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diff --git a/36012.txt b/36012.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8fc5ab9 --- /dev/null +++ b/36012.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4544 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Prairie Smoke (Second Edition, Revised), by +Melvin Randolph Gilmore + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Prairie Smoke (Second Edition, Revised) + A Collection of Lore of the Prairies + +Author: Melvin Randolph Gilmore + +Release Date: May 2, 2011 [EBook #36012] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRAIRIE SMOKE *** + + + + +Produced by K Nordquist, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +Bold text is indicated with equals signs, =like this=. + +Illustration captions in {braces} have been added by the transcriber +for the convenience of the reader. + + + + + PRAIRIE SMOKE + (SECOND EDITION, REVISED) + + + BY + MELVIN RANDOLPH GILMORE + BISMARCK, NORTH DAKOTA + 1921 + + + A COLLECTION of LORE of the PRAIRIES + + + COPYRIGHT 1922 + By MELVIN RANDOLPH GILMORE + + + + +[Illustration: {Map to Show Distribution of Tribes}] + +MAP TO SHOW THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NATIVE TRIBES IN WHAT IS NOW THE +STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA AND ADJACENT STATES. + + +The native tribes of North Dakota are of three different linguistic +stocks or races. These are the Algonkian, Siouan and Caddoan. The +Algonkian race is represented in North Dakota by one nation, the +Chippewa or Ojibwa. The Siouan race is represented within our state +boundaries by three nations, the Dakota (sometimes called Sioux), the +Mandan, and the Hidatsa (who are also called Gros Ventre and +Minnetari). The Caddoan race is represented by one nation, the +Arikara. Other nations of the Caddoan race are the Pawnees, the +Wichita and the Waco farther south. + +The domain of the Dakota nation comprised southern Minnesota, +northwest Iowa, almost all of South Dakota, part of northwest +Nebraska, eastern Wyoming, and the southern part of North Dakota. + +The Chippewa domain was around the west end of Lake Superior in +northern Wisconsin, northern Minnesota, and part of northeastern North +Dakota. + +The Mandans, Hidatsas and Arikaras were three nations allied together +for mutual protection against the encroachments of their common +enemies who pressed upon them from all sides. The Mandan as an +independent nation held domain along both sides of the Missouri River +in what is now the central part of North Dakota. The Hidatsa were to +the east of the Mandan. The Arikara were, some centuries ago, in +northern Nebraska, but migrated gradually up the river. Finally they +were so pressed by the incursion of the Dakotas from the east that +they joined forces with the Mandans, who allowed them place in their +country in exchange for the added strength which their numbers gave +against the common enemy. The Hidatsas and the Mandans had already, +before this, made alliance, so now the three nations were allied in +the region of the upper Missouri River within what is now North +Dakota, extending westward a little into what is now Montana. + +The several domains of the various native tribes or nations within +North Dakota and adjacent states are represented on this map as +follows: + + Dakota by horizontal lines, + + Chippewa by vertical lines, + + Mandan-Hidatsa-Arikara alliance by oblique cross hatching, + + Ponka by oblique lines slanting to the left, + + Omaha by oblique lines slanting to the right, + + Pawnee by horizontal and vertical cross-hatching, + + Oto by cross-hatching of lines horizontal, oblique left and right. + + + + +DEDICATION + + +To the Real Pioneers of the Great Plains: to those whose questing +spirit first sought out the wonders and the beauties of this +land;--its vast reaches, league upon league, of grassland, verdant in +springtime, sere and red and brown in autumn; its inviting valleys and +its forbidding buttes;--to those whose moccasined feet made the first +human footprints upon the turf of these prairies and upon the sands of +these river margins; whose self-reliance made them the first to breast +the current of these streams; whose humble footpaths over the land +have now become the transcontinental highways of the world's travel +and trade; to those who first slaked thirst at these cool, clear +watersprings, whose hunger was first satisfied by the fruits of this +land, and who, in eating and in drinking, devoutly gave thanks to our +tender Mother Earth for her bounties, receiving them gratefully as +sacred gifts to be prudently used and thankfully enjoyed, and never to +be wasted; who knew and loved this land in all its spacious extent, +east to west and south to north; who reverenced its sacred places, the +holy watersprings, the grand and silent hills, the mysterious caves, +the eery precipices,--all places where their fathers had with prayer +and fasting sought and obtained the favour of the gods, and where the +gods had granted revelations and given wisdom to their fathers; to +those whose eyes first beheld this land in its virgin beauty, fresh +and joyous, unscarred and unspoiled, clean and wholesome, animated +with exuberance of life of many species of both plant and animal in +wonderful balance and adjustment, spontaneously replenished; and who +held it a form of sacrilege to violate or in any way endanger the +overthrow of that delicate balance of nature;--to those first +inhabitants of this land which we now inhabit. + +That something of their appreciation, of their love and reverence for +the land and its native life, something of their respect for its +sacred places and holy associations; that something of their sense of +its charm, of its beauty and wonder, may come to us; that we may the +more worthily occupy and more sympathetically enjoy our tenure of this +land. + +To these ends and purposes this book is hopefully and earnestly +dedicated. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Many persons are ever seeking outside of themselves and in some +distant place or time for interest and cheer. They are always +discontented and complaining. They fancy if they were but in some +other place or other circumstances they would be happy. But this is a +vain fancy. Each of us carries with him the germs of happiness or of +unhappiness. Those of unhappy disposition will be unhappy wherever +they may be. Cheer is not in environment, but in the individual. One +who is of a cheerful, understanding disposition will find interest and +cheer wherever he may be. + +Robert Louis Stevenson well said "The world is so full of a number of +things I think we should all be as happy as kings." When there are so +many interesting things in the world, so many in any given place, so +many more than one can ever fully know or enjoy in the short span of +human lifetime, how can one ever be overtaken by dullness? If dullness +seem to enfold us, be sure it is we that are dull; it is because our +minds are lazy and our eyes unseeing. There is enough of interest +about us wherever we may be to engage our attention if we open our +eyes to it. If we have initiative and independence of mind we shall +find interest everywhere; but if we depend upon others or neglect +what is about us in desire for what is distant we shall never be +content. One greater than Robert Louis Stevenson said "The Kingdom of +Heaven is within you." + +It is with the purpose of calling attention to some of the many +fascinatingly interesting things which we have all about us on the +prairie plains and in the hills and valleys of our own state, and +perhaps in our own neighborhood, that this volume is produced. The +myths which pertain to the hills, valleys, springs and streams in our +own state and in our own neighborhood must be of interest to us when +we look with our own eyes upon the actual places to which these myths +pertain. And these myths of the country in which we live are at least +equal in beauty and interest to the myths of the Greeks, and to the +old Teutonic myths of Thor, Odin, and Freya; or even to our own old +British myths which we have from our Druidic ancestors. And however +beautiful and interesting in itself a native tree or flower or other +plant may be, however engaging to the attention may be a native bird +or beast, how much more so when we think of what this bird or beast or +flower or tree has been in the lives of generations of our fellow +creatures who have lived here and loved this land and its teeming +native life long before we ever saw it. + +So, it is with the purpose of directing the attention of our people to +the wealth of lore, of legend and story and myth, and of wonder and +beauty which lies all about us here if we but look and listen, that +this little volume is presented. + +The title of this book is suggested by one of the popular names of +the flower which is the subject of one of the stories of this volume. +This flower, the earliest of all to bloom in springtime over all the +northern prairies, has a number of popular names, among which are +Pasque flower, Gosling flower, and Prairie Smoke flower. The latter +name is suggested by the nebulous appearance presented by a patch of +the bluish flowers blooming upon a prairie hillside in early spring, +while all other vegetation is still brown and dead. At such a time, +with all their blossoms tremulous in the spring wind, they appear to +the view like a pulsing cloud of grayish-blue smoke hovering low over +the ground. + +Besides the reference to this dearly-loved prevernal flower the term +"prairie smoke" also connotes a number of other engaging conceptions. +To one who has lived upon the prairie this term will recall lively +recollections of both sight and scent. It will recall to the +imagination memories of rolling billows of smoke which he has seen +covering miles of advancing lines of prairie fire; he will see again +in memory the tiny blue spirals of smoke showing where some solid +particles still smoulder hours after the line of fire has passed on +leaving behind a vast blackened waste. It will recall to him also the +rare, intangible blue haze which for days after such a fire lay like a +veil over all the plain, and through which the sun appeared like a +great red disk hanging in the sky, while the air was redolent with an +indescribable tang. Again, it brings to mind the wisps of smoke which +once curled upward in the quiet summer air from stovepipes projecting +from the roofs of prairie sodhouses, or which on snowy winter mornings +hung above them like thin white scarfs against a vast background of +blue overhanging a white world. + +It will bring to mind also other days and other scenes of this same +prairie country, when there might be seen wreaths of smoke issuing +from the domes of the hemispherical-shaped houses of villages of +Mandans, Pawnees, or Omahas, upon the hills and river terraces, their +laboriously tilled cornfields and gardens in the fertile alluvial +valleys near by. Or, again, it will recall the scene of an encampment +of some of these people out upon the prairie on a buffalo hunt in +quest of their meat supply. The encampment is a circle of conical +tents, a circle of perhaps a half mile in diameter. Before each tent +the evening fire is twinkling in the dusk upon the green of the +prairie, a circle of friendly lights, each the centre of a family +group, while a few stars begin to twinkle in the blue of the sky +above, and the sunset colours glow in the horizon. + +Some or all of these sights and scents, and others also, will present +themselves according to the experience of the one who comprehends the +title "Prairie Smoke." + +So it is hoped that to each one who reads this little volume it may +indeed be as a "wisp of prairie smoke," and shall bring a real savour +of the prairie and at least a slight realisation of what the Prairie +was before it was swept by the destructive Fires of Change. + + + + +Land and People + + +NATURE AND HEALTH + +The philosophy of health and wholesomeness of the native Americans, +the Indians, was to live in accordance with nature and by coming as +much as possible into direct physical contact with the elements in +nature, such as the sunshine, the rain and snow, the air and earth. +They felt the need and desire to be in frequent and immediate contact +with "Mother Earth," to receive upon their persons the strong rays of +the sun, the restorative efficacy of the winds from the clean sky, and +to bathe daily in living streams. + +The priest of a certain ritual of the Pawnee nation visited +Washington. He admired the Washington monument as he viewed it from +the capitol. When he went over to visit the monument he measured the +dimensions of its base by pacing; then he stood up and gazed toward +its summit, noting its height. Then he went inside; but when he was +asked whether he would walk up the stairway or go on the lift, he +said: "I will not go up. White men like to pile up stones, and they +may go to the top of them; I will not. I have ascended the mountains +made by Tirawa." (Tirawa is the Pawnee name of God.) + +Some years ago Mr. Louis J. Hill took a party of people of the +Blackfoot tribe to New York City as his guests. They were interested +in the sight of the great engineering feats as manifested in the great +structures of the city. But they were unwilling to be cooped up in the +rooms of the hotel, so they made arrangements to be allowed to set up +their tents upon the hotel roof so that they might at least have the +natural sunlight and the outdoor air. + +In an ancient Pawnee ritual there is a hymn which begins with the +words, "Now behold; hither comes the ray of our father Sun; it cometh +over all the land, passeth in the lodge, us to touch and give us +strength." And in another stanza of this hymn, referring to the +passing of the sun, it continues, "Now behold where has passed the ray +of our father Sun; around the lodge the ray has passed and left its +blessing there, touching us, each one of us." + +So it was ever the aim to live in accord with nature, to commune often +with nature. A word of admonition from the wisdom lore of the Menomini +tribe says, "Look often at the moon and the stars." And the +Winnebagoes have a wise saying: "Holy Mother Earth, the trees and all +nature, are witnesses of your thoughts and deeds." Another admonition +of Winnebago wisdom is: "Reverence the Unseen Forces that are always +near you and are always trying to lead you right." + + +SPIRIT OF LIFE + +In the following verses Dr. A. McG. Beede of Fort Yates, North Dakota, +has translated a prayer he once heard uttered by an old man of the +Dakota nation who had just come from bathing in the river and was +standing upon a hill giving expression to his feeling of adoration: + + Spirit of Life in things above + And lovelier in things below, + We pray to Thee, All-being-love, + Spontaneous in our hearts to grow. + + Our Father Life, we live in Thee + And pray for glory which is Thine, + And by our living may we be + As Thou art in the Life divine. + + The trees and flowers and watersprings + Are singing good old songs of mirth, + So may we sing while music brings + The good old joy o'er all the earth. + + Spirit of Life, sing on, sing on; + Sing till our aching hearts find rest + And anxious fear is past and gone, + And like the rivers we are blest. + + The earth is singing, hark the song; + The whispering breezes floating by, + The waterstreams gliding along, + Reflecting faces in the sky. + + Spirit of Life, we worship Thee, + With waterstreams and trees and flowers; + So may our new-born spirits be + As Thou art, and Thy glory ours. + + +ATTITUDE TOWARDS NATIVE LIFE + +People of European race resident in America, (Americans we call +ourselves) have sentimental regard toward the plants and animals +native to Europe, some of which, domesticated by our ancestors, we +have brought with us to America. But most of our people have not +developed such sentiments toward the plants and animals native to +America. Literary allusions, songs and stories refer to trees, +flowers, birds and other forms of life pertaining to our old home +lands in Europe, but not to those of America. People of our race have +been inhabitants of America now for three centuries, and still we have +not made ourselves at home here; we have not formed sentimental +attachment to the land and to its native forms of life. + +It is a pity for a people not to be so attached to the country in +which they live that their sentiments shall be first of all for the +forms of life that are native to their own country. Otherwise there +is a disharmony which lessens happiness and is harmful in many ways. + +Lacking friendly feeling for the plants and animals native to America +there has been a tendency to destroy these things in a ruthless +manner; and this can hardly be prevented by law unless we can awaken +sentimental feelings for the native forms of life in America such as +that which our ancestors had for forms of life native in Europe. + +Indians, the native Americans, have friendly sentiments, and even +feelings of reverence for the forms of life native to America. + +I once asked an old Omaha what was the feeling of Indians when they +saw the white men wantonly killing buffaloes. As soon as he +comprehended my question he dropped his head and was silent for a +moment, seeming to be overcome by sadness; and then in a tone as +though he were ashamed that such a thing could have been done by human +beings, he answered: "It seemed to us a most wicked, awful thing." + +Most white men can not comprehend the sense of pain experienced by +Indians at seeing the native forms of life in America ruthlessly and +wantonly destroyed with no compunction on the part of the destroyers. +And this destruction of the forms of native American life by white +people gave to Indians a sense of a fearful void in nature, coupled +with a feeling of grief, of horror, of distress and pain. It was not +fundamentally the thought of the loss of their food supply, but the +contemplation of the dislocation of the nice balance of nature, the +destruction of world symmetry. + +White Horse, an old man of the Omaha tribe in Nebraska, said to me in +August, 1913: "When I was a youth the country was beautiful. Along the +rivers were belts of timberland, where grew cottonwoods, maples, elms, +oaks, hickory and walnut trees, and many other kinds. Also there were +various vines and shrubs. And under all these grew many good herbs and +beautiful flowering plants. On the prairie was the waving green grass +and many other pleasant plants. In both the woodland and the prairie I +could see the trails of many kinds of animals and hear the cheerful +songs of birds. When I walked abroad I could see many forms of life, +beautiful living creatures of many kinds which the Master of Life had +placed here; and these were, after their manner walking, flying, +leaping, running, feeding, playing all about. Now the face of all the +land is changed and sad. The living creatures are gone. I see the land +desolate, and I suffer unspeakable sadness. Sometimes I wake in the +night and I feel as though I should suffocate from the pressure of +this awful feeling of loneliness." + +Indians generally were shrewd and discerning observers of the life and +habits of plants and animals. The careful study of plants and animals +was a considerable part of the courses of study in their system of +education, which included much more than is supposed by persons who +have not made themselves acquainted with Indian life. They were well +informed in plant and animal ecology, and in knowledge of range of +species. They took cognizance of the habits of animals in the animals' +dwelling places. An old Indian once told me how a muskrat lays up +stores of food in his house. He compared the appearance of the +musk-rat's stores to that of a grocer's goods on the shelves of his +store. Many old Indians have told me what kinds of food are stored by +different species of animals which lay up stores. They often speak of +such animals as lay up food stores as being civilized animal nations, +and of those which do not make such provision as being uncivilized. + +They attribute great wisdom to certain species of animals. This +disposition results from discerning observation of the animals' works +and ways. The beaver notably is reputed to be very wise and +industrious. Indians often sought to gain the favor and learn the +wisdom of various animal species by endeavoring to place themselves en +rapport with the guardian genius of the species. + + +INDIANS' APPRECIATION AND LOVE OF THEIR HOMELAND + +In the rituals of the various tribes may be found numerous expressions +of the love and reverence which the people had for Holy Mother Earth +in general and for their own homeland in particular. And in their +thought of their homeland they did not regard it as a possession which +they owned, but they regarded themselves as possessed by their +homeland, their country, and that they owed her love and service and +reverence. The following song is found in an ancient ritual of the +Pawnee nation which is given entire in the Twenty-second Annual Report +of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 2. This song plainly +reflects the topography and the scenery of the country of the Pawnee +nation, that part of the Great Plains traversed by the Solomon, +Republican, Platte, Loup, and Niobrara rivers. + +SONG TO THE TREES AND STREAMS + + I + + Dark against the sky yonder distant line + Lies before us. Trees we see, long the line of trees, + Bending, swaying in the breeze. + + II + + Bright with flashing light yonder distant line + Runs before us, swiftly runs, swift the river runs, + Winding, flowing o'er the land. + + III + + Hark! O hark! A sound, yonder distant sound + Comes to greet us, singing comes, soft the river's song, + Rippling gently 'neath the trees. + +In the foregoing song one can hear the constant murmur of the summer +south wind as it blows in that country for days, and see the broad +stretch of the great level land, gently undulating in places, with its +eastward-flowing streams bordered by zones of trees, the timbered +zones along the stream courses being the only forest land in that +country. + + +THRILLING ESCAPE OF A WAR PARTY OUTNUMBERED AND SURROUNDED BY THEIR +ENEMIES + +_A Pawnee Story_ + +In the northwest part of Nebraska there is a high butte with +perpendicular sides like the walls of a great building. Because of +the shape of this butte, and because it is composed mostly of a soft +rock or hard, firm clay, it is called Court-House Rock by the white +people. Of course it has other names among the Indian tribes of that +region. + +This great butte stands out boldly upon the high plain and can be seen +for many miles in all directions overlooking the Platte River. The top +is almost flat and all sides but one are almost vertical, and are bare +of vegetation, worn smooth by rain and by wind, impossible to climb. +But there is a way on one side by which a strong man can make his way +to the top. + +This high lonely butte stands on the borderland between the country of +the Pawnees and the country of the Dakotas. The Dakotas and the +Pawnees were almost always at war with each other. Many years ago a +Pawnee war party was camped near this butte when they were surprised +by a war party of Dakotas stronger in numbers than their own party. In +the fight which ensued the Pawnees were unable to drive their enemies +off, but were compelled to take refuge by climbing to the top of the +butte. The Dakotas were unable to follow the Pawnees upon the butte, +for the Pawnees were able to guard the single narrow path. But neither +could the Pawnees escape again upon the open plain for the Dakotas +securely guarded the descent and could easily kill one after another +all who might attempt to come down that way. So it seemed only a +question of time before all the Pawnees must die of hunger and thirst +upon the top of the rock, or come down and give themselves up to death +at the hands of their enemies. The camps of the Dakotas surrounded the +butte, laying siege to it to starve the Pawnees out. + +The Pawnees were in a woeful plight. As the sun rose and traveled +across the sky they could look away for miles and perhaps see flocks +of antelopes grazing upon the plain, while their own stomachs were +pinched with hunger; and some miles to the south they could see the +flashing sunlight gleaming upon the waters of the Platte River, while +close at hand, at the foot of the butte, they could see their enemies +eating and drinking, which could but serve to aggravate their own +hunger and thirst. And at night when the scorching sun had sunk in the +west they might look away to the eastward, in which direction their +homes lay many days' march distant in the beautiful and fruitful +valley of the Loup River; and as they looked the twinkling stars +appearing one by one near the eastern horizon must have made them +think of the evening camp fires of their home people. And at night the +grim chill of the rare air of the high butte gripped their bodies in +its clutch. And all the while they must be very vigilant against their +enemies to prevent being overtaken. They all suffered severely, but +the captain of the company suffered most of all; for added to the +bodily sufferings which he endured in common with his men, he also +suffered extreme mental anguish, for he felt his responsibility on +account of his men. Because they had trusted his leadership and had +put themselves under his orders it seemed that now they must all die a +horrible death. For himself he dreaded not death so much as to be the +cause of the loss of his brave men. To him this was far more bitter +than death. In the night-time he would go away from the others and +cry out in fervent prayer to Tirawa, begging His help, begging that He +would show him some way to save his men and bring them off safe. + +And while he was thus praying, he heard a voice saying, "Look +carefully and see if you can find a place where you shall be able to +climb down from this rock and save your men and yourself." So he +prayed earnestly all night, and when daylight came he went along the +edges of the butte looking carefully to see if there might be a place +where some way might be found by which to go down. At last he found a +jutting point of rock near the cliff edge, and standing above the +level. Below this point the cliff side was smooth and vertical. It +occurred to him that this point might be made a means of support from +which the men might let themselves down the face of the cliff by a +rope. When night came again, after he had posted the sentries to guard +the place of ascent from the enemy, he returned to the point of rock +and with his knife he cut away soft weathered rock at its base to make +a secure place of fastening for a rope. Then he gathered secretly all +the lariats which the company had. These he tied together and then, +tying one end securely to the