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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Degeneracy, by Eugene S. Talbot
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Degeneracy
+       Its Causes, Signs and Results
+
+Author: Eugene S. Talbot
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2011 [EBook #36003]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEGENERACY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
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+_WITH THE PUBLISHERS' COMPLIMENTS._
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+The Contemporary Science Series.
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+XI. THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES. By E. SIDNEY HARTLAND. 3s. 6d.
+
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+by the knowledge it displays, and by a thorough love and appreciation of
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+
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+XIII. THE EVOLUTION OF MARRIAGE. By Professor LETOURNEAU. 3s. 6d.
+
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+Letourneau has long stood in the first rank. He approaches the great study
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+Second Edition. 3s. 6d.
+
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+XV. EDUCATION AND HEREDITY. By J. M. GUYAU. 3s. 6d.
+
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+doubtful whether among all the ardent evolutionists who have had their say
+on the moral and the educational question any one has carried forward the
+new doctrine so boldly to its extreme logical consequence."--Professor
+SULLY in _Mind_.
+
+XVI. THE MAN OF GENIUS. By Prof. LOMBROSO. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.
+
+"By far the most comprehensive and fascinating collection of facts and
+generalisations concerning genius which has yet been brought
+together."--_Journal of Mental Science._
+
+XVII. PROPERTY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT. By CH. LETOURNEAU, General
+Secretary to the Anthropological Society, Paris, and Professor in the
+School of Anthropology, Paris. 3s. 6d.
+
+"M. Letourneau has read a great deal, and he seems to us to have selected
+and interpreted his facts with considerable judgment and
+learning."--_Westminster Review._
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+XVIII. VOLCANOES, PAST AND PRESENT. By Prof. EDWARD HULL, LL.D., F.R.S.
+3s. 6d.
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+earthquakes."--_Nature._
+
+XIX. PUBLIC HEALTH. By Dr. J. F. J. SYKES. With numerous Illustrations.
+3s. 6d.
+
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+prophylaxis, and sanitation bearing upon the preservation of public
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+
+XX. MODERN METEOROLOGY. AN ACCOUNT OF THE GROWTH AND PRESENT CONDITION OF
+SOME BRANCHES OF METEOROLOGICAL SCIENCE. By FRANK WALDO, PH.D., Member of
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+
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+in the University of Freiburg-in-Breisgau. With 24 Illustrations. 6s.
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+bearing on the subject."--_British Medical Journal._
+
+XXII. INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. By F. HOUSSAY. With numerous Illustrations.
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+PEOPLES. By OTIS T. MASON, Curator of the Department of Ethnology in the
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+faculty."--_Nature._
+
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+TO EDUCATION. By HENRY HERBERT DONALDSON, Professor of Neurology in the
+University of Chicago. 3s. 6d.
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+By Professor ALFRED C. HADDON. With 130 Illustrations. 6s.
+
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+College of France, Editor of the _Revue Philosophique_. 6s.
+
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+comparison. A masterly exposition."--_British Medical Journal._
+
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+PERCEPTION. By EDMUND PARISH. 6s.
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+Science._
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+Illustrations. 6s.
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+XXXIII. SLEEP: ITS PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY, HYGIENE, AND PSYCHOLOGY. By
+MARIE DE MANACÉÏNE (St. Petersburg). Illustrated. 3s. 6d.
+
+"The book is a complete and wonderfully interesting exposition, and as
+such ought to receive a hearty welcome."--_Scotsman._
+
+XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DIGESTION. By A. LOCKHART GILLESPIE, M.D.,
+F.R.C.P. ED., F.R.S. ED. With a large number of Illustrations and
+Diagrams. 6s.
+
+XXXV. DEGENERACY: ITS CAUSES, SIGNS, AND RESULTS. By Professor EUGENE S.
+TALBOT, M.D., Chicago. With Illustrations. 6s.
+
+
+
+
+_THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES_
+
+EDITED BY HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+
+DEGENERACY
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DWARFISM AND GIANTISM.]
+
+
+
+
+  DEGENERACY
+
+  _ITS CAUSES, SIGNS, AND RESULTS_
+
+
+  BY EUGENE S. TALBOT, M.D., D.D.S.,
+
+  FELLOW OF THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF MEDICINE; MEMBER OF
+  THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; HONORARY MEMBER OF
+  THE BERLIN ODONTOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT, AND THE
+  ASSOCIATION GÉNÉRALE DES DENTISTES DE FRANCE;
+  PROFESSOR OF DENTAL AND ORAL SURGERY, WOMAN'S
+  MEDICAL SCHOOL, NORTH-WESTERN UNIVERSITY, U.S.A.
+
+
+  WITH 120 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  LONDON
+  WALTER SCOTT, LTD., PATERNOSTER SQUARE
+  1898
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present work is the result of more than twenty years' labour in a
+limited medical department of biology. It demonstrates once more the truth
+of the scientific principle, that the truth or falsity of any theory or
+working hypothesis becomes more and more demonstrable the further its
+application is attempted in the explanation of new lines of facts. The
+truth of the degeneracy doctrine had forced itself on the writer long
+before its popular apotheosis under Lombroso and Nordau, because it alone
+sufficed for an explanation of constitutional and local defects
+(encountered in a seemingly limited speciality of medicine), which local
+causes failed entirely to explain. The investigations thereon resultant
+have appeared in medical and dental journals for the past two decades. The
+present work is chiefly based on these researches. At the same time, the
+author has drawn largely from all fields of biology cultivated by European
+investigators, while he must acknowledge a particular indebtedness to the
+investigations (of which he has made large use beside that elsewhere
+specifically acknowledged) of certain American investigators--Rush,
+Parkmen, Ray, G. Frank Lydston, C. L. Dana, C. F. Folsom, W. W. Godding,
+E. C. Spitzka, E. D. Cope, D. R. Brower, Marsh, B. Sachs, Harriet C. B.
+Alexander, Clara Barrus, H. M. Bannister, Delia E. Howe, Grace Peckham,
+Adolph Meyer, Kerlin, Wiley, J. G. Kiernan, W. E. Allison, Osborn, R.
+Dewey, Frederick Peterson, Gihon, Cowles, W. A. Hammond, A. B. Holder, C.
+H. Hughes, F. W. Starr, F. C. Hoyt, J. H. McBride, C. K. Mills, C. B.
+Burr, T. D. Crothers, W. S. Christopher, W. X. Sudduth, A. Lagorio, J.
+Workman, Wilmarth, and others. These scientists had raised an exceedingly
+stable foundation for the doctrine of degeneracy long before Lombroso and
+Nordau (forcing one phase of the subject into popular recognition)
+compelled an examination of the entire doctrine.
+
+The work has been written with a special intention of reaching educators
+and parents. With this object, it has avoided laying stress on any one
+cause of degeneracy, and ignoring factors which produce it and are
+aggravated by it. The doctrinaire reformer will here find no support for
+any limited theory. While it does not pretend in the slightest degree to
+give all the details of degeneracy, it attempts to lay down general
+principles for practical purposes in a way that permits their application
+to the solution of sociologic problems.
+
+From a sense of scientific accuracy no attempts have been made to
+demarcate, rigidly, abnormality from disease, or atavism from arrested
+development, except as may be done by the features of the cases in which
+the terms are used. The guiding principle adopted has been that the
+factors of degeneracy affect in the ancestor the checks on excessive
+action acquired during the evolution of the race, thus producing a state
+of nervous exhaustion. The descendant in consequence is unable to reach
+the state of the ancestor thus nervously exhausted.
+
+For the illustrations, other than those that are original, the author is
+indebted to the _Journal of the American Medical Association_, _Dental
+Cosmos_, _The International Dental Journal_, _The St. Louis Clinical
+Record_, to M. Félix Alcan, and to the officers of the New York State
+Reformatory and Illinois State Reformatory, Drs. Geo. T. Carpenter, W. A.
+Pusey, F. S. Coolidge, Ch. Féré, Zuckerkandl, John E. Greves, Amsterdam;
+Ernst Sjoberg, Stockholm; Bastian, J. G. Kiernan, E. C. Spitzka, John
+Ridlon, James W. Walker, and Ignatius Donnelly.
+
+E. S. T.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   CHAP.                                                PAGE
+
+      I. INTRODUCTION                                      1
+
+     II. THE STIGMATA OF DEGENERACY                       27
+
+    III. HEREDITY AND ATAVISM                             40
+
+     IV. CONSANGUINEOUS AND NEUROTIC INTERMARRIAGES       79
+
+      V. INTERMIXTURE OF RACES                            92
+
+     VI. TOXIC AGENTS                                    104
+
+    VII. CONTAGIOUS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES              121
+
+   VIII. CLIMATE, SOIL, AND FOOD                         130
+
+     IX. SCHOOL STRAIN                                   150
+
+      X. THE DEGENERATE CRANIUM                          161
+
+     XI. THE DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE                    177
+
+    XII. DEGENERACY OF THE LIP PALATE, EYE, AND EAR      196
+
+   XIII. THE DEGENERATE TEETH AND JAWS                   219
+
+    XIV. DEGENERACY OF THE BODY                          258
+
+     XV. DEGENERACY IN REVERSIONAL TENDENCIES            282
+
+    XVI. DEGENERACY OF THE BRAIN                         294
+
+   XVII. DEGENERACY OF MENTALITY AND MORALITY            315
+
+  XVIII. CONCLUSIONS                                     346
+
+  INDEX OF AUTHORS                                       363
+
+  INDEX OF SUBJECTS                                      367
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                            PAGE
+
+  DWARFISM AND GIANTISM (_Journal of American Medical
+  Association_)                                         _Frontispiece_
+
+  1. ANTE-CHRISTIAN IRISH PIPES (Donnelly, _Atlantis_)             111
+
+  2. ANTE-COLUMBIAN PIPES FROM SCULPTURE AT STRATFORD-ON-AVON
+  (Donnelly, _Atlantis_)                                           112
+
+  3-6. CHANGES IN SKULL TYPES (_Original_)                         134
+
+  7. WANT OF UNION IN FRONTAL SUTURE (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)       163
+
+  8. STIGMATA OF DEGENERATE CRANIUM (Original)                     165
+
+  9. HYDROCEPHALY (Dr. Ernst Sjöberg, Stockholm)                   166
+
+  10. KEPHALONES (Dr. Ernst Sjöberg, Stockholm)                    167
+
+  11. MICROCEPHALY (Dr. Ernst Sjöberg, Stockholm)                  168
+
+  12. DOLICHOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                               169
+
+  13. SPHENOCEPHALY (New York State Reformatory)                   170
+
+  14. BRACHYCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                171
+
+  15. PLATYCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                 172
+
+  16. PLAGIOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                173
+
+  17. SCAPHOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                174
+
+  18. LARGE ORBITS (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)                         180
+
+  19. CAMPER'S ANGLE (Original)                                    181
+
+  20. JOHANNA, FEMALE CHIMPANZEE (Original)                        182
+
+  21. NEGRO CRIMINAL YOUTH (Illinois State Reformatory)            182
+
+  22. CAUCASIAN FACE (Original)                                    183
+
+  23. DEGENERATE FACE AND ARREST OF UPPER JAW (Original)           184
+
+  24. DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE (_Dental Cosmos_)                   185
+
+  25. DEGENERATE FACE AND ARREST OF LOWER JAW (Original)           187
+
+  26. ASYMMETRICAL FACE (New York State Reformatory)               188
+
+  27. DEFLECTION OF NASAL SEPTUM (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)           190
+
+  28. HYPERTROPHY OF TURBINATES (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)            191
+
+  29. IRREGULAR DEVELOPMENT OF THE BONES OF THE NOSE
+  (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)                                          192
+
+  30. OBLITERATED ANTRUM (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)                   193
+
+  31. CLEFT PALATE (Dr. G. T. Carpenter, Chicago)                  198
+
+  32. HARE-LIP (Dr. G. T. Carpenter, Chicago)                      201
+
+  33. CYCLOPIC EYE (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)                    204
+
+  34. CYCLOPIC MONSTER WITH SINGLE EYE (Dr. J. G. Kiernan,
+  Chicago)                                                         205
+
+  35. FOETUS WITHOUT CHIN AND EARS AT EXTERNAL OPENING OF
+  FIRST GILL CLEFT (Bland Sutton, London)                          207
+
+  36. EAR EMBRYOLOGY (Minot, Boston)                               209
+
+  37. ARREST OF EAR DEVELOPMENT (_Journal of American
+  Medical Association_)                                            210
+
+  38. NORMAL EAR (Ibid.)                                           211
+
+  39. MOREL EAR (Ibid.)                                            213
+
+  40-45. DARWINIAN EARS AND ABNORMAL EARS (Ibid.)                  215
+
+  46, 47. UNDEVELOPED EARS (Ibid.)                                 216
+
+  48, 49. ELEPHANTINE EARS (Ibid.)                                 217
+
+  Plates A and B. EVOLUTION OF THE TEETH (Osborn,
+  _International Dental Journal_)                                  223
+
+  50, 51. CALCIFICATION OF THE TEETH (Dr. C. N. Pierce,
+  Philadelphia)                                                  226-7
+
+  52-56. SUPERNUMERARY TEETH (Original)                          230-1
+
+  57-60. SUPERNUMERARY AND CONE-SHAPED TEETH (_Dental
+  Cosmos_)                                                       232-3
+
+  61. CONE-SHAPED TEETH (Smale & Colyer, London)                   234
+
+  62. MISSING THIRD MOLARS (Original)                              235
+
+  63. MISSING THIRD MOLARS (Original)                              236
+
+  64-66. MISSING LATERAL INCISORS (Original)                     236-7
+
+  67. SO-CALLED HUTCHINSON'S TEETH (_American System of
+  Dentistry_)                                                      238
+
+  68. DEGENERATE V-SHAPED JAW (Original)                           239
+
+  69. HUTCHINSON'S TEETH (_Dental Cosmos_)                         240
+
+  70, 71. CONE-SHAPED MOLARS (Ibid.)                               240
+
+  72, 73. CONE-SHAPED MOLARS (Ibid.)                               241
+
+  74. MIGRATING TEETH (Original)                                   241
+
+  75. CONE-SHAPED TEETH (Smale & Colyer, London)                   242
+
+  76-78. RUDIMENTARY CUSPS (Original)                            242-3
+
+  79. EXCESSIVELY DEVELOPED CUSPS (Smale & Colyer, London)         244
+
+  80-89. TEETH JOINED TOGETHER (_Dental Cosmos_)                 246-7
+
+  90. V-SHAPED ARCH (Original)                                     249
+
+  91. SADDLE-SHAPED ARCH (Original)                                251
+
+  92. HYPERTROPHY OF THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS (Original)               253
+
+  93. HYPERTROPHY OF THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS (Original)               254
+
+  94. ARREST OF THE FACE (New York State Reformatory)              255
+
+  95. ARREST OF THE FACE AND LOWER JAW (New York State
+  Reformatory)                                                     256
+
+  96. SPINA BIFIDA (Dr. W. A. Pusey, Chicago)                      259
+
+  97. ARRESTED CHEST (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                      261
+
+  98. ECTRODACTYLIA (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                       264
+
+  99. MARCRODACTYLIA (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                      265
+
+  100. CLUB-FEET (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                          267
+
+  101. ARREST OF FACE (Original)                                   270
+
+  102. FEMINISM (Dr. Féré, Paris)                                  273
+
+  103. FEMINISM (Dr. Féré, Paris)                                  275
+
+  104. ACROMEGALY (Original)                                       277
+
+  105. ACROMEGALY (_Journal of American Medical Association_)      279
+
+  106. DEGENERATE FEET (New York State Reformatory)                280
+
+  107. PREMATURE SENESCENCE (Original)                             288
+
+  108. EXCESSIVE DEVELOPED APPENDIX (Original)                     290
+
+  109. NORMALLY DEVELOPED APPENDIX (Original)                      291
+
+  110. ARRESTED APPENDIX (Original)                                292
+
+  111. BRAIN FROM PARANOIAC CRIMINAL (Dr. J. G. Kiernan,
+  Chicago)                                                         295
+
+  112. BRAIN OF GAUSS (Vogt, _Lectures on Man_)                    296
+
+  113. FOETAL BRAIN (Bastian)                                      297
+
+  114. IDIOT BRAIN (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)                    297
+
+  115. IMBECILE BRAIN (Spitzka, _Insanity_)                        298
+
+  116. SPECIALISED FUNCTION IN THE CORTEX CEREBRI (Dana)           308
+
+  117. CELLS OF THE BRAIN (Spitzka, _Insanity_)                    310
+
+
+
+
+DEGENERACY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Considered as a condition hurtful to the type, the conception of
+degeneracy may be said to appear even in the precursors of man, since
+animals destroy soon after birth offspring which, to them, appear
+peculiar. With that stage of development of the religious sense marked by
+assigning malign occult powers to natural objects and forces, this view of
+degeneracy became systematised, and exposed weakly or deformed offspring,
+charged to evil powers, to death. This occult conception of degeneracy is
+even yet a part of American folklore. Against degenerate children charms
+are still used by the "witch-doctors" among the "Pennsylvania Dutch."
+These people are on the level of culture of the early seventeenth century
+middle class English, if not a little below it. The folklore of these, as
+embodied in Shakespeare, demonstrates, according to J. G. Kiernan,[1] that
+ere the seventeenth century the fact that "mental and moral defect
+expressed itself in physical stigmata was recognised and even the term
+used." Thistleton Dyer[2] remarks that it is an old prejudice, not yet
+extinct, that those who are defective or deformed are marked by nature as
+prone to mischief. Thus in _King Richard III._ (i. 3) Margaret calls
+Richard--
+
+  "Thou elvish-marked, abortive, rooting hog!
+  Thou that wast sealed in thy nativity
+  The slave of nature and the son of hell!"
+
+She calls him hog in allusion to his cognisance, which was a boar. A
+popular expression in Shakespeare's day for a deformed person was
+"stigmatic." It denoted any one who had been stigmatised or burnt with
+iron (an ignominious punishment), and hence was employed to represent a
+person on whom nature had set a mark of deformity. Thus in the Third Part
+of _Henry VI._ (ii. 2) Queen Margaret says--
+
+  "But thou art neither like thy sire nor dam;
+  But like a foul misshapen stigmatic,
+  Marked by the destinies to be avoided,
+  As venom toads, or lizards' dreadful stings."
+
+Again in the Second Part of _Henry VI._ (v. 1) young Clifford says to
+Richard--
+
+  "Foul stigmatic, that's more than thou canst tell."
+
+In _A Midsummer Night's Dream_ (v. 1) Oberon wards off degeneracy from the
+issue of the happy lovers by the following charm--
+
+  "And the blots of Nature's hand
+  Shall not in their issue stand;
+  Never mole, hare-lip nor scar,
+  Nor mark prodigious, such as are
+  Despised in nativity,
+  Shall upon their children be."
+
+Constant allusions to this subject occur in old writers, showing how
+strong was the belief of the early English on this point. King John (iv.
+2) calls Hubert, the supposed murderer of Prince Arthur,--
+
+  "A fellow by the hand of Nature marked,
+  Quoted and signed to do a deed of shame."
+
+Concerning this adaptation of the mind to the deformity of the body
+Francis Bacon remarks: "Deformed persons are commonly even with Nature,
+for as Nature hath done ill by them so do they by Nature, being void of
+natural affection, and so they have their revenge on Nature."
+
+The quaint old "Anatomist of Melancholy,"[3] Burton, seems but to
+paraphrase modern curers of degeneracy when, at the end of his chapter on
+the inheritance of defects, he remarks concerning this fetichistic notion:
+"So many several ways are we plagued and published for our father's
+defaults; in so much that as Fernelius truly saith: 'It is the greatest
+part of our felicity to be well born, and it were happy for human kind, if
+only such parents as are sound of body and mind should be suffered to
+marry.' An husbandman will sow none but the best and choicest seed upon
+his land, he will not rear a bull or an horse, except he be right shapen
+in all parts, or permit him to cover a mare, except he be well assured of
+his breed; we make choice of the best rams for our sheep, rear the neatest
+kine, and keep the best dogs, _quanto id diligentius in procreandis
+liberis observandum_! And how careful, then, should we be in begetting of
+our children! In former times some countries have been so chary in this
+behalf, so stern, that if a child were crooked or deformed in body or
+mind, they made him away; so did the Indians of old by the relation of
+Curtius, and many other well-governed commonwealths according to the
+discipline of those times. 'Heretofore in Scotland,' saith Hect Boethius,
+'if any were visited with the falling sickness, madness, gout, leprosy, or
+any such dangerous disease which was likely to be propagated from the
+father to the son, he was instantly gelded; a woman kept from all company
+of men; and if by chance having some such disease she were found to be
+with child, she with her brood were buried alive'; and this was done for
+the common good, lest the whole nation should be injured or corrupted. A
+severe doom, you will say, and not to be used amongst Christians, yet more
+to be looked into than it is. For now by our too much facility in this
+kind, in giving way for all to marry that will, too much liberty and
+indulgence in tolerating all sorts, there is a vast confusion of
+hereditary diseases, no family secure, no man almost free, from some
+grievous infirmity or other, when no choice is had, but still the eldest
+must marry, as so many stallions of the race; or if rich, be they fools or
+dizzards, lame or maimed, unable, intemperate, dissolute, exhaust through
+riot, as he said, they must be wise and able by inheritance. It comes to
+pass that our generation is corrupt, we have many weak persons both in
+body and mind, many feral diseases raging among us, crazed families; our
+fathers bad, and we are like to be worse."
+
+This conception gradually developed into the widespread myth of a
+primevally perfect man through the natural operation of that
+psychological law whereby, as Macaulay remarks, society, constantly moving
+forward with eager speed, is as constantly looking backward with tender
+regret. They turn their eyes and see a lake where an hour before they were
+toiling through sand.
+
+From this view came the belief that man as existing is degenerate. This
+degeneracy, while popularly charged to occult influences, was early
+ascribed by scientists to physical causes. Aristotle, as Osborn[4] points
+out, appears to have recognised degeneration or the gradual decline of
+structures in form and usefulness, in his analysis of "movement" in
+connection with development. Degeneration is first met with as a term in
+an explanation of the origin of species by Buffon in the eighteenth
+century. The conception itself occurs in a criticism by Sylvius of
+Vesalius (1514-64), who had asserted that the anatomy of Galen could not
+have been founded upon the human body, because he had described an
+intermaxillary bone. This bone, Vesalius observed, is found in the lower
+animals but not in man. Sylvius (1614-72) defends Galen on the ground that
+though man had no intermaxillary bone at present this is no proof of its
+absence in Galen's time. "It is luxury, it is sensuality, which has
+gradually deprived man of this bone." This passage, as Osborn remarks,
+proves that the idea of degeneration of structures through disuse, as well
+as the idea of the inheritance of the effect of habit, or the
+"transmission of acquired characters," is a very ancient one. Sylvius,
+while here recognising factors of degeneracy, erred in considering
+disappearance of the intermaxillary bone, not reappearance, as
+degeneracy. He failed to recognise, moreover, the law of economy of growth
+by which one structure is sacrificed for another or for the organism as a
+whole. This law, indicated by Aristotle, but clearly outlined by Goethe in
+1807, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire in 1818, underlies the physiological
+atrophies and hypertrophies which play such a part in degeneracy.
+
+The _Twelve Cæsars_ of Suetonius (that stud book of imperial degeneracy as
+it has been styled) stamps the decided impression on its readers that
+Hippocratian notions of degenerate heredity strongly permeated Roman
+thought, to revive in those Arabic, Italian, and British (Roger Bacon)
+thinkers who created the scientific phase of the revival of learning.
+
+In the science of medicine, as developed by Hippocrates,[5] the modern
+conception of degeneracy is evident. Hippocrates argues against the
+"sacred" nature of epilepsy, since it is a hereditary disease and hence
+comes under the operation of physical law. He furthermore points out, as
+did Aristotle, that epilepsy produced in the ancestor by traumatism and
+other physical causes may be inherited by the child.
+
+As the degeneration phase of evolution was less antagonistic to the
+religious theory forced into biblical dogma by the Jesuit Suarez (in
+opposition to the evolutionary views of St. Augustine and St. Thomas
+Aquinas), being supported by biblical dicta (that when the fathers had
+eaten sour grapes the children's teeth were set on edge) and fetichistic
+folklore, it retained a dominance that the advanced phase lost. From the
+time of Hippocrates, psychiatry (the science devoted to mental disorders)
+continued to accumulate data of the origin and transmission of human
+defects. The impetus given the evolutionary explanation of these data by
+the seventeenth and eighteenth century biologists (Harvey, Buffon,
+Lamarck, Erasmus Darwin, and others) laid the foundation for the modern
+doctrine of degeneracy.
+
+Buffon[6] remarks that many species are being perfected or degenerated by
+the great changes in land and sea, by the favours or disfavours of Nature,
+by food, by the prolonged influences of climate, contrary or favourable,
+and are no longer what they formerly were. He regarded temperature, food,
+and climate as the three great factors in the alteration and degeneration
+of animals.
+
+Erasmus Darwin[7] considers that all life starts from a living filament
+having the capability of being excited into action by certain stimuli.
+This capability is that whereby plants and animals react to their
+environment, causing changes in them which are transmitted to their
+offspring. All animals undergo transformations which are in part produced
+by their own exertions in response to pleasures and pains, and many of
+these acquired forms or propensities are transmitted to their posterity.
+Other effects of this excitability (such as constitute hereditary
+diseases, like scrofula, epilepsy, insanity) have their origin in one or
+perhaps two generations, as in the progeny of those who drink much vinous
+spirits. Those hereditary propensities cease again if one or two sober
+generations succeed, otherwise the family becomes extinct.
+
+Benjamin Rush[8] (greatly influenced by the Erasmus Darwin school)
+remarks that through hereditary sameness of organisation of the nerves,
+brain and blood vessels, the predisposition to insanity pervades whole
+families and renders them liable to this disease from a transient and
+feeble operation of its causes. Insanity when hereditary is excited by
+more feeble causes than in persons in whom this predisposition has been
+acquired. It generally attacks the descendants in those stages of life in
+which it has appeared in the ancestors. Children born previously to the
+attack of madness in their parents are less liable to inherit it than
+those who are born after it. Children born of parents who are in the
+decline of life are more predisposed to insanity than children born under
+contrary circumstances. A predisposition to certain diseases, seated in
+parts contiguous to the seat of insanity, often descends from parents to
+their children. Thus it occurs in a son whose father or mother has been
+afflicted only with hysteria or habitual headaches. The reverse likewise
+takes place. There are families in which insanity has existed where the
+disease has spared the mind in the posterity, but appeared in great
+strength and eccentricity of the memory and of the passions, or in great
+perversion of their moral faculties. Sometimes it passes by all the
+faculties of the mind, and appears only in the nervous system of persons
+descended from deranged parents; again, madness occurs in children whose
+parents were remarkable only for eccentricity of mind. Among the diseases
+that attack the children of the insane, but did not exist in their
+ancestors, are consumption and epilepsy.
+
+Similar studies were later published by Pinel, Tissot, Chiarrurgi,
+Stedman, Parkman, Brigham, Prichard, Esquirol, Jacobi, and other
+American, English, French, Italian, and German alienists. Based upon the
+data thus obtained, and upon the general principles thus outlined, then
+appeared--nearly at the same time as the like epoch-making work (on
+another phase of evolution), Darwin's _Origin of Species_--Morel's
+_Treatise on Human Degeneracy_, wherein the principle of natural selection
+was shown to involve the recognition of the physical conditions that
+constitute degeneracy, and, necessarily, to exclude primeval perfection.
+Morel's definition of degeneration as a marked departure from the original
+type tending more or less rapidly to the extinction of it, forms the basis
+of commonly accepted definitions.
+
+While Morel practically outlined the modern study of degeneracy, his
+theologic timidity forced an absolute definition of a state which,
+according to his own admission, was purely relative. After fencing
+somewhat with the position that there was a primevally perfect man,[9] he
+admits with Tessier the primeval lowness of man, but also thinks that the
+fall of man could create new conditions which, in his descendants, from
+heredity and from causes acting on their health, tended to make them
+depart from the primitive type. These departures from the primitive type
+have led to varieties, some of which constitute races capable of
+transmitting racial characteristics. Other varieties in the races
+themselves have created the abnormal states which Morel has denominated
+degeneracies. Each of these degeneracies has its own stamp from the cause
+that produces it. Their common characteristic is hereditary transmission
+under graver conditions than normal heredity. With certain exceptional
+instances of regeneration, the progeny of degenerates presents progressive
+degradation. This may reach such limits that humanity is preserved by its
+excess. It is not necessary, however, that the ultimate stage of
+degradation be reached before sterility occurs. Morel confines degeneracy
+to a pathologic type, criticising F. Heusinger[10] for applying the term
+degenerate to domestic animals which "throw back" to the wild or original
+type. Morel's admission that causes influencing health produce deviations
+which, under favouring conditions, become racial types capable of
+indefinite transmission, saves him from absolute scientific inaccuracy,
+but renders inconsistent his limitation of degeneracy. It may be
+convenient to separate diseased states from anomalies, but such separation
+can only be very relative. From his conservatism and his plentiful data,
+Morel aroused much less antagonism than did a contemporary, Moreau (de
+Tours), who bore to him the relation of Darwin to Wallace.[11] While
+Moreau devotes much attention to the factors of degeneracy and its
+stigmata (or marks), like Morel, his main point is the expansion of the
+theory of Aristotle which Dryden epigrammatised into--
+
+  "Great wit to madness nearly is allied,
+  And thin partitions do their bounds divide."
+
+As J. G. Kiernan shows,[12] this doctrine, early in the history of the
+race, obtained dominance through the evolution of arts, sciences, and
+religions from fetichism. Phenomena manifested by fetich priests (of the
+Shaman type) so closely resembled epileptic insanity in its frenzies and
+visions that the two states were long regarded as identical, whence the
+term "_morbus sacer_." The supernatural influences which, in current
+belief, underlay epilepsy were, at the outset, malign or benign as they
+were offended or placated. They became benign, and the insane were under
+protection of a deity, as in Mussulman countries. Later still the
+demon-possession theory gained dominance, and at length the demon sank
+into disease. Throughout all this evolution the belief in an inherent
+affinity between insanity and genius persisted.
+
+Aristotle, in whose day the disease notion was becoming dominant, asserts
+that, under the influence of head congestion, persons sometimes become
+prophets, sybils, and poets. Thus Mark, the Syracusan, was a pretty fair
+poet during a maniacal attack, but could not compose when sane. Men
+illustrious in poetry, arts, and statesmanship are often insane, like
+Ajax, or misanthropic like Bellerophon. Even at a recent period similar
+dispositions are evident in Plato, Socrates, Empedocles, and many others,
+above all, the poets.
+
+According to Plato, "Delirium is by no means evil, but when it comes by
+gift of the gods, a very great benefit. In delirium the sibyls of Delphi
+and Dodona were of great service to Greece, but when in cold blood were of
+little or none. Frequently, when the gods afflicted men with epidemics, a
+sacred delirium inspired some men with a remedy for these. The Muses
+excite some souls to delirium to glorify heroes with poetry, or to
+instruct future generations."
+
+Precedent to the works of Morel and Moreau appeared their source and
+inspiration, Prosper Lucas's _Natural Heredity_.[13] Here the biologic
+current of thought encountered the sociologic current; although the waves
+clashed, the two currents merged into and modified each other. The
+biologist demonstrated that degenerate types often "threw back" in their
+structures, and this very "throwing back" made them the fittest to
+survive. The sociologist found that the only test of acquired or inherited
+degeneracy in man was disaccord with environment. The co-existent moral
+and physical defects resultant on heredity found by Erasmus Darwin, Rush,
+Parkman, Grohmann, and others tended to show that all types of defectives
+might be a product of heredity.
+
+These stimulating researches into the sources of crime led to a
+controversy which reached its height two decades ere the treatise of
+Morel. To this controversy three suggestive works owed their origin: a
+psychological treatise by Dr. Lauvergne[14] on felons, a romance with a
+purpose by Eugène Sue,[15] and a suggestively practical brochure by a
+rather corrupt police official, Vidocq.[16] Seemingly conflicting as were
+these productions, all strikingly illustrated the influence of heredity
+and environment in the production of defectives. To these productions were
+soon added those of Moreau (de Tours),[17] Attemyer, Eliza Farnham,[18]
+the American Sampson,[19] Dally, Lélut, Camper, and the older Voisin.
+
+Morel[20] laid the foundation of what is widely known as the Lombroso
+School by a brochure wherein he proposed to entitle morbid anthropology,
+"that part of the science of man the aim of which is to study phenomena
+due to morbid influences and to malign heredity."
+
+To the factor of atavism, inconsistently ignored by Morel, the early
+embryologic studies of Von Baer and the biologic studies resultant on the
+transmutation of species lent special emphasis. Three possibilities of
+life await, as Wilson[21] remarks, each living being: either it remains
+primitive and unchanged, or it progresses toward a higher type, or it
+backslides and retrogresses. The factors underlying the stable state force
+the animal to remain as it is; those underlying the progressive tendency
+make it more elaborate, while the factors of degeneration, on the other
+hand, tend to simplify its structure. It requires no special thought to
+perceive that progress is a great fact of nature. The development of every
+animal and plant shows the possibilities of nature in this direction. But
+the bearings of physiological backsliding are not so clearly seen.
+
+That certain animals degenerate or retrogress in their development is
+susceptible of ready and familiar illustration. No better illustration is
+needed than is derived from the domain of parasitic existence. When an
+animal or plant attaches itself partly or wholly to another living being,
+and becomes more or less dependent upon the latter for support and
+nourishment, it exhibits, as a rule, retrogression and degeneration. The
+parasitic "guest" dependent on its "host" for lodging alone, or it may be
+for both board and lodging, is in a fair way to become degraded in
+structure, and, as a rule, exhibits marked degradation where the
+association has persisted sufficiently long. Parasitism and servile
+dependence act very much in structural lower life as analogous instances
+of mental dependence on others act on man.
+
+The destruction of characteristic individuality and the extinction of
+personality are natural results of that form of association wherein one
+form becomes absolutely dependent on another for all the conditions of
+life. A life of mere attachment exhibits similar results, and organs of
+movement disappear by the law of disuse. A digestive system is a
+superfluity to an animal which, like the tapeworm, obtains its food ready
+made in the very kitchen, so to speak, of its host. Hence the lack of
+digestive apparatus follows the finding of a free commissariat by the
+parasite. Organs of sense are not necessary for an attached and rooted
+animal; these latter, therefore, go by the board and the nervous system
+itself becomes modified and altered. Degradation wholesale and complete is
+the penalty the parasite has to pay for its free board and lodging; and in
+this fashion Nature may be said to revenge the host for the pains and
+troubles wherewith, like Job of old, he may be tormented.
+
+The most emphatic biologic degeneration is that discovered by
+Kowalevsky[22] in the sea squirt, which, in its larval state, is a
+vertebrate, and when adult is an ascidian, seemingly far below the
+cuttlefish and the worms. This strikingly illustrates that, as Ray
+Lankester[23] has said, degeneration is a gradual change of structure by
+which the organism becomes adapted to less varied and less complex
+conditions of life; a reverse of evolution which proceeds from the
+indefinite and homogeneous to the definite and heterogeneous with a loss
+of explosive force due to the acquirement of inhibitions or checks.
+
+This principle of biologic degeneration, long recognised, was most lucidly
+enforced by Dohrn[24], whose views were later extended by Ray Lankester.
+The parallelism of animal degeneracy with that of man, so clearly evident
+even in the parasitic nature of defectives, was, as Meynert[25] showed,
+due to the fact that the fore-brain is an inhibitory apparatus against the
+lower and more instinctive natural impulses. The higher its development
+the greater is the tendency to subordinate the particular to the general.
+Even in insects a high social growth occurs, as in the bee and ant
+communities. The same is the case in the development of man; in the
+infant, a being entirely wrapped in its instincts of self-preservation,
+the "primary ego" is predominant and the child is an egotistic parasite.
+As development goes on this standpoint is passed, conscience assumes its
+priority, the fore-brain acts as a check on the purely vegetative
+functions and the "secondary ego" takes precedence over the primary one;
+this is the general order of society, designated as civilisation or social
+order. If this inhibition become weakened or disordered, predominance of
+the natural instincts or impulses occurs, and when it is totally lost the
+individual is in the position of a criminal who opposes the ethical order
+of society--a parasite, and one of the worst kind who not only lives upon
+his host but destroys him in doing so.
+
+Hence degenerate tendencies are reversions in type indicating the original
+source of the inhibition.
+
+The tree of Moreau[26] illustrates clearly the essential principles of
+these inter-relations of defect, further elucidated by the observations of
+Sander[27] on the connection of deformed central nervous systems with
+mental and moral disorder.
+
+  _NERVOUS HEREDITY._
+
+                                 { Science           { Music.
+  Exceptional Intelligence       { Arts              { Painting.
+                                 { Letters
+
+                                 {                   { Paretic dementia.
+                                 {                   { Paralyses.
+                                 { Brain             { Tumours.
+  Lesions of the Nerve Centres   {                   { Brain Softening.
+                                 {                   { Congestion.
+                                 {
+                                 {                   { Softening of Spinal
+                                 { Spinal Cord       {   Cord.
+                                 {                   { Myelitis.
+
+                                 { Epilepsy.
+                                 { Chorea.
+  Neuroses                       { Stammering.
+                                 { Convulsive Fits.
+                                 { Hysteria.
+
+                                 { Utopians.
+  Intellectual States            { Eccentrics.
+                                 { Mixed Conditions.
+
+                                 { Prostitutes.
+  Emotional States               { Criminals.
+                                 { Unstable.
+
+  Neuralgia                      { External.
+                                 { Internal.
+
+                                 {                   { Symptomatical.
+                                 { Acute Insanity    { Idiopathic.
+                                 {                   { Alcoholic.
+  Psychoses                      { Imbecility
+                                 { Idiocy            { General Insanity.
+                                 { Chronic Insanity  { Dementia.
+                                                     { Partial Insanity.
+
+                                                     { Congenital
+                                                     {   Blindness.
+  Special and General Conditions of the Senses       { Anæsthesiæ.
+                                                     { Deafness.
+                                                     { Hyperæsthesiæ.
+
+  Nutritional Defect.
+
+The extensive studies of Niepce,[28] Vogt,[29] and others on idiot biology
+sought to show that the brain was not merely arrested in development, but
+sometimes reverted even as low as the sauropsida type (reptiles and
+birds). Grohmann,[30] as early as 1820, had "often been impressed in
+criminals, especially in those of defective development, by the prominent
+ears, the shape of the cranium, the projecting cheek-bones, the large
+lower jaws, the deeply placed eyes, the shifty, animal-like gaze."
+
+Maudsley[31] observes that in the case of such an extreme morbid variety
+as a congenital idiot we have to do with a defective nervous organisation.
+Marchand, in the brain of two idiots of European descent, found the
+convolutions fewer in number, individually less complex, broader and
+smoother than in the apes. The condition results neither from atrophy nor
+mere arrest of growth, but consists essentially in an imperfect evolution
+of the cerebral hemispheres or their parts, dependent on an arrest of
+development. The proportion of the weight of brain to that of body is
+extraordinarily diminished. With the brain of the orang type comes a
+corresponding defect of function. With this animal type of brain in idiocy
+sometimes appear animal traits and instincts. One class of idiots is
+justly designated theroid, so brute-like are its members.
+
+The human brain in the course of foetal development passes through the
+same stages as other vertebrate brains, and to some extent these
+transitional stages resemble the permanent forms of their brain. Summing
+up, as it were, in itself the leading forms of vertebrate type, there is
+truly a brute brain within the man's, and when the latter stops short of
+its characteristic development, it is natural that it should manifest only
+its most primitive functions.
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that the human brain, even of the idiot
+or microcephales, never resembles, _as a whole_, the brain of any
+anthropoid or lower animal form. Such a position was maintained by Vogt,
+but has long since been abandoned. The existing anthropoid apes are not
+the ancestors of man, and have pursued a different development.[32]
+
+Despine's[33] researches revealed the absence of human checks on the
+instinctive tendencies in criminals. He, however, started from the
+doctrine of moral imbecility as elaborated by Rush, Prichard, Brigham,
+Ray, Galt, and others. Bruce Thomson,[34] testing Despine's results by
+primitive races and Scotch criminals, found that defective, abnormal, and
+anomalous states of the instinctive faculties exist in entire races and in
+the "moral idiots" that occur in the best races. Criminals form a variety
+of the human family quite distinct from law-abiding men. A low type of
+physique indicating a deteriorated character gives a family likeness due
+to the fact that they form a community which retrogrades from generation
+to generation. The low physical condition of juvenile criminals in
+reformatories, &c., becomes at once obvious if they be compared with
+healthy, active school children. They are puny, sickly, scrofulous, often
+deformed, with peculiar, unnaturally developed heads, sluggish, stupid,
+liable to fits, mean in figure, and defective in vital energy, while at
+the same time they are irritable, violent, and too often quite
+incorrigible. The adults usually have a singularly stupid and insensate
+look. The complexion is bad. The outlines of the head are harsh and
+angular. The boys are ugly in feature, and have, as a rule, repulsive
+appearances. These diseases of criminals are a proof of their low type and
+deteriorated condition. Their deaths are mainly due to tubercular diseases
+and affections of the nervous system. In the greater number crime is
+hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily
+defect, such as spinal deformities, stammering or other imperfect speech,
+club-foot, cleft-palate, hare-lip, deformed jaws and teeth, deaf-mutism,
+congenital blindness, paralysis, epilepsy, and scrofula.
+
+Elisha Harris,[35] of New York, among 233 convicts found 54 to belong to
+families in which insanity, epilepsy, and other neuroses existed.
+Eighty-three per cent. belonged to a criminal, pauper, or inebriate stock,
+and were, therefore, hereditarily or congenitally affected. Nearly 76 per
+cent. of their number hence proved habitual criminals. According to
+Harris, crime, pauperism, and insanity revert into each other, so that
+insanity in the parent produces crime or pauperism in the offspring, or,
+_vice versâ_, crime or pauperism in the parent produces disease or
+insanity in the offspring. Campagne, Broca, G. Wilson, and others about
+the same time made similar researches.
+
+The American sociologist, Samuel Royce, after a careful study of American
+and European defective classes,[36] found that observation of the
+hereditary nature of pauperism which congenitally reverts into insanity,
+disease or crime, leaves no doubt but that pauperism is one of the worst
+forms of race deterioration, and that the paralysis of the human will and
+its energies is but the result of a fearful dissolution in progress.
