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diff --git a/36092.txt b/36092.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dde77a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/36092.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2423 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of North Devon Pottery and Its Export to +America in the 17th Century, by C. Malcolm Watkins + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: North Devon Pottery and Its Export to America in the 17th Century + +Author: C. Malcolm Watkins + +Release Date: May 13, 2011 [EBook #36092] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORTH DEVON POTTERY *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + + + + + North Devon Pottery + and its Export to America + in the 17th Century + + + _by C. Malcolm Watkins_ + + + Paper 13, pages 17-59, from + + CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM + OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY + + UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM + + Bulletin 225 + + SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION . WASHINGTON, D.C., 1960 + + + + + CONTRIBUTIONS FROM + THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY: + PAPER 13 + + + NORTH DEVON POTTERY AND ITS EXPORT + TO AMERICA IN THE 17TH CENTURY + + _C. Malcolm Watkins_ + + + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--North Devon sgraffito cup, deep dish, and jug +restored from fragments excavated from fill under brick drain at +May-Hartwell site, Jamestown, Virginia. The drain was laid between 1689 +and 1695. Colonial National Historical Park.] + + + + +By C. Malcolm Watkins + + +NORTH DEVON POTTERY AND ITS EXPORT TO AMERICA IN THE 17th CENTURY + + _Recent excavations of ceramics at historic sites such as Jamestown + and Plymouth indicate that the seaboard colonists of the 17th century + enjoyed a higher degree of comfort and more esthetic furnishings than + heretofore believed. In addition, these findings have given us much + new information about the interplay of trade and culture between the + colonists and their mother country._ + + _This article represents the first work in the author's long-range + study of ceramics used by the English colonists in America._ + + THE AUTHOR: _C. Malcolm Watkins is curator of cultural history, United + States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution._ + + +Pottery sherds found archeologically in colonial sites serve a multiple +purpose. They help to date the sites; they reflect cultural and economic +levels in the areas of their use; and they throw light on manufacture, +trade, and distribution. + +Satisfying instances of these uses were revealed with the discovery in +1935 of two distinct but unidentified pottery types in the excavations +conducted by the National Park Service at Jamestown, Virginia, and later +elsewhere along the eastern seaboard. One type was an elaborate and +striking yellow sgraffito ware, the other a coarse utilitarian kitchen +ware whose red paste was heavily tempered with a gross water-worn gravel +or "grit." Included in the latter class were the components of large +earthen baking ovens. Among the literally hundreds of thousands of sherds +uncovered at Jamestown between 1935 and 1956, these types occurred with +relatively high incidence. For a long time no relationship between them +was noted, yet their histories have proved to be of one fabric, reflecting +the activities of a 17th-century English potterymaking center of +unsuspected magnitude. + +The sgraffito pottery is a red earthenware, coated with a white slip +through which designs have been incised. An amber lead glaze imparts a +golden yellow to the slip-covered portions and a brownish amber to the +exposed red paste. The gravel-tempered ware is made of a similar +red-burning clay and is remarkable for its lack of refinement, for the +pebbly texture caused by protruding bits of gravel, and for the crude and +careless manner in which the heavy amber glaze was applied to interior +surfaces. Once seen, it is instantly recognizable and entirely distinct +from other known types of English or continental pottery. A complete oven +(fig. 10), now restored at Jamestown, is of similar paste and quality of +temper. It has a roughly oval beehive shape with a trapezoidal framed +opening in which a pottery door fits snugly. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--Sketch of sherd of sgraffito-ware dish, dating +about 1670, that was found during excavations of C. H. Brannam's pottery +in Barnstaple. (_Sketch by Mrs. Constance Christian, from photo._)] + + +Following the initial discoveries at Jamestown there was considerable +speculation about these two types. Worth Bailey, then museum technician at +Jamestown, was the first to recognize the source of the sgraffito ware as +"Devonshire."[1] Henry Chandlee Forman, asserting that such ware was +"undoubtedly made in England," felt that it "derives its inspiration from +Majolica ware ... especially that of the early Renaissance period from +Faenza."[2] + +Bailey also noted that the oven and the gravel-tempered utensils were made +of identical clay and temper. However, in an attempt to prove that +earthenware was produced locally, he assumed, perhaps because of their +crudeness, that the utensils were made at Jamestown. This led him to +conjecture that the oven, having similar ceramic qualities, was also a +local product. He felt in support of this that it was doubtful "so fragile +an object could have survived a perilous sea voyage."[3] + +Since these opinions were expressed, much further archeological work in +colonial sites has revealed widespread distribution of the two types. +Bailey himself noted that a pottery oven is intact and in place in the +John Bowne House in Flushing, Long Island. A fragment of another pottery +oven recently has been identified among the artifacts excavated by Sidney +Strickland from the site of the John Howland House, near Plymouth, +Massachusetts; and gravel-tempered utensil sherds have occurred in many +sites. The sgraffito ware has been unearthed in Virginia, Maryland, and +Massachusetts. + +Such a wide distribution of either type implies a productive European +source for each, rather than a local American kiln in a struggling +colonial settlement like Jamestown. Bailey's attribution of the sgraffito +ware to Devonshire was confirmed in 1950 when J. C. Harrington, +archeologist of the National Park Service, came upon certain evidence at +Barnstaple in North Devon, England. This evidence was found in the form of +sherds exhibited in a display window of C. H. Brannam's Barnstaple Pottery +that were uncovered during excavation work on the premises. These are +unmistakably related in technique and design to the American examples. A +label under a fragment of a large deep dish (fig. 2) in the display is +inscribed: "Piece of dish found in site of pottery. In sgraffiato. About +1670." This clue opened the way to the investigation pursued here, the +results of which relate the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and +the ovens to the North Devon towns and to a busy commerce in earthenware +between Barnstaple, Bideford, and the New World. + +This study, conducted at first hand only on the American side of the +Atlantic, is admittedly incomplete. Later, it is planned to consider sherd +collections in England, comparative types of sgraffito wares, and possible +influences and sources of techniques and designs. For the present, it is +felt the immediate evidence is sufficient to warrant the conclusions drawn +here. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--Map of the area around Bideford and Barnstaple. +Reproduced from J. B. Gribble, _Memorials of Barnstaple_, 1830.] + + +The author is under special obligation to J. C. Harrington, chief of +interpretation, Region I, National Park Service, who discovered the North +Devon wares and whose warm encouragement led to this paper. Also, the +author is greatly indebted to the following for their help and +cooperation: E. Stanley Abbott, superintendent, J. Paul Hudson, curator, +and Charles Hatch, chief of interpretation, Colonial National Historical +Park; Worth Bailey, Historic American Buildings Survey; Robert A. Elder, +Jr., assistant curator, division of ethnology, U.S. National Museum; Miss +Margaret Franklin of London; Henry Hornblower II and Charles Strickland of +Plimoth Plantation, Inc.; Ivor Noel Hume, chief archeologist, Colonial +Williamsburg, Inc.; Miss Mildred E. Jenkinson, librarian and curator, +Borough of Bideford Library and Museum; Frederick H. Norton, professor of +ceramics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and Mrs. Edwin M. Snell +of Washington. + + + + +Historical Background + + +Barnstaple and its neighbor Bideford are today quiet market centers and +summer resorts. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, by contrast, they +were deeply involved in trade with America and with the whole West of +England interest in colonial settlement. Bideford was the home of Sir +Richard Grenville, who, with Sir Walter Raleigh, was one of the first +explorers of Virginia. As the leading citizen of Bideford, Grenville +obtained from Queen Elizabeth a modern charter of incorporation for the +town. Consequently, according to the town's 18th-century chronicler, +"Bideford rose so rapidly as to become a port of importance at the latter +end of Queen Elizabeth's reign ... when the trade began to open between +England and America in the reign of King James the First, Bideford early +took a part in it."[4] Its orientation for a lengthy period was towards +America, and the welfare of its inhabitants was therefore largely +dependent upon commerce with the colonies. + +In common with other West of England ports, Barnstaple and Bideford +engaged heavily in the Newfoundland fishing trade. However, "the principal +part of foreign commerce that Bideford was ever engaged in, was to +Maryland and Virginia for tobacco.... Its connections with New England +were also very considerable."[5] + +During the first half of the 18th century Bideford's imports of tobacco +were second only to London's, but the wars with France caused a decline +about the year 1760.[6] Barnstaple, situated farther up the River Taw, +followed the pattern of Bideford in the rise and decline as well as the +nature of its trade. Although rivals, both towns functioned in effect as a +single port; Barnstaple and Bideford ships sailed from each other's +wharves and occasionally the two ports were listed together in the Port +Books. As early as 1620 seven ships, some of Bideford and some of +Barnstaple registry, sailed from Barnstaple for America,[7] but the height +of trade between North Devon and the colonies occurred after the +Restoration and lasted until the early part of the 18th century. In 1666, +for example, the _Samuel_ of Bideford and the _Philip_ of Barnstaple +sailed for Virginia, despite the dangers of Dutch warfare.[8] The +following year, on August 13, 1667, it was reported that 20 ships of the +Virginia fleet, "bound to Bideford, Barnstaple, and Bristol have passed +into the Severn in order to escape Dutch men-of-war."[9] Later, in 1705, +we find that the _Susanna_ of Barnstaple, as well as the _Victory_, +_Zunt_, _Devonshire_, _Laurell_, _Blackstone_, and _Mary and Hannah_, all +of Bideford, were anchored in Hampton Roads off Kecoughtan. They comprised +one-ninth of a fleet of 63 ships from various English ports.[10] + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--Old pottery in Torrington Lane (formerly +Potter's Lane), East-the-Water section of Bideford. The photo was taken in +1920, just before the buildings were razed. (_Courtesy of Miss M. E. +Jenkinson._)] + + +Aside from such indications of a well-established mercantile trade, the +entrenchment of North Devon interests in the colonies is repeatedly shown +in other ways. Before 1645, Thomas Fowle, a Boston merchant, was doing +business with his brother-in-law, Vincent Potter, who lived in +Barnstaple.[11] In 1669, John Selden, a Barnstaple merchant, died after +consigning a shipment of goods to William Burke, a merchant of Chuckatuck, +Virginia. John's widow and administratrix, Sisely Selden, brought suit to +recover these goods, which were "left to the sd. W{m} Burke, &c, for the +use of my late husband."