rock which he had prepared, he carefully +paid out the rope and found to his joy that it reached the ground +below. He made a loop in the rope for his foot and then he let himself +slowly down to the ground, then he climbed back again. When night came +again he posted his sentries so that the enemy might see them at their +posts on the side of the butte above the path, but when darkness had +fully come they were all gradually withdrawn. Quietly calling his men +about him he explained his plan and told them how they might all save +themselves. He sent his men down by the rope, one after another, +beginning with the youngest and least important of the company, and so +on up to the men of most importance. Last of all the captain of the +company himself came down. He and all his men crept quietly in the +darkness through the Dakota lines and escaped safely. The Dakotas +directed their vigilance mainly toward the other side of the butte +where lay the only path, and that a very rugged one, between the base +and the summit. + +The Pawnees never knew how long the Dakotas kept watch about the rock. + + +A MANDAN MONUMENT IN COMMEMORATION OF AN ACT OF HEROISM + +It is a common instinct among all nations of the human race to +preserve relics and record memorials of notable persons and events. +Such monuments vary with the different means and materials at hand. +Sometimes mounds of earth, sometimes boulders, sometimes cairns of +stones, sometimes hewn stones, and various other devices have been +used according to circumstances. + +There exists a monument to the memory of a Mandan hero which has never +before been described and published. The following account is from +information given by several persons of the Mandan, Hidatsa and +Arikara tribes. The location of the monument is near the site of +"Fish-hook Village" on the north side of the Missouri River some +twelve or fifteen miles east of Elbowoods, North Dakota. + +During the middle part of the 19th century the three tribes, Arikara, +Hidatsa and Mandan, lived together in alliance against their common +enemies. Their chief enemies were the Dakota. So these three tribes +built their three villages adjoining, making one compound village of +three wards. The village lay upon a well-drained terrace of the +Missouri River, while their farms were laid out in the fertile +alluvial "bottom" along the river both above and below the village. To +the north of the village site lies a range of hills. + +The enemy many times made raids upon the village. They would approach +under cover of the hills to the north and then steal close upon the +village through the course of a ravine which skirted the northeast and +north sides of the village. + +About sixty-six years ago such an attack was made by a war party of +Dakota. Of the defenders of the village, two young Mandans, brothers, +named Lefthand and Redleaf, had been dismounted and their retreat cut +off by the enemy. A brother of these two, Whitecrow by name, saw the +danger of Lefthand and Redleaf and rode out to their assistance. +Lefthand was killed and Redleaf was defending the body from a Dakota +who was trying to take the scalp. Redleaf shot at the Dakota and +missed him, the bullet going over the enemy's head and striking into +the ground beyond him, the enemy being crouched low at the time of the +shot. Whitecrow rode in a circuit beyond these combatants and held off +the attacking party of the enemy. He killed the Dakota who was engaged +in combat with his brother Redleaf. Then Whitecrow picked up Redleaf +upon the horse with himself and carried him safely back to the +village. + +After the enemy had been driven away the Mandans went out and marked +the course in which Whitecrow had ridden to his brother's rescue, the +spot where Lefthand had been killed, the spot where Redleaf had made +his stand, the spot where the Dakota was killed, and the spot where +Redleaf's bullet fired at the Dakota, had struck the ground. The +method used for marking these places was by removal of the sod leaving +holes in the ground. To mark the course of Whitecrow's horse the sod +was removed in horse-track shaped sections consecutively from the +point of advance from the village round the place of combat and +returning to the village. The horse-track marks were made about two +feet in diameter. All these marks commemorating the entire action, +which took place about the year 1853 are still plainly evident, being +renewed whenever they tend to become obliterated by weathering and by +advancing vegetation. + + +THE LEGEND OF STANDING ROCK + +This story of Standing Rock is a legend of the Arikara who once had +their villages along the Missouri River between the Grand River and +the Cannonball River. Afterwards, being harrassed by hostile +incursions of the Dakotas they abandoned this country to their enemies +and moved farther up the Missouri River, joining themselves in +alliance with the Mandans. + +One time there was a young girl in this tribe who was beautiful and +amiable but not given to heedless, chattering, idle amusement. She +was thoughtful and earnest and conversant with the ways of all the +living creatures, the birds and the small mammals, and the trees and +shrubs and flowers of the woodlands and of the prairies. She was in +the habit of going to walk by herself to visit and commune with all +these living creatures. She understood them better than most other +people did, and they all were her friends. + +When she became of marriageable age she had many suitors, for she was +beautiful and lovely in disposition. But to the young men who wooed +her she answered, "I do not find it in my heart to marry any one. I am +at home with the bird people, the four-footed people of the woods and +prairies, with the people of the flower nations and the trees. I love +to work in the cornfields in summer, and the sacred squash blossoms +are my dear companions." + +Finally her grandmother reasoned with her and told her that it was her +duty to marry and to rear children to maintain the strength of the +tribe. Because of filial duty she finally said, when her grandmother +continued to urge her to marry a certain young man of estimable worth +who desired her for his wife, "Well grandmother, I will obey you, but +I tell you that good will not come of it. I am not as others are, and +Mother Nature did not intend me for marriage." + +So she was married and went to the house already prepared for her by +her husband. But three days later she came back to her mother's, +house, appearing sad and downcast. She sat down without speaking. +Finally her grandmother said, "What is it, my child? Is he not kind to +you?" The girl answered, "Oh, no, he is not unkind. He treated me +well." And with that she sped away into the forest. Her grandmother +followed her after a little while, thinking that out among her beloved +trees and plants she might open her heart and tell her what was the +trouble. And this she did, explaining all the trouble to her +grandmother. And she concluded her talk with her grandmother with +these words, saying: "And so you see, grandmother, it is as I said +when you urged me to marry. I was not intended for marriage. And now +my heart is so sad. I should not have married. My spirit is not suited +to the bounds of ordinary human living, and my husband is not to be +blamed. He is honorable and kind. But I must go away and be with the +children of nature." So her grandmother left her there where she was +sitting by a clump of choke-cherries, having her sewing kit with her +and her little dog by her side. + +She did not return home that night, so the next morning young men were +sent to search for her. At last she was found sitting upon a hill out +upon the prairie, and she was turned to stone from her feet to her +waist. The young men hastened back to the village and reported to the +officers who had sent them out. + +Then the people were summoned by the herald and they all went out to +the place where the young woman was. Now they found she had become +stone as far up as her breasts. + +Then the priests opened the sacred bundle and took the sacred pipe +which they filled and lighted and presented it to her lips so that +thus she and they in turn smoking from the same pipe might be put in +communion and accord with the spirit. But she refused the pipe, and +said, "Though I refuse the pipe it is not from disloyalty or because +of unwillingness to be at one with my people; but I am different by +nature. And you shall know my good will towards my people and my love +and remembrance of them always, for whoever in summer time places by +this stone a wild flower or a twig of a living tree in winter time or +any such token of living, wonderful Nature at any time, shall be glad +in his heart, and shall have his desire to be in communion with the +heart of Nature." And as she said these words she turned completely +into stone, and her little dog, sitting at her feet and leaning close +against her was also turned into stone with her. And this stone is +still to be seen, and is revered by the people. It is from this stone +that the country around Fort Yates, North Dakota, is called Standing +Rock. + + +THE HOLY HILL PAHUK + +Each of the nations and tribes of Indians had certain places within +its own domain which they regarded as sacred, and to which they +accordingly paid becoming reverence. These places were sometimes +watersprings, sometimes peculiar hills, sometimes caves, sometimes +rocky precipices, sometimes dark, wooded bluffs. Within the ancient +domain of the Pawnee nation in Nebraska and northwest Kansas there is +a cycle of five such sacred places. The chief one of these five mystic +places is called Pahuk by the Pawnee. From its nature it is unique, +being distinctly different from any other hill in all the Pawnee +country. Pahuk stands in a bend of the Platte River where the stream +flows from the west in a sweep abruptly turning toward the southeast. +The head of the hill juts out into the course of the river like a +promontory or headland, which is the literal meaning of the Pawnee +word "pahuk." The north face of the bluff from the water's edge to the +summit is heavily wooded. Among the timber are many cedar trees, so +that in winter, when the deciduous trees are bare, the bluff is dark +with the mass of evergreen cedar. The cedar is a sacred tree, so its +presence adds mystery to the place. The Pawnee sometimes also speak of +this hill as Nahura Waruksti, which means Sacred or Mysterious +Animals. This allusion to the Sacred or Mysterious Animals has +reference to the myth which pertains to this place. + +All the other tribes throughout the Great Plains region also knew of +the veneration in which this hill is held by the Pawnee, so they, too, +pay it great respect, and many individuals of the other tribes have +personally made pilgrimages to this holy place. The people of the +Dakota nation call it Paha Wakan, "the Holy Hill." + +The Pawnee speak of the animal world collectively as Nahurak. It was +believed that the interrelations of all living beings, plants, animals +and human beings, are essentially harmonious, and that all species +take a wholesome interest in each other's welfare. It was believed +also that under certain conditions ability was given to different +orders of living creatures to communicate with men for man's good. + +The before-mentioned five sacred places of the Pawnee country were +Nahurak lodges. Within these mystic secret places the animals, +Nahurak, held council. According to one version the names of the five +Nahurak lodges are Pahuk, Nakiskat, Tsuraspako, Kitsawitsak, and +Pahua. Pahuk is a bluff on the south side of the Platte River, a few +miles west of the city of Fremont, Nebraska; Nakiskat, (Black trees) +is an island in the Platte River near Central City, Nebraska, dark +with cedar trees; Tsuraspako (Girl Hill) is a hill on the south side +of the Platte River opposite Grand Island, Nebraska. It is called Girl +Hill because it was customary when a buffalo surround was made in its +vicinity for the young girls to stay upon this hill during the +surround. The hill is said to be in the form of an earth-lodge, even +to the extended vestibule. Kitsawitsak, which white people call +Wakonda Springs, is not far from the Solomon River near Beloit, +Kansas. The name Kitsawitsak means "Water on the bank." Pahua is said +to be a spring near the Republican River in Nebraska. Of these five +places Pahuk was chief, and the Nahurak councils of the other lodges +acknowledged the superior authority of the council at Pahuk. + +There are many stories of the wonderful powers resident in these +sacred places. One of these tells of the restoration to life of a boy +who had been killed. The story is that a certain man of the Skidi +tribe of the Pawnee nation desired to gain the favour of Tirawa +(Pawnee name of God). He thought that if he sacrificed something which +he valued most highly that Tirawa might grant him some wonderful gift. +There were so many things in the world which he did not understand, +and which he wished very much to know. He hoped that Tirawa might +grant him revelations, that he might know and understand many things +which were hidden from the people. He strongly desired knowledge, and +he thought that if he sacrificed his young son, who was dear to him, +and the pride of his heart, that Tirawa might take pity on him and +grant him his desire. He felt very sad to think of killing his son, +and he meditated a long time upon the matter. Finally he was convinced +in his own mind that Tirawa would be pleased with his sacrifice, and +that then the good gifts he desired would be given to him, and that +many things now dark to his understanding would be made clear, and +that he should have ability given him to do many things which were now +beyond his power. + +One day this man took his boy with him and walked out from the village +as though on some errand. They walked to the Platte River. After they +had gone a long distance from the village, as they were walking by the +riverside, no other persons being near, the man drew out his knife and +stabbed the boy so that he was quickly dead. The man then dropped the +body of the dead boy over the bank. After a time he returned to the +village, and went into his own lodge and sat down. After a while he +asked his wife "Where is the boy?" She said "Why, he went out with +you." The man said "I was out of the village, but the boy was not with +me." + +He went out and inquired of his neighbors, and then all through the +village, but of course the boy could not be found. Then for some days +a general search was made for the boy, but no trace of him was found. +After this the family mourned for the lost boy. It was now time for +the summer buffalo hunt, so in a few days the people set out for the +buffalo grounds, and the father and mother of the boy also went. + +After the boy's body was dropped into the river it was carried away +down-stream by the current, sometimes being rolled along in shallow +water at the edge of sandbars and again it would be turned over and +over in the whirlpool of some deep hole in the channel, for the Platte +River is a peculiar stream, having a swift current but a wide course +with deep holes and many sandbars. + +After a time the body floated down nearly to Pahuk. Two buzzards were +sitting on the edge of a bluff, gazing over the water. So, sitting +there, one of the buzzards stretched out his neck and looked up the +river. He thought he saw something in the water floating down-stream. +He stretched his neck again and looked, and turned to the other +buzzard and said "I see a body." Then they both looked towards the +object in the water, stretching out their necks and gazing intently. +They saw that the object was the body of the boy. The first one said +"What shall we do about this?" The second one said "Let us carry the +body down to Pahuk, to the hill where Nahurak Waruksti is." So they +both flew down to the floating body and got under it and lifted it +upon their backs and carried it to the top of the bluff called Pahuk, +over the secret cave of the Nahurak Waruksti, and there they placed it +upon the ground. Then the two buzzards stood quietly gazing upon the +body of the boy where they had laid it down upon the ground. + +This cave far under the hill was the council lodge of the animals. +There sat the councilmen of all kinds of animals and birds, great and +small, which were native to that country. There were the buffalo, the +beaver, elk, deer, antelope, otter, muskrat, wolf, bear, fox, wildcat, +badger, bean mice, and many other kinds of animals. And there were the +swan, the loon, goose, duck, wild turkey, prairie chicken, quail, +heron, bittern, crane, plover, kildeer, meadowlark, blackbird, owls, +hawks, swallows, crow, chickadee, woodpeckers, grackle, purple martin, +and many other kinds of birds. There were also snakes, turtles, toads +and frogs. These were the Nahurak people, the Nahurak Waruksti, the +Sacred Animals. And the kingfisher was a messenger and errand man for +the Nahurak council. + +Now it happened when the buzzards brought the body of the young man +and laid it down on the top of Pahuk, the kingfisher, who was flying +about over the river on business for the Nahurak, was flying by. He +stopped and looked at the body. He already knew all that had happened, +and he was moved with compassion for the boy. So he flew down at once +to the water at the foot of Pahuk and dived in at the entrance of the +Nahurak lodge. He spoke to the assembly of the Nahurak and told them +all that had happened and said in conclusion, "And the poor boy is up +there on the hill. I hope you will have pity on him and will do what +you can for him. I wish you would bring him to life again." When the +kingfisher, the messenger, had finished speaking the Nahurak held +serious council on the matter to decide what they should do. But after +they had meditated long on the question, and each had spoken, they +still could not decide the matter. The kingfisher urged the matter, +asking for a favourable decision, saying, "Come, do take pity on him +and restore him to life." But they could not come to a decision. At +last the chief of the council said, "No, messenger, we are unable to +decide now. You must go to the other Nahurak lodges and find out what +they have to say about it." The kingfisher said "I go," and flew +swiftly out from the lodge and up the river to Nakiskat, the Nahurak +lodge near Lone Tree. There he brought the matter before the council +and pleaded for the boy as he had done at Pahuk, and told them that he +was sent from Pahuk to ask the council at Nakiskat for their decision. +So the Nahurak here at Nakiskat talked over the matter, but at last +they said to the kingfisher "We are unable to decide. We leave it to +the council at Pahuk." + +Then the kingfisher flew to the lodge at Tsuraspako, then to +Kitsawitsak, and at last to Pahua, and at each place the Nahurak +council considered the matter carefully and talked about it, but at +each place the same answer was given. They all said "It is too much +for us. We cannot decide what should be done. It is for the council at +Pahuk to decide." + +After the messenger had visited all these lodges and had laid the +matter before all of them, receiving from each the same answer, he +flew as swiftly as he could back to the lodge at Pahuk and reported +what the other lodges had said. They all recognized the council at +Pahuk as the head council, and deferred the matter to them for +decision. But it had already been once considered by this council, so +the matter was now brought before the supreme council of Pahuk. This +was a council of four chiefs of the Pahuk council who sat as judges to +give final consideration and decision. These judges now reconsidered +the matter, and finally, when they had talked it over, they said to +the kingfisher, "Now, messenger, we will not decide this question, but +will leave it to you. You shall make the decision." + +The kingfisher very quickly gave his decision. He said "It is my +desire that this poor boy be restored to life. I hope you will all +have pity on him and do what you can for him." + +Then all the Nahurak arose and went out from the council lodge and +went up to the top of Pahuk where the body of the boy lay. They formed +in order and stood around the boy and prayed to the Higher Powers, and +at last the boy drew breath, then after a time he breathed again, then +his breath began to be regular. Finally he opened his eyes and sat up +and looked around in a confused manner. When he saw all the animals +standing around him he was puzzled and bewildered. He said to himself, +"Why, my father killed me by the riverside, but here I am in the midst +of this multitude of animals. What does it mean?" + +Then the head chief of the Nahurak council spoke to him kindly and +reassured him. He was asked to rise and go with the animals into the +council lodge. When all had gone in and were seated the four judges +conferred together, then the chief of the four stood up and said, "My +people, we have restored this boy to life, but he is poor and forlorn +and needy. Let us do something for him. Let us teach him all we know, +and impart to him our mysterious powers." The Nahurak were all +pleased at this proposal and manifested their approval. + +Then the Nahurak showed hospitality and kind attention to the poor boy +as their guest. He was shown a place to bathe and rest. When he had +rested, food was brought to him. So he was entertained and treated +kindly for the full season, and he was instructed by all the animals +in turn and they taught him their secret arts of healing and imparted +to him all their wonderful powers. So he remained with them at Pahuk +till autumn. + +Autumn is a beautiful season at Pahuk, and in all the region of the +Platte, the Loup, the Republican, and the Solomon rivers in Nebraska +and Kansas embraced by the cycle of the five Nahurak lodges. At that +season in that country the sun casts a mellow golden light from the +sky, while the land is emblazed with the brilliance of the sunflowers +and goldenrod. And then the air is quiet and restful. + +So one day at this season the Nahurak said to the boy, "It is now the +time when the swallows, the blackbirds, the meadowlarks, and other +kinds of birds will be gathering into flocks to fly away to the +south-land for the winter. The beavers are cutting trees and saplings +to store the branches under water for their winter food supply of +bark; they are also gathering into their houses certain kinds of roots +for food. The muskrats are repairing their houses and are storing in +them the tubers of the water-lilies and of the arrow-leaf and of other +kinds of plants for their winter supply. In the edge of the timber, +where the ground beans grow, the bean mice are making their +store-houses and filling them with ground beans and artichokes. And +your people have returned from the buffalo hunt with a good supply of +dried meat and hides. They are now busy at home gathering and storing +their crops of corn, of beans, and of squashes and pumpkins. We have +this past summer instructed you in our arts of healing and other +learning, and have imparted to you our mysterious powers, and have +taught you about our ways of living. You are now competent to use for +the good of your people the remedies and perform the mysteries which +were given to us by Tirawa, and which we have now given to you. So you +may now return to the village of your people. Go to the chiefs of the +village and tell them what the Nahurak have done for you, and say to +them that the people are to bring together gifts of dried buffalo meat +and dried corn and dried choke-cherries, and other kinds of food; of +robes and leggings and moccasins embroidered with porcupine quills; +and of tobacco for incense. All these things the people are to send by +you as gifts to the Nahurak at Pahuk in recognition of the favour +which the Nahurak showed to you." + +So the boy parted from his animal friends at Pahuk, and promised to +return and visit them, and to bring them presents to show his +thankfulness and the thankfulness of his people for what the animals +had done for him. He traveled on up the Platte River and reached the +village of his people in the night. He went to his father's house. He +found his father and mother asleep and the fire had burned low. There +was only a little light from the coals. He went to his mother's bed +and touched her shoulder and spoke to her to waken her. He said "It is +I. I have come back." When his mother saw him and heard his voice she +was surprised, but she was glad-hearted to see her boy again. So she +wakened the boy's father and told him the boy had come back. When the +father saw the boy he thought it must be his ghost, and he was afraid. +But the boy did not mention anything that had happened nor say where +he had been. He said only "I have come back again." + +The next day some of the people saw him, and they were surprised. They +told their neighbors, and soon it was rumored all over the village +that the boy had returned. They came where he was and stood around and +looked at him and asked him questions, but he told them nothing. But +he went to the chiefs of the village and made his report to them. +Afterwards he gave account to the people, saying, "I have been away +all summer with friends, with people who have been very good to me. +Now I should like to take them a present of dried meat and other good +things, so that we can have a feast. I beg you to help me, my +friends." So they brought together a quantity of the articles +required, and they chose some young men to go with him to help carry +the gifts to the people who had befriended him. + +So the boy and his companions went on the way towards the Nahurak +lodge at Pahuk. When they came near to the place the boy dismissed the +young men who had accompanied him, and they went back to the village. +Now the boy went on alone and met the kingfisher, the messenger of the +Nahurak, and sent word by him that he had come to visit the Nahurak, +and had brought presents from his people. So the boy was invited into +the lodge and all the Nahurak made sounds of gladness at seeing him +again. The boy brought in the presents which had been sent by his +people and they had a feast. After the feast they held a doctors' +ceremony. They reviewed all the things that the Nahurak had taught him +during the summer that he had spent with them. Then the boy was made a +doctor, and he was now able to do many wonderful things. + +After this the time came for the young man to return again to the +village of his people. The animals were thankful and gave praise to +Tirawa for the gifts which the young man had brought to them. And the +young man was thankful to the animals and he praised Tirawa for what +the animals had done for him. Then he returned to the village of his +people. He never told the people what his father had done to him. + +The young man lived a long and useful life among