+
+Extensive researches made by Charles S. Hoyt,[37] of the New York State
+Board of Charities (1874), into the origin of the defective classes of
+that state, show that the pauper, hysteric, epileptic, prostitute,
+criminal, born-blind, deaf-mute, paranoiac, recurrent lunatic and idiot
+were buds of the same tree of degenerate heredity. E. C. Spitzka,[38]
+basing his researches on the principles of Morel as expanded and
+critically applied by Meynert,[39] reached essentially the same results as
+also did Westphal, Krafft-Ebing, Grille, Kerlin, Axel Key, Magnan,
+Foville, Bjornstrom, Amadei, Schüle, Nicolson,[40] Tonnini, Tamburini,
+Verga, Tamassia, Kowalevsky, and it may be said the German Psychiatrical
+Society (which, by accepting a conception of the distortion of mental
+faculties otherwise seemingly high, based on brain deformity rather than
+disease, accepted the degeneracy doctrine of to-day).
+
+For several decades, moreover, the stigmata of degeneracy have appeared in
+French, German, Austrian, Russian, Italian, and Scandinavian court reports
+as evidence of hereditary defects.
+
+As often happens in science--
+
+  "Thought by thought is piled till some great truth
+  Is loosened and the nations echo round."
+
+Wherefore about this period (1870-78) appeared the first volume of the
+epoch-making work of Cesare Lombroso,[41] who, erroneously credited with
+being the apostle of the modern doctrine of degeneracy, has admittedly
+done more to stimulate research than any other investigator. This work
+exerted an influence at first in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia,
+and the Scandinavian countries, while on the English-speaking countries,
+despite the apparently fertile soil prepared for it, its influence was
+seemingly slight. Under the degradation produced in many American
+charitable and correctional institutions by corruption, naturally
+resultant on a civil war, science therein was at a decided discount
+between 1861 and 1881. A school arose which, defying the individualistic
+rule of English common law underlying the institutions of the United
+States, pandered to mob-law and theologic prejudice by denying certain
+well-ascertained facts in human degeneracy. This school, represented at
+the Guiteau trial by the experts for the prosecution, denied heredity and
+that moral defect could result from physical abnormality. This school,
+however, was by no means representative of American psychiatry or
+sociology. Rush, Brigham, James MacDonald, Gait, McFarland, W. W. Godding,
+Ray, C. H. Hughes, Kerlin, Patterson, Wilbur, Fisher, J. H. McBride, C. H.
+Nichols, C. A. Folsom, Cowles, and others accepted Morel's principles.
+Spitzka,[42] long ere the trial, pointed out that criminals displayed the
+stigmata of Morel, and that the more intellectual types of insanity were
+based on brain deformity rather than disease.
+
+Benedikt,[43] of Vienna, in 1879 stated that "criminals generally have
+nothing analogous to monomaniacs. They tend to develop distinct
+peculiarities of organisation and psychic features, and these
+peculiarities are the product of their social condition." J. G.
+Kiernan,[44] reviewing his work, remarked that any one who had at all
+examined the question would be convinced that between the true criminal
+type, the imbecile and the paranoiac (_primäre verrückt_) the
+psychological relations and their anatomical bases are intimate and close.
+Had Benedikt examined the insane and criminals, not for convolutional
+aberrations alone, but also for heterotopias, &c., he would never have
+written the sentence just quoted.
+
+W. W. Godding,[45] commenting on the evidence of J. P. Gray,[46] the
+leader of the American school that denies degeneracy, feelingly remarked
+that "the disordered mind does not cease to be a unit although the
+observed manifestations of its insanity may seem to be confined in some
+cases to the emotion; in others to the affection; and in still others to
+the intellectual powers. We cannot deny that the old masters were as
+keen-sighted observers as ourselves. I dislike to hear drunkenness called
+dipsomania, as I so often do; but I do not therefore say that dipsomania
+is only drunkenness. It might improve my standing with the legal
+fraternity if I should pronounce kleptomania only another name for
+stealing, but my personal observations convince me that the insane have
+sometimes a disposition to steal, which is a direct result of their
+disease, and for which they are no more accountable than the puerperal
+maniac is for her oaths.
+
+"And now, after all these years of careful research, and our asylum
+reports[47] rendered bulky with long tables prepared with so much care,
+involving inquiry on the origin of the disease not alone in the direct
+family line, but in the collateral branches also; just when the medical
+profession has come to believe that if one fact in medical science be
+better established than another, it is that insanity is hereditary, and we
+undertake in the present case to look up hereditary predisposition, and
+the family disposition likewise, we are met with the withering conundrum,
+'Can a man inherit insanity from his uncle?' and we are told that there is
+no such thing as hereditary insanity. Yes, gentlemen, I understand you;
+the tendency to the disease is inherited. And so in the strict use of
+language there is no such thing as insane delusion; but we know that
+language is seldom used with scientific exactness, and no one is at a loss
+to understand what we mean when we say that Jones is full of insane
+delusions, insanity being hereditary in his family. Yes, and if Jones
+should marry an insane woman, the chances are good that Jones's son will
+turn out crazy, no matter how carefully he may be brought up under the
+direction of the most eminent psychist, for that little germ which you
+call 'a tendency'--so minute that it will elude your most careful scrutiny
+with scalpel and microscope--is a fixed fact, and will prove more potent
+than all theories. Not born there; develops. Ah, how is it that science
+shows us that syphilis and small-pox and tubercle are born in the
+offspring, that the infant comes into the world with spina bifida,
+idiotic, hydrocephalic, acephalic, that the child is blind and mute and
+misshapen in his mother's womb, but is never insane? Because, forsooth, we
+have seen fit to limit insanity to disease of the brain, and disease is
+not inherited. Is it possible that in all these years it has not been Dr.
+Gray's lot as it has been mine to be consulted about those 'queer'
+children of insane parentage, who are perverse from the start? Will he say
+that the perverseness is only a 'badness' which should be whipped out of
+the child? But that has generally been thoroughly tried before the
+physician is consulted. Heterodox I know it is, but observed facts compel
+me to be heterodox with Prichard and Esquirol and Ray, with Morel and
+Griesinger and Maudsley, and I know not how many others, in recognising in
+some cases a condition of inherent defect born in the individual, and not
+a result of education--a condition which writers have recognised under
+various names as hereditary mental disorder, insane diathesis, insane
+temperament."
+
+The Guiteau trial so stimulated studies of degeneracy that two experts for
+the prosecution, A. McL. Hamilton[48] and H. M. Stearns,[49] later changed
+their views as to degeneracy, while C. L. Dana, a strong supporter of the
+Gray school in 1881, subsequently made valuable contributions to the
+literature of the degeneracy stigmata. The position then taken by Spitzka
+and Kiernan as to the cerebral basis of degeneracy was in 1882 supported
+by H. Howard,[50] of Montreal; Workman,[51] of Toronto; Kerlin,[52] of
+Pennsylvania; Osler,[53] of Baltimore; and C. K. Mills,[54] of
+Philadelphia.
+
+It was during 1881, moreover, that Jacobi made extensive studies of
+degeneracy in royalty and aristocracy,[55] as earlier had Ireland.[56]
+
+From the time of Itard degenerate phenomena in idiots had been traced to
+cerebral mal-development. Kerlin[57] pointed out that "epileptic change"
+in them was marked by moral alteration similar in explosive characters to
+that so frequently observed in criminals. In England students of idiocy
+like Clouston, Shuttleworth, Beach, Ireland, Langdon Down, and others, had
+early brought the recognition of its inter-relations with insanity, crime
+and neuroses into strong relief. To the studies of Bruce Thomson,
+Maudsley, and Nicolson, Tyndall[58] gave strong support from the actual
+experience of a governor of a great British prison, who found that the
+prisoners in his charge might be divided into three distinct classes: the
+first class consisted of persons who ought never to have been in prison;
+external accident and not internal taint had brought them within the grasp
+of the law, and what had happened to them might happen to most of us; they
+were essentially men of sound moral stamina, though wearing the prison
+garb. Then came the largest class, formed of individuals possessing no
+strong bias, moral or immoral, plastic to the touch of circumstances which
+would mould them into either good or evil members of society. Thirdly,
+came a class, happily not a large one, whom no kindness could conciliate
+and no discipline tame. They were sent into the world labelled
+"incorrigible," wickedness being stamped, as it were, upon their
+organisation.
+
+With the close of the year 1883 the degeneracy doctrine may be regarded as
+having practically been accepted in biology, in anthropology, in
+sociology, in criminology, in psychiatry, and general pathology. Debate
+was henceforth not as to its existence, but as to its limitations.
+Precedent to 1835 determinism in popular thought due to Calvinistic
+predestination had, in English-speaking countries, fought for the
+doctrine; subsequent thereto the theologic reaction against Calvinism was
+a strong opposing force, whose influence was finally destroyed by the
+practically general acceptance of the doctrine of evolution in the late
+seventies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE STIGMATA OF DEGENERACY
+
+
+The attempt made by Morel to limit the doctrine of degeneracy to the
+domain of the morbid proved impossible, because of the rapid accumulation
+of data by his own school, which demonstrated that atavistic deformity
+played a larger part in the production of diseases. Bland Sutton does not
+too forcibly put this result when he states[59] that if it be difficult to
+define disease when restricted to the human family, it becomes obviously
+more difficult when disease is investigated on a broad biological basis.
+As the great barrier which exists between man and those members of his
+class most closely allied to him consists not in structural characters but
+in mental power, it necessarily follows that there should be a similarity
+in the structural alterations induced by diseased conditions in all kinds
+of animals, allowing of course for the difference in environment. This is
+known to be the case, and it is clear that as there has been a gradual
+evolution of complex from simple organisms, it necessarily follows that
+the principles of evolution ought to apply to diseased conditions if they
+hold good for the normal or healthy states or organism; in plain words,
+there has been an evolution of disease _pari passu_ with evolution of
+animal forms. For a long time it has been customary to talk of physiologic
+types of diseased tissues; Sutton's earlier efforts were directed to
+searching among animals for the purpose of detecting in them the
+occurrence of tissues, which in man are only found under abnormal
+conditions. The statement proved to be true in a limited sense. At the
+same time the truth of an opinion held by nearly all thoughtful
+physicians, that disease may in many instances be regarded as an
+exaggerated function, was forcibly illustrated; the manifestations of
+disease were found to be regulated by the same law which governs
+physiological processes in general, and many conditions regarded as
+pathological in one animal were revealed as physiological in another.
+
+The doctrine, therefore, has its scope limited only by biologic data. It
+of necessity begins with the cell itself in its relation to other cells of
+that practically compound organism which constitutes a single vertebrate.
+The cell may, therefore, degenerate as a single member of that organism,
+producing danger or benefit to the other cells. Thus the cancer cell
+degenerates in its power of reproduction below the tissue to which it
+belongs. It is peculiarly true here, as has been said by Herbert Spencer,
+that every vertebrate is an aggregate whose internal actions are adapted
+to counterbalance its external actions; hence the preservation of its
+movable equilibrium depends upon its development and the proper number of
+these actions; the movable equilibrium may be ruined when one of these
+actions is too great or too small, and through deficiency or need of some
+organic or inorganic cause in its surroundings. Every individual can
+adapt itself to these changeable influences in two ways, either directly
+or by producing new individuals who will take the place of those whom the
+equilibrium has destroyed. Therefore there exist forces preservative and
+destructive of the race. As it is impossible that these two kinds of force
+should counterbalance each other, it is necessary that the equilibrium
+should re-establish itself in an orderly way. Since there are two
+preservative forces of every animal group--the impulse of every individual
+to self-preservation and the impulse to the production of other
+individuals--these faculties must vary in an inverse ratio; the former
+must diminish when the second augments. Degeneration constitutes a process
+of disintegration, the reverse of integration. Hence, if the term
+individuation be applied to all the processes which complete and sustain
+the life of the individual, and that of generation to those which aid the
+formation and development of new individuals, individuation and generation
+are necessarily antagonistic.
+
+In the phenomena of unisexual generation we see that the larger organisms
+never reproduce themselves in the unisexual way, while the smaller
+organisms reproduce themselves with the greatest rapidity by this method.
+Between these two extremes unisexual reproduction decreases while the size
+increases. In the history of all plants and animals is evident the
+physiologic truth, that while the general growth of the individual
+proceeds rapidly, the reproductive organs remain imperfectly developed and
+inactive. On the contrary, the principle of reproduction indicates
+decrease in the intensity of growth and becomes a cause of cessation.
+
+Great fecundity is always attended by great mortality. Each superior
+degree of organic evolution is accompanied by an inferior degree of
+fecundity. The greater the germs the less is the individuation, and _vice
+versâ_. The greater and more complex the organisation, the less is the
+power of multiplication.
+
+What is true of the cells is also true of organs composed of them. Each
+organ can be regarded as a distinct animal (a parasite is preferable for
+comparison) which has its own nervous system (the ganglia), but is fed and
+controlled by the organism as a whole. Degeneration of this organ may
+therefore be an expression of a local state peculiar to it and either
+beneficial or maleficent, or both in inverse degree, to the organism as a
+whole, or it may be the expression of a general defect in the whole
+organism. The sclerotic states of the appendix vermiformis in man and of
+the human liver are, as Kiernan has shown, two excellent illustrations of
+the degeneracies last described. Man, in common with the four anthropoid
+apes, has a little thin tube attached to the cæcum known as the appendix
+vermiformis. In the early embryo it is equal in calibre to the other
+bowels, but ceases to grow proportionately after a certain time. In the
+new-born child it is almost as large as in the adult. As this tube proved
+disadvantageous to man's precursor (as it does to certain mammals) from
+catching foreign bodies which form the nucleus of enteroliths or bowel
+stones, it has lost the nutritive supply of the other intestines and is
+tending to disappear. It is often absent in man. The defect in its
+structure, while predisposing to the attacks of germs and an expression of
+its own degeneracy, is an evidence of an advance in evolution in the
+organism as a whole by which great danger and waste of nutritive force
+are avoided.
+
+Recent researches[60] have shown that "hob-nail" liver, once supposed to
+be due entirely to abuse of alcohol, usually occurs in states of
+congenital deficiency in persons of defective heredity. The change in the
+appendix which is tending to cause its disappearance is essentially a
+sclerosis, and hence is morbid, considered from the appendix standpoint
+alone. As the same process occurs in "hob-nail" liver, it is obvious that
+degeneracy may be an expression of general advance and local defect or may
+be a local expression of general defect. The same phenomenon is seen in
+the nervous system. The researches of Cunningham[61] have shown that in
+man the struggle for existence between the sympathetic and the
+cerebro-spinal system has ended in the victory of the latter, while the
+first is tending to disappear. Such changes must necessarily result in
+local degeneracies which are for the benefit of the organism as a whole.
+Degeneracy on this basis may express itself in simple disturbance of the
+lower or nutritive functions. The uric acid or gouty states, for example,
+are, as Fothergill long ago pointed out, assumptions by mammalian organs
+of the functions of those of birds and reptiles. In conditions like
+myxoedema the skin, through thyroid gland disturbances, takes on features
+which resemble in result those found in certain mollusks and low fish.
+These nutritive disturbances may show themselves in disorders of the
+pituitary body (acromegaly, giantism, &c.), whereby the bony system of man
+reverts to conditions like those of the gorilla. The same conditions also
+appear in the diathesis of the "bleeders." All these conditions, however,
+may be an expression of a degenerate type assuming a normal equilibrium,
+as well as of a normal organism taking the first steps in degeneracy.
+
+In a general way, therefore, as Dohrn has pointed out, this principle
+holds good of man not only as an organic unit but as a compound organism.
+Degeneracy[62] is a gradual change of structures by which the organism
+becomes adapted to less varied and less complex conditions of life. The
+opposite progression process of elaboration is a gradual change of
+structure in which the organism becomes adapted to more and more varied
+and complex conditions of existence. In elaboration there is a new
+expression of form corresponding to new perfection of work in the animal
+machine. In degeneracy there is suppression of form corresponding to the
+cessation of work. Elaboration of some one organ may be a necessary
+accompaniment of degeneracy in all the others. This is very generally the
+case. Only when the total result of the elaboration of some organs, and
+the degeneracy of others, is such as to leave the whole mass in a lower
+condition--that is, fitted to less complex action and reaction in regard
+to its surroundings than is the type--can the individual be regarded as an
+instance of degeneracy. These degeneracies appear at varying periods,
+since struggles for existence on the part of the different organs and
+systems of the body are most ardent during periods of body evolution and
+involution. During foetal life, during the first dentition, during the
+second dentition (often as late as the thirteenth year), during puberty
+and adolescence (fourteen to twenty-five), during the climacteric (forty
+to sixty), when uterine involution occurs in woman and prostatic
+involution in man, and finally during senility (sixty and upwards), during
+all these periods degeneracy may be shown by mental or physical defect, a
+congenital tendency to which has remained latent until the period of
+stress. These defects may be such biochemic alterations (undemonstrable by
+existing methods) as lead to diminished inhibitory power or other altered
+function, or to secondary pathologic or teratologic change of decidedly
+demonstrable nature. Organs and structures checked at a certain phase of
+development may pursue a course of development differing from that pointed
+out in man but outlined in other vertebrates. The human cyclopean
+monstrosities, for example, might be regarded as reversions to the
+single-eyed sea-squirts, who are possibly the Ascidian precursors of the
+vertebrates.
+
+The scope of degeneracy may therefore be limited to certain signs which
+are its sole expressions. These signs (stigmata as they were early called)
+may be the only expression of degeneracy, and their significance must be
+determined by a careful examination of the organism in which these
+expressions are found, since they may be merely defects produced by
+degeneracy, or may indicate how deep such degeneracy has penetrated. They
+may, therefore, indicate either slight or serious defect. In proportion to
+the depth of degeneracy in the organism will the stigmata affect the
+earlier simpler or later complicated acquisitions through evolution. Of
+necessity, when the organism is affected by degeneracy, the morbid element
+will take the line of least resistance, determined by the depth of
+degeneracy as well as the variability of the structures concerned. The
+same influence must equally affect functions of the structures.
+Furthermore, expressions of degeneracy will, as already stated, be
+influenced by the periods of stress; the first and second dentition,
+puberty, the climacteric and the senile period. In a general way these
+stigmata are divisible into mental and physical, and are best observable
+in their relations to the periods of stress. In certain races, as in
+certain animals, conditions appearing before puberty was completed cannot
+be considered as settling the position of the animal in evolution. What is
+true of individuals is also true of classes. The anthropoid apes and the
+negroes are much higher in physical characteristics, with potential mental
+results, before puberty than after. The infant ape, as Havelock Ellis[63]
+points out, is very much nearer to man than the adult ape. "The infant ape
+is higher in the line of evolution than the adult, and the female ape, by
+approximating to the infant type, is somewhat higher than the male. Man,
+in carrying on the line of evolution, started not from some adult male
+simian, but from the infant ape and, in a less degree, from the female
+ape. The human infant bears precisely the same relation to his species as
+the simian infant bears to his, and we are bound to conclude that his
+relation to the future evolution of the race is similar. The human infant
+presents, in an exaggerated form, the chief distinctive characteristics of
+humanity--the large head and brain, the small face, the hairlessness, the
+delicate bony system. By some strange confusion of thought we usually
+ignore this fact, and assume that the adult form is more highly developed
+than the infantile form. From the point of view of adaptation to the
+environment, it is undoubtedly true that the coarse, hairy, large-boned
+and small-brained gorilla is better fitted to make his way in the world
+than his delicate offspring; but from a zoological point of view we
+witness anything but progress. In man, from about the third year onwards,
+further growth--though an absolutely necessary adaptation to the
+environment--is to some extent growth in degeneration and senility. It is
+not carried to so low a degree as in the apes, although by it man is to
+some extent brought nearer to the apes, and among the higher human races
+the progress towards senility is less marked than among the lower human
+races. The child of many African races is scarcely, if at all, less
+intelligent than the European child, but while the African as he grows up
+becomes stupid and obtuse, and his whole social life falls into a state of
+hide-bound routine, the European retains much of his childlike vivacity.
+And if we turn to what we are accustomed to regard as the highest human
+types, as represented in men of genius, we shall find a striking
+approximation to the child type." The face, in its contest for existence
+with the brain, has finally caused both the cranium and the jaws to assume
+(for defence and food purposes) a lower type, although as regards existing
+functions and the higher standpoint of environment the infantile type must
+be considered the higher. Still a casual glance at the Ascidian tadpole
+shows that deficient as is the development of the ganglia afterward
+forming the medulla, the face is still more deficient. The face, as Minot
+shows,[64] is a characteristic of the higher vertebrates, and acquires
+increased importance with rise in the evolution. The position of the face
+in embryonic development is originally determined by the head-bend. If a
+median, longitudinal section of the head be imagined to occupy a
+rectangular area divided into quarters, then the lower posterior quarter
+corresponds to the mouth region, the other three-quarters to the brain. As
+development progresses, the mouth quarter so disproportionately enlarges
+in relation to the rest of the head as to project forward in front of the
+fore-brain. In this stage, which is represented by the adult amphibians,
+the bulk of the facial apparatus is very great, proportionately to the
+cranium. In the reptiles the mouth region is elongated still further in
+front of the brain-case, resulting in the long snout. In mammals a third
+stage is established by the great increase in size of the brain,
+especially of the cerebral hemispheres. In consequence the brain comes to
+extend over the snout, as it were; in man, whose brain has the maximum
+enlargement, the facial apparatus is almost entirely covered by the brain.
+In the course of evolution the face, while serviceable to the animal for
+certain reasons of general constitutional character (food-getting, means
+of defence and means of obtaining mates), is less so than brain growth. A
+struggle for existence, therefore, inevitably results between the tendency
+of the face to appropriate power of growth and the like tendency of the
+brain, which, in defective organisms, produces marked reversions of the
+one for the benefit of the other. This struggle is further complicated by
+the embryonic relations to both of the hypophysis, since this body
+admittedly exerts an influence over bone growth, most markedly (but
+abnormally) exhibited in acromegaly (excessive bone growth). In this
+contest for existence in the degenerate types, degeneracy will, of
+necessity, take the direction of least resistance. As the brain is the
+last acquirement in vertebrates, considered from the standpoint of
+necessity, while the face (also a late acquirement) is much less complex,
+the last, obviously, will present the derangements from degeneration in
+shape, while the former will show these in shape and function.
+Furthermore, during the embryonic period the development of the brain
+will, of necessity, be more immediately affected by degeneracy than the
+face, which will gain in evolution at its expense. The stigmata of
+degeneracy, therefore, most likely to attract attention are in the order
+given, those of the face, jaws, and teeth; ear, eye, cranium; body, bodily
+functions; brain and spinal cord. Under these last are to be included
+their mental and nervous functions.
+
+The following table summarizes in practical form these stigmata[65]:--
+
+               {              { Crime.
+               { Ethical      { Prostitution and Sexual Degeneracy.
+               { Degeneracy.  { Moral Insanity, Pauperism, and Inebriety.
+               {
+               {              { Paranoia.
+               {              { Adolescent Insanity.
+               {              { Periodical Insanity.
+  Cerebral.    { Intellectual { Hysteria.
+               { Degeneracy.  { Epilepsy.
+               {              { Neuroses.
+               {              { One-sided Genius.
+               {              { Idiocy.
+               {
+               { Sensory      { Deaf-Mutism.
+               { Degeneracy.  { Congenital Colour Blindness.
+               {              { Smell Abnormalities.
+
+  Spinal       Various congenital and hereditary disorders
+
+               { Exophthalmic Goître.
+               { Lymphoid Degeneracy.
+               { Acromegaly.
+               { Tissue Instability.
+               { Adenoids.
+               { Myxoedema.
+  Nutritive    { Plural Births.
+  Degeneracy   { Bleeders.
+               { Cancer.
+               { Excessive Fecundity.
+               { Gout.
+               { Early Lipomatosis.
+
+               { Jaws.
+               { Cleft Palate.
+               { Teeth.
+               { Primitive Uteri.
+  Local        { Cloacal conditions (and allied male states)
+  Reversionary { Horseshoe Kidney and allied states.
+  Tendencies.  { Cyclopian Monstrosities.
+               { Amelia and Polymelia, Club feet, &c.
+               { Plural mammæ.
+               { Simian muscular and bony states.
+               { Liver and other organ reversions.
+
+The factors producing degeneration act by causing nervous exhaustion in
+the first generation. This implies a practical degeneration in function
+since tone is lost.
+
+Every nerve cell has two functions, one connected with sensation or
+motion, and the other with growth. If the cell be tired by excessive work
+along the line of sensation or motion the function as regards growth
+becomes later impaired, and it not only ceases to continue in strength,
+but becomes self-poisoned. Each of the organs (heart, liver, kidneys, &c.)
+has its own system of nerves (the sympathetic ganglia), which while under
+control by the spinal cord and brain act independently. If these nerves
+become tired the organ fails to perform its function, the general system
+becomes both poisoned and ill-fed, and nervous exhaustion results. In most
+cases, however, the brain and spinal cord are first exhausted. The nerves
+of the organs are thus allowed too free play, and exhaust themselves
+later. This systemic exhaustion has local expression in the testicles in
+the male, in the womb and ovaries in the female. Through this the body is
+imperfectly supplied with natural tonics (antitoxins) formed by the
+structures, and the general nervous exhaustion becomes still more
+complete. All the organs of the body are weakened in their function.
+Practically the neurasthenic in regard to his organs has taken on a
+degenerative function albeit not degenerating in structure, since the
+restlessness of the organs is a return to the undue expenditure of force
+which occurs in the lower animals in proportion as it is unchecked by a
+central nervous system. Through the influence of various exhausting
+agencies the spinal cord and the brain lose the gains of evolution and the
+neurasthenic is no longer adjusted to environment. Since the reproductive
+organs suffer particularly, children born after the acquirement of nervous
+exhaustion, more or less checked in development as the influence of
+atavism is healthy or not, repeat degenerations in the structure of their
+organs, which in the parent were represented by neurasthenic disorders in
+function. As the ovaries of the neurasthenic women generally exhibit
+prominently the effects of the nervous exhaustion, the offspring of these
+do not retain enough vigour to pass through the normal process of
+development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HEREDITY AND ATAVISM
+
+
+Heredity, like other biologic factors, starts with the cell. As elsewhere
+pointed out, reproduction is first unicellular in type and involves an
+expenditure of nutritive force antagonistic to the growth of the cell. As
+Geddes remarks,[66] no one can dispute that the nutritive, vegetative, or
+self-regarding processes within the plant or animal are as opposed to the
+reproductive, multiplying, species-regarding processes, as income to
+expenditure or as building up to breaking down. But within the ordinary
+nutritive or vegetative functions of the body there is necessarily a
+continuous antithesis between two tissue-changing sets of processes,
+constructive and destructive metabolism. The contrast between these two
+processes is seen throughout nature, whether in the alternating phases of
+cell-life or in the great antithesis of growth and reproduction.
+
+The starfish, deprived of an arm, replaces this by a fresh growth; crabs
+can renew the great claws which they have lost in fighting; even as high
+up as the lizard the loss of a leg or a tail can be made good. In a great
+variety of cases a kind of physiological forgiveness is shown in the
+reparation of even serious injuries. Now this "regeneration," as it is
+called, is a process of reproduction. By continuous growth the cells of a
+persistent stump are able to reproduce the entire number. A sponge, a
+hydra or a sea-anemone may be cut into pieces with the result that each
+fragment grows into a new organism. The same is done with many plants; and
+though the division is artificial the result shows how very far from
+unique is the process spoken of as reproduction, which is but more or less
+discontinuous growth. This is well shown in the evolution onward
+insensibly from cases of continuous budding, as in sponge or rosebush, to
+discontinuous budding in hydra zoophyte and tiger-lily, where the
+offspring vegetatively produced are sooner or later set free.
+
+The enormous expenditure of force required for unicellular reproduction is
+lessened by conjugation with another cell through satisfaction of cell
+hunger; and this, by making two cells do the work of one, lessens the
+amount of nutritive force expended by each. Evolution in fertilisation has
+the following steps:--
+
+    I. Formation of plasmodia.
+   II. Multiple conjugation.
+  III. Conjugation of the two similar cells.
+   IV. Union of incipiently dimorphic (different) cells.
+    V. Fertilisation of differentiated sex elements.
+
+As Maupas has shown, by the time conjugation of two similar cells is
+reached, the paranucleus in both is incipiently hermaphroditic. The
+impelling force leading to conjugation is, as Rolph has shown, cell
+hunger. Conjugation, he remarks, is a necessity for satisfaction, a
+gnawing hunger which drives the animal to engulf its neighbour, to
+isophagy (self-eating). The process of conjugation is only a special form
+of nutrition which occurs because of a reduction of the nutritive income
+or an increase of the nutritive needs. It is an "isophagy" which occurs in
+place of "heterophagy" (eating of others). "The less nutritive, and
+therefore smaller, hungrier, and more mobile organism is the male, the
+more nutritive and usually relatively more quiescent organism the female.
+Therefore, too, is it that the small starving male seeks out the large,
+well-nourished female for purpose of conjugation, to which the latter, the
+larger and better nourished, is on its own motive less inclined." The
+unicellular type of reproduction long remains after sex differentiation
+has occurred and assumes the form of parthenogenesis (virgin generation).
+The phenomena of this demonstrate that the female element is the highest
+in evolution. Spitzka[67] has shown that the ovum possesses an inherent
+activity independently of fructification. How far this may extend in the
+direction of more mature development is shown by what is known about
+parthenogenesis. This is the development of living beings without a
+father. Bees, some butterflies, ants and wasps notoriously multiply their
+kind without sexual congress. As a rule the parthenogenetic offspring are
+themselves incapable of further procreating their kind. But to this there
+are remarkable exceptions. The aphides multiply for many generations
+without the intervention of a male. Weigenbergh has shown that the
+silk-moth can be propagated as long as the male element is permitted to
+act at every fourth generation. The _Artemsia salina_, a minute
+crustacean living in saline springs, reproduces its kind for years
+without a male being present, males being produced at definite intervals
+only (Von Siebold). Among the vertebrata parthenogenetic development has
+also been observed, though rarely reaching maturity. Thus, segmentation
+occurs in unfertilised ova of the chicken (Oellacher), of the fish
+(Burnett and Agassiz), and of frogs (Moquia-Tanden). Spitzka has seen a
+blastoderm form in unfertilised ova of the toad-fish (_Batrachus tau_).
+Hensen isolated the oviducts of a rabbit, thus rendering the admission of
+semen impossible, while the ova, discharged at heat, were compelled to
+remain in these oviducts. Three years later he killed the animal and found
+the ova had developed into twisted, club-shaped, hollow sacs. The
+development in the female ovary (also, though very rarely, in the male
+testicle and parotid gland, which show such a remarkable metastatic
+sympathy in mumps), of dermoid cysts (containing bones recognisable as
+maxillaries with teeth, hair, and skin, rudimentary bowel, gland, and
+brain traces), even in undoubted virgins, proves that even the human ovum
+is capable of parthenogenetic development. While such development, so far
+as known to science, is always abortive, and while, as Washington Irving
+remarks, the ingenious maiden who to-day would attribute conception to any
+other cause than sexual congress would find it difficult to overcome the
+prejudice of scientists, yet embryology, while declaring immaculate
+generation improbable, does not pronounce it impossible. A worker bee may
+be an offspring of an unimpregnated queen bee. What is a regular
+occurrence in one class of animals is sometimes observed as an
+exceptional one in another class. If the startling and apparently
+miraculous nature of a virgin generation of a living child be regarded as
+the sole objection to receiving such a fact, its defender might urge that
+the virgin generation of a dermoid cyst with all the traces, however
+aborted, of vertebrate organisation, is only a shade less startling and
+miraculous.
+
+This power of parthenogenesis, however, cannot continue indefinitely
+without extinction. This has been shown by the careful experiments of
+Maupas, who had observed 215 generations of an infusorian without sexual
+union. He found that then the family became extinct. Powers of nutrition,
+division, and conjugation with unrelated forms come to a standstill. The
+first symptom of this senile degeneration is decrease in size, which may
+go on till the individuals only measure a quarter of their normal
+proportions. Various internal structures then follow suit "until at last
+formless abortions occur, incapable of living and reproducing themselves."
+The nuclear changes are no less momentous. The important paranucleus is
+fatally sterile. The larger nucleus may also become affected, "the
+chromatin gradually disappears altogether." Physiologically, too, the
+organisms become manifestly weaker, though there is excessive sexual
+excitation. Such senile decay of the individuals and of the isolated
+family inevitably ends in death. Sexual union in those infusorians,
+dangerous perhaps for the individual life, a loss of time so far as
+immediate multiplication is concerned, is, in a new sense, necessary for
+the species. The life runs in cycles of a sexual division which are
+strictly limited. Conjugation with unrelated forms must occur else the
+whole life ebbs. Without it the protozoa, which some have called
+"immortal," die a natural death. Conjugation is the necessary condition of
+their eternal youth and immortality.
+
+Starting from this standpoint the relative functions of the two sexes in
+heredity are apparent. The original function of reproduction, that of cell
+division, is the part of the female. The male in the lower instances
+simply supplies the female with nutriment. Thus in certain plants there is
+nothing but a subtle osmosis between the sexes. This is also the case with
+some of the lower infusoria. With a rise in evolution protoplasm becomes
+differentiated. At the outset of the subject of heredity it is evident,
+therefore, that the female furnishes the type which is best capable of
+development when properly nourished by a highly developed male. To
+deficiencies in both particulars are due defects and variations in the
+offspring. As the product of fructification is longest under the nutritive
+control of the female, her influence is most emphatic in either redeeming
+defects or producing them. Heredity, according to Ribot, Spitzka, Féré,
+and others, is divisible into direct heredity, indirect heredity, and,
+more dubiously, telegony. Direct heredity consists in the transmission of
+paternal and maternal qualities to the children. This form of heredity has
+two aspects: (1) The child takes after father and mother equally as
+regards both physical and moral characters, a case strictly speaking of
+very rare occurrence; or (2) the child, while taking after both parents,
+more especially resembles one of them. Here again distinction must be made
+between two cases. The first of these is when the heredity takes place in
+the same sex from father to son, from mother to daughter. The other which
+occurs more frequently, is where heredity occurs between different
+sexes--from father to daughter or from mother to son. Reversional heredity
+or atavism consists in the reproduction in the descendants of the moral or
+physical qualities of their ancestors. It occurs frequently between
+grandfather and grandson, as well as between grandmother and
+granddaughter. Collateral or indirect heredity, which is of rarer
+occurrence than the foregoing, and is simply a form of atavism, subsists,
+as indicated by the name, between individuals and their ancestors in the
+indirect line--uncle, or grand-uncle and nephew, aunt and niece. Finally
+(3) there is telegony, or the heredity of influence, very rare from the
+physiological point of view, which consists in reproduction in the
+children by a second marriage of some peculiarity belonging to a former
+spouse.
+
+In dealing with heredity the position of Weismann and others, that
+acquired characters cannot be inherited, needs a short examination. In his
+later work Weismann has practically abandoned the essential basis of his
+position by admitting that maternal nutrition may play a part in
+determining variation. He[68] now asserts that the origin of a variation
+is equally independent of selection and amphimixis, and is due to the
+constant occurrence of slight inequalities of nutrition in the germ plasm.
+As acquired characters affecting the constitution of the parents are
+certain to affect the nutrition of the germ plasm, it is therefore
+obvious, according to Weismann's admission, that acquired characters or
+their consequences will be inherited. This is an emphatic though
+concealed abandonment of the central position of Weismann.
+
+One of the stock arguments of the Weismann school is drawn from results of
+the Jewish rite of circumcision. While the operation is not calculated to
+make a profound impression on the constitution, and furthermore, as being
+performed on the male, less likely to affect the race, still the alleged
+non-inheritance of its results is much over-estimated. William Wolf,[69]
+of Baltimore, Maryland, who has circumcised six hundred Jewish children,
+finds on careful examination, that 2 per cent. were born partially
+circumcised and 6 per cent. were born with a short prepuce. P. C.
+Remondino,[70] of Los Angeles, California, has seen a large number of
+cases of absence of the prepuce which proved to be hereditary. After a
+confinement his attention was once called to the child by the nurse, who
+thought it was deformed. The nurse was astonished at the size and
+appearance of the glans penis. On examination the prepuce was found to be
+completely absent. On inquiry, the father and another son, born more than
+twenty years previously (comprising every male member of the family), were
+found to have been born with the glands fully exposed. He has seen a
+French family similarly affected.
+
+Similar, but much stronger, results have been obtained by me through the
+courtesy of the Reverend Drs. S. Bauer, M. A. Cohen, and B. Gordon, all of
+Chicago. Dr. Bauer, who has been seventeen years in the practice of the
+religious rite of circumcision, has circumcised 3,400 boys and has found
+preputial absence in about 3-1/2 per cent. of the cases. Dr. Cohen, who
+has been two decades in the practice, has performed 10,000 circumcisions.
+He has found the prepuce wanting in 500 cases; partially developed in 300
+cases; slightly developed in 2,000 cases. Dr. Gordon has performed 4,400
+circumcisions in twenty-five years. He has found the prepuce absent in 15
+cases; partly wanting in 200, and slightly developed in 2,200 cases.
+These, it should be remembered, are only cases where preputial change
+forced itself on the observer, who was not pursuing investigations on this
+point.
+
+The volume of Hebrew casuistic religious literature collected in the
+Medrash, evidences as I have elsewhere[71] shown the frequency of
+congenital preputial defect.
+
+That acquired characters can be transmitted has been definitely shown by
+the experiments of George Roe Lockwood,[72] of New York, anent hereditary
+transmission of mutilations. White mice were selected, as they begin to
+breed when thirty days old, and breed every thirty days. He bred in-and-in
+for thirty-six generations, destroying the weakly, and thus obtained finer
+animals than the first pair. He selected a pair, caged them by themselves,
+and clipped the tails of the young. When they were old enough to breed, he
+selected a pair and clipped the tails of their progeny. In the seventh
+generation he obtained some tailless mice, and finally a tailless breed.
+The experiments have one possible element of error; white mice, like all
+albinoes, are a degenerate type. At the same time these experiments show
+that accidental mutilations favoured by circumstances are inherited.
+
+Eimer[73] reports the case of a pair of long-tailed pointers which had
+once produced a litter of long-tailed pups. In order to obtain
+short-tailed pups the owner had the tails of both shortened. The bitch
+from that time produced repeatedly short-tailed pups only. As the most
+careful attention was paid to the parents, no error can be suspected in
+this case, which, moreover, excites no surprise among dog-breeders.
+
+Brown-Séquard[74] has shown that a peculiar alteration of the shape of the
+ear or a partial closing of the eyelids is inherited by the offspring of
+animals in which these changes were caused by dividing the sympathetic.
+Exophthalmia (eye protrusion) was inherited by guinea-pigs in whose
+parents this protrusion of the eyes had occurred after an injury to the
+spinal cord, and so were bruises and dry gangrene, as well as other
+trophic disturbances in the ear, due in the parents to an injury to the
+restiform body of the brain. Loss of certain phalanges or of whole toes of
+the hind feet which had occurred in the parents in consequence of division
+of the sciatic nerve was inherited. Diseased conditions of the sciatic
+nerve occurred in the offspring of guinea-pigs in which this nerve was
+divided. Forty guinea-pigs in which one or both eyes showed more or less
+morbid change were descended from three individuals in which one eye had
+become diseased in consequence of transverse section of the restiform
+body. Twenty guinea-pigs exhibited muscular atrophy on the upper and lower
+sides of the thigh, when in the parents such atrophy had been caused by
+section of the sciatic nerve.
+
+The experiments of Brown-Séquard, Westphal, Dupuy[75] and Obersteiner,
+which show that artificially induced epilepsy is inherited, still further
+bear out the conclusions resultant on the inheritance of these
+mutilations. Indeed, Weismann has been forced to that _reductio ad
+absurdum_ in science, narrowly limited definitions, in order to maintain
+his position. "But although I hold it improbable," he remarks, "that
+individual variability can depend on a direct action of external
+influences upon the germ cells and their contained germ plasm, because, as
+follows from sundry facts, the molecular structure of the germ plasm must
+be very difficult to change, yet it is by no means to be implied that this
+structure may not possibly be altered by influences of the same kind
+continuing for a very long time. This much may be maintained: that
+influences which are mostly of variable nature, tending now in one
+direction, now in another, can hardly produce a change in the structure of
+the germ plasm, and this is the reason why the cause of inheritable
+individual differences must be sought elsewhere than in these varying
+influences." "No one has doubted," he says, in reply to objections made by
+Virchow, "that there are a number of congenital deformities, birth-marks,
+and other individual peculiarities which are inherited. But these are
+acquired characters in the above sense. True, they must once have appeared
+for the first time, but we cannot say exactly from what causes; we only
+know that at least a great proportion of them proceed from the germ
+itself, and must therefore be due to alterations of the germinal
+substance. If Virchow could show that any single one of these hereditary
+deformities had its origin in the action of some external cause upon the
+already formed body (soma) of the individual and not upon the germ cell,
+then the inheritance of acquired characters would be proved. But this no
+one has yet succeeded in proving, often as it has been maintained."
+
+The crucial test which Weismann demands is furnished by Dupuy,[76] who
+made one thousand experiments on guinea-pigs to the fifth generation,
+critically rejecting all results which did not correspond to the most
+rigid tests of direct heredity, excluding all instances of indirect
+heredity, however demonstrable. He found that certain lesions of the
+spinal cord, or the brain or the sciatic nerve, give rise in guinea-pigs
+to epilepsy.
+
+In from three to six weeks after the operation an alteration in the
+nutrition takes place in an area of skin which is limited by a line
+starting from the outer canthus of the eye, and running to the median line
+on the upper lip, enclosing the nostril, thence backward enclosing the
+lower jaw, to the anterior portion of the shoulder to the median dorsal
+line, to the base of the ear and inner canthus of the eye. The alteration
+in nutrition occurs on the side corresponding to the injury. The pain,
+heat and cold sense disappear by degrees, while touch appears to be
+exalted. Very soon, tickling this zone of skin gives rise to twitchings
+limited to the muscles of the eye and the eyelids on the same side. Later,
+the muscles of the mouth and of the face are affected, still later the
+contractions become more general, until the whole side is the seat of
+convulsions, then the convulsions attack the other side also. When things
+have come to this point the convulsions precede by a very short time
+complete loss of consciousness. If the subject of experiment be white, it
+is found that there is paleness of the face, but in all cases there is
+little foam at the mouth and dilatation of the pupils. The animal
+sometimes utters a cry corresponding to the epileptic cry in the man. Not
+only are the convulsions identical with those in epileptic man, but there
+is also loss of consciousness, a state of torpor, stupor, and even
+sometimes insanity. When epilepsy is due to the destruction of the sciatic
+nerve, the foot of the affected side loses the two outer toes, so that the
+animal has only one toe, the inner. When young are born to such a parent
+or parents (for it matters not whether one or both of the parents have
+been operated upon), they have very often only one toe on the posterior
+foot. Sometimes, however, they have additional toes, which, in this case,
+are attached by a pedicle to the limb.
+
+Those peculiarities observed in the parents are in all their details
+witnessed in the guinea-pigs hereditarily born toeless, who have developed
+epileptic phenomena. In Dupuy's cases not only is the epileptic tendency
+(of which Weismann gives a wholly imaginative microbic explanation)
+inherited, but the very stigmata (loss of toes) which mark development of
+the parental epilepsy.