[12] Burke was evidently an agent, or factor, who +acted in Virginia on Selden's behalf. In Northampton County, alone, there +resided six Bideford factors, remarkable when one considers the isolated +location of this Virginia Eastern Shore county and the sparseness of its +population in the 17th century.[13] John Watkins, the Bideford historian, +adds further evidence of mercantile involvement with the colonies, stating +of Bideford that "some of its chief merchants had very extensive +possessions in Virginia and Maryland."[14] Both in New England and the +southern colonies, local merchants acted as resident agents for merchants +based in the mother country. Often tied to the latter by bonds of family +relationship, the factors arranged the exchange of American raw materials +for the manufactured goods in which their English counterparts +specialized. + +That there was a large and important commerce in North Devon earthenware +to account for many of the relationships between Bideford, Barnstaple, and +the colonies seems to have remained unnoticed. Indeed, the fact that the +two towns comprised an important center of earthenware manufacture and +export in the 17th century has hitherto received little attention from +ceramic historians, and then merely as sources of picturesque folk +pottery. Yet in the excavations of colonial sites and in the British +Public Records Office are indications that the North Devon potters, for a +time at least, rivaled those of Staffordshire. + +The earliest record of North Devon pottery reaching America occurs in the +Port Book entry for Barnstaple in 1635, when the _Truelove_, Vivian +Limbry, master, sailed on March 4 for New England with "40 doz. +earthenware," consigned to John Boole, merchant.[15] The following year +the same ship sailed for New England with a similar amount. After the +Stuart restoration larger shipments of earthenware are recorded, as +illustrated by sample listings (below) chosen from Port Books in the +British Public Records Office. + +TYPICAL SHIPMENTS OF EARTHENWARE FROM NORTH DEVON + +(Sample entries from Port Books, verbatim) + +BARNSTAPLE 1665[16] + + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + Date Ship Master For In Cargo Subsidy + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + s d + + 26 Aug Exchange of W{m} Titherly New England 150 doz. of 7-6 + 1665 Biddeford Earthenware + + 4 Sept Philipp of Edmond Virginia 30 doz. of 1-6 + 1665 Biddeford Prickard Earthenware + + 28 Nov Providence Nicholas Virginia 20 doz. of 1-0 + 1665 of Taylor Earthenware + Barnstaple + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + +BARNSTAPLE AND BIDEFORD, 1680[17] + + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + Date Ship Master Shipment + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + Aug 6{th} Forester of Christopher Browning Twenty dozen of + 1680 Barnstaple, Earthenware + for Maryland Subsidy 1/ + + Sept 6 Loyalty of Philip Greenslade 30 dozen Earthenware + Barnstaple Andrew Hopkins, + merchant + Subsidy 1/6 + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + +BARNSTAPLE, 1681[18] + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + Date Ship Master To Goods & Merchants + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + May 30 Seafare of Bartholomew New Forty-two hundred [weight] + 1681 Bideford Shapton England parcells of Earthenware + Subsidy 7/ + + 28 June Hopewell of Peter Prust Virginia 30 cwt. parcells of + Bideford Earthenware + Peter Luxeron Merchant + Subsidy 5/ + + Aug. 12 Beginning John Limbry Virginia 15 cwt. parcells of + of Bideford Earthenware Subsidy 2/6 + Richard Corkhill + Merchant[19] + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +BIDEFORD, 1681[20] + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Date Ship Master To Goods + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 21 June Beginning Thomas Virginia Thirty hundred + of Bideford Phillips pclls of Earthenware + Joseph Conor merchant + Subsidy 5/ + + 19 July John & Mary Thomas Maryland 750 parcells of + of Bideford Courtis Earthenware + John Barnes, Merchant + Subsidy 1/3 + + 14 Aug Exchange of George Maryland 40 dozen earthenware + Bideford Ewings William Titherly Merchant + Subsidy 2/ + + Aug. 22 Merchants William Virginia 1500 parcells + Delight of Britten Earthenware + Bideford Henry Guiness Merchant + Subsidy 2/6 + + Aug. 23 Hart of Henry Virginia 1500 parcells of + Bideford Penryn Earthenware + John Lord Merch{t} + Subsidy 2/6 + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +1682--BARNSTAPLE[21] + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + Date Ship Master To Cargo, etc. + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + Michaelmas Robert & John Esh Maryland 30 dozen Earthenware + Quarter William of Subsidy 1/6 + North{am} William Bishop merchant + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + +BIDEFORD 1682--OUTWARDS[22] + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Date Ship Master To Cargo, etc. + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + May 15 Seafare of John Titherley New 42 cwt. parcells of + Bideford England Earthenware + Barth. Shapton Merchant + Subsidy 7/ + + July 9 John & Mary Thomas Courtis Maryland 9 cwt parcells of + of Bideford Earthenware + John Barnes Merchant + Subsidy 1/6 + + July 20 Merchant's William Maryland 6 cwt parcells of + Delight of Bruston Earthenware + Bideford Samuel Donnerd merchant + + Sept. 11 Exchange of Mark Chappell Maryland 30 cwt. parcells of + Bideford earthenware Subsidy 5/ + William Titherly + Merchant + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BARNSTAPLE/BIDEFORD OUTWARDS 1690[23] + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Date Ship Master To Cargo, etc. + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Aug. 23 Yarmouth Roger Jones Maryland 300 parcells of + of Bideford Earthenware Subsidy 6{d} + + Sept. 11 Expedition Humphrey Maryland 1,200 parcells of + of Bideford Bryant Earthenware Subsidy 2/ + + Sept. 23 Integrity John Tucker Maryland 300 parcells of + of Bideford Earthenware Subsidy 6{d} + + Sept. 23 Happy Return John Rock Maryland 750 parcells of + of Bideford Earthenware Subsidy 1/3 + + Sept. 23 Sea Faire Tym. Brutton Maryland 1800 parcells of + of Bideford Earthenware Subsidy 3/ + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BARNSTAPLE & BIDEFORD 1694[24] + + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Date Ship Master To Cargo, etc. Subsidy + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + Dec. 6 Happy Returne John Hartwell Maryland 450 parcels of 9d + Earthen ware + ------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Another source shows that the _Eagle_ of Bideford arrived at Boston from +her home port on October 11, 1688, with a cargo consisting entirely of +9,000 parcels of earthenware, while on July 28, 1689, the _Freindship_ +(sic) of Bideford landed 7,200 parcels of earthenware and one hogshead of +malt. On August 24 of the same year the _Delight_ brought a cargo of +"9,000 parcels of earthenware and 2 fardells of dry goods" from +Bideford.[25] + +It will be noted that there was a close relationship between vessel, +shipmaster, and factor, suggesting that there may have been an equally +close connection between all of them and the owners of the potteries. The +_Exchange_, for instance, seems to have been regularly employed in the +transport of earthenware. In 1665, according to the listings, she sailed +to New England under command of William Titherly. By 1681 Titherly had +become a Maryland factor to whom the Exchange's earthenware was consigned +then and in 1682. In the same way Bartholomew Shapton in 1681 sailed as +master on the _Sea Faire_ with earthenware to New England, becoming in the +following year the factor for earthenware sent on the same ship under +command of John Titherly. + +The proportion of earthenware cargo to the carrying capacity of the usual +17th-century ocean-going ship, which ranged from about 30 to 50 tons, is +difficult to estimate. A ton and a half of milk pans nested in stacks +would be compact and would occupy only a small amount of space. A similar +weight of ovens might require a much larger space. When earthenware +shipments are recorded in terms of parcels, we are again left in doubt, +since the sizes of the parcels are not indicated. We know, however, that +the _Eagle_, which was a 50-ton ship, carried 9,000 parcels of +earthenware as her sole cargo in 1688, in contrast to the much smaller +amounts shown in the sample listings where the parcel standard is used. +Yet even a typical shipment of 1,500 parcels, with each parcel containing +an indeterminate number of pots, must have filled the needs of many +kitchens when delivered in Virginia in 1681. Certainly a shipment such as +this suggests a vigorous rate of production and an active trade. + +The export of earthenware from North Devon was not solely to America. As +early as 1601 there were shipped from Barnstaple to "Dublyn--100 dozen +Earthen Pottes of all sorts." In later years, selected at random, we find +the following shipments to Ireland from Barnstaple listed in the Public +Record Office Port Books: 1617, 290 dozen; 1618, 320 dozen; 1619, 322 +dozen; 1620, 508 dozen; 1632, 260 dozen; 1635, 300 dozen; 1636, 480 dozen; +1639, 660 dozen. Typical of the destinations were Kinsale, Youghal, +Limerick, Cork, Galway, Coleraine, and Waterford. As the century advanced, +this trade increased enormously. In 1694, 17 separate earthenware +shipments totaling 50,400 parcels were made from Barnstaple and Bideford +to Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford.[26] It is possible that some of these +cargoes were shipped to America, since it was necessary to list only the +first port of entry. However, the rapid turnaround of many of the ships +shows this was not usually the case. + +Besides Ireland, Bristol and Exeter were destinations in a busy coastwise +trade. In 1681, for example, large quantities of earthenware, tobacco +pipes, and pipe clay were sent to these places.[27] Bristol merchants +probably re-exported some of the earthenware to America. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Map of Barnstaple. Reproduced from J. B. +Gribble, _Memorials of Barnstaple_, 1830.] + + +The coastwise trade appears to have diminished very little as time passed. +In 1755, _The Gentlemen's Magazine_ carried an account of Bideford, +stating:[28] + + Great quantities of potters ware are made, and exported to Wales, + Ireland, and Bristol.... In the parish of Fremington are great + quantities of reddish potters' clay, which are brought and + manufactured at Biddeford, whence the ware is sent to different places + by sea. + +John Watkins, in 1792, wrote:[29] + + The potters here, for making coarse brown earthenware, are pretty + considerable, and the demand for the articles of their manufacture in + various parts of the kingdom, is constantly great ... The profits to + the manufacturers of this article are very great, which is evidenced + by several persons having risen within a few years, from a state of + the greatest obscurity and poverty, to wealth and consequence of no + small extent. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 6.--Gravel-tempered oven of the 17th or early 18th +century, acquired in Bideford. (_USNM 394505._)] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--Gravel-tempered oven from 17th-century house on +Bideford Quay. Borough of Bideford Public Library and Museum. (_Photo by +A. C. Littlejohns._)] + + +Not only was coastwise trade in earthenware maintained throughout the 18th +century but it was continued, in fact, until the final decline of the +potteries at the turn of the present century. + +Although great antiquity attaches to the origins of North Devon pottery +manufacture--Barnstaple has had its Crock Street for 450 years[30]--the +principal evidence of early manufacture falls into the second half of the +17th century. We have seen that a growing America provided an increasing +market for North Devon's ceramic wares. In 1668 Crocker's pottery was +established at Bideford, and it is in the period following that Bideford's +importance as a pottery center becomes noticeable. Crocker's was operated +until 1896, its dated 17th-century kilns then still intact after producing +wares that varied little during all of the pottery's 228 years of +existence.