of spaces are
the usual kinds for sizes of type up to 12-point, larger types may
have other kinds of spaces, six-to-em, eight-to-em, and even smaller
divisions. The thickness of the hair space does not always bear the
same proportion to the em quad; in some sizes it is one sixth of the
em, in others it may be one eighth or one twelfth. Very thin spaces
(copper 1/2-point, brass 1-point), for exact spacing and justifying,
are supplied by dealers.

A space of the thickness intermediate between the three-to-em and the
en quad, known as a patent space, has been made for use in book work.
Although it has great advantage as a substitute for two of the thinner
spaces when these are needed in spacing a line, its use has been
limited and it is not included with the usual assortment furnished by
dealers.

The common spaces and quads for general work, when the type itself is
used for printing, are about seven-eighths of the height of the type,
so that they are well below the printing surface. A type-page composed
with these spaces will have a little deep hole at the top of each
space. These numerous little holes present a difficult surface for
making a good wax mold when an electroplate is made for printing.
Where much molding is to be done, higher spaces, quads, and other
blanks are provided. These high spaces and quads reach nearly to the
shoulder of the type.


_How Type is Made_

[Illustration:
  Solid lines indicate one half of the mold. Dotted lines show the other
  half in position. Shaded portion represents type metal filling aperture
  in the mold. The molten type metal flows through the opening at A, down
  to the side B, where the matrix (not shown in this diagram) molds the
  face of the type. The tag of metal, called the jet, marked C, is cut
  off after casting. D is a narrow flange on the mold which forms the
  nick on the under surface of the type body.]

The mold in which type is cast consists of two essential parts--the
steel box in which the body is formed, and the matrix which contains
a sunken image of the character. The matrix covers the opening at one
end of the mold, and on the opposite end (which is the foot of the
type) is an opening through which the melted metal is injected. A mold
is made for a single body-size of type but it is adjustable sideways
to correspond to the various widths of the letters in an alphabet. One
mold may be used to cast, in succession, all the letters of a font of
type, or it may be used to cast any number of fonts of different faces
that may be made on the same body, by merely changing the matrices
that form the face. The mold is made in two sections, which are
fitted together so as to close up to the required width of the letter,
and, after the cast is made, to open slightly in order to release the
type.

[Illustration: Matrix]

_The Matrix._ There are three different methods of making type
matrices. By the oldest method the first step is to cut the character
on the end of a small bar of soft steel, called a punch; when this is
done, the steel is hardened and it is used to stamp an impression in a
bar of copper. This copper bar is a matrix in the rough, and its sides
are next trimmed and squared so that it will fit the mold.

[Illustration:
  Type-mold complete, in two parts, but without the matrix (which is
  shown separately above). Position of the matrix when cast is made
  is indicated by the letter H on the end of the type within the mold.
  The upper and lower halves of the mold slide horizontally, to make
  the interior casting-box wide or narrow to conform to the required
  widths of various letters.]

The second method of making a matrix is by electrotype process. The
original pattern of the letter may be engraved by hand or by other
operation, or it may be a perfect type-face of a previous casting.
This is fitted into a small frame of brass and then held in the vat
of an electro-galvanic battery, which deposits a thick film of copper
around the pattern and fills the opening in the brass frame. When this
electro-plating process is completed, the pattern letter is extracted
and the brass frame, with its copper impression of the letter, becomes
the essential feature of the matrix. It is then reinforced by riveting
another plate on the back, and is trimmed and fitted to place on the
mold.

A third process of making matrices is with an automatic matrix-cutting
machine, in which the shape of the desired letter is cut in the face
of a plate of composition metal by a small rapidly-revolving cutting
point. A large pattern of the letter is placed in one part of the
machine, and while the operator traces the outline with the point of a
lever all the motions are duplicated in miniature by the cutting tool
on the bar of metal, which becomes, when completed, a matrix.

_Casting the Type._ The old-time method of casting type was with hand
molds, the melted metal being poured in at the foot of the mold with a
small ladle while the mold was held in the hand. In the modern casting
machine, the mold with its matrix, is assembled by the side of the
metal pot, in which the metal is kept at a uniform temperature by
means of a gas furnace.

In the center of this metal pot is a rod with a spring attachment
which, at each operation of the machine, acts as a plunger to force a
small stream of hot metal through a side aperture into the jet-hole
of the mold. After the casting, the two parts of the mold separate
slightly, the matrix is drawn away from the face of the type, and the
cast is moved out; then the mold and matrix close together again and
the operation is repeated. Cold water or air is circulated near the
mold to keep an even temperature. The matrix for one character only
is placed in the machine and when enough types have been cast, it is
taken out and replaced by another, the change usually requiring but
a few moments.