+
+E. D. Cope's[77] careful studies of the effects of impacts and strains on
+the feet of mammals are testimony difficult for Weismann to explain, since
+they also meet his requirements.
+
+Weismann's admission of the inheritance of a tuberculous habit must
+logically, from the standpoint of degeneracy, be regarded as destroying
+his claims.
+
+Kiernan has observed the case of a female cat in which brain mutilation
+had been induced to secure secondary cerebro-spinal degenerations. The
+mutilations were made under antiseptic precautions. The descendants of
+this cat had traces of the mutilation, and its results until the fourth
+generation, when the breed became extinct. This instance certainly fulfils
+all Weismann requirements.
+
+In the Lambert family a skin deformity, the last result of degeneracy in
+previous generations, was transmitted. This peculiarity appeared first,
+according to Proctor,[78] in the person of Edward Lambert, whose whole
+body, except his face, the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet,
+was covered with a horny excrescence. He was the father of six children,
+all of whom as soon as they had reached the age of six weeks presented the
+same peculiarity. The only one of them who lived transmitted the
+peculiarity to all his sons. For five generations all the male members of
+the family were distinguished by the horny excrescence which had adorned
+the body of Edward Lambert.
+
+Shwe-Maong, one of the hairless Burmese, when thirty years old had his
+whole body covered with silky hairs, which attained a length of nearly
+five inches on the shoulders and spine. He had four daughters, but only
+one of them resembled him. She had a son who was hairy like his
+grandfather. The case of this family illustrates rather curiously the
+relation between the hair and teeth; for Shwe-Maong retained his milk
+teeth till he was twenty (when he attained puberty); then they were
+replaced by nine teeth only, five in the upper and four in the lower jaw.
+Eight of these were incisors, the ninth (in the upper jaw) being a cuspid
+tooth.
+
+Certain motor expressions of disturbed functions are also inherited.
+Galton describes the case of a man who, when he lay fast asleep on his
+back in bed, had the curious trick of raising his right arm slowly in
+front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk,
+so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did
+not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any
+ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or
+more. The gentleman's nose was prominent and its bridge often became sore
+from blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced
+that was long in healing on account of the recurrence, night after night,
+of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the buttons
+from the wrist of his nightgown, as it made severe scratches, and some
+means were attempted of tying his arm. Many years after his death his son
+married a lady who had never heard of the family incident. She, however,
+observed precisely the same peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from
+not being particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the
+blows. The trick does not occur when he is half asleep, as, for example,
+when he is dozing in his armchair, but the moment he is fast asleep he is
+apt to begin. It, as with his father, is intermittent, sometimes ceasing
+for many nights, and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every
+night. It is performed, as it was with his father, with his right hand.
+One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs it
+likewise with the right hand but in a slightly modified form; for after
+raising the arm she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of
+the nose, but the palm of her half-closed hand falls over and down the
+nose, striking it rather rapidly, a decided improvement on the father's
+and grandfather's method. The trick is intermittent in the girl's case
+also, sometimes not occurring for periods of several months, but sometimes
+almost incessantly. These "tricks" suggest nocturnal epilepsy, however.
+
+The face of a child is often fully developed, yet, owing to some of the
+constitutional diseases, arrested development of the face at this point
+takes place. The second generation inherits this deformity, while the
+grandparents possess normally developed faces.
+
+The following case came under my own immediate observation. The
+grandfather was in the habit of sitting in front of the fire with fingers
+locked together twirling the thumbs in one direction, and then
+occasionally knocking the thumb nails together. Two of his three sons
+inherited this habit; the third brother had the habit of biting his nails
+when in a fit of abstraction. The nephew of the last has a similar habit
+under the like conditions. The children of this nephew have in two
+instances shown a tendency to pick at the nails when in an unconscious
+state, from acute disease. The third child has a periodical tendency to do
+the same since it was four months old.
+
+V. P. Gibney,[79] of New York, has reported a family consisting of father
+and mother, five children, and one grandchild. The father and mother are
+semi-ambidextrous. All of the children and the grandchild are
+semi-ambidextrous to an annoying degree; all of the movements which they
+perform with one hand are simultaneously performed by the other hand. The
+girls are obliged to use only one hand when dressing themselves, or when
+cutting patterns, and hold the other hand down by their side, because the
+two hands perform the same movements at the same time and would interfere
+with each other.
+
+One factor in heredity concerning which there has been much dispute, and
+whose existence has been denied because of certain theories anent the
+nerve connection of the mother and foetus, is that of maternal
+impressions. As Féré[80] has shown, the foetus exhibits very decided
+reaction to sensory impressions on the mother. He cites cases of several
+women who, often in the midst of an ordinary dream, producing but very
+moderate excitation, not generally interrupting sleep, were awakened by
+foetal movements. The dreams had nothing of the nightmare which would
+cause sudden contraction under the influence of a terrifying idea. They
+were merely the ordinary phenomena of sleep. Mental changes of the mother
+hence excite motor reactions in the foetus, and, as with sensorial
+excitations, these reactions are stronger in the foetus than in the
+mother. The mechanism of these motor reactions is, Féré points out,
+obviously due to unconscious and involuntary movement of the muscle walls
+of the womb. The organisation of a morbid predisposition may be largely
+influenced by an accident accompanying conception or gestation. In some
+degenerates cannot be found a trace of hereditary defect. The fact cited
+explains how sensorial excitations or repeated and violent emotions in the
+mother during pregnancy give rise to profound nutritive troubles in the
+foetus, and especially in its nervous system. These congenitally
+degenerated beings (_ab utero_) can hardly be distinguished from those
+having direct heredity. A considerable number of cases of epilepsy,
+idiocy, &c., are recognised as having arisen from alcoholism in the
+mother. Psychic troubles in the mother may react upon the foetus in an
+analogous way. The prominent facts which show the influence of the psychic
+state of the mother upon the somatic condition of the foetus explain the
+action of the imagination of the mother upon the development of the
+product of conception. The opinion which refers the origin of birth-marks
+to intense mental impressions on the part of the mother is not without
+physiological foundation. Concurrently with the motor phenomena,
+stigmata[81] may become developed by vascular and nutritive troubles
+produced under the influence of a strong excitation or by the imagination.
+
+Spitzka,[82] who approached maternal impressions from an actively
+sceptical standpoint, had his scepticism shaken by specimens (preserved in
+the British Museum) of newly hatched chicks, all of which had a curved
+beak like a parrot, and the toes set back as in that bird. According to
+the report of the curator the hens in the farmyard where these
+monstrosities were hatched had been frightened by a parrot which, having
+escaped, fluttered among them some time before the eggs were laid and
+greatly frightened those from whom the malformed chicks were received. It
+is certain that the chief argument of those who deny that maternal
+impressions are transmitted is defeated by this case. They have usually
+asserted that the explanation of the nature and cause of a birth-mark was
+always an after-thought on the part of the mother. But there was no
+after-thought in this case. The hens did not publish a theory as to the
+malformation of their chicks. It was their owner, a gentleman of
+intelligence and culture, who observed the casual occurrence, and who
+verified the almost photographic truthfulness of the germ monstrosity by
+depositing it in a museum as a permanent record at which none may cavil.
+
+Since then, the singular freaks attributable to maternal impressions of
+women, seen by Spitzka, have become so numerous that he has been compelled
+to negative the argument that they were merely accidental coincidences. He
+has never seen an idiotic, malformed child or one afflicted with morbid
+impulses derived from healthy parents free from hereditary taint in which
+a maternal impression could not be traced.
+
+In a large number a direct correspondence between the maternal impression
+and the nature of the deformity or peculiarity could be discovered. He
+reports the case of a woman, about five months pregnant, who, while
+standing in her yard, saw her husband stab into the belly of a goat he had
+slaughtered. The sight of the suddenly protruding visceral mass, which
+happened to be imperfectly bilobar, shocked her extremely, and, starting
+back, she, in her great revulsion, feeling a strange sensation at the nape
+of the neck or back of the head, clutched the former with her right hand.
+The impression continued to haunt her. When the child was born and she
+saw its deformity she instantly exclaimed, "Oh, the intestines of that
+goat!" At the back of its head the child had a large tumour of the
+consistency of a loose sac of a bluish colour, showing convolutions
+interpreted by the mother as a reproduction of the intestinal convolutions
+that had so shocked her. In reality they were the convolutions of a hernia
+containing the posterior ends of both cerebral hemispheres. The accidental
+resemblance of the deformity to the mental impressions was striking.
+
+A. Lagorio[83] brought before the Chicago Medical Society several cases in
+which maternal impressions had produced decidedly abnormal births with
+deformities resembling those feared by the mother. Kiernan, in discussing
+these, pointed out that all were instances of checked development. He was
+of opinion that moral shock, generally directed, played the chief part in
+maternal impressions through checking development and causing either
+general or local reversion. Here, as Spitzka[84] shows, the statistical
+method can be applied. It has been long known that profound grief, mental
+or physical shock acting on the mother, produce cerebral defect or
+generally arrested development in the offspring. Of 92 children born in
+Paris during the great siege, 1870-71, 64 had mental or physical anomalies
+and the remaining 28 were weakly, 21 were intellectually defective
+(imbecile or idiotic), and 8 showed moral or emotional insanity. These
+figures, furnished by Legrand du Saulle, justify the popular designation
+by the working men of Paris of the defective children born in 1871 as
+"_enfants du siège_."
+
+After the great Chicago fire in 1871 birth-marks, deformities, and mental
+defects were noticed to occur among the offspring whose mothers were
+pregnant with them pending the exciting time during and after the
+conflagration.
+
+Spitzka has seen in practice, constitutionally melancholic or mentally
+defective children in whom no other predisposing cause could be discovered
+than that the mother was struggling with direct or indirect results of the
+financial crisis of 1873. In several of these cases the death of the
+father was a contributory cause of maternal depression. In Berlin the
+financial crisis of 1875-80 was followed by an increase in the number of
+idiots born. Lombroso attributes a series of cases of microcephaly to
+profound mental impressions occurring during pregnancy. To the same class
+of cases belong the hermaphrodites born by mothers who have been
+frightened in their first pregnancy and who continue to bear
+hermaphrodites. The continual and not ill-founded dread that the
+succeeding children may resemble the first is to be regarded as a
+contributory cause. Observers who have had a large experience with
+illegitimate births believe that the mental agony suffered by the
+unfortunate mother reacts upon the foetus, causing arrest of development,
+and thus accounting for the frequent occurrence of idiocy in illegitimate
+children.
+
+The influence of maternal diet on the foetus is excellently illustrated in
+the results of the "fruit diet" advised by certain vegetarians. Here the
+children[85] become, as Elise Berwig has recently shown, rickety,
+irritable, peevish, liable to convulsions, morally peculiar, and otherwise
+defective in contrast with children born of the same parents without
+"fruit diet" during pregnancy.
+
+Kiernan,[86] after citing instances reported by Amabile, Carson, F. B.
+Earle, Erlenmeyer, F. H. Hubbard, C. H. Hughes, Mattison, and others, of
+congenital opium habit where opium was needed to preserve the infant
+during the first months of life, states that inheritance of the opium
+habit seems at first an isolated phenomenon, but zoologists have pointed
+out that pigeons whose ancestors were fed on poppies became intractable to
+opium. Murrell found that the same was relatively true in England of
+persons descended from Bedfordshire ancestors who used infusions of
+poppies as a prophylactic against malaria. Nervous diseases were, however,
+relatively prevalent in these districts. Narcotic habits in the ancestors
+produces descendants in whom the normal checks on excessive nervous action
+are removed, so that paranoiacs, periodical lunatics, epileptics,
+hysterics, congenital criminals, congenital paupers, or other degenerates
+result. This influence is most strongly exerted when the maternal ancestor
+is the one affected, for to her is committed the development of the ovum
+prior to conception and of the child subsequently. If either is interfered
+with by a habit, a being defective in some respects is the result. The
+direct inheritance of the opium habit has been shown experimentally by
+Levenstein, who found by experiments on pregnant dogs and rabbits that the
+use of opium during pregnancy produced either abortion or still-births, or
+rapidly dying offspring.
+
+In a similar manner Rennert[87] has shown that lead-poisoning occurring in
+the mother is apt to produce macrocephalism with frequent idiocy in the
+child.
+
+This brings the observer face to face with the problem of morbid heredity.
+It may at once be admitted that, as has been claimed by a large number of
+observers, morbid heredity, especially in its graver forms, is much less
+frequent than at first would be expected. J. P. Gray, of Utica, New York,
+went so far as to claim that disease is never transmitted, but this is
+contradicted by his own hospital reports, which, to the day of his death,
+contained a table headed, "Statistics of hereditary transmission of the
+disease." It is true, however, that the descendants of a victim of
+morbidity or abnormality do not always exhibit the morbidity or
+abnormality of the ancestor. In some cases all apparent morbidity or
+abnormality is wanting. In other cases slighter abnormalities are to be
+detected. Here the observer is brought face to face with the operation of
+two general principles which are interdependent: the transmutation of
+heredity and atavism, or "throwing back" as the cattle breeders call it.
+Tennyson voices the general erroneous opinion of the always evil effects
+of atavism in his "Locksley Hall Sixty Years After":--
+
+  "Evolution ever climbing after some ideal good
+  And Reversion ever dragging Evolution in the mud."
+
+As Kiernan has shown, atavism at times tends to preserve the type, and
+offsets the influence of degeneracy. This element of atavism underlies not
+merely the production of the sound scions of degenerate stock, but also
+those in whom the degeneracy affects the earlier and not the later
+acquirements of the race. The contrast of the moral imbecile who is unable
+to acquire an idea of right, or the idiot of the lowest grade who can
+hardly be taught to keep himself clean, with the otherwise sound, sane,
+able victim of hereditary gout, is very great. Yet all the links of the
+chain connecting, in the same family, these contrasted types, can often be
+found. The law laid down as to absolute extinction through degeneracy by
+Morel and others can only be regarded as absolutely true when applied to a
+given type rather than the race as a whole. Indeed, environment may play a
+part in preserving a degenerate who would otherwise die out. Thus in
+societies at a certain stage of culture imbeciles, paupers, lunatics, and
+congenital criminals live at large and even propagate through legal
+marriage. The seemingly enormous increase of the defective class which
+occurs in frontier communities when the classes begin to be placed in
+public institutions is an excellent illustration of this.
+
+Manifestations of morbid heredity result not in inheritance of the whole
+defect but in disturbance of relations of structure and hence of function,
+producing, as Kiernan remarks, a constitutional deficiency which takes the
+line of least resistance. The extent and direction of this line of least
+resistance depend on the amount of healthy atavism which separate organs
+and structures of the body preserve. The line of least resistance
+sometimes taken is excellently illustrated in the occurrence of stigmata
+already pointed out in the case of epileptic guinea-pigs.
+
+This unilateral predisposition (which, as Kiernan has shown, is due
+usually to heredity or intra-uterine causes) may be artificially
+produced. Kasparek[88] cut one sciatic nerve of a guinea-pig and (after
+all inflammatory symptoms had subsided) injected the opposite ear with
+cultures of pus microbes. He killed the animal after some days. The sound
+side was found free from suppuration, but immense abscesses existed on the
+side of the cut nerve. Such local predisposition was pointed out by
+Merrill[89] over forty years ago. This condition occurs, as Féré has
+shown,[90] in many systemic and infectious diseases which presents a
+localisation due to heredity, or determined by anterior morbid state of
+the nervous symptom. Sometimes these manifestations are limited to the
+side free from nervous trouble.
+
+As a rule they attack the side which is the predominant seat of nervous
+symptoms. Féré points out that in chromatic iris asymmetry the iris
+(coloured part of the eye) is most coloured on the side most affected by
+arrest of development. Localisation of nervous trouble occurs on the side
+most affected by hare-lip. Heuse has observed the co-existence on the same
+side of congenital cataract and of deformities of the skull and chest.
+
+Hernia is often an expression of hereditary defect (Le Double) taking the
+unilateral line of least resistance. Testicle inflammations of microbic
+origin (venereal or otherwise) occur as a rule on the side where hernia is
+located in the groin. In one-sided malformations of ovary or testicle
+(decreased or increased in size, or changed in shape or location) microbe
+inflammation almost always occurs at the seat of the anomaly. This
+principle is illustrated in the experiments of Dupuy.[91] Here, while as a
+rule, the scions of guinea-pigs (rendered epileptic by section of the
+sciatic nerve) were epileptics and had deficient toes, still in some
+epilepsy resulted without the toe anomaly, while still more rarely the toe
+anomaly was present without the epilepsy.
+
+The same principle is shown by certain observations of Charin and
+Gley,[92] who for five years conducted experiments calculated to throw
+light on the influence on the offspring of parental reception of virus.
+Either both male and female have been inoculated with the bacillus of blue
+pus or its toxins, or but one animal has been inoculated. The results have
+not been uniform. Most frequently there ensues sterility, abortion, or
+birth of progeny that die immediately. In rare instances the offspring
+survive; more rarely still are they healthy. Certain rabbits (born of
+these undeveloped animals) were provided with enormous epiphyses (ends of
+bones), the shafts of the bones being shortened. Two rabbits were born of
+a couple of which the male alone received inoculations of sterilised
+culture. Five rabbits were born of these two, of which two were normal,
+and a third (whose ears were rudimentary) died in a few days. In the
+remaining two the ears comprised only fragments with jagged upper edges.
+The tails were but two centimetres long. The external orifice of the
+vagina (one rabbit was a male and the other a female) was oblique. One of
+the limbs (the hind in the male and the fore in the female) was much
+shorter than its fellow, the difference being four centimetres. The
+shortened limb ended in a kind of stump, there being no foot or toes.
+
+These experiments illustrate the transformation of heredity, that is the
+manifestations which show the line of least resistance that the morbid
+heredity has taken. As Moreau (de Tours) remarks,[93] "An incorrect
+conception of the law of heredity looks for identical phenomena in each
+succeeding generation. Some have refused to admit that mental faculties
+were subject to heredity, because the mental characters of the descendants
+were not precisely those of the progenitors. Each generation must copy the
+preceding. Father and son must present the spectacle of one being, having
+two births, and each time leading the same life, under the same
+conditions. But it is not in the heredity of functions, or of organic or
+intellectual facts that the application of the law of heredity must be
+sought, but at the very fountain-head of the organism, in its inmost
+constitution. A family whose head is insane or epileptic does not of
+necessity consist of lunatics or epileptics, but the children may be
+idiotic, paralytic, or scrofulous. What the parents transmit to the
+children is not insanity, but a vicious constitution which will manifest
+itself under various forms in epilepsy, hysteria, scrofula, rickets, &c.
+This is what is to be understood by hereditary transmission."
+
+The same position has been taken by Rush,[94] the pioneer American
+alienist; by Maudsley,[95] by Krafft-Ebing,[96] by Meynert, by Mercier, by
+Féré,[97] and others. Morel,[98] the chief accepted apostle of the
+doctrine of degeneracy, remarked, nearly at the same time as Moreau, that
+"heredity does not mean the very disorder of the parents transmitted to
+the children with the identical mental and physical symptoms observed in
+the progenitors, but means transmission of organic disposition from
+parents to children. Alienists have, perhaps, more frequent occasion than
+others for observing not merely this hereditary transmission, but likewise
+various transformations which occur in the descendants. They are aware
+that simple neuropathy (nervous tendency) of the parents may produce in
+the children an organic disposition resulting in mania or melancholia,
+nervous affections which in turn may produce more serious degeneracy and
+terminate in the idiocy or imbecility of those who form the last link in
+the chain of hereditary transmission."
+
+What is true of the organism as a whole is true of the cells forming its
+organs. It should be remembered that while cell life is altruistic or
+subordinated to the life of the organ, through the law of economy of
+growth, recognised by Aristotle, and through it to the life of the
+organism as a whole, altruism is not complete enough to prevent entirely a
+struggle for existence on the part of the cells or the individual organs.
+With rise in evolution this struggle decreases, to increase with the
+opposite procedure of degeneracy. From it results the phenomenon of
+arrested and excessive development.
+
+As Dareste has shown (and the fact has been corroborated by Spitzka[99]),
+embryologists can imitate natural malformation of the nerve centres by
+artificial methods. By wounding the embryonic and vascular areas of the
+chick's germ with a cataract needle, malformations are induced, varying in
+intensity and character with the earliness of the injury and its precise
+extent. More delicate injuries produce less monstrous development. Partial
+varnishing or irregular heating of the egg-shell, in particular, results
+in anomalies comparable to microcephaly (little head) and cerebral
+asymmetry. This latter fact (showing the constancy of the injurious effect
+of so apparently slight an impression as the partial varnishing of a
+structure not connected with the embryo at all directly) suggests the line
+of research to be followed in determining the source of the maternal and
+other impressions acting on the germ. What delicate problems are to be
+solved in this connection may be inferred from the fact that eggs
+subjected to the vibration and shocks of a railroad journey are checked in
+development for several days, or permanently arrested. A more delicate
+molecular shock during the maturation of the ovum, during its
+fertilisation, or finally during embryonic stages of the more complex, and
+therefore more readily disturbed and distorted human germ, accounts for
+the disastrous effect of insanity, emotion, or other mental or physical
+shock of the parent on the offspring. The cause of the majority of
+cerebral deformities exists in the germ prior to the appearance of the
+separate organs of the body. Artificial deformities produce analogous
+results because they imitate original germ defects, either by mechanical
+removal, or by some other interference with a special part of the germ.
+Early involvement of the germ is shown by the fact that the somatic
+malformations of the hereditary forms of insanity often involve the body
+elsewhere than in the nervous axis. The stigmata of heredity--defective
+development of the uro-genital system, deformities of the face and skull,
+irregular development of the teeth, misshapen ears and limbs--owe their
+grave significance to this fact. Like deformities of the brain, these
+anomalies are also more marked and constant with the lower forms of the
+hereditarily based systematised perversions of the mind than the higher.
+It is easy from these results to understand how far and how the nervous
+system has its part in the disorders of general development. It can be
+easily understood how the individuals who present most deformities are
+equally those who suffer from most decided disorders of the nervous
+system.
+
+These morbid manifestations of heredity occur in certain categories,
+either local as to organs or structures, or affecting the body as a whole.
+These categories Moreau (de Tours) lucidly sums up as: First, absence of
+conception; second, retardation of conception; third, imperfect
+conception; fourth, incomplete products (monstrosities); fifth, products
+whose mental, moral, and physical constitution is imperfect; sixth,
+products specially exposed to nervous disorders in order of frequency as
+follows--epilepsy, imbecility or idiocy, deaf-mutism, insanity, cerebral
+paralysis, and other cerebral disorders; seventh, lymphatic products;
+eighth, products which die in infancy in a greater proportion than sound
+infants under like conditions; ninth, products which, although they escape
+the stress of infancy, are less adapted than others to resist disease and
+death.
+
+The explanation of these morbid manifestations lies in the very
+foundations of embryology. Bearing in mind the principles of individuation
+pointed out by Spencer, it is easily understood how reversal of this
+principle would produce greater and greater destruction of the complex
+functions, resultant on increased reproductive power of cells (whose
+environment is not suited to such reproductions) and thus lead to such a
+struggle for existence as to produce sterility (from interdestruction of
+the ovum cells, or the cells forming the spermatozoon). This condition is
+further increased by the operation of two biologic principles. The first
+relates to the cells or organs forming an organism. The second, as Von
+Baer has shown, deals with the relation of the organs to each other.
+
+Vertebrate embryos of a common type, at their origin, assume successively
+a number of common forms before definitely differentiating. Dareste points
+out that supernumerary organs do exist in these common forms at one phase
+of embryonic life. This community of embryonic types and this last fact
+explain repetition of teratologic types or monstrosities in vertebrates.
+This community of origin, moreover, indicates that a higher vertebrate
+embryo contains in essence the organs and potentialities of lower
+vertebrates, and that under the influence of heredity or accidental defect
+an organ belonging to another species may develop, or an organ constant in
+a species may be lacking in an individual, without the necessity of
+explaining the immediate effects by distant atavism. Some anomalies found
+among degenerates recall types less elevated than man, and very distant
+from him, even his possible Lemurian precursor.
+
+It is obvious from the principles already demonstrated that the secondary
+effects of infectious disorders and injuries are reproduced in various
+types in the offspring. The malformations of the limbs experimentally
+demonstrated to be due to ancestral infection by Charin and Gley, and to
+injury by Dupuy, noticeably occur in men. Moor has observed supernumerary
+fingers in an imbecile girl; her grandfather and one uncle are
+polydactylous and insane. F. S. Coolidge has had under observation a case
+which excellently depicts these deformities in men. Kiernan[100] reports
+the case of a man whose grandfather and father had been prophets of the
+Lord, as shown by the fact that on one side of the body they had six toes
+and six fingers, and the two sides of the body were unequal, the
+six-fingered one being smaller than the other. This father and grandfather
+were highly regarded in a secluded vale in Norway as religious teachers
+and for their power to cure disease by charm. The father had ten children,
+of whom three were born dead and six died in infancy. Kiernan's patient
+was the only survivor of this family. During boyhood he experienced
+various persecutions, some by unseen agencies, some on the part of the
+villagers, who towards the end of his father's life also persecuted the
+father. These persecutions seem to have been withdrawal by the peasants of
+their belief in the father's ability to charm sickness out of cattle,
+evidently due to growing popular intelligence. This was regarded by the
+father as the result of persecution by the devil, who was desirous of
+trying him as Job was tried. It was revealed to him that his son should
+likewise suffer persecution, which would also be the work of the devil.
+The son heard unseen persons, who pointed him out in school as the son of
+the sham wizard. In consequence he was avoided by all his schoolmates
+except the members of one family who still retained their belief in the
+father's supernatural powers. Into this family the son married; then,
+pressed by his unseen persecutors, he came to the United States. Here he
+worked at his trade as a carpenter, and had no return of any persecutory
+delusions, although he still believed he was a prophet. On admission to
+the insane hospital, twenty years after his arrival in the United States,
+he was found to have such a decidedly asymmetrical body that suspicions of
+general hemiatrophy were excited, but the condition was found to be
+congenital. The hand and foot of the seemingly atrophic side had six
+fingers and toes. The man had been sent to the insane hospital in
+consequence of an altercation with a neighbour who was clearly in the
+wrong; but both being arrested, the patient's _amour propre_ was aroused
+and he declared his prophetship, which led to his trial and commitment as
+a lunatic. His wife, who applied for his discharge, was also a paranoiac.
+They had had ten children, of whom three were still living at the ages of
+six, eight, and ten. Two of these were six-toed and six-fingered
+unilaterally, and one of them, a boy, had the peculiar general asymmetry
+of the father. The third child was seemingly normal.
+
+The experimental results of Charin and Gley, on the degeneration produced
+in offspring by ancestral microbic infection, tend to show that not merely
+are the extremities affected, but in certain cases the whole organism,
+along lines laid down by Moreau's categories. This is demonstrated by
+study of the degeneracy stigmata of phthisical families. Alex. James,
+Ricochon,[101] C. E. Paddock,[102] and others have shown that (in addition
+to the ordinary stigmata) the biologic stigmata of degeneracy (such as
+plural and quickly repeated births) are frequent among phthisical
+families. The same phenomena often occur in families whose scions are
+attacked with diabetes, obesity, articular rheumatism, cancer and gout. De
+Giovanni[103] finds that particular nervous states exist in those
+predisposed to tuberculosis, whom he divides into erethists (restless),
+torpids, and energetics. There is a diminutive heart, whose right
+ventricle has comparatively exaggerated dimensions, while the arteries
+have lessened calibre.
+
+A family illustrating excellently the transmutation of morbid heredity is
+one followed through five generations by Kiernan.[104] A farmer lived
+twenty miles distant from his nearest neighbour, whose only child he
+married. The daughter had led a lonely life till her courtship at the age
+of 28 by the farmer, then three years younger. The farmer married her for
+$300, after having impregnated her. He then found lead on his farm and
+went to a city. A stock-company bought his farm and launched him into the
+stock market, where he made money more as a cunning tool than an
+adventurer. He became a high liver, gouty and dyspeptic, and died with
+symptoms of gouty kidney at 70. The couple had five children. The eldest,
+a son, became a "Napoleon of Finance," but, inheriting his father's
+cunning, died wealthy and within the pale of the law. He married a society
+woman, the last scion of an old family. The second child, a daughter, was
+club-footed and early suffered from gouty tophi. She married a society man
+of old family who had cleft palate. The third child, a daughter, had
+congenital squint. She married a man who suffered from migraine of a
+periodical type. The fourth child, a daughter, was normal. She married a
+thirty-year-old active business man, in whom ataxia developed a year after
+marriage. The fifth child, a son, was ataxic at eighteen. The children of
+the "Napoleon of Finance" and the society woman were an imbecile son, a
+nymphomaniac, a hysteric, a female epileptic who had a double uterus, and
+a son who wrote verses and was a society man. The cleft-palated society
+man and club-footed woman had triplets born dead and a squinting,
+migrainous son who, left penniless by his parents, married his cousin the
+nymphomaniac daughter of the "Napoleon of Finance," after being detected
+in an intrigue with her. The migrainous man and squinting daughter of the
+farmer stockbroker had a sexually inverted masculine daughter, a daughter
+subject to periodical bleeding at the nose irrespective of menstruation,
+as well as chorea during childhood, a normal daughter, a deaf-mute
+phthisical son, a daughter with cloacal formation of the perineum, an
+ameliac son, a cyclopian daughter (with one central eye) born dead, and,
+finally, a normal son. The sexual invert married the versifier son of the
+"Napoleon of Finance." The progeny of the normal daughter of the farmer
+stockbroker and the ataxic husband were a dead-born, sarcomatous son, a
+gouty son, twin boys paralysed in infancy, twin girls normal, a normal
+son, and a son ataxic at fourteen. The progeny of the nymphomaniac
+daughter and her strabismic, migrainous cousin were a ne'er-do-well, a
+periodical lunatic, a dipsomaniac daughter who died of cancer of the
+stomach, deformed triplets who died at birth, an epileptic imbecile son, a
+hermaphrodite, a prostitute, a double monster born dead, a normal
+daughter, and a paranoiac son. The ne'er-do-well married his nose-bleeding
+cousin. The gouty son of the farmer's normal daughter married the hysteric
+daughter of the "Napoleon of Finance." They had a son born with such
+general asymmetry as to seem hemiatrophic, a prostitute, dead triplets, a
+male sexual invert, a colour-blind daughter, and a normal son. The
+colour-blind daughter married the paranoiac grandson of the "Napoleon of
+Finance." The progeny of the sexual invert and the versifier, who were
+soon divorced, were a daughter with periodical nymphomania, who had some
+artistic and literary ability, and a son who died of gastric cancer. The
+scions of the ne'er-do-well and his nose-bleeding cousin were a moral
+imbecile, a "bleeder," a stammering daughter who had an uvular deformity,
+a deaf-mute with undescended testicle, dead-born triplets, an infantile
+paralytic son, and dead-born quadruplets. The progeny of the paranoiac and
+his colour-blind cousin were an exophthalmic daughter, an epileptic with
+undescended testicle, a cleft-palated imbecile with a cloaca, dead-born
+quadruplets, an idiot boy, and a "bleeder."
+
+Doutrebente reports the following family history: First generation: Father
+intelligent, became melancholic, and died insane. Mother nervous and
+emotional. Second generation: Ten children; three died in childhood, seven
+reach maturity as follows: Daughter A, melancholiac; daughter B, insane at
+twenty; daughter C, imbecile; daughter D, a suicide; son E, imbecile; son
+F, melancholic; son G, a melancholic. Third generation: A has ten
+children; five die in childhood, one is deformed, one has fits of
+insanity, one is eccentric and extravagant, two are intelligent and marry,
+but are childless. B leaves no issue. C has one child, a deformed
+imbecile. D has three children; one is an imbecile, one dies of apoplexy
+at twenty-three, and the third is an artist described as "extravagant." E
+has two children; one dies insane, the other disappears and is supposed to
+have committed suicide. F is childless. G has one child, who is
+imbecile.[105]
+
+Strahan[106] gives a genealogy which shows very clearly the close kinship
+existing between the cancerous diathesis and other forms of constitutional
+degeneration whose outward manifestations are infantile convulsions,
+suicide, epilepsy, insanity, lymphatism, and sterility. The father of this
+family died of stomach cancer at sixty. He had a brother who cut his
+throat at fifty-six; the mother, an apparently healthy woman, died of a
+fit, at the age of fifty-four. To this pair seven children were born: 1. A
+son who died of stomach cancer at fifty-eight. 2. A son who died in
+convulsions at thirteen weeks. 3, 4, and 5. Three daughters who died of
+phthisis, one at sixteen, the other two later in life, and after being
+married for many years; none left any issue. 6. A son who is epileptic,
+and has twice been confined in lunatic asylums; married, but no issue. 7.
+A son who is sane, and enjoying fair health. Here the taint in the mother
+appears to have been slight; still, it was there, and while certainly
+preventing reversion, it doubtless deepened the degeneration of the
+father in the children. In the father's stock the taint was much deeper.
+While it was exhibited as cancer in him, it took the form of suicidal
+impulse in his brother. In the children of this pair the disease of the
+father is transmitted to the eldest son; but can it be denied, Strahan
+asks, that the infantile convulsions, the liability to tubercular disease,
+the epilepsy, the insanity, and the marked sterility were but the varying
+evidences of the degenerate nature, inherited from a father who might have
+died earlier of some acute disease, taking the secret of his nature with
+him?
+
+The value of the principle of atavism in off-setting degeneracy is nowhere
+better illustrated than in the history of famous families of degenerates
+like those of the Binswangers, of "Margaret," of the Jukes, as well as
+those reported in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and the Scandinavian
+countries. The Rougon-Macquart family of Zola (which had its actual
+prototype in the Kerangal family described by Aubry[107]) had, like these,
+several scions in whom former normality regained its power through
+atavism. Sometimes this atavism is not shown to any greater extent than a
+slight modification of the abnormality or morbidity.
+
+Telegony, the so-called and much-debated heredity of influence, whereby
+the children of a second marriage resemble the first husband, may be
+explained by a biologic principle demonstrable in the lower animals,
+whereby conjugation not sufficient to fecundate ova is sufficient so to
+impress them that when finally fecundated they bear characteristics of
+the first conjugation. Its part in either normal or degenerate heredity
+is but slight. Some instances charged to it might be attributed to mental
+impression on the mother.
+
+Luys[108] excellently sums up the whole question of heredity when he
+remarks: "Heredity governs all the phenomena of degeneracy with the same
+results and the same energy as it controls moral and physical resemblances
+in the offspring. The individual who comes into the world is not an
+isolated being separated from his kindred. He is one link in a long chain
+which is unrolled by time, and of which the first links are lost in the
+past. He is bound to those who follow him, and to the atavic influences
+which he possesses; he serves for their temporary resting-place, and he
+transmits them to his descendants. If he come from a race well endowed and
+well formed, he possesses the characters of organisation which his
+ancestors have given him. He is ready for the combat of life, and to
+pursue his way by his own virtues and energies. But inversely, if he
+spring from a stock which is already marked with an hereditary blemish,
+and in which the development of the nervous system is incomplete, he comes
+into existence with a badly balanced organisation; and his natural
+defects, existing as germs, and in a measure latent, are ready to be
+developed when some accidental cause arises to start them into activity."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CONSANGUINEOUS AND NEUROTIC INTERMARRIAGE
+
+
+Byron has sung[109] of the old popular belief in the advantages of
+cross-breeding, which arose originally in the practice of exogamy
+(marriage outside the tribe), or, more often, outside those having the
+same totem, or coat-of-arms. In all probability casual observation of
+deformities after intermarriage enforced the prohibition which arose after
+the killing of female children had led to exogamy. Totemic relationship
+was often far from being consanguineous. The idea of incest is, as Byron's
+stanza denotes, of religious origin rather than innate.[110] Its criminal
+nature is often removed by priestly dispensation in Latin countries. From
+this practice sprang the medical, theologic, and legal notions to which D.
+H. Tuke[111] thus refers: "The danger arising from marriages of
+consanguinity has been insisted upon from time to time by medical writers,
+and has been recognised by ecclesiastical authority, civil law, and by
+popular feeling. As regards ecclesiastical and civil law, it would be more
+correct to say that the marriage of those very nearly related has been
+forbidden on other grounds than that of the alleged danger to mental
+health. At the same time the justice of such laws receives support if
+medical observation leads to the conclusion that consanguineous marriages
+tend to generate idiocy and insanity."
+
+The biologic evidence from the experiments of Maupas on parthenogenesis,
+elsewhere cited, is seemingly supported by the results of animals breeding
+in-and-in. The evidence advanced against such marriages seems at first
+sight exceedingly strong from a biologic standpoint in man.
+
+Rilliet[112] cites cases tending to show that consanguineous marriages, in
+themselves pernicious, tend with certainty to lower vital force. The
+effects he divides into two categories; those which relate to the
+parents, under which head are:--
+
+    _a._ Failure of conception.
+
+    _b._ Retardation of conception.
+
+    _c._ Imperfect conception.
+
+Those which relate to the progeny:--
+
+    _a._ Imperfections of various kinds.
+
+    _b._ Monstrosities.
+
+    _c._ Imperfect physical and mental organisation.
+
+    _d._ Tendency to diseases of the nervous system, such as epilepsy,
+    imbecility, idiocy, deaf-mutism, paralysis, and various cerebral
+    affections.
+
+    _e._ Tendency to strumous diseases.
+
+    _f._ Tending to die young.
+
+    _g._ Tendency to succumb to disease which others would easily resist.
+
+C. H. S. Davis,[113] of Meriden, Connecticut, states that intermarriages
+in families lead to a degeneration that manifests itself in deaf-mutism,
+albinism, and idiocy. Isaac Ray[114] is of the opinion that consanguineous
+marriages repeated through successive generations account for the numerous
+instances of insanity and idiocy occurring in quiet rural populations of
+New England, far from the excitements of city life, which are generally
+supposed to be more productive of mental unsoundness.
+
+S. M. Bemiss,[115] of New Orleans, Louisiana, giving a report of the
+condition of the offspring of 580 intermarriages of first cousins,
+gathered mostly by medical men from nearly every State in the Union, says:
+2,778 children were born of these cousins, of whom 793 were defective, 117
+deaf and dumb, 63 blind, 231 idiotic, 24 insane, 44 epileptic, 189
+scrofulous, 53 deformed, and 637 died early.
+
+While these figures seem very demonstrative, they contain a great many
+elements of error. One of these is incidentally pointed out by Arthur
+Mitchell,[116] who finds that under favourable conditions of life the
+apparent ill effects of consanguineous marriages are frequently almost
+nil, whilst if the children are ill-fed, badly housed and clothed, the
+evil may become very marked. He calculates that the percentage of
+consanguineous marriages generally in Scotland is 1·3, or ten times less
+than with the parents of idiots. Taking his figures a strong case seems to
+be made out in support of the opinion that idiocy, among other evils,
+results from intermarriage. Langdon Down, although his figures are not of
+so unfavourable a character, admits consanguinity as one of the causes of
+deterioration.
+
+George H. Darwin concluded from a careful investigation that about 4 per
+cent. of all marriages in England are between first cousins, and between 2
+and 3 per cent. in the smaller towns and in the country; with these he
+compared the rate of similar marriages among the parents of lunatics and
+idiots in asylums, and found it to be about 3 or 4 per cent.--not higher,
+therefore, than in the general population.
+
+Huth[117] cites instances occurring regularly at the present day among
+certain isolated communities (St. Kilda, Pitcairn, and Iceland) without
+apparent evil consequences to the race. Such marriages were common among
+the North American Indians and the South Sea Islanders, people among whom
+idiocy and other degenerate hereditary conditions were remarkably rare.
+These cases, Strahan remarks, deal with peculiarly healthy communities.
+Therein lies the secret of such intermarriage proving innocent of evil to
+the offspring. Were such intermarriage common among the degenerates the
+result would be disastrous.
+
+In 1869 the New York State Medical Society[118] appointed a committee to
+investigate the influence of consanguineous marriages upon the offspring.
+Their results show clearly that if the family be free from degenerate
+taint, marriage among its members in no way diminishes the chances of
+healthy offspring. This conclusion is in accord with the findings of
+recent investigators like Anstie, George Darwin, and A. H. Huth, according
+to whom there is no greater amount of morbidity or abnormality among the
+offspring of consanguineous parents than among the children of parents not
+so related, provided the parents be equally free from tendency to disease
+or degeneration. With a perfectly healthy stock, as every breeder of
+animals knows, remarks Strahan,[119] "in-and-in breeding" may be practised
+with impunity, but where the stock is tainted with disease or
+imperfection, safety is only to be found in "crossing."
+
+Where the error lay in the old doctrine, upon which was founded the
+prohibition of consanguineous unions, was not, as Strahan remarks, in
+asserting that disease and deformity were more often met with in children
+of these than in those of other unions, for such is true, but attributing
+these unhappy results to the mere fact that the parents were related by
+blood. Over and above the fact that these consanguineous marriages are
+almost certain to transmit in an accentuated form any defect or tendency
+to disease already present in the family, there is no physiological reason
+why such marriages should not take place. Breeders of prize stock
+frequently breed "in and in," not only with impunity, but with marked
+benefit. But this fact, while going to prove that it is not the mere blood
+relationship of the parents which induces the degeneration so often found
+in the children of consanguineous marriages, can but rarely be advanced as
+an argument in support of the marriage of blood relations. The
+stock-raiser only permits the more perfect members of his flocks and herds
+to continue their kind, and for this reason the "in-and-in" breeding is
+innocuous, just as it would be in the human family under like conditions.
+But where shall we find the perfect human family? Such families are
+certainly rare. The laws of natural life have been so strained and
+perverted that almost every family nowadays has a taint or twist of some
+kind, and as all such imperfections are transmitted and rapidly deepened
+and fixed in the family by the intermarriage of its members, it is best
+that such unions should be forbidden.
+
+Recently acquired characters, whether physiologic or pathologic, are very
+liable to disappear when the individual bearing such characters
+intermarries with another not having the same character. The natural
+tendency in all such cases is to revert in the offspring to the normal or
+healthy type, so that unless the new character be very deeply impressed
+upon the parental organism it is almost certain it will not appear in the
+offspring, if the other parents have nothing of the character. But when
+both parents are possessed of the character, whether it be physiologic or
+pathologic, this natural tendency to revert to the original is often
+overborne and the character is repeated in an accentuated form in the
+offspring.