his people and +attained much honour. He did many wonderful things for his people and +healed them of their diseases and injuries. In time he gathered about +him a group of other young men, who, like himself, were of serious and +thoughtful mind, and who had desire toward the welfare of the people. +These young men became his disciples, and to them he taught the +mysteries which had been imparted to him by the animals of the lodge +at Pahuk. These wise men in turn taught other worthy inquirers, and +these again others; and so these mysteries and learning and the +healing arts have come down from that long-ago time to the present +among the Pawnee people. + + +THE LODGE OF THE BLACK-TAIL DEER WHICH TALKED WITH ITS CAPTOR + +North Dakota has a number of places to which attach interesting +legends and myths. One such place is a butte not far from Schmitt on +the south side of the Missouri River on the road between Mandan and +Cannon Ball. It is west of Eagle-beak Butte. + +The story of this butte is a Mandan myth. A long time ago the Mandans +lived in a village which was on a level place just north of the Bad +Water Creek, which white people call Little Heart River. At the west +of this place there is a range of high hills. The Mandans lived at the +Bad Water Village in the time long before white men had come across +the great water, so there were no horses in the country. The people +had no animals except dogs to help them carry their burdens. And of +course they had never heard of the thunder-irons (guns) which strike +and kill the deer and other game at long distance. So it was hard work +to obtain their supplies of meat and to carry the same home to their +houses. + +A man who lived in the Bad Water village had dug a deer pit in a place +among the hills west of the village and cunningly covered it over to +appear not different from the ground about it. By this means he hoped +to capture a deer whose flesh would be food for his family, and whose +skin would be useful for making clothing; whose sinew would be used +for thread, some of its bones to be used for making awls and needles, +others for other useful implements and tools. Its horns would be used +to make garden rakes for working the ground of his family's garden. + +One morning in autumn there had been a snowfall during the preceding +night, the first snowfall of the season. The man went out early in the +morning into the hills to look at his trap to see if it might have +caught something during the night. As he approached the place he saw +that the cover was broken through, and when he came near and looked in +he was rejoiced to see that he had captured a fine large black-tail +deer. + +Now when he came to the edge of the pit and looked down at his prize +the deer looked up at him and spoke to him, saying, "O, man, do not +kill me, but let me go free from the pit. If you release me you will +do well." The man was surprised to hear the deer speak to him like a +man, and he was disappointed to think of losing his prize. But he +thought to himself, "This is something mysterious, I must give heed; I +must not defy the Mysterious Power, but listen to the message; for it +must be that some Mysterious Power wishes to impart something to me +through this animal as its messenger." So as he thus hesitated in +doubt the deer again made its plea and requested to be set free. But +the man spoke of his duty to his family, who looked to him for food +and for clothing. Again the deer spoke and said, "Indeed you do well +to think of your family, and your endeavor to provide for them as well +as you can is prompted both by your love and duty. But I say to you +that you would do well if you allow me to go. If you do so, I promise +you that you will have success in hunting; you shall find game +abundant for the needs of yourself and family. And when war comes upon +your people you shall be victorious over the enemy. So shall you be +remembered among your people for bravery." + +The man gave heed to what the deer said to him, and he dared not +disobey the message which had come to him in this mysterious way. So +now he began to dig down the side of the pit so that the deer could +come out. When he had finished he said to the deer, "Now you may go." +Then the deer came up the incline from the pit and ran down across the +Bad Water Creek away toward the Eagle Beak Hill. As he ran the new +fallen snow flew behind him from his hoofs in a white cloud, and he +sang a song: + + "I was glad when I saw the first snow, + But I almost lost the sight of day." + +The man watched the deer as it ran and observed that when it +approached a conical butte west of Eagle-beak Butte that the butte +opened with a loud roaring sound and the deer entered and he saw it no +more, and then the butte closed again as before. + +The man went home pondering these things in his mind. As time passed +events came true as they had been promised to him in the message +spoken to him by the deer. He became renowned among his people for his +skill and success in the chase, for his generosity to the old people +and to the sick and poor, and he attained many honors for his deeds of +valour in warfare against the enemies of his people. + +Ever since that time the Mandans have called the butte into which the +deer disappeared after its release from the pit, The Lodge of the +Black-tail Deer. + + +THE WONDERFUL BASKET + +_A Mandan Story_ + +Indians of all tribes held the thought of the brotherhood of all +living nature, of the trees and flowers and grasses, of the fishes in +the waters, of the living things which creep or walk or run on the +land and of the birds which fly above the earth, and of human beings. +And they believed that human beings often gained wisdom and useful +information through dreams and visions in which the guardian spirits +of any of these other living creatures talked to them, revealing to +chosen, attentive and worthy persons, secrets of nature which were +hidden from the careless and unworthy. + +Among most tribes the cedar tree is considered to possess a property +of mystery and sacredness. For this reason twigs of cedar were often +burned as incense in a sacred fire for the purpose of driving away +evil influences. And if a person reclined under the shelter of cedar +trees the healing power and strength of their spirit would come to him +and his own spirit would thus gain composure and strength to meet +life's troubles. + +Once in the old times a woman was resting under a cedar tree. She was +weary from her work, and as the gentle wind sighed among the thick +green branches above her she dropped to sleep. While she slept the +cedar tree spoke to her in a soft murmuring voice, and the woman gave +heed to the words of the cedar tree. + +And this is what the cedar tree said to the woman: "Sister, if you +will dig down into the earth you will find there my slender, strong, +pliant roots. Take up some of these and weave them into a basket. You +shall find thereafter that some good shall come of it. It shall bring +good to you and to all women." + +So the woman did as she was told by the cedar tree. She took up the +slender roots and wove of them a basket. The basket was light but +strong, and so pliant that it could be rolled into a small bundle when +empty, though it was large enough to hold many things when it was +opened out. + +One day the woman took the basket with her and walked far out upon the +prairie where tipsin grew in abundance. She dug a quantity of the +sweet and wholesome roots to take home for food for herself and her +family. The tipsin roots grow so deep in the tough prairie sod that it +is hard work to dig them, so when she had filled her basket she was +very tired. She sat down to rest and sighed for very weariness, and +the tears came to her eyes. She said, "Alas! now I must carry home +this heavy load although I am already weary and faint." + +Then the basket whispered to her "Do not cry. Wipe away your tears; +bathe your hot cheeks with water at the brook; be glad, for I am your +friend." + +Then the woman wiped away her tears and went and bathed her cheeks and +brushed her hair. When she returned the basket seemed to smile. It +said to her "You were troubled for nothing. You forget what the cedar +tree said to you in your dreams. You were told that good would come to +you if you made a basket as you were instructed. Now you need not +carry your load; but sing and be glad and walk on to the village. I +shall come with you, carrying your load." + +So the woman went on her way home, singing from happiness, while the +basket kept by her side carrying the load of tipsin roots. + +As she came near the village the women knew by her happy singing voice +that some good thing had happened to her. Then as they looked up they +saw her coming, and with her was coming the wonderful basket carrying +the load. + +Then all her neighbors begged her to teach them how to make a +wonderful basket. So she taught them as she had been taught by the +holy cedar tree how to make a wonderful basket out of its tiny roots. + +And so, from that time, whenever a woman went out to gather June +berries or wild cherries, or raspberries, or wild plums or pembinas or +tipsin, or wild rice; or to their cultivated fields to gather corn or +beans, she was not obliged to carry the load home. When she was ready +she started towards the village singing, and the basket came with her +cheerfully carrying the burden. + +One day, long after this, a woman had found the winter store-house of +the hintunka people, which they make under-ground, and into which they +garner their store of food for the winter time. The hard-working +hintunka people put away in their store-houses quantities of wild +ground beans, various kinds of seeds and roots and tubers to provide +themselves food for the cold time when the ground is frozen and the +earth is covered with snow. + +It happened that the woman who found this store-house of the hintunka +people was one who was not considerate of the rights of other people. +She thought only that here was a quantity of food which was desirable +and easy to obtain. So she filled her basket with the wild ground +beans which are so delicious when cooked with bits of meat. She cared +not that it had cost the hintunka people many weary hours of hard work +to dig these beans and bring them together in this place, nor did she +care that without them the hintunka people, their old people and their +little ones, all would be left destitute of food and must perish from +famine. + +While she was filling her basket a poor little hintunka woman cried +pitifully and said, "This is our food. We have worked hard for it. You +ought not to rob us of it. Without it we shall die miserably of +hunger." But the woman took the beans and heeded not the pitiful +crying of the hintunka woman. She had filled her basket, and was +making ready to go home but there was no song in her heart. + +Then, while the filled basket sat there waiting a coyote standing near +by, laughed. At this the basket was vexed, and said, "You are rude. +Why do you laugh at me?" But the coyote only laughed all the more. +This annoyed the basket greatly, and made it feel very uneasy and +distressed, for it knew something must be wrong. And it said to the +coyote, "Do tell me why you laugh. What is it which is strange?" + +Then the coyote replied, "I laugh because you are so foolish. For a +long time you have been carrying burdens to the village while the +women go their way singing." + +But the basket said, "I am not foolish, I have the good spirit of the +cedar tree. I am willing to carry burdens to help the women. I am glad +when I hear their joyful singing." The coyote said, "But what do you +get for it, friend? You work like a slave. You receive nothing for it. +No one offers you a mouthful of food. When you rest for a time from +your labor you are not covered with a robe made beautiful with +quill-work. When you have carried burdens for a woman she merely hangs +you upon a peg on the wall till the next time she wishes you to carry +something for her." + +As the basket considered the things which the coyote said it began to +be discontented. It felt that it had been treated unfairly; that it +had no pay nor thanks for all it had done, and so the basket was +sulky, and refused to carry the load to the village, and the woman at +last had to take up the burden and carry it upon her back; and she +felt aggrieved and bitter because the basket would not carry it for +her. She did not consider that all the service she had ever had from +the basket was from kindness and good will and not from obligation. + +And ever since that time the women have had to carry burdens upon +their backs, for the baskets no longer carried burdens for them. + + +CAUSE OF THE BREAKING UP OF THE ICE IN THE MISSOURI RIVER IN +SPRINGTIME + +_A Myth of the Dakota Nation_ + +It is said that in the long ago there was a mysterious being within +the stream of the Missouri River. It was seldom seen by human beings, +and was most dreadful to see. It is said that sometimes it was seen +within the water in the middle of the stream, causing a redness +shining like the redness of fire as it passed up the stream against +the current with a terrific roaring sound. + +And they say that if this dreadful being was seen by anyone in the +daytime anyone who thus saw it soon after became crazy and continued +restless and writhing as though in pain until he was relieved by +death. And it is said that one time not a very great many years ago +this frightful being was seen by a man, and he told how it appeared. +He said that it was of strange form and covered all over with hair +like a buffalo, but red in color; that it had only one eye in the +middle of its forehead, and above that a single horn. Its backbone +stood out notched and jagged like an enormous saw. As soon as the man +beheld the awful sight everything became dark to him, he said. He was +just able to reach home, but he lost his reason and soon after that he +died. + +It is said this mysterious "Miniwashitu" (water monster) still lives +in the Missouri River, and that in springtime, as it moves up-stream +against the current it breaks up the ice of the river. This water +monster was held in awe and dread by the people. + + +THE WATER-SPRING OF THE HOLY MAN + +_A Myth of the Dakota Nation_ + +Long ago there was a village of people of the Dakota Nation, which was +situated on the east side of the great river which they call the +Muddy-Water River, but which white people call the Missouri River. The +white people named it so from the Missouri nation of Indians on the +lower course of this great river. + +This village we have just mentioned was on the east side of the river +nearly opposite to the mouth of the Cannonball River. The people were +happy in this village, for it was a pleasant place. There was plenty +of wood for their fires, and there was an abundance of buffalo +berries, wild plums, choke-cherries, June berries, wild grapes, wild +raspberries and other fruit growing in the woods. Upon the high +prairie there was much tipsin, whose roots are so good when cooked +with meat or with dried green corn. Moreover, in the timber were many +boxelder trees, whose sap was made into sugar in early spring time. +Not far away were some lakes where there were many wild ducks and +geese and other water fowl. The flesh of these fowl, and also their +eggs were good food. Upon the prairie were herds of buffalo and +antelope and elk, and in the timber along the river were many deer. + +And below the hills, on the level ground of the river valley there was +fertile soil where they planted their fields of corn and beans and +squashes. They also cultivated the great sunflowers whose seeds are so +good for food. + +And the people loved this place, for besides all the good things to +eat, and other comforts which it gave them, it was also pleasant to +look upon. There was the mysterious river coming down from the distant +mountains away in the west and flowing on towards the lands of other +nations of people in the south, and whose channel could be seen +winding its gleaming way among the dark trees on its shores. Upon the +prairie hills in early spring the courageous little pasque flowers +appeared like a gray-blue cloud let down upon the hill-tops where they +nodded their cheery greetings to the people who passed them. A little +later in the little vales were masses of deep blue violets. Still +later the prairie was bright with the colour and the air was sweet +with the breath of the wild rose of the prairie. The cheery +meadowlark, which the people call the bird of promise, flitted here +and there and called his greetings and promised good things to his +friends, the Dakota people. + +And through the procession of the seasons there were spread out before +their eyes on all sides scenes of beauty, changing with the change of +seasons and changing every day, indeed the beauties of colour and +light and shade were changing at every stage of the day from the rosy +dawn till the blue shades of evening came. + +Yes, it was a delightful land and the people rejoiced in it. But a +strange thing happened which caused the people to move away to a far +distant place. And this is the way it happened: + +There was living in this village an old man, a wise man, a man who was +held in great respect by the people, for he was a holy man, to whom +the Unseen Powers granted knowledge not given to all the people. And +these revelations came to the holy man in visions. + +This holy man was now too old and feeble to till the soil and raise +crops of food plants, or to go on the chase for game, or to gather any +of the wild food plants. But because they held him in honor the young +men were glad to provide for him, and the women cooked for him of the +best they had. + +But one time he had a vision which made him very sad, so that he could +only cry and weep and could not speak of his vision for sadness of +heart. And the people besought him to tell them his vision, for, they +said, "if it is a vision of evil to come, we may as well know the +worst. We ought to be prepared for it." For a long time the old man +could not bring himself to tell them the evil foreboding which had +come to him. But at last, when they continued strongly urging him to +tell them what it was, he said: "Well, my children, I will tell you +the vision, for it may be that I shall not live long. This vision has +come to me from the Mysterious and Awful Powers, and it is full of +evil portent for our people." But now he was again so overcome by +sadness that he was unable to tell it. + +Again, after some days the people begged him to tell the vision, and +they pressed him so urgently that finally he said: "This is what I saw +in my vision, which has come to me repeatedly. I saw a great incursion +of human beings of strange appearance. They are coming from the +direction of the rising sun and are moving toward this land in +multitudes so great that they cannot be counted. They move everywhere +over the face of the land like the restless fluctuations of heated air +which are sometimes seen incessantly wavering over the heated prairie +on a summer day. They are moving on resistlessly toward us and nothing +can stop them, and they will take our land from us. They are a +terrible people and of a monstrous appearance. The skin of this +people is not of a wholesome color like the skin of our people who are +born of our holy mother earth. Their skin is hideous and ghastly, and +the men have hairy faces like the face of a wolf. They are not kind +like our people; they are savages, cruel and unfeeling. They have no +reverence for our holy places, nor for our holy mother earth. And they +kill and destroy all things and make the land desolate. They have no +ear for the voices of the trees and the flowers, and no pity for the +birds and the beasts of the field. And they deface and spoil the +beauty of the land and befoul the water courses. + +"And they have many dreadful customs. When a person dies the body is +not honorably laid upon a funeral scaffold on the prairie or in the +branches of a tree in the forest as we do, but they dig a hole in the +ground and put the body down into the hole and then fill the hole up +again, throwing the dirt down upon the body. And they have strange and +powerful weapons, so that when they come our people will not be able +to withstand them. It is this dreadful vision which has overcome me +with sadness." + +Then the people were amazed and angry. They tried to have him change +his vision, but he could not. Again the same vision came to him. The +leading men now counseled and gave the order that the people should +give him no more food for some days. They said, "Perhaps he will have +a different vision." So he was left alone in his tent for four days. +And on the fourth day when they came to his tent they found him dead. +They had not intended to cause his death, but they hoped that if they +let him become very hungry he would change his vision. + +Now when they found him dead they were shocked and astonished and very +angry. They said, "Now the evil which he foretold will come, for he +died without changing his vision." And they said "We will not bury him +honorably upon a scaffold according to our custom, but we will bury +him in a hole in the ground, as he said his 'wandering people' bury +their dead." So they dug a hole and into this they put the body of the +old man and put the earth back again upon the body. + +At evening some women were gazing out across the river in the +twilight, and they saw a man come up out of the river and advance +toward the village. When he came nearer they saw it was the holy man +who had died and whose body had been buried in a hole in the ground. +When he died he had changed from this life to the life of those who +dwell in "The Land of Evening Mirage." From the place where they +buried him he had gone out under the ground and had come up out of the +water of the river. Now when he came up out from the water he was +changed back again to the life on earth. From this it was evident to +all the people that he was indeed a very holy man, and that his vision +was true and must come to pass. They gave him a good dwelling and +provided for all his needs, and the women cooked for him the best food +they had, and every one did homage to him and paid him reverence. + +After a time he knew that the end of his life was approaching, and as +he was about to die he called the leading men about him and said, "The +vision which I had will truly come to pass in future time. Now I am +about to die. When I am dead let me be buried in the ground again at +the place where I was buried before. You will see that some good thing +will come of it for our people at this place. And it shall be good for +all people at this place forever." When he said something good would +come they thought he meant that the people should be saved from the +cruel and savage, strange, pale-skinned people of his vision, but that +was not what he meant. + +When the holy man was dead they would have preferred to give him +honorable scaffold burial as was customary, but they did as he had +directed and buried him in the ground where he had been buried before. +But this time, they dug out a roomy place, and made walls and a roof +with timbers, and in this place they put the body of the holy man +after dressing him in the best of garments decorated with porcupine +quill embroidery, and wrapped in a fine buffalo robe painted with +beautiful designs. And they placed with him his pipe and tobacco and +food and valuable presents of all kinds. Then they covered it all over +with earth again and set the sod as it was before. + +At evening they watched the place in the river where he had reappeared +the other time after his burial. They thought he might return again +out of the water of the river, but he did not come. And they listened +above the little house they had made for him under the ground, but +they heard not the slightest sound of breathing or any movement. Then +they made a sacred fire by the grave from twigs of the cedar tree, for +this tree is holy and sacred to the Good Powers and the breath of its +fire will bring persons of good intention into communion with those +Unseen Powers. But the holy man did not appear by the sacred fire and +he was never seen again by any of the people. + +Now the people became so burdened with sadness that they could not +endure to remain at this place, so they moved far away, where they +found another good country. In this new place they stayed until all +the people who were grown at the time they left the village of the +holy man's grave, had become old and had died. And none had ever been +back there. Then, when all those who were but boys and girls when they +left the former village had now become old men and women, their tribe +began to suffer harrassment from an enemy people of another tribe. +Their enemies were too strong for them, so they had to think of moving +to another place. And so it came into their minds to return to the +place by the Muddy-Water River, where they had lived at the time when +those of their people who were now old had been merry, happy children. + +So they came back, and before they had reached the place the old men +said, "Let us go on ahead and see the grave of the holy man." And when +the old men came to the place where the holy man had been buried they +found that a spring of good water issued from the place where the holy +man's grave had been. And that is why we call this spring "The Holy +Man's Waterspring." + +And it is said that now a bright star is often seen shining over this +spring for a while and that it then goes down and disappears into the +water of the spring. And it is said that sometimes when the moon is +full and bright the holy man may be seen walking near the spring. +When one approaches to speak to him he disappears into the spring. Not +all persons can see these things, but only those whose hearts are kind +and gentle, and whose minds are in accord with Nature, and who have +reverence for holy things and for the beauties and mysteries in +Nature. + + +THE SACRED SYMBOL OF THE CIRCLE + +To the Dakotas the form of the circle is a sacred symbol because Great +Spirit caused everything in nature except stone to be round. Stone is +the implement of destruction. The sun, the earth and the moon are +round like a shield, and the sky is round like a bowl inverted over +the earth. All breathing creatures are round like a human body. All +things growing out of the ground are round, as the trunk of a tree or +the stem of an herb. The edge of the world is a circle, hence the +circle is a symbol of the world and of the winds which travel to us +from all points on the edge of the world. The sun and the moon which +mark the day and the night travel in a circle above the sky; for this +reason the circle is a symbol of these divisions of time, and of the +year, and so is the symbol for all time. + +Raindrops are round, and so are the drops