[31] + +In Barnstaple the oldest pottery to survive until modern times was +situated in the North Walk. When it was dismantled in 1900, sherds dating +from the second half of the 17th century were found in the surroundings, +as was a potter's guild sign, dated 1675, which now hangs in Brannam's +pottery in Litchdon Street, Barnstaple. A pair of fire dogs, dated 1655 +and shaped by molds similar to one from the North Walk site, was excavated +near the North Walk pottery. + +Both Bideford and Barnstaple had numerous potteries in addition to +Crocker's and Brannam's. One, in Potter's Lane in the East-the-Water +section of Bideford, was still making "coarse plain ware" in 1906;[32] its +buildings were still standing in 1920. We have already observed that the +Litchdon Street works of C. H. Brannam, Ltd., remains in operation in a +modern building on the site of its 17th-century forerunner. Outside the +limits of the two large towns there were "a number of small pot works in +remote districts," including the parish of Fremington, where Fishley's +pottery, established in the 18th century, flourished until 1912.[33] +Jewitt states that the remains of five old potteries were found in the +location of Fishley's.[34] + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--Views of opening of oven in figure 7, +photographed before its removal from house. This illustrates how oven was +built into corner of fireplace and concealed from view. At right, the oven +door is in place. (_Photos by A. C. Littlejohns._)] + + +The clay with which all the potters worked came from three similar deep +clay deposits in a valley running parallel with the River Taw in the +parishes of Tawstock and Fremington between Bideford and Barnstaple. A +geologist in 1864 wrote that the clay is "perfectly homogeneous ... +exceedingly tough, free from slightest grit and soft as butter."[35] When +fired at too high a temperature, he wrote, the clay would become so +vesicular that it would float on water. The kilns were bottle-shaped and, +according to tradition, originally were open at the top, like lime kilns; +the contents were roofed over with old crocks.[36] + +Apparently all the potteries made the same types of wares, "coarse" or +common earthenware having comprised the bulk of their product. The +utilitarian red-ware was indeed coarse, since it was liberally tempered +with Bideford gravel in order to insure hardness and to offset the purity +and softness of the Fremington clay. An anonymous historian wrote in +1755:[37] + +Just above the bridge [over the River Torridge] is a little ridge of +gravel of a peculiar quality, without which the potters could not make +their ware. There are many other ridges of gravel within the bar, but this +only is proper for their use. + +John Watkins wrote that Bideford earthenware "is generally supposed to be +superiour to any other of the kind, and this is accounted for, from the +peculiar excellence of the gravel which this river affords, in binding the +clay." His claim that "this is the true reason, seems clear, from the fact +that though the potteries at Barnstaple make use of the same sort of clay, +yet their earthenware is not held in such esteem at Bristol, &c. as that +of Bideford"[38] is scarcely supportable, since the Barnstaple potters +also used the same Bideford gravel. The fire dogs found in Barnstaple with +the date 1655, referred to above, were tempered with this gravel, as were +"ovens, tiles, pipkins, etc.," in order "to harden the ware," according +to Charbonnier, who also observed that "The ware generally was very badly +fired.... From the fragments it can be seen that the firing was most +unequal, parts of the body being grey in colour instead of a rich red, as +the well-fired portions are." He noted that the potters applied "the +galena native sulphide of lead for the glaze, no doubt originally dusted +on to the ware, as with the older potters elsewhere."[39] A sherd of +gravel-tempered ware is displayed in the window of Brannam's Barnstaple +pottery, while a small pan from Bideford, probably of 19th-century origin, +is in the Smithsonian collections (USNM 394440). + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--Gravel-tempered oven made at Crocker pottery, +Bideford, in the 19th century. Borough of Bideford Public Library and +Museum. (_Photo by A. C. Littlejohns._)] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--Restored gravel-tempered oven from Jamestown. +Colonial National Historical Park. (_National Park Service photo._)] + + +The most remarkable form utilizing gravel-tempered clay is found in the +baking ovens which remained a North Devon specialty for over two +centuries. These ovens vary somewhat in shape, and were made in graduated +sizes. Most commonly they are rectangular with domed superstructures, +having been molded or "draped" in sections, with their parts joined +together, leaving seams with either tooled or thumb-impressed +reenforcements. An oven obtained in Bideford has a flat top, without +visible seams (USNM 394505; fig. 6). + +An early example occurs in Barnstaple, where, in a recently restored inn, +an oven was found installed at the side of a fireplace which is "late +sixteenth century in character." Pipes and a pair of woman's shoes, all +dating from the first half of the 18th century, were found in the +fireplace after it had been exposed, thus indicating the period of its +most recent use.[40] An oven discovered intact behind a wall during +alteration of a Bideford house is believed to date from between 1650 and +1675.[41] That oven (figs. 7, 8) is now exhibited in the Bideford Museum. + +At the other extreme, C. H. Brannam of Barnstaple in 1890 was still making +ovens in the ancient North Walk pottery.[42] The following year H. W. +Strong wrote of Fishley's Fremington pottery that "shiploads of the big +clay ovens in which the Cornishman bakes his bread ... meet with a ready +sale in the fishing towns on the rugged coast of North Cornwall."[43] +Fremington ovens also were shipped to Wales,[44] and, according to Jewitt, +those made in the Crocker pottery in Bideford "are, and for generations +have been, in much repute in Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the Welsh +districts, and the bread baked in them is said to have a sweeter and more +wholesome flavour than when baked in ordinary ovens."[45] + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--Sgraffito-ware platters from Jamestown. The +platter shown above has a diameter of 15 inches; the others, 12 inches. +Colonial National Historical Park.] + + +Of ovens made at Barnstaple there is much the same kind of evidence. In +1851, Thomas Brannam exhibited an oven at the Crystal Palace, where it +was described as "generally used in Devonshire for baking bread and +meat."[46] In 1786, "Barnstaple ovens" were advertised for sale in Bristol +at M. Ewers' "Staffordshire, Broseley, and Glass Warehouse."[47] +Thirty-six years earlier, in 1750, Dr. Pococke, who indefatigably entered +every sort of observation in his journal, noted that in Devonshire and +Cornwall "they make great use here of Cloume ovens,[48] which are of +earthen ware of several sizes, like an oven, and being heated they stop +'em up and cover 'em over with embers to keep in the heat."[49] Pococke +visited Calstock, "where they have a manufacture of coarse earthenware, +and particularly of earthenware ovens."[50] We have encountered only one +other instance of ovens having been made at any place other than the North +Devon communities around the Fremington clay beds. Calstock lies some 35 +miles below Bideford in the southeast corner of Cornwall, just over the +Devonshire boundary. + +As for evidence concerning the manner in which these ovens were used in +England, we have already seen that they were built into houses. Jewitt +wrote that they "are simply enclosed in raised brickwork, leaving the +mouth open to the front." They were heated until red hot by sticks or +logs, which were then raked out with long iron tongs.[51] A bundle of +gorse, or wood, according to Jewitt,[52] was sufficient to "thoroughly +bake three pecks of dough." Pococke's remarks to the effect that the ovens +were covered over with embers to keep in the heat suggests that they were +sometimes freestanding. However, this could also have been the practice +when ovens were built into fireplaces. + +From an esthetic point of view, the crowning achievement of the North +Devon potters was their sgraffito ware, examples of which in Brannam's +window display have already been noted. Further evidence in the form of +17th-century sherds was found by Charbonnier around the site of the North +Walk pottery in Barnstaple. These consisted of "plates and dishes of +various size and section.... Extensive as the demand for these dishes must +have been, judging from the heap of fragments, not a single piece has to +my knowledge been found above ground."[53] The apparently complete +disappearance of the sgraffito table wares suggests that they ceased to be +made about 1700. They were apparently forced from the market by the +refinement of taste that developed in the 18th century and by the +delftware of Bristol and London and Liverpool that was so much more in +keeping with that taste. + +However, certain kinds of sgraffito ware continued to be made without +apparent interruption until early in the present century. Instead of +useful tableware, decorated with symbols and motifs characteristic of +17th-century English folk ornament, we find after 1700 only presentation +pieces, particularly in the form of large harvest jugs. The harvest jugs +were made for annual harvest celebrations, when they were passed around by +the farmers among their field hands in a folk ritual observed at the end +of harvest.[54] Unlike the sgraffito tablewares, where style and taste +were deciding factors in their survival, these special jugs were intended +to be used only in annual ceremonies. Thus they were carefully preserved +and passed on from generation to generation, with a higher chance for +survival than that which the sgraffito tablewares enjoyed. + +The style of the harvest jugs is in sharp contrast to that of the +tablewares, the jugs having been decorated in a pagan profusion of +fertility and prosperity symbols, mixed sometimes with pictorial and +inscriptive allusions to the sea, particularly on jugs ascribed to +Bideford. The oldest dated examples embody characteristics of design and +techniques that relate them unmistakably to the tablewares, while later +specimens made throughout the 18th and 19th centuries show an increasing +divergence from the 17th-century style. An especially elaborate piece was +made for display at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in the Crystal +Palace.[55] + +Less complicated pieces, with a minimum of incising, were made for +ordinary use, as were plain pieces whose surfaces were covered with slip +without decoration. The trailing and splashing of slip designs on the body +of the ware, practiced in Staffordshire and many of our colonial +potteries, apparently was not followed in North Devon.[56] + + + + +Sites Yielding North Devon Types + + +Excepting the Bowne House oven and a 1698 jug (see p. 45), no example of +North Devon pottery used in America is known to have survived above +ground. Archeological evidence, however, provides a sufficient record of +North Devon wares and the tastes and customs they reflected. Following are +descriptions of the principal sites in which these wares were found. + + +JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA: MAY-HARTWELL SITE. + +The site of Jamestown, first permanent English settlement in North +America, has been excavated at intervals by the National Park Service. The +early excavations were under the supervision of several archeological +technicians directing Civilian Conservation Corps crews. In September +1936, J. C. Harrington became supervising archeologist of the project, and +until World War II he continued the work as funds permitted. Except for +the privately sponsored excavation of the Jamestown glasshouse site by +Harrington in 1947, no extensive archeological work was thereafter +undertaken until 1954, when John L. Cotter was appointed chief +archeologist. Thorough exploration of Jamestown was his responsibility +until 1956.