+
+Now this accentuation of all family characters is what must always happen
+in the case of consanguineous marriages. If there be any taint in the
+family each member of the family will have inherited more or less of it
+from the common ancestor. Take the case of cousins, the descendants of a
+common grandparent who was insane and of an insane stock. Here the cousins
+are certain to have inherited more or less of the insane diathesis. Even
+if the taint has been largely diluted in their case by the wise, or, more
+likely, fortunate marriages of their blood-related parents, yet will they
+have inherited a certain tendency to nervous disease, and if they marry
+they must not be surprised if that taint appears in an aggravated form in
+their children. Some of the children of such parents are generally
+idiotic, epileptic, dumb, or lymphatic, and the parents marvel whence came
+the imperfection. It may be in some cases that the parents, and possibly
+the grandparent, of the unfortunate children, have not up till that time
+displayed any outward evidence of the tendency to disease which they have
+inherited and handed on to their descendants; and, not looking farther
+back, the parents boldly assert that such a thing as insanity, epilepsy,
+scrofula, &c., is unknown to their family. They themselves have never been
+insane; why, then, should their children? In like manner children may be
+epileptic, blind, deaf-mute, lymphatic, cancerous, criminal, drunkards, or
+deformed from direct inheritance, and yet the family line be honestly
+declared to be healthy. Hence the truth of Sir William Aitken's maxim,
+that "a family history including less than three generations is useless
+and may even be misleading." From the foregoing it is evident that the
+similarity of temperament induced by a common environment, and which
+Strahan would call "social consanguinity," must be a potent factor in the
+production of all hereditary degenerations. Living under similar customs,
+habits and surroundings, labouring at the same occupation, indulging in
+the same dissipation, tend to engender like diseases and degenerations,
+irrespective of any blood relationship. Hence it not seldom happens that
+persons not even distantly related by blood are, in reality, much more
+nearly related in temperament than cousins, or even nearer blood relations
+who have experienced widely different modes of life. This "social
+consanguinity" is the great curse which dogs every exclusive tribe and
+class, and hurries them to extinction. It has largely aided real or family
+consanguinity in the production of the diseases and degenerations which
+have so heavily fallen upon the aristocracies and royal families of
+Europe.
+
+A crucial test of the opposing positions taken respectively in such a
+positive manner by Bemiss and Strahan would be a family intermarrying
+extensively, but placed under favouring conditions unlikely of themselves
+to create degeneracy. Excellent cases of this kind are furnished by
+Bourgeois[120] and Thiébault.[121] Bourgeois gives the history of his own
+family, which was the issue of a union of the third degree of
+consanguinity. During the ensuing 160 years there were ninety-one
+marriages, of which sixteen were consanguineous. All of these latter were
+productive. There was not a single case of malformation, or other physical
+or mental disease in the offspring.
+
+Thiébault reports the case of a slave-dealer who died in the year 1849 at
+Whidah, Dahomey, leaving behind him four hundred disconsolate widows, and
+about one hundred children. By the order of the king the whole family were
+interned in a particular district, where reigned the most complete
+promiscuity. In 1863 there were children of the third generation.
+Thiébault, after verifying these facts, states that at that time, although
+these people were born from all degrees of incestuous unions, there was
+not a single instance of deaf-mutism, albinism, blindness, cretinism, or
+other congenital malformation. From these cases it is evident that the
+position of Strahan is not too strongly taken.
+
+While it is true that "like clings to like," still this does not imply
+kinship, but it very often implies likeness in mental characteristics.
+This tendency has been shown to be present in the neurotic by Roller,[122]
+De Monteyel,[123] Kiernan,[124] Bannister,[125] and Manning,[126] so far
+as Germany, France, the United States, and Australia are concerned.
+Bannister puts the statistical proof of this tendency very forcibly as
+follows: "There are in Illinois, according to the most recent estimates,
+in round numbers, about 6,000 insane, or one to a little over 500 of the
+population. Even if we double, treble, or quadruple this frequency to
+include all that have been or are to be insane, as well as those insane at
+the present time, it would not appear that there was much probability of
+two insane persons being married according to any ordinary law of chances.
+In fact, we find four out of the 104 with insane heredity had both father
+and mother insane. In one of these cases the insane heredity involved both
+parents and both grandparents on each side, though in the case of the
+latter the histories show it only as collateral. Besides these, three
+patients had direct paternal and collateral maternal heredity; two had
+direct maternal and collateral paternal heredity, and in one case there
+was collateral heredity of insanity on both sides. This makes altogether
+nearly 10 per cent. of those with insane heredity with it on both sides,
+maternal and paternal, and thus favoured with a double opportunity to
+inherit mental disease. If we add to this the instances where, with
+insanity of one parent, there is reported either epilepsy, hysteria, or
+drunkenness, 'brain disease,' nervousness, &c., of the other, the ratio of
+double inheritance rises to over 20 per cent."
+
+The beneficial effects which may result from atavism are, it will be
+obvious, offset by this tendency of the neurotic to intermarry, thus
+perverting the principle of atavism to the assistance of degeneracy.
+
+The age of the parent plays a part in degeneracy. Conger[127] (whose
+results have been corroborated by Joseph Workman, of Toronto, and
+Kiernan,[128] of Chicago) points out that in all degenerative forms we
+must take into consideration this factor, since it determines the
+development of degeneracy in childhood. Hereditary taint may be
+transmitted to descendants as a simple neuropathy, as a neurosis, or as a
+defect of development reaching even to idiocy. Conger finds the prevailing
+age, especially the age of the mothers of degenerates, is often between
+twenty and twenty-five years, and that hence there exists a relation
+between this age and the greater transmission of degeneracy to the
+offspring. Marro, who has specially investigated the influence of the age
+of the parents, both in the normal population and among criminals,[129]
+finds that among all classes of criminals there is an excess of immature
+parents (under 26) or senile parents (over 40), and that only petty
+offenders possessed a normal number of mature parents (26 to 40 years). A
+man between 20 and 25 is in as favourable condition for procreating
+degenerates as the very aged. Because of incompleted organic development
+he has been unable to free himself from hereditary taint which he
+transmits to his descendants, but which in maturer age, through the
+influence of adaptation, evolution, or education, might perhaps be more or
+less notably modified.
+
+The organism between 20 and 25 is yet incomplete; education has not been
+able to exert much influence in determining those possible changes which
+are adapted to modify congenital tendencies. In a word, the individual
+between 20 and 25 feels too much the influence of atavic characters, and
+too readily transmits to his posterity the brands of degeneracy.
+Experience has made it well known that the children of the aged readily
+show degenerate types. Many children of old fathers have undoubtedly
+inherited all the characters of the weakness of the age in which they were
+begotten. Old age represents the period of retrogression, of involution,
+and hence readily transmits the mark of degeneracy. The children of either
+too young or too old parents, failing to escape hereditary predisposition,
+may from birth inherit those characters which are proper to incomplete
+organic development or to the period of involution.
+
+Kiernan has had under observation a Nova Scotian family of Scotch
+extraction, the mother of which continued to bear children until she was
+63 years old. There had been no pregnancy between 50 and 56. At 56 a son
+was born who had ear, jaw and skull stigmata, and became a periodical
+lunatic at 25. A son, born a year after, was a six-fingered idiot, with
+retinitis pigmentosa. (These last expressions of degeneracy are, as
+Darier[130] has shown, often associated. Darier's cases had the following
+hereditary antecedents: One father had hemeralopia; one mother had
+defective vision; a grandfather was blind at 30; a grandfather was blind
+in one eye, and an uncle had congenital iris coloboma. Only one patient
+examined did not have hemeralopic descendants. Six patients examined
+belonged to five different families, all consisting of five or six
+children, one-third of whom had hemeralopia. Among thirty-five children
+there were eleven hemeralopes and two six-fingered children, who died too
+young to determine the existence of retinitis pigmentosa. The disease in
+all began in childhood, and hemeralopia was absent in but one case.) Three
+of the next children (two boys and a girl) became paralytic idiots in
+infancy. Here the degeneracy was expressed in that tendency to miliary
+aneurismal weakness of arteries to which E. C. Spitzka,[131] called
+attention over a decade ago. One of the next children was a periodically
+sexual invert female. The last child was an epileptic. The children born
+before the age of fifty were normal and averaged 60 years of age.
+
+Matthews Duncan,[132] Arthur Mitchell, and Langdon Down, have called
+attention to the influence of premature and late marriage in the
+production of idiocy. Factors capable of producing idiocy are of course
+capable of producing less decided expressions of degeneracy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INTERMIXTURE OF RACES
+
+
+Defoe, in his _Trueborn Englishman_, outlines a factor of great importance
+in degeneracy.[133] Race intermixture is much more common than is
+generally believed, owing to that ethnologic error consequent on the
+discovery of Sanscrit, which tests race by speech. Keane[134] excellently
+explodes this error by the following table:
+
+  Peoples.            Race.                    Speech.
+
+  English             Kelto-Teutonic           Teutonic
+  Scotch              Kelto-Teutonic           Teutonic
+  Cornish             Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic    Teutonic
+  Irish (West)        Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic    Keltic
+  Welsh               Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic    Keltic
+  French              Ibero-Kelto-Teutonic     Italic
+  Spanish             Ibero-Keltic             Italic
+  Germans             Slavo-Kelto-Teutonic     Teutonic
+  Bohemians           Kelto-Teuto-Slavonic     Slavonic
+  Russians (many)     Finno-Slavonic           Slavonic
+  Hungarians          Ugro-Slavonic            Slavonic
+  Bulgarians          Ugro-Teuto-Slavonic      Finnic
+  Prussians (East)    Letto-Teuto-Slavonic     Teutonic
+  Rumanians           Italo-Slavo-Illyric      Italic
+  Italians            Liguro-Kelto-Italic      Italic
+
+Profoundly mixed as this table indicates European races to be, it is far
+from representing the full extent of race mingling. The primitive worship
+of the Slavonic Czernebog by the Saxons in England demonstrates a Slavonic
+strain, derivable, as Kiernan[135] remarks, from their contact with the
+Wends of the Baltic. Not merely are the Aryan races of Europe mixed
+together, but the blood of all has a pre-Aryan and a Turanian dash. In
+Great Britain, as Taylor[136] and others have shown, the Iberian type is
+found in Wales and Scotland as well as elsewhere, though in lesser degree.
+These admixtures date back to palæolithic times when, although, as Keane
+remarks, the predominant type of skull was dolicocephalic (or
+long-headed), the brachycephalic (or round-headed type) had begun to
+appear in America, then connected by land with both Africa and Europe. In
+the subsequent neolithic time, while the type is at first generally
+brachycephalic, it soon becomes mesatocephalic (mixed long and
+round-headed), pure brachycephals and dolicocephals becoming rare. Vogt
+went so far as to maintain that were the three chief anthropoid apes
+developed further, two dolicocephalic and one brachycephalic type of man
+would result; the first two from the chimpanzee and gorilla, the last from
+the orang. The orang descendant would have long arms and red hair. The
+chimpanzee descendant would be of small size, dark colour with slender
+bones and jaws. The gorilla race would have massive chest, big bones,
+massive jaws and teeth. These three types appear in Great Britain and
+Ireland and traces of their blood are still detectable in living men. Sir
+Walter Scott draws an excellent picture of the "orang" type in _Rob Roy_,
+whose hero, according to reliable tradition, represented the Pict type.
+Gomme[137] has lately shown that these races persisted long enough to
+stamp their savage beliefs on coming races and intermingled with them. The
+Neolithic race in Great Britain was dark, of feeble build, short stature,
+with dolicocephalic skulls. This race remained to the historic period, as
+the Silures in Great Britain and the Firbolgs in Ireland. It had high
+cheek-bones and oblique eyes, as Kiernan[138] points out. Towards the
+middle of the neolithic period this race was conquered by a
+brachycephalic, tall, long-armed, muscular race, with florid complexion
+and yellowish or red hair.[139] Scott's _Rob Roy_ is an example of this
+type. A third race of fair complexion with prognathous face,
+dolicocephalic skulls, of tall stature, great bones, great chest
+development and massive jaws, later invaded Great Britain. While these
+races resemble Vogt's hypothetical descendants of the anthropoid apes, it
+should be stated that there is not the slightest evidence for this line of
+descent. Writers who ignore these race characteristics have often brought
+serious criticism and even discredit on the doctrine of degeneracy.
+Lombroso, starting from the correct premise, that wide departure from the
+race type is evidence of degeneracy, erroneously cites in illustration
+Virchow's departure from the German type, Byron's departure from the
+English type, O'Connell's dolicocephalic departure from the
+mesatocephalic Irish type, and Robert Bruce's neanderthaloid departure
+from the Scandinavian type. As Kiernan has shown,[140] Virchow, as his
+name denotes, is a German-speaking Slavonic Wend; Byron was a
+Celto-Scandinavian Scotchman; O'Connell was born in a district conquered
+by the tall dolicocephalic race which invaded Ireland. The Bruce type of
+skull is still found among the purer Norwegians, Frisians, Swedes, and
+Danes, and was common just before his day and just after, as has been
+shown by Taylor.
+
+As the intermingling of races began early, the question of the existence
+of pure races to-day, or even during the historic period, is an open one.
+The Hebrews have been comparatively pure since the return from the
+Captivity. Before that, as the history of Solomon's foreign marriages
+demonstrates, they were a raceless chaos, the Semitic element
+predominating. Researches by Flinders Petrie[141] and others show that the
+Egyptians were a mixture of Turanians, Hamites, Aryan and Semite peoples
+imposed on a negroid basis. When these elements were finally fused, the
+race bred relatively true, although the lower classes tend to the negroid
+type and the higher to the Caucasic.
+
+The Koreans, as Keane remarks, are a mixture of two primitive races, one
+white and one yellow. The Japanese, whose ancestors emigrated to Japan
+from Korea are, according to Topinard,[142] the product of the addition of
+three distinct types to that forming their Korean ancestors. The Caucasic
+to a small extent, the Polynesian to a greater, and the Malay to a still
+greater, are mixed with the original Korean.
+
+The Chinese are neither a homogeneous people nor a pure race, albeit the
+relatively few Mantchus are dominant. The Aryan of India, on whom Max
+Müller laid such stress, is known to be, despite a rigid caste system, a
+non-Aryan race, feebly infused with a modicum of Aryan blood. The
+so-called "Gypsy" seems, of all the races of India, to have retained most
+Aryan speech and type as well as its original semi-nomadic
+waggon-journeying tendencies in the midst of settled civilisation. Ghetto
+seclusion long helped to preserve relative purity of race in the Jew, but
+despite vagabond surroundings the "Gypsy" has remained even purer.
+
+Great as has been the mixture of even widely separated types like the
+three races described as mingling in Great Britain and Ireland, even
+greater admixture occurred in comparatively late historic times. The
+so-called Scotch-Irish (whose blood enters so largely into the dominant
+race of the United States) are, despite their speech (much more Teutonic
+and monosyllabic than English), as Kiernan[143] has shown, a raceless
+chaos of Gaelic and Cymric Celts, Lowland Scotch, French Huguenots, Danes
+(Celto-Teuto-Slaves),[144] Palatinate Germans, Magyars, English Puritans,
+Hollanders, Swedes, Protestant Italians, Poles, and Spaniards. The
+intermixture of the dark, small-boned, dolichocephalic, orthognathous
+(with in-drawn jaws) race first with the brachycephalic, prognathous,
+big-boned, red-haired race, and then with the dolichocephalic prognathous,
+deep-chested, big-boned, fair race, must have produced in the British
+Isles as marked variations in type as now occur from the admixture of the
+Indian and negro. These are especially noticeable in the Marshpee Indians
+of Cape Cod, the Long Island tribes and the "Red Bones" of South Carolina.
+The Marshpee tribe is an admixture of Anglo-Saxon, Portuguese, Indian, and
+negro. The Indian element, while still demonstrable, is lessening. Some of
+the older people still retain Indian characteristics. A girl of ten was
+negro in all respects except her hair. An adult whose mother was half
+white, half Marshpee, while the father is negro, had all the negro
+characteristics except the skin, which was Indian in type, and the jaws,
+which were slender. Another adult who had a negro great-grandfather,
+Marshpee mother, and a three-fourths Marshpee father, had large,
+negro-like jaws, Indian hair, skin, and cheek-bones. Another adult had a
+Portuguese maternal grandmother, negro grandfather, an Indian-white
+paternal grandmother and Indian-negro paternal grandfather. His hair,
+jaws, and nose were negro, his cheek-bones were high, his upper and lower
+jaws met so that the front teeth occluded.[145] The like condition obtains
+in the Long Island Indians, but to a less extent with the "Red Bones,"
+who, after the type was formed, avoided admixture with the negro.
+
+The influence of race intermixture in the production of degeneracy is
+easily settled. Basing their opinion on the notorious sterility of the
+hybrid offspring of the horse and ass, certain biologists have assumed
+like results in man and have cited the alleged absence of Australian
+half-breeds in evidence. Since the hare and rabbit, dog and wolf, sheep
+and goat produce breeds intermediate between the parents, fertile while
+environment is unchanged, horse and ass sterility cannot be accepted as of
+much value in settling the question. Recent researches have shown that the
+half-breeds which survived birth among the Australians were killed in
+accordance with tribal usages regulating population in accordance with
+food supply.
+
+Whether the results of race intermixture prove degenerate or not will turn
+largely on the environment. The mulatto is certainly better adapted to the
+white environment than the pure negro, albeit less so than the white. That
+race intermixture may, however, determine degeneration, is shown by the
+relapse into voodooism and cannibalism of the Haiti and Louisiana French
+hybrids, and the Anglo-Saxon hybrids of Liberia, who contrast
+disadvantageously with the Arabianised Moslem Mandingoes and Veys, which
+last have advanced so far as to devise a system of writing. The extent of
+the influence of environment is shown in the career of the Dumas family,
+which is of Haitian-negro origin. The grandfather was a general in the
+French army, the father and son were two stars in the literary firmament.
+The sculptor, Edmonia Lewis, was of similar stock to these. Evidences of
+degeneracy were rare among the Marshpee Indians, as I have elsewhere
+shown.[146]
+
+The Abyssinians have preserved that antique type of Christianity which had
+Jewish usages; they had their own literature, alphabet, and old type of
+civilisation. According to Keane, the present inhabitants of Abyssinia
+form an extremely complex ethnical group in which it is not always
+possible to distinguish the constituent elements. The prevailing colour
+is a distinct brown, shading northwards to a light, olive, fair
+complexion, southwards to a deep chocolate and an almost sooty black.
+There are Abyssinians who may certainly be called black, and in whom the
+negro strain is revealed in the somewhat tumid lip, small nose, broad at
+base, and frizzly, black hair. But the majority may be described as a
+mixed Hamito-Semitic people, who, beyond question, belong fundamentally to
+the Caucasic division. While the Hamitic, Semitic, and the Latin branch of
+the Aryans are admitted to form a fertile, progressive admixture with the
+negro, the reverse is commonly assumed to be the case with the English
+speaking Celto-Teutons. Daniel Wilson[147] is of opinion that this is not
+true as to millions of the coloured race who now constitute the indigenous
+population of the Southern States. They are at home there in a climate to
+which the white race adapts itself with very partial success. The
+offspring of white fathers and of mothers of the African races, they have
+multiplied to millions; and now, with the recently acquired rights of
+citizenship, and with the advantage of education within their reach, the
+country is their town. The very social prejudices against miscegenation
+protect them from the effacing influence to which the Indian half-breed is
+exposed, by ever-recurrent intermarriage with the dominant race. As yet
+there are discernible the various degrees of heredity from the mulatto to
+the quinteron. But the abolition of slavery has placed the coloured race
+on an entirely new footing. Left as it now is, free to enjoy the
+healthful, social relations of a civilised community, and protected, by
+the very prejudices of race and caste, from any large intermixture with
+the white race, it can scarcely admit of doubt that there will survive on
+the American Continent a Melanochroi of its own, more distinctly separated
+from the white race, not only by heredity but also by climate influences,
+than the "dark Whites" of Europe are from the blonde types of Hellenic,
+Slavic, Teutonic, or Scandinavian stock. This condition will be modified
+by the fact that the negro American, like the others, is a traveller and,
+with a rise of culture, tends to city life.
+
+The admixture with the white has reduced negro prognathism and
+dolichocephaly. It must, however, be admitted that these reductions had
+already been begun in Africa. Sir H. H. Johnston, however, fully agrees
+with the negro writer[148] who holds that the "pure and unadulterated
+Negro cannot, as a rule, advance with any certainty of stability above his
+present level of culture; that he requires the admixture of a superior
+type of man." But the white and black races are "too widely separated in
+type to produce a satisfactory hybrid"; hence Johnston thinks that, "the
+admixture of yellow that the Negro requires should come from India, and
+that Western Africa and British Central Africa should become the America
+of the Hindu. The mixture of the two races would give the Indian the
+physical development which he lacks, and he, in his turn, would transmit
+to his half Negro offspring the industry, ambition, and aspiration toward
+a civilised life which the Negro so markedly lacks."
+
+On the whole, race intermixture will not tend to elevate the race where
+there is a decided difference in the state of evolution of the two races,
+and moreover especially where, as is usually the case, the mother is of
+the inferior race. It must be obvious that, given a negro pelvis and the
+head of a white, results damaging to the offspring cannot but occur. And
+these results are of a nature likely to be transmitted by heredity. The
+same would hold true with other races as well. Although the differences
+between the Hawaiian and the white are much less than those between the
+negro and the white, it is notorious that while the labours with pure
+Hawaiians are easy, those with half-whites are difficult. The same
+conditions have been observed from time to time between different breeds
+of dogs, whose pelves vary. Therefore it is safe to assume that admixtures
+of races of different grades of evolution will, if carried to any great
+extent, tend to render the superior race more liable to the action of the
+factors producing degeneracy. Dixon[149] has shown that mulatto families
+tend to disappear, if they be not crossed with either black or white, and
+that the limit of descent is the fourth generation. He has also pointed
+out that morbid proclivities and retrogressive tendencies are peculiarly
+rife among mulattoes. The fact, long ago shown by Menatta,[150] that the
+conflict for existence between brain growth and reproductive organ growth
+at puberty, results, in the mulatto, as in the negro and anthropoids, in
+the triumph of the reproductive, indicates that the mulatto has factors of
+degeneracy which would be fatal to the establishment of an intermediate
+type on the environment of the white. While Menatta is in error in
+regarding skull mal-development as the cause, when it and brain growth
+disturbance are defects due to the same cause, still general observation
+supports his opinion that "negro children are sharp, intelligent, and full
+of vivacity, but on approaching the adult period a gradual change sets in.
+The intellect seems to become clouded, animation giving place to a sort of
+lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. We must necessarily infer that
+the development of the negro and white proceeds on different lines. While
+with the latter the volume of brain grows with the expansion of the brain
+pan, in the former the growth of the brain is, on the contrary, arrested
+by the premature closing of the cranial sutures and laternal pressure of
+the frontal bone." Since, as Havelock Ellis remarks,[151] even the highest
+races do not fulfil the promise of evolution they make before puberty,
+anything which tends still further to impede the fulfilment must be
+regarded as a factor of degeneracy. Hence intermixture with an inferior
+race, having an inferior type of pelvis, would tend to degeneracy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TOXIC AGENTS
+
+
+The toxic agents which influence the race toward degeneracy, exert that
+deterioration in a mode which closely resembles that of the degenerative
+powers of the acute and chronic contagions and infections. The acute
+poisonings by these toxic agencies resemble the acute, nervous and other
+exhaustion caused by the toxin of the germs underlying the infections and
+contagions. The chronic conditions due to these toxic agents agree in many
+respects with the chronic states produced by the infections and
+contagions. The toxic agencies are divisible into those belonging to the
+condiments, medicines, foods and beverages, and those arising from
+occupations.
+
+Tobacco is the most common, while alcohol and opium contend for second
+place both as to use and as to deleterious effects. Alcohol has been
+repeatedly charged with being _the_ factor in degeneracy. Statistics of
+the first half of the present century seem to justify the conclusion that
+it is apparently the most potent factor, yet these statistics as a rule
+confound coincidence and cause, or effect and cause, or the vicious
+circles thereby resulting, to a remarkable degree. There are but few
+races in which alcohol has not been used and abused. The American
+Indians[152] had tizwein, chica, and pulque long ere Columbus; the Tartars
+and Russians, bouza, kvas, and kumyss; the South Sea Islanders ava and
+toddy (from the cocoanut); the Tunisians, laymi. The vast majority of the
+races of mankind have used alcoholic beverages. Each was called by a local
+name and not by a loan word, a most demonstrable evidence of local origin.
+
+Even the social insects (bees and ants) at times indulge in fruit
+ferments. The claim, therefore, that alcohol is the product of high
+civilisation, hence of recent origin, and hence peculiarly destructive, is
+untenable. That excess in alcohol frequently occurs in degenerate stocks
+is, however, undeniable. But as Krafft-Ebing, Kiernan, Spitzka and others
+have shown, intolerance of alcohol is an expression of degeneracy. The
+person intolerant of alcohol becomes either a total abstainer because of a
+personal idiosyncrasy (like that which forbids certain people to eat
+shell-fish lest nettle-rash occur), or because of parsimony, or for both
+reasons combined. Such total abstainers leave degenerate offspring in
+which degeneracy assumes the type of excess in alcohol as well as even
+lower phases. The race tests of the deteriorating influence of alcohol are
+practically valueless, nor are statistics concerning alcoholism in the
+ancestry of degenerates of much more use. The enormous amount of idiocy,
+for example, in the Scandinavian countries, charged by Huss, Langdon Down
+and others to alcoholism in the parents, has been, by the most recent
+researches, cut down by Roof to less than 7 per cent. Insane hospital
+statistics vary to a like degree. Bad faith, however, is out of the
+question in these statistics. Lack of analytic skill, and that dangerous
+unscientific, canting, philanthropic tendency which rebels at statistics
+unfavourable to preconceived sociologic theories, explain these
+discrepancies. The ignoring of all but the alcoholic factor produces also
+great elements of error. Kiernan[153] cites twenty-three cases in which
+degenerate stocks were charged to alcoholic parentage, but which on
+analysis proved to be due to a degenerative factor in the parents of which
+alcoholism was merely an expression. Nearly all the offspring born after
+inebriety were prematurely born, defective, epileptic, hysteric, insane,
+idiots or criminals. Some few were healthy, apart from their intolerance
+of alcohol. In eighteen cases both father and mother were alcoholists. The
+fathers in four of these cases had been temperate, industrious, and
+affectionate ere being sunstruck. Following this came periods of
+irritability, excessive drinking and spendthriftiness. The mothers had
+remained for some years after the fathers' breakdown free from the use of
+alcohol, but were nervously exhausted from the strain. One became
+depressed during pregnancy, was given gin for the depression, and the
+habit persisted after the delivery. In the three other cases painful
+menses developed during the nervous exhaustion. The popular prescription
+for these, gin, was given, with the result of producing inebriety. In ten
+cases skull injury to the father had like results on both mother and
+father. In two cases the mother became a victim of painful menstruation
+after a railroad accident; gin drinking, to relieve this, followed and
+became a habit. The father's nervous system broke down under the strain
+and both became inebriates. In two other cases nervous exhaustion from
+typhoid and typhus fever produced the same outcome in inebriety on the
+part of the father and mother. In the remaining cases the inebriety was an
+expression of nerve exhaustion after various protracted infections. The
+alcoholism in these cases was clearly an expression of the factors of race
+deterioration producing degeneracy, and not its cause.
+
+The influence of alcohol must therefore first be studied on the individual
+to determine its value and method of action as a cause of race
+deterioration. Careful medical researches have shown that alcohol produces
+a nervous state, closely resembling that induced by the contagions and
+infections, often accompanied with mental disturbance (delirium tremens
+and acute types of insanity). The acute nervous state to which the term
+alcoholism was applied by Magnus Huss has all the essential
+characteristics of the nervous state due to the contagions and infections.
+There is, however, a greater tendency to impotence and sterility in the
+alcohol nervous state than in the others, and consequently a lesser
+influence on race deterioration. The condition, moreover, has a tendency
+to set into action degenerative tendencies latent in the liver and
+kidneys. This action of alcohol on the liver and kidneys so interferes
+with their functions as to produce the effect already described as
+resulting in the contagions and infections from their toxins. Alcohol
+exerts a similarly deteriorating influence on the antitoxin-forming
+organs (especially on the testicles, ovaries and their appendages), to
+that already described as exerted by the toxins of the contagions and
+infections. To the direct toxic effects of alcohol are therefore added
+results of imperfect liver and kidney action and defective strengthening
+powers from deficient antitoxin secretion. Like all toxic agents, alcohol
+interferes with the functions of the eye and ear nerves. Special weakness
+thus created is transmissible to the offspring. The chronic type of
+alcoholism may well be compared in its effect with chronic contagions.
+There is, however, less tendency to infection with the microbes forming
+pus. There is a greater tendency to deteriorating action on the nervous
+system. There is in chronic alcoholism, as in syphilis, special tendency
+to that formation of connective tissue which destroys organs. The chronic
+mental disorders of chronic alcoholism resemble those of tuberculosis
+except that the capricious state and exaltation are less frequent than the
+suspicional tendency which is deeper, and takes the direction of delusions
+of poisoning and insane jealousy. The last are due to the deteriorating
+influence of alcohol on the generative organs. Alcohol may limit its
+action to the central nervous system, and thus produce hereditary losses
+of power. It causes changes in the peripheral nerves which in the
+offspring find expression in spinal cord and brain disorder through
+extension of the morbid process. But for its deteriorating effects on the
+ovaries and testicles, alcohol would be a most serious social danger.
+Through its action on the generative organs it tends to prevent the
+survival of the unfit, rather than to develop degenerates.
+
+Opium seems to be the Charybdis on which the human bark strikes when
+escaping from the Scylla of alcohol. Its abuse as a narcotic is much
+older, even among the English-speaking races, than is generally suspected.
+Murrell, over ten years ago, demonstrated that the inhabitants of the fens
+of Lincolnshire had long employed opium as a prophylactic against malaria.
+The ratio of insanity in these regions proved to be very great. The same
+conditions obtained in certain malarial regions of New Jersey and
+Pennsylvania, where the use of strong infusions of poppy was common. The
+statistics of Rush[154] as to opium-caused insanity in Pennsylvania,
+indicate that the percentage of American opium abuses at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century was very great. The drug differs in two serious
+respects from alcohol. It is nearer in chemical composition to nerve
+tissue, and the tendency to its use may be transmitted by the mother
+directly to the foetus. This, as Bureau and Ringer have shown, receives
+through the placenta from its opium-using mother a certain amount of
+morphine. In consequence, the child in the first month of infancy must be
+nourished on the milk of an opium-using woman, or given opium in some
+other way lest it perish. To this fact Calkins[155] was the first to call
+attention. His results were corroborated later by Hubbard; Kiernan, of
+Chicago[156]; Erlenmeyer, of Berlin; F. B. Earle, of Chicago; Mattison, of
+Brooklyn; Hughes, of St. Louis; and others. Amabile, of New York, showed
+that not only were the children of opium-using mothers born with tendency
+to the opium habit, but that the mothers aborted frequently with twins,
+and that the children who survived were very liable to convulsions.
+Independently of this factor the mental state produced by opium habit
+resembles in many respects that of the lunatic, in that the victim of
+opium is as unable to distinguish between his wishes and the facts, and
+therefore often utters what appear to be sheer lies. Hence he is totally
+unreliable and has taken a step in mental and moral degeneracy that, by
+the ordinary laws of heredity, must greatly increase, unless corrected by
+healthy atavism and training in the next generation. Opium is a more
+dangerous factor of degeneracy than alcohol, since the opium user must be
+in a continuous state of intoxication to carry on his usual avocation,
+while abstinence is perfectly compatible with proper work on the part of
+the drunkard. The opium habit is increased by the peculiar propaganda
+carried on by the _habitués_ who justify their position by urging the use
+of opium for any ailment, however minimal. Opium, like alcohol, causes
+nervous exhaustion similar to, but greater than, that of the contagions
+and infections. From the affinity of opium to nerve tissue, from its
+tendency to stimulate the heart, thus causing increased blood supply to
+the brain; from its action on the bowels and the increased resultant work
+of the liver, this nervous state is much intensified. Opium does not have
+as great tendencies to interfere with the structure of the ovary and
+testicles as alcohol, hence the greater danger of the opium _habitué's_
+children surviving. Opium, when smoked, stimulates the reproductive
+apparatus, and thus would greatly increase the number of degenerates due
+to this habit but for the defects due to the inheritance of the habit and
+their consequences.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ANTE-CHRISTIAN IRISH PIPES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ANTE-COLUMBIAN PIPES FROM SCULPTURE AT
+STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.]
+
+
+The origin of the use of tobacco is usually ascribed to the New World.
+There is no doubt that immediately subsequent to the discovery of America,
+the use of tobacco spread over the world, and that its employment by Sir
+Walter Raleigh made it fashionable. It is certain, however, that the
+Romans and Irish employed pipes for smoking long ere the Christian era
+(Fig. 1), but the substances smoked were not tobacco but dried aromatic
+leaves. The English before Columbus (Fig. 2) did the same. In Western Asia
+historic botanical evidence leaves no doubt that tobacco was indigenous.
+Tobacco from the East hence probably encountered tobacco from the West,
+both currents meeting in Asia Minor. As with alcohol and opium the
+statistic method generally adopted proves fallacious when applied to the
+degenerative effects of tobacco. Study of its effects on the individual is
+needed to determine its effects on the race. The most careful researches
+show that the typical effects occur as a rule after long-continued use of
+tobacco, sometimes not until twenty years or more. While many smokers
+reach old age, many fail to live to old age because they are smokers. The
+skin is the subject of itching and reddening, the nerves of taste are
+blunted, and patches develop in the throat; loss of appetite, epigastric
+fulness, pain, vomiting, and disturbance of bowel function are common.
+Menstrual disturbance occurs in women. In female cigar-makers abortion and
+pluriparity are frequent. The sexual appetite is impaired and sometimes
+sterility and impotence occur; also disturbed heart action, palpitation,
+rapid and intermitting pulse, precordial anxiety, weakness, faintness and
+collapse, with sclerosis of the coronary arteries of the heart and left
+ventricular hypertrophy. Cigars and cigarettes produce irritation of the
+nose, mucous membrane, diminished smell, chronic hyperæmia of the
+epiglottis and larynx, and sometimes of the trachea and bronchi
+predisposing to consumption. Nicotine amblyopia, or sight weakness, is
+common, with central disturbances of the field of vision and with
+colour-weakness of sight. Often there is disorder of the ear tubes and
+congestion of drum, with loss of power of the hearing nerves, and
+consequent noises in the ear. The central nervous system is affected. In
+high schools, non-smokers get on better than smokers. Children from 9 to
+15 years of age exhibit less intelligence, laziness, or other degenerative
+tendencies. Adults have head-pressure, sleeplessness, or drowsy stupor,
+depression, apathy, and dizziness. There may also be ataxic symptoms,
+paretic weakness of bowel and bladder, trembling and spasms. Tobacco
+insanities are comparatively rare in smokers, but are common in snuffers
+and still oftener in chewers.[157] In the precursory stage, which lasts
+about three months, there is general uneasiness, restlessness, anxiety,
+sleeplessness, and mental depression, often of a religious type. After
+this occurs precordial anxiety, and finally the psychosis proper
+consisting of three stages: 1. Hallucinations of all senses, suicidal
+tendency, depression of spirits, attacks of fright with tendency to
+violence and sleeplessness. 2. Exhilaration, slight emotional exaltation,
+agreeable hallucinations after from two to four weeks' relaxation, again
+followed by excitement. 3. The intervals between exaltation and depression
+diminish, the patient becomes irritable, but otherwise not alive to his
+surroundings, and perception and attention are lessened. The patient may
+be cured in five or six months if he stop tobacco during the first stage.
+In a year or so he may recover during the second stage. After the third
+stage the disease is frequently incurable. As the patient often becomes
+(especially by the use of the cigarette) an _habitué_ ere puberty, the
+proper development and balance of the sexual and intellectual system is
+checked. These patients break down mentally and physically between 14 and
+25. The moral delinquencies, other than sexual, are often an especial
+tendency to forgery and deceit of parents. Frequently the insanity of
+puberty (hebephrenia) is precipitated by tobacco. The cigarette, if used
+moderately, may be a sedative, but as used is a stimulant, and is often
+made of spoiled tobacco, resembling in reaction morphine, and on animals
+acting in a somewhat similar manner. As tobacco turns the salivary glands
+(which are concerned in digestion of starch) into excretory glands, it
+leads to imperfect digestion of starch, to consequent irregular
+fermentation in the bowel, thus at once furnishing a culture medium for
+microbes, to form more violent toxins from, and also creating leucomaines,
+to interfere especially with a nervous system overstimulated by nicotine.
+This is one great reason why those who snuff and chew tobacco more
+frequently become insane from tobacco than smokers, albeit these last are
+not exempt.
+
+Statistics from the female employés of the Spanish, French, Cuban, and
+American tobacco factories, while defective and somewhat vitiated by the
+co-existence of other conditions producing degeneracy, support the opinion
+that the maternal tobacco habit (whether intentional or the result of an
+atmosphere consequent on occupation) is the cause of frequent
+miscarriage, of high infantile mortality, of defective children, and of
+infantile convulsions.[158]
+
+Tobacco, therefore, in its influence on the paternal and maternal
+organism, exhausts the nervous system so that an acquired neurosis results
+in such a way as to be transmissible.
+
+Professional tea-tasters have long been known to suffer from nervous
+symptoms; very early in the practice of their occupation the head pressure
+symptoms of neurasthenia occur. Tremor also occurs early. While changes in
+the optic nerve have not been demonstrated beyond a doubt, still eye
+disorders have been observed in the pauper tea-drinkers of the United
+States and in the tea-tasters of Russia, thus indicating that similar
+changes to those produced by tobacco and alcohol are likely to occur in
+the optic nerve from tea. Bullard[159] has found that tea has a cumulative
+effect. In his experience toxic effects are not produced by less than five
+cups daily. The symptoms manifested are those of nervous excitement
+resembling hysteria, at times almost amounting to fury; nervous dyspepsia;
+rapid and irregular heart action; neuralgia of the heart; helmet-like
+sensation on the head, and tenderness along the spine. James Wood,[160] of
+Brooklyn, found that 10 per cent. of those under treatment at the city
+hospitals exhibited similar symptoms. Of these 69 per cent. were females.
+Every symptom ascribed by Bullard to tea was found by Wood in his cases,
+who also found that the women manifested irregularities in menstruation
+of neurasthenic or hysteria type. He has found these symptoms to be
+produced by one-half of the quantity of tea charged with these effects by
+Bullard. The _Lancet_[161] several years ago, from an editorial analysis
+of the effects of tea-tippling, took the position that in no small degree
+nervous symptoms occurring in children during infancy were due to the
+practice of the mothers, both of the working and society class, indulging
+in the excessive use of tea, the excess being judged by its effects on the
+individual and not by the amount taken. Convulsions and resultant
+infantile paralysis were frequently noticed among the children of these
+tea-tipplers. Observations among the factory population and the workers in
+the clothing sweating-shops show that tea neurasthenia, presenting all the
+ordinary symptoms of nervous exhaustion, is especially common among these.
+It is evident that tea produces a grave form of neurasthenia readily
+transmissible to descendants. In addition to its effects directly upon the
+nervous system, tea tends to check both stomach and bowel digestion, and
+thus increases the self-poisoning which is so prominent a cause,
+consequence, and aggravation of these nervous conditions.
+
+Coffee exerts a very similar action to that of tea, albeit the nervous
+symptoms produced by it are usually secondary to the disturbances of the
+stomach and bowel digestion. Coffee produces tremor, insomnia, nervous
+dyspepsia, and helmet sensations. With the exception of certain districts
+of the United States, coffee abuse is not carried to such an extent as
+tea, albeit in these, as in some portions of Germany, the habit is an
+excessive one. The conditions described result in Germany as frequently
+as they do in the United States. Mendel[162] finds that in Germany coffee
+inebriety is increasing and supplanting alcohol. Profound depression with
+sleeplessness and frequent vertex headache are early symptoms. Strong
+coffee will remove these temporarily, but it soon loses its effects, and
+they recur. There is much tremor, especially of the hands. The heart's
+action is rapid and irregular. Nervous dyspepsia is frequent. L. Bremer,
+of St. Louis, Mo., has observed similar conditions among both Germans and
+Americans there.
+
+While coca took its place only recently among the toxic causes of
+degeneracy, it was old as a factor in the degeneration of the Peruvian
+long ere the discovery of America by Columbus. Forty-three years ago
+Johnston[163] wrote that even Europeans in different parts of Peru had
+fallen into the coca habit long practised by the Indians. A confirmed
+chewer of coca is called a _coquero_, and he becomes more thoroughly a
+slave to the leaf than the inveterate drunkard is to alcohol. Sometimes
+the _coquero_ is overtaken by an irresistible craving, and betakes himself
+for days together to the woods, and there indulges unrestrainedly in coca.
+Young men of the best families of Peru are considered incurable when
+addicted to this extreme degree of excess. They abandon white society, and
+live in the woods or in Indian villages. In Peru the term white _coquero_
+has the same sense as irreclaimable drunken tramp. The inveterate
+_coquero_ has an unsteady gait, yellow skin, quivering lips, hesitant
+speech, and general apathy. The drug has assumed an unusual prominence in
+the field of degeneracy since the discovery of its alkaloid, cocaine.
+Since then there has sprung into existence in both Europe and the
+English-speaking countries the world over, a habit which, while much
+over-estimated, is undoubtedly growing, and aggravating as well as
+producing degeneracy. Many of the cases reported as due to cocaine are,
+however, chargeable to the desire of the hysteric or neurasthenic to
+secure a new sensation, or the desire on the part of the opium or whisky
+_habitué_ to try a dodge for forgiveness by friends. The habit is very
+frequently induced by patent medicines taken to cure catarrh by the
+neurasthenic, or to cure nervousness by hysterics as well. As the
+deformities of the nose passages predispose to what is called "catarrh,"
+patent medicines for local application containing cocaine are frequently
+employed in the treatment of this supposed constitutional disease, with
+the result of aggravating the original degeneracy. As the youth under the
+stress of puberty frequently ascribes all his ills to catarrh, he also
+employs very frequently snuffs containing cocaine, and has his nervous
+condition much aggravated thereby. Among the nostrums urged in the
+newspapers and magazines for this condition, so often resultant on nerve
+stress, is a certain notorious snuff containing 3 per cent. of cocaine.
+From the description given by Johnson of the _coquero_ there can be no
+doubt but tramps, errabund lunatics, and paupers result from this habit,
+to give birth to degenerates in the next generation.
+
+Lead has been found to produce in those exposed to its fumes a systemic
+nervous exhaustion, characterised by local paralysis about the wrist as
+well as the general symptoms of profound systemic nerve tire. This may
+result, as Tanquerel des Planches[164] pointed out nearly half a century
+ago, in acute insanity of the confusional type followed very often by
+forms of mental disorder of a chronic type resembling paretic dementia. In
+some cases the patient recovers from the acute insanity to suffer
+thereafter from epilepsy. In other cases, as Kiernan has shown,[165] an
+irritable suspicional condition results, in which the patient may live for
+years, marry, and leave offspring. This last condition and the epileptic
+are the most dangerous as to the production of degeneracy. As has already
+been pointed out, the women employed in the pottery factories in Germany
+suffer according to Rennert[166] from a form of lead poisoning which
+produces decidedly degenerative effects upon the offspring. These women
+had frequent abortions, often produced deaf-mutes, and very frequently
+macrocephalic children.