There are several kinds of type-casting machines in use, such as hand
casters, steam casters, and automatic casters. The older style is
the hand caster, which is operated by a small wheel with a handle
attached. Steam casters are operated by mechanical power (originally
steam power).

When type is cast by a hand machine it is unfinished, as a piece of
metal called the jet still adheres to the bottom of each type. This
jet is broken off, and the types are set in long lines and fastened
in a narrow channel, face down. A small plane smooths away the rough
surface caused by breaking off the jet. This leaves a shallow groove
on the bottom of each type and allows it to stand squarely on its
feet. The types also have slight burs and sharp edges of metal which
must be rubbed off before they are ready for inspection and for the
font-room. Type cast on the older "steam" machines require the jet to
be broken off after the casting, and the final finishing of the type
is done afterward by other operations. These finishing touches are
done mostly by hand, with the aid of a polishing stone or a small
dressing wheel.

On the automatic machine, which is the modern method of casting type,
breaking off the jet, rubbing, dressing, etc., are all accomplished
automatically on the machine, the types coming out in a continuous
line practically ready for the compositor's case.

       *       *       *       *       *

The foregoing describes in a general way the methods of making type
by the regular founders. There is now a great deal of type made by
automatic composing and casting machines installed directly in many
composing rooms.

Two distinctive styles of these machines are now extensively used--the
Linotype and the Monotype. Both of these have reached a high degree of
efficiency because of their nice mechanisms, based on the principle of
automatically operated molds, matrices, and delivery devices.

In the Linotype the matrices for a desired line of words are assembled
side by side and the line is cast in one piece.

In the Monotype the mechanism automatically and rapidly adjusts the
matrix of the desired letters one at a time over the mold, and each
type is cast and moved along into lines and then into a column on a
galley.


_The Linotype_

The Linotype (line-o'-type) consists of a mechanism for assembling
brass dies or matrices in lines, presenting them in front of a mold
in which a type-high metal bar, or slug, is cast, and returning the
matrices to their respective channels for use again. The brass
matrices have the characters of the alphabet, figures, points, etc.,
sunk into their edges; these are held in a magazine, which is an
arrangement of channels in an inclined position above a keyboard. By
the pressing of a key the required matrix is released, which drops and
is carried into place by a small belt. Wedge-shaped space-bands are
also controlled by a key, and when sufficient matrices and space-bands
are assembled to make the line a bell rings. By operating a lever the
line of matrices then moves in front of the mold inserted in the side
of a wheel and behind which is a pot of melted metal.

[Illustration: Four-Magazine Linotype Machine]

By the next operation the space-bands are pushed between the words,
thus spreading them to the measure. The line justified, a plunger in
the metal-pot forces a quantity of metal into the mold and against the
line of matrices, forming a metal strip or slug with the letters in
relief on one edge. After the cast is made, a turn of the mold-wheel
and other mechanism shaves off the surplus metal on the foot of the
slug and pushes it between knife-edges, where it is trimmed on the
sides, and is then pushed on to a galley. The melting of the metal is
done by a small gas furnace under the metal-pot.

After the matrices have been used for the line they are lifted by an
arm to the top of the machine and distributed again, each character
in its particular channel in the magazine. The matrices for each
character have a set of notches or teeth different from every other
character; and as they are moved along the distributing apparatus by
horizontal screws each matrix reaches a point where its notches are
matched and it drops into the top of its channel. There are a number
of matrices of each character, and the arrangement of the machine
is such that three lines of matrices may be kept in operation at
once--one being assembled, one at the casting mold, and the third
being distributed.

The work of the operator is to manipulate the keyboard and, at the end
of each line, move a lever which engages the mechanism that carries
the assembled line to the mold. All other operations are performed by
mechanical power.


_The Monotype_

[Illustration: Monotype Keyboard]

The Lanston Monotype is a type-casting machine which produces separate
types set in lines of any length, up to sixty ems pica, spaced and
justified. It is in two parts--a keyboard and a casting machine. The
function of the keyboard section is to punch a series of holes in a
moving strip of paper, which unwinds from one spool to another,
passing under a series of punches in its journey. The punches are
operated by pressing the keys on the keyboard, the result of this
operation being a roll of perforated paper ribbon. This ribbon is then
taken to the casting machine, which contains a pot for melted metal, a
stationary mold for the size of type to be cast, and a matrix-plate.
The matrix-plate is about five inches square, and has on its face
depressed images or matrices of each letter and character of the font.
The perforated strip of paper, when fed to its place, controls the
movement of the matrix-plate, so that the required letter is adjusted
exactly in place over the mold, while the melted metal is squirted in
to form the type. The type then moves away and takes its proper place
in the line, until the line is completed, when it is automatically
moved out on to a galley.