[57] + +One of the most interesting subsites in the Jamestown complex was the two +and one-half acres of lots which belonged successively to William May, +Nicholas Merriweather, William White, and Henry Hartwell. The site was +first explored in 1935. On this occasion there was disclosed a meandering +brick drain that had been built on top of a fill of artifactual refuse, +mostly pottery sherds. The richness of this yield was unparalleled +elsewhere at Jamestown; from it comes our principal evidence about the +North Devon types sent to America. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Sgraffito-ware cup and plate from Jamestown. +The cup is 4 inches high; the plate is 7 inches in diameter. Colonial +National Historical Park.] + + +The May-Hartwell site was explored further and in far greater detail in +1938 and 1939 by Harrington, whose unpublished typescript report is on +file with the National Park Service.[58] Harrington's excavation, in the +light of historical documentation, led to the conclusion that the brick +drain had been laid during Henry Hartwell's occupancy of the site between +1689 and 1695. This was supported by the inclusion in the fill of many +bottle seals bearing Hartwell's initials, "H. H." Hartwell married the +widow of William White, who had purchased the property from Nicholas +Merriweather in 1677. That was the year following Bacon's Rebellion, when +Merriweather's house presumably was destroyed. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Sgraffito-ware jugs, about 8 inches high, from +Jamestown. Colonial National Historical Park.] + + +There were many hundreds of sherds in the fill under and around the brick +drain, as well as in other ditches in the site. The North Devon types were +found here in association with numerous classes of pottery. The most +readily identifiable were sherds of English delftware of many forms and +styles of decoration related to the second half of the 17th century. There +were occasional earlier 17th-century examples, also, as might be expected. +No 18th-century intrusions were noted in the brick drain area, and only a +scattering in other portions; none was found in association with the North +Devon sherds. + + +JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA: OTHER SITES. + +North Devon wares occur in the majority of sites at Jamestown, but it is +not always possible to date them from contextual evidence because precise +archeological records were not always kept in the early phases of the +excavations. Nevertheless, narrow dating is easily possible in enough +sites to suggest date horizons for the wares. + +The earliest evidence occurs in material from a well (W-21)--excavated in +1956[59]--that contained an atypical sgraffito sherd described below (p. +43). The sherd lay beneath a foot-deep deposit that included Dutch +majolica, Italian sgraffito ware, and tobacco pipes, all dating in form or +decoration prior to 1650. This sherd is unique among all those found at +Jamestown, but it is essentially characteristic of North Devon work. +Presumably it is a forerunner of the typical varieties found in the +May-Hartwell site and elsewhere. + +No gravel-tempered sherds occur in contexts that can positively be dated +prior to 1675. A sizable deposit of gravel-tempered sherds was found +between the depth of one foot and the level of the cellar floor of the +mansion house site (Structure 112) located near the pitch-and-tar swamp. +This house was built before 1650, but burned, probably during Bacon's +Rebellion in 1676.[60] The sherds were doubtless part of the household +equipment of the time. All other ceramic fragments, with one exception, +were associated with objects dating earlier than 1660. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Sgraffito-ware jug and cups from Jamestown. +Colonial National Historical Park.] + + +In sites dating from before about 1670, no North Devon wares are found, +excepting the early sgraffito sherd mentioned above. Such was the case +with a brick kiln (Structure 127) of early 17th-century date and two sites +(Structure 110 and Kiln C) in the vicinity of the pottery kiln. In +Structure 110 all the ceramics date from before 1650.[61] + +The latest occurrence of gravel-tempered wares is in contexts of the early +and middle 18th century. A pit near the Ambler property (Refuse Pit +2)[62] yielded a typical early 18th-century deposit with flat-rimmed +gravel-tempered pans of characteristic type. Associated with these were +pieces of blue delft (before 1725), Staffordshire "combed" ware (made +throughout the 18th century, but mostly about 1730-1760), Nottingham +stoneware (throughout the 18th century), gray-white Hoehr stoneware (last +quarter, 17th century), Buckley black-glazed ware (mostly 1720-1770), and +Staffordshire white salt-glazed ware (1740-1770). + + +HAMPTON, VIRGINIA: KECOUGHTAN SITE. + +In 1941, Joseph B. and Alvin W. Brittingham, amateur archeologists of +Hampton, Virginia, excavated several refuse pits on the site of what they +believed to be an early 17th-century trading post located at the original +site of Kecoughtan, an Indian village and colonial outpost settlement +which later became Elizabeth City, Virginia. Rich artifactual evidence, +reflecting on a small scale what was found at Jamestown, indicates a +continuous occupancy from the beginning of settlement in 1610 to about +1760.[63] The collection was given to the Smithsonian Institution in 1950. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--This sgraffito-ware chamber pot, from +Jamestown, has incised on the rim _WR 16 .._, probably in reference to the +king. Height, 5-1/2 inches. Colonial National Historical Park.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Sgraffito-ware harvest jug made in Bideford, +with the date "1795" inscribed. Borough of Bideford Public Library and +Museum. (_Photo by A. C. Littlejohns._)] + + +JAMES CITY COUNTY, VIRGINIA: GREEN SPRING PLANTATION. + +In 1642 Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia to be its governor. Seven +years later he built Green Spring, about five miles north of Jamestown. +The house remained standing until after 1800. Its site was excavated in +1954 by the National Park Service under supervision of Louis R. Caywood, +Park Service archeologist.[64] The project, supported jointly by the +Jamestown-Williamsburg-Yorktown Celebration Commission and the Virginia +350th Anniversary Commission, was executed under supervision of Colonial +National Historical Park at Yorktown, Virginia. + + +WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA: EARLY 18TH-CENTURY DEPOSITS. + +A small amount of North Devon gravel-tempered ware was found in sites +excavated in Williamsburg by Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. These excavations +have been carried out as adjuncts to the Williamsburg restoration program +over a 30-year period. Few of the North Devon sherds found can be closely +dated, having occurred primarily in undocumented ditches, pits, and +similar deposits. However, it is unlikely that any of the material dates +earlier than the beginning of the 18th century, since Williamsburg was not +authorized as a town until 1699. It is significant, in the light of this, +that North Devon pan sherds in the Williamsburg collection have +characteristics like those of specimens from other 18th-century sites. +Also significant is the fact that no sgraffito ware occurs here. A +gravel-tempered pan (fig. 23) from the Coke-Garrett House site was found +in a context that can be dated about 1740-1760. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Views of North Devon harvest jug used in Sussex +County, Delaware. This jug, 11 inches high and dated 1698, is in the +collection of Charles G. Dorman. The inscription reads: + + "Kind S{r}: i com to Gratifiey youre Kindness Love and Courtisy and + Sarve youre table with Strong beare for this intent i was sent heare: + or if you pleas i will supply youre workmen when in harvist dry when + they doe labour hard and swear{e} good drinke is better far then Meat"] + + +WESTMORELAND COUNTY, VIRGINIA: SITE OF JOHN WASHINGTON HOUSE. + +In 1930 the National Park Service became custodians for "Wakefield," the +George Washington birthplace site on Pope's Creek in Westmoreland County. +About a mile to the west of "Wakefield" itself, but within the Park area, +is the site of Bridges Creek Plantation, purchased in 1664 by John +Washington, the earliest member of the family in America. It was occupied +by John at least until his death in 1677, and probably by Lawrence +Washington until a few years later. Much artifactual material was dug from +the plantation house site, including the largest deposits of North Devon +types found outside of Jamestown.[65] + + +STAFFORD COUNTY, VIRGINIA: MARLBOROUGH SITE. + +A short-lived town was built in 1691 at the confluence of Potomac Creek +and the Potomac River on Potomac Neck. The town was abandoned by 1720, but +six years later became the abode of John Mercer, who developed a +plantation there. The site of his house was excavated by the Smithsonian +Institution in 1956. Two small sherds of North Devon gravel-tempered ware +were found there in a predominantly mid-18th-century deposit. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Gravel-tempered pan (top) and cooking pot with +cover, all from Jamestown. The pan has a height of 4-1/2 inches and a +diameter of 15 inches. The pot is 6 inches high and 9-1/2 inches in +diameter; the diameter of its cover is 10 inches. Colonial National +Historical Park.] + + +CALVERT COUNTY, MARYLAND: ANGELICA KNOLL SITE. + +Since 1954 Robert A. Elder, Jr., assistant curator of ethnology at the +United States National Museum, has been investigating the site on the +Chesapeake Bay of a plantation or small settlement known as Angelica +Knoll. This investigation has revealed a generous variety of +gravel-tempered utensil forms, including both 17th and 18th century +styles. The range of associated artifacts points to a site dating from the +late 17th century to about 1765. + + +KENT ISLAND, QUEEN ANNE COUNTY, MARYLAND. + +A small collection of late 17th-century and early 18th-century +material--gathered by Richard H. Stearns near the shore of Kent Island, a +quarter-mile south of Kent Island Landing--includes both North Devon +types. The collection was given to the United States National Museum. + + +LEWES, SUSSEX COUNTY, DELAWARE: TOWNSEND SITE. + +The Townsend site was excavated by members of the Sussex County +Archeological Society in 1947. This was primarily an Indian site, but a +pit or well contained European artifacts, including a North Devon +gravel-tempered jar (fig. 25). The village of Lewes, originally the Dutch +settlement of Zwaanandael, was destroyed by the British, who occupied the +area in 1664.[66] The European materials from the Townsend site were given +to the United States National Museum. + + +PLYMOUTH, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: "R.M." SITE. + +A site of a house believed to have been Robert Morton's, located south of +the town of Plymouth, was excavated by Henry Hornblower II. It contained +North Devon gravel-tempered sherds. The collection is now in the +archeological laboratory of Plimoth Plantation, Inc., in Plymouth. + + +ROCKY NOOK, KINGSTON, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: SITES OF JOHN +HOWLAND HOUSE AND JOSEPH HOWLAND HOUSE. + +The John Howland house was built between 1628 and 1630; it burned about +1675. The site was excavated between September 1937 and July 1938 under +supervision of the late Sidney T. Strickland.[67] Several gravel-tempered +utensil sherds were found here, as well as a piece of an oven (see fig. +26). Artifacts from this and the following site are at the Plimoth +Plantation laboratory. + +The foundations of the Joseph Howland house, adjacent to the John Howland +house site, were excavated in 1959 by James Deetz, archeologist at Plimoth +Plantation. This is the only New England site of which we are aware that +has yielded North Devon sgraffito ware. Two successive houses apparently +stood on the site. Statistical evidence of pipe-stem-bore measurements +points to 1680-1710 as the first principal period of occupancy.