+
+Brass workers suffer from a very similar nervous condition to that
+produced by lead. Hogden,[167] of Birmingham, called attention to the
+grave forms of nervous exhaustion produced among brass-workers. The period
+during which the patient is able to pursue the occupation without breaking
+down is longer than that of the lead workers. Women, like men, are exposed
+to this condition. The chief effect produced, so far as offspring have
+been observed, is chiefly frequent abortions and infantile paralysis.
+
+The occupations employing mercury, whether mining, mirror-making, or
+gilding, produce forms of systemic nervous exhaustion in which the most
+marked symptom (but less important from a sanitary standpoint) is a tremor
+amounting at times almost to shaking-palsy. Like all other systemic
+nervous exhaustions, the mercurial one may appear as degeneracy in the
+offspring. The employment of women in match factories and tenement house
+sweating shops is growing. The chief toxic effect of phosphorus is not the
+localised jaw necrosis. This is but an evidence of the progressive system
+saturation with phosphorus. It bears the same relation to the more
+dangerous effects of phosphorus that "blue gum" does to the systemic
+effects of lead.
+
+Every condition arising from a toxic cause capable of producing profound
+systemic nervous exhaustion in the ancestor, and especially the
+ancestress, is likely to be transmitted as degeneracy to the descendant.
+Undoubtedly with the growing tendency of woman to pass from the ill-paid
+work of the seamstress to the better paid but dangerous occupations, a
+certain seeming increase in degeneracy must result.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CONTAGIOUS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE
+
+
+Among the gains of human advance in evolution stand out prominently
+complete immunity from certain diseases due to germs, and partial immunity
+from others, which last immunity results in chronic types, rather than in
+acute, because of increased vital resistance in man. Tuberculosis and
+dourine, acute diseases in the cow and horse, have become chronic
+diseases, tuberculosis (or consumption) and syphilis, in man. Such
+chronicity is evidence of advance, yet it constitutes an element of
+degeneracy, since the victim of the chronic disease is able to leave more
+offspring than would be possible were the disorder acute. In other
+respects acute and chronic contagions and infections exert the same
+influence in regard to degeneracy. The germ of the disease may be
+inherited, or general nutrition of the foetus may be so checked in
+development that the child inherits a predisposition to disease.
+
+Through this check to foetal development the phagocytes, or white blood
+cells, become so weakened that they are unable to devour foetal structures
+as useless to man as the tadpole's tail (which it devours) is useless to
+the developed frog. This power being weakened, the organs which form
+antitoxins (or protective tonics against disease), from lack of
+development fail to perform their function. For this reason in the
+degenerate many infections and contagions assume their old destructive
+type.
+
+The influence of these disorders in the parent may result in the bony
+mal-development shown to occur in animals by Charrin and Gley, and in man
+by Coolidge. The facial bones, jaw, and teeth are peculiarly liable to be
+thus affected. Though the effect of the disease on the parent be but
+temporary, the child's development may be checked as to higher tendencies.
+Thus mothers have borne moral imbeciles, epileptics or lunatics, after a
+pregnancy during which they were attacked by contagious disease, albeit
+the children of subsequent and previous pregnancies were normal.
+
+The children of pregnancies previous to the one complicated by the
+contagious disease may be healthy, while those of subsequent pregnancies
+are defective. Any contagious or infectious disease may not only interfere
+temporarily with the bodily strength, but may produce complete change in
+the parent's system extending even to the highest acquirement of man. In
+some occur changes thus graphically described by Bulwer: "There have been
+men who, after an illness in which life itself seemed suspended, have
+arisen as out of a sleep with characters wholly changed. Before gentle,
+good, and truthful, they now become bitter, malignant, and false. To those
+whom they before loved they evince repugnance and loathing. Sometimes this
+change is so marked and irrational that their kindred ascribe it to
+madness. Not the madness which affects them in the ordinary business of
+life, but that which turns into harshness and discord the moral harmony
+which results from natures whole and complete."
+
+The nerve centres controlling nutrition, growth, repair, secretion, and
+excretion are often as deeply affected as those checks constituting
+morality. At the periods of physiologic stress these effects are
+especially noticeable. Moral insanity, intellectual insanity, unequal
+mental balance, hysteria, precocious sexuality, unconscious mendacity,
+mental parasitism (the germ of pauperism), epilepsy, neuroses, and all
+types of nutritive and constitutional defects result. The nutritional
+defects may appear chiefly in the walls of the blood vessels and
+lymphatics. While these are most common in the chronic infections and
+contagions, they often occur in acute typhoid fever, scarlatina,
+diphtheria, whooping-cough, &c. Proper blood supply and utilisation of
+waste is thus prevented. Organs cannot perform their function, and are
+predisposed to disease from disuse and from weakness of the
+disease-fighting phagocytes and antitoxins. From this results irregularity
+of organ function, which is hereditarily transmissible. The weakened
+vessel walls yield to strain, and thus produce local stomach, bowel,
+liver, gland, and kidney disorders. This organ weakness may alone be
+transmitted to the offspring. The functions of the great glands (thyroid,
+thymus, suprarenals, pituitary body, bone-marrow, testicles and ovaries)
+which secrete principles necessary to the equal balance of nutrition are
+perverted. The liver, in the acute but more particularly the chronic
+contagions, paralysed in nerve tone, fails in its function of
+poison-destroyer, as for the same reason the kidneys fail in their power
+of ejecting hurtful waste. Through this interaction of perverted
+nutrition, imperfect poison-destruction, and deficient waste ejection
+result and continue the states of nervous exhaustion after the contagions
+and infections. Thus nerve exhaustion with its suspicion, its capricious
+hopefulness and gaiety, is practically continuous in tuberculosis,
+syphilis, and leprosy.
+
+The acute and chronic contagions and infections so lower cell vitality
+through the perverted functions described that inert connective tissue
+replaces healthy working cells. This is especially the case with syphilis,
+which, when driven from the system, leaves behind it a tendency to disease
+based on this connective tissue increase. This tendency, latent in the
+ancestor, may be so intensified in the descendant as to produce the
+hereditary ataxias (loss of movement power), and like neuroses. At the
+periods of stress such tendencies are peculiarly potent, and not only
+check, but reverse development. The chronic contagions and infections are
+most fertile sources of human degeneracy since their weakened products are
+enabled to survive under modern beneficence. Of these chronic contagions
+two (tuberculosis and syphilis) alone deserve attention, since the third
+(leprosy) exerts but little influence. Despite its existence for more than
+a century (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia on the north and Louisiana on the
+south) on the borders of the United States, despite its subsequent
+importation from Norway, Sweden, China, and Hawaii, its spread has been
+infinitesimal, and its influence on race deterioration is still less
+demonstrable.
+
+Tuberculosis ("the white death") is from every standpoint a social danger
+more serious than syphilis. The father, as in syphilis, can infect the
+mother, but sterility is much less likely. As has already been shown in
+the chapter on heredity, plural and quickly repeated birth are common in
+tuberculous families. The tuberculous diathesis (or "habit," as Weismann
+calls it) was very early observed in the United States. Nearly seventy
+years ago W. P. Dewees, of Philadelphia, pointed out its frequency and its
+early observation by the Greek and Roman physicians. He cites a case
+illustrative of the extent and uniformity of diathesis in a very numerous
+family. This predisposition arose on the side of the mother, though she
+lived herself to the age of forty-three, a period much exceeding that of
+any of her children, with the exception of a son, who died in his
+forty-fifth year. This lady bore twenty-three children without being able
+to suckle any but the two first. The males much exceed the females in
+number, yet there did not appear to be any exception to their favour in
+the transmission of the phthisical taint, except that they attained in
+general a greater age before they died. Some died about puberty, others at
+manhood or womanhood; but all, with the exception just stated, under
+thirty. The disease was never very rapid; they generally complained from
+one to two years before they died. The men had a healthy, even in some
+instances an athletic, appearance until the disease became open and
+decided. In their growth and stature they altogether resembled the father,
+who was not only a remarkably stout man, but lived beyond the eightieth
+year. The females, who passed puberty (two in number) were rather stout
+women, while the mother was both delicate and small. This family lived in
+the country, was very wealthy, and always accustomed to the various means
+generally found successful either in destroying the predisposition or
+lessening its influence, yet in no one instance in this family were they
+successful, though the open form of the disease was retarded perhaps in
+all. The females died the earliest.[168]
+
+The blood vessel system is affected as regards development in such
+families. The heart is often diminutive; the right ventricle is
+exaggerated. Two great types of degenerate constitutions are produced in
+children of the tuberculous. One of these may well come under De
+Giovanni's category of the torpid. The victim is usually coarse-featured
+and coarse-skinned, with peculiarly unstable mentality; slowness of
+comprehension is combined with power of continuity of thought; at times
+mental apathy alternates with quickness of perception. Decided
+exaggeration of the lymphatic system (connected with utilising of material
+elsewhere than at the point where it has been rendered unfit) with
+deficient function occurs, resulting in fitting a soil for germs. In other
+respects the torpid resembles the second type, the erethistic (nervously
+fussy type) of De Giovanni. This is generally characterised by the
+presence of a clear complexion, a fine skin, and features well cut and
+often beautiful. The lips are red and the teeth pearly white, though
+liable to early decay, and the eyes are large and full, the pupil being
+widely dilated and the white of the eye beautifully clear. The eyelashes
+are long, curved and silky, and the blue veins show distinctly through the
+clear thin skin. The bones are light, the hands and feet well formed, the
+stature often tall, and the whole figure slightly and gracefully built.
+The erethists generally remain spare, and have a strong dislike to fatty
+food. They are vivacious and excitable, and the intellectual faculties are
+often highly developed. At an early age they show marvellous activity. The
+regularity with which such precocious tubercular children die has given
+rise to proverbs anent exceptionally clever children that they are "too
+wise to live long." Wanting in stamina, they are incapable of prolonged
+exertion either of mind or body, and break down under conditions which
+would not prove injurious to the healthy. They are continually taking
+"cold," and are prone throughout life to affections of an inflammatory
+character. Multiple and frequent pregnancies occur. The children,
+deficient in vitality, are carried off in numbers during infancy by
+convulsions, brain fever, water on the brain, exhaustion, diarrhoea,
+teething, and other ailments, or they succumb at the second detention or
+at puberty. A small proportion reach maturity. Few live beyond thirty-five
+or forty years of age. However brilliant intellectually, they are equally
+emotional, impressionable, and impulsive. There is a marked absence of
+mental stability. They are suspiciously capricious. The great secreting
+and eliminating glands undergo with peculiar frequency the perversions
+already described.
+
+Neuroses and psychoses are peculiarly frequent in childhood and youth. The
+degenerative power of tuberculosis is not always due to the influence of
+the germ, or even of the toxin produced by it, but to the state of nerve
+weakness resultant on the disorder. The victim of tuberculosis (especially
+if affecting the lung) is a suspicious, yet hopeful, nervous invalid,
+whose functions are irregularly performed and who is therefore likely to
+leave scions with greater defect, especially as the maternal factor,
+either through infection or worry, can hardly escape being weakened.
+Tuberculosis attacks the bones of the offspring, especially the spine and
+hip-joint, but the victim of these last frequently regain health after
+apparent recovery from the local disease through surgical procedures. If
+the victim of the hip-joint disorder be of the erethist type marriage is
+not unlikely. Despite the deformity produced by spine disorder, popular
+superstition as to the "good luck" of a hunchback leads to marriage among
+the working class. Monetary and social considerations effect the same
+result among the wealthy classes. Here deformity does not prevent
+marriage, but predisposes to sterility through birth difficulty.
+
+The influence of syphilis is, in a general sense, the same as that of
+tuberculosis, except that by reversing the principle of individuation it
+leads to greater sterility. Furthermore it exhibits greater tendencies to
+revert towards health, and yields (even in the inherited form) more to
+medicinal treatment. The inherited form at times presents itself in two
+types closely simulating those due to tuberculosis. Like the bacillus of
+tuberculosis, the syphilitic germ attacks every structure and organ of the
+body. Its reversal of the principle of individuation, causing excessive
+cell formation, produces more decidedly demonstrable effects. As syphilis
+is more apt to attack the central nervous system than tuberculosis, it
+would seem that it is a greater race-deteriorating factor. The excessive
+tendency to cell formation, however, produces impotence in man, sterility
+and abortion in woman. There are very good reasons for believing that the
+race is becoming immune to syphilis, and that this disease will disappear.
+Its greatest race-deteriorating effect is in preparing the soil for
+tuberculosis and other infections and contagions.
+
+The influence of contagions and infections on degeneracy is therefore by
+no means slight. Each disease can produce grave constitutional defects in
+the ancestor likely to be intensified in the offspring. The greatest
+social dangers result from tuberculosis; the next from syphilis. Typhoid
+fever, scarlatina, small-pox, measles, diphtheria, whooping-cough, and all
+other contagions, however, may produce these constitutional defects,
+either through the mother during pregnancy or through their secondary
+effects on the ancestor's constitution. If the subject be attacked before
+the close of the periods of dental stress an arrest of development of the
+bones of the face may result with irregularities in the shape and position
+of the teeth. These, then, are stigmata of degeneracy, especially due, in
+the individual presenting them, to the contagions and infections rather
+than to inheritance alone.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CLIMATE, SOIL, AND FOOD
+
+
+Among the factors constituting environment few have impressed the
+biologist so much as climate, soil, and food. The seeming modifications
+produced by these have made a very decided impression on the sceptical
+Weismann, who stated that "the possibility is not to be rejected that
+influences continued for a long time, that is, for generations, such as
+temperature, climate, kind of nourishment, &c., which may affect the germ
+plasm, as well as any other part of the organism, may produce a change in
+the constitution of the germ plasm. But such influences would not then
+produce individual variations, but would necessarily modify, in the same
+way, all the individuals of a species living in a certain district. It is
+possible, though it cannot be proved, that many climatic varieties have
+arisen in this manner. Possibly other phenomena of variation must be
+referred to a variation in the structure of the germ plasm produced
+directly by external influences."
+
+Considering the changes brought about in European plants and animals in
+Australia, those occurring in the East Indian mongoose in Jamaica, the
+changes in European plants and animals in America, or American animals in
+Europe and European animals in Asia, Weismann's position seems judicial.
+
+The influences dependent on food, soil, and climate producing normal
+modifications have been remarkably illustrated in the gilled batrachian
+Axolotl. This, under the nourishment and change of surroundings of the
+Jardin des Plantes, was transformed into a gill-less batrachian, which had
+hitherto been regarded as belonging to a totally distinct family.
+
+According to Darwin,[169] English dogs degenerate in India in a few
+generations, losing the peculiarities of form and mental character which
+distinguish their particular race, in spite of the greatest care in
+selection and prevention of crossing. An instance which well deserves the
+consideration of those anthropologists who attach but little importance to
+the influence of the environment and to the value of speech as an aid to
+the ethnologist is that of the Wurtemburgers, who settled (1816) near
+Tiflis in Russia. They had originally fair or red hair, light or blue eyes
+and coarse, broad features. In the first generation brown hair and black
+eyes began to appear; in the second black hair and eyes became the rule,
+while the face acquired an oval form. These changes were due entirely to
+the surroundings, no instance of crossing with Georgian natives being on
+record. At the same time, these transformed Wurtemburgers continue to
+speak their German mother-tongue uninfluenced by the local dialects.[170]
+
+The alleged transformation of the British into the Yankee is commonly
+cited in illustration of the supposed effects of soil and climate. Three
+decades[171] ago Vogt remarked that American Anglo-Saxons or Yankees were
+instanced as illustration of change of character. Already, after the
+second generation, according to Pruner-Bey, the Yankee presents features
+of the Indian type. At a later period the glandular system is reduced to
+the minimum of its normal development. The skin becomes like leather; the
+colour of the cheeks is replaced by sallowness. The head becomes smaller
+and rounder, and is covered with stiff, dark hair; the neck becomes
+longer, and there is greater development of the cheek-bones and the
+masseters. The temporal fossæ becomes deeper, the jaw-bones more massive,
+the eyes lie in deep approximated sockets. The iris is dark, the glance is
+piercing and wild. The long bones, especially in the superior extremities,
+are lengthened so that the gloves manufactured in England and France for
+the American market are of a particular make, with very long fingers. The
+female pelvis approaches that of the male. According to Quatrefages,
+America has thus, from the English race, produced a new white race which
+might be called the Yankee race. Vogt believes that America dries up the
+skin and reduces the fat, an effect to which all the above differences
+might be reduced. That the head becomes smaller he utterly denies. Exact
+cranial measurements by Morton show that the skull of the Yankee is at
+least as large as that of the Englishman.
+
+Similar changes have been noted in the Anglo-Saxon Australians. The true
+explanation of this is that early rigorous environment tended to cause
+reversion to types not uncommon even now in Great Britain, Ireland, and
+Scandinavia, resultant on the admixture of primitive types to which
+reference has been made. The same error has been made about the pelvis as
+about the skull. The male pelvis in the American is approximating the
+female in accordance with advance, since, as Havelock Ellis has
+shown,[172] not only by his skull, but by his pelvis, modern man is
+following a path first marked out by woman. The skull of the modern woman
+is more markedly feminine than that of the savage woman, while that of the
+modern man has approximated to it. Not only is the pelvis of the modern
+woman much more feminine in character than that of the primitive woman,
+but the modern man's pelvis is also becoming more feminine.
+
+The validity of Vogt's position anent the "Yankee" change of type is fully
+demonstrated by the following portraits of four generations of a noted
+American family with a Scandinavian patronymic, coming originally from a
+district in England where the alleged "Yankee" type (even to its nasal
+tone and so-called "Americanisms") occurs. The first "American" of the
+family (Fig. 3) was born in Connecticut in 1761 and died in 1826. He had a
+dolichocephalic head with massive jaws, prominent lips, especially the
+upper. The nose is long and the eyes are set close together, the forehead
+very high and straight. Quite a change is noticeable in the second
+generation (Fig. 4). The face is not so long, the lateral diameter of the
+head is larger, the forehead more prominent, and the eyes are a little
+farther apart. The nose is about the same length and while there is a
+resemblance about the mouth and chin, the distance from the front of the
+chin to the tip of the nose is not quite so long. The change seems to be
+due to shortening of the chin.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DOLICHOCEPHALIC.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--MESOCEPHALIC.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--MESOCEPHALIC.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--BRACHYCEPHALIC.]
+
+
+The next generation (Fig. 5) shows still further changes. The forehead is
+broader and less retreating than either. There is perceptibly lest
+prognathism. There is less prominence in the supraorbital region.
+
+The fourth generation exhibits (Fig. 6) a nearly brachycephalic head. The
+head is nearly round, forehead full, eyes set in the head to correspond
+with its width, nose broad, upper lips short, and the lower jaw is
+evidently much shorter in a perpendicular line. These changes are due to a
+protruding forehead, receding chin, and delicate features.
+
+The climate of the United States exercises, according to certain
+sociologists, on the first generation of European immigrants, a
+deleterious influence in regard to fecundity. The decrease in the
+fecundity of the American woman has been charged to various anti-social
+causes (abortion and prevention of conception) and to a "nervousness"
+induced by the climate. A seemingly fair test of the influence of the
+climate would be a race elsewhere fecund, and whose religion encourages
+fecundity, decreasing in the first generation after immigration to the
+United States. Such a race is the Jewish. According to Gihon's analysis of
+the United States census of 1890[173] the Jewish birth rate is
+diminishing. From the mothers born in the United States the average is
+3·56 children, as against 5·24 for those born in Germany, 5·36 for those
+in Russia and Poland, 5·27 for those in Hungary, and 5·44 for those in
+Bohemia. These figures, however, do not demonstrate the influence of
+climate, but of environment. The Jew, unlike the earlier American
+colonists, is not exposed to the stress of frontier life. He has a more
+favourable mental and physical environment than on the continent of
+Europe. This fact, therefore, does not demonstrate the effects of climate,
+but is really chargeable to climate, food, soil, and other factors
+constituting environment. That climate cannot be considered apart from
+these factors is shown, as I pointed out several years ago, by the fact
+that the United States surveyors in Minnesota reported to the national
+authorities that it was impossible to live the whole year in that state
+because of the extremely cold winter. Now, not only do people live and
+cultivate the soil throughout the entire state, but large cities have
+sprung up still farther north, and the country around has become well
+populated. Hence, in dealing with influences of climate, change of food
+and hygienic conditions must be taken into account. The error of the
+American surveyors as to the acclimatisation of the white race in cold
+climates has been emphasised as to the tropics and arctics. Here, however,
+the same error has been demonstrated by very careful researches. The
+experience of the Arctic regions as to necessity for change in diet and
+hygiene has been fully borne out by observations on the Anglo-Saxon in the
+tropics. The early experience of the English in India, upon which a fatal
+prognosis as to the future of British India was based, turns out to have
+been erroneous.
+
+The influence of climate involves more than temperature. Stokvis, in a
+paper read before the Tenth International Medical Congress, at Berlin, on
+the comparative pathology of the human races with reference to the vital
+resistance of Europeans in tropical climates,[174] finds that the
+European immigrant in the tropics is assailed by two hostile forces:
+tropico-thermal and tropico-infectious agencies. The expression of innate
+racial peculiarities, like the variations of vegetable life and the
+varieties of animal life from effects of increased temperature, are such
+as occur in the inhabitants of temperate regions during the height of
+summer.
+
+Marestang and Eykman find that neither high temperature alone nor
+meteorological agencies, apart from other deleterious influences, can
+produce that impoverishment of blood called "tropical anæmia." Stokvis
+shows that the tropical European does not prove inferior to the aboriginal
+with respect to thermal agencies. He is less susceptible to chill than the
+native. Mortality statistics of respiratory organ affections are greater
+for the native. While the European suffers more from liver disease than
+the native, the latter is less addicted to alcoholic drinks and pork. The
+percentage of deaths from cases treated is, however, more than twice as
+great with the native as with the European. Variations of physiologic life
+under tropical thermal conditions have little to do with the race. The
+vital resistance of the immigrant European (the European transformed into
+a permanent high-summer man) is somewhat greater than that of the native
+races.
+
+Respecting the disease-producing effects of tropical infectious agencies,
+the experience of the last ten years (1880-90) is very different from that
+prior to 1860.
+
+Average annual death-rate per thousand:--
+
+                                                   European      Native
+                                                   Soldiers.    Soldiers.
+
+                               { 1819-28             170·0      138·0
+  Dutch East India Army        { 1869-78              60·4       38·7
+                               { 1879-88              30·6       40·7
+
+                               { 1800-28              84·6       18·03
+                               { 1828-56              56·7
+  British India Army           { 1869-78              19·37
+                               { 1876-88              16·27      21·6
+
+                               { 1820-36             121·00      30·0
+  British Army, Jamaica        { 1879-88              11·02      11·62
+
+These changes are the consequence of sound sanitation. "The fairest laurel
+practical hygiene may boast of to-day is, doubtless, the laurel acquired
+in ameliorating the sanitary conditions of the European soldiers in
+tropical climates." A century ago James Lind said, "Much more than to the
+climate you are indebted to your own ignorance and negligence for the
+disease from which you suffer in tropical climates."
+
+These statistics do not entirely support the declaration of Hippocrates
+that "races are the daughter of climates," but tend to show that the vital
+resistance of the different races in tropical climates depends more on
+external conditions than on race. Acclimatibility of strong, healthy,
+adult Europeans of both sexes in tropical climates must be admitted
+without any reserve, provided that they assiduously observe all hygienic
+rules. Stokvis disproves the allegation that the European is not able to
+produce in tropical regions more than three or four generations of true
+European blood, and that from the third or fourth generation onward
+sterility is the rule.
+
+So accustomed, remarked Felken, however, is a man to his environment that
+it is difficult to remove an European from his home in the temperate
+region to any other, and yet for him to retain his health. Much may be
+done in the tropics to render climate more salubrious and sanitary
+precautions will do a great deal for the health of the community. But when
+all is done permanent residence for Europeans under European conditions is
+out of the question in the low-lying regions of the tropics. Comparatively
+few areas exist in the tropics where any great success for European
+colonisation can be prophesied from altitude alone. The influence of
+altitude on the physiologic characteristics is, however, very evident. The
+residents at high altitudes are strong, robust, buoyant, and of great
+mental and physical endurance.
+
+In disproof of this position of Felken, Viault, of Bordeaux, has shown
+that the phenomena resultant on the acclimation of man at great altitudes
+comes neither from the frequency of respiratory movements nor from greater
+activity of the pulmonary circulation as has been asserted, but from
+increase of red blood globules. While the effects of both excessive heat
+and excessive cold may be admitted, even there other factors play a part.
+Very high mean temperature with low humidity is more likely to result in
+sunstroke and allied conditions than high temperature with high humidity.
+Low temperature of the Arctic regions tends to produce anæmia in natives
+of temperate zones. Food and depressing circumstances have, however, to be
+taken into consideration.
+
+Sunstroke produces the ordinary phenomena of nervous exhaustion, but the
+patient becomes more irritable, suspicious, and extremely proud. As these
+patients are not recognised for a long times as insane they often marry
+and produce degenerates. Kiernan reports a case in which father and mother
+(both of healthy stock) were overcome by the heat during one of the
+processions of the American Centenaries. The children born before the
+sunstroke were healthy, but there had been no children for five years
+previously. A year subsequent to the sunstroke (which was followed by a
+change in character in both parents) the woman had triplets, one of which
+died soon after birth from convulsions. The second of the triplets, a
+girl, became epileptic at 2, a prostitute at 16, and chronically insane at
+20. The third triplet became a puberty lunatic at 16. Of three children
+subsequently born, two are epileptics and one is a moral imbecile who
+manifests premonitory evidences of paranoia. Sunstroke, however, underlies
+many cases of alcoholism. Not a few of the instances of degeneration
+charged to alcoholism are, in reality, due to the nervous condition
+arising from the exhaustion produced by sunstroke. To this factor was in
+no small degree due the extremely large infant mortality of the English in
+India of the first half of the present century. While temperature plays a
+part in producing degeneracy in the offspring through its production of
+systemic disorder in the ancestor, it is usually associated with other
+factors which aid or predispose to its effects. It also predisposes to the
+greater action of other causes. Very frequently the sun-struck person,
+rendered incapable of continued labour by irritability, becomes a tramp or
+a pauper, either of which conditions tends to accelerate the degenerative
+process and furthermore to increase the possible chances of passing down
+the effect through heredity by the ease with which illicit relationships
+are contracted. The least intelligent of the prostitute class, or rather,
+of that class of nymphomaniacs who have not fully entered upon a
+prostitute career, are driven into the workhouse or almshouse, where they
+often remain for years, or depart at intervals, leaving their offspring to
+be reared at public expense. The number of such children born yearly in
+almshouses is at least ten thousand in the United States.[175] An enormous
+proportion of these die in infancy but sufficient survive to form a potent
+source of degenerates.
+
+The influence of overheating further predisposes to the attack of microbes
+even in the temperate climates, and to constitutional defects resultant on
+these.
+
+A factor of degeneracy as related to soil on which much stress has been
+laid, is that of goitre. This has been carefully studied by Munson[176]
+among the Indians on the reservation in the United States. The number was
+77,173, of whom 2·36 per cent. had goitre. As regards geographic
+distribution the disease is more prevalent in the southern part of
+Montana. Goitre was reported as practically unknown among the white
+settlers living about the reservations where goitre was prevalent among
+the Indians. Fully 80 per cent. of the cases occur in Indian women, the
+disease being not only much less frequent, but also less decided and less
+extensive in the male. The average age of onset of the disease was from 12
+to 14 years. There are many instances illustrating the apparent heredity
+of goitre. Several consecutive generations show its development. Only one
+case is reported in which goitre was associated with cretinism. Goitre
+among Indians cannot be traced to high altitudes, climate or water
+containing excess of calcium magnesium salts. The disease is apparently
+due to insanitary surroundings, depressing constitutional conditions,
+improper and excessively nitrogenous diet. This condition of things among
+the Indians bears an important relation to the facts pointed out by C. K.
+Clarke,[177] of Kingston, Ontario, who found in the Canadian asylums a
+large number of goitrous patients and one goitrous attendant. The goitrous
+patients, who were of long residence, had come from all parts of the
+dominion. The size of the goitre was in proportion to the length of the
+residence. It is possible that local influence may have much to do with
+the disease, though it is evident that the insane are much more liable to
+it than normal persons. W. B. Fletcher, of Indianapolis, has observed
+similar frequency as to goitre among the insane there, especially among
+the foreigners and their immediate descendants. Cretinism, according to
+Morel, was degeneracy due to a special action which a toxic principle
+exercises on a cerebro-spinal system, whether by the air that is breathed
+or by the substances ingested in the economy, and which, above all,
+appears to have some relation to a soil where predominates the magnesian
+limestone. That the last factor has some influence is shown by the fact
+that goitrous enlargements are encountered in medical practice in Chicago
+much more frequently than among the corresponding classes in the East. The
+water in Chicago contains magnesium-lime salts, whether it be derived from
+the lake or from the artesian well. The fact, however, that the Indians
+and the insane exhibit a tendency to goitre indicates that behind the
+influence of the soil or of diet lies a neuropathic constitution, whether
+this be inherited or acquired. Cretinism is much more frequent in the
+United States than was apparent ere the discovery of the value of the
+thyroid glands in treatment. Under the stimulus of investigation for cases
+in which to try this treatment, medical literature from all parts of the
+United States has been filled with reports of authenticated cases. Among
+these are scions of families which have been American for more than three
+generations and which may, therefore, be considered as products of an
+American environment. The same condition of things has occurred in both
+Great Britain and on the European continent in districts which, prior to
+1890, were supposed to be free from cretinism. This illustrates the
+results of stimulus given investigation in biology rather than increase of
+the disorder.
+
+The influence of spoiled maize in producing the mixed skin, nervous and
+mental disorder known as pellagra in the Italians, would seem, from the
+results of the researches of Billod,[178] to be chiefly due to the
+conjoined effects of unhygienic surroundings, the offspring of climate and
+soil. The fungus on maize (ustilago), like the fungus on rye (ergot),
+produces rather long-lasting neurosis of an epileptic character,
+susceptible to transmission to the offspring of women poisoned by these
+fungi. The Italian disease, pellagra, manifests the features one would
+expect from an improper food taken under unhygienic conditions. While this
+is undoubtedly exaggerated by the habits of the peasantry in Italy, still
+in a lesser degree like effects of food are observable in other races.
+
+The influence of the potato diet in degenerating the Irish Celt in
+comparison with the Scottish Celt under the same conditions, is difficult
+at present to determine for lack of data. Certainly the descendants of
+this class of Irish Celts rapidly regain a handsome, healthy status under
+mixed American diet, even though the hygienic surroundings in the great
+cities be not the best. He who has to treat a class of neurasthenics in
+whom starch digestion is impaired finds that a diet of potatoes
+(undoubtedly through the auto-intoxication it produces) will increase
+certain nervous symptoms, and hence the tendency to transmission to the
+next generation.
+
+In the families of the pioneers in the United States, as well as the
+families of farmers in secluded valleys in Norway, Switzerland, and
+elsewhere, the influence of monotony of diet, aggravated by monotony of
+surroundings, has undoubtedly produced a large amount of degeneracy. Ray
+Brigham of New York, Awl of Ohio, and Patterson of Illinois have shown
+that there is an unusual frequency of insanity in farmers' wives which is
+undoubtedly traceable to these conditions. Kiernan, of Chicago, has
+reported a case fairly typical of those earlier described by the American
+alienists just cited. The first generation was a woman of New England
+stock, of tireless energy, to whom work was a pleasure and rest an
+abhorrence, and who lived on a farm miles from the town. She did all her
+own work and brought up a large family, chiefly on maize, potatoes, and
+bread, pork being the meat diet. At 50 this woman removed with her
+husband, who had grown wealthy, to a small country town. Here she
+conducted the entire work of the household without a servant. At 52 she
+broke down with neurasthenia, which rapidly passed into periodical gloomy
+spells, in one of which she committed suicide. Her youngest daughter, who
+had an asymmetrical face, has the periodical gloomy tendency of the
+mother, alternating with periods of restlessness, which evince themselves
+in doing unnecessarily the work of the servants and other labours
+inconsistent with her husband's social status. She had at times suicidal
+and homicidal impulses. She has three children; one exhibits no special
+abnormality; the eldest, a boy of eleven, dislikes to play with boys
+because they are rough, and plays with girls, to whom he is at times
+mischievously cruel. He likes to sew and make doll's clothing and purchase
+dolls, while there are other indications of sexual abnormality. The
+youngest, a girl, has frequent attacks of epileptic-like fury, although
+between these she is kind-hearted, good-humoured, and very affectionate.
+In dealing with the question of soil, the factors predisposing to the
+attacks of the parasite of malaria have to be taken into consideration;
+certainly the inhabitants of certain malarial districts exhibit all the
+characteristics of degenerates.
+
+The influence of nutrition in producing nervous states likely to be
+transmitted as degeneracy in the offspring are excellently illustrated in
+the nervous disorders due to improper nutrition during youth. This may, as
+W. S. Christopher[179] of Chicago has shown, produce all possible neuroses
+to which the organism may be liable. Such neuroses relate to--
+
+  A. Psychic faculties.
+
+  B. Sensation.
+      1. Anæsthesia.
+      2. Hyperæsthesia.
+      3. Hyperalgia (increased pain sense).
+
+  C. Heat production.
+      1. Elevation of temperature.
+      2. Depression of temperature.
+
+  D. Muscular tissues.
+      1. Hypertrophy.
+      2. Atrophy.
+      3. Paralysis.
+      4. Convulsions.
+
+  E. Skeletal muscles.
+      1. General convulsions.
+      2. Chorea.
+      3. Tetany (toe and finger jerks).
+
+  F. Pharynx.
+      1. Dyspnoea (difficult breathing).
+
+  G. Oesophagus.
+      1. Dysphagia (difficult swallowing).
+
+  H. Stomach.
+      1. Vomiting.
+      2. Merycism (rumination).
+
+  I. Intestines.
+      1. Increased peristalsis (movement of bowel).
+      2. Decreased peristalsis.
+
+  J. Larynx.
+      1. Dyspnoea.
+      2. Laryngismus stridulus (croup spasm).
+      3. Chorea.
+
+  K. Bronchi.
+      1. Asthma.
+      2. Bronchorrhoea (excessive secretion).
+
+  L. Bladder.
+      1. Incontinence.
+      2. Retention.
+
+  M. Urethra.
+      1. Spasmodic stricture.
+
+  N. Uterus.
+      1. Neuralgias.
+      2. Spasms.
+
+  O. Vagina.
+      1. Vaginismus (painful spasm).
+
+  P. Heart.
+      1. Chorea.
+      2. Disturbance of rate.
+      3. Disturbance of rhythm.
+
+  Q. Secretory organs.
+      1. Decrease of secretion.
+      2. Modification of composition of secretion.
+
+  R. Absorptive organs.
+
+  S. Elaborative organs.
+
+  T. Respiratory organs. Other than those cited.
+
+  U. Excretory organs.
+
+  V. Reproductory organs.
+
+Those of the genital organs only exist in precocious childhood, while
+still others occur, some occasionally, some very frequently.
+
+Of the psychic neuroses, perhaps the commonest are the night terrors,
+which occur in ill-nourished children with great frequency. Hyperesthesia
+(or increased sensitiveness) is a starvation neurosis occurring especially
+in unrecognised scurvy. Variations of temperature, both increased and
+subnormal, occur in children suffering from evident in-nutrition.
+
+Of the starvation neuroses, the commonest are muscular convulsions.
+Naturally enough, any muscle or any group of muscles may be affected, and
+the manifestations may present all the varieties of convulsive movements
+to which muscles are liable. Probably no child whose nutrition is perfect
+ever has general convulsions except as the result of actual brain disease
+or at the onset of some infectious process where the convulsion takes the
+place of the initial chill of the adult. The so-called reflex convulsions
+occur only in children whose nutrition is below par. In a rickety child
+the slight irritation produced by an erupting tooth may be sufficient to
+weaken the mechanism which checks explosive action, just as in the same
+child it may be the determining cause of bronchorrhoea. In the healthy
+child teething can cause no such effect. Both these manifestations, the
+convulsions and the bronchorrhoea, are starvation neuroses. In such
+children many other trivial conditions may weaken the controlling
+mechanism.
+
+In older children chorea, whatever be its cause, is evidently connected
+with the developmental process. The beneficial effects in chorea of
+absolute rest in bed and forced feeding are a matter of common
+observation. Dysphagia as a neurosis in children is uncommon. Vomiting and
+diarrhoea occur so frequently in infants from a wide variety of causes,
+that it is very difficult to say when they are merely starvation neuroses.
+In rickets, diarrhoea often occurs, with no adequate explanation in the
+conditions present in the intestinal canal, and which is an essential
+feature of the disease itself.
+
+Laryngismus stridulus is a very common manifestation of muscular
+starvation neurosis. Spasmodic asthma occurs in ill-nourished children.
+Incontinence of urine in older children is often a starvation neurosis.
+
+The younger the child the more rapid are its processes of growth. Hence in
+infants the results of defective nutrition are quickly manifested, and the
+curative effects of food arranged to supply the nutritive deficiencies
+also become apparent very soon. In older children with more stable tissues
+a defective food supply is longer borne without apparent effect; but, on
+the other hand, the beneficial effect of an antidotal diet becomes
+apparent only after a prolonged use.
+
+The relatively simple diet of the infant makes it easy to discover the
+particular kind of food which is supplied in sufficient quantity, and
+makes the supply of the deficiency comparatively easy. But in older
+children with a more varied diet the defect is less readily discovered and
+less readily supplied.
+
+The effects of climate, soil, and food in the production of degeneracy are
+first shown in the causation of general loss of nerve tone in the
+ancestor, often with special local expressions. This loss of nerve tone
+may show itself in the offspring by any type of degeneracy from nutritive
+defect to loss of moral tone.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SCHOOL STRAIN
+
+
+Like all factors of degeneracy, school strain evinces itself in a systemic
+nervous exhaustion manifest along lines of least resistance, as in the
+neuroses of Christopher. The first types of his neuroses are due to
+overstrain of certain territories related with memory, as contrasted with
+diminished use of the association fibres connecting these. As Schopenhauer
+has excellently observed, man is one-third intellect and two-thirds will,
+and much of this last two-thirds is the result of training. Capacity for
+training may be greater in one individual than another, because of
+inherited or congenital deficiencies. It is, as Sully[180] remarks, "a
+happy circumstance in healthy children that that most prolific excitant of
+fear, the presentation of something new and uncanny, is also provocative
+of curiosity, with its impulse to look and examine. A very tiny child, on
+first making acquaintance with some form of physical pain, as a bump on
+the head, will deliberately repeat the experience by knocking his head
+against something as if experimenting and watching the effect. A clearer
+case of curiosity overpowering fear is that of a child who, after pulling
+the tail of a cat in a bush and getting scratched, proceeded to dive into
+the bush again. Still more interesting here are gradual transitions from
+actual fear, before the new and strange, to bold inspection. The child who
+was frightened by her Japanese doll insisted on seeing it every day. The
+behaviour of one of these small persons on the arrival at the house of a
+strange dog, of a dark foreigner or some other startling novelty is a
+pretty and amusing sight. The first overpowering timidity, the shrinking
+back to the mother's breast, followed by curious peers, then by bolder
+outstretchings of head and arms, mark the stage by which curiosity and
+interest gain on fear, and finally leave it far behind. Very soon the
+small, timorous creatures will grow into bold adventurers. They will make
+playthings of the alarming animals and of the alarming shadows too. Later
+on still perhaps they will love nothing so much as to probe the awful
+mysteries of gunpowder."
+
+In degenerate children, because of deficiencies of proper
+inter-association of the memory territories in the brain, healthy
+curiosity, and the instinct of sheltering are deficient, so that states of
+uncertainty, producing terror, result. These become permanent in after
+life, even when training as an adult is strongly antagonistic to them.
+
+This is illustrated, as Harriet C. B. Alexander has shown,[181] in George
+Eliot, who during childhood "suffered from a low general state of health
+and great susceptibility to terror at night, and the liability to have all
+her soul become a quivering fear," which remained during life. She had
+periods of depression and vertex headache, which latter gave place to
+sick headache, often attended with rheumatoid phenomena. "She was an
+awkward girl, reserved and serious far beyond her years, but observant,
+and addicted to the habit of sitting in corners and watching her elders."
+Fear of the unknown in childhood, seemingly a reversion to the fear of the
+unknown of savages, tends, like it, to produce occult belief. Despite the
+German rationalism of George Eliot, such fear found utterance in her
+_Behind the Veil_, a mystically occult contrast with her novels and with
+the positivism which was her religion. Theoretically the philosophy of
+George Eliot should have destroyed much mysticism, yet as a survival of
+"night terrors" it came to the surface. A very vivid autobiographical
+narrative of night-terrors and similar nervous phenomena in the childhood
+of a distinguished man of letters will be found in Horatio Brown's _Life
+of John Addington Symonds_.
+
+School over-pressure in certain respects checks, even in well-developed
+minds, the transition from the terror of the unknown of childhood into the
+calm of maturity. Morbid fears, imperative conceptions, and imperative
+acts which torture the individual during an otherwise healthy career
+unquestionably originate in the early periods of life.
+
+Degenerate children, as Kiernan[182] remarks, early manifest decided
+neurotic excitability, and tend to neuroses at physiologic crises like the
+first and second dentition, and the onset and close of puberty. Slight
+physical or mental perturbation is followed by sleeplessness, delirium,
+hallucinations, &c. Hyperæsthesia and excessive reaction to pleasant or
+offensive impressions exist. Vasomotor instability is present, pallor,
+blushing, palpitations or pre-cardial anxiety result from trivial moral or
+physical excitants. There is no precocity or aberration of the sexual
+instinct. The disposition is irritable. The grasshopper is a burden.
+Psychic pain arises from the most trivial cause, and finds expression in
+emotional outbursts. Sympathies and antipathies are equally intense. The
+mental life swings between periods of exaltation and depression,
+alternating with brief epochs of healthy indifference. Egotism is supreme,
+and morality absent or perverted. This absence or perversion is often
+concealed under the guise of moral superiority, religiosity, or cant.
+Vanity and jealous suspiciousness are common. The intellect and temper are
+exceedingly irregular. Monotonously feeble, scanty ideation passes readily
+into seeming brilliance, even to the extent of hallucinations. But ideas
+are barren as a rule, because generated so rapidly as to destroy each
+other ere they pass into action. Energy fails ere aught can be completed.
+The inability to distinguish between desires and facts produces seeming
+mendacity. The will in its apparent exuberance, its capricious energy, and
+innate futility, matches and distorts the one-sided talent or whimsical
+genius which may exist. The whole of this mental state may not be present.