The Monotype keyboard, being an entirely separate machine, may be and
usually is operated in any place away from the casting apparatus and
work may be executed on it anytime before casting. The perforated roll
may be fed through any number of times to produce duplicate castings
of the matter, and a matrix-plate for a different face may be used if
desired. In the casting of the line the proper spaces are cast with
it, the spacing needed to justify each line being indicated on the
perforated record during composition on the keyboard.

[Illustration: Monotype Casting Machine]

A peculiarity of Monotype composition is that, while the keyboard
produces the perforated roll in the usual sequence from beginning to
end of the story, the casting machine reverses the process by starting
at the end of the composition and finishing up with the beginning.


_Ingredients of Type Metal_

The metal used for casting type is a mixture of lead (five parts),
antimony (two parts), tin (one part), and sometimes a small addition
of copper. Lead forms the chief part of all type metal, as it melts
easily and fuses readily with other metals; but lead alone is too
soft for the service required of type. Antimony is brittle and gives
hardness, and tin is added to impart toughness. Lead and antimony in
approximately these proportions make an alloy which has the unusual
quality of expanding slightly, instead of shrinking, when cooling,
thus permitting a full, sharp cast in all parts of the mold. Tin flows
readily when melted and increases the smoothness of the cast on the
surface of the mold. A small quantity of copper may sometimes be added
to give still greater toughness.

The metal used for small sizes of type is commonly harder than that
used for the large sizes, the softness of the metal gradually
increasing with the size of type made. Script types and faces with
delicate lines are usually cast with metal a little harder than that
used for the normal and bolder faces.

The foregoing refers more particularly to type cast by the regular
foundries. The metal used in automatic casting machines, like the
Monotype, contains a larger proportion of lead and less antimony;
while the metal used for casting line-slugs in the Linotype machine is
composed of still larger proportion of lead and very little of the
other two metals. Stereotype metal and metals used for leads, slugs,
furniture, etc., are largely lead.


_Wood Type_

Large types, such as are used for posters and large bills, are made of
wood. The smallest size for practical use is 48-point, or 4-line pica.
Sizes of wood type are multiples of the pica, and are so named, as
8-line, 10-line, etc. They are much cheaper than metal types, though
not as durable or satisfactory for printing. The wood commonly used is
maple, and the letter is made on the end of the grain. It must be well
seasoned and polished. Pine and other soft woods are used for very
large sizes of wood type and poster engravings.

The manner of cutting the letter is by routing away the blank parts
with a small rapidly-revolving cutter. The strip of wood, large enough
to make several letters, and planed type-high, is placed in a machine
equipped with a pantagraph apparatus. A pattern letter is put in
place, and over this a guide-point is moved. On another part of the
machine is the revolving cutting tool. As the guide-point is moved
over the pattern its motions are duplicated on the block under the
cutting tool, which cuts away the wood. When the letters on a block
are thus routed out, they are sawed apart, the finishing touches
given, and the letters oiled.




SUPPLEMENTARY READING


  The Invention of Printing. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald
    Publishing Co., New York. Cloth, 557 pp. $6.

  Plain Printing Types. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publishing
    Co., New York. Cloth, 476 pp. $2.

  The Monotype System. Published by the Lanston Monotype Machine
    Co., Philadelphia. 294 pp. and diagrams.

  The Mechanism of the Linotype. By John S. Thompson. The Inland
    Printer Co., Chicago. 216 pp. $2.

  History of Composing Machines. By John S. Thompson. The Inland
    Printer Co., Chicago. Cloth, 557 pp. $2.

  Specimen Books of American Type Founders Co.; H. C. Hansen,
    Boston; Barnhart Brothers & Spindler, Chicago; Keystone Type
    Foundry, Philadelphia.




REVIEW QUESTIONS


SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS

The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are
intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an
aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite
statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of
securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own
words.

A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full
acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental
omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed
that nothing should be omitted.

In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions
and such others as may occur to the teacher, should be made the basis
of frequent written work, and of final examinations.

The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only
assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge
correctly and in good form.

If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form
it will be doubly useful.