[68] + + +MARSHFIELD, PLYMOUTH COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS: WINSLOW SITE. + +This site, excavated by Henry Hornblower II and tentatively dated +1635-1699, yielded considerable quantities of gravel-tempered ware. +Cultural material is predominantly from about 1675. + + +FLUSHING, LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK: THE JOHN BOWNE HOUSE. + +The John Bowne House is a historic house museum at Bowne Street and Fox +Lane, Flushing, Long Island, maintained by the Bowne House Historical +Society. Bowne was a Quaker from Derbyshire, who built his house in 1661. +A North Devon oven is still in place, with its opening at the back of the +fireplace. + + +YORKTOWN, VIRGINIA. + +The National Park Service has excavated at various locations in Yorktown, +both in the neighboring battlefield sites and the town itself. Yorktown, +like Marlborough, was established by the Act for Ports in 1691. In several +of the areas excavated, occasional sherds of North Devon gravel-tempered +ware were found. In refuse behind the site of the Swan Tavern, opened as +an inn in 1722 but probably occupied earlier, a single large fragment of a +15-inch sgraffito platter was discovered. No other pieces of this type +were found, associated artifacts having been predominantly from the 18th +century. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Gravel-tempered bowl (top) and pipkins from +Jamestown. Colonial National Historical Park.] + + + + +Descriptions of Types + + +NORTH DEVON SGRAFFITO WARE + +Sites: Jamestown, Kecoughtan, Green Spring, John Washington House, Kent +Island, Yorktown, Joseph Howland House. + + +PASTE + +Manufacture: Wheel-turned, with templates used to shape collars of jugs +and to shape edges and sometimes ridges where plate rims join bezels. + +Temper: Fine, almost microscopic, water-worn sand particles. + +Texture: Fine, smooth, well-mixed, sharp, regular cleavage. + +Color: Dull pinkish red, with gray core usual. + +Firing: Two firings, one before glazing and one after. Usually incomplete +oxidation, shown by gray core. A few specimens have surface breaks or +flakings incurred in the firing and most show warping (suggesting that +"rejects," unsalable in England, were sent to the colonists, who had no +recourse but to accept them). + + +SURFACES + +Treatment: Inner surfaces of plates and bowls and outer surfaces of jugs, +cups, mugs, chamber pots, and other utensils viewed on the exteriors are +coated with white kaolin slip. Designs are scratched through the slip +while wet and into the surface of the paste, exposing the latter. +Undersides of plates and chargers are often scraped to make irregular flat +areas of surface. Slip-covered portions are coated with amber glaze by +sifting on powdered galena (lead sulphide). Containers which are slipped +externally are glazed externally and internally. Slip and glaze do not +cover lower portions of jugs, but run down unevenly. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 20.--Gravel-tempered chafing dish from Jamestown. +Colonial National Historical Park. (_Smithsonian photo 43104._)] + + +Color: Slipped surfaces are white where exposed without glaze. Unglazed +surfaces are a dull terra cotta. The glaze varies in tone from honey color +to a dark greenish amber. When applied over the slip, the glaze ranges +from lemon to a toneless brown-yellow, or, at best, a sparkling butter +color. When applied directly over the paste and over the incised and +abraided designs, the glaze appears as a rich mahogany brown or dark +amber. + + +FORMS + +Plates, platters, and chargers: + + (a) Diameter 7"-7-1/2". Upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. + (Fig. 12.) + + (b) Diameter 12"; depth 2"-3". Upper surface slipped, decorated, and + glazed. (Fig. 11.) + + (c) Diameter 14-1/2"-15"; depth 2"-3". Upper surface slipped, + decorated, and glazed. (Fig. 11.) + +All have wide rims, but of varying widths, raised bezels, and heavy, +raised, curved edges. + +Baluster wine cups: Height 3-3/4"-4". Slipped and decorated externally; +glazed internally and externally. (Figs. 12, 14.) + +Concave-sided mugs: Height about 4". Slipped and decorated externally; +glazed internally and externally. (Only complete specimen, at Jamestown, +had incised band around rim.) (Fig. 14.) + +Jugs: Height 6-1/2" and 8"-8-1/2". Globose bodies, vertical or slightly +everted collars tooled in a series of ridged bands, with tooled rims at +top. Some have pitcher lips, some do not. Slipped, decorated, and glazed +externally above an incised line encircling the waist; glazed internally. +(Figs. 13, 14.) + +Eating bowls: Diameter, including handle, 9"-10"; depth 3-1/4"-4". +Straight, everted sides, flat rims, with slightly raised edges, one small +flat loop handle secured to rim. Slipped, decorated, and glazed internally +and on rim. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 21.--Gravel-tempered baking pan from Jamestown. +Length, 15 inches; width, about 12 inches. Colonial National Historical +Park.] + + +Chamber pots: Height 5-1/2". Curving sides, terminating at heavy, raised, +rounded band surmounted by concave, everted rim. Rim 1" wide and flat. +Slipped, decorated, and glazed externally and internally. (Fig. 15.) + +Candlestick: Unique specimen. Height 6". Bell-shaped base with flange and +shaft above with socket at top. Handle from bottom of socket to bottom of +shaft. Upper portion slipped, decorated, and glazed. + +Ripple-edged, shallow dish: Unique specimen. Diameter 9-1/4". Concave, +rimless dish or plate with edge crimped as for a pie or tart plate. Upper +surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. + + +DECORATION + +Technique: (1) Incising through wet slip into paste with pointed tool for +linear effects. (2) Excising of small areas to reveal paste and to +strengthen tonal qualities of designs. (3) Incising with multiple-pointed +tools having three to five points, to draw multiple-lined stripes. (4) +Stippling with same tools. + +Motifs: The motifs are varied and never occur in any one combination more +than once. There are two general categories of design, geometric and +floral, although in some cases these are joined in the same specimen. + +In the geometric category, the majority of plate rims are decorated with +hastily drawn spirals and _guilloches_. The centers may have circles +within squares, circles enclosing compass-drawn petals, circles within a +series of swags embellished with lines. Triple-lined chevrons decorate the +border of one plate. A chamber pot is decorated with diagonal stripes of +multiple lines, between which wavy lines are punctuated by small excised +rectangles. Some cups, jugs, and the candlestick are simply decorated with +vertical stripes, between which are wavy lines, stippling, and excised +blocks. + +The floral category includes elaborate and intricate stylized floral and +vine motifs: tulips, sunflowers, leaves, tendrils, hearts, four-petaled +flowers. One plate (fig. 11) combines the geometric feeling of the first +category with the floral qualities of the second in its swag-and-tassel +rim and swagged band, which encloses a sunflower springing from a stalk +between two leaves. + +The design motifs are unique in comparison with those found on other +English pottery of the 17th century. The geometrical patterns and spiral +ornaments, which also occur in Hispanic majolica, have a Moorish flavor. +Christian symbols--especially tulips, sunflowers, and hearts--are +recurrent, as they are on contemporary West-of-England furniture, pewter, +and embroidery and on the carved chests, and crewel work of Puritan New +England. There is considerable reason to believe that there was a +connection between North Devon sgraffito-ware manufacture and design on +the one hand and the influx of Huguenot and Netherlands Protestant +artisans into southern and southwestern England on the other. Low Country +immigrant potters were responsible for two other ceramic innovations +elsewhere in England--stoneware and majolica. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 22.--Slip-coated porringers and drinking bowl +(center). Colonial National Historical Park.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 23.--North Devon gravel-tempered pan with typical +terra cotta paste and characteristic 18th-century flattened rim, slightly +undercut on the interior. This pan, measuring 13-1/4 inches in diameter +and 4-3/8 inches high, was found at the Coke-Garrett house site in +Williamsburg, Virginia, in a context attributed to the period about +1740-1760. Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. (_Colonial Williamsburg photo +59-DW-703-44._)] + + +ATYPICAL SPECIMEN + +Already mentioned is a large fragment of a dish found in a context not +later than 1640 and cruder and simpler in treatment than the remainder of +North Devon sgraffito ware thus far seen. It nevertheless belongs to the +same class. Its paste has the same characteristics of color and fracture, +while the firing has left the same tell-tale gray core found in a large +proportion of North Devon sherds. Surface treatment techniques match those +reflected in the typical dish sherds--glazed slip over the red paste on +the interior; unglazed, scraped, and abraided surfaces on the underside. +The yellow color is paler and the glazed surface is duller. The rim has a +smaller edge and omits the heavy raised bezel usually occurring on the +typical plates and chargers. The design motifs--crude and primitive in +comparison with those described above--consist of a series of stripes on +the rim, drawn at right angles to the edge with a four-pointed tool, and +crude hook-like ornaments traced with the same tool in the bowl of the +plate. This may be regarded as a forerunner of the developed sgraffito +ware made in the second half of the 17th century. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 24.--Gravel-tempered pan sherds from Kecoughtan +site, Hampton, Virginia. United States National Museum.] + + +UNIQUE FEATURE + +The flat rim of a chamber pot from Jamestown (fig. 15) has "WR 16 .." +scratched through the slip. It is probable that the initials indicate +"William Rex," for William III, who became king in 1688. Why the king +should be memorialized in such an undignified fashion could be explained +by the fact that Barnstaple and Bideford were strongly Puritan and also +Huguenot centers. Although William was a popular monarch, he was, +nevertheless, head of the Church of England, and an anti-royalist, +Calvinist potter might well have expressed an earthy contempt in this way. +Later, in the 18th century, George III appears to have been treated with +similar disrespect by Staffordshire potters, who made saltglazed chamber +pots in the style of Rhenish Westerwald drinking jugs, flaunting "GR" +emblems on the sides. Owners' initials or names do not occur on any of the +North Devon wares found in American sites, nor do the initials of the +potters. Otherwise, it would seem unlikely that the only exception would +appear on the rim of a chamber pot. + + +COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE + +Sherds owned by C. H. Brannam, Ltd., and excavated at the site of the +Litchdon Street pottery in Barnstaple.--The largest of these is part of a +deep dish (fig. 2). Its border design seems to be a degenerate form of a +beetle-like device found on Portuguese majolica of the period. From a +crude oval with a stippled line running the length of it, extends a spiral +scroll, terminating in a heavy dot, reminiscent of the tendrils found on +the Portuguese examples. From incised lines near the rim and on the edge +of the bezel are small linear "hooks." The interior has sunflower petals +flanking a short, stylized palmette, with another stalk and pair of leaves +above, reaching up to what may have been an elaborate floral center, now +missing. This decoration resembles closely the interiors of the +floral-type plates and chargers found at Jamestown. A section of plate rim +is similar to typical rims found in American sites. The surface color is +the butter yellow found on the best Jamestown pieces. Paste color also +matches. + +Sherds from the North Walk pottery in Barnstaple, described by +Charbonnier.--These were found near the site, on the banks of the Yeo and +in a pasture. They include plates and dishes, some finished and others +thrown out in the biscuit state. Charbonnier illustrates a plate with a +zig-zag or chevron border and an incised bird in the center. The chevron +appears on Jamestown specimens but the bird does not. + +Harvest jugs.