+The tendency to introspection, to morbid fear, to gloom, to
+hallucinations, to alternations of depression and exaltation, may occur in
+a degenerate child in whom has been otherwise preserved that secondary ego
+which is the latest and greatest acquirement of the race.
+
+In the same class, according to George Parkman,[183] an American alienist
+of more than eighty years ago, brilliant talents, astonishing facility of
+receiving and communicating ideas often appear suddenly at puberty,
+especially in females, to be later followed by mediocrity, disappointment,
+and supineness.
+
+These degenerate children have a tendency, as C. F. Folsom[184] remarks,
+to manifest aberrant tendencies at the periods of stress, which may, in
+Folsom's judgment, be congenital, or due to early interference with normal
+brain development. These show themselves in childhood and infancy by
+irregularity or disturbed sleep, irritability, apprehension, strange
+ideas, great sensitiveness to external impressions, high temperature,
+delirium or convulsions from slight causes, disagreeable dreams and
+visions, romancing, intense feeling, periodic headache, muscular
+twitching, capricious appetite, and great intolerance of stimulants and
+narcotics. At puberty developmental anomalies, and not infrequently
+perverted sexual instincts, are observed in both sexes. During adolescence
+there is often excessive shyness or bravado, always introspection and
+self-consciousness, and sometimes abeyance or absence of the sexual
+instinct, which, however, is frequently of extraordinary intensity. The
+imitative and imaginative faculties may be quick. The affections or
+emotions are vehement but shallow. Vehement dislikes are formed, and
+intense personal attachments result in extraordinary friendships, which
+not seldom swing around suddenly into bitter enmity or indifference. The
+passions are unduly a force in the character, which lacks will power. The
+individual's higher brain centres are not well inhibited, and he dashes
+about like a ship without a rudder, fairly well if the winds be fair and
+the seas be calm, but dependent on the elements for the character and the
+time of the final wreck. Invention, poetry, music, artistic taste,
+philanthropy, intensity, and originality, are sometimes of a higher order
+among these persons, but desultory, half-finished work and shiftlessness
+are much more common. With many of them concentrated, sustained effort,
+and attempts to keep them to it are impossible. Their common-sense
+perception of the relations of life, executive or business faculty and
+judgment are seldom well developed. The memory is now and then
+extraordinary. They are apt to be self-conscious, egotistic, and morbidly
+conscious. They easily become victims of insomnia, neurasthenia,
+hypochondria, neuroticism, hysteria, or insanity. They offend against the
+proprieties of life and commit crime with less cause or provocation than
+other persons. While many of them are among the most gifted and attractive
+people in their community, the majority are otherwise, and possess an
+uncommon capacity for making fools of themselves, and of being a nuisance
+to their friends and of little use to the world.
+
+These conditions occur from heredity in degenerates, but, as Francis
+Warner[185] remarks, while "it is very common to see disordered conditions
+of the nervous system in children with defective construction of body,
+these nerve disturbances may also be seen in children with normal
+construction of body. Such signs result from the disorder, produced by
+special circumstances, aiding as well as producing defect which results
+from, or in the next generation becomes, defect in original construction.
+Among the signs of fatigue in children is the slight amount of force
+expended in movement, often with asymmetry of balance in the body. The
+fatigued centres may be unequally exhausted; spontaneous finger twitches
+like those of younger children may be seen, and slight movements may be
+excited by noises. The head is often held on one side. The arms when
+extended are not held horizontally. Usually the left is lower. The face is
+no evidence of bodily nutrition. It may be well nourished, yet the body be
+thin. Three per cent. of the children seen in school are below par in
+nutrition. These children are of lower general constitutional power. They
+tend to an ill-nourished condition under the stress of life, and many
+cases of mental excitement which, while they render them sharper mentally,
+militate against general nutrition."
+
+Colin A. Scott has found corroborative evidences of similar effects of
+strain in the children of the New England and Illinois schools.
+
+These systemic nervous exhaustions may, as W. S. Christopher, of Chicago,
+has shown (in remarks on neuroses already cited), take unexpected local
+directions, especially involving, in accordance with the general law of
+reversal, evolution or degeneracy checks on excessive action. Among the
+conditions produced by school strain of serious consequence in after-life
+are headaches, usually charged to anæmia or neurasthenia. These headaches,
+as Sachs,[186] of New York, has shown, usually appear after emotional
+excitement or fatiguing ordeal. There are other symptoms expressive of
+neurasthenia, such as slight tremor of the tongue and fingers and
+exaggeration of the deep reflexes, but, above all, the very persistent
+vertex headache, and the child's description of pressure or heat there. In
+children emotional conditions, school strain, rivalry between class-mates,
+are as liable to produce neurasthenia as are the more serious struggles
+for existence in later life. These headaches may pass very readily at
+periods of stress into migraine. The vertigo characteristic of migraine is
+not rarely found in the neurasthenic headache of childhood. What is true
+of migraine is also true of epilepsy. The tremors, &c., accompanying
+neurasthenic headache become the convulsions of epilepsy. G. B. Fowler
+reports a case emphasising very clearly the position of Christopher. It
+was that of a seven-year-old boy of mushroom growth and hothouse culture.
+He began every day before breakfast with an hour at Spanish, and until
+three in the afternoon was unceasingly occupied with French, German,
+music, and the ordinary school curriculum. This policy, initiated four
+years before, the pressure being gradually increased, had been maintained
+almost without interruption. The child had consequently developed into a
+sort of phonograph, capable of starting automatic expressions which
+afforded much entertainment to visitors, and gave the ambitious father
+great hope and comfort. Under such conditions it is not to be wondered at
+that something gave way, and, fortunately for the brain, it was the
+sphincter of the anus. When this deplorable occurrence first took place
+the child was sharply reprimanded; the accident repeating itself, however,
+two or three times weekly, and later about once a day, more pronounced
+measures were instituted. The boy was often severely flogged, deprived of
+liberty, luxuries, &c., yet without avail. The lower bowel was perfectly
+normal. The sphincter was tight, grasped the finger with the usual
+firmness, and there were no sources of irritation about the anus. The
+abnormal conditions under which the child had been living very naturally
+at the outset were the cause of the difficulty. Cessation of the
+punishment and release from books was ordered. The result was
+satisfactory. In three weeks the involuntary discharge became gradually
+less frequent, and finally ceased altogether.
+
+Mental strain produces precisely similar effects on the nerve control of
+the stomach. All types of nervous disturbances of the stomach--merycism
+(cud-chewing), bulimia (ox appetite), acoria (incapacity for getting
+enough)--result, as Ewald[187] has shown, from nerve strain, and increase
+this through auto-intoxication.
+
+The sphincter of bladder often gives way, and is a very frequent
+expression of nervous exhaustion in the child, often increased by the
+effects of nerve strain on the kidneys, which do their work of
+purification imperfectly, while excreting nearly pure water. The enormous
+quantity of clear urine passed during worry is a generally recognised
+expression of such strain. This nerve-strain interference with the
+purifying work of the kidneys leads to increased strain on the liver and
+other glands, whence result migraine, the uric acid states, rheumatisms,
+and the other perversions of nutrition. Nerve-strain on either liver,
+bowel, or other glands, has similar secondary effects on the kidneys. In
+part this is an organ degeneracy in function whereby man's liver and
+kidneys do the work of the sauropsidal liver and kidneys.
+
+Among the nutritive disturbances resulting from nerve-strain is the fatty
+anæmia of Weir Mitchell, the juvenile obesity of Féré and others. This is
+generally associated with the uric acid states which so often result from
+school strain. The apparent improvement shown in increased weight leads to
+increased strain, and many of these fat victims of school over-pressure
+enter insane hospitals as puberty lunatics.
+
+Other effects of the nutritive disturbances produced by school strain are
+local irritations about the sexual organs. These may arise from irritation
+by uric acid of the mouth of the bladder in boys, or of the vagina and
+bladder in girls. Neurotic persons are liable to nerve storms, which
+express themselves in emotional displays or restlessness or nagging
+tendencies. These often coincide with the uric acid tendency to express
+itself in "storms," like other periodical phenomena of the nervous system.
+In consequence, "sexual storms" result in neuropaths, whether the
+neuropathy be inherited or acquired. Local genital organ irritation leads
+to scratching. From this are produced "masturbation storms," which the
+subject loathes but cannot control. These occur also from the direct
+effects of constipation, as well as from the worms and other parasites
+which constipation fosters in the bowel. Teachers, by compelling children
+to retain urine through fear of masturbation, often lead to what they
+intend to prevent. At the outset masturbation and sexual explosions are
+often a physical expression of school strain destitute of moral
+significance. They are removable by removing the school strain and its
+consequences. If strengthened by protracted existence they intensify
+degeneracy due to school strain.
+
+The states of imperfect nutrition, resultant from nerve strains on gland
+function, in this way and in others, interfere with the proper evolution
+of puberty and the involutional changes at the "change of life," which
+occurs in both sexes. The conditions of "nervous cough," of so-called
+"catarrh," and its ally, bronchorrhoea, are often found as expressions of
+the systemic exhaustion from school strain, and are treated as purely
+local conditions.
+
+School strain, therefore, produces, like all the acquired factors of
+degeneracy, a systemic nervous exhaustion which may be expressed either in
+general neuropathy or hysteria after puberty, or in the tropho-neuroses,
+like gout and allied states, or in epilepsy or arterial change,
+predisposing to rupture of arteries at periods of stress, with resultant
+convulsions and paralysis.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE DEGENERATE CRANIUM
+
+
+The cranium or skull is a development in part of the vertebræ or bones
+forming the backbone, and in part of dermal or membranous bones, which of
+old in reptiles, as in the alligator to-day, formed the protective armour
+of the skin of the head. As the head end of the spinal cord of the
+lancelet developed, the cartilage enclosing it developed to protect it.
+This was the earlier evolution. Later, another skull developed in
+connection with this. The cranium or skull therefore has, as Minot
+remarks,[188] a double origin, or, rather, there are two skulls which were
+originally distinct. In evolution from the lowest fish to the highest
+mammal, and in the embryonic development of man, these become united.
+
+The primary skull, as already stated, is practically an extension of the
+vertebræ, which send side outgrowths to cover the brain as the backbone
+covers the spinal cord. This primary skull extended in front of the
+notochord (the spinal cord of the human embryo, and the permanent spinal
+cord of the lancelet), where it gave off two trabeculæ cranii or front
+skull plates. Behind, the primary skull or chondrocranium gives off two
+occipal or rear skull plates. It gives off also two plates midway between
+the trabeculæ and occipitals, which, as they gradually enclose the
+primitive hearing apparatus, the otocysts (permanent in fish, and
+embryonic in man), are called periotic capsules. This primary skull is at
+first cartilaginous, as in sharks. With the increase in the size of the
+brain in evolution and in human embryology, this cartilaginous primary
+skull became insufficient to roof over the brain, and thus resulted gaps
+in it. The fontanelles, or soft places at the top, sides, and back of the
+head of the new-born child, are the remains of this failure of the
+chondrocranium, or primary skull, to cover the gains of the nervous system
+in the struggle for existence. This deficiency, resultant on advance in
+evolution, would have been a long-standing serious block to further
+advance, were it not that the skin of the mammal retained a function
+inherited from the reptiles and bony fish.
+
+These cavities were filled by dermal bones, which, at first serving merely
+as armour in the skin of the head, came to be protectors of the nervous
+system. The following bones represent these dermal bones in the embryonic
+human skull: The frontals, which form the chief part of the forehead; the
+sutures, or dovetails, of these normally disappear in the adult, so that
+the forehead seems to be but one bone. This union may not occur (Fig. 7),
+as in the case of the philosopher Kant, who had a frontal suture all his
+life. The dovetails are replaced by solid bone, through a process called
+synostosis. In the case of the frontal bone it is normal, and in the line
+of advance. Elsewhere in the skull it is often an expression of defect
+which may give rise to various cranial states which are either absolutely
+degenerate in type or degenerate only when occurring in certain races. The
+parietals and interparietals are also dermal bones which are united by
+synostosis to form the parietals or side bones of the normal adult skull.
+The nasal bones which, together with the vomer, form the nose, are
+likewise dermal bones, and so are the pterygoids and palatines. The
+maxillaries and præmaxillaries, which, with the mandibles, form the jaws,
+are dermal bones. The mandibles, however, are in part derived from the
+chondrocranium.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+
+With rise in evolution, and during the progress of human embryonic
+development, these bones become fewer through their early gristly union or
+their synostosis. The openings in the skull resultant on the deficiencies
+in the chondrocranium are larger in the sauropsida (birds and reptiles)
+than in the ichthyopsida (amphibious and fish); in the monotremata
+(egg-laying mammals) than in the sauropsida; in the marsupials (pouched
+mammals) than in the monotremata, and in the higher mammals than in the
+marsupials. The development of the brain therefore depends on the growing
+and expanding power of the secondary skull formed by the dermal bones.
+These, considered as bones, are degenerate from the high type of the
+vertebræ, and are a mere reminiscence of that outer skeleton whereby early
+fish and reptiles emulated the lobster. The influence of any check to
+development such as produces degeneracy, is exerted first on the
+development of the bone itself, and finally on the relation to other bones
+by dovetailing.
+
+In accordance with the general laws governing growth, deficiency in one
+place is apt to result in increase elsewhere. The brain-protective
+function of the dermal bones being later in development than their old
+armour function, is apt to be checked by degeneracy in two ways; in the
+first the bone does not grow in size or sufficiently to unite with its
+fellows, or this growth occurs only for the benefit of the bone itself,
+through Spencer's law of individuation, so that union with the other bones
+occurs too early for the benefit of the organism as a whole. To the
+factors underlying this is due the non-increase in intellect after puberty
+which occurs in the higher apes, and in some of the lower races of men.
+
+These checks also tend to the nutritional benefit of the older primary
+skull, whence result the irregularities in development that constitute so
+many of the stigmata of the degenerate cranium. The sutures sometimes do
+not form because sufficient gristle is not produced to fill the gaps.
+(Fig. 8.) These secondary gaps are often filled by new dermal bones called
+Wormian. Sometimes this deficiency coexists with too early synostosis
+elsewhere.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+
+Degenerate skulls have therefore been divided from the standpoint of these
+various unions (by synostosis or otherwise) and non-unions of the sutures,
+on the principle that premature synostosis of a suture produces shortness
+of the diameter, perpendicular to the direction of the obliterated
+suture.[189] The bones stop growing prematurely at the seat of the
+synostosis, but the unaffected borders continue growing. The following
+types result on this principle:
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+
+I. Simple macrocephaly (largeness of head). (_a_) Hydrocephaly (water in
+the head. Fig. 9.) (_b_) Kephalones (all heads. Fig. 10), without
+hydrocephaly. These two conditions result from the inability of the dermal
+bones to fill at the proper period the gaps in the chondrocranium. Neither
+of these denotes complete intellectual degeneracy on the one hand, nor
+vast intellect on the other. Cuvier was a case of healed-up hydrocephalus,
+whence his large brain and skull. In a case of kephalones observed by
+Kiernan there was a brain-weight of 68 ounces. The patient was an
+imbecile, practically unteachable.[190] Both these conditions denote deep
+degeneracy, which, however, may find expression elsewhere than in the
+moral sense or intellect.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+
+II. Simple microcephaly (smallness of head. Fig. 11) or nannocephaly
+(dwarf head). As a rule these are found among idiots, but much has been
+done by training, even for them. Many seemingly great intellects, however,
+have heads approaching, if not reaching this type.[191] Des Cartes,
+Foscolo, and Schumann had sub-microcephaly. The poet Shelley had a head
+belonging very nearly to this category, but while he exhibited many
+stigmata of degeneracy, that of intellectual deficiency was wanting. This
+type of skull, however, is usually associated with deep degeneracy. It
+represents in man the condition underlying the premature suture-closing
+which occurs in the ape. It sometimes may exist with considerable
+intellect, as in the case of Donizetti. Sometimes this suture-closing
+directly prevents brain growth. This condition is rarer than many surgeons
+admit, but it does occur, as witness the cases of Vico, Malebranche, and
+Clement VI. The fact that these three fractured their skulls in infancy
+saved them from being imbeciles and idiots like their brothers, sisters,
+and cousins.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+III. Dolichocephaly (long-headedness. Fig. 12). (_a_) Upper middle
+synostosis. (1) Simple dolichocephaly is due to synostosis of the
+sagittal, or antero-posterior suture of the skull. Whether this be due to
+degeneracy or not depends entirely on the race in which it occurs. The
+ultra-dolichocephaly of Daniel O'Connell was due, in Kiernan's opinion, to
+his birth in an Irish district settled by dolichocephalics. Undoubtedly
+dolichocephaly is tending to mesocephaly (medium size of head). Even the
+negro, generally regarded by ethnologists as dolichocephalic, is tending
+in this direction, as numerous observations of my own show.
+Dolichocephaly, however, while it does not demonstrate, suggests
+degeneracy, since it seems to be a disappearing type of skull. The changes
+in American families in this particular indicate this. (2) Sphenocephaly
+(wedge-shape of head. Fig. 13) is due to synostosis of the sagittal
+suture, with compensatory growth in the region of the large fontanelle.
+(_b_) Dolichocephalic states, resulting from inferior lateral synostosis
+are: (1) Leptocephaly (narrowness of head), due to synostosis of the
+frontal and sphenoid bones. (2) Klinocephaly (saddle-shaped head) is due
+to synostosis of the parietal bones with the greater wings of the
+sphenoid, or of the parietal with the squamous portion of the temporal
+bone.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+
+IV. Brachycephaly (shortness of head. Fig. 14). The pure type like pure
+dolichocephaly is not necessarily by itself evidence of degeneracy, as it
+may represent race. It is, however, a disappearing type of skull, and
+hence should lead to critical examination. In the case of the philosopher
+Kant his ultra-brachycephaly could not be charged to race, since he sprang
+from dolichocephalic Scotch on one side and dolichocephalic Germans on the
+other. (_a_) Posterior stenosis. (1) Pachycephaly (thickness of head) is
+due to synostosis of the parietal bone with the occipital. (2) Oxycephaly
+(sugar-loaf head) is due to synostosis of the parietal bones and the
+occipital with compensatory growth of the region of the anterior
+fontanelle; a variety of this is acrocephaly (spire head). (_b_) Upper,
+anterior, and lateral synostosis. (1) Platycephaly (flat head. Fig. 15),
+or chæmacephaly, is due to extensive synostosis of the temporal bones with
+the parietal. Kant, in addition to his cranial stigmata, had this
+condition. (2) Trochocephaly (roundness of head) is due to partial
+synostosis of the frontals and parietals in the centre of the coronal
+suture. (3) Plagiocephaly (wry head. Fig. 16) is due to unilateral
+synostosis of the frontal and parietal bones. (_c_) Brachycephaly due to
+inferior medium synostosis. Simple brachycephaly is due to early
+synostosis of the nasal and sphenoid.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+
+To these should be added kyphocephaly (lump head), due to synostosis of
+the posterior part of the squamous portion of the temporal and the
+parietal bones with Wormian bones in the lambdoid fissure. Tapeisocephaly
+(low head) is due to synostosis of the great wings of the sphenoid with
+the frontal. Scaphocephaly (boat-shaped head. Fig. 17) was a term applied
+by Von Baer to skulls which are very narrow and compressed at the sides,
+and in which there is no trace of the sagittal suture, but its region is
+so elevated that the skull cap has the form of a keel boat bottom upward.
+Trigonocephaly (triangular head) is a variety of scaphocephaly in which
+depression occurs in place of the keel. Sir Walter Scott had a skull in
+which premature closure of the sagittal suture produced the appearance of
+scaphocephaly, but compensation for this elsewhere produced a decidedly
+different type. Scott presented neurotic phenomena during youth, albeit
+the brain disease from which he died had anything but a degenerate origin.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+
+Morton and Catlin claim that while the artificial distortions of the
+cranium may play a part in developing synostosis these have no effect upon
+the intellectual functions. It has been stated further that there are no
+mental data to show the effect of artificial malformation of the child's
+head during development. Frederick Peterson expresses the opinion that
+this practice only exists among the lower races of mankind. In this he is
+in decided error, since, as Barnard Davis pointed out many years ago, the
+practice is far more widespread than is usually suspected. It was common
+all over Europe, was practised by the Turanians, by the Slaves, by the
+Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. Less than half a century ago
+Foville[192] proved that the nurses in Normandy were still giving
+children's heads a sugar-loaf shape by bandages and a tight cap. In
+Britanny they preferred to press it round. In those districts Foville
+found that not only congenital cranial irregularities of all types, but
+epilepsy, idiocy, and insanity were exceedingly frequent. As customs like
+these survive in folklore long after the original superstition which gave
+them birth, it is exceedingly probable that such crop out in descendants
+of these races to the present day, to confront the anthropologist with
+some remarkable crania. Tylor[193] is of opinion that without respecting
+the repressive action of the Government, the Bretons and Normans secretly
+continue this practice. Despite the labours of Foville these people openly
+defied the Government for ten years.
+
+Certain conditions of the occiput have been described as associated with
+degeneracy. As Obici[194] and Dei Vecchio[195] have shown, the occipital
+condyle, in man normally convex, abnormally varies between two extremes,
+the flat and angular condyles. The flat condyle indicates a degenerative
+type. In the angular condyle the anterior face is derived from that
+portion of the basi-occipital nucleus that normally takes part in the
+formation of the anterior condyle region; the posterior face forms the
+embryonal germ of the occipital.
+
+The occipital of the adult is the final outcome of the fusion of an
+uncertain number of vertebræ. The occipital bone in man is practically
+made up of five bones, union between which does not occur completely until
+the fifth or sixth year. The deficiencies in the chondrocranium appear in
+the occipital bone, which requires a small portion of the dermal bone to
+complete it on each side.
+
+The variability of the occipital bone which, as just shown, is so
+frequently associated with all forms of degeneracy, is still better
+understood when we remember that it is of vertebral character. The
+investing mass of the head and of the notochord is the skeleton of the
+occipital bone. Between this skeleton and the pituitary body the important
+portion of the brain formed by the occipital lobes takes its origin. As
+these lobes are practically, as Spitzka has shown, the great centres of
+sense and other inter-associations it is not astonishing that their
+imperfect development should be accompanied by changes in the occipital
+bone. As Crochley Clapham, Mickle, and Spitzka have shown, a flat occiput
+is common in imbecility and moral insanity. It has been found quite
+frequently in "reasoning maniacs" by Campagne. The proper development of
+the occiput influences the proper development of association tracts which
+serve as a balance wheel to the individual. The proper development of the
+occipital bone is, moreover, connected with the proper development of the
+two last vertebræ, which like it are losing their vertebral
+characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE
+
+
+The development of the face depends, as I have already shown, upon the
+enlargement and fusion of the mouth and nose cavities, and upon the later
+partial separation of the nose and mouth and the nose cavities, leaving
+the posterior nose open. It depends further upon the growth and
+specialisation of the face region, of which the elongation is the most
+prominent indication, and finally upon the development of a prominent
+external nose. The relations of face to cranium in embryology have already
+been described. When the medullary tube of the notochord enlarges to form
+the brain the end of the head bends over to make room for that
+enlargement. The bending of the head carries the mouth plate, which is to
+be the mouth, over to the front of the head. The changes which develop the
+mouth cavity are the growth of the brain and the increase in size of the
+heart cavity, which expand to the front, leaving the mouth cavity between
+them. The mouth cavity represents two gill-slits united in the front line.
+The nose is formed from two olfactory plates situated just in front of the
+mouth and in contact with the fore-brain. These olfactory plates grow in
+size by the increase of tissue, and the resulting pits pass away from the
+brain. At first these pits, although widely separated by what is called
+the nasal process, communicate freely with the mouth. The nasal process
+includes the origin of the future nose and of the future intermaxillary
+region of the upper lip.
+
+The human face is modified backward from the vertebrate type. It is an
+additional illustration of the degeneracy of a series of related
+structures for the benefit of the organism as a whole. The progress of
+development of the face in the vertebrates is checked in man. First, as
+Minot remarks,[196] because the upright position renders it unnecessary to
+bend the head as in quadrupeds. Second, because the enormous cerebral
+development has rendered an enlargement of the brain cavity necessary.
+This has taken place by extending the cavity over the nose region as well
+as by enlarging the whole skull. Third, because the development of the
+face is arrested at an embryonic stage; the production of a long snout
+being really an advance of development which does not take place in man.
+From what has been said of the relations of the dermal bones to the nose
+and face in the chapter on the skull, it will be obvious that these must
+follow the same laws as to degeneracy as the skull itself. These checks
+from degeneracy in arrest of development are apt to affect most obviously
+the unilateral development of the face. From this results the exaggerated
+asymmetry so frequently observed.
+
+Jacob Baumler, the founder of the Zoar community of the United States, a
+religious fanatic, had a very marked asymmetry of the face and the mind
+of a degenerate. His orbits were unequal, one being exceedingly large and
+the other correspondingly small.
+
+The human face at birth is so near that of the monkeys that if only the
+heads of both were exposed to view at birth it would be difficult for a
+casual observer to distinguish one from the other. Cope[197] has made the
+following classification of the head and face for comparative study: The
+relative size of the cerebral to the facial regions, the prominence of the
+forehead, the prominence of the superciliary regions, the prominence of
+the alveolar borders of the jaws, the prominence and width of the chin,
+the relation of length to width of the skull, the prominence of the
+cheek-bones, the form of the nose, the relative size of the orbits and
+eyes, the size of the mouth and lips.
+
+At birth in the infant ape the facial region of the skull is smaller than
+in the adult, the forehead is more prominent, the superciliary ridges are
+more prominent, the edges of the jaws are more prominent, the chin is
+less, while the cheek-bones are more prominent, the nose is without a
+bridge and has short and flat cartilages, the face is flattened, the
+orbits and eyes are smaller and closer together, the mouth is small and
+the lips thin.
+
+In the typical infant child as he begins to develop the cerebral part of
+the skull predominates over the facial more than in the adult, the
+superciliary ridges are not developed, the alveolar borders are not
+prominent, the cheek-bones are not prominent, the nose is without a bridge
+and the cartilages are flat and generally short, the eyes are larger. In
+this last particular the human infant resembles the lemurs and thus
+retains an embryonic tendency. In some degenerates this tendency remains
+unchecked, and the result is unusually large orbits as in Fig. 18. In
+other instances the human foetus passes through this lemurian stage to
+reach and even exceed the anthropoid in smallness and closeness together.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+
+In determining a standard by which to measure the face two principles come
+into play: the general principle of evolution, and also that æsthetic
+principle governing profile, which has practically obtained supremacy,
+after long struggles for existence, from the Egyptian period of the first
+dynasty until its final acceptance by the Greeks, as shown, for instance,
+in the Apollo Belvedere. Indeed, so nearly does the modern standard
+approximate to the Greek, that Kingsley,[198] speaking of modern profiles,
+remarks that if he were to describe the American type he should be as much
+inclined to give that name to the form of features of the Apollo Belvedere
+as any other, since it is quite universal, distinctive, and possesses the
+same elements of beauty.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+
+Among Aryan-speaking races this type would be accepted as the ideal one.
+Since each nationality, and peoples of the same nationality, living in
+different countries do not possess exactly the same type of face, the
+general presumption of evolution as modifying notions of beauty must also
+be taken into consideration. In the determination of the extent to which
+the profile exists the facial angle plays a part. This angle was early
+pointed out by Camper as a means of distinguishing the relative
+development of the skull and face. "The basis on which a distinction of
+nationality is founded," said Camper, "may be displayed by two straight
+lines (Fig. 19), one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius
+to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of
+the forehead and falling thence on the most advancing portion of the upper
+jaw, the head being used in profile. In the angle produced in these two
+lines may be said to consist not only the distinctions between the skulls
+of different species of animals, but also those which are found to exist
+between different races. The angle which the facial line or characteristic
+line of the visage makes varies from 70° to 80° in the race. All who raise
+it higher disobey the rules of art (from imitation of the antique). All
+who bring it lower fall into the likeness of the monkeys. If I cause the
+facial line to fall in front I have the antique head. If I incline it
+backward I have the head of a negro. If I incline it still further I have
+the head of a monkey; inclined still more I have the head of a dog; and,
+lastly, that of a goose."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. COLOURED CRIMINAL YOUTH.]
+
+
+This is excellently shown by the following illustrations. Fig. 20 is the
+head of Johanna, the female chimpanzee of Central Park, New York City.
+This head has (by Camper's method) an angle between 40° and 50°. The brain
+of this animal occupies one-third of the skull, and the jaws two-thirds.
+The negro criminal (Fig. 21) has an angle of about 70°. Here the brain is
+encroaching, while the jaws are receding. The Caucasic race (Fig. 22) has
+an angle of 75° to 80°. In many cases the frontal development of the
+brain and resultant recession of the jaws produce an angle of 90°, with a
+general result not unlike the Apollo.
+
+Although the general outlines of facial evolution as sighted by Camper are
+in accord with my own views, yet, as regards accuracy, this angle is not
+an ideal from whence to study face degeneracy, since the line does not
+fall low enough to include the chin, and also, as I have elsewhere shown,
+in the degenerate, the ear varies as much as one to one and one-half
+inches upon heads of different individuals. Frequently, in the degenerate
+classes, the ears of the same individual differ as much as one inch in
+height.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+
+An ideal line, from whence to study a degenerate face, should be drawn
+perpendicularly from the supra-orbital ridge intersecting the upper and
+lower jaw and chin. While the chin of the Apollo Belvedere falls slightly
+inside of this line, yet this is hardly perceptible. Having now fixed a
+standard from which to study the degenerate face, it should be remembered
+that jaws which protrude beyond this line are atavistic, and those which
+recede are even more degenerate.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+
+The angle between 80° and 90° may be accepted as an ideal by which to
+study degeneracy. This factor alone, however, can not be accepted: the
+evolution of the face itself must be also taken into consideration. It is
+obvious that in the struggle for existence and supremacy between the brain
+and the face (both expressions of vertebrate advance), stress may be
+concentrated on one particular part. Whence result certain factors which
+modify the conclusion to be drawn from the facial angle. The hollowed out
+condition of the face from the supra-orbital ridges down to and including
+the base of the nose (illustrated in Johanna) merits attention here. The
+same condition is observable in the negro, only it extends farther down
+and includes both jaws. One jaw, however, may alone be affected. Most of
+the Chinese, Japanese, Eskimo, Polynesians, Australians, Aryan Caucasic
+Africans, and some American Indians, possess this feature. As has been
+already remarked, the facial regions of man and the ape up to a certain
+point are similar. Not until the sense organs of man begin to develop are
+changes noticeable in facial expression. If, through heredity or
+constitutional defect, that part of the brain which presides over
+development of the facial bones lose its control, arrest of development of
+that particular tissue results at any period between birth and the
+twenty-fifth year, while other parts of the head and face continue to
+develop. With this understanding Camper's method can be safely applied to
+certain cases. If a line be dropped from the supra-orbital ridge to the
+upper lip in its most prominent part (Fig. 23), it will be found here that
+in place of the face presenting the full appearance illustrated in Fig. 19
+and Fig. 22, it has the hollow appearance observable in Johanna and in
+Fig. 25. This is due to arrest of development of the bones of the face and
+the upper jaw. The extent of depression depends upon the time of arrest,
+the frontal development of the skull, and the position of the upper jaw.
+The nose may present and retain the appearance of that of a child six
+months old, or any other shape up to normal development, but will not
+protrude from the face nor present a normal symmetrical appearance. It has
+the appearance of having been driven into the face. It has been claimed
+that the bridge of the nose is pushed out by the advancing brain and
+cranium. This may be true to a certain extent, but one is not necessarily
+dependent on the other, since an arrested nose is frequently found in a
+fully developed cranium (Fig. 24), which is not unlike Fig. 23 and a
+"throw-back" to Fig. 20. This is due to the fact that in the struggle for
+existence the bones of the face and skull base became arrested early in
+life, while the brain and cranium continued to advance. The lower jaw is
+usually normal since, while the tendency to arrest may be present in a
+slight degree, mobility of the jaw often causes such increased nutrition
+of the part that normal development in many cases thereby results.
+Overlooking this fact has often led to the assertion that a large lower
+jaw exists when, in reality, this appearance is due to an arrest of the
+face and upper jaw, the lower remaining normal. The expression of
+degeneracy is rather in the arrest of the upper jaw than in the normal
+lower (see Fig. 23).
+
+The criminals of the Elmira Reformatory, and those of the Pontiac
+Reformatory, present marked instances of this stigma, nearly 50 per cent.
+being so affected. Arrest of the lower jaw may occur alone, or may be
+associated with arrest of development of the face (Fig. 25). When this is
+the case a deep, broad groove extends from below the eyes downward and
+backward to the lower jaw, also showing a lateral arrest of development,
+producing a hatchet-shaped face. The upper part of the face may be normal,
+and the lower jaw arrested antero-posteriorly.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
+
+
+It has been broadly asserted that this is an atavism, but more probably it
+is an expression of that phase of evolution whereby both jaws are becoming
+subservient to the advance in evolution represented by the gains of the
+brain and cranium. When both jaws are arrested Camper's disobedience of
+the rules of art, whereby the facial angle is increased over 90°, occurs.
+This condition has been found in many degenerates. Almost invariably in
+connection with the arrest of development of the face occurs arrest of the
+bones of the nose. The diameter of the nasal cavities is much smaller
+than normal. Owing to the unstable condition of the nervous system there
+is also hypertrophy of the turbinate bone and mucous membrane of the nose
+and throat, tonsil hypertrophy, arrested development of the chest walls
+and lung tissue, and unstable mucous membranes throughout the lungs. Such
+a degenerate face, body, and unstable nervous system is a fruitful soil
+for the germs of tuberculosis. In these cases even a casual glance will
+show that the two halves of the face and head are not symmetrically
+developed. It looks as though the two halves were made separately and
+joined together, one half higher than the other. This condition is
+excellently illustrated in Fig. 26. In this case the left half is higher
+than the right. (Frequently the right side is the higher.) There is arrest
+of the upper and lower jaw. The left corner of the mouth is higher than
+the right. The left half of the lower jaw is higher than the right, the
+body of the lower jaw is longer, the ramus is shorter. The left eye and
+ear are higher. The left supra-orbital ridge is higher. The ears stand
+almost at right angles, while the malar processes are quite prominent.
+Viewing the face from a three-quarters' angle (which should always be done
+in making an examination, or photographing the degenerate face for study)
+it will be found that there is not only arrest of development of the bones
+of the face, but also of the lower jaw.
+
+As already stated in the chapter on the cranium, the nasal bones belong to
+the dermal category, their special function as nose bones being a later
+acquisition. In their acquirement of this function they have passed
+through many changes, especially as the human face in its nasal features
+has assumed an embryonic type. In consequence, like all late embryonic
+acquisitions, degeneracy is apt to involve the nose.
+
+When arrest of development of the face takes place stigmata of the nasal
+bones always result. Under such conditions narrowing or arrest of
+development of the entire nasal cavity ensues.
+
+Deformities of the nasal septum, deflection, hypertrophy and atrophy of
+the turbinate bones, deformities of the maxillary sinus, hypertrophy of
+the mucous membrane and polypi are common. Deflection of the external nose
+is a very common stigma of degeneracy. Not only is the septum involved,
+but also the outer plates of the nasal cavity. So unstable are the bones
+of the face in their development that it is not an uncommon thing for the
+nasal process of the upper jaw on one side to be much more developed than
+the other. Not only is the nasal septum involved, but also the bones of
+the face as well, producing a fulness on the long side of the face. This
+stigma is very common among criminal youth. In such cases the deflected
+septum is due to the development of the outer plate and not _vice versâ_.
+Deflection of the septum to the left may entirely obliterate (as in Fig.
+27) the left nasal cavity. If one nostril of a rabbit be permanently
+closed, after the animal has attained its full growth, the nasal cavity of
+the affected side remains undeveloped and facial asymmetry results.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+
+Therefore two factors are common: first, the arrest of development of the
+bones of the nose, and second, the clogging of the cavity, both active
+agents in producing a closure, resulting in mouth-breathing.
+
+Coexisting with these is often (as in Fig. 27) smallness of the upper
+jaw. In the same connection grooved teeth occur, as in the same
+illustration.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+
+The turbinated (Fig. 28) bones are often hypertrophied, as is also the
+nasal septum (vomer or dividing bone) and the mucous membrane. This
+results from the general instability of the nervous system with its
+special expression in increased blood supply, whence occur overgrowth in
+and imperfect work by the mucous membrane, causing mouth-breathing and
+polypi, which again increase this defect. All these predispose to germ
+invasion.
+
+In the figure are also shown grooves upon the teeth. Sufficient symptoms
+are here evident to stamp this as a marked degenerate skull.
+
+Hypertrophy of the turbinate bones, septum, and mucous membrane, as it
+occurs among degenerates, appears in Fig. 29, and is due, first, to an
+unstable nervous system, and, second, a larger system of blood vessels
+which ramify through these parts. Stimulation, together with the stenosis
+(narrowing), tend to produce a closure. Still further, irritation and an
+unstable mucous membrane results, with polypi or adenoid vegetation
+following.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+
+Not only do deflection of septum and hypertrophy of the nasal bones occur,
+but the antrum (cavity behind the nose) may be almost entirely
+obliterated, while the upper jaw is arrested (Fig. 29). The antrum may be
+entirely wanting, as in Fig. 30; so unstable may these tissues develop
+that the nasal cavities may become almost entirely obliterated, as
+observed in this figure.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+
+These conditions are due to the unstable structure and large nerve and
+blood supply. Perhaps one of the most interesting points in connection
+with degeneracy of the nose is the fact that in most cases the structures
+are either arrested or excessively developed, to the extent of the entire
+absence of the inferior turbinate bone. This was the case in a girl
+thirteen years of age who died of tuberculosis. Her skull revealed many
+other forms of degeneracy as well. The deviation in the development of the
+two nasal cavities results from the excessive and arrested development of
+the turbinates, thus preventing inhalation and exhalation of air, the free
+side developing and the closed side remaining undeveloped. In such case
+the nose is deflected to the right or left, depending on which side is
+arrested. When both nostrils are closed the nose becomes thin and pointed
+and mouth-breathing results. In degenerate nasal cavities polypi (tumours)
+are apt to occur.
+
+Persons with long, thin noses, arrested nasal cavities, sunken faces (as a
+result mouth-breathers), and with contracted chest walls are the subjects
+for tuberculosis. In such cases, especially when the nervous system is
+unstable, the different forms of catarrh are present. This condition
+worries the youth under the strain of puberty. To the catarrh which is
+merely a result is ascribed his constitutional defects. These somatic
+signs are quite noticeable in most of these cases, and by early
+recognition proper treatment, with change of climate, frequently prolongs
+life for years.
+
+The so-called erectile tissue of the nose (containing blood whose flow is
+checked through spasm to increase sensation), that relic of a time when
+smell played a greater part among the senses, is apt to be affected by
+degeneracy either as to its excessive or imperfect development. From this
+comes the bleeding of the nose, so frequently an expression of nerve
+strain at puberty, which may take the place of menstruation. It is to be
+noted that while true hæmophilia ("bleeder" tendency) occurs chiefly in
+boys, epistaxis shows itself very frequently in their sisters. A
+remarkable illustration of this was reported by Dr. Delia E. Howe,[199] of
+the Fort Wayne (Indiana) School for the Feeble-minded. In cases of
+so-called male menstruation[200] the symptom is apt to be epistaxis.
+
+The irregularity in blood supply predisposes the nose to attacks on its
+structure from pathogenic germs. Hay fever is an expression of nervous
+instability of these structures, and is especially apt to occur in
+neurasthenics, hysterics, and degenerates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+DEGENERACY OF THE LIP, PALATE, EYE, AND EAR
+
+
+Each part or sense organ may, independently of the face as a whole,
+exhibit signs of degeneracy. The palate, lip, nose, eye, and ear have
+their own expressions of degeneracy. The palate, so far as the joining of
+its two parts is concerned, resists degeneracy to a remarkable degree. The
+cleft, which results from non-union, is usually an expression of general
+degeneracy acted on by its nutritive expression, albeit cleft-palate may
+be associated with the graver degeneracies like idiocy.
+
+As the subjects of the deeper degeneracies associated with cleft-palate
+usually perish in early infancy, the nutritive degeneracies are most
+frequently found associated with cleft-palate in adult life. The mouth in
+the vertebrates does not agree in character with the invertebrate mouth.
+The mouth has grown in proportion to evolution in the lower vertebrates.
+It is larger, however, in proportion in the human embryo than in the
+adult. In this it agrees with the general lower type of the human face.
+The human chin is at first retreating, and does not become distinctly
+prominent until the fifth month of foetal life. The nose separates from
+the mouth toward the end of the second month. It is at first short and
+broad and resembles at three months the type of some of the lower negro
+races. When the nose is separated from the mouth a partition forms between
+the cavities of the nose and the mouth, later supplemented by the true
+palate, which divides the mouth into an upper respiratory passage and a
+lower digestive passage. This palate is partly composed of bone and partly
+of flesh. The fleshy part ends in what is called the uvula. This is very
+subject to abnormalities, as has been pointed out by C. L. Dana; it is a
+very frequent mark of degeneracy. Dickens noticed the uvular tone of voice
+in young thieves, due to deformity of the uvula.
+
+Cleft palates are comparatively rare in proportion to other forms of
+nutritive degeneracy. Palatal embryology casts light on the causation. At
+a very early period of foetal life a series of clefts appear on each side
+of the cephalic extremity, separated by rods of tissue called branchial
+arches. The clefts communicate with the alimentary canal. These various
+clefts have usually coalesced about the ninth and tenth week of foetal
+life, but occasionally this coalescence fails or is incomplete. This leads
+to various deformities, the chief of which are cleft palate and hare-lip.
+Cleft palate has been known to affect several members of the same family,
+and to occur in the offspring of the affected members. There are instances
+of the transmission of this deformity from an affected pug-bitch to her
+offspring. If it were possible to practise selective breeding in man as in
+dogs a race of men with hare-lips and cleft palates could probably be
+produced.[201]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+
+Cleft palate may be divided into two classes, congenital and acquired,
+acquired cleft palate being the result of disease either inherited or
+acquired, but only affecting the part after birth. Congenital cleft palate
+is divisible into two kinds, complete and partial; complete when the
+fissure extends the entire length, from the uvula to and including the
+anterior alveolar process and even the lips (Fig. 31), partial when only a
+small part of the structure is involved. Thus the cleft may extend through
+the anterior alveolar process, involving the incisive bone only, which is
+very rare; when present single or double hare-lip almost invariably
+coexists. I have observed in practice six cases where a small portion of
+the interior alveolar process was involved, with the jaw and one or two
+teeth. The hard palate only may be involved to the extent of a small
+fissure, or the whole palate may be wanting. The soft palate only may
+contain the cleft, or simply the uvula. Cases are on record in which the
+non-development of the intermaxillary bones produces fissures in the lip.