QUESTIONS

 1. What was the so-called invention of printing?

 2. What was Gutenberg's contribution to printing?

 3. Describe a type.

 4. Upon what does the utility of type depend? Why?

 5. How many different characters are required in ordinary book
    printing?

 6. Into what classes are they divided?

 7. How much of the surface of a type is covered by the letter?

 8. How is the type body related in size to the letter face? Why?

 9. What are the blank parts around the face of the letter called?

10. Describe each part.

11. What is the nick and what is its use?

12. What is a font of type?

13. In what is it kept for the compositor's use?

14. What characters are included in an ordinary font of roman type
    for book work?

15. What can you say about small capitals?

16. What can you say about other extra characters?

17. What characters do fonts of advertising and jobbing type include?

18. Name some other characters supplied by the foundries?

19. What determines the number of characters of the various sorts in a
    font of type?

20. Is there any rule fitting all kinds of composition?

21. Mention some special kinds of composition and tell what extra
    sorts each demands.

22. How are ordinary faces measured when used in large quantities?

23. How are job fonts designated?

24. To what kind of type do these schemes apply?

25. What are the three measurements for type?

26. What is the "size" of a type?

27. What is the "set" of a type?

28. Describe the point system.

29. What are the usual sizes of type?

30. What other sizes are made and for what are they used?

31. What determines the choice of sizes for any particular face?

32. What are bastard types?

33. Can you always tell the size of type used by examining a printed
    page? Why?

34. What is meant by height-to-paper?

35. How were types described before the adoption of the point system?

36. Give the old names in common use and the approximate equivalents
    in points.

37. What can you say of 16, 20, 22, 28, and 40-point sizes?

38. What are the advantages of the application of the point system to
    the width of type?

39. What is meant by "lining" type faces?

40. What is the chief advantage of the lining system?

41. What is needed when a word of small type is placed beside a word
    of large type? Why?

42. How is the line justified?

43. Into what groups are type faces divided for aligning purposes?

44. What are "combination series" of lining types?

45. What are kerned types?

46. How is kerning avoided?

47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these expedients?

48. What is an em quad?

49. Describe the spaces used in type composition.

50. Describe the mold used in type casting.

51. Describe the three methods of making the matrix.

52. What was the old method of casting type?

53. What is the modern method?

54. Describe the different kinds of type-casting machines.

55. Describe the finishing of type after casting.

56. How is type made outside the type foundries?

57. What is a Linotype?

58. What does a Linotype produce?

59. Describe briefly the operation of a Linotype.

60. How are Linotype matrices distributed?

61. What does the operator have to do?

62. What is a Monotype?

63. What does a Monotype do?

64. What are the essential differences between a Monotype and a
    Linotype?

65. Describe the operation of the Monotype keyboard.

66. Describe the operation of the casting machine.

67. What peculiarity has the Monotype?

68. What is type made of?

69. What are the qualities of the several ingredients?

70. What can you say of the uses of different metals in the type
    foundries?

71. What sort of type metal is used in composing machines?

72. What other material is used for type?

73. For what purpose is it used?

74. How is this kind of type made?




GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO TYPE

The numbers in parentheses refer to preceding pages in the text, where
further information about the different subjects may be found.


AGATE--A small size of type, about 5-1/2-point. (14)

ASCENDING LETTERS--The tall letters of the lower-case alphabet. (7)

ANTIMONY--One of the ingredients of type-metal; a silver-white, hard
crystalline metallic substance, used in chemistry and medicine, as well
as in industrial arts. (26)

BASTARD TYPES--Those with faces larger or smaller than is commonly made
on a type-body. (15)

BEARD--The beveled space below the face of a type. (15)

BODY--The piece of metal upon which the face is cast. (7, 8, 13)

BODY SIZE--The size of a type considered from top to bottom of the
letter. (13)

BODY TYPE--The kinds of type, mostly roman faces, used for plain
composition in paragraphs or pages of one face; text letter.

BORDERS--Characters cast in type, which may be adjustable in many ways,
as for marginal lines, panels, and other decorative uses. (15)

BOURGEOIS--An old size of type, about 9-point.

BRASS TYPE--For stamping book covers, etc. Ordinary type-metal cannot
endure the heat which must be applied for stamping gold leaf, or
printing on hard, rough surfaces. Brass types are more expensive as well
as more durable.

BREVIER--An old size of type nearly equal to 8-point. (15)

CANON--An old size of type approximately 48-point. (15)

CAP.--Abbreviation for capital letter; s.c. or sm.cap., small capital.