--18th-century North Devon harvest jugs examined by the +writer display the same characteristics of paste, slip, and glaze as the +Jamestown sherds. However, the jugs differ stylistically to a marked +degree, suggesting that later potters were not affected by the influences +that appear in the earlier work (fig. 16). The earliest harvest jug of +which we are aware is a hitherto unrecorded example, dated 1698, that is +in the collection of Charles G. Dorman. This is the only harvest jug yet +encountered with a history of use in America and the only North Devon +sgraffito piece known to have survived above ground on this continent. It +is a remarkably vigorous pot, having a great rotund body, a high flaring +collar, and a lengthy inscription (see fig. 17). A female figure under a +wreath of pomegranates forms the central motif. The head is turned in left +profile, with hair cascading to the shoulders. The bust is highly stylized +in an oval shape, within which are intersecting curved lines forming areas +decorated with diagonal incising or with rows of short dashes. The +design here is strongly reminiscent of the geometrical decoration on +Jamestown plates and deep dishes. A pair of unicorns flanks the central +figure, and behind each unicorn are a dove and swan, at left and right +respectively. Under these are sunflowers and tulips, while a tulip stands +above rows of leaves on a stem below the handle. Feather-like leaves flank +the lower attachment of the handle. At the junction of the shoulder and +collar is a narrow band of incised tulips. Above this is a heavy ridge +from which springs the flaring collar. Under the spout is a male head, +wearing a wig which is depicted in the same manner as the pomegranates on +the wreath, and a stylized hat and stock-like collar. One suspects that +the man is a clergyman, although his eyes are cast down in a most worldly +manner upon the lady below. He is flanked by a pair of doves; behind each +dove is a vertical tulip with stem and leaves. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 25.--Gravel-tempered food-storage jar from Townsend +site, Lewes, Delaware. Height, 12 inches; diameter at base, 9 inches. +(_USNM 60.1188; Smithsonian photo 38821._)] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--Gravel-tempered sherds from Plymouth, +Massachusetts: fragment of oven (left) and rim sherd (upper right), from +John Howland house site; and pan-rim sherd from "R. M." site. Plimoth +Plantation, Inc., Plymouth. (_Smithsonian photo 45008-B._)] + + +Some of the shading is applied with a four-pointed tool, as in many of the +Jamestown pieces, although the tool was smaller. The handle bears the same +characteristics as those on jugs found at Jamestown--the same carelessly +formed ridge, the same spreading, up-thrust reinforcement at the base of +the handle. Unlike the Jamestown jugs, this one is covered completely on +the exterior with slip and glaze. However, since this was a presentation +piece, we could expect more careful treatment than was usual on pots made +for commercial sale. + +The jug descended in a Sussex County, Delaware, family--on the distaff +side, curiously. Family recollection traces its ownership back to the +early 19th century, with an unsubstantiated legend that it was used by +British soldiers during the Revolutionary War. We may conclude at least +that the jug is not a recent import and surmise that it was probably +brought to America as an heirloom by an emigrating Devon family, perhaps +before the Revolution. Sussex County has a stable population, mostly of +old-stock English descent. It was settled during the second half of the +17th and first half of the 18th centuries. There is a strong possibility, +therefore, that the jug was introduced into Delaware at a comparatively +early date. + +Many other harvest jugs have been similarly cherished in England. An +almost exact counterpart of the Delaware jug, and obviously by the same +potter, is in the Glaisher collection in Cambridge. This jug, dated +"1703/4,"[69] displays such variations as absence of the male head and a +different inscription. Another jug, with a hunting scene but with a +similar neck and collar treatment, seems again to be by the same hand; +it is dated "1703."[70] + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Gravel-tempered sherds from Angelica Knoll +site, Calvert County, Maryland. United States National Museum. +(_Smithsonian photo 45008-A._)] + + +From the standpoint of identifying and dating the archeologically +recovered sgraffito ware, these jugs are important in showing certain +traits similar to those found in the sherds, while displaying other +characteristics that are distinctly different. They support the +archeological evidence that the Jamestown pieces are earlier than the jugs +and that new design concepts were appearing by the turn of the century in +a novel type of presentation piece. + + +NORTH DEVON PLAIN SLIP-COATED WARE + +This is a plain variant of the sgraffito ware, differing only in the +absence of decoration and in some of the forms. + +Site: Jamestown. + + +FORMS + +Plates: Diameter 7"-11-1/2". Profiles as in sgraffito plates. Upper +surface slipped and glazed. + +Eating bowls: Diameter 9"; height 3-1/2". Profile and handle same as in +sgraffito bowls. Slipped and glazed on interior and over rim. + +Porringers: Diameter 5-1/2"; height 2-3/4". Ogee profiles. Horizontal loop +handle applied 3/4" below rim on each. Slipped and glazed on interiors. +(Fig. 22.) + +Drinking bowls: Diameter of rim, including handle, 5"; height 2-3/4"-3"; +diameter of base 2". In shape of mazer bowl, these have narrow bases and +straight sides terminating in raised tooled bands at the junctions with +vertical or slightly inverted rims 1" in height. Each has a horizontal +looped handle attached at bottom of rim. Slipped and glazed on interiors. +(Fig. 22.) + +Wavy-edge pans: Diameter 9"-10"; height 2". Flat round pans with vertical +rims distorted in wide scallops or waves. Purpose not known. Slipped and +glazed on interiors. + + +NORTH DEVON GRAVEL-TEMPERED WARE + +Sites: Jamestown, Kecoughtan, Green Spring, Williamsburg, Marlborough, +John Washington House, Kent Island, Angelica Knoll, Townsend, John Bowne +House, "R. M.," Winslow, John Howland House. + + +PASTE + +Manufacture: Wheel-turned, except ovens and rectangular pans, which are +"draped" over molds. (See "Forms," below.) + +Temper: Very coarse water-worn quartz and feldsparthic gravel up to +one-half inch in length; also occasional sherds. Proportion of temper +15-25 percent, except in ovens, which were about 30 percent. + +Texture: Poorly kneaded, bubbly, and porous, with temper poorly mixed. +Temper particles easily rubbed out of matrix. Very irregular and angular +cleavage because of coarse temper. Hard and resistant to blows, but +crumbles at fracture when broken. + +Color: Dull pinkish red to deep orange-red. Almost invariably gray at +core, except in ovens. + +Firing: Carelessly fired, with incomplete oxidation of paste. + + +SURFACE + +Treatment: Glazed with powdered galena on interiors of containers, never +externally. Glaze very carelessly applied, with much evidence of dripping, +running, and unintentional spilling. + +Texture: Very coarse and irregular, with gravel temper protruding. + +Color: Unglazed surfaces range from bright terra cotta to reddish buff. +Glazed surfaces on well-fired pieces are transparent yellow-green with +frequent orange splotches. Overtired pieces become dark olive-amber, +sometimes approaching black. Rare specimens have slipped interiors +subsequently glazed, with similar butter-yellow color effect as in +sgraffito and plain slip-coated types. + + +FORMS + +All forms are not completely indicated, there being many rims not +represented by complete or reconstructed pieces. The following are +established forms. + +Round, flat-bottomed pans: Diameter 16", height 4"; diameter 16", height +5"; diameter 18", height 4"; diameter 15", height 4-1/2"; diameter +13-1/4", height 4-3/8". Heavy rounded rims. Glazed internally below rims. +These were probably milk pans, but may also have served for cooking and +washing. Those lined with slip may have functioned as wash basins. (Figs. +18, 23.) + +Round, flat-bottomed pans: Diameter approximately 19", height unknown. (No +complete specimen.) Heavy rims, reinforced with applied strips of clay +beneath external projection of rim. Reinforcement strips are secured with +thumb impressions or square impressions made by end of flat tool. (Figs. +28, 29.) + +Cooking pots: Diameter 12", height 6"; diameter 8", height 5". Curving +sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curving +rim above. Glazed inside. + +Bowls: Diameter 8", height 5". Sides curved, with flattened-curve rims, +tooled bands below rims. Glazed internally. (Fig. 19.) + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 28.--Exteriors (left) and interiors of +gravel-tempered sherds. Top to bottom: bowl; pan; heavy pan with +reinforced rim; and pan with 18th-century-type rim. Colonial National +Historical Park. (_From Smithsonian photos 43039-A, 43041-A._)] + + +Cooking pots: Diameter (including handles) 9-1/2", height 6". Profile a +segmented curve, with rim the same diameter as base. Exterior flange to +receive cover. Small horizontal loop handles. Band of three incised lines +around waist. (Fig. 18.) + +Cooking pot covers: Diameters 7", 10", 10-1/2", 11". Flat covers, with +downward-turned rims. Off-center loop handles, probably designed to +facilitate examination of contents of pot by permitting one to lift up +one edge of cover. Covers are sometimes numbered with incised numerals. +Unglazed. (Fig. 18.) + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 29.--Exteriors (left) and interiors of +gravel-tempered sherds. Pan (top) with 18th-century-type rim, and handle +of heavy pan with reinforced rim. Colonial National Historical Park. +(_From Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43039-D._)] + + +Pipkins: Diameter 7", height 3"; diameter 8-1/2", height 3-1/2"; diameter +8-1/4", height 4"; diameter 8", height 5". Curving sides, terminating at +tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curved rim above. Three +stubby legs. Stub handle crudely shaped and casually applied at an upward +angle. Glazed inside. Used as a saucepan to stand in the coals. (Fig. 19.) + +Rectangular basting or baking pans: Length 15", width 11-3/4" (dimensions +of single restored specimen at Jamestown; many fragments in addition at +Jamestown and Plymouth). Drape-molded. Reinforced scalloped rim. Heavy +horizontal loop handles are sometimes on sides, sometimes on ends. Glazed +inside. (Fig. 21.) + +Storage jars: Various sizes. The one wholly restored specimen (Lewes, +Delaware) has a rim diameter of 8" and a height of 12-1/2". Rims of +largest examples (diameters 7", 10", 12") have reinforcement strips +applied below external projection. Heavy vertical loop handles, with tops +attached to rims. Most have interior flanges to receive covers. Glazed +inside. Such jars were essential for preserving and pickling foods and for +brewing beer. (Fig. 25.) + +Plate warmer or chafing dish: Unique specimen. Diameter (including handle) +11", height 7". Heavy, flaring pedestal foot supports wide bowl, glazed +inside. Flat rim with slight elevation on outer edge. Protruding +vertically from rim are three lugs or supports for holding plates. +Vertical loop handles extend from rim to lower sides of bowl. "Spirits of +wine" were probably burned in the bowl to heat the plate above. (Fig. 20.) +Fragmentary pedestals, similar in profile to the one here (but smaller, +having step turnings around base) may have been parts of smaller chafing +dishes. (Fig. 31.) + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 30.