+_A priori_, cleft palate is an evident expression of hereditary defect.
+Langdon Down found a constant relation between brain deformity, cleft
+palate, and deformed vaults.
+
+In a case cited elsewhere,[202] three members of one family had cleft
+palate; one 17 years old, the other 30, and the third 35. The first and
+last are women, the other a married man with a family, who have no trace
+of the father's deformity. In these cases no instance of cleft palate
+could be found either among the ancestors or the collateral branches of
+the family.
+
+Another family has a remarkable history. G. H. C., born 1853, perfect; L.
+C., born 1855, single hare-lip and cleft palate; J. F. C., born 1856,
+perfect; F. W. C., born 1860, double hare-lip and cleft palate; H. E. C.,
+born 1868, perfect. The paternal grandmother also had cleft palate.
+
+Knecht found that 5 per cent. of 1,200 criminals examined had cleft
+palate. Fourteen per cent. of the prostitutes examined by Pauline
+Tarnowsky had cleft palates. Langdon Down, among congenital idiots, found
+only a half per cent. of cleft palates. Grenzer found only nine cases in
+14,466 children, or one in 1,607. I examined 1,977 feeble-minded children
+without finding a single case. In 207 blind only one case was observed. In
+1,235 deaf mutes two cases were found. The percentage among the defective
+classes, while not large, is, undoubtedly, much larger than among normal
+individuals.
+
+A keeper of the Zoological Gardens in Philadelphia observed cleft palate
+in the mouths of lion cubs born in the gardens. Cleft palates were also
+observed in a number of pups born in Buffalo. Dr. Ogle found that 99 per
+cent. of the lion cubs born in the London Zoological Gardens had cleft
+palates. He claims that this is due to the artificial diet, as the result
+of enforced captivity. Similar results observed in other gardens in Europe
+are charged to feeding the mothers with meat without bone, as feeding with
+the whole carcass of small animals greatly diminished these deformities.
+It would seem that if cleft palate is due to this cause other bony
+structures should also be involved, and, as a matter of fact, many of the
+lions born in captivity are rickety. Cleft palate has been observed among
+dogs, sheep, goats, &c. The question, therefore, whether domesticity here
+does not play the alleged part of civilisation in man can be solved only
+by a knowledge of the frequency of the condition among wild animals of the
+same genus. It is evident that, in dealing with the question of ætiology,
+the influence of shock on the mother's nervous system cannot be excluded
+in the cases charged to feeding.
+
+It should be remembered that cleft palate is a factor which predisposes to
+death by infectious diseases whose local manifestations are in the mouth
+and throat; hence the majority of the degenerates in whom cleft palate
+occurs are liable to die before the completion of their fifth year.
+Hare-lip (Fig. 32) is an exceedingly hereditary disorder, as Murray,
+Demarquay, Trélat, Hutchinson, Féré, Marsh, Lucas, Ireland, and others
+have shown. It occurs with great frequency in almost all forms of
+degeneracy. Kiernan, of Chicago, has found that 5 per cent. of the
+hereditary lunatics in that city and in New York City have hare-lip.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.]
+
+
+How far degeneracy may turn back the page of evolution is excellently
+illustrated in the cyclopian descendants of degenerate families elsewhere
+cited from Kiernan, of Chicago. While there is a seeming conflict as to
+the primitive eye type of vertebrates between morphologists represented by
+Howard Ayres[203] (who claims that the eyes were derived from the median
+eye of the ascidian lancelet) and Semper[204] (who is of the opinion that
+the existing vertebrate eyes represent the paired eyes of a hypothetical
+annelid precursor); still both opinions are fully reconcilable through the
+results of study of the ascidian and lancelet eye collated with cyclopian
+and triophthalmic (three-eyed) degeneracies in man, the human eye and the
+third eye of reptiles like the hatteria of New Zealand. The eye of the
+ascidian tadpole agrees fundamentally with the type of eye peculiar to the
+vertebrates in that the retina is derived from the wall of the brain. On
+this account it is called a myolonic eye. In the typical invertebrate eye,
+on the contrary, the retinal cells are differentiated from the external
+ectoderm.
+
+The ascidian eye, however, differs, as Osborn[205] remarks, essentially
+from the paired eyes of the craniate (skulled) vertebrates in that the
+lens as well as the retina is derived from the wall of the brain. The lens
+of the lateral eye of the vertebrates is derived by an invagination of the
+ectoderm, which meets and fits in the retinal cup at the end of the optic
+vesicle. The ascidian eye, however, agrees in respect to the origin of its
+lens with the parietal or pineal eye of the lizard, in which the lens is
+likewise derived from cells which form part of the wall of the cerebral
+outgrowth which gives rise to the pineal body.
+
+The pineal body is another of those remarkable rudimentary structures
+whose constant presence in all groups of vertebrates forms such an
+eminently characteristic median outgrowth from the dorsal wall of the
+brain (thalamencephalon), the distal extremity of which dilates into a
+vesicle and becomes separated from the proximal portion. The distal
+vesicle becomes entirely constricted off from the primary epiphysial
+(pineal) outgrowth of the brain, and the parietal nerve does not represent
+the primitive connection of the pineal eye with the roof of the brain, but
+arises quite independently of the proximal portion of the epiphysis.
+
+The remote ancestors of the vertebrates possessed a median, unpaired,
+myolonic eye, which was subsequently replaced in function by the evolution
+of the paired eyes. The cyclopic condition occurs very frequently among
+human monstrosities, much more frequently than among animals, Hannover
+claims,[206] but this is clearly due to the fact that human monstrosities
+are much more frequently recorded. Of the 120 cases I have been able to
+collect from literature, 56 presented other evidences of degeneracy than
+cyclopic conditions, and 60 had neuropathic or other taint in the
+ancestry. Dareste[207] has shown that the production of a single eye, the
+changes in the structure of the mouth, the atrophy and abnormal situation
+of the olfactory apparatus and of the vesicle of the hemispheres, all
+result from an arrest of development. The determining influence must be
+exerted very early in the life history of the embryo.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+
+Hannover points out that there often is coincident hydrocephalus and
+harelip, imperfect genital development, and allied arrest of development.
+J. R. Folsom, of Cecil, Georgia, has reported a female, born alive to a
+negro multipara, who died two hours after birth. The eye was centrally
+located in the forehead, on a line with the nose. The brow was a complete
+arch, as was the upper eyelid. The lower lid had a mark midway, indicating
+an attempt at division. The nasal bones were wanting, but the soft part of
+the nose, destitute of the orifice, hung over the mouth, which was
+completely covered. The chin was recedent. C. Phisalix described a case in
+which the nose was wanting. Its place in the median was occupied by a
+single eye; on the horizontal diameter were two pupils separated by a
+narrow space. Landolt, discussing a case reported by Valude, points out
+that in cyclopic eyes all the parts may be double or united in every
+degree except that there is never a single lens or double vitreous. Bock
+and others, however, describe cases in which the eye has not been formed
+by the conglomeration of two separately developed eyes, but it is a single
+developed eye; the other being wanting entirely. Bruce reports a cyclop
+in which there was a single socket for the eye of a lozenge-shape,
+situated in the lower middle of the forehead. The socket was furnished
+with two pairs of eyelids, upper and lower. The eye was found to consist
+of two rudimentary eyes, with two rudimentary retinæ, apparently springing
+from a single optic vesicle. The nose was represented by a short process
+attached to the forehead, above the median eye.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.]
+
+
+The cyclops illustrated (Figs. 33, 34) was born to a 17-year old
+neuropathic primipara, after a protracted labour. The child was living,
+but was killed by pressure on the funis. The mouth contained an ivory,
+tusk-like tooth at each corner. There was mane-like hair around the neck.
+
+Cyclopia is very frequently associated with the absence of both the
+internal and external ear, and with synotia (joined ears).
+
+In triophthalmic cases the three eyes are usually separate, two occupying
+the usual position, while the third is situated as illustrated in the case
+cited. Ninety families of degenerates, averaging eleven children each, had
+five cases of cyclops.
+
+Degeneracy, which affects so deeply the development of the eye, naturally
+tends to evince itself in other anomalous states in the organ. As
+excessive asymmetry of the body is one of the most noticeable of the
+stigmata of degeneracy, it is not astonishing to find that this asymmetry
+expresses itself both in the position as well as in the size and structure
+of the eye. As Kiernan[208] pointed out, twenty years ago, asymmetrical
+irides are exceedingly frequent in the types of insanity due to hereditary
+defect. This observation has since been confirmed by Féré,[209] not only
+as to the insane, but as to other classes of the degenerate. The
+conditions of the eye known as microphthalmia (small eye), macrophthalmia
+(big eyes) and anophthalmia (absence of eyes), are found quite frequent in
+degenerate families. Very frequently the pupil of the eye is asymmetrical.
+This was pointed out by Kiernan in the case of Guiteau. Corectopia
+(displacement of the pupil so that it is not in the centre of the iris)
+often exists. Coloboma (eye fissure) is also not infrequent among the
+degenerate. These vary greatly in situation and general results. The iris
+is sometimes completely absent on one or both sides. Beside the anomalies,
+diseased conditions like retinitis pigmentosa, congenital cataract and the
+macular degeneracy cited by C. P. Pinckard,[210] of Chicago, are far from
+infrequent expressions of degenerate taint in the eye; the organ in this
+particular obeying the general law that degeneracy may show itself in the
+minute change resulting in disturbance of function or in that producing
+disease, or, finally, in atavism. The defects of the eyes requiring
+glasses are exceedingly frequent in degenerates, and often aggravate their
+morbidity. Here, as in the case of the teeth, the chief factor is often
+ignored.
+
+The external ear is, of all organs, that most affected by degeneracy.[211]
+It is a cartilaginous organ extending from a bony base, without a bony
+framework for its support and with very deficient blood supply, on account
+of its distances from the great blood centres, so that any defect in the
+nerve centres which control the local blood supply is likely to affect its
+nutrition. As a cartilaginous organ it has no lymphatics, which of
+necessity affects its growth. The sensitiveness of the ear to vasomotor
+changes is evident by the results of the extremes in heat and cold,
+emotional blushing and fatigue. Galton reports a schoolmistress who judges
+the fatigue of her pupils by the condition of their ears. If the ears be
+white, flabby and pendant, she concludes that the children are much
+fatigued. If they be relaxed, but red, they are suffering, not from
+overwork, but from a struggle with the nervous system rarely under control
+in children. These states are very common among degenerates.
+
+To appreciate the degeneracy observed in the ear its embryology requires
+study. Before the end of the first month[212] there appears around the
+external opening of the first gill-cleft (Fig. 35) a series of six
+tubercles, two in front on the hind edge of the first visceral arch, one
+above the cleft and three behind it (Fig. 36). A little later a vertical
+furrow appears down the middle of the hyoid arch, in such a way as to mark
+off a little ridge which joins on to tubercle 3 and descends behind
+tubercles 4 and 5. The second stage is reached by the growth of all the
+parts; the fusion of tubercles 2 and 3 and the growth of the ridge down
+behind tubercle 5 to become continuous with 6. After these changes it is
+not difficult to identify the parts.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.]
+
+
+Tubercle No. 1 is the tragus; 2 and 3, together with the arching ridge,
+represent the helix; 4, the anti-helix; 5, the anti-tragus; and 6, the
+lobule; the pit between the tubercles the fossa angularis. During the
+latter part of the second month the ear changes in its proportion somewhat
+in the irregular development. The third stage begins at the third month.
+The upper and posterior part of the concha arises from the surface of the
+head, and gradually but rapidly bends forward so as to completely cover
+the anti-helix and the upper portion of the fossa angularis. During this
+stage in mammals the assumption of the pointed form of the ear commences.
+The fourth stage begins at the fourth month, when the tubercles, which are
+now joined together by cartilages, commence to unfold and are completed by
+the fifth month. Finally, the sixth tubercle develops to form the lobule.
+This unfolding or development of the tubercles to produce the different
+portions of the ear and make it complete is not unlike the development of
+a flower from the bud. By this process may be understood how if, by
+malnutrition in one tubercle or bud, or should there be a larger supply of
+nutriment in one than another, malformation of the ear would result. If
+arrest of development of all the tubercles should take place at any
+period, from the first to the fifth month of foetal life, the ear would
+resemble a semi-developed flower! (Fig. 37).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+
+As in other cases, it is necessary to fix an approximately normal standard
+for the ear from the standpoint of man's status in evolution. The ear
+grows more or less through life, but, like the skeleton, practically
+reaches its full development about the twenty-sixth year. That this is not
+always the case, however, is demonstrated by the results of the
+examination of 546 persons. In an examination of 63 children between 6 and
+18 months old the ears measured from 1·60 to 2·12, the average being 1·90
+inches; in width from ·75 to 1, with an average of ·96. In 127 children
+from 8 to 12 years old the ear measured from 1·95 to 2·32 inches, the
+average being 2·19; width ·81 to 1·50, the average being 1·06. In 356
+persons between 12 and 50 years old the shortest ear was 2, the longest 3,
+the average 2·50; width, smallest 1, largest 1·50, the average being 1·22
+inches. The normal ear, or rather the ideal one (for few persons possess
+it in its entirety), should have a gracefully curved outline, be nowhere
+pointed or irregular, have a well-defined helix, separated from the
+anti-helix by a distinct scaphoid fossa extending down nearly to the level
+of the anti-tragus (Fig. 38). Its root should be lost in the concha before
+reaching the anti-helix. The anti-helix should not be unduly prominent,
+and should have a well-marked bifurcation at its superior extremity. The
+lobule should be shapely, not adherent, not too pendulous and free from
+grooves extending from the scaphoid fossa. The whole should be well
+shaped, and its proper proportion and size may be inferred from the table
+just given; in the adult it should not average over two and a half inches
+in length and one and a quarter in breadth.
+
+The aural deformities that fall under the head of stigmata, or have been
+classed as such, affect all portions of the external ear. The helix may be
+imperfect, it may be angular, from Darwin's tubercle it may lack its
+inward roll, it may be interrupted, the root of the helix may extend
+inward completely across the concha, and in very rare instances it may be
+bifurcated. The anti-helix may be unduly prominent or be insignificant;
+the scaphoid fossa may extend through the lobule or be triple.[213] The
+lobule may be adherent and sometimes almost absent, thus producing the
+jug-handle-shaped, or so-called Morel ear. It may be exaggerated in size;
+the whole ear may be misshapen, too large or too small. These deformities
+may exist in nearly every degree, only when pronounced can they be
+considered as stigmata. Others have been noted, but their importance as
+signs of degeneracy is not very significant unless they co-exist with
+several of those above mentioned.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+
+The ears of degenerates frequently grow in later life to an enormous size.
+On examination of 207 paupers over 50 years old the shortest ear was found
+to be 2·25 inches, the longest 3·36; the average on the right side was
+2·73, on the left 2·76; the narrowest ear was ·88, the widest 1·50, the
+average 1·26. These results, compared with the results of the measurements
+of normal persons from 12 to 50 years, plainly demonstrate that the ears
+of degenerates grow after the twenty-sixth year, when the skeleton has
+completed its development. With such large ears other stigmata are
+generally associated. A few of the best types of stigmata of the ear
+illustrate better than any description the general characteristics. Fig.
+39 illustrates the ear _par excellence_ of degeneracy, the typical
+jug-handled ear first described by Morel and called by his name. This
+consists of a long, narrow ear attached its entire length, and tapering
+upward and outward from the lobe to the point where the Darwinian tubercle
+is located, and there it may take any shape--round, straight, or
+pointed--as illustrated in the drawing. The most singular deformity of the
+helix is the tubercle of Darwin, which is a little blunt point,
+projecting from the inwardly folded margin or helix. When present it is
+developed at birth and, according to Ludwig Meyer, more frequent in men
+than in women. Fig. 40 shows ear and tubercle taken from Darwin.[214]
+These points not only project in toward the centre of the ear, but open a
+little outwards (Fig. 41) from its plane, so as to be visible when the
+head is viewed from directly in front and behind. They are variable in
+size, number and somewhat in position (Fig. 42), standing either a little
+higher or lower, and they sometimes occur on one ear and not on the other.
+Another marked form of ear degeneracy is one in which the ear is developed
+backward at an angle of about 45° (Fig. 43). The general outline of the
+ear is fairly good. The anti-helix is much larger than it should be.
+Degeneracy usually extends deeply into the organisation of those in whom
+this ear is present.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. EAR ALMOST HORIZONTAL AND AT RIGHT ANGLES WITH THE
+HEAD.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. EAR ALMOST ROUND WITH THREE DARWINIAN TUBERCLES AT
+INNER BORDER.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+
+Fig. 44 illustrates noticeable stigmata. The ear stands at right angles
+with the head. It is, however, almost as broad as it is long and differs
+in shape. The outer helix is excessively developed. The scaphoid fossa
+extends through the lobe, which is continuous with the body of the ear and
+is not distinct. The root of the helix is excessively developed. There are
+three Darwinian tubercles on its border. The anti-tragus is undeveloped.
+The tragus is very small and divided into two parts. The auricle-temporal
+angle, for functional purposes, should not exceed, according to Buchanan,
+30°, or be less than 15°. The difference in this respect is not clear,
+since free movement of head and body will readily adjust the auricle to
+receive sound. For functional purposes it would seem that the construction
+and shape of the ear, especially the anti-helix and concha, would be of
+greater importance than its position to the head, since it is necessary to
+collect the waves of sound for transmission. From a degeneracy
+standpoint, however, the position of the ear is important. Frigerio,[215]
+from the examination of several hundred subjects, concludes that the
+auricle-temporal angle undergoes a gradual progress from below 90° in
+criminals and the insane to above 90° in apes. He found the large angle
+very marked in homicides, less so in thieves. There is no question but
+that Frigerio is correct in regard to this point. In an examination of the
+ears of 465 boy criminals at Pontiac, it was found that 198 were close to
+the head, or from 10 to 15°; 152 at an angle of 45°, and 115 at right
+angles or 90°. Of 1,041 criminals at Elmira 285 were close, 567 at an
+angle of 45°, and 187 at right angles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+
+Fig. 45 shows the ear which Hawthorne gives Donatello in the _Marble
+Faun_; it has been called the "Satanic" ear, because of the pointed
+extremities and its narrowness. The helix is rolled upon itself its entire
+length, giving the impression of great thickness. The anti-helix is
+excessively developed. Figs. 46, 47, 48 (ears of three illegitimate
+children at birth) show different stages of development as well as marked
+stigmata. Arrest of development occurs between the fourth and fifth month,
+owing to the trophic nerve centres being affected by the malnutrition of
+the mother. Fig. 49 exhibits the development of a congenital, elephantine
+ear in monstrosities. The resemblance to the large ear of the orang and
+chimpanzee is very marked.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE DEGENERATE TEETH AND JAWS
+
+
+Next to the ears, the jaws and teeth (as was to be expected from the
+variability of these organs in allied animals) are most affected by
+degeneracy. This is particularly true of the vertebrates, especially
+mammals, as might have been anticipated from their phylogeny. At the head
+of the vertebrates is man; at the foot is the lancelet (amphioxus), which
+is perhaps most akin to those semi-vertebrates the ascidians, who, in
+their larval phase, are higher than when adult, and whose life-history
+excellently illustrates that potent phase of evolution, degeneracy.
+
+The lancelet has a spinal cord enclosed in a half-gristly canal (the
+notochord). It is practically destitute of a brain. The cerebral vesicle
+which represents this is a plain cavity without true subdivision into
+ventricles. There is no cranium. The eye (central in position) is a mere
+pigment spot with which it is able to distinguish light from darkness. The
+nose (behind this) is a small pit, lined with cilia, for purposes of
+smell. Into this the cerebral vesicle of the larval lancelet opens. The
+mouth is well guarded against the intrusion of noxious substances which
+have to pass through a vestibule richly provided with sensitive cells,
+resembling the taste buds of the human mouth. There is no heart. In this,
+as in the case of the eye, the lancelet is lower than the ascidians, the
+insects, crustaceans, and many molluscs. It approximates those worms
+which, despite a very elaborate vascular system, are destitute of a heart,
+the function of which is performed by contractile blood-vessels. From an
+embryologic and morphologic standpoint the proximate ancestor of the
+vertebrates may have been a free swimming animal, intermediate between an
+ascidian tadpole and the lancelet, and the primordial ancestor, a
+worm-like animal organised on a level with the star-fish. The vertebrates
+embryologically develop from this stage to the lampreys; thence to the
+cartilaginous fish (shark); to the amphibia (frog, toad, axolotl); to the
+reptiles; and thence to the oviparous mammals (duck-bill and echidna or
+spiny ant-eater); to the lemurs, and through forms like the
+_Pithecanthropus erectus_ to man. Mammal teeth pass, in evolution, from
+the simple types found in that oviparous edentate, the spiny ant-eater of
+Australia, to those of the indeciduous ancestors of the sloths and
+armadilloes, and their descendants, inclusive of the dolphins and whales,
+whose teeth, both in the fetal Greenland and adult sperm whale, preserve
+this old type. (The whales have degenerated from the hoofed mammals to
+suit their environment.) While, as in the edentates, these teeth may be
+few, they may also, as in the insectivorous marsupials, approximate those
+of the reptilia in number (sixty or seventy on a side) and characteristic
+location.
+
+The evolution of this primitive tooth to the bicuspid and molar type has
+been explained by two theories: that of concrescence and that of
+differentiation.[216]
+
+A number of conical teeth, in line as they lie in the jaws of the sperm
+whale, represent the primitive dentition.[217] In time a number of these
+teeth, according to the concresent theory, cluster together so as to form
+the four cusps of a human molar, each one of the whale tooth points
+forming one of the cusps of the mammalian tooth. Vertically succeeding
+teeth might also be grouped. What evidence is there in favour of this
+theory? and what is there against it? All primitive reptiles from which
+the mammals have descended, and many of the existing mammals, have a large
+number of isolated teeth of a conical form. Further, by shortening of the
+jaws, the embryonic germ from which each of the numerous tooth-caps is
+budded off in course of development could have been brought together in
+such a manner that any cusps originally stretched out in a line would form
+groups of a variable number of cusps, according to the more or less
+complex pattern of the crown. Against the acceptance of this theory stands
+the fact that cusps quite similar in all respects to each of the cusps
+which form the angles of the human molar are even now being added to the
+teeth in certain animals, such as the elephant, whose molar teeth cusps
+are being thus complicated. In the mesozoic period certain animals with
+tricuspid teeth occur. According to the theory of concrescence these teeth
+ought not to show any increase of cusps in later geologic periods, but
+down through the ages to the present time successors of those animals
+continue to present a very much larger number of cusps. How is this
+increase of cusps to be accounted for? Has there been a reserve store of
+conical teeth to increase the number? Most obviously to every student of
+the fossil history of cusps there is no reserve store, but new cusps are
+constantly rising upon the original crown itself by cusp addition.
+
+In the Triassic occur the first mammalia with conical, round, reptilian
+teeth. There are also some aberrant types which possess complex or
+multitubercular teeth.
+
+These teeth begin to show the first trace of cusp addition.
+
+In Fig. 1, Plate A, the teeth of the dromatherium of the coal beds of
+North Carolina occur on the sides of the main cone, cusps or rudimentary
+cuspules. On either side of the main cone are two cuspules. In the same
+deposit occurred another animal represented by a single tooth (Fig. 3), in
+which these cusps are slightly larger. These cusps have obviously been
+added to the side of the teeth and are now growing. In teeth of the
+Jurassic period, found in large numbers both in America and in England,
+but still of very minute size, are observed the same three cusps. These
+cusps have now taken two different positions; in one case they have the
+arrangement presented in Plate B. The middle cusp is relatively lower, and
+the lateral cusps are relatively higher; in fact these cones are almost
+equal in size. These teeth are termed triconodont, as having three nearly
+equal cones. But associated with this is the spalacotherium, the teeth of
+which are represented in Plate A, Fig. 4. This tooth illustrates the
+transformation of a tooth (triconodont) with three cusps in line into a
+tooth with three cusps forming a triangle. Here the primitive cusp is
+the apex of a triangle of which the two lateral cusps are the base. This
+tooth, in this single genus, is the key of comparison of the teeth of all
+mammalia. By this can be determined that part of a human molar which
+corresponds with a conical reptilian tooth. This stage is the triangle
+stage; the next stage is the development of a heel or spur upon this
+triangle (see in the amphitherium, Fig. 5). The opossum still distinctly
+preserves the ancient triangle. Look at it in profile, inside or in top
+view, and see that the anterior part of the tooth is unmodified. This
+triangle is traceable through a number of intermediate types. In Miacia
+(Fig. 6), a primitive carnivore, is a high triangle and a heel; looked at
+from above (Fig. 6a), the heel is seen to have spread out broader so that
+it is as broad as the triangle. The three molars of this animal illustrate
+a most important principle, namely, that the anterior, triangular portion
+of the crown has been simply levelled down to the posterior portion.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.]
+
+
+These three teeth form a series of intermediate steps between a most
+ancient molar and the modern molar of the human type. The second tooth is
+halfway between the first and third. The second molar, seen from above,
+has exactly the same cusps as the first, so it is not difficult to
+recognise that each cusp has been directly derived from its fellow. The
+third tooth of the series (Fig. 7) has lost one of its cusps; it has lost
+a cusp of the triangle. It is now a tooth where only half the triangle is
+left on the anterior side and with a very long heel. That tooth has
+exactly the same pattern as the lower human molar tooth (Fig. 8), the only
+difference is that the heel is somewhat more prolonged. These teeth belong
+to one of the oldest fossil monkeys, anaptomorphus. Human lower molars,
+not very exceptionally, instead of four cusps, have five. The fifth cusp
+always appears in the middle of the heel, or between the posterior lingual
+and the posterior buccal. This occurs in monkeys and other animals, but no
+record exists of the ancient anterior lingual reappearing. The human lower
+molar, with its low, quadritubercular crown, has hence evolved by addition
+of cusps and by gradual modelling from a high-crowned, simple, pointed
+tooth.
+
+Human teeth are of excellent service in the initial determination of
+degeneracy in the child. For this purpose the teeth should be studied from
+the first evidence of their development until they are all in place, which
+occurs normally, in most cases, by the twenty-second year.
+
+Teeth-enamel is formed from the epiblast, and dentine, cementum, pulp
+(except as to nerve tissue) from the mesoblast. The enamel organs of the
+first set appear during the seventh week of foetal life; the dentine bulb
+during the ninth week. At this period the tooth obtains its periphery.
+This models the enamel cap which fits over the dentine like a glove. When
+imperfections in hand or fingers exist these deformities are distinctly
+observed upon the glove, and in precisely the same manner are observed the
+different shapes and sizes of the incisors, cuspids, and molars.
+Calcification of the teeth begins at the seventeenth week of foetal life.
+The illustration (Fig. 50) shows the progress of calcification and
+development of the temporary set of teeth. Examination will show that any
+defect in nutrition, from conception to birth (due to inherited states or
+maternal impressions), has been registered upon the teeth. The state of
+the constitution and the locality register the date of such defects. Thus
+if the tooth, as a whole, be larger or smaller than normal, or abnormally
+irregular, taint is undoubtedly inherited from one or both parents. If, on
+the other hand, there be defect at any part on the crowns of the teeth,
+and the contour be perfect, the date of malnutrition can be easily
+determined from this chart. More or less than the normal number of teeth,
+abnormally placed, demonstrates the existence of inherited defect, since
+the germs must have been deposited at the period mentioned. No absolute
+rule can be laid down as to date of the eruption of the teeth. The teeth
+of the temporary set erupt nearly as follows:
+
+                            _After Birth._         _Time of Eruption._
+  Lower Central Incisors     7 months                1 to 10 weeks.
+  Upper    "       "         9 months                4 to 6 weeks.
+  Upper and Lower Lateral   12 months                4 to 6 weeks.
+  First Molars              14 months                1 to 2 months.
+  Cuspids                   18 months                2 to 3 months.
+  Second Molars             26 months                3 to 5 months.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. SHOWS LINES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERMANENT
+TEETH.]
+
+
+The enamel organs and dentine bulb for the permanent teeth form just
+before birth (Fig. 51) in like manner with the temporary set. They form
+just above the temporary set on the upper and below on the lower jaw. The
+permanent molars begin to calcify at the twenty-fifth week of foetal life.
+The permanent incisors do not calcify until a year after birth. Any
+deviation in size or contour of the permanent teeth from the normal must
+hence be due to defect in nutrition in the dentine bulb, between the
+fifteenth and twenty-fifth week of foetal life. Any deviation in
+calcification (except the cusps of the first permanent molars) must occur
+after birth. At the third year twenty-four teeth are fairly well
+calcified. At the fifth year the second permanent molars, and at the
+eighth year the third molars or wisdom teeth, begin to calcify.
+
+The following table gives the age of eruption of permanent teeth:
+
+  First Permanent Molars               Circa         6 years.
+  Upper and Lower Central Incisors       "           7 years.
+  Upper and Lower Lateral    "           "           8 years.
+  First Bicuspids                        "           9 years.
+  Second Bicuspids                       "          10 years.
+  Cuspids                                "          11 years.
+  Second Permanent Molars                "          12 years.
+  Third Permanent Molars                 "    17 to 24 years.
+
+Man, at this present stage of evolution, has twenty teeth in his temporary
+and thirty-two in his permanent set. Any deviation in number is the result
+of embryonic change occurring between the sixth and fifteenth week, for
+the temporary teeth, and the fifteenth week and birth for the permanent.
+The germs of teeth which erupt late in life, and are called third sets, of
+necessity appear ere birth and are completely formed at the beginning of
+the second year, although they remain protected in the jaw until
+eruption.
+
+More than twenty teeth in the temporary set, or thirty-two in the
+permanent set, is hence an atavistic abnormality. From the maxillary and
+dental standpoint man reached his highest development when well-developed
+jaws held twenty temporary and thirty-two permanent teeth. Decrease in the
+numbers of teeth meant, from the dental standpoint, degeneracy, albeit it
+might mark advance in man's evolution as a complete being. In the New
+Mexican Lower Eocene occur monkeys like the lemurarius and limnotherium,
+each the type of a distinct family. The lemurarius, most nearly allied to
+the lemurs, is the most generalised monkey yet found. It had forty-four
+teeth in continuous series, above and below. The limnotherium, while
+related to the lemurs, had some affinities with the American marmosets.
+These solved the problem of the origin of the extra teeth (known as
+supernumeraries) that sometimes occur in man, and demonstrated that man,
+during his evolution from the lowest monkey, lost twelve teeth. These
+supernumerary teeth assume two forms; either they resemble the adjoining
+teeth or are cone-shaped. While they are rarely exactly counterparts,
+every tooth can be duplicated, as the following illustrations show.
+
+Fig. 52 illustrates fairly well-formed duplicate central incisors, the
+normal incisors being outside the dental arch. They are crowded laterally
+by the large roots of the supernumerary incisors.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+
+Fig. 53 shows an extra right lateral in a temporary set in the upper jaw.
+Fig. 54 an extra right lateral in the permanent set. Fig. 55 illustrates
+normally developed supernumerary cuspids which are all grouped together
+upon the right side, the bicuspid being also duplicated on each side;
+indeed, all but the molars are duplicate. Fig. 56 shows supernumerary
+third molars, easily demarcated from the normal molars. The teeth which
+fail to approximate their normal neighbours assume the cone shape of the
+primitive tooth.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+
+The fact that the cone-shaped tooth, as a rule perfect in construction, is
+found everywhere in the jaw, but especially in the anterior and posterior
+part of the mouth, is of much value in outlining tooth and jaw evolution,
+especially in the degeneracy phase. The upper jaw, being an integral part
+of the skull and fixed, is, of necessity, influenced by brain and skull
+growth; hence degeneracy is more detectable in it than in the lower.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+
+The evolution of the jaw is toward shortening in both directions. This
+shortening will continue so long as the jaw must be adjusted to a varying
+environment. The jaw of man having originally contained more teeth than at
+present, lack of adjustment to environment produces, from the shortening,
+degeneracy of the jaw and atavism of the teeth. While this may coincide
+with general advances of the individual, it indicates that he is not yet
+adjusted to his new environment. The shortening of the upper jaw causes
+supernumerary, cone-shaped teeth to erupt, in mass, at the extreme ends of
+the jaw, as shown in the following figures. Fig. 57 illustrates a
+cone-shaped tooth between the two central incisors, forcing them out of
+position. Fig. 58 shows three supernumerary teeth--a cone-shaped tooth
+between the central laterals, and the cuspids out of position. The left
+permanent lateral is at the median line; another cone-shaped tooth remains
+in the vault, while the supernumerary left lateral is in place. As many as
+eight are at times to be observed in the anterior vault. Posteriorly these
+teeth are most often noticed in connection with the third molars, usually
+on a line with other teeth posterior to the last molar. Fig. 59 shows two
+supernumerary teeth in the anterior and two in the posterior part of the
+left arch; the molars have been extracted. Supernumerary teeth are not
+confined to these localities, but may be observed at any point in the
+dental arch (Figs. 60 and 61). The primitive cone-shaped tooth is rarely
+observed in the lower jaw. In twenty-six years' practice I have not seen a
+case. The mobility of the lower jaw prevents that mal-adjustment to
+environment present in the upper. The continual shortening, in both
+directions, of the jaw causes the third molars frequently to wedge in
+between the angle of the jaw and the second molars, so that eruption, if
+possible, is difficult.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+
+The third molar is often absent in the English-speaking and Scandinavian
+races. In 46 per cent. of 670 patients it was missing. Frequently its
+development is abortive. This tooth, in the struggle for existence, seems
+destined to disappear. It is more often absent from the upper than the
+lower jaw. When absent, or badly developed, the jaw is smaller and
+frequently teeth irregularities, nasal stenosis, hypertrophy of nasal bone
+and mucous membrane, adenoids and eye disorders coexist. Fig. 62 shows
+absence of the left third molar with irregularities of that side of the
+arch. In Fig. 63 both third molars are seen to be missing. Anteriorly,
+the lateral incisors are most often wanting; 14 per cent. of the laterals
+were wanting in 670 patients. In the progress of evolution man has lost
+one lateral upon each side of the mouth and the second lateral seems also
+destined to disappear. In Fig. 64 the left lateral incisor has
+disappeared; and in Fig. 65 both lateral incisors are absent. Not
+infrequently does it occur that centrals, cuspids, bicuspids, and even
+molars are absent, even their germs not being detectable. Fig. 66 shows
+three supernumeraries in the anterior part of the mouth and but two
+molars. The absence of the teeth indicates lack of development of germs,
+due either to heredity or defective maternal nutrition at the time of
+conception or during early pregnancy.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+
+Crescent-shaped, bitubercular, and tribucular as well as deformed teeth,
+tend to be cone-shaped. The malformation of these teeth results from
+precongenital trophic change in dentine development, dwarfing and notching
+the cutting and grinding edges of the second set of teeth, of which a
+familiar example is the so-called Hutchinson's teeth, usually referred to
+a syphilitic causation. Hutchinson's position has, however, been more
+strongly stated than his words justify, since he admits that in at least
+one-tenth of the cases this cause could be excluded.
+
+Syphilis only plays the part of a diathetic state profoundly affecting the
+maternal constitution at the time of dentine development; while these
+teeth may be due to secondary results of syphilis, they do not
+demonstrate syphilitic heredity.
+
+In Fig. 67 are seen the teeth of an individual affected with
+constitutional disease (referring to Fig. 51 it becomes evident that the
+defective lines represent the respective ages, 2-1/2, 4, and 5 years). The
+degree of pitting will depend, as a rule, on the severity of the
+constitutional disorder. In the case just cited, however, although
+nutrition was but slightly disordered, each tooth shows a tendency to
+conate. Not infrequently cavities extend completely through the tooth. The
+cusps of the (permanent) first molars, calcifying at the first year, are
+usually attacked also, and arrested in development, producing the cone
+shape. These data, together with the dates of eruption of the temporary
+and permanent teeth, furnish an absolute basis for calculation as to
+malnutrition producing excessive or arrested development, not only of the
+teeth and jaws but all parts of the body.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 70, 71.]
+
+
+Fig. 68 shows a very degenerate jaw with cone-shaped, malformed
+bicuspids. The right lateral missing, the cuspids are erupting in the
+vault and the dental arch is assuming a V-shape. The jaw shows, as a
+whole, marked arrest in development. Fig. 69 shows Hutchinson's teeth.
+Were the first molars visible, they would present marked contraction of
+the outer surface with a malformed centre. Referring again to Fig. 51, it
+is observable that trophic changes affected the system at the age of
+birth. The outer surface exhibits a tendency to take the cone shape. Figs.
+70, 71, 72, 73, and the molars in Fig. 66, exhibit malformations that
+assume the cone shape and the centre frequently associated with this type
+of teeth. The coincidence in form between Hutchinson's and malformed teeth
+and those of the chameleon suggests that tropho-neurotic change produces
+atavistic teeth. Fig. 74 illustrates the tendency of human bicuspids (when
+there is no antagonism) to rotate one-fourth round, thus again indicating
+an atavistic tendency toward the teeth of the chameleon. Fig. 75 exhibits
+extreme atavism; all teeth anterior to the molars are cone-shaped. The
+third molars are missing and would, probably, never erupt. In Fig. 76
+appears more marked atavism. The upper and lower are both cone-shaped, and
+the superior first bicuspid exhibits tendency thereto. The right superior
+second bicuspid, second and third molars, the right inferior first and
+second bicuspids, with second and third molars are missing. The same
+condition, probably, exists on the left side. The space in the upper jaw
+is due to the insufficient width of the teeth. Alternation of teeth in the
+upper and lower jaw is a reptilian feature.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+
+Fig. 76 furnishes excellent illustration of the principles already stated.
+In degenerate jaws every tooth in the jaw, at one point or another, may
+display rudimentary cusps. On the incisors they are always to be found on
+the lingual surface.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+
+Fig. 77 illustrates the centrals with two rudimentary cusps, the laterals
+with one, and the cuspids with one also. Fig. 78 represents cusps upon the
+lingual surface of the molars. The cuspids are not unlike the lower
+cuspids with a rudimentary lingual cusp.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.]
+
+
+There is a gradation from central incisors toward the bicuspids, in
+evolution. This grading of form is not observed in passing from the cuspid
+to the bicuspid in man. But the cuspid often presents a cingulum on the
+lingual face that inclines it toward the bicuspid forms in lower mammals,
+like the mole, and the first premolar, or bicuspid, is then more
+caniniform, the inner tubercle being much more reduced. This inner
+tubercle is very variable and erratic as to its position. It appears as
+far front as the centrals and is often present on the lingual face of the
+laterals of man. The lingual tubercle is very constant on the first
+bicuspid of man and is as well developed as the buccal. But in some lower
+forms, as in the lemurs, it is quite deficient. It attains the highest
+development only in the anthropoids and man. Considering these stages of
+development, the grading from the cuspid to the bicuspid forms was more
+gradual in the earlier species than in the later, where the individual
+teeth have taken on special development.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+
+The skull of a degenerate girl who died from tuberculosis, at thirteen
+years, presented, among other stigmata, a cusp on the external surface of
+a right inferior cuspid. In Fig. 79, where every tooth is present, a most
+remarkable display of cusps occurs. The cusps upon the cutting and
+grinding edges are not obliterated. Commencing with the left superior
+central incisors, three cusps are present with a rudimentary palatine
+cusp. The laterals also show three cusps, while the cuspid has two very
+distinct. The first and second bicuspids have tubercular cusps, they
+being in line. The buccal cusps upon the molars, two or three, and are
+still in position. The palatine cusps are worn away. The same is the case
+upon the opposite side, except that the cuspid has cusps that have fused
+together, leaving a small projection upon the mesial side and a
+rudimentary palatine cusp. The cusp upon the third molar is lost. In
+another case (Fig. 61) the primitive cone teeth are seen trying to shape
+themselves into incisors. The lateral incisors, cuspids and bicuspids are
+still cone-shaped. The first permanent molar is fairly formed while the
+second molars are still in a primitive condition.
+
+Degenerate teeth unite in twos, threes, fours, and fives. These single,
+cone-shaped teeth grow together and form bicuspids and molars. The germ of
+any two normal teeth may intermingle and unite; not only are the crowns
+found united with separate roots, but crowns and roots are united
+throughout.
+
+Figs. 80 and 81 show two superior, central and lateral incisors joined
+together throughout the entire length of crown and root. In Fig. 82 two
+lower incisors are united throughout. Fig. 83 shows a cuspid with two
+roots. George T. Carpenter, of Chicago, has a right superior, second
+bicuspid with three well formed roots. Fig. 84 illustrates two bicuspids
+united at the crowns. Fig. 85 shows two molars perfectly united. Fig. 86
+illustrates central and lateral incisors of the permanent set perfectly
+united. Fig. 87 shows two molars united. Fig. 88 a molar and supernumerary
+taking the cone-shape with deformed centre. Fig. 89 shows three malformed
+teeth, each coated and completely united. It is not uncommon to find three
+molars united together, as, for instance, the second, third, and
+supernumerary molars. C. V. Rosser, of Atlanta, Georgia, has two small
+molars and a supernumerary cuspid perfectly united, from crown to root,
+and these three further united to the roots of a well-formed molar.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.]
+
+
+That human jaws, like human ears, are degenerating is demonstrable by
+actual measurements. Mummery, who examined the skulls of 200 Briton and
+Roman soldiers, found the narrowest 2·12 inches, the highest 2·62, with an
+average of 2·50. The width of jaws of 402 British soldiers to-day is:
+narrowest, 1·88; widest, 2·63; average 2·28. The highest width was very
+rare; only eight measured 2·50. The jaws of the mound builders, compared
+with the existing cliff dwellers, show similar results. The average width
+is about 2·50 inches. This is also true of nearly pure negro races.
+Measurements of normal jaws of 855 Italians of Central Italy were:
+narrowest, 1·88; widest, 2·63; average 2·17. Measurements of normal jaws
+of 4,935 Americans gave the following results: narrowest, 1·75; widest,
+only one case, 2·56; average 2·13. If in the highest type of physical man
+the width of the upper jaw from the outer surface of the permanent molars
+near the gum margin was originally 2·50 inches in diameter, the jaw of
+people now living in the same locality is from 0·25 to 0·33 inches
+smaller. Although the jaw has thus been growing smaller, since there are
+no breaks or deformities in the contour of the dental arch this must be
+regarded simply as an adaptation to environment, and not degeneracy in the
+proper sense of the term. The degeneracy of the jaws, on which I would lay
+special stress, is that in which deformity has resulted from inability to
+adjust structure to a changing environment. When arrest of development so
+takes place that deformities of the dental arch result, the jaws vary from
+two inches to one inch in width. As a rule, the teeth are the same size
+to-day that they were thousands of years ago. This is due to the fact that
+they are ante-natal and not influenced by post-natal systemic changes. The
+jaws do not contract as a result of mouth breathing.[218] If the jaw be
+arrested and be smaller in circumference than the teeth, a break takes
+place in the dental arch and deformity results. Two types of deformity
+occur, the V-shaped arch and the saddle arch. All other types of
+deformity, not due to local causes, are modifications of these two. These
+deformities always occur with the second teeth only. In these cases the
+facial profile assumes the perpendicular line or arrested face, as
+illustrated in the chapter on Degeneracy of the Face. They are never seen
+before the sixth year, when the second set begin to erupt and are complete
+with development of the second molars at 12. They may become exaggerated
+later in life from want of room, the eruption of the third molar and want
+of harmony in relation of the two jaws when closed.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.]