COPPER-FACED TYPE--New type coated by electric action, depositing a thin
film of copper, to make it more durable.

COPPER THIN SPACES--Extra thin spaces for justifying lines. (19)

CORNER QUADS--Blanks cast in this shape [Symbol: thick right angle]
matching 6-point and 12-point quads; placed outside the corners of
pages with mitered brass rules to keep the joints in place.

COUNTER--The blank space within the lines of a letter or other
character. (8)

DESCENDING LETTERS--Those which have part of the face below the regular
alignment, g, p, y. (8)

DIAMOND--A small size of type, equal to about 4-1/2-point. (15)

DISPLAY TYPE--A general term meaning the kinds of type made for
advertising, title pages, and other composition in which different sizes
and faces are used; in distinction from body type.

EM--The square of a type body. En, half the width of the square. (19)

EXTENDED, EXPANDED--An extra wide face of type.

FACE--That part of a type or printing surface which leaves its
impression upon the sheet. (8)

FEET--The bottom of the type body. (8)

FONT--A complete assortment of type of one size and face. (9)

FURNITURE--A general term applied to pieces of soft metal, steel, or
wood, used to fill the large blank spaces in a printing form; made in
different sizes based upon a 12-point (pica) unit.

GREAT PRIMER--An old size of type nearly equal to 18-point. (15)

HAIR SPACES--Very thin spaces. (19)

HEIGHT-TO-PAPER--The length of a type from top to bottom, including feet
and face. This is not measured by points, but by thousandths of an inch.
See Type-high. (7, 13)

HIGH SPACES AND QUADS--Used in type composition when the page is to be
molded for electrotyping. (20)

HIGH-TO-LINE--When the face of a type is above the regular alignment of
the other letters in the line; when below the alignment it is
low-to-line. (17)

HOLLOW QUADS--Large blanks are sometimes cast with hollow parts to make
them lighter and to economize metal. See Quotations.

ITALIC--The style of letters that _slope forward_, in distinction from
upright, or roman, letters. (10)

JET--The waste metal at the bottom of a type when it is first cast,
being the metal which cools in the aperture of the mold. (22)

JOB FONT--A small assortment of type. (11)

JOB TYPE--The kinds used for miscellaneous work, usually in small fonts,
in distinction from book type, body letter, etc.

KERNED TYPES--Those which have a small part of the face projecting over
the body. (18)

LAYING TYPE--Putting a font of type into cases.

LEADERS--Dots or short dashes placed at intervals in open lines to guide
the eye, as in indexes, price-lists, etc. They are cast like quads for
sizes of type most used. Leaders are also made of brass.

LETTER--Sometimes this word is used to mean type. Letter-press printing,
that done with type. Letter foundry, a type foundry.

LINING TYPE--The exact alignment at top or bottom of the face on a
type-body. (16-18)

LINOTYPE--A machine for casting type in solid lines. (23)

LONG PRIMER--An old size of type nearly equal to 10-point. (15)

LOW-TO-PAPER--Said of a type when it does not come up to the height of
its mates; opposite of high-to-paper. (7)

LOW SPACES AND QUADS--Those used for ordinary composition, about
seven-eighths of the length of the type. (20)

LOWER-CASE--The small letters of the alphabet. (9)

MATRIX--The shallow mold in which the face of a type is cast. (21)

MINION--An old size of type, about 7-point. (15)

MONOTYPE--A machine for casting and composing type. (25)

MORTISED TYPE--When some part of the body is cut away, either in the
interior or on the sides, to allow the insertion of another letter, or
to fit closer to an adjoining type. (18)

MUSIC TYPE--An assortment of characters cast in type for printing
music scores.

NICK--The notch on the side of a type. (8) In fonts made for use on the
Unitype composing machine each character has nicks in different
position and combination from every other character, to fit its
special channel, in order to control the various characters in the
operation of the machine. Thus the nicks in a line of Unitype matter
show great irregularity.

NONPAREIL--Old name for size of type equal to 6-point; half pica (15)

OFF ITS FEET--Type must stand squarely upright in order to give a good
impression; when it leans one way or the other it is off its feet.

PARAGON--An old size of type, about 20-point (15)

PATENT SPACE--A type space thicker than three-to-em and less than the
en-quad. (19)

PEARL--An old size of type, about 5-point. (15)

PI--Types of different kinds mixed up in confusion.

PICA--Old name, but still commonly used, for a size of type equal to
12-point. (15) A common unit of measurement in typography.