of dew hanging like strings +of beads upon the grass blades. Pellets of hail and of sleet are +round. Every snowflake has a centre from which lines radiate as from +the centre of a circle. The rainbow, which beautifies the sky after +showers, is round. + +Because Great Spirit has caused almost all things to be round it is +for us a sacred symbol; it reminds us of the work of Great Spirit in +the universe. And for this reason Dakotas make their tipis round; and +in laying a camp the tipis are set in a circular line; and in all +ceremonies they sit in a circle. + +The circle is a symbol of the tipi and of shelter and comfort. In +decorative figures the undivided circle is a symbol of the world and +of time. If the circle be filled with red it is a symbol of the sun; +if filled with blue it is a symbol of the sky. If the circle be +divided into four parts it is a symbol of the four winds. + +The mouthpiece of a pipe should always be passed about the circle and +offered to the four directions before it is formally smoked. + + +THE SACRED NUMBER FOUR + +It appears that Great Spirit caused everything in the world to be in +fours; for this reason mankind's activities of all kinds should be +governed by the number four out of respect to this sacred number and +in agreement with it. + +We see that there are four directions: the north, the east, the south, +and the west; four divisions of time: the day, the night, the moon, +and the year; there are four seasons: the spring, the summer, the +autumn, and the winter; there are four parts to everything that grows +from the ground: the roots, the stems, the leaves, and the fruits; +four kinds of things that breathe: those that crawl, those that fly, +those that walk on four legs, and those that walk on two legs; four +things above the world: the sun, the moon, the sky, and the stars; +four kinds of gods: the great, the associates of the great, the gods +below them, and the spirit kind; four periods of human life: infancy, +youth, adulthood, and old age; mankind has four fingers on each hand, +four toes on each foot, and the thumbs and big toes of each taken +together make four. + +All these tokens of the works of Great Spirit should cause mankind to +order his ceremonies and all activities so far as possible by this +sacred number. + + +THE PRISTINE PRAIRIE + +To obtain even an approximate appreciation of the conditions of life +as they presented themselves to the people of the nations which +formerly occupied the region drained by the Missouri River and its +tributaries we must bring ourselves to see it as it was in its natural +condition, void of all the countless changes and accessories which we +have erected here by our European culture and custom. + +Imagine, then, a country of open prairie stretching away and away +beyond the range of vision over hill, valley, and plain, the skyline +unbroken by trees, except a fringe along the course of the streams. +The aspect of this landscape in summer was that of a boundless sea of +shining green, billowing under the prevailing south wind, darkened +here and there by the swiftly marching shadows of clouds sailing high +and white in the brilliant blue sky. Toward the end of summer the sun +appears to have shed some of its lustre upon the plain below, for it +now shines with a paler light, while the ever restless, rustling, +whispering sea of grass waves in rolling billows of golden green, +seeming to be forever flowing on before the south wind into the +mysterious North, changing again into yellow and warm brown as autumn +comes on. + +Then it may happen some day that the whole aspect is suddenly changed. +Fire has escaped in the sea of dry grass. To the windward the horizon +is one long line of smoke, which, as it comes nearer, rolls up in +black masses shot through with darting tongues of angry red flames +leaping a hundred feet skyward, while the sound of the conflagration +is like that of a rushing storm. Frightened animals are fleeing before +it in terror for their lives and birds are flying from the threatened +destruction. + +This scene passes, and now the whole visible earth is one vast stretch +of coal black, and the whole sky is a thick blue haze in which the sun +seems to hang like a great red ball, while an unbroken silence +pervades the land. + +Then winter comes with days of leaden sky and blackened earth, +succeeded by clear days when the snow-covered earth appears like a +vast white bowl encrusted with frost-diamonds and inclosed by an +over-arching dome of most brilliant blue. + +Again the season changes; warm airs blow from the south; soft showers +fall; the sound of the first thunder wakens all Nature; the blackened +earth appears once more, soon showing color from the pale green spears +of tender young grass, and in a short time the form of Mother Earth is +once more clothed in a mantle of shining green. + +And now as the biting winds of winter yield to the balmy breezes from +the south all the vernal flora is quickened into life and beauty. The +modest blue violets appear in such profuse abundance that they seem +like shreds of the sky wafted by the spring breezes over the land and +drifted into every swale and ravine. On the upland the purple flowers +of the buffalo pea show themselves; in sandy places of the Middle +Great Plains the dainty lavender blue bonnets of the early wind-flower +are trembling in the breeze. In the Northern Great Plains the snow is +scarcely gone before the pasque flowers, first gladsome harbingers of +the lovely hosts to follow, troop forth over the bleak hillsides, +"very brave little flowers," the Cree Indians say, "which come while +it is still so cold that they must come wearing their fur coats." This +is in allusion to the furry appearance of the pasque flower. + +And as the floral life manifests itself all the native faunal life is +also awakened to renewed activity. The migratory birds are seen and +heard flying northward by relays in hundreds of thousands. The course +of the Missouri River marks upon the earth the chart by which they +direct their northward flight toward their summer homing places. The +Arkansas River, the Kansas, the Platte, the Niobrara and the White +River are relay stations of their journey, and the countless V-shaped +flocks coming northward in long lines wheel, circling down until +tracts many acres in extent are whitened by the great numbers of snow +geese, while the Canada geese in equal numbers darken other tracts; +ducks in great numbers are swimming on all the ponds and quiet +streams, and regiments and brigades of tall gray cranes are +continually marching and counter-marching on land or sailing like +fleets of monoplanes far up in the clear blue, whence float down to +earth the vibrant notes of their bugle calls as they travel on into +the North. On the higher prairies at sunrise as the long rays of the +red morning sun slant brightly across the land the booming, drum-like +sound of hundreds of prairie chickens is heard at their assemblies, +for at this season they dance the mating dance at the sunrise hour. +Soon the meadowlarks, "the birds of promise," appear, singing their +songs of promise of good things for their friends, the human beings; +and they set about the duties of housekeeping, building their lowly +nests at the grass roots, and all about are scenes of brightness and +sounds of gladness. + +It was in such a country as this, then, that the people of the several +different native nations who were here before us lived and took joy of +the good gifts of Mother Earth and from their own activities, and in +all the beauty of this good land. And they loved this land for all its +good gifts and for its beauty, and for these and for its mystery and +grandeur they paid reverence. + + +[Illustration: {Map to Show Aboriginal Agriculture}] + +ABORIGINAL AMERICAN AGRICULTURE + +_See Map. Vertical lines indicate region under agriculture by natural +rainfall. Horizontal lines indicate region farmed under irrigation. +Both regions were settled in permanent villages._ + +Most people of this country, of the now dominant European race, seldom +give a thought to the aboriginal economic conditions which prevailed +here before this country was Europeanised. They seldom think of the +precolumbian utilisation of the natural resources of this continent by +the people of the native American race. They do not consider the +myriad possible uses of plants and plant products by the people of the +native tribes. Most persons of our European race in arrogant +self-satisfaction have not been accustomed to think of those of the +American race as agriculturists at all, much less have we given +thought to the contributions made by that race to the world's +agriculture. But according to the United States crop report of 1916 +the value of the crops in this country alone, of plants which were +first brought under cultivation by Indians, is $3,000,000,000. + +No doubt the beginnings of agriculture, with our own European race and +with every race, was simply the gathering and storing of supplies of +wild plant products, and proceeded by the stages of intentional +dissemination and cultivation, selection and improvement of stock into +myriad varieties. + +When European explorers first visited the Atlantic shores of America +they found the native tribes to be agriculturists, living in villages +of permanent houses, and with their cultivated fields stretching about +the villages. And as the explorers advanced into the interior of the +continent they found similar conditions to prevail as far as to and +including the Missouri River valley. So it was found that in all the +region from the Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence River, the Great +Lakes and the region of the upper Missouri river all the various +Indian nations were settled agriculturists. On the High Plains and in +the western mountains the tribes could not cultivate the soil because +of the unfavorable conditions. + +The crops cultivated by the tribes in the region above defined +consisted of corn, beans, squashes and pumpkins in many varieties, +gourds, sunflower, and tobacco. According to the testimony of some of +the early explorers it appears that in the southeastern part of the +continent they also cultivated sweet potatoes and peanuts. It may be +said that the sunflower is native to the western plains and was there +brought under cultivation and improved to what we have as the +cultivated sunflower and was distributed throughout the region from +the Great Plains to the Atlantic coast. The other crops above named +were introduced from the south many centuries ago from Mexico. Their +wild ancestors grow there, which would indicate that there they were +first brought into domestication by cultivation and improvement of the +wild stock. All evidence from every source seems to point to the +plateau of southeast Mexico as the place of origin of corn. It seems +to have been originally a large, coarse wild grass with seeds which +were at least large enough to furnish an article of food when gathered +in quantity. The botanical evidence would indicate that it was a +branched stalk and that all the branches and the terminal alike bore +loose panicles of seeds, not in compact ears as we now know the corn +ear. But ages of cultivation and selection by obscure and forgotten +tribes of primitive farmers have produced a plant which bears its +staminate flowers generally on the terminal and its pistillate flowers +on side branches modified into what we know as the corn ear. Not only +had the above-described modification taken place in the process of +long ages of cultivation and selection, but the five great types of +corn had been formed and developed into innumerable varieties of each +type prior to the advent of white men on this continent. The five +types to which I have referred are dent corn, flour corn, flint corn, +sweet corn, and pop corn. Dent corn was obtained first by white men +from the Indians of Virginia in the beginning of the seventeenth +century at the first settlement of that colony by the English. The New +England tribes had flint corn, flour corn, and sweet corn, and pop +corn, but not dent corn. The tribes of the upper Missouri River had +flint corn, flour corn and sweet corn. + +The Arikara and Mandan on the upper Missouri were the great +agricultural tribes of this region. Omaha legend credits the Arikara +with first having corn and with having distributed to other tribes. +And the common pictograph to represent the Arikara among all the +surrounding tribes was a conventionalised ear of corn. In the sign +language also the surrounding tribes designated the Arikara by a +motion of the hands depicting the act of shelling corn, or by the +motions of eating an ear of corn. Washington Matthews says: "There are +some reasons for believing that the Arikara represent an older race of +farmers than the Mandan; for their religious ceremonies connected with +the planting are the more numerous, and they honor the corn with a +species of worship." And it is the work of these northern tribes in +past centuries in acclimating corn to the short northern summer with +its cool nights which has made it possible for the states of North +Dakota, Montana and Minnesota now to be corn-producing states; for +acclimation is a long and gradual process and was accomplished during +a northward migration from Mexico which occupied many centuries of +time. + +In the arid region of what is now New Mexico and Arizona the work of +agriculture was carried on by means of irrigation ages before the +coming of white men, and the old irrigation ditches made by the +primitive Indian farmers of that region may still be traced--irrigation +works made without other power than human muscles and without the use +of iron; the shovels used being made of bone. + +The world is indebted to the aboriginal American agriculturists not +only for all types of corn which we now have, but also for all kinds +of beans, for pumpkins and squashes, cultivated sunflowers, sweet +potatoes, peanuts, and many other crops among our present day staples. + +A great handicap to the primitive American farmer was the lack of iron +tools; for they had no iron before the coming of white men. Another +handicap was the absence of horses. The horse was not native to the +western hemisphere, and was first introduced by the Spaniards. +Previously the only beast of burden in North America was the dog. So +the cultivation of the ground was entirely handwork; and the tool most +in use was a hoe made from the shoulderblade of the buffalo or of the +elk. One may imagine the immense labor which was required to develop +and extend the above-named crops over the continent, acclimated and +ready to our hand when we arrived in the New World. + + +THE EARTH-LODGE + +As an example of the modifying power of geographic influence exercised +upon the arts, we may consider the style of architecture or +domiciliary structure prevailing in the Plains region. In each +geographic province, which also constitutes a culture area, the style +of housing is different according to natural resources and climatic +conditions. In the Plains area the permanent dwelling was the +earth-covered structure; while the temporary dwelling was the skin +tent. + +The earth-covered house seems to be an evolution from the thatched +house of the southern plains, exemplified in the dwellings of the +Wichitas. Farther north the exigencies of the climate suggested the +addition of an earth covering. + +All the nations and tribes of the Missouri, of whatever racial stock, +employed the same style of dwelling. In order to effect the +construction of an earth-covered house, a circle of the desired +diameter was stripped off from the surface soil. Four tall, strong +forked posts were set in the center about 8 or 10 feet apart in a +quadrangle. Beams were laid on these forks. Outside of the center +posts a circle of shorter posts was set and beams laid in their forks. +Rafters were laid from the lower to the upper beams. A wall of timbers +was leaned up against the circle of lower beams, the base of the +leaning timbers resting upon the ground. An opening was left at the +east, and here was made a vestibule 6 to 14 feet long. + +Timbers were laid upon the rafters, willow poles were laid upon the +timbers, and a thatch of dry grass upon these poles. A covering of +earth was now built up about the walls and over the roof to a total +thickness of about 2 feet, making, when complete, a dome-shaped +structure. + +All structural timbers and poles were fastened by tying with ropes of +raw hide or of basswood or elm fiber. + +An opening of several feet in diameter was left at the top of the dome +for a skylight, ventilator, and smoke-escape. The fireplace was at the +center of the earth floor; the sleeping compartments were ranged about +next to the wall. The altar was at the west side, opposite the +doorway. + +The diameter of the house varied, according to the needs of the family +which occupied it, from 30 to 50 or 60 feet; the height from 15 to 20 +feet. This was a family domicile and not a community or tenement +house. Such family dwellings were clustered in villages. The evidences +of many such village sites may be seen throughout all the region of +the Missouri River drainage basin. Their fields of agricultural crops +were cultivated in alluvial valleys usually near the villages, +although sometimes, when suitable land was not nearby, their fields +might be at some distance. + +The earth-covered house probably originated with the tribes of Caddoan +stock, that is, the Pawnee and Arikara, and was adopted by the tribes +of other stocks upon their migration into the Missouri River region. + +The Pawnee had very elaborate ceremonies and traditions connected with +the earth-lodge. The earlier star cult is recognized in the +signification attached to the four central posts. Each stood for a +star--the Morning Star, and the Evening Star, symbols of the male and +female cosmic forces, and the North and South stars. + +In the rituals of the Pawnee the earth-lodge is made typical of man's +abode on the earth; the floor is the plain, the wall the horizon, the +dome the arching sky, the central opening the zenith, the +dwelling-place of Tirawa, the invisible power which gives life to all +creatures. + +In the poetic thought of the Pawnee the earth was regarded as Mother +and was so called because from the earth's bounty mankind is fed. To +their imagination the form of the earth-lodge suggests the figure of +speech by which these human dwellings symbolised the breasts of Mother +Earth; for here man is nourished and nurtured, he is fed and sheltered +and blessed with tenderness of life. Here he knows love and warmth and +gentleness. + +Herewith is given a metrical translation of an ancient Pawnee +ritualistic hymn. This hymn is extracted from the ritual of a +ceremonial of great age in the Pawnee nation, and there were similar +ceremonials among all the tribes and nations of the Plains area. The +full ritual from which this is taken is published in the Twenty-second +Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, part 2. + +Having given the description of the structure of the earth-lodge, the +allusions in the following hymn will be readily understood: + +HYMN TO THE SUN + + I + + Now behold: hither comes the ray of our father Sun; it cometh + over all the land, passeth in the lodge, us to touch, and + give us strength. + + II + + Now behold: where alights the ray of our father Sun; it touches + lightly on the rim, the place above the fire, whence the + smoke ascends on high. + + III + + Now behold: softly creeps the ray of our father Sun; now o'er the + rim it creeps to us, climbs down within the lodge; climbing + down, it comes to us. + + IV + + Now behold: nearer comes the ray of our father Sun; it reaches now + the floor and moves within the open space, walking there, the + lodge about. + + V + + Now behold where has passed the ray of our father Sun; around the + lodge the ray has passed and left its blessing there, touching + us, each one of us. + + VI + + Now behold: softly climbs the ray of our father Sun; it upward + climbs, and o'er the rim it passes from the place whence the + smoke ascends on high. + + VII + + Now behold on the hills the ray of our father Sun; it lingers + there as loath to go, while all the plain is dark. Now has + gone the ray from us. + + VIII + + Now behold: lost to us the ray of our father Sun; beyond our sight + the ray has gone, returning to the place whence it came to + bring us strength. + + +DESCRIPTION OF THE TIPI + +The temporary dwelling used for traveling was a conical tent made from +buffalo skins erected on a frame of poles. It commonly had about +twenty poles averaging twenty-five feet in length. The poles were set +in a circle about fifteen feet in diameter, held together above by a +hide rope wound round the whole set of poles about four feet from the +upper ends. Three poles were first tied together, then the others were +laid in the forks of these, then the rope was passed round all of them +and tied. The cover was from fifteen to eighteen buffalo hides cut and +fitted so that when sewn together with sinew thread, they formed a +single large sheet nearly semi-circular in shape. This was lifted into +place by a special pole at the back of the structure, then the ends +were brought around to the front and fastened by means of eight or ten +small wooden pins at intervals from the door to the crossing of the +poles. The bottom was kept in place by pegs about two feet apart +around the circle. The door was usually a piece of skin stretched over +an elliptical frame. + +At the top an opening was left for ventilation and outlet for the +smoke of the fire. The draft was regulated by two flaps or wings +supported each on a movable pole slanted alongside the tipi with its +base on the ground and its top fastened to the apex of the smoke-flap. +This held the draft open to the side away from the wind and was moved +according to the changes of the wind so as always to be open to the +lee side. + +The beds were at the sides and the back of the tipi. Decorated +curtains above the beds kept off any drops of rain which might come +through the smoke-hole in rainy weather. The ground was the floor, the +part near the beds sometimes cut off from the open space by a hedge of +interwoven twigs. + +In warm weather the bottom of the tipi was raised to allow the breeze +to pass through. In cold weather the bottom was banked with grass to +keep out the wind. + +The camp was arranged in a circle, each band of the tribe having its +own proper segment of the circle, which was relatively the same +through immemorial generations, and each family in each band had its +proper place in the segment, so that one coming into camp after +nightfall, although he might not have been in camp before, could thus +unfailingly find his way to his own family. + +On account of its exact adaptability to prairie life, the tipi was +taken as the model of the army tent which bears the name of General +Sibley, and is used now by our army. + + +AN OMAHA GHOST STORY + +In the springtime a little child had died and was buried on the hill +southeast of the village. The hill was green with the prairie grass +and spangled with the beautiful wild flowers of the prairie. On the +north and east the forest ascends the slope from the Missouri River +valley to the crest of the hill, partly encircling the burial place +with a rampart of green trees in which were numbers of happy birds, +busy with their nest-building and tuneful with their joyful songs. + +Not long after the death of this little child the people went upon the +annual summer buffalo hunt to the Sand Hill region many miles away to +the west from the village. As the people drew away from the familiar +home scenes of the village the mother was strongly affected by a +feeling of sadness and grief for her little one which she had to leave +alone in its lone and narrow bed upon the hill. When the people made +camp and the evening meal was prepared this mother was so burdened +with grief for her child that she could not eat and went away to +grieve alone. When she left the camp she was so drawn by yearning for +her little one that she walked on and on all night toward the home +village. In the morning, weak and weary, she was back in the deserted +village. All was still. Not a person and not a dog was there. She went +into her own house. Then she went through the village to other houses. +At some deserted fireplace she happened to find some coals; so she was +able to kindle a fire and cook a bit of food. She sat in her house and +wailed for her baby. After a time she heard sounds. She listened and +there seemed to be whispers and murmurs all about her. And so it +continued day after day. At first she saw nothing, but heard the +murmurs and whispers, and gradually she could almost understand what +the whispers said, especially when she fasted. She made out enough to +know that it was the spirits of the departed, who, in the absence of +the living, returned to occupy the houses during the absence of the +people. + +After a time she became able to understand more of what the ghosts +said, and finally she could talk with them in their own manner. Their +speech was not like the speech of living people; there was no voice, +but slight whispering sounds, as one sometimes hears among the grass +on the prairie when all is still, or among the leaves of growing corn, +or the light rustling of the cottonwood leaves on a quiet evening. + +At first the woman saw nothing, though she could hear the whispering +speech like the breathing of those who sleep. Later she could see, as +it seemed, feet moving about on the floor, but nothing above the feet. +As she looked she could see nothing between herself and the opposite +walls of the house. Then, after a time, she seemed to see not only the +moccasins but the leggings above them as far as the knees, but she +never saw any more. And thus it was with her during all the time she +dwelt there alone with the spirits until her people returned to the +village. + +This time it happened the people did not return for a year. When the +woman had disappeared from the camp on their first night out the +people supposed she had gone out somewhere to be alone to weep and +pray, but when she did not return they sought for her, and not being +able to find any trace of her they supposed some accident had befallen +her and that she was dead. They were much surprised to find her at +home when they returned to the village at the end of a year. But when +they spoke to her they found that she was mute; she moved her lips, +but no sound came. After some days she recovered speech and again took +up her accustomed life with her people. + +During the year in which she lived alone in the deserted village she +had planted and harvested a crop and had lived by that and by what +food may have been left in the storage places and from the wild +products which she gathered. + + +AN OMAHA HERO