--Exteriors (left) and interiors of +gravel-tempered sherds. Top to bottom: rim of small bowl; rim of small jar +with internal flange to receive cover; and pipkin handle. Colonial +National Historical Park. (_From Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43039-D._)] + + +Ovens: (1) One wholly reconstructed oven at Jamestown. Made in sections on +drape molds: base, two sides, two halves of top, opening frame, and door. +Side and top sections are joined with seams, reinforced by finger +impressions, meeting at top of trapezoidal opening. The opening was molded +separately and joined with thumb-impressed reinforcements. A flat door +with heavy vertical handle, round in section, fits snugly into opening. +Thickness varies from 3/4" to 1-1/2". Unglazed, although smears of glaze +dripped during the firing indicate that the oven was fired with glazed +utensils stacked above it. (Fig. 10.) + +(2) Oven in place in Bowne House, Flushing, Long Island. Similar in shape +to Jamestown oven. Opening is arched. + +(3) Body sherd and handle sherds at Jamestown, from additional oven or +ovens. + +(4) Body sherd from dome-top oven similar to those at Jamestown and +Flushing. John Howland House site, Rocky Nook, Kingston, Plymouth County, +Massachusetts. (Fig. 26.) + + +COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE + +Paste color, temper, and texture are consistent when examined +microscopically. Resemblance is very close between oven sherds from the +Jamestown and Howland house sites, and between these and a large chip +obtained from the Smithsonian's oven purchased in Bideford. Except for a +somewhat lower proportion of temper, utensil sherds from various sites are +consistent with the oven fragments. The Smithsonian's 19th-century +Bideford pan also closely resembles these, except for the proportion of +temper, which is somewhat less. Further close resemblance of form exists +between the Jamestown and Flushing ovens and those in the Bideford Museum. +(Figs. 7, 9.) + +In 1954 comparative tests were made by Frederick H. Norton, professor of +ceramics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Jamestown clay was used +for a control. Thin sections, made of sherds found at Jamestown, were +fired at several temperatures and the results recorded in +photomicrographs. Of the gravel-tempered sherd submitted in these tests, +Professor Norton commented, "The clay mass looks quite dissimilar from the +Jamestown clay." + +No other identifiable English ware of this period compares with the +gravel-tempered pottery, the use of gravel for temper apparently being +restricted to North Devon. Gravel is found in red earthenware sherds from +Spanish colonial sites and in olive oil jars of Hispanic origin, but both +the quality and proportion of temper differs, as do the paste +characteristics, so that no possibility exists for confusion between them +and the North Devon ware. + +The North Devon potteries produced gravel-tempered ovens that probably +were unique in England. Ceramic ovens were made elsewhere, to be sure; +Jewitt describes and illustrates an oven made in Yearsley by the Yorkshire +Wedgwoods in 1712, but it is in no way related to the North Devon form. We +have mentioned Dr. Pococke's allusion to "earthenware ovens" made in the +mid-18th century at Calstock on the Cornish side of the Devonshire border, +about 35 miles from Bideford; however, one may suppose that these were the +products of diffusion from the North Devon center, if, indeed, they even +resembled the North Devon ovens. + +The closest comparisons with the North Devon ovens are to be found in +Continental sources. A woodcut in Ulrich von Richental's _Concilium zu +Constancz_ (fig. 35), printed at Augsburg in 1483, shows an oven whose +shape is similar to that of the Jamestown specimen. The oven in the +woodcut is mounted on a two-wheeled cart drawn by two men. A woman is +removing a tart from the flame-licked opening while a couple sits nearby +at a table in front of a shop. Le Moyne, a century later, depicted the +Huguenot Fort Caroline in Florida.[71] Just outside the stockade, on a +raised platform under a thatched lean-to appears an oven whose form is +similar to that of typical North Devon examples (fig. 36). It is a safe +assumption that the ovens in both Richental's and Le Moyne's scenes were +ceramic ovens, for both were used outdoors in a portable or temporary +manner. No other material would have been suitable for such use. + +This portable usage gives support to Bailey's conjecture that the +Jamestown oven may have been used indoors in the winter and outdoors in +the summer. He noted that carbon had been ground into the base, as though +the oven had lain on a fireplace hearth.[72] Sidney Strickland, writing +about his excavation of the John Howland House site, noted that the stone +fireplace foundation there had no provision for a built-in brick oven of +conventional type.[73] Not having recognized the earthen oven sherd, he +assumed that bread was baked on the stone hearth. The pottery oven may +well have been placed on the hearth or have been set up in an outbuilding. +That ovens of some sort, whether ceramic or brick, were used away from +houses is borne out by occasional documentary evidence. In 1662 John +Andrews of Ipswich, Massachusetts, bequeathed a "bake house" worth 2 +pounds, 10 shillings. In 1673, Henry Short of Newbury provided in his will +that his widow should have "free egress and regress into the Bakehouse for +bakeing & washing." In 1679 the inventory of Lt. George Gardner's estate +in Salem listed his "dwelling house, bake house & out housing."[74] Bailey +quotes the records of Henrico County, Virginia, to show a similar usage in +the South.[75] + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 31.--Pedestal bases of small chafing dishes or +standing salts. Top, exterior and interior of one sherd; bottom, exterior +and top view of another sherd. Colonial National Historical Park. (_From +Smithsonian photos 43039-C, 43030-D._)] + + +The only unquestionable evidence of how these ovens were used remains in +the Bowne House, where the oven is built into the fireplace back. +Originally, the oven protruded outdoors from the back of the chimney.[76] + + + + +Conclusions + + +Archeological, documentary, and literary evidences indicate that yellow +sgraffito ware, gravel-tempered earthenware utensils, and gravel-tempered +pottery ovens were made in several potteries in and around Barnstaple and +Bideford in North Devon. Clay from the Fremington clay beds was used. + +The North Devon potteries manufactured for export, sending their wares to +Ireland as early as 1600 and to America by 1635. The trade was +particularly heavy in the years following the Stuart Restoration and was +tied to the influential 17th-century West-of-England commerce with +America. New England, Maryland, and Virginia received many shipments of +North Devon pottery, an entire cargo of it having been delivered in Boston +in 1688. + +Sgraffito ware found in colonial sites in Virginia and Maryland is from a +common source. The style of decoration is unique to English pottery and +reflects Continental elements of design. It is reminiscent of decoration +found on English and colonial New England furniture and embroideries. The +only counterparts of this ware--matching it in style, paste color, and +technique--are found among 17th-century sherds excavated from the sites of +two potteries in Barnstaple. The 18th-century and 19th-century North Devon +sgraffito ware surviving above ground differs considerably in style and +form but in other respects it is the same as the ware found +archeologically in Virginia and Maryland. The stylistic differences, +noticeable on a piece in the Glaisher collection dated as early as 1704 +(in which traces of the earlier style remain), were introduced by the turn +of the century, thus strengthening the conclusion that the sgraffito +tablewares found archeologically in this country must date from before +1700. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 32.--Photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds +enlarged twice natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. Top left, +pan sherd from Jamestown (Colonial National Historical Park); top right, +pan sherd from Angelica Knoll site, Calvert County, Maryland (United +States National Museum); and oven sherd from Bideford (United States +National Museum).] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 33.--Photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds +enlarged three times natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. Top, +pan sherd from "R. M." site, Plymouth, Massachusetts (Plimoth Plantation, +Inc.); lower left, oven sherd from Jamestown (Colonial National Historical +Park); and oven sherd from John Howland house site, Rocky Nook, Plymouth, +Massachusetts (Plimoth Plantation, Inc.).] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 34.--Rim profiles of North Devon gravel-tempered +earthenware pans. All are from the fill around and beneath the +May-Hartwell site drain at Jamestown (constructed between 1689 and 1695) +except those marked, as follows: _A_, from Angelica Knoll site, Calvert +County, Maryland, late 17th century to about 1765; _B_, from John +Washington House site, Westmoreland County, Virginia, the period from +about 1664 to about 1680; _C_, from "R. M." site, Plymouth, Massachusetts, +about 1670; _D_, from site of George Washington's birthplace, near the +John Washington house site; _E_, from Winslow site, Marshfield, +Massachusetts, which was occupied from about 1635 to about 1699.] + + +For kitchen utensils, tiles, and other objects subject to heat or +breakage, the same Fremington clay received an admixture of fine pebbles, +or gravel, secured at a special place in the bed of the River Torridge in +Bideford. The use of gravel was described by 18th-century writers as well +as by later historians. As found in America, the gravel-tempered ware +apparently is unique among the products of either English or colonial +American potters. + +A specialty of the North Devon potteries was the manufacture of ovens made +of the same gravel-tempered clay as the kitchen utensils. The appearance +of these ovens and the method of making them remained virtually the same +from the 17th through the 19th centuries. At Jamestown, a wholly +reconstructed oven reveals typical North Devon traits throughout, while a +fragment of an oven from the John Howland House site near Plymouth +displays, under a microscope, the same qualities of paste and temper as in +a fragment of an oven obtained in Bideford by the Smithsonian Institution. +Sherds of gravel-tempered utensils from several American sites also match +the oven fragments. Paste characteristics, exclusive of the temper, are +the same in the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens. +Furthermore, the gravel-tempered ware occasionally is found with a plain +coating of slip, which, under the glaze, has the same yellow color as the +sgraffito ware, while an undecorated variant of the sgraffito ware also +occurs with a similar plain slip. + + +[Illustration: FIGURE 35.--Baker's portable oven in a woodcut from Ulrich +von Richenthal's _Concilium zu Constancz_, printed at Augsburg, Germany, +in 1483. Lessing J. Rosenwald Collection, Library of Congress.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 36.--Detail from De Bry's engraving of Le Moyne's +painting of Fort Caroline, depicting an oven on a raised platform under a +crude shed. Fort Caroline was a French Hugenot settlement established in +Florida in 1564. Rare Book Room, Library of Congress.] + + +All these wares, including the ovens, are interrelated--the specimens +found in America having been shipped in a busy North Devon-North American +trade. The North Devon towns, moreover, were an important pottery-making +center for export markets in the West of England, Ireland, and North +America. Thousands of parcels of earthenware were shipped to the American +colonies from Bideford and Barnstaple during the 17th century. Any doubts +that ovens were among these overseas shipments are dispelled by the +knowledge that they continually were being shipped in the English +coastwise trade, and also by intrinsic and comparative evidence that oven +sherds found on American sites are of North Devon origin. + +The only known counterparts of the North Devon ovens are Continental. A +15th-century example appears in an Augsburg woodcut, and a 16th-century +specimen is depicted in De Bry's engraving after Le Moyne's painting of +Fort Caroline, the Huguenot settlement in Florida. There are many +suggestions of Huguenot and Low Country influences on North Devon pottery. +Bideford and Barnstaple both were Puritan strongholds in the 17th century, +and both became French Huguenot centers, especially after the revocation +of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. + +The style of sgraffito decoration changed radically after about 1700. +After that date, decoration was confined mainly to harvest jugs and +presentation pieces. Gravel-tempered utensils and ovens continued to be +made, but the North Devon trade with America ceased by 1760. + +Archeological evidence indicates that gravel-tempered ware was used in +America between