PIECE FRACTIONS--Fractions made up of two or more types; the numerator
and denominator cast separately, usually on bodies half the size of the
whole numbers or the type with which they are used. Sometimes called
split fractions.

PIN-MARK--The little mark sometimes seen on the side of foundry-made
type. (8)

POINT SYSTEM--The standard system of type bodies, based on the point as
a unit; in America the point is .0138 of an inch. Calculations are
simplified ordinarily by assuming the point as 1/72 of an inch. (13)

POSTER TYPE--Large sizes for billboard printing, mostly made of wood.
(27)

PUNCH--In typefounding, an original die of a letter or character cut
on the end of a steel bar, used to make a matrix. (21)

QUADS--Metal blanks used for large spaces in composing type. (19)

QUOTATIONS--Large hollow quads; similar to metal furniture.

RUBBER TYPE--Cast with a vulcanized-rubber face mounted on short metal
bodies; not used in ordinary typographic printing, but classed with
rubber hand stamps.

SCRIPT--A general name for that class of type designed to imitate
handwriting. (18)

SECTIONAL TYPE--A style of type now in disuse, in which each letter was
made in two parts, the upper half being separate from the lower. Any
letter or character cast in two or more parts.

SERIF--The short cross-line or tick at the end of the main strokes in
roman letters. (8)

SET--The width of a type. (13)

SHOULDER--The blank space on the top of a type not covered by the
letter; specifically, the space above and below the letter, the space on
the side being designated by typefounders as side-bearings. (8)

SMALL CAPS--A secondary set of capitals made for fonts intended for book
work. They are slightly larger than the small (lower-case) letters, but
smaller than the regular capitals. See the side-headings in this
glossary. (9, 10, 12)

SMALL PICA--An old size of type nearly equal to 11-point. (15)

SPACES--Thin metal blanks used to separate words in a line. (19)

SORT--Any particular letter or character of a font, in distinction from
the complete assortment. "Out of sorts," when some needed letters of a
font are missing.

SORT ORDER--A request for some particular character of a font.

TWO-LINE LETTER--A large letter covering two lines of the adjoining
text, used for initials at the beginning of paragraphs. Two-line
figures, used for displaying price-figures in advertisements, etc.

TYPE-HIGH--Of the standard height of type; said of an electrotype or
engraving that is the right height to accompany type. (7)

TYPE METAL--A composition of lead, tin, and antimony. (26)

TYPOGRAPHY--The process of printing with forms composed of movable types
and small relief blocks.

WEIGHT FONT--A complete assortment of type measured by its weight
instead of by the number of each letter. (12)

WEIGHT OF TYPE--Four square inches of type, composed solid, weigh
approximately one pound. Thus, to find the weight of any given amount of
type composition, find the number of square inches and divide by four.

One pound of type (about 4 square inches) contains the following number
of ems (solid) of the different sizes:

  18-point    64 ems
  12-point   144 ems
  11-point   170 ems
  10-point   207 ems
  9-point    256 ems
  8-point    324 ems
  7-point    423 ems
  6-point    576 ems




TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES


The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC
TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the
supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of
America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction,
and by individuals.

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group
of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide
the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and
apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive
compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various
branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in
orderly fashion for progressive study.

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their
general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far
as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the
particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be
found under each title in the following list.

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody
in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary
information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the
subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and
clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the
understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever
practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have
been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for
use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is
accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of
the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to
the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.

Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED
TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.


PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_

1. =Type: a Primer of Information=                      By A. A. Stewart

     Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes,
     font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture.
     44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.

2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials=                   By A. A. Stewart

     A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads,
     brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.;
     illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary.

3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture=               By A. A. Stewart

     A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets,
     case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.;
     illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary.

4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances=             By A. A. Stewart

     Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the
     press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59
     pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary.

5. =Proof Presses=                                      By A. A. Stewart

     A primer of information about the customary methods and machines
     for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review
     questions; glossary.

6. =Platen Printing Presses=                             By Daniel Baker

     A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical
     construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand
     press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on
     automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review
     questions; glossary.

7. =Cylinder Printing Presses=                       By Herbert L. Baker

     Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types
     of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review
     questions; glossary.

8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders=               By William E. Spurrier

     The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines;
     with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review
     questions; glossary.

9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses=             By Carl F. Scott

     A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and
     allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53
     pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary.

10. =Paper Cutting Machines=                           By Niel Gray, Jr.

     A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever
     cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting
     paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.