SONG + +All American tribes had many different classes of songs. One class of +songs was in praise of tribal heroes. There were also songs of +chivalry, celebrating brave and generous deeds. To this class belongs +the one given herewith. It must be said in explanation that all Indian +songs are very brief. They comprise only a line or two and the meaning +of the song is known by the story which is its foundation. To +understand this particular song it must be explained that a common +military custom among the tribes was to award certain honors for +certain exploits, just as we see in our own armies the awarding of the +Victoria Cross, the Distinguished Service Medal, the Military Medal, +the Croix de Guerre, etc. In the Omaha tribe the highest military +honor was awarded for getting near enough to the enemy to touch an +enemy body, either with a lance, a bow, or any object in the hand. + +There was an old warrior of this tribe, named Yellow-wood Bow, who had +fought well and won many honors in his time. But he was now old and no +longer able to fight for his people. But one day when an attack had +been made on his people by the enemy and the young men were fighting +valorously, the old man went out walking feebly toward the field of +conflict to see the battle, for he was unable to sit quietly in the +village while the fighting was going on. It happened that as he +approached the battlefield two young men were just about to count +their honors by striking with a lance the body of a slain enemy when +one saw the old warrior, Yellow-wood Bow approaching. He held back and +spoke to his comrade in the words "Hold! Yellow-wood Bow is coming!" +So the young men gave over the opportunity of counting the honor for +themselves in order that the highly respected old warrior might have +this one more chance to gain an honor, one more honor to his long list +of honors. And the generosity of these two young men is praised in the +song: + + "Hold! Yellow-wood Bow is coming!" + +In singing this song not only do the people award praise and glory to +bravery and courage, but the virtue of renunciation shown by the young +men also receives its measure of praise. The song has the purpose to +inculcate emulation of bravery and also of generosity and +unselfishness of spirit. + + + + +Stories of Plant People + + +SACRED TREES + +A people living under natural conditions in communion with nature, +will carefully note the appearance of natural objects in their +environment. They become acquainted with the various aspects of the +landscape and of the living things, plants and animals in their +changes through the seasons, in storm and calm, in activity and in +repose. Becoming thus intimately acquainted with the life about them +the people will come to regard some of the more notable forms with a +feeling akin to that which they have towards persons, and hence they +come to have place in folk stories, in reasoned discourse and in +ceremonies of religion. + +Commonly throughout the region of the Missouri River was to be seen +the cottonwood, the willows of several species, and the cedar or +juniper. The appearance and habits of these trees impressed themselves +powerfully upon the mind and imagination of the Indian folk. + +The cedar or juniper was wonderful because it was ever green; unlike +other trees it appeared indifferent to frost and to heat, but alike in +winter and summer retained its leaves. Also it appeared to be +withdrawn, solitary and silent, standing dark and still, like an +Indian standing upon a hill with his robe drawn over his head in +prayer and meditation. Thus it gave the suggestion, and had the +appearance of being in communion with the High Powers. + +Leaves and twigs of cedar were burned as incense in ceremonial rituals +in order that evil influences might be driven away. + +Willows were always found growing along watercourses, as though they +had some duty or function in the world in connection with water, the +element so immediately and constantly needful to man and to all other +living things. Water was not only imperatively necessary for vivifying +and reanimating all living things, but was an active agent in +processes of change and transmutation. In cases of disease the evil +influences which plagued the body might be driven out and thus health +might be restored through the use of water transformed into vapor by +means of heat. So the vapor bath was used. Also if a man contemplated +the undertaking of any serious project, any dangerous mission, or any +solemn enterprise, it was important first to prepare himself by +purification, by means of the vapor bath, from all evil influences. +The framework of the vapor bath lodge was made of willow poles, bent +and tied with their bark. + +The willow was also mystically connected with that greatest change of +all, the departure of the spirit from the body, the change which we +call death. Willow twigs had certain uses in funeral rites. + +The cottonwood was found growing over a widely extended range, under +diverse climatic conditions, appearing always self-reliant, showing +prodigious fecundity, and having wonderful means of propagation. It +provided its seed, produced in enormous number, with a device by which +they traveled on the wind to far places and so became widely +disseminated in all directions, traveling up-stream or down-stream, +and even across the plains and prairies to other streams where the new +generation might establish itself. But besides this admirable +provision to insure the perpetuation of its kind it had also another +means of propagation; though by this means it could move only +down-stream. This method of propagation is by the making of cuttings +or planting slips from its own twigs. It is well known that the +gardener may make artificial cuttings of many kinds of trees and +plants, and so increase his stock. But the cottonwood, alone among +trees, performs this operation itself. At the beginning of autumn the +cottonwood trees form layers of cork cells which gradually wedge off +part of its twigs from the parent branch, thus covering and healing +the wound of separation and also covering and healing the base of the +separated twig so that it falls off alive and protected from loss of +sap. + +Falling thus to the ground just about the time that autumn rains are +about to begin, they are ready to be carried away by the rising waters +of the streams and may be thus planted in a mud or sand bank further +down stream, ready to take root and grow in the springtime. + +In the springtime the opening of the cottonwood buds and pushing out +of the young leaves, even when chilly nights follow the bright breezy +days and the rapid growth of these lustrous leaves, brightly dancing +in the spring winds, their brilliant sheen and active movement +reflecting the splendour of the sun like the dancing, glinting ripples +of a lake, suggest the joy and eagerness and energy of movement of all +returning life. + +The foliage of the cottonwood is peculiar and remarkable so that it +may be said the air is never so still that there is not motion of +cottonwood leaves. Even in still and sultry summer afternoons, and at +night when all else was still, ever they could hear the rustling of +cottonwood leaves by the passage of little vagrant currents of air. +Secret messages seemed ever to be passing in soft whispers among the +cottonwood leaves. And the winds themselves are the bearers of the +messages and commands of the Higher Powers, so there was constant +reminder of the mystic character of this tree. + +The cottonwood was, among trees, the symbol of fidelity, one of the +four great virtues inculcated by the ethical code of the people of the +Dakota nation. + +So from all these considerations, it might be expected that this tree +should have an important place in the rituals of the people for many +generations associated with it. And so it had. + +The Sacred Pole of the Omaha nation was made of the cottonwood. The +Sacred Pole was an object of the greatest veneration to the people of +that nation, similarly as the Ark of the Covenant was sacred to the +Hebrew nation. + +The Sacred Tree, the central object of the Sun Dance, the most +momentous religious ritual of the Dakota nation, was a cottonwood. The +tree which should be chosen to be felled and brought into camp and set +up in the lodge erected for the performance of this ritual, must be a +growing cottonwood tree, the base of whose trunk is not less than two +spans in circumference. The tree must be straight and forked at a +distance from the ground of about four times the measure of the +outstretched arms from hand to hand. + +Twigs and bark of cottonwood were burned as incense to ward against +the scheming of Anog Ite, the spiteful malevolent being who foments +scandals, strife and infidelity. + +Such then, were some of the relations in the philosophic thought, the +religious conceptions and the sentiments of the people of the Dakota +nation in regard to these three species of trees. + + +THE SONG OF THE PASQUE FLOWER + +The pasque flower (=Pulsatilla patens=), has a very extensive range +upon the northern prairies, reaching from about latitude 43 degrees +north to the Great Slave Lake above 60 degrees north latitude. It is +the earliest flower to put forth its blossoms in the springtime, often +appearing before all the snow is gone. Its bluish purple flowers +gladden the bare brown hillsides with great profusion of bloom, in +earnest of returning life. For this reason it has a strong hold upon +the affections of all the native tribes throughout all its extended +range. The plant is closely related to the anemone, which is sometimes +called the wind flower. + +The people of the Dakota nation have a number of pretty little folk +stories concerning the pasque flower. One story is that in the long +ago, whenever any of the people happened to pass by where these +flowers were blooming they tried to show the friendliness which they +felt for human beings by nodding their heads in the chilly spring +wind, showing their smiling faces and saying, "Good morning! Good +morning!" But the people passed them unheeding. They became abashed at +this indifference, so nowadays still feeling friendly towards the +people in spite of such rebuffs, they bashfully turn their heads to +one side as they nod and call their kindly greetings in their sweet +low voice. + +There is another pretty conceit connected with the pasque flower. +Indians generally are keenly observant of all things in nature, and +reverent towards them. They feel reverence for all living creatures, +whether plant or animal. They have songs and stories about most of the +species of plants and animals with which they are acquainted, the +specific song being the expression of the life or soul of the species +to which it pertains. The song of the pasque flower, translated out of +the Dakota language into English runs something like this: + + "I wish to encourage the children of other flower nations + Which are now appearing over all the land; + So while they waken from sleep and rise from the bosom + Of Mother Earth, I stand here old and gray-headed." + +[Illustration: Map of Geographical Distribution of Pasque Flower] + +The saying: "I wish to encourage the children of other flower +nations," refers to the very early prevernal blossoming of this plant +and its consequent ripening while the other flower species (nations) +are just peeping through the ground. The entire plant is hairy, and +when mature its seed head is plumose and white, similar to the +clematis head, suggesting the head of a very old man with long white +hair. This explains the allusion in "I stand here old and +gray-headed." + +When in springtime an old man of the Dakota nation first finds one of +these flowers it reminds him of his childhood, when he wandered over +the hills at play as free from sorrow and care as the birds and the +flowers. He sits down near the flower, upon the lap of Mother Earth, +takes out his pipe and fills it with tobacco. Then he reverently holds +the pipe towards the earth, then towards the sky, then towards the +north, the east, the south and the west. After this act of silent +invocation and thanksgiving, he smokes. Tobacco was sacred and was +used ceremonially as an incense. The pipe was therefore a sort of +censer, and was accordingly treated with respect and reverence. In +smoking, Indians did not seize the pipestem in the teeth. Such an act +would be sacrilegious. The mouthpiece of the pipestem was gently +presented to the lips and the breath drawn through. By this +inspiration the smoker united the mystery of the tobacco, the mystery +of fire and the mystery of the breath of life. + +While the old man sits by the flower and smokes he meditates upon all +the changing scenes of his lifetime; his joys and sorrows, his +youthful hopes, his accomplishments, his disappointments, and upon the +guidance of the Unseen Powers accorded to him thus far upon the +journey of life, and he is encouraged to believe that he will be +guided to the end of life's journey "beyond the fourth hill" of life; +as he has been guided over the hill of childhood, the hill of youth, +and the hill of manhood's prime, that he will also be guided over the +last hill, the hill of old age. + +After finishing his pipe he empties the ashes reverently upon the +ground near the pasque flower which he has been contemplating. Then he +rises and plucks the flower prayerfully and carries it carefully home +to show to his grandchildren, singing as he goes, the song of the +pasque flower, which he learned as a child and which he now teaches to +his grandchildren, commending to them the example of the flower in its +courage and endurance and its faithfulness. + +THE SONG OF THE PASQUE FLOWER + + By Rev. Ignatius Forster, O. S. B. + Mount Marty, Yankton, South Dakota. + February 1, 1921. + + Lovely Pasque Flower, + Herald of Spring, + Proclaiming the hour, + Gladly to sing. + + Gently thou greetest + The wintry sun; + Boldly thou peepest + If snow is gone. + + Callest thy playmates + Who still do sleep: + "Arise, lo, spring waits! + No longer weep." + + Slowly they waken, + Lowly they sigh: + "Wasn't that beckon + Pasque Flower's cry?" + + They rise in raiments + Of colors bright; + Pasque Flower's garments + Are hoary white. + + Noble thy preaching, + Pasque flower brave; + "Work," is thy teaching, + "Unto the grave." + + Lovely Pasque Flower, + Herald of Spring + Proclaiming the hour + To work and sing. + +Father Forster was moved to write this delightful little song upon +reading one evening, (February 1, 1921), the foregoing prose account +of the Dakota (Sioux) Song of the Pasque Flower or Hoksi-Cekpa Wahca. + + +THE PRAIRIE ROSE + +The prairie was gray and drab, no beautiful flowers brightened it, it +had only dull greenish-gray herbs and grasses, and Mother Earth's +heart was sad because her robe was lacking in beauty and brightness. +Then the Holy Earth, our mother, sighed and said, "Ah, my robe is not +beautiful, it is sombre and dull. I wish it might be bright and +beautiful with flowers and splendid with color. I have many beautiful, +sweet and dainty flowers in my heart. I wish to have them upon my +robe. I wish to have upon my robe flowers blue like the clear sky in +fair weather. I wish also to have flowers white like the pure snow of +winter and like the high white cloudlets of a quiet summer day. I wish +also to have brilliant yellow flowers like the splendor of the sun at +noon of a summer day. And I wish to have delicate pink flowers like +the color of the dawn light of a joyous day in springtime. I would +also have flowers red like the clouds at evening when the sun is going +down below the western edge of the world. All these beautiful flowers +are in my heart, but I am sad when I look upon my old dull, gray and +brown robe." + +Then a sweet little pink flower said, "Do not grieve mother, I will go +up upon your robe and beautify it." So the little pink flower came up +from the heart of Mother Earth to be upon the sad prairie of her +mother's robe. + +Now when the Wind Demon saw the pink flower there he said, "Indeed she +is pretty, but I will not have her trespassing in my playground." So +the Wind Demon rushed at her shouting and roaring and blew out her +life, but her spirit returned to the heart of Mother Earth. + +And when the other flowers ventured, one after another to come out +upon the prairie which was Mother Earth's robe, the Wind Demon +destroyed them also and their spirits returned to the heart of Holy +Mother Earth. + +At last Prairie Rose offered to go and brighten the appearance of +Mother Earth's robe, the prairie. Mother Earth said fondly, "Yes, +dear, sweet child, I will let you go. You are so lovely and your +breath is so sweet, it may be that the Wind Demon will be charmed by +you, and that he will let you remain on his ground." And Prairie Rose +said, "Yes, dear mother, I will go, for I desire that my mother's robe +shall be beautiful. But if the Wind Demon should blow out my life my +spirit shall return home to the heart of my mother." + +So Prairie Rose made the toilsome journey up through the dark ground +and came out upon the sad gray prairie. And as she was going Mother +Earth said in her heart, "Oh, I hope the Wind Demon will allow her to +live for I wish my robe to be beautiful!" + +Now when the Wind Demon saw Prairie Rose he rushed at her shouting and +said, "Indeed, though she is pretty I shall not allow her to be upon +my ground. I will blow out her life." So he came on roaring and +drawing his breath in strong gusts. Just then he caught the fragrance +of the breath of Prairie Rose. "Ah," he said, "how sweet her breath +is! Why, I do not have it in my heart to blow out the life of such a +beautiful little maiden whose breath is so sweet! I love her. She +shall stay here with me. And I must make my voice gentle and sing a +melodious song, for I wish not to frighten her with my awful noise." + +So he became quiet and breathed gentle breezes which passed over the +prairie grasses whispering and humming little songs of gladness. + +Then the other flowers also came up through the dark ground and out +upon the dull, gray prairie and made it bright and joyous with their +presence. And the wind came to love all the flowers and the grasses. + +And so the robe of our Mother Earth became beautiful because of the +loveliness and the sweet breath of the Prairie Rose. + +Sometimes the Wind forgets his gentle songs and becomes loud and +boisterous, but he does not harm a person whose robe is ornamented +with the color of Prairie Rose. + + +THE SONG OF THE WILD ROSE + +The following is a translation into English out of the Dakota language +by Dr. A. McG. Beede, of an old Dakota song. The people of the Dakota +nation, and other tribes also, think of the various plant and animal +species as having each their own songs. With these people music, song, +is an expression of the soul and not a mere artistic or artful +exercise. + +Where the word "Mother" appears in the following song it refers to +"Mother Earth," a living, conscious, holy being in Indian thought. The +earth was truly venerated and loved by these people, who considered +themselves not as owners or potential owners of any part of the land, +but as being owned by the land which gave them birth and which +supplied their physical needs from her bounty and satisfied their love +of the beautiful by the beauty of her face in the landscape. + +The trilled musical syllables at the close of the last two stanzas +express the spontaneous joy which comes to a person who has +"life-appreciation of Holy Earth." + +The first stanza is an introduction by the narrator; not a part of the +"Song of the Wild Rose." The remaining stanzas are the song itself, of +the Wild Rose. + + I will tell you of something I know, + And you can't half imagine how good; + It's the song of wild roses that grow + In the land the Dakota-folk love. + + From the heart of the Mother we come, + The kind Mother of Life and of All; + And if ever you think she is dumb, + You should know that flowers are her songs. + + And all creatures that live are her songs, + And all creatures that die are her songs, + And the winds blowing by are her songs, + And she wants you to sing all her songs. + + Like the purple in Daydawn we come, + And our hearts are so brimful of joy + That whene'er we're not singing we hum + Ti-li-li-li-i, ta-la-la-loo, ta-la-la-loo! + + When a maiden is ready to wed + Pin wild roses all over her dress, + And a rose in the hair of her head; + Put new moccasins onto her feet. + + Then the heart of the Mother will give + Her the songs of her own heart to sing; + And she'll sing all the moons she may live, + Ti-li-li-li-i, ta-la-la-loo, ta-la-la-loo! + + +USE OF THE GROUND BEAN BY INDIANS + +There is a native wild bean found growing over an area of wide +distribution in North America. The botanical name of this bean is +=Falcata comosa=. In the Dakota language it is called maka ta omnicha, +which means "bean of the earth;" in the Pawnee language it is called +ati-kuraru, which means "earth bean." The plant grows in dense masses +over shrubbery and other vegetation in some places, especially along +banks and at the edge of timber. + +It forms two kinds of branches, bearing two forms of flower, producing +two forms of fruits. Leafy branches climb up over the shrubbery, but +under these, in the shade, prostrate on the earth, starting out from +the base of the main stem, are leafless, colorless branches, forming a +network on the surface of the ground. The tiny inconspicuous blossoms +borne on these prostrate branches are self-pollinated and push into +the leaf mold and soft soil, and there each produces a single large +bean closely clothed by a thin filmy pod or husk. These beans which +are formed in the earth are about the size of Lima beans. Upon the +upper, leafy branches are borne showy, purplish flowers appearing like +small bean blossoms. From these blossoms are produced small bean pods +about a half inch to an inch in length. These pods contain each from +three to four or five small, hard, mottled beans about an eighth of an +inch long. + +The large beans produced in the ground are desirable for food. They +are of good flavor when cooked. The small beans of the upper branches +are also good for food, but they are so small and difficult to harvest +that not much use is made of them by the people. The large beans +formed in the earth would also be hard to gather but for the help of +certain little animals called voles, or wood mice, or bean mice. The +voles dig the large beans and store them in considerable quantities in +storage places which they hollow out in the ground and which they +cover over with sticks and leaves and earth. In these places the +little animals put away sometimes a peck or a half bushel of beans. + +Through all the extensive range of =Falcata comosa=, the ground-bean, +it was sought by the people of the various Indian tribes to add to +their food supply. The people said they did not take away all the +beans from the voles as it would be wicked to loot the animals' food +stores and leave the animals to starve after they had worked to gather +them. But they would take a part of the store, in a manner making +themselves beggars to the little animals. The Omahas have a saying +that "The bean mouse is a very industrious fellow, he even helps human +beings." + +But in all accounts I have had from the people of the Dakota nation +the women have always said that they never took away any beans from +the voles without making some payment in kind. They said it would be +wicked and unjust to take the beans from the animals and give nothing +in return. So they said they always put back some corn, some suet, or +some other food material in exchange for the beans they took out. In +that way they said both they and the little animals obtained a variety +in their food supply. They said they thought it very wrong to deprive +the animals of their store without such payment, but that it was fair +if they gave a fair exchange. + +The people of the Dakota nation speak of the wood-mice or voles by the +designation of "Hintunka people." In the Dakota theory of the universe +they personify the maternal power and spirit by the name Hunka. Hunka +is the mystic All-Mother in nature, the mother of all living beings, +plant or animal, which of course includes mankind. For they do not +think of mankind as being apart from nature and the community of life +in the world. + +The Dakotas have a moral story which is told as follows: + +A certain woman went and plundered the store-house of some Hintunka +people. She robbed them of their entire food supply without even +giving them anything at all in return. The next night this woman who +had robbed the Hintunka people of all their food supply heard a woman +down in the woods crying and saying "Oh, what will my poor children +do?" It was the voice of one of the Hintunka women crying over her +hungry children. + +The same night the woman who had done the wrong had a dream. In her +dreams Hunka appeared to her and said "You should not have taken the +food from the Hintunka people. Take back the food to them, or else +your own children shall cry for food." + +The next morning the woman told her husband what Hunka had said to +her. Her husband said "You would better do as Hunka tells you to do." +But the woman was hard-hearted and perverse and would not restore to +the Hintunka people the food of which she had robbed them, neither +would she give them anything in exchange. + +A short time after this a great prairie fire came, driven by a strong +wind, and swept over the place where this unjust woman and her family +were camping. The fire burned up her tipi and everything it contained, +and they barely escaped with their lives. They had no food nor shelter +and they had to wander on the prairie destitute. + +The bean-mouse and its works are regarded with respect, admiration and +reverence by the people of the various Indian tribes which benefit by +its labor. They feel very resentful towards any seeming tendency to +meddle unwarrantedly with its winter store-houses. Upon hearing of the +desire of a white man to make a photograph of such a store-house an +old man of the Teton-Dakota on the Standing Rock Reservation expressed +bitter resentment and declared himself ready to fight to prevent such +a thing from being done. He said "We have enough misfortune already, +counting the war and the epidemic of influenza, without inviting +further disaster by such sacrilege." + +In the month of November, after the bean mice have harvested their +beans and laid them up in their store-houses for the winter, the +people often go out alone and sit near some such store-house in silent +meditation on the ways of Providence. At that time of the year the +missionaries and priests are often pained and puzzled because of the +absence of some of their church members from Sunday service or from +mass on Sunday morning. They do not know, and likely would not +appreciate or understand the feeling which has caused these people to +go out at such a time, not to the church but out to the quiet place +under the open heaven where they sit upon the lap of Mother Earth to +reverently and thankfully meditate upon the mysteries of nature and +the wonderful provisions of God in nature. + +At such times they like to bring in to their homes or to their +churches some object connected with the bean mouse and his marvelous +ways and work. If they find some beans which the bean mouse has +spilled in transportation to his store-house, or a tree-leaf which +they suppose he has used as his sled for carrying his beans from field +to store-house, they will bring in such objects and lay them up +reverently in the home or in the church with devout regard for +prayerful meditation. Indians say that the bean mouse uses a leaf of +the boxelder tree, or sometimes another kind of leaf of suitable +shape, as a sled for gathering his stores. + +At one time an old blind man of the Teton-Dakota on the Standing Rock +Reservation on the upper Missouri River went out to the vicinity of a +vole's store-house to meditate and pray. A man saw him and quietly +approached within hearing distance. As the old man was blind he did +not perceive the approach of the observer. Thinking himself alone in +the presence of the powers of nature, this devout old man, gave +expression to his religious feeling in the following prayer: + +"Thou who art holy, pity me and help me I pray. Thou art small, but +thou art sufficiently large for thy place in the world. And thou art +sufficiently strong also for thy work, for Holy Wakantanka constantly +strengthens thee. Thou art wise, for the wisdom of holiness is with +Thee constantly. + +"May I be wise in all my heart continually, for if an attitude of holy +wisdom leads me on, then this shadow-troubled life shall come into +constant light." + + +TIPSIN: AN IMPORTANT NATIVE FOOD PLANT + +Over all the dry prairies of the Great Plains region there grows a +plant (=Psoralea esculenta=), which was an important item of the food +supplies of all the tribes of the region. It is a species which +belongs botanically to the Bean Family. The part used for food is the +large root, which is stored with proteid and starchy matter. The root +is about the size of a hen's egg. The stem of the plant is bushy and +branched; the leaves are trifoliate. The leaves and stems of the plant +are hairy, giving it a grayish-green appearance. The flowers are set +in close racemes at the ends of the branches, and are bluish in color +and of bean blossom shape. + +In the journals of the early travellers mention of this plant is +often found under the name of "pomme blanche" or "pomme de prairie," +the name by which the French traders and trappers called it, for they +learned to live upon the native products of the land. English speaking +people coming later, and depending not so much on native products, did +not supply names for them, not considering them of enough importance. +The name which I have given it for a common English name is an +approximation to, and an adaptation of the name of this plant in the +Dakota language. + +Tipsin roots are gathered in June or early July. They were used fresh +when gathered, and they were also gathered in quantity and peeled and +dried for future use. The women gathered them by the use of digging +sticks. They had their children with them to look for the plants while +they dug them. Because of the branching habit of the plant the mother +would say to her children, "See, they point to each other. Now here is +one, notice the directions in which its arms point and you will find +others." So the children would start, each in the direction of one of +the branches, and of course, if they followed in any direction and +kept close watch they would find another. The idea of the plants +pointing to each other kept the children's attention fixed. + + +HOW THE PEOPLE OBTAINED THE PRECIOUS GIFT OF CORN + +All the tribes which cultivated corn had legends accounting for its +acquisition. Many of these are very interesting and beautiful. In the +Sacred Legends of the Omaha, of which account is given in "The Omaha +Tribe," Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American +Ethnology, by Alice Fletcher and Francis La Flesche, occurs the +following legend of the finding of corn: + +"Then a man in wandering about found some kernels, blue, and red, and +white. He thought he had secured something of great value, so he +concealed them in a mound. One day he thought he would go to see if +they were safe. When he came to the mound he found it covered with +stalks having ears bearing kernels of these colours. He took an ear of +each kind and gave the rest to the people to experiment with. They +tried it for food, found it good, and ever since have called it their +life. As soon as the people found the corn good, they thought to make +mounds like that in which the kernels had been hid. So they took the +shoulder blade of an elk and built mounds like the first and buried +the corn in them. So the corn grew and the people had abundant food." + +While the legend does not designate what tribe it was which first +obtained corn, it is probably to be identified with the following +fuller account which is also told in the Omaha Sacred Legends, and +which recites that they first learned of corn and obtained seed of it +from the Arikara. The story tells how the Arikara first obtained corn +by divine favour, and then how they gave it to other tribes, among +these fortunate ones being the Omaha. It should be remembered that at +the time the Omaha came to where they now reside and have resided for +some centuries, the Arikara were in the region of what is now northern +Nebraska, so they were then neighbors of the Omaha. No doubt the +declaration of the legend that the Omahas did first obtain corn from +the Arikara is based on fact, in that corn culture among the Omaha had +been borrowed from the Arikara, who later migrated farther north along +the upper Missouri River. + +The story runs thus: + +"The Arikara were the first to obtain the maize. A young man went out +hunting. He came to a high hill, and, looking down upon a valley, he +saw a buffalo bull standing in the middle of a bottom land lying +between two rivers at their confluence. As the young man searched the +surroundings to find how he might approach the buffalo he was +impressed with the beauty of the landscape. The banks of the two +rivers were low and well timbered. He observed that the buffalo stood +facing north; he saw also that he could not approach from any side +within bowshot. He thought that the only way to get a chance to shoot +the buffalo would be to wait until the animal moved close to the banks +of one of the rivers, or to the hills where there were ravines and +shrubs. So the young man waited. The sun went down and the buffalo had +not moved; the young man went home disappointed. He lay awake nearly +all night brooding over his disappointment, for food had become scarce +and the buffalo would have afforded a good supply. Before dawn the +young man arose and hastened to the place where he had discovered the +buffalo to see whether the animal might be somewhere near, if it had +moved. Just as he reached the summit of the hill, where he was the day +before, the sun arose, and he saw that the buffalo was in the same +spot. But he noticed that it was now facing toward the east. Again the +young man waited for the animal to move, but again the sun went down +while the buffalo remained standing in the same spot. The hunter went +home and passed another restless night. He started out again before +dawn and came to the top of the hill just as the sun arose, and saw +the buffalo in the same place still, but it had now turned to face the +south. The young man waited and watched all day, but when darkness +came he once more had to go away disappointed. He passed another +sleepless night. His desire to secure game was mixed with curiosity to +know why the buffalo should so persistently remain in that one spot +without eating or drinking or lying down to rest. He rose upon the +fourth morning before dawn, his mind occupied with this curiosity, and +made haste to reach the hill to see if the buffalo still stood in the +same place. Morning light had come when he arrived at the hill, and he +saw that the buffalo was standing in exactly the same place, but had +turned around to face the west. He was determined now to know what the +animal would do, so he settled down to watch as he had throughout the +three previous days. He now began to think that the animal was acting +in this manner under the influence of some unseen power for some +mysterious purpose, and that he, as well as the buffalo, was +controlled by the same influence. Darkness again came upon him and the +animal was still standing in the same position. The young man returned +home, but he was kept awake all night by his thoughts and wondering +what would come of this strange experience. He rose before dawn and +hastened again to the mysterious scene. As he reached the summit of +the hill dawn spread across all the land. Eagerly he looked. The +buffalo was gone! But just where the buffalo had been standing there +appeared something like a small bush. The young man now approached the +spot with a feeling of curiosity and of awe, but also something of +disappointment. As soon as he came near he saw that what had appeared +from a distance like a small bush was a strange unknown plant. He +looked upon the ground and saw the tracks of the buffalo; he observed +that they turned from the north to the east, and to the south, and to +the west; and in the centre there was but one buffalo track, and out +of it had sprung this strange plant. He examined the ground all around +the plant to find where the buffalo had left the place, but there were +no other footprints except those he had already seen near the plant. +He made haste to reach his home village. There he notified the chiefs +and elders of his people concerning the strange experience which he +had had. Led by the young man they proceeded to the place of the +buffalo and examined the ground with care, and found that what he had +told them was true. They found the tracks of the buffalo where he had +stood and where he had turned, but could find no trace of his coming +to the place nor of his going from it. Now while all these men +believed that this plant had been given to the people in this +mysterious manner by Wakanda for their use, still they were not sure +what that use might be nor in what manner it should be used. The +people knew of other plants that were useful for food, and the season +for their ripening, and, believing that the fruit of this strange +plant would ripen in its proper time, they arranged to guard and +protect it carefully, awaiting with patience the time of its ripening +and further revelation of its purpose. + +"After a time a spike of flowers appeared at the top of the plant, but +from their knowledge of other plants they knew that the blossom was +but the flower and not the fruit. But while they watched this blossom, +expecting it to develop into fruit, as they expected it would, a new +growth appeared from the joints of the plant. They now gave special +attention to the new growth. It grew larger, and finally something +appeared at the top which looked like hair. This, in the course of +time, turned from pale green to dark brown, and after much discussion +the people concluded that this growth at the side of the plant was its +fruit, and that it had ripened. Until this time no one had dared to +approach within touch of the plant. Although they were anxious to know +the uses to which the plant could be put, or for which it was +intended, no one dared to touch it. While the people were assembled +around the plant uncertain and undetermined how to approach the +examination of it to learn its possible use, a youth stepped forward +and spoke: + +"'Every one knows how my life from childhood has been worse than +useless, that my life among you has been more evil than good. +Therefore since no one would regret, should any evil befall me, let me +be the first to touch this plant and taste of its fruit, so that you +may not suffer any harm and that you may learn if the plant possesses +qualities which may be for our good.' When the people gave their +assent the youth stepped forward and placed his hands over the top of +the plant and brought them down by the sides of the plant to the roots +in the manner of giving thanks and blessing. He then grasped the +fruit, and, turning to the people, said, 'It is solid; it is ripe.' +Very gently then he parted the husks at the top, and again turning to +the people, he said, 'The fruit is red.' Then he took a few of the +grains, showed them to the people, then ate them, and replaced the +husks. The youth suffered no ill effects, and the people were +convinced that this plant was given them for food. In the autumn, when +the prairie grass had turned brown, the stalks and leaves of this +plant turned brown also. The fruit was plucked and put away with +carefulness. The next spring the kernels were divided among the +people, four to each family. The people removed to the place where the +strange plant had appeared, and there they built their huts along the +banks of the two rivers. When the hills began to be green from the new +prairie grass, the people planted the kernels of this strange plant, +having first built mounds like the one out of which the first plant +grew. To the great joy of the people the kernels sprouted and grew +into strong healthy plants. Through the summer they grew and +developed, and the fruit ripened as did that of the original plant. +The fruit was gathered and some was eaten, and was found to be good. +In gathering the fruit the people discovered that there were various +colours--some ears were white and others were blue, some were red, +others were yellow. + +"The next season the people gathered a rich harvest of this new plant. +In the autumn these people, the Arikara, sent invitations to a number +of different tribes to come and visit them. Six tribes came; one of +these was the Omaha. The Arikara were very generous in the +distribution of the fruit of this new plant among their guests, and in +this manner a knowledge of the plant came to the Omaha." + + +A GROUP OF PAWNEE HYMNS TO CORN + +The Pawnee had migrated from the distant southwest into the Plains +region, finally arriving at the region drained by the Republican, the +Platte, and the Niobrara rivers. Corn was native in Mexico, and had +been introduced into the Plains by gradual adaptation in cultivation +along the line of migration of the Pawnee nation. These hymns express +something of the high value which the people placed upon corn as an +item of their daily sustenance. They also reflect something of the +scenery of the Plains landscape. These hymns are from an ancient +Pawnee ritual which is given entire in the Twenty-second Annual Report +of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 2. + +MOTHER CORN + + I + + Mother with the life-giving power now comes, + Stepping out of far-distant days she comes, + Days wherein to our fathers gave she food; + As to them, so now unto us she gives, + Thus she will to our children faithful be. + Mother with the life-giving power now comes! + + II + + Mother with the life-giving power is here. + Stepping out of far distant days she comes. + Now she forward moves, leading as we walk + Toward the future, where blessings she will give, + Gifts for which we have prayed granting to us. + Mother with the life-giving power is here! + +LEADERSHIP OF MOTHER CORN + + I + + The Mother leads and we follow on, + Her devious pathway before us lies. + She leads us as were our fathers led + Down through the ages. + + II + + The Mother leads and we follow on, + Her pathway straight, where a stage each day + We forward walk, as our fathers walked + Down through the ages. + +The two preceding hymns reflect the fact that corn was introduced by +the Pawnee from their more ancient homeland in the faraway southwest +in remotely past time into the region of their later residence in the +plains. They also reflect the importance which corn had in the +everyday life of this people. + +The following hymn to Mother Corn as Guide is expressive of the sense +of vastness and awesomeness of the great extent of the Plains, and +something of its grimness. + +GUIDANCE OF MOTHER CORN + + I + + Looking o'er the prairie, naught our eyes discern there, + Wide the land stretches out before us; + Then we cry aloud to Mother Corn: "Doth thy pathway lie here?" + + II + + Heeding now our crying, while our eyes she opens, + Mother Corn moveth out before us + On the lonely prairie, where we see straight the pathway lies there! + + * * * * * + +The following hymn of thanks for the corn shows something of the +religious feeling of the Pawnee and their gratitude to Providence for +the gift of corn. + +A HYMN OF THANKS TO MOTHER CORN + + I + + See! The Mother Corn comes hither, making all hearts glad! + Making all hearts glad! + Give her thanks, she brings a blessing; now, behold! she is here! + + II + + Yonder Mother Corn is coming, coming unto us! + Coming unto us! + Peace and plenty she is bringing; now, behold! she is here! + + +THE FORGOTTEN EAR OF CORN + +A woman of the Arikara tribe was harvesting her crop of corn, making +ready to store it away in a safe place where she might be able to get +it for use during the long cold winter. She went along gathering the +ears and placing them in convenient heaps so that she could gather +them up to carry to the storage place she had prepared. When she had +finished her work she started to go, but she heard a voice like the +voice of a little child, crying and calling pitifully: "Oh, do not +leave me! Do not go away without me." + +The woman was astonished at what she supposed was the voice of a lost +child. She said to herself: "What is this? Can it be some child has +wandered and has been lost in my cornfield? I must go and look for +it." + +So she laid down her burden of gathered corn, and went back into the +field to make search. But she found no child anywhere in the field. + +Then she started once more to take up her burden and leave the field. +But again she heard the plaintive little voice crying: "Oh, do not +leave me! Do not go away without me." + +Then she went back into the field and searched again for a long time. +After diligent search she found one little ear of corn which had been +covered by stalks and leaves. It was the little ear of corn which had +been crying, fearing to be left to die in the field. So all Indian +women are very careful in gathering their crops so that nothing shall +be lost or wasted of the good gifts of the Great Mystery, for they are +accounted sacred and holy, and it would be wicked to treat them with +neglect or indifference. + + +HOW THE USEFULNESS OF WILD RICE WAS DISCOVERED + +_A Chippewa Myth_ + +Wenibozho and his grandmother, Nokomis, lived together in a lodge by +themselves. When he approached manhood his grandmother exhorted him to +exert himself, to learn to endure hardship, loneliness, cold and +hunger and thirst, for such experience is the proper training for a +young man. A young man needs such training so that when overtaken by +misfortune he shall be brave and resourceful; so that he may be able +to take care of himself and of any who may be dependent upon him. + +So, one day Wenibozho told his grandmother he was going away into the +wilderness where he had never been before, so that he could be cast +upon his own resources to try his strength and courage and wit. + +He was gone many days and nights, wandering through the forest and +beside streams and lakes. He subsisted upon such fruits, seeds, roots +and tubers as he was able to find, and upon the flesh of animals he +was able to shoot with his bow and arrow which he had brought with +him. One day he came to a lake in which was growing a great quantity +of beautiful, feathery wild rice, swaying over the water in the gentle +breeze. From the bark of a birch tree he fashioned a canoe in which he +rowed out upon the lake and gathered a quantity of the wild rice. He +did not know the wild rice was useful for food, for he had never seen +it before, but he admired its beauty. He took the wild rice which he +had gathered to his grandmother. He told her of the beautiful plant +which he had found in the lake and that he had brought to her some of +the seed of the plant. This seed they sowed in another lake near the +place where he lived with his grandmother, for he hoped to have the +beautiful plant growing where he might often enjoy its beauty. + +Again he went away into the forest so that he might become accustomed +to endure hardships and also that he might learn wisdom from the +living creatures, not only from the moving creatures, but also from +those other living creatures, the plants of all kinds. While walking +he thought he heard a voice saying, "Sometimes they eat us." He +stopped and listened and again he heard the words "Sometimes they eat +us." This time he perceived that the words came from some bushes near +which he was passing. Finally he spoke, saying, "To whom are you +talking?" He was told that he was the one to whom the bush was +speaking, so he dug up the plant and found that it had a long root. He +tasted the root and it was pleasant to the taste, so he dug more, and +ate a great many, so many that he was made ill. He was too ill to +travel, so he lay there three days. Finally he was able to rise and +move on, but he was hungry and weak. As he passed along other plants +spoke to him, but he was now afraid to eat of them. Then, as he was +walking along a stream he saw some bunches of grass growing up out of +the water which beckoned to him and said, "Sometimes they eat us." He +was so hungry, and the graceful grass was so tempting, that he was +constrained to gather some seeds of it and eat. The taste was +pleasing, and its effect upon his hunger was so gratifying that he +said, "O, you are indeed good! What are you called?" The Grass +replied, "We are called manomin," which is the name which the Chippewa +people call this plant. Wenibozho waded out into the water and +gathered the grains by handfuls and ate it, and so continued till his +hunger was fully satisfied. From eating the manomin he suffered no ill +effects whatever, but was strengthened wonderfully. Finally he +remembered the grain which he had discovered on his former journey and +which he and his grandmother, Nokomis, had sown in the lake near their +home. When he returned and found it growing and compared it with this +grain which he had now found to be so good, he perceived that it was +the same sort. So he found that this beautiful grass which he had +growing in the lake near home was really manomin, as pleasant to the +taste and as satisfying to hunger as it was beautiful to the eyes. +Ever since that time the Chippewas have known how to value the good +gift of manomin. + + +A STORY OF THE SUNFLOWER + +_A Story from the Dakota Nation_ + +Once on a time, long ago, a company of men were going upon a war +expedition. And now as they were within the country of the enemy they +were proceeding very cautiously. One morning very early they heard +what seemed to be the sound of someone singing in a tremulous voice, +coming from the direction toward which they were marching. They +stopped and stood still to listen. + +As they stood thus listening it seemed to them that the singer, +whoever he might be, must be a clown, for he was singing a clown song. +There was not light enough to see the singer. But they waited silently +and anxiously peering ahead in the direction from which came the sound +of the singing. At the first glimmer of the dawn light they were able +to make out the appearance of a man walking with an awkward shuffling +gait. His robe was ragged and his leggings drooped down slouchingly in +wrinkles about his ankles as he walked. He had great circles about his +eyes painted a bright yellow and he was singing a clown song in a +husky wheezy voice. + +So they stood in wonder regarding the clown who was coming toward +them. He was coming toward the sun rising and as the daylight grew +brighter they were astonished to see the man suddenly changed to a +sunflower. + +And ever since that time, it is said, the sunflower is inclined to +face toward the sun. + + +DAKOTA FOLKLORE OF THE SPIDERWORT + +The spiderwort (=Tradescantia bracteata=) and (=Tradescantia +occidentalis=) is a beautiful native prairie flower which is known +under numerous popular names. It is called spiderwort, spider lily, +ink flower, king's crown, and various other names. It has been +proposed to add to the list another name, "flower-of-romance." This +name is proposed from the circumstance of a bit of pleasing sentiment +connected with this flower in the folklore of the Dakota nation of +Indians. + +It is a charmingly beautiful and delicate flower, deep blue in color, +with a tender-bodied plant of graceful lines. There is no more +appealingly beautiful flower on the western prairies than this one +when it is sparkling with dewdrops in the first beams of the rising +sun. There is about it a suggestion of purity, freshness and +daintiness. + +When a young man of the Dakota nation is in love, and walking alone on +the prairie finds this flower blooming, he stops and sings to it a +song in which he personifies it with the qualities of his sweetheart's +personality as they are called to his mind by the appearance of the +flower before him, its characteristics figuratively suggesting the +characteristics of her whose image he carries romantically in his mind +and heart. In his mind the beauties of the flower and the charms of +the girl are mutually transmuted and flow together into one image. + +The words of his song, translated from the Dakota language into the +English, are something like this: + + "Tiny, gladsome flower, + So winsome and modest, + Thou art dainty and sweet, + For love of thee I'd die." + + + + +Stories of the Four-Footed People + + +THE FAITHFUL DOG + +The dog was the companion and servant of the people over all parts of +North America, and previous to the introduction of the horse into the +western hemisphere by the Spaniards, the dog was the only domestic +animal which the Indians had. After horses were introduced by the +Spaniards, they soon came into use by the Indians, and in a +comparatively short time they were widely spread over the continent. + +But in former days the dog was the only beast of burden which the +Indians had. They served as watchers at night, as companions and +helpers in the chase, and as bearers of burdens in transportation +service. + +Once on a time a hunting party of men of the Dakota nation were in the +buffalo grazing country in the time of the winter hunt. Scouts were +sent out each day to look for a herd and to bring back report to the +officers. One day one