about 1675 and about 1760. An isolated example of +sgraffito pottery, distinguished by crude design and glaze, dates from +before 1640. The typical sgraffito ware is illustrated by specimens found +in the fill under and around the brick drain in the May-Hartwell site at +Jamestown. This ware dates between 1677 and 1695. No other sites provide a +more certain dating than this. Sgraffito ware found at Bridge's Creek, +Virginia (John Washington house site), may date as early as 1664, but may +be as late as 1677 or a few years thereafter. + +The May-Hartwell oven was also found in the drain fill, so presumably it +also was used before 1695. The oven fragment from the site of the John +Howland house dates between about 1630 and about 1675, the lifetime of the +house. The oven in the Bowne House is no earlier than 1664, the date of +construction. + +Typical sgraffito ware, therefore, dates from 1664 to 1695, plus or minus +a few years. Gravel-tempered ware predominates in the same period, but +extends well into the 18th century, probably to about 1760. Ovens date +from between 1664 and 1695. The concentrations of wares within the limits +of the May-Hartwell drain site correspond roughly with records of heavy +shipments of the wares between 1681 and 1690. The earliest shipment +recorded was to New England in 1635. + +The sgraffito ware probably served as much for decoration as for practical +use. Each piece was decorated differently, with elaborate designs, and in +such a manner that it could provide a colorful effect on a court cupboard +or a dresser, matching in style the carved woodwork or crewel embroidery +of late 17th-century furnishings. Although sgraffito ware represented a +degree of richness and dramatic color, it did not match the elegance of +contemporary majolica, decorated after the manner of Chinese porcelain. +Heavy and coarse, the sgraffito ware essentially was a variant of English +folk pottery, reflecting the less sophisticated tastes of rural West of +England. It did not occur in the colonies after 1700, by which time it was +supplanted in public taste by the more refined majolica. + +Gravel-tempered ware apparently was esteemed as a kitchen ware, much as is +the modern "ovenware" or Pyrex in the contemporary home. Since +gravel-tempered ovens were widely used in the West of England, they were +accepted by settlers in America, especially where built-in brick ovens +were lacking. + +Unlike those of Staffordshire or Bristol, the North Devon potteries failed +to develop new techniques or to change with shifts in taste. The delftware +of London and Bristol and the yellow wares of Bristol and Staffordshire +became preferable to the soft and imperfect sgraffito ware. In the same +way, the kitchen ware of Staffordshire and the adequate red-wares of +American potters made obsolete the heavy, ugly, and incomparably crude +gravel-tempered ware, while American bricklayers, having adopted the +custom of building brick ovens into fireplaces, outmoded the portable +ovens from North Devon after 1700. Any chance of a renaissance of North +Devon's potteries was killed by the blockading of its ports in the +mid-18th century. From then on the potteries continued traditionally, +their markets gradually shrinking at home in the face of modern production +elsewhere. Today, only Brannan's Litchdon Street Pottery in Barnstaple has +survived. + + + + +OTHER REFERENCES CONSULTED + +BEMROSE, GEOFFREY, _Nineteenth-Century English Pottery and Porcelain_, New +York, n.d. (about 1952). + +BLACKER, J. F., _Nineteenth-Century English Ceramic Art_, London, 1911. + +CHAFFERS, WILLIAM, _Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain_, 14th +issue, London, 1932. + +GRIBBLE, JOSEPH B., _Memorials of Barnstaple_, Barnstaple, 1830. + +HAGGAR, REGINALD, _English Country Pottery_, London, 1950. + +HONEY, W. B., _European Ceramic Art from the end of the Middle Ages to +about 1815_, London, n.d. (about 1952). + +MANKOWITZ, WOLF, AND HAGGAR, REGINALD G., _The Concise Encyclopedia of +English Pottery and Porcelain_, London, 1957. + +METEYARD, ELIZA, _The Life of Josiah Wedgwood_, London, 1865. + + +U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1960 + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing +Office, Washington 25, D.C. Price 35 cents. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Worth Bailey, "Concerning Jamestown Pottery--Its Past and Present," +_Ceramic Age_, October 1939, pp. 101-104. + +[2] H. C. Forman, _Jamestown and Saint Mary's_, Baltimore, 1938, p. 133. + +[3] Worth Bailey, "A Jamestown Baking Oven of the Seventeenth Century," +_William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine_, 1937, ser. 2, +vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 496-500. + +[4] John Watkins, _An Essay Towards a History of Bideford in the County of +Devon_, Exeter, 1792, p. 56. + +[5] _Ibid._, pp. 65, 67-68. + +[6] _Ibid._, p. 70. + +[7] Port Book, Barnstaple, 1620, Public Record Office, London (hereinafter +referred to as _Port Book_), E 190/947. + +[8] _Virginia Magazine of History and Biography_, 1911, vol. 19, p. 31. + +[9] _Ibid._, quoting Sainsbury Abstracts, p. 184. + +[10] _Virginia Magazine of History and Biography_, 1901, vol. 9, pp. +257-258. + +[11] Bernard Bailyn, _The New England Merchants in the Seventeenth +Century_, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1955, p. 87. + +[12] Isle of Wight County (Virginia) records, quoted in _William and Mary +College Quarterly Historical Magazine_, 1899, ser. 1, vol. 7, p. 228. + +[13] P. A. Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth +Century_, New York, 1895, vol. 2, p. 334. + +[14] Watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote 4), p. 65. + +[15] _Port Book_, E 190/959/6. + +[16] _Ibid._, E 190/954/6. + +[17] _Ibid._, E 190/959/6. + +[18] _Ibid._, E 190/960/10. + +[19] Richard Corkhill was one of the six Bideford factors residing in +Northampton County. Bruce, _op. cit._ (see footnote 13). + +[20] _Port Book_, E 190/959/6. + +[21] _Ibid._, E 190/960/8. + +[22] _Ibid._, E 190/960/3. + +[23] _Ibid._, E 190/966/10. + +[24] _Ibid._, E 190/968/10. + +[25] Colonial office shipping records relating to Massachusetts ports, +typescript in Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts, 1931, vol. 1, p. 78. + +[26] _Port Book_, E 190/939/14; 942/13; 944/8; 951. + +[27] _Ibid._, E 190/959/5. + +[28] "Some Account of Biddeford, in Answer to the Queries Relative to a +Natural History of England," _The Gentlemen's Magazine_, 1755, vol. 25, p. +445. + +[29] Watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote 4), pp. 74-75. + +[30] T. M. Hall, "On Barum Tobacco-Pipes and North Devon Clays," _Report +and Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of +Science, Literature, and Art_, Devon, 1890, vol. 22, pp. 317-323. + +[31] T. Charbonnier, "Notes on North Devon Pottery of the Seventeenth, +Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries," _Report and Transactions of the +Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature, and +Art_, Devon, 1906, vol. 38, p. 255. + +[32] _Ibid._, p. 256. + +[33] Bernard Rackham, _Catalogue of the Glaisher Collection of Pottery and +Porcelain in the Fitzwilliam Museum_, Cambridge, 1950, ed. 2, vol. 1, pp. +10-11. + +[34] Llewellyn Jewitt, _The Ceramic Art of Great Britain_, London, 1883, +ed. 2, pp. 206-207. + +[35] George Maw, "On a Supposed Deposit of Boulder-Clay in North Devon," +_Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London_, 1864, vol. 20, +pp. 445-451. + +[36] Charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), pp. 255, 259. + +[37] "Supplement to the Account of Biddeford," _The Gentlemen's Magazine_, +1755, vol. 25, p. 564. + +[38] Watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote 4), p. 74. However, the "byelaws" of +Barnstaple for 1689 indicate that tempering materials were also obtained +locally: "Every one that fetcheth sand from the sand ridge, shall pay for +each horse yearly 1{d}, and for every boat of Crock Sand 1{d}., according +to the antient custome." (Joseph B. Gribble, _Memorials of Barnstaple_, +Barnstaple, 1830, p. 360.) + +[39] Charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 258. + +[40] B. W. Oliver, "The Three Tuns, Barnstaple," _Report and Transactions +of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature, +and Art_, Torquay, Devon, 1948, vol. 80, pp. 151-152. + +[41] Mildred E. Jenkinson in personal correspondence from Bideford, April +20, 1955. + +[42] Hall, _op. cit._ (footnote 30), p. 319. + +[43] H. W. Strong, "The Potteries of North Devon," _Report and +Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, +Literature, and Art_, Devon, 1891, vol. 23, p. 393. + +[44] Charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 257. + +[45] Jewitt, _op. cit._ (footnote 34), vol. 1, pp. 205-206. + +[46] _Great Exhibition 1851. Official, Descriptive, and Illustrated +Catalogue_, London, 1851, p. 776, no. 131. + +[47] W. J. Pountney, _Old Bristol Potteries_, Bristol, n.d., pp. 153-154. + +[48] Cloume = cloam: "In O. E. Mud, clay. Hence, in mod. dial. use: +Earthenware, clay ... b. _attr._ or _adj._" (J. A. H. Murray, ed., _A New +English Dictionary on Historic Principles_, Oxford, 1893, vol. 2, p. 509.) + +[49] J. J. Cartwright, ed., _The Travels through England of Dr. Richard +Pococke_, Camden Society Publications, 1888, new ser., no. 42, vol. 1, p. +135. + +[50] _Ibid._, vol. 1, p. 131. + +[51] Jenkinson correspondence (see footnote 41). + +[52] Jewitt, _op. cit._ (footnote 34), pp. 206-207. + +[53] Charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 258. + +[54] Jenkinson correspondence (footnote 41). + +[55] _Made in Devon. An Exhibition of Beautiful Objects Past and Present_, +Dartington Hall, 1950, p. 9. + +[56] Charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote 31), p. 258. + +[57] John L. Cotter, _Archeological Excavations at Jamestown, Virginia_. +Archeological Research Series, no. 4, National Park Service, U.S. +Department of the Interior, Washington, 1958. + +[58] J. C. Harrington, _Archeological Report, May-Hartwell Site, +Jamestown: Excavations at the May-Hartwell site in 1935, 1938, and 1939 +and Ditch Explorations East of the May-Hartwell Site in 1935 and 1938_. + +[59] Cotter, _op. cit._ (footnote 57), p. 158. + +[60] _Ibid._, pp. 112-119. + +[61] _Ibid._, pp. 102-112. + +[62] _Ibid._, pp. 151-152. + +[63] Joseph B. Brittingham and Alvin W. Brittingham, Sr., _The First +Trading Post at Kicotan (Kecoughtan), Hampton, Virginia_, Hampton, 1947. + +[64] Louis R. Caywood, _Excavations at Green Spring Plantation_, Yorktown, +1955. + +[65] J. Paul Hudson, "George Washington Birthplace National Monument, +Virginia," National Park Service Historical Handbook Series, no. 26, +Washington, 1956. + +[66] Virginia Cullen, _History of Lewes, Delaware_, Lewes, 1956; C. A. +Bonine, "Archeological Investigation of the Dutch 'Swanendael' Settlement +under de Vries, 1631-1632," _The Archeolog. News Letter of the Sussex +Archeological Association_, Lewes, December 1956, vol. 8, no. 3. + +[67] S. T. Strickland, _Excavation of Ancient Pilgrim Home Discloses +Nature of Pottery and Other Details of Everyday Life_, typescript, n.d. + +[68] James Deetz, _Excavations at the Joseph Howland Site (C5), Rocky +Nook, Kingston, Massachusetts, 1959: A Preliminary Report_. Supplement, +_The Howland Quarterly, 1960_, vol. 24, nos. 2, 3. The Pilgrim John +Howland Society, Inc. + +[69] Rackham, _op. cit._ (footnote 33), vol. 2, p. 11, fig. 8 D, no. 58. + +[70] John Eliot Hodgkin and Edith Hodgkin, _Examples of Early English +Pottery, Named, Dated, and Inscribed_. London, 1891, p. 59. + +[71] J. Le Moyne, _Brevis Narratio corum quae in Florida ..._, Frankfort, +1591, pl. 10. + +[72] Bailey, _op. cit._ (footnote 3), pp. 497-498. + +[73] Strickland, _op. cit._ (footnote 67). + +[74] The probate records of Essex County, Massachusetts, Salem, +Massachusetts, 1916, vol. 1, p. 378; vol. 2, p. 346; vol. 3, p. 328. + +[75] Bailey, _op. cit._ (footnote 3), p. 498. + +[76] _Bowne House; A Shrine to Religious Freedom_, Flushing, New York. +Pamphlet of The Bowne House Historical Society, Flushing, N.Y., n.d. + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. + +Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of North Devon Pottery and Its Export to +America in the 17th Century, by C. 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