11. =Printers' Rollers=                                 By A. A. Stewart

     A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and
     care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions;
     glossary.

12. =Printing Inks=                                     By Philip Ruxton

     Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by
     permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of
     Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the
     everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review
     questions; glossary.

13. =How Paper is Made=                      By William Bond Wheelwright

     A primer of information about the materials and processes of
     manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated;
     62 review questions; glossary.

14. =Relief Engravings=                             By Joseph P. Donovan

     Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of
     engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for
     reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings.
     Illustrated; review questions; glossary.

15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping=  By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart

     A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and
     stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions;
     glossaries.


PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_

16. =Typesetting=                                       By A. A. Stewart

     A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying,
     spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting.
     Illustrated; review questions; glossary.

17. =Printers' Proofs=                                  By A. A. Stewart

     The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with
     observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions;
     glossary.

18. =First Steps in Job Composition=                   By Camille DeVeze

     Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first
     jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make
     good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions;
     glossary.

19. =General Job Composition=

     How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and
     miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.

20. =Book Composition=                                 By J. W. Bothwell

     Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition,"
     revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W.
     Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of
     pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525
     review questions; glossary.

21. =Tabular Composition=                               By Robert Seaver

     A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples
     of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review
     questions.

22. =Applied Arithmetic=                                By E. E. Sheldon

     Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade,
     calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard
     tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with
     examples and exercises. 159 pp.

23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines=            A. W. Finlay, Editor

    Section I--The Linotype                         By L. A. Hornstein
    Section II--The Monotype                        By Joseph Hays
    Section III--The Intertype                      By Henry W. Cozzens
    Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting
                Machines                            By Frank H. Smith

     A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their
     mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review
     questions; glossary.


PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_

24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press=                  By Frank S. Henry

     Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and
     about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions;
     glossary.

25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press=           By Frank S. Henry

     Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods
     of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review
     questions; glossary.


PART IV--_Presswork_

26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses=                     By T. G. McGrew

     The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive
     features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan,
     regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting
     gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions;
     glossary.

27. =Cylinder Presswork=                                 By T. G. McGrew

     Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers,
     ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and
     overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions;
     glossary.

28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps=                     By Charles L. Dunton

     Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with
     directions and useful information relating to a variety of
     printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions.

29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts=          By A. W. Elson

     A primer of information about the distinctive features of the
     relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing.
     84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary.


PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_

30. =Pamphlet Binding=                            By Bancroft L. Goodwin

     A primer of information about the various operations employed in
     binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated;
     review questions; glossary.

31. =Book Binding=                                     By John J. Pleger

     Practical information about the usual operations in binding books;
     folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case
     making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and
     blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.


PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_

32. =Word Study and English Grammar=                   By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about words, their relations, and their
     uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.

33. =Punctuation=                                      By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their
     use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review
     questions; glossary.

34. =Capitals=                                         By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical
     typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review
     questions; glossary.

35. =Division of Words=                                By F. W. Hamilton

     Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks
     on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review
     questions.

36. =Compound Words=                                   By F. W. Hamilton

     A study of the principles of compounding, the components of
     compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.

37. =Abbreviations and Signs=                          By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with
     classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review
     questions.

38. =The Uses of Italic=                               By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about the history and uses of italic
     letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions.

39. =Proofreading=                                     By Arnold Levitas

     The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking,
     revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by
     examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.

40. =Preparation of Printers' Copy=                    By F. W. Hamilton

     Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in
     preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions.

41. =Printers' Manual of Style=

     A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions
     relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization,
     abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition.

42. =The Printer's Dictionary=                          By A. A. Stewart

     A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about
     various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical
     terms explained. Illustrated.


PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_

43. =Applied Design for Printers=                       By Harry L. Gage

     A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on
     the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of
     harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and
     variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46
     review questions; glossary; bibliography.

44. =Elements of Typographic Design=                    By Harry L. Gage

     Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building
     material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and
     illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book,
     treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units.
     Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography.

45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing=                    By Harry L. Gage

     Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster
     effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with
     process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and
     chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value,
     intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory
     of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full
     color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary;
     bibliography.

46. =Lettering in Typography=                           By Harry L. Gage

     Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect.
     Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence
     on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering.
     Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully
     illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography.

47. =Typographic Design in Advertising=                 By Harry L. Gage

     The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which
     advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis,
     legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising
     typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary;
     bibliography.