of the scouts discovered a herd near a certain +lake. He came into camp in the evening, as soon as he could after he +found the herd. At once he went according to the law and rendered his +report to the proper officers. After reporting he went to his lodge +and had his evening meal and then lay down to rest from the weariness +of the day's scouting. + +The officers held council and made the plans for the next day's +activities of the hunting field. Then they sent the herald around the +camp to announce the orders for the next day. + +At the earliest light next morning every one in camp was up and making +preparations for the day's work. It was yet early in the day when the +hunters reached the lake where the scout had discovered the buffalo +herd the previous day. Here they found the buffaloes still feeding. At +the command of the officers the hunters and their dogs were deployed +to surround the herd for the slaughter, for the meat supply of the +people had become low, and at this opportunity they must replenish +their provision. + +The herd was feeding upon a strip of land which was surrounded on +three sides by a lake. The plan was to advance upon the herd from the +base of this strip of land and force them out into the lake where the +huge animals would be at a disadvantage upon the slippery ice. + +The men and dogs charged upon the herd and soon the great mass of +shaggy beasts were forced out upon the treacherous ice where they were +struggling in great confusion. Many were killed before the herd +finally reached the shore of the lake and scrambled up the steep bank +and fled away over the plain. + +The sun was already past the middle of the sky and the hunters were +busy with the work of skinning the carcasses and dressing the beef, +making ready to carry back to camp their prize of meat, hides, and +other useful products, when suddenly they saw and felt a great change +in the sky and in the air. The threatening signs were evident of the +swift approach of a blizzard, the dreadful and terrific winter storm +of fierce, roaring wind and driving snow and frightful cold which +frequently sweeps over the northern plains. + +The hunters made haste to reach camp which had been made in the +shelter of the woods not far away. Here a certain number had been +detailed by the officers to make camp and to gather firewood, while +the others had been taking care of the meat. Now as the fearful storm +threatened, they gathered in the camp bringing in what they could +carry of the meat supply. Soon the hunters were refreshing themselves +with freshly broiled steaks which were much relished by the hungry +men, who had eaten nothing since the early morning just before they +had broken camp. The dogs too were given their share. + +The storm was now upon them in its fury; and all about was a +smothering, dizzying swirl of whiteness as impenetrable as the +blackness of night. The gale of wind roared unceasingly; the myriad +millions of tiny snow particles ground upon each other in the swirl of +the storm, each infinitesimal impact adding to the aggregate of +reverberation of sound, while the skin tents hummed like enormous +drums. + +From time to time those who were already in camp shouted to guide the +later comers who gave answering shouts and came one after another +staggering into camp exhausted by the buffeting of the storm. At last +only one was missing. The herd scout, who had found and reported the +herd the day before; he and his faithful dog had not yet come in. The +fury of the storm throughout the night and the next day prevented the +possibility of going to look for the missing man. + +Toward morning following the second night of the storm its fury +abated. As is usual, at the end of a blizzard, it was followed by an +extraordinary calm. The drifted plain lay as still and white as +marble. The stars glistened coldly like ice crystals in the sky. The +air was so clear that the least sound made by any moving creature was +magnified in the stillness. + +The hunting camp awoke. Suddenly the game call of the great gray wolf +was heard. And soon the hunters saw a great number of these gaunt gray +creatures out upon the ice of the lake and on the plain, digging out +the white mounds which were the snowdrifts about the carcasses of the +buffaloes which the hunters had been obliged to leave when the storm +came upon them. + +And now among the wolf cries another sound was heard,--the defiant +barking of a dog! It was the scout's dog. The men hurried toward the +slaughter field to kill or drive away the wolves. Some wolves were +dragging away a buffalo carcass, and from among the snarling howling +pack about this carcass the hunters could distinctly hear the hoarse +barking of their missing friend's dog, and occasionally they could +hear a strangely muffled shout of a man sounding as though it came +from under the ice. + +The hunters finally reached the place to which the carcass had been +dragged by the wolves. As the men came near the wolves ran away and +the men saw the dog standing by the carcass for a moment before he +fell dead as they reached the place. The men with their knives cut +open the abdominal cavity of the carcass and found the missing scout +inside wrapped in his robe in a bed of grass and buffalo hair. + +When the storm had come upon him at his work he had seen that he could +not reach the camp so he had opened two of the carcasses and removed +the internal organs. In one he had made a bed for his dog, and in the +other for himself for protection from the fury of the storm. The dog +had kept an opening to his shelter, but the man had closed the +entrance of his own after he was in, and the hide had frozen solid, +making him a prisoner. When the wolves came the dog was able to free +himself and tried to defend his imprisoned master, regardless of his +own safety. He had been mortally wounded before the hunters could save +him. + +As soon as the scout was released he inquired for the dog, his friend +and defender. When he saw that his loyal friend was dead, having given +up his life in defense of his master, the scout was deeply moved with +grief. He knelt down and stroked the head of the dead dog, and said, +"Ah, my friend; you were courageous and faithful unto death. And you +died like a brave warrior. You shall have the funeral of a dead +warrior." + +So with all due ceremony the scout carried the body of the dog to the +top of a hill overlooking the lake where he had given up his life in +doing his duty. There the scout laid the body. Over it he built up a +tomb of boulders which he gathered from the hills. Then he laid upon +it offerings of red paint and of food according to the funeral custom +of his people, and they sang the farewell song for the dead. + +Ever since that time this hill has been known to the Dakotas as the +Grave of the Dog. + + +HOW COYOTE CHIEF WAS PUNISHED + +_A Mandan Story_ + +Coyote Chief was out hunting one day, and he came upon a buffalo bull +grazing. "Brother," he said, "you have nothing to do just now. Let us +run a race to see which of us is the swifter." "All right," said the +buffalo, "let us run." + +"I shall first go and prepare a place for the race," Coyote Chief +said, "then I shall come back for you." + +So Coyote Chief found a high steep bank and placed on the very edge of +it a small heap of stones. Then he returned to the buffalo and said, +"Everything is now ready. Let us race over to yonder heap of stones +which I have set up for a goal. When we are almost to the goal let us +shut our eyes and run as hard as we can." And so they ran toward the +heap of stones and the buffalo ran over the bank and was killed by +falling, just as Coyote Chief had planned. + +But Coyote Chief had nothing with which to skin the buffalo and cut +up and prepare the meat. So he walked along a little way and came to a +small clump of timber. As he approached the timber he called out, +"Brothers, give me a knife." And they gave him a knife. Then he went +on to another clump of timber. Here he called out, "Brothers, give me +an earthen pot." And they gave him an earthen pot. He went on again to +another clump of timber, where he called out, "Brothers, give me a +horn spoon." And they gave him a horn spoon. + +Then Coyote Chief went back to the place where the buffalo had fallen, +and there he built a hunter's lodge of leafy branches of trees. Then +he skinned the buffalo and pegged out the skin upon the ground and +scraped it. Next he cut up the meat, and some of it he cut into strips +and hung it up to dry. + +Coyote Chief had Fox for a servant, to run errands and to work about +the house. And he treated Fox badly and did not give him enough to +eat. Fox was hungry, as usual, and tried to help himself to some of +the buffalo meat, but Coyote Chief saw him and was angry. He seized a +brand from the fire and thrust it into Fox's face, burning him +thereby. Fox was hurt so badly that he decided to run away, but he +wished first to be revenged upon Coyote Chief. So he went around to +all the other animals and told them how badly he had been used by +Coyote Chief. The animals were sorry for him and seemed willing to +help him to punish Coyote Chief. So they held a meeting and talked +over the matter to decide upon the best way to do this. The decision +of the council was that they should all go over to his house that +night and eat up all his meat while he was asleep. + +Coyote Chief had worked hard all day to take care of his meat, and had +not taken time to eat much. Being tired after his day's work he went +to bed early. But he was anxious lest some one might come and take his +meat while he slept, so before going to sleep he said, "Now my +members, you must watch for me while I sleep. My eyes, if anyone peeps +in you must stare hard at him. My ears, if you hear a sound, you must +wiggle. My arms, if anyone comes in you must thrash around. My legs, +if any one comes near, you must kick." Then he went to sleep. + +That night all the animals gathered at Coyote Chief's house, but they +were afraid to touch anything till they were sure he was sound asleep. +So they sent Magpie first to peep in at the door. Magpie went and +peeped in and saw Coyote Chief's eyes staring hard at him, and he went +back and said, "He is not asleep, for his eyes stared at me." + +After a time Crow was sent to find if Coyote Chief was not asleep. +Crow flew up and perched by the smoke-hole. When he looked in Coyote +Chief's ears began to wiggle. Crow went back and told the animals that +Coyote Chief could not be asleep, for as soon as he looked in Coyote +Chief's ears began to wiggle. + +A little later Jack Rabbit was sent to look. Jack Rabbit pushed in a +little at the door, and Coyote Chief's arms began to move up and down. +So Jack Rabbit went back and reported that Coyote Chief must still be +awake. + +The animals again waited, and then sent Fox. Fox went inside, and +then Coyote Chief's legs began to kick, so he ran out and told the +others that Coyote Chief was still awake. + +Now, after waiting quite a long time, the animals sent Mouse. Mouse +went in and saw that Coyote Chief seemed to be sound asleep. He went +up and ran over his legs and there was no motion; then he ran over his +chest and still Coyote Chief was not disturbed. At last he ran over +his face, and Coyote Chief did not stir. So Mouse went and told the +others that Coyote Chief was surely asleep. Then they came in and ate +up all the meat except a few scraps which dropped while they were +eating. When they had finished eating they went away without having +wakened Coyote Chief. + +The next morning when Coyote Chief awoke, he was very hungry because +he had eaten little the day before, and had worked hard; but he found +his meat was all gone, and he said to himself, "Oh, why did I not eat +the meat yesterday instead of waiting!" Then, because he was so +hungry, he searched about on the ground and found some scraps of meat +and some small bits of fat. All these he gathered up on a robe. He put +fresh wood upon the fire, and then sat down by the fireplace with the +robe over his knees to eat the little he had. But just then a spark +shot out from the fire and lighted on his hand, which hurt him so that +he jumped up suddenly, spilling into the fire all the shreds of meat +and fat which he had so carefully gathered. + +So Coyote Chief got none of his meat, and was punished for the bad way +he had treated Fox. + + +THE SKUNK AND THE BEAR + +_A Mandan Story_ + +One day a skunk was going somewhere, travelling quietly along a trail, +thinking of his own affairs. He did not know it, but a bear was coming +along the same trail towards him. Neither the bear nor the skunk knew +that the other was on the trail until suddenly they met. They both +stopped. Then the skunk said to the bear, "You are on my road. Turn +out and let me pass!" The bear replied, "Not so. It is you who are on +my road. Get out of my way!" But the skunk said, "You, yourself must +turn aside." The bear then said, "Unless you do as I tell you I shall +eat you at once. I tell you that you are on my road and must stand +aside. I wonder how skunk meat would taste if I should eat some." + +The skunk said, "I wonder how bear flesh would taste if I should eat +some." Then suddenly the skunk threw up his brush and sprinkled the +bear full in the face with his dreadful scent. The bear tumbled out of +the path, howling in misery, and clawing at his nose and eyes. He +could not see, and was almost suffocated. + +As for the skunk, he passed on his way as if nothing had happened. + + +THE SONG OF THE OLD WOLF + +There is a story told among the people of the Dakota nation that once +on a time an old man went out, to be alone upon a high hill above the +Missouri River to give himself to meditation and prayer. He chose this +situation because of the grandeur and majesty of the view, of the +great sweep of the prairie plains and hills, one hill beyond another +away and away to the far horizon. Below flowed the wonderful and +mysterious river, whose waters came down from the mighty mountains at +the west and rolled on and on past the villages of many different +nations, finally reaching the great salt water. + +As the old man thus sat meditating and considering all the +manifestations of life and power and mystery of earth and sky, he +espied out upon the prairie a group of wolves trotting toward the +river. When they reached the river they plunged in and swam across to +the other side; all but one old one who was now too enfeebled by age +to dare try his strength against the swift and powerful current of the +river. + +This old wolf sat down upon the bank of the river and watched his +companions as they swam across and trotted away out of sight on the +other side. When they had disappeared from sight he raised his muzzle +towards the sky and mournfully sang in a man's voice the following +song: + + All o'er the earth I've roamed, + I've journeyed far and wide; + My spirit haste and go, + I'm nothing, nothing now, + I'm nothing, nothing now. + + Missouri River, flow, + Thou sacred water flow; + My spirit haste and go, + I'm nothing, nothing now, + I'm nothing, nothing now. + +After the old wolf had sung this song he wearily made his way to the +top of a hill and lay down in the warm sunshine, in the shelter of a +rock and there waited until his spirit went away. + +And so now, when old men of the Dakota nation feel the infirmities of +age creeping upon them, and as though they had been left behind in +life's march, when they feel the depression of loneliness, will often +go out alone to the summit of some high hill overlooking the Missouri +River, and sitting there in solitude will muse upon their activities +and noteworthy deeds in the past, of their companions of former days +now long gone from them, and contrast all this with their present +inactivity and loneliness. Then they will sadly and quaveringly sing +this "Song of the Old Wolf." + + * * * * * + +Note.--The English translation and rendering into verse is the work of +Dr. A. McG. Beede, of Fort Yates, North Dakota. The original song in +the Dakota language is as follows: + + Maka takomni + Tehan omawani; + Minagi yayayo, + Wana matakuni, + Mni-shoshe yayo + Mni wakan yayo; + Minagi yayayo, + Wana matakuni, + Wana matakuni, + O he-he-he! + + + + +Stories of the People of the Air + + +FOLK SAYINGS ABOUT THE MEADOWLARK + +The cheerful animation and lively manner of the meadowlark have made +it a favourite with all people who are acquainted with it, both whites +and Indians. And both whites and Indians attach words of their several +languages to the notes of the bird. Among sayings in the English +language attributed to the notes of the meadowlark are some +expressions of banter and raillery. Farmers say that early in +springtime the meadowlark perches jauntily upon the top of a +fence-post and calls mockingly to them "You sowed your wheat too soon! +You sowed your wheat too soon!" Another taunting expression fitted to +the meadowlark's notes is addressed to girls and young women; it is +"You think you're pretty, don't you?" + +These locutions in English are in accord with the tone of many sayings +ascribed to the notes of the meadowlark by the Hidatsa tribe of North +Dakota, and with their name of the bird, =wia-akumakihishe=, which +means "scolding or shrewish woman," for they say that the meadowlark +says such taunting, tormenting and aggravating things. One of these +taunting expressions is "=Kitho karishtiditore=," which is a most +exasperating saying. =Kitho= means "that insignificant one," and +=karishtiditore= means "good-for-nothing fellow." + +The Omahas also put words of their language to the notes of the +meadowlark. One of these is =Snite thingthi tegaze=, which means +"winter will not come back." A little mixed-blood girl in the Omaha +tribe was named Marguerite. Now the Omaha language does not contain +the sound of the letter "r," so in trying to pronounce the foreign +name of Marguerite they make it =Magathiche=. One day a friend of this +little girl's father was at their house, and he was playfully teasing +her because he was very fond of her. He said, of course speaking in +the Omaha language, "Listen! do you hear that bird telling about you? +He says: '=Magathiche hthitugthe!='" The word =hthitugthe= in the +Omaha language means "of a bad disposition," so her old friend was +teasing her by putting words to the bird notes which meant "Marguerite +is of a bad disposition," or "Marguerite is naughty!" + +One of the sayings which the Pawnees fit to the notes of the +meadowlark in their language is "=Kichikakikuridu!=" which means "I am +not afraid!" + +The meadowlark is a great favourite with the people of the Dakota +nation. An old man of that nation was asked if his people ever used +the meadowlark for food. He said they did not. When it was said that +white men sometimes eat them, he said he knew that. Then, when asked +why Dakotas would not eat the meadowlark, he said, "We think too much +of them. They are our friends." They call the meadowlark "the bird of +promise," and "the bird of many gifts," for they say it promises good +things to its friends, the Dakotas. They apply words of the Dakota +language to the songs of the bird. They say it calls to the people +with promises and with words of encouragement and good cheer, and that +it gives counsel and advice on all manner of subjects. One of the +things which it used to sing out to the people was "=Koda, pte +kizhozho=," i. e., "Friends, I whistle for the buffalo," that is to +say, it would whistle to call the buffalo in order that its friends, +the Dakotas, might supply their needs of meat and clothing. + +A touch of Dakota humour is shown in one saying attributed to the +meadowlark's notes in these later times since the government has +established schools on the reservations to teach the Dakota children +in the ways of the white men. They say that ofter now the meadowlark +is to be seen flitting about the school grounds and singing, "One, +two, three, epedo! One, two, three, epedo!" The Dakota word =epedo= +means "You shall say." + +The white people speak of the United States government as "Uncle Sam," +but the people of the Dakota nation call the government +"=Tunkashila=," which means "Grandfather," a title of the highest +respect. In the summer of 1918, while the United States was at war +with Germany, many of the Dakotas said they heard "the bird of +promise" singing "=Tunkashila ohiyelo!=" The Dakota word "ohiyelo" +means "will be victorious" or "will have the victory;" so the +meadowlark, "the bird of promise," was singing to them "The United +States will have the victory!" + + +HOW THE MEADOWLARK WON THE RACE + +A young man named Piya had a beautiful and lovely young wife and she +was carried away by an evil monster who kept her hidden in his +dwelling. The young man's grandmother was a very wise old woman. She +had great knowledge of the birds and beasts and of the trees and other +plants, and she had mysterious powers and could do many wonderful +things. Also she had taught her grandson many things, so that he too +had uncommon knowledge and powers. + +Now when the monster stole his wife away he came to his grandmother to +ask her to help him recover his wife. Before he came to her his +grandmother knew he was in trouble, so when he came he found her +waiting for him. She said "I will prepare you for this quest; but +first bring to me a wolf, a turtle and a meadowlark." Then she brought +him food; and after he had eaten and rested he set out to find the +wolf, the turtle and the meadowlark. As he journeyed he found all of +them, one after another, and invited them to eat with him. Then he +told of his grandmother's wish to have them to aid him in his quest. +They each consented to help him provided the old woman would give him +the thing most desired. The wolf said he wished to have a better fur +coat so that the cold breath of old Waziya, the Old Man Winter, would +not chill him. The turtle said, "Insects bite me, but I will help you +if I shall be given protection from insects which suck my blood." The +meadowlark said "My voice is harsh and I can sing but one note and the +magpie laughs at me. I will help you if I may be given a pleasing +voice so that I can make the magpie ashamed." So the young man Piya, +the wizard, together with his three friends, the wolf, the turtle and +the meadowlark came back to the tipi of his grandmother. + +She was waiting and expecting him, and said, "Grandson I knew you +would come and bring with you those whom I want." She invited them +into her tipi and prepared food and set it before them. The next +morning Piya told his grandmother that these friends he had brought +had promised to help him if they should each be given what he most +desired. Then she told them if they would help her grandson she would +give each one what he most wished. So they were all agreed. She told +the wolf she wished him to give her grandson the cunning by which he +could follow a hidden trail and find hidden things; she asked the +turtle to give him the sense by which he could locate water, so that +he should be able to avoid perishing of thirst in a desert land; and +the lark was to give him power to hide himself without covering in the +open prairie. In return for these gifts the wolf was to have for +himself and all his people warm fur clothing so that they could laugh +at Waziya when he would blow his cold breath upon them. The turtle was +promised that he should have the hard tough covering which he asked, +so that insects could not bite him. The meadowlark was given a +pleasing voice so that his songs would make the magpie ashamed. + +After the agreement was made the Old Woman told them that the quest on +which they had to go would take them into a country where there would +be no trees, nor much grass nor open trail, and but little water in +the hidden springs. + +So the wizard, Piya, and his companions, the wolf, the turtle and the +meadowlark set out upon the quest after the Old Woman had instructed +them. The wolf taught him how to find hidden trails; the meadowlark +taught him how to be hidden without covering, and the turtle taught +him how to find hidden watersprings. + +So the help of these friends, together with the powers he already +possessed, enabled Piya finally to discover where his wife was hidden +by the monster, and to rescue her. + +So they all came back to the tipi of the Old Woman. They all rejoiced; +the young woman because she had been rescued from the power of the +monster; the young man Piya because he had found his wife; and the +wolf, the turtle and the meadowlark because they were to have the +gifts which they had most desired. The Old Woman prepared a feast and +they feasted until far into the night. + +Next morning the Old Woman gave to the wolf, the turtle and the +meadowlark each the gift for which he had asked as a reward for +helping the young man, and they set out together on the trail to +return to their homes. As they journeyed they talked about the gifts +which they had received. As they talked they fell into argument, each +claiming that his gift was the best, and soon they were quarreling +and were about to fight. But just then a young man came along the +trail and he asked them why they were quarreling. They told him. He +said that quarreling was foolish and would decide nothing, but that +the only way to determine whose gift was the best was to find out +which would help most in a trial of skill. The wolf proposed a trial +in hunting, but the meadowlark and the turtle said they could not +hunt. The turtle proposed a swimming contest, but the wolf and the +meadowlark said they could not swim. Then the meadowlark in his turn +proposed a contest in singing, for he was very proud of his gift, but +the wolf and the turtle protested that they could not sing. + +The young man suggested that they run a race. To this they all agreed. +The young man told them they must run past a plum thicket, across a +marsh and up to the top of a certain hill. There they would find white +clay and colored clay. The winner of the race would be the one that +first brought back to him some of the white clay. They set out upon +the race. The wolf and turtle were running side by side; but the +meadowlark fell far behind. + +When he came near the plum thicket he saw a bundle laid up in the +forks of a plum bush. He paused and sniffed toward it and the scent of +it was strange to him, and he became curious about it, and wanted to +find out what was in the bundle. He asked the turtle to wait. The +turtle said he would wait for him at the marsh. The wolf walked all +round the bush and looked carefully at the bundle. Then he rose up +against the bush and sniffed at the bundle, but still he could not +make out what was in it. He could not quite reach the bundle, so he +leaped to try to pull it down. But as he did so the thorns pricked +him. He jumped again and missed the bundle, but was pricked again by +the thorns. Now he became angry and determined he would