48. =Making Dummies and Layouts=                        By Harry L. Gage

     A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a
     proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout.
     Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy
     envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography.


PART VIII--_History of Printing_

49. =Books Before Typography=                          By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the
     history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.;
     illustrated; 64 review questions.

50. =The Invention of Typography=                      By F. W. Hamilton

     A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about.
     64 pp.; 62 review questions.

51. =History of Printing=--Part I                      By F. W. Hamilton

     A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the
     development of the book, the development of printers' materials,
     and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.

52. =History of Printing=--Part II                     By F. W. Hamilton

     A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry
     from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship,
     internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review
     questions.

53. =Printing in England=                              By F. W. Hamilton

     A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present
     time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions.

54. =Printing in America=                              By F. W. Hamilton

     A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes
     on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.;
     84 review questions.

55. =Type and Presses in America=                      By F. W. Hamilton

     A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and
     press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.


PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_

56. =Elements of Cost in Printing=                    By Henry P. Porter

     The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
     show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
     Glossary.

57. =Use of a Cost System=                            By Henry P. Porter

     The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should
     show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions.
     Glossary.

58. =The Printer as a Merchant=                       By Henry P. Porter

     The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing.
     The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of
     the finished product. Review questions. Glossary.

59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating=            By Henry P. Porter

     The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for
     estimating. Review questions. Glossary.

60. =Estimating and Selling=                          By Henry P. Porter

     An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their
     relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary.

61. =Accounting for Printers=                         By Henry P. Porter

     A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary
     books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.


PART X--_Miscellaneous_

62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety=                  By Henry P. Porter

     Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new;
     practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and
     rules for safety.

63. =Topical Index=                                    By F. W. Hamilton

     A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic
     Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.

64. =Courses of Study=                                 By F. W. Hamilton

     A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for
     classroom and shop work.




ACKNOWLEDGMENT


This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid
co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the
printing business and its allied industries in the United States of
America.

The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America,
under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published,
acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by
the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work.

While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of
those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that
a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest.

The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who
have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes,
constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books
comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which
the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be
printed in each volume.

The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many
subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication.

  COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION,
  UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA.

    HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_,
    E. LAWRENCE FELL,
    A. M. GLOSSBRENNER,
    J. CLYDE OSWALD,
    TOBY RUBOVITS.

  FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_.




CONTRIBUTORS


For Composition and Electrotypes

  ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
  S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
  J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass.
  THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y.
  R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill.
  GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass.
  EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich.
  FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa.
  F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass.
  STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
  W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill.
  J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
  MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa.
  THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York
  THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass.
  POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill.
  EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
  THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va.
  C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb.
  THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass.

For Composition

  BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass.
  WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
  THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
  OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass.
  TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill.

For Electrotypes

  BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill.
  FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y.
  C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass.
  ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa.
  H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass.

For Engravings

  AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass.
  C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I.
  GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass.
  HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass.
  INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill.
  LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa.
  MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y.
  GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass.
  OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y.
  THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass.
  B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass.
  THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill.

For Book Paper

  AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass.
  WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y.




Footnotes:

[1] In old or much-used fonts to which additions have been made after
the first supply, the new letters, being cast later in a different
mold, may often show a difference in the position or the number of
nicks. In cases of this kind the apprentice should observe carefully
and inquire before deciding that a type with a different nick does not
belong to the font.

[2] The small letters are called lower-case by printers, because they
are commonly kept in the lower case of a pair on the case-stand.

[3] The period, comma, hyphen, apostrophe, and occasionally some other
character (such as the $) are often the same in both roman and italic
fonts that are intended as companion faces.

[4] Job fonts are usually put up by founders in two sections, one
containing capitals, figures, and points; the other lower-case, with a
small portion of points. Diphthongs AE [OE] ae [oe] are not now included
in job fonts, and many advertising type fonts do not include the
lower-case ligatures [fi] [ff] [fl] [ffi] [ffl].




[Transcriber's Note: The original printed text contains a significant
number of characters which are not included in standard ASCII or
ISO-8859-1 encodings. Those glyphs are represented in this file either
as square-bracketed sets of letters (for accents or ligatures), or
as square-bracketed type/description pairs, e.g. [Symbol: per sign].
These limitations are not present in the HTML version of this document,
which uses numeric entities of the Unicode characters which accurately
represent these glyphs as printed in the original.]







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