get the +bundle. After jumping many times and being always pricked by the +thorns so that he had many wounds on his sides and back he finally +pulled down the bundle. He was so angry that in his vexation he +energetically shook it about so that it was shaken open and its +contents smeared his wounds. This made his wounds itch so severely +that he had to scratch himself, but this made him itch the more. He +was in such torment that he scratched madly and tore his fur coat and +was bleeding, so he forgot the race. + +The turtle ran on to the marsh and waited there as he had promised. +After he had waited a long time he concluded the wolf had deceived him +and had gone on to the hill. Then he saw a small white puffball. It +looked like a lump of white clay, so the thought came to him that he +could deceive the young man with it and get even with the wolf for the +trick he supposed the wolf had played upon him. So he took the +puffball back and showed it to the young man. Neither the meadowlark +nor the wolf had returned yet, so the young man told the turtle he was +the first to return bringing something to show that he had been to the +top of the hill. + +Now when the meadowlark ran by the plum thicket he saw the wolf +jumping about one of the bushes trying to reach something which was +there, so the meadowlark was encouraged to think he might still have +some chance in the race. He ran on to the marsh, and there he saw the +turtle waiting, so he was still more encouraged. He then ran on all +the way to the top of the hill. He was so anxious and flustered when +he reached there that instead of the white clay which the young man +had specified as the token of having been to the goal, he made a +mistake and picked up a lump of the yellow clay and turned to carry it +back to the young man. As he was crossing back over the marsh again he +stumbled and dropped the lump of clay into the black mud. He picked it +up and hurried on, not stopping to clean off the black mud. When he +came near to the young man he saw the turtle sitting there and smiling +and looking very satisfied. The meadowlark then thought he had lost +the race. He was so disappointed and discouraged that he wept. His +tears washed the black mud off from the lump of clay and made a black +stripe, while the yellow clay itself was washed down over the whole +front of his clothes. + +At last the wolf came back scratching and howling in his misery. Great +patches of fur were torn from his clothes and his skin was raw and +sore. The turtle taunted the wolf for his crying. He swaggered about +and boasted that nothing could make him whimper and cry. The young man +said that the turtle was the first to return, but that he must make +good his boast that nothing could make him whimper if he should lose. +The turtle declared that he would prove all he said in any way the +young man should require. The young man then placed the puffball upon +the turtle's back. The puffball very quickly increased in size and +weight so that it was all the turtle could bear. It continued to +increase in size until the turtle was borne down by it to the ground +and his legs were bent. Still the puffball continued to grow until the +turtle's body was pressed flat by it, and his breath was pressed out +of his body and he lay as if he were dead. Then the puffball became as +light as a feather and turned black. The turtle recovered his breath a +little, but he was unable to straighten his legs or to regain the form +of his body, so he was ashamed and drew in his head under his thick +skin. + +Then the young man laughed loud and long at the plight of the wolf, +the turtle and the meadowlark, and told them now who he really was. He +told them that he was Iktomi, the Trickster. He told them that because +they had foolishly quarreled about the good gifts which the Old Woman +had given to them, instead of making good use of them, they had given +him the opportunity to play this trick upon them, the marks of which +would be upon them, and upon their people forever. He said that +because the wolf had meddled with something which was none of his +affair he had brought upon himself the torments of the mange, and so +it would always be with his people whenever they should do as he had +done. He said that because the turtle had attempted to win by +cheating, his legs and the legs of all his people should always be +short and bent and their bodies should be flattened, so they could +never run in a race. And because he had lied in saying the puffball +was white clay, therefore he and his people should never again be able +to speak, and they should always hide their heads for shame. As for +the meadowlark, the young man said he had won the race, but because he +had brought back the yellow clay instead of the white, therefore his +clothes and the clothes of his people should always be yellow in front +and there should be a black stripe over the yellow. + + +INDIAN FOLKLORE OF THE HORNED LARK + +The name of this little bird in the Dakota language is +=ishtaniche-tanka= (big eye-tufts) from the tuft of feathers which it +has over each eye. It is for the same reason that we call it "horned" +lark. + +The Dakotas say that this little bird foretells the weather. They say +that when a hot dry time is coming in the summer the bird sounds a +single sharp little note; but when rain is coming the bird is glad and +continuously sings loudly and joyously, "=magazhu, magazhu, magazhu!=" +In the Dakota language the word for rain is =magazhu=. Thus the bird +is singing its joy for the rain which is coming. + +The name of this bird is =hupa-hishe= in the Hidatsa language. In that +language the word for moccasin is =hupa=, and the word =hishe= means +wrinkled. This bird is called "wrinkled moccasin" because of its +appearance in its characteristic habit of crouching upon the ground, +where, by its grayish-brown color and its black markings it is made +inconspicuous and hardly distinguishable, suggesting the appearance of +a ragged, useless old moccasin. + +The Hidatsas have a story of this bird that it was once acting as a +spy in enemy country. So while it sat in its characteristic attitude +of inconspicuousness, two of the enemy were coming along, when one +thought he saw something. He stopped and said to his companion, "Wait, +what is that over there?" His companion glanced over and saw what +appeared to him like nothing but a ragged, rotten old fragment of a +worn out moccasin, and answered, "O, that is just an old wrinkled +moccasin." So the bird escaped his enemies, and it is from that that +the people call him "hupa-hishe." + + +HOW IT CAME ABOUT THAT GEESE MIGRATE + +The Teton-Dakota have a story which says that "Long, long time ago" +(lila ehanna) the goose nation did not migrate to the south in the +autumn, but remained here throughout the winter time. Because of the +rigor of the winter most of the people of the goose nation perished so +that they were always a small and weak nation. At last one goose had a +dream of the south-land, that it was pleasant even in winter, that the +winter there was mild and that there was plenty of food there. So she +began teaching the other geese that they should practice flying more +and thus make their wings strong so they could fly to the south-land +before winter time. Some people of the goose nation believed the +vision and began to practice flying to make their wings strong for the +autumn journey. This caused discussion and dissension in the nation, +and a law was made which banished the goose which had the vision. So +they drove her out from among them. She practiced flying all summer +and made her wings strong so that in the autumn she was able to fly to +the pleasant south-land of which she had dreamed. The Mysterious Power +which had given her the vision guided her on the long journey and she +lived pleasantly through the winter time. After the first thunder in +the springtime she flew back north to her nation. As always before, +many of them had died during the cold winter-time from the fury of the +storms and the scarcity of food. But she told them how pleasantly she +had passed the time in the south-land, and they saw in what good +health she was, so many more of them now believed her vision and her +teaching. It was in this way that the geese learned to fly away to the +south-land in the autumn to escape the storms and cold of winter in +this land. + + +THE CAPTIVE BIRD: A TRUE STORY OF CHILDHOOD IN THE OMAHA TRIBE OF +NEBRASKA + +Indians in general have a close sympathy with nature and with all +living creatures and aspects of nature. And the term living creatures +includes plants as well as animals, all are living children of Mother +Earth and have their rights to life according to Indian thought. They +do not think of humankind as being above and separate from all other +creatures, but as fellow creatures in a world of life. + +The following incident, which took place about fifty years ago on the +prairies of Nebraska among a group of children of the Omaha tribe, +will serve to show the attitude quite commonly held by Indians toward +other forms of life. It might be well, also to mention in this +connection that Indian children were taught by their parents to be not +wasteful and destructive of wild flowers, that they should not +wantonly pluck them, for, they were told, if they did so they would +thus destroy the flower babies and the flower nations would then be +exterminated. Indians feel a fearful dread of the consequences of +interfering with the nice balance and adjustment of nature. + +It was a bright, warm summer afternoon in northern Nebraska. The wild +grass, waving in the summer breeze, was like a shimmering emerald sea, +flecked with varied colour of the many different tribes of wild +flowers. Overhead was a brilliantly blue sky with here and there +slow-sailing white clouds whose soft shadows came and passed, silent +and entrancing, over the greenth of the prairie. And in all this scene +the living creatures were moving, intent upon affairs of their own; +the crickets and grasshoppers, and the small mammals among the grass, +the butterfly flitting from flower to flower, the antelope grazing in +groups, and now and then a hawk might be seen circling high overhead. + +Across the prairie came a caravan of people with their camp equipage. +A band of Omahas was on the summer buffalo hunt. The men were widely +deployed in front and over a wide extent on both sides far in advance +of the moving column. They were on the lookout for signs of the herd. +When a herd should be sighted, the scouts who had found them would at +once report to the officers. When the camp was made the officers would +confer and make plans for the surround and kill. + +The boys were employed in looking after the herd of extra horses; some +of the women were with the train of pack animals looking after the +baggage and camp equipment, others were scattered over the prairie +along the line of march, carrying digging sticks and bags to gather +tipsin roots for food. + +Groups of small children, too small to have any particular tasks +assigned to them were playing along the way, observing the ways of +beast and bird and of insects, and admiring the brilliant wild +flowers. One such group found a fledgling meadowlark, not yet able to +fly. They captured it and brought it along with them when the band +went into camp for the night. As the families sat about their tents +waiting the preparation of the evening meal, the children showed their +father the captive bird and told him how they caught it. He listened +to their account and then told them something of the life and habits +of the bird, its nesting and home life, of its love of life and +freedom, and of its place in the world under the wise plans of the +Master of Life. He brought the children to see the unhappiness and the +terror which they had unwittingly brought upon the captive and the +anxiety the mother bird would feel over its loss. + +Then he said to them, "Now children, take the little bird back to the +place where you found it and set it down in the grass, and say 'O +Master of Life, here is thy little bird which we have set free again. +We are sorry that we took it away from its home and its people. We did +not think of the sorrow we should cause. We wish to restore it and +have it happy again with its people. May we be forgiven for our +thoughtlessness and we will not do such wrong again.'" + +The children carried out their father's instructions and placed the +little bird again as near as they could to the place where they had +captured it and recited the prayer to the Master of Life which their +father had admonished them to say. As they returned to the camp the +quiet of the summer evening lay over all the land, the after-glow of +the sunset was in the western sky, the white tents stood in a great +circle upon the prairie, now dusky-green in the twilight which lay +upon the land, a twinkling camp-fire before each tent. The children +were thoughtful. They had had a glimpse of the unity of the universe. +They never forgot the lesson. Years passed, great changes came. The +white people were coming into the land. Old activities and industries +of the Indians were destroyed by the changes. The children of that +little group went away from their people to attend the white men's +schools, to learn the white men's ways and adapt themselves to those +ways. But this did not cause them to forget altogether the wisdom and +grace of their parental teaching. Long afterward they told this little +story to the writer, who now gives it to you, reader, and wishes that +you, also may know that there be those in all lands and among all +peoples who "do justice, love kindness, and walk humbly with God." + + +THE CHICKADEE + +The chickadee is a very popular bird among all the Indian tribes where +it is known. They all have many stories and sayings about it. They say +of it that, though small, it is a very wise bird. It is like the wise +men, the doctors and teachers among the people, who are learned in +mysteries and the wonderful things of nature, who keep a calendar of +the cycle of the days, months and seasons through the year by cutting +marks upon a piece of wood which they have prepared for that purpose. + +This wise little bird is said also to keep account of the months. It +is said that "in the beginning" the task of keeping account of the +months was assigned to the chickadee. But instead of making notches in +a piece of wood as the wise men do this wise bird's method is to make +notches in its tongue; thus in September its tongue is single-pointed, +in October it has two points, in November three, and so on until +February, when it is said that its tongue has six points. Then in +March its tongue is again single-pointed and the count is begun again. +So, it is said, the chickadee has been keeping the count of the months +since the long ago, in the dim past, when the task was assigned to it +in the time of beginnings, in the time when evil powers and monsters +struggled mightily to overcome the good, and to destroy mankind by +sending fierce storms and heavy snowfalls and shuddering cold winds +upon the face of the earth. It was thus the evil powers sought to +discourage and to overcome mankind. + +And so it is said that at one time the evil powers supposed that by +stress of a long siege of cold and storms they had reduced mankind to +famine. At this time they chose to send the chickadee as a messenger +to find out the conditions and to bring back word to them. + +Now when the chickadee came on his mission and appeared at the +dwellings of men he was invited to enter. He was courteously given a +place by the fireside to rest and warm himself. Then food was brought +to him. After he had eaten and refreshed himself he was anointed with +fat, which was a symbol of plenty; then he was painted with red paint, +which was for a symbol of the power and mystery of life. After these +ceremonies and marks of respect his hosts quietly composed themselves +to give attention to whatever their visitor should have to say as to +the purpose of his visit. When he had stated his mission his hosts +held counsel and formulated a reply for the messenger to take back to +those who had sent him. He was bidden to say to them that mankind was +still living and hopeful, and they ever would be; that they could not +be daunted by discouragement, nor defeated by storms and stress, nor +vanquished by hunger, nor overcome by any hardships; and that there +never would be a time when there should not be men upon the earth. So +this is the message which the chickadee brought to the evil powers +which had sought to overcome mankind. + + +THE SONG OF THE WREN + +_A Pawnee Story_ + +The incident of this story occurred in the long ago in the country of +the Pawnee nation, in the broad expanse of the Platte River country in +what is now the State of Nebraska. The event was in the distant past +before the Pawnees had ever seen a white man, or any of his works or +strange devices. The people of the Pawnee nation lived in villages of +houses built in the manner that the houses of Pawnees had been built +for generations. Near their villages lay their fields of corn and +other crops which they cultivated to supply themselves with food. + +It was a beautiful morning in early summer. The sky was clear and +bright, the dawn-light was showing in the eastern sky. All the +landscape lay as though still sleeping. There was no movement +anywhere. A thoughtful priest had risen and had walked out upon the +prairie away from the village so that he might view and meditate upon +the beauty and mystery of the firmament of the heavens and of the +plane of earth, and of the living creatures thereon, both animal +creatures and plant creatures, for in his mind both were equally +wonderful and equally interesting, as showing the power and the wisdom +of the Great Mystery. So he walked and pondered upon all the beauty +and mystery which lay about him, while the face of Mother Earth was +still moist with the dew of sleep. In a moment the first rays of the +sun shone across the land touching into sparkling brilliance the +myriads of dewdrops, while a gentle movement ran through all the +grasses and the wild flowers as they swayed to the rippling of the +gentle morning breeze which pulsed over the prairie at the first touch +of the morning gleam. + +Where a moment before all had been so still and so silent now there +was movement and sound. Birds of many kinds raised their tuneful +voices, showing their joy in life and in the beauty of the morning. +The priest, whose mind and heart were open to all this beauty and +melody, stood still and listened. In a moment, among all the other +bird-songs, he heard one which was clearer and more remarkable than +any of the others. This song was a most joyous cheerful sound, like +happy laughter. As he approached he found that the joyous, laughing +song came from a very tiny brown bird, no larger than his thumb. It +was a wren, so small, so insignificant in comparison to the size and +brilliant plumage of many of the other birds, yet it appeared to be +the most whole hearted in joy and praise and delight in life, as the +sweet stream of music welled from its little throat. + +The priest looked at the tiny bird, and wisely considered. He said to +himself: "The Great Mystery has shown me here a wise teaching for my +people. This bird is small and weak, but it has its proper place in +the world of life and it rejoices in it and gives thanks with +gladness. Everyone can be happy, for happiness is not from without, +but from within, in properly fitting and fulfilling each his own +place. The humblest can have a song of thanks in his own heart." + +So he made a song and a story to be sung in a great religious ritual +of his people, which was to them like our Bible and prayer-book are to +us. And the song and story which that thoughtful priest put into the +ritual, was the story of the wren. And ever since that time so long +ago, the song has been sung by the Pawnees and has been handed down +from generation to generation until this time. + + +THE WAR EAGLE AND THE JACK-RABBIT + +_A Mandan Story_ + +One time a party of men went into a lonely place among the hills far +away from the village, to enter their eagle pits for the purpose of +catching eagles to obtain their plumes. One of the men had made his +pit far out at some distance from any of the others. Another day, as +he was coming away from his eagle pit, returning to the village, he +stopped and sat down upon the top of a high hill from which he could +enjoy a grand view of the landscape. Thus he sat looking about over +the quiet hills and valleys, beyond the bright gleam which showed the +course of the river winding in and out among the green trees along its +borders, far away to the dim sky line. Far away on one side he saw a +number of elks feeding; on the other side he saw a band of graceful +antelopes. A doe and her fawn were browsing upon some bushes down near +the river. + +Aloft he saw the white clouds sailing in the bright blue sky; below he +saw their shadows moving over the earth, now up a hillside and over +its crest and then swiftly across a little valley and up the next +hillside. While he sat enjoying the beauty of the scene he observed a +war eagle chasing a jack-rabbit. The jack-rabbit continually dodged +and circled, trying to escape as the eagle swooped toward him. The +eagle had several times swooped and just missed striking the rabbit. + +Gradually the chase came near to the place where the man was seated. +The eagle was closely pursuing the rabbit and made a tremendous swoop +towards him. But the rabbit escaped by leaping into the man's robe as +he sat with it loosely draped about his shoulders and knees. + +Then the eagle said "Put that rabbit away from you! He is my prey. I +intend to eat him." + +But now the rabbit appealed to the man and said, "I have thrown myself +upon your kindness. Do not turn me away. I beg of you. If you save me +you shall hereafter have success in your undertakings and you shall +become a great man." + +Then the eagle spoke again, saying, "His words are not true. Turn him +away. He can do nothing for you. I, myself will make you great if you +will do as I request. It is I who speak the truth. My feet are not +held to the earth and I can also fly in the air far above the earth. I +am successful in all the things I attempt." + +Once more the jack-rabbit made his plea. "Believe him not, and do not +turn me away! Even though I must remain upon the ground, and cannot +fly like the eagle, still I have knowledge proper to my conditions of +life, and I know how to do many things suitably and successfully." + +The man made his decision in favor of the jack-rabbit and saved him +from the eagle. And the jack-rabbit kept his promise to the man, for +he gave him of his own powers and made him successful in his +undertakings and helped him with good and wise counsel in times of +trouble and doubt and perplexity. So the man gained great renown and +honor and influence among his people. + + + + +INDEX + + + Page + + Dedication 5 + + Introduction 7 + + + LAND AND PEOPLE + + Nature and Health 9 + + Spirit of Life 10 + + Attitude Towards Native Life 10 + + Indians' Appreciation and Love of Their Homeland 12 + + Song to the Trees and Streams 12 + + Thrilling Escape of a Besieged War Party 12 + + A Mandan Monument 14 + + The Legend of Standing Rock 15 + + The Holy Hill Pahuk 17 + + The Lodge of the Black-tail Deer which Talked with + Its Captor 23 + + The Wonderful Basket 24 + + Cause of the Breaking up of Ice in the Missouri River 26 + + The Waterspring of the Holy Man 27 + + The Sacred Symbol of the Circle 31 + + The Sacred Number Four 31 + + The Pristine Prairie 32 + + Aboriginal American Agriculture 35 + + Description of an Earth-lodge 37 + + Hymn to the Sun 38 + + Description of a Tipi 39 + + An Omaha Ghost Story 40 + + An Omaha Hero Song 41 + + + STORIES OF THE PLANT PEOPLE + + Sacred Trees 43 + + The Song of the Pasque Flower 46 + + The Prairie Rose 48 + + The Song of the Wild Rose 49 + + Use of the Ground Bean 50 + + Tipsin: An Important Native Food Plant 52 + + How the People Obtained the Precious Gift of Corn 53 + + A Group of Pawnee Hymns to Corn 56 + + The Forgotten Ear of Corn 58 + + How the Usefulness of Wild Rice Was Discovered 58 + + A Story of the Sunflower 59 + + Dakota Folklore of the Spiderwort 60 + + + STORIES OF THE FOUR-FOOTED PEOPLE + + The Faithful Dog 61 + + How Coyote Chief Was Punished 63 + + The Skunk and the Bear 65 + + The Song of the Old Wolf 65 + + + STORIES OF THE PEOPLE OF THE AIR + + Folk Sayings About the Meadowlark 67 + + How the Meadowlark Won the Race 68 + + Folklore of the Horned Lark 72 + + How It Came About that Geese Migrate 72 + + The Captive Bird 73 + + The Chickadee 74 + + The Song of the Wren 75 + + The War Eagle and the Jack-rabbit 76 + + + MAPS + + Map to Show Distribution of Tribes 4 + + Map to Show Aboriginal Agriculture 34 + + Map of Geographical Distribution of Pasque Flower 46 + + +[Decoration] + +_Bismarck Tribune Print_ + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +Omitted periods and mismatched quotation marks have been repaired. All +other punctuation usage is as in the original. Hyphenation has been +made consistent. Inconsistent capitalisation, e.g. Hintunka and +hintunka, is preserved as printed. Archaic and variable spelling is +preserved as printed. + +The Dedication on page 6 includes the phrase, "... and who held it a +form of sacrilege to violate or in any way endanger the overthrow of +that delicate balance of nature; ..." The word 'endanger' does not +seem appropriate in the context, and may be an error for 'engender.' +However, as it is impossible to be sure, it is preserved as printed. + +The following typographic errors have been repaired: + + Page 11--considerble amended to considerable--"The careful + study of plants and animals was a considerable part ..." + + Page 40--semed amended to seemed--"Then, after a time, she + seemed to see not only the moccasins ..." + + Page 40--leggins amended to leggings--"... but the leggings + above them as far as the knees, ..." + + Page 41--one amended to on--"... he was unable to sit quietly + in the village while the fighting was going on." + + Page 45--an amended to in--"... with great profusion of + bloom, in earnest of returning life." + + Page 75--mesenger amended to messenger--"... and formulated a + reply for the messenger to take back ..." + + Page 79--Thrillnig amended to Thrilling--"Thrilling Escape of + a Besieged War Party ..." + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Prairie Smoke (Second Edition, Revised), by +Melvin Randolph Gilmore + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRAIRIE SMOKE *** + +***** This file should be named 36012.txt or 36012.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/6/0/1/36012/ + +Produced by K Nordquist, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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