+
+
+There are three characteristics of the normal arch. Independent of
+temperamental peculiarities, the line extending from one cuspid to the
+other should be an arc of a circle, not an angle or straight line; the
+lines from the cuspids to the third molar should be straight, curving
+neither in nor out, the sides not approximating parallel lines. Absolute
+bilateral uniformity is not implied in this, as the two sides of the
+human jaw are rarely, if ever, wholly alike. A uniform arch necessitates
+uniformity of development between the arch of the maxilla and the arch of
+the teeth and a correct position of the individual teeth in their relation
+to each other. When there is inharmonious development between the jaws and
+the teeth, as may happen when one parent has a small maxilla with
+correspondingly small teeth, and the other a large one, with
+correspondingly large teeth, if the child inherit the jaw of one and the
+teeth of the other, irregularities must follow. Such difference in
+diameter between the arch of the maxilla and that of the crowns of the
+teeth is a constitutional cause of irregularity. When there is a
+difference between these diameters the line formed by the teeth must
+either fall outside or within the arch of the maxilla and irregularities
+of arrangements result. The primary division of irregularities is the
+V-shaped and saddle-shaped arches. We have the V-shaped variety (Fig. 90,
+one of the typical forms), where the apex of a triangle is formed by the
+incisors, the base of the triangle being a line connecting the first two
+molars. If, because of premature or tardy extraction, the first molars
+move forward, or by coincidence of the arch of the maxilla and the arch of
+the crown of the teeth in trying to accommodate itself to the lesser arch
+of the maxilla, the arch becomes a broken line, forming an angle at the
+incisors. This angle results from two causes: the thinness of the process
+at this point and the diminution of resistance which must follow.
+
+When the permanent bicuspids erupt under a favourable condition, so that
+their greatest diameter is in a line with the greater diameter of both
+cuspids and first molar, they will be held firmly in place, since the
+greatest pressure is on this very line. On the other hand, when the
+bicuspids are erupted after their proper time, while the cuspids progress
+duly, and meeting no resistance fall into their proper places, but the
+bicuspids adapt themselves as best they can to the space left for them,
+and if the arch of the maxilla does not coincide with that of the crowns,
+they must fall within or without the arch. Now, if the first molar have
+moved forward, diminishing the space, the bicuspid must erupt either
+within or without the arch.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.]
+
+
+To understand why they are generally found within the arch, the shape of
+the molar and cuspids must be kept in mind. A transverse section of their
+crowns shows their proximal walls not to be parallel, but wedge-shaped,
+their diameter being greater on the buccal than on the palatal side. When
+the crowned bicuspid falls within the greatest diameter of these teeth,
+finding more room within the arch, they naturally slip in the direction of
+least resistance, _i.e._, toward the palate. A local cause for the same
+condition is found in the fact that the crown of the bicuspids, before
+their eruption, was held between the roots of the temporary molars, and,
+as these form an arch of a smaller circle than that of the permanent
+teeth, the bicuspids will be found generally inside the arch. From both
+causes occurs an inward curvature, which is termed the saddle-shaped arch
+(Fig. 91). It should be noted here that, since the V-shaped irregularity
+is found anterior to the cuspid, the upper incisors are always projecting
+beyond the lower; the saddle-shaped irregularity is invariably posterior
+to the cuspid from an inward curve. The incisors never project. Both forms
+contract the arch; the V-shaped anteriorly, the saddle-shaped posteriorly.
+In both forms the forward movement of the first molar is the local cause.
+
+Deformities of the dental arch are due, first, to arrest of development of
+the jaws, and, second, in the nature of the deformity, to the order of
+eruption of teeth, which rarely erupt twice alike. From an evolution
+standpoint these deformities are atavistic. The V-shaped reverts to the
+reptilian type; the saddle-shaped to the lower mammals. In the gorilla,
+the nearest to man in dentition, there is a very distinct approach to the
+saddle shape. In the chimpanzee it remains. The orang-outang exhibits less
+of this tendency. The arch of some of the cebidæ very nearly approaches
+man. It all depends upon the extent of prognathism. When that is reduced
+the arch appears and rectangular arrangements of the teeth are lost. Most
+carnivors exhibit a distinct approach to the saddle shape. Some felines
+have a shortening of the jaw, partly obliterating the tendency, but in
+most canidæ it is quite marked.
+
+These are facts which cannot be overlooked, since, from the very nature of
+development and eruption of the teeth, they cannot take any other form.
+The arrangement of the crowns of the cuspid (canine) in the jaw before
+eruption is such that, no matter what the local condition of the jaws or
+teeth may be the V-shaped or saddle-shaped dental arch must be produced.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.]
+
+
+In no symptoms is degeneracy so evident as in the stigmata resultant on
+hypertrophy of the alveolar process. This occurs at all ages, but more
+particularly at the period of development of the permanent set of teeth.
+The entire alveolar process may become involved (Fig. 92), or only a
+portion (Fig. 93).
+
+Hypertrophy of the alveolar process is the result of irritation incident
+upon eruption and the shedding of the temporary teeth, and eruption of the
+permanent teeth.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.]
+
+
+Laryngologists, rhinologists, and neurologists claim that certain vaults
+are deformities; in reality the alveolar process is hypertrophied. The
+jaws, as a whole, owing to an unstable and ill-balanced nervous system,
+are liable to become excessively developed, as well as arrested in
+development. Excessive development of the superior maxilla is evinced by a
+fulness of the upper lip. In these cases the upper maxilla is too large
+for the lower, and stands out beyond it. The lower may be quite normal.
+When there is simply a want of proportion between the two jaws, it is due
+to the diminutive or excessive size of one while the other is normal. The
+criterion in these cases must be the facial angle. The upper jaw is
+usually in harmony with the skeleton, while the lower jaw depends for its
+size largely upon function, its size being the result of accident rather
+than the result of general proportions.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.]
+
+
+When the upper jaw is normal, or smaller than the lower, the extent of the
+posterior portion is determined by the occlusion of the first permanent
+molar, which keeps the alveolar processes in permanent relation to each
+other at this point and allows freedom of development in front. If the
+occlusion be not normal, the upper jaw and alveolar process will develop
+laterally as well as anteriorly. The teeth of the anterior columns may
+either stand vertically, or they may be turned in toward the lower
+incisors. The latter defect is produced by the action of the lips. When
+the cuspids are in their normal position the upper incisors form a larger
+arch than the lower, and this permits of their being turned inward; but
+when the cuspids have moved so far forward that they are not normally
+interlocked with the lower teeth, the incisors are too crowded to permit
+this. While the jaws are growing smaller the teeth tend to cause reversion
+to the original form. Arrest of development of the superior maxilla is
+always associated with marked depression at the alæ of the nose, producing
+the appearance of having been hollowed out from a point at the floor of
+the orbit to the grinding surface of the lower teeth (Fig. 94).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.]
+
+
+Arrest of the lower jaw (Fig. 95) is common among degenerates. This
+consists of a shortening of the body of the jaw. Sometimes it is arrested
+to such an extent that there is apparently no chin. About 50 per cent. of
+criminals of Elmira, New York, have this deformity. The following table
+shows the number of deformities of the jaws and teeth which I have found
+among some of the degenerate classes.
+
+  -----------+------------------------------------------------------------
+  JAWS.      |Number examined.
+             |    +-------------------------------------------------------
+             |    |V-shaped.
+             |    |   +---------------------------------------------------
+             |    |   |Partial V.
+             |    |   |    +----------------------------------------------
+             |    |   |    | Semi-V.
+             |    |   |    |   +------------------------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |Saddle.
+             |    |   |    |   |   +--------------------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |Partial Saddle.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    +---------------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |Semi-Saddle.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   +-----------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |Normal.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    +------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |Arrested Development.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   +--------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |Excessive
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |Development.
+  -----------|    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   +----------------
+  TEETH.     |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |Irregular.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   +------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |Tubercles
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |of teeth.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |Present.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  +---------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |Tubercles
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |of teeth.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |Absent.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    +----
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |Reg-
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |ular.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  -----------+----+---+----+---+---+----+---+----+---+---+---+--+----+---
+  Criminals  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at         |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Pontiac,   |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 465| 75|  71|  3| 66|  63| 16| 171|...|...|123|13| 452|342
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Criminals  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at         |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Elmira,    |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  N. Y.      |1041|381|  49|  1|157|  26|...| 422|...|...|220|26|1015|821
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Criminals  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at         |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Joliet,    |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 468| 13|  79| 19| 59|  92| 24| 163|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Prostitutes|    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at Chicago,|    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Bridewell  |  30| 10|  17|  7| 27|  10| 10| ...|  1|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Insane at  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Dunning,   |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 700| 26|  47|...| 12| ...|...| 486|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Insane at  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Kankakee,  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 613| 69| 107| 29| 89| 105| 61| 153|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Idiots,    |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  imbeciles  |1977|129| 236|...|207| ...|...|1095|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Deaf and   |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Dumb       |1935|169| 192|...|203| ...|...| 901|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Blind      | 207|  7|   9|...| 11| ...|...| 105|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Inebriates |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  [219]      | 514|1·5|24·4|0·3|9·3|13·2|7·7|25·4|...|...|...|..|... |...
+  -----------+----+---+----+---+---+----+---+----+---+---+---+--+----+----
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+DEGENERACY OF THE BODY
+
+
+As degeneracy checks the natural course of embryonic development it
+necessarily finds expression in the body as well as in the skull. One most
+striking condition is that by which development of the bones enclosing the
+spinal cord is checked. The spinal cord is at first essentially a
+notochord as in the lowest types of vertebrates. The structures
+surrounding the cord are not divided into vertebræ. This condition is
+permanent in the lancelet. Around the notochord is later formed a species
+of membrane which protects it, called the perichord. This condition is the
+second stage of development of the cord and is the permanent condition in
+the lampreys. Later still the cartilaginous vertebræ develop, and then
+these ossify at the point in the perichord which is to form a vertebra,
+bows of dense tissue form which unite behind. In front similar bows form
+to constitute the bodies of the vertebræ. These bows remain ununited in
+some of the lower fish and at certain stages in the human embryo. As
+degeneracy checks the union of the bows of the vertebræ, imperfection, and
+even absence, of the union occur, which is called spina-bifida (Fig. 96).
+This condition when complete is rarely compatible with life. In a partial
+state it is often found among degenerates.[220] The seat of the trouble is
+frequently covered by an excessive development of hair (hypertrichosis),
+especially in the small of the back; this, which occurs very frequently in
+degenerates, resembles the tail which the ancients represented as that of
+the fauns.[221]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.]
+
+
+As the vertebræ unite irregularly, deviations or bends of the spine occur
+very frequently among degenerates. These may be of any of the types known
+to surgeons. In man the spinal column terminates in two bones. One of
+those (composed of five vertebræ) begins at eighteen years to unite slowly
+into a single bone called the sacrum. The bones of the sacral vertebræ
+form processes similar to those which are formed from the vertebræ of the
+chest region. These serve to cover the nerves of the sacral region. The
+bone immediately below the sacrum, called the coccyx, is essentially the
+representative of the tail in man. At a certain stage of human
+development, as in the tadpole, the tail disappears, the nine vertebræ
+forming the coccyx unite together and become a very diminutive bone which
+loses nearly all vertebral characteristics. Sometimes this bone retains
+its embryonic peculiarities to such an extent that it simulates in some
+degenerates a rudimentary tail. Of this many instances are on record. A
+greater degree of this condition has been found to occur, with comparative
+frequency, amongst the lowest negro races. In this respect these are below
+the anthropoid apes, where the tail, considered from the tail standpoint,
+has degenerated as in man for the benefit of the organism as a whole.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.]
+
+
+The ribs and breastbone develop from the processes of the vertebræ. It is
+probable that every vertebra originally had ribs. Traces of these exist in
+most vertebræ in the human embryo. In man, as a rule, there are but twelve
+vertebræ which develop true ribs. In degenerates, as in the gibbon, a
+thirteenth pair sometimes appears. Normally, the two lowest ribs are,
+however, very imperfectly developed as compared with the other ten, and
+one is sometimes absent. The rib develops from the ends of the vertebral
+bows, which, coming in contact with the muscle plates of their own segment
+of the body, are by the resulting bulging forced to expand, and later come
+together through the formation of the breastbone. Checking of these
+conditions produces various deformities of the chest which have been
+divided into "funnel-shaped" and "dropper" deformities.[222] Frequently
+the entire chest wall is arrested early in life (Fig. 97). The relation
+between the muscle plates and the course of development of the chest is
+illustrated by the fact that an arrest of development of important muscles
+often coexists with deformities of the chest. The human limbs are
+developments from the fin-folds as found in fishes and the human embryo.
+In one of these the fins are divided into four segments. The upper segment
+contains one long bone, the humerus (or arm bone), or the femur (or thigh
+bone). The second segment contains two long bones, the radius and ulna (or
+arm bones), or the tibia and fibula (or leg bones). The third segment
+consists of nine small bones, the carpals of the wrist or the tarsals of
+the ankle. The fourth segment consists of five separate digits. These
+limbs pass through three stages in embryonic development as to their
+position, which may be designated as amphibian, reptilian, and mammalian.
+Many of these bones fuse together (carpals and tarsals). The digits have
+long before the late fish stage been formed of more than one bone. At
+times this condition persists even after the completion of human embryonic
+development. Limb anomalies resulting from checks of development causing
+either excess or arrest of development are far from uncommon among
+degenerates, but are not so common as anomalies of form and proportion.
+Among such anomalies may be mentioned joined limbs (symelia), or the more
+or less complete absence of limbs (ectromelia), or the absence of a
+peripheric segment (hemimelia), or the complete or partial absence of a
+central segment (phocomelia). Among the other important degeneracies of
+the limbs are supernumerary digits. These Annadale[223] classifies as:
+First, a deficient digit loosely attached to the hand or foot or to
+another digit. Second, a more or less developed digit free at its
+extremity and articulating with other bones. Thirdly, a fully developed
+separate digit. Fourth, a digit united along its whole length with another
+digit. The first three types have been called polydactylia. The last has
+been called syndactylia. There is finally a condition in which union
+between the digits results in the disappearance of some of the fingers and
+toes (Fig. 98). This condition is called ectrodactylia. Supernumerary
+digits to the extent of six fingers and six toes are exceedingly common in
+the families of degenerates. The influence of heredity in this particular
+has been well demonstrated. The Kelleia family of Malta was one of the
+earliest reported. The condition may last for five generations,[224] but
+often disappears on marriage with normal persons outside the community or
+family. A family of the Arabian Hyabites, named Boldi, confined marriages
+to their own tribe. They all have twenty-four digits. Children born with a
+normal number are killed as being the offspring of adultery. The
+inhabitants of Cycaux, France, till the end of the eighteenth century, had
+nearly all supernumerary digits either on the hands or feet. Isolated in a
+mountainous region, they for years intermarried. On communication being
+opened, they emigrated or married strangers, and sexdigitism vanished.
+Maupertius reports the case of a German family whose members had
+twenty-four digits for many generations.[225] One of them refused to
+acknowledge a normal child. In one instance in the United States
+supernumerary digits lasted through five generations. A case reported[226]
+some years ago was the following: The first instance of the appearance of
+the deformity was in a man, born of a degenerate family in 1752, who had
+six toes on one foot. His son was born with six toes on one foot, but the
+daughter was normal. This daughter had five children; among them were a
+son and daughter, each of whom had six fingers on one hand. The
+granddaughter had eight children, including one son with six toes on one
+foot. Another son had two daughters, each having six fingers on each hand,
+and one daughter having twenty-four digits. This last girl had three
+children; the son was doubly deformed like his mother, while a second son
+had six fingers on each hand, the toes being normal. One of the two
+daughters of the fourth generation (with only the hands affected) had
+eight children, several of whom were normally developed, but the rest were
+deformed as follows: One daughter had an osseous thickening at the end of
+the digits, one son had twenty-four digits, another had twelve fingers,
+the toes being normal in number.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.]
+
+
+I have elsewhere cited an instance from Kiernan in which unilateral
+sexdigitism was found in four generations of Norwegian degenerates.
+
+Not unfrequently polydactylia is associated with the absence or union or
+decrease in size of bones of the limbs. It happens that the upper or
+lower extremities may be increased or diminished disproportionately
+through the body. This disproportion in size of the fingers and toes is
+exceedingly frequent. Big digits (macrodactylia, Fig. 99) are
+comparatively rare, and may only involve a supernumerary bone in the
+thumb. Short digits (microdactylia) are much more frequent. This state may
+be constituted by the absence of one bone or the union of two bones, or
+the shortening of metacarpal or metatarsal bones, or the shortness of
+several phalangeal bones. There may be increased disproportion between the
+different fingers. The method of determining this is by comparison with
+the middle finger. This disproportion may vary greatly. Féré is of opinion
+that shortening of all the fingers constitutes a grave mark of degeneracy.
+Relative shortness is exceedingly common.
+
+Under the conditions of development of the limbs from the fin-fold, it
+follows that these may be checked completely so that the condition
+approximates the earlier development from the fish. On the other hand the
+large bones of the arm and thigh may be checked while the digits and the
+two lower bones (radius and ulna, tibia and fibula) go on to full
+development as do the digits. Sometimes the arms develop completely while
+the lower extremity remains in the fin-fold state. On the other hand the
+arms may be checked and remain in the fin-fold state while the legs go on
+to full development. Sometimes the bones of the arm and forearm are
+checked while the digits go on to full development. The lower extremities
+are sometimes fused together. This condition, from its resemblance to the
+like state in the seal, is called phocomelia, or seal limbs. They are
+also called sirens, on account of the resemblance to the sirens of
+mythology.[227]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.]
+
+
+Other expressions of degeneracy, albeit sometimes secondary, are club-foot
+and club-hands (Fig. 100). In many instances these are retentions of
+positions assumed by the limbs of the foetus in the course of evolution,
+and are therefore, in the adult, expressions of degeneracy. Club-foot was
+an expression of degeneracy which appeared in Byron, the poet, as a
+consequence of the degeneracy present in both the Byrons and the Gordons,
+as Kiernan has shown.[228] Commenting on this condition as found in
+Byron, F. S. Coolidge, of Chicago, remarks: "Byron undoubtedly suffered
+from double congenital club-foot, the deformity being worse on the right."
+While in Coolidge's opinion congenital club-foot unquestionably arises
+from different causes, it is, however, so frequently an accompaniment of
+severe forms of mal-development and of congenital brain defects, that
+there can be no doubt but that imperfect constitutional development is one
+of its causes. That the deformity with the many limitations which it
+involves may tend to create morbidness is very likely to be an additional
+symptom of the degeneracy which, in certain cases, is the underlying cause
+for the deformity. Dareste, who has studied the club-foot and the
+club-hand from the standpoint of experimental teratology, finds that in no
+small number of cases club-foot and club-hand result from checked
+development. Absence of the kneecap or patella may, as H. N. Moyer has
+shown, be an expression of degeneracy.[229]
+
+The conditions resultant on checked development may appear in any of the
+bony or muscular structures. At times muscles checked in development pass
+on to conditions present in the lower apes.[230] Sometimes the checked
+development of bones results in artery courses which are present in some
+of the lower animals. Just above the bend of the elbow in the embryo is an
+opening through which an artery passes in many quadrupeds. In adult man,
+as a rule, this has disappeared, but not rarely in degenerates the opening
+persists with the artery through it.
+
+Hernias, of all varieties, are noticeably hereditary,[231] but what is
+hereditary is not the rupture, but the laxity of the orifice of the cavity
+of the abdomen. As descent of the testicles from the abdomen (where they
+are embryonically in man and normally in many animals) is often delayed
+and even does not occur in degenerates, hernia of the groin variety is
+particularly apt to occur in them. These hernias are often found united
+with defects of the testicles as well as deficiencies of the chest.
+Deformities of the nose are also especially apt to coexist with these.
+
+Degenerate women frequently have supernumerary milk glands arranged on the
+abdomen as in some lemurs, while males may have supernumerary breasts of
+either male or female type. These breasts may be represented by nipples
+alone. In either sex arrested development of the face, middle ear, and
+palate often coexists with these supernumerary breasts.
+
+The degeneracies of the body combine so frequently with those of the skull
+and the brain as to indicate a common origin. Polydactylia is found with
+almost all the degeneracies of the body. It occurs with all the
+degeneracies of the eye, from those which are purely atavistic like
+coloboma to those like retinitis pigmentosa and amauroses, which are
+atavistic in origin. Hare-lip, cleft palate, and deformities of the jaws
+and teeth are often found associated with all the bodily degeneracies and
+the nutritive, intellectual, and moral degeneracies as well. Phocomelia
+with brain deformity has been found associated with them. Anomalies of the
+genital organs are also quite frequently associated with these and with
+finger anomalies. In the subjects of juvenile obesity are frequently
+associated unstable mentality and will-power, and delayed or precocious
+sexual maturity. My own observations have shown this condition to be
+frequently associated with the jaw and teeth degeneracies.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.]
+
+
+Aside from their general significance as stigmata of degeneracy, anomalies
+of the external ear have been found frequently associated with
+mal-development of lungs, kidneys, liver, and intestines. Hidden
+spina-bifida is often associated with the same anomalies, and not rarely
+with irregular development of the genital organs of both sexes. Albinism
+or deficient pigment in the skin and hair is not only often associated
+with grave degeneracies, intellectual and moral, but appears combined with
+mal-development of the spleen, liver, and kidneys. The opposite state
+(melanoderma, or black skin) is often associated with similar deformities,
+especially with early precocity in development. It has also been found in
+connection with hairlessness and irregularities in development of the
+teeth and jaws.
+
+The deformities of the chest and their resulting interferences with
+respiration are not only associated with conditions like narrowing of the
+pulmonary artery, of the aorta, and with cardiac deformities, but also
+lead to diminution of the respiratory power and, in consequence, to
+conditions predisposing to pneumonia and consumption. They are also, as my
+own observation has shown, associated with deformities of the face, of the
+nose, of the mouth cavity, of the palate, and of the jaws. These
+conditions result in mouth breathing and in other conditions which
+predispose to the attacks of microbes. The deformities of the arterial
+system coexisting with checked development of the chest are apt to extend
+to the blood vessels of the kidneys, and therefore to retain these in the
+embryonic condition, thus predisposing them to disease. To a somewhat
+lesser degree this arterial condition coexisting with checked development
+of the chest or with the other arrested conditions of development
+associated with it, may extend to the liver in such a degree as to prevent
+it destroying the toxins of typhoid fever and allied diseases, thereby
+increasing the dangers from these disorders. The same influence may be
+exerted on the spleen and suprarenal capsules, thus interfering with the
+physiologic guards these organs furnish against disease and its results.
+Not infrequently do these last conditions tend to give an epileptic
+character to degeneracies which would otherwise be destitute of it. With
+the interference with the proper blood supply, due to checked conditions
+of the organs named, may occur gout, diabetes, and many forms of
+rheumatism with their secondary consequences.
+
+The imperfect and irregular action of the lungs associated with the
+arrests in development of the face, nose, palate, jaws, and chest may
+produce an irregular blood supply to the brain, which will exaggerate the
+mental instability of the degenerate.
+
+Among the conditions which are expressions of degeneracy of the body,
+combined with degeneracy of the head and face, are three conditions known
+as infantilism, masculinism, and feminism. Practically all three are
+arrests of development of the promise of the child type. Owing to the
+struggle for existence which occurs at puberty between the old type of the
+chondrocranium and its new type as supplemented by the dermal bones, the
+nervous system takes a distorted ply which arrests both the bodily,
+nervous, and mental development at certain points. In infantilism the
+arrest is of the future promise of the child, so that the body and face
+remain at the childish point, or the body and nervous system are checked,
+or finally the nervous system or certain organs alone are checked while
+the body goes on to full development. Not infrequently the face is
+arrested at any period from birth to puberty (Fig. 101). Hence the reason
+many persons retain their youthful appearance throughout life. These
+people are often vain and egotistic. The mental stamina is weak, and they
+are frequently unreliable, while the females are often prostitutes or
+prurient prudes, hysteric reformers or gossip mongers.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.]
+
+
+The female type, from the standpoint of bodily and nervous development,
+most nearly approximates the promise of the child type, and checks of
+development will result in masculinism and feminism. In the first the
+female has proceeded so far in development as to have female organs and
+their functions while retaining traces of a predominant character of the
+lower male type. In the second, the male has proceeded along the line of
+evolution toward the female type, but ere sex has been fixed, further
+development has been checked and the male type is finally assumed as the
+predominant one. Both sexes proceed embryologically from an indifferent
+type nearly resembling the hermaphroditic type found in the lower
+vertebrates. The arrest of development may therefore take place at any
+point in the embryonic evolution. The male may preserve only the female
+breasts[232] (Fig. 102), while normal in other respects; or, again (Fig.
+103), present cryptorchidism or sloping shoulders, and be otherwise
+masculine. On the other hand, his nervous system may have taken such a ply
+that at the period of puberty the sexual instincts may be female in type.
+In some instances, this may extend merely to an extreme modesty toward
+males, to an intense liking for female occupations and disgust for male
+occupations. In the female precisely analogous conditions may occur. In
+certain cases the sex side is entirely dormant until awakened at puberty.
+Education of these cases of arrested development may give the sex
+direction rather than any in-born tendency. In one case, a male who had
+undergone arrest of development in his evolution towards the female type
+was brought up as a girl, had unusually pleasing womanly qualities; as a
+result was married twice to intensely devoted husbands, and the real sex
+was never even suspected until post-mortem examination revealed that the
+supposed woman was a male. In other cases where the nervous system has
+taken one sexual ply, while the body has taken another, an exceedingly
+unfortunate class of beings results. This class of beings needs especially
+careful training during puberty and adolescence. In some instances in
+addition to the sexual distortion there exist in these beings conditions
+of mental defect and moral obliquity. In the last case they approximate
+the criminal type. In the first case residence in an insane hospital
+protects the community and these beings against themselves. In some
+instances no mental defect nor, in a strict sense, moral obliquity occurs.
+Here the patient requires very careful study from every standpoint.[233]
+There is in the higher and lower races a tendency in different directions
+as to the predominance of sex. The woman of the lower races more nearly
+resembles the male of the race. The male of the higher races more nearly
+resembles in structure the female of his race than does this female the
+females of the lower race. This is in part due, in the course of
+evolution, to the intrusion of the male on female occupations, since all
+occupations, other than war, hunting, and fishing, were created by
+women.[234] The male, however, in the higher races, while thus taking on
+the female intellectual and æsthetic qualities, retains the male sexual
+characteristics, mentally and physically, but in accordance with the law
+of evolution, these manifest themselves less explosively as in the case of
+the female. As the victim of masculinism or feminism is a degenerate the
+explosive manifestations are more marked. Every one of the stigmata of
+degeneracy already described may coexist with any one of the three
+conditions named: infantilism, masculinism, and feminism.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.]
+
+
+Among the most striking manifestations arising from arrest of development
+in certain directions with possible hypertrophy in others, are the
+conditions known as giantism and dwarfism (_see_ Frontispiece). Both these
+conditions may be expressions of atavism to no very remote ancestors and
+present little if any evidences of degeneracy. In other cases degeneracy
+may be well marked, and the condition be due to imperfect gland action,
+such as disorder of the pituitary body, which causes very frequently an
+enlargement of many of the bones of the body, and very often a uniform
+enlargement of all the bones. Indeed, as Marie has said, giantism is
+acromegaly occurring during the period of adolescence. In many instances
+the opposite condition, dwarfism, occurs during infancy from causes which
+check the further growth of the body, although the general functions
+remain unchanged. Dwarfism is very apt to be attended by preservation of
+the intellectual faculties without evidence of degeneracy, other than the
+egotism shown in extreme vanity. Moral defects are, however, more apt to
+occur in dwarfism than in giantism, in which last condition mental defect
+is apt to occur, varying from a simple good-humoured stupidity to
+feeble-mindedness. In proportion as the central nervous system has been
+affected will the stigmata of degeneracy appear in both conditions. As the
+line between disease and disordered function is not thinly drawn in these
+cases, disorders like rickets or local bony tendencies to extensive growth
+may coexist with both conditions. Infantilism is peculiarly apt to occur
+with giantism, and while less frequent in dwarfism it also occurs, but is
+then especially apt to be associated with rickets.
+
+Closely akin to these conditions are leontiasis ossium and acromegaly,
+both of which are characterised by similar trophoneurotic defects. The
+first of these conditions may occur precedent to puberty and cease in its
+completion. Kiernan has observed this in the case of an imbecile on Ward's
+Island, who lived until the age of 75, after spending more than sixty
+years in the charitable institutions of New York. His ancestry was of the
+criminal and defective classes. Acromegaly is characterised by abnormal
+growth, chiefly in the bones of the head, face, and extremities. As a
+rule, the disorder begins at the completion of puberty, although it
+occasionally occurs at the onset of the climacteric. The illustration
+given (Fig. 104) presents the characteristic features of the disease. In
+this case there are local evidences of congenital defect. The prevailing
+trend of opinion is that this condition is due to irregular action of the
+pituitary body which controls osseous development.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.]
+
+
+As already pointed out in the chapter on Heredity and Atavism, the arrests
+of development may affect one side of the body, while the other pursues
+the direct course of development. This may show itself in over-growth, as
+well as in under-growth, on the affected side. The person may appear, even
+from the centre of the forehead down, as if the halves of the bodies of
+two different persons had been joined in one. Conditions may vary from
+this extreme type to a state in which a lack of proper nerve and blood
+supply on the undeveloped side predisposes to attacks of disease, as
+already pointed out.
+
+Not rarely does it happen that acromegaly attacks the side most deficient
+in nerve supply. The same is true of allied disorders affecting the growth
+of the muscles.
+
+The conditions of development may be such that both sides are equally
+defective in nerve supply, so that when acromegaly occurs it may attack
+both sides equally. This is particularly apt to be the case with the lower
+extremities, and enlarged feet (Fig. 105) are not an uncommon result.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.]
+
+
+The feet, in addition to the condition already described as being common
+in both extremities, exhibit special stigmata of their own in consonance
+with the evolutionary advance which the foot has shown as compared with
+the hand in man's evolution. In the lower races the hollow of the foot
+does not exist, and the condition known as flat-foot occurs (Fig. 106).
+This is usually associated with low instep. It occurs among the stigmata
+of degeneracy, and is not rarely associated with grave moral defects and
+intellectual distortions. It and other feet degeneracies have been found
+frequently among paranoiacs, moral imbeciles, and prostitutes. This is
+particularly true of the prehensile power of the foot.[235]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+DEGENERACY IN REVERSIONAL TENDENCIES
+
+
+The hair of the head and body may never develop from the condition of down
+(lanugo) present in the new-born. The hair over the sexual organs may
+alone remain in this condition, not showing itself at puberty. In women
+the hair may be unusually developed on the face and chest. It may also
+cover the whole body, a condition which is normal in the Ainus of Japan.
+It may develop, as already shown, very markedly in the lumbar regions.
+
+Speech may be markedly disturbed, reverting to the condition of Haeckel's
+Homo-alalus in the shape of deaf-mutism, which is one of the extreme
+expressions of degeneracy. Not less than 93 per cent. of the cases of
+congenital deaf-mutism possess deformities of the head, face, jaws, and
+teeth. The mere fact of the exceedingly primitive structure of the
+internal auditory mechanism has abnormal or defective hearing power as a
+consequence. Many cases of congenital deaf-mutism owe their origin to
+this, inasmuch as the auditory mechanism is not in a condition to
+appreciate sound, even though the individual may not have been born deaf,
+and the whole auditory apparatus subsequently degenerates. A mental
+defect is sometimes superadded, thus aggravating the case. Upon general
+principles, since deformities of the head, face, jaws, nose, antra,
+vaults, &c., are common in neurotics and degenerates, stigmata of the
+ear-bones must occasionally take place. From the complicated structure of
+the ear, lesions must often result from such deformities. The deaf-mutism
+here considered is the result of congenital conditions not produced by
+disease. Dumbness may result from congenital defects of the tongue or
+deformities of the larynx of an atavistic or a degenerate type, but
+degeneracy rarely extends so deeply into the organism as in the case of
+deaf-mutism. No greater error is committed than the confusion of deaf
+mutism secondary to ear disease with the congenital type.
+
+The most prominent reversional tendencies occur in the genitals. One very
+common condition is retention of the testicles within the abdomen
+(_cryptorchidism_), which has been already pointed out, and may represent
+the last expiring trace of degeneracy. The testicles may, however, be
+perfectly normal in structure and function. In the female the uterus may
+present every type of mammalian uterus from the marsupial up. The female
+may also revert (as more rarely the male) to the condition of the reptiles
+and oviparous mammals in which the urinary organs and bowels empty into a
+single opening, the cloaca. This condition has been found in the female
+offspring of degenerate families, who are otherwise normal and who have
+produced children, despite the cloaca.
+
+Another reversion is the occurrence of breasts without nipples, resembling
+those found in the oviparous mammals. The breasts in degenerates, as
+already shown, are frequently multiple, sometimes because the law of
+individuation is reversed, but more often as a reversion to the
+many-breasted condition (_polymastia_) of the precursor of man.[236] The
+human kidney and liver may revert not merely in function alone to the
+sauropsida, but also in structure.
+
+The human heart may present in degenerates all types from the pulsating
+vessel found in the lancelet up to that of the mammal. The imperfect types
+of these sometimes perform their functions properly, except under strain.
+In other cases mixture of arterial and venous blood results, producing the
+so-called "blue babies."
+
+Under the teachings of the extreme disciples of Morel, it has been assumed
+that the family of the degenerate tends to irrevocable extinction. On the
+principle of individuation already outlined from Spencer, degeneracy,
+through its tendency to generalise rather than specialise function, causes
+too rapid development of cells which tend to extinguish each other, thus
+preventing proper ovulation; and, in the next place, the same condition
+prevents proper development of the ovum if formed and fecundated; and,
+finally, causes too numerous simultaneous developments of ova, which would
+tend to destroy each other. The same cause produces also premature
+extrusion of ova. At the same time, however, under given conditions, this
+principle also tends to produce reversions in type in the shape of too
+frequently repeated and abnormally multiple births. It has been noted that
+even the ancestors of those predisposed to phthisis have numerous families
+and many children at a birth albeit most of these die ere reaching the
+sixth year. Marandon de Monteyel[237] finds that multiple and frequently
+repeated pregnancies often occur among the families of hereditary
+lunatics. This has been corroborated by Kiernan[238] and Harriet C. B.
+Alexander,[239] of Chicago, in connection with the hereditary lunatics in
+Cook County. They found that 90 families of the hereditary insane averaged
+11 children each. Six families had 5 children, 4 had 7 children, 8 had 8,
+10 had 9, 14 had 10, 8 had 11, 4 had 12, 4 had 13, 4 had 14, 3 had 16, 3
+had 17, 4 had 18, 3 had 19, 5 had 20, and 1 had 21 children, each. Twins,
+triplets, and quadruplets were six times as frequent as among normal
+families. Manning has found similar conditions among the hereditary insane
+in Australia. Valenta, of Vienna,[240] has noted this also among
+epileptics. He reports the case of an epileptic mother who had 36
+children, including six twins, four times quadruplets, twice triplets. Her
+daughter, also an epileptic, bore 32 children before she was 40, including
+quadruplets twice, triplets four times, and twins once. Similar, though
+less striking, statistics occur with other classes of degenerates with
+proportionate frequency when the sterilising effect of certain diseases to
+which they are specially liable is taken into account. The general
+acceptance of the opinion as to large families being a test of advance in
+evolution seems strange when the extent and force of the action of the
+principle of individuation is taken into account, and when it is
+remembered how prolific are the lower vertebrates as compared with the
+higher.
+
+The origin of tumours on the principle now adopted depends essentially on
+that reverse of the principle of individuation, illustrated in plural
+births.
+
+One most striking expression of nutritive degeneracy is hæmophilia or the
+diathesis of the "bleeders." This, as Potain has pointed out, is not met
+with except in families which are subject to nutritive or graver
+degeneracies. Dent has shown that definite mental peculiarities,
+especially an inability (stronger than unwillingness) to tell the truth,
+are especially common in bleeders.[241] Hæmophilia was frequently
+encountered in the Valois[242] family, and has been met with in the
+descendants of Ernest the Pious of Hanover. The condition, as Osler,[243]
+of Baltimore, points out, is characterised by a tendency to uncontrollable
+bleeding, either spontaneous or from slight wounds. The hereditary
+transmission in this disorder is decided. In the Appleton-Swain family, of
+Reading, Mass., there have been cases for nearly two centuries. Instances
+have already occurred in the seventh generation. The usual mode of
+transmission is through the mother, who is not herself a bleeder, but the
+daughter of one. Atavism through the female is the rule. The daughters of
+a bleeder, though healthy and free from any tendency, are almost certain
+to transmit the disposition to the male offspring. The affection is much
+more common in males than in females, the proportion being estimated at 11
+to 1, or even 13 to 1. The tendency usually appears within the first two
+years of life. It is rare for manifestations to be delayed until the tenth
+or twelfth year. Families in all conditions of life are affected.
+Bleeders, like other degenerates, may have large families; the members
+usually have fine soft skin. In all probability, as the researches of Cohn
+show, this condition is due to incomplete inhibition, resultant in
+excessive activity of the blood-making organs. Such inhibition is, of
+course, cerebral, and hence, as a later acquirement, readily affected by
+degeneracy which may find its chief expression in this defect.
+
+Among the conditions that have been recognised as an expression of
+degeneracy is gout, which, as Fothergill long ago pointed out, is a
+reversion to the condition found in the sauropsidian liver and kidneys.
+Cullen had previously expressed the opinion that gout is a neurosis. Later
+researches tend to show that this neurosis is one controlling nutritive
+tissue change. The condition may occur early in childhood as well as at
+the periods of stress. The same is true of conditions like arthritis
+deformans, all of which may be the sole expression of degeneracy in an
+individual who exhibits many marked stigmata. Another expression of
+nutritive degeneracy is the senile atrophy of the skin described by
+Souques.[244] In a case of this kind under my care the patient, a
+twenty-six-year-old man, was born with club-foot. He has some musical
+talent. He is a marked degenerate. The skin is thick, coarse, and dry,
+giving him a very old appearance on account of its shrivelled condition.
+The ears are undeveloped, eyes small and sunken; excessive development of
+the cheek-bones; hair coarse and stiff; face arrested in development,
+possessing a partial V-shaped arch. The width outside first molar is 2;
+outside second bicuspid, 1·75; width of vault, 1·50; height of vault,
+·58. One of the prominent features of degeneracy noticed in this case was
+the lack of hair upon the face.
+
+Disorder of the thyroid produces both dwarfing cretinism, and a
+myxoedematous condition of the subcutaneous tissues, increasing the
+quantity of the jelly-like material in these, and therefore approximating
+some conditions found in the invertebrates. Ichthyosis (the skin disorder
+producing the "fish men" of shows) is frequently an expression of
+degeneracy, often associated with deficient limbs and monsters in the same
+family.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.]
+
+
+A condition due to heredity (involving an arterial change called
+arterio-capillary fibrosis) underlies many disorders like cirrhosis of the
+liver, kidneys, and other organs. It is usually an expression of
+premature senescence. Certain families for this reason exhibit a tendency
+to an early appearance of old age (Fig. 107), a tendency which, as Osler
+remarks, cannot be explained in any other way than that in the make-up of
+the machine bad material was used for tubing.
+
+Obesity or lipomatosis is a nutritive expression of degeneracy especially
+noticeable in the second dentition, at puberty, and sometimes at the
+climacteric. As Féré has shown, lipomatosis (first noticed by Cruveilhier)
+is an expression of stress at the period of evolution. Youthful obesity
+occurs in descendants of degenerates. In my experience it is attended by
+great liability to disease and systemic weakness when under morbid
+influence. These lipomatosic children are liable to rheumatism (more
+properly gout) and great hemorrhage from slight causes. Youthful obesity
+is sometimes, as Féré remarks, associated with precocious maturity and
+resultant early senescence, but more often with extended infantilism, as
+in the case of Dickens's "fat boy."
+
+In connection with this question of obesity I examined 267 corpulent
+school children and adults. Nearly all had marked stigmata of degeneracy;
+92 per cent. had deformed ears to a marked degree; 66 per cent. had
+arrested development as compared with their age, while 12 per cent.
+presented excessive development; 34 were too young to show the final form
+and size of the jaw. Of the 34, in about 33-1/3 per cent., the molars,
+incisors, cuspids and bicuspids were present; 96 per cent. of these had
+small teeth. Of the remaining 233, 87 per cent. had arrested development
+of the upper jaw, 22 per cent. of the lower jaw, 64 per cent. had V or
+saddle-shaped arches or their modifications and protruding teeth; 17 per
+cent. had hypertrophy of the alveolar process; 83 per cent. had small
+teeth; 27 per cent. had extra tubercles upon the molars; 82 per cent. had
+stenosis of the nasal cavity more or less marked; 36 per cent. had
+deflection of the nasal septum to the left, and 29 per cent. to the right;
+21 per cent. wore glasses for eye defects. In 58 per cent. there was
+enlargement of the thyroid gland, and in 7 per cent. arrest of development
+of the same.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.]
+
+
+Among the structures of reversionary type that have attracted most
+attention of late years is the appendix vermiformis. This, as elsewhere
+shown, is a rudimentary offshoot which is extremely variable. Man retains
+this structure as a relic of having been at one time a vegetable feeder.
+In the koala (Australian native bear), a vegetable-feeding marsupial, it
+is more than thrice the size of the body. In the carnivora it has entirely
+vanished. In man, where it is sometimes absent and sometimes is as largely
+developed as in the orang, it is commonly from four to five inches in
+length and about a third of an inch in diameter. The appendix is poorly
+supplied with blood, which predisposes it to attacks by microbes because
+of the absence of leucocytes to fight these, and also because being, so to
+speak, a blind ally of the intestine, microbes find in it a suitable
+culture medium for them. The secretions of the appendix are very apt to
+decompose: hence a culture medium. The extreme variability of this
+disappearing organ may be judged from the Figs. 108, 109, 110. As it is
+best developed in degenerates, it constitutes in them one source of
+predisposition to death from blood poisoning or from sudden shock. The
+location of this organ also tends to facilitate disease. In degenerates it
+may be situated at any point upon the end of the big bowel, varying from
+two to three inches. This little bowel is worse than useless in man, being
+a source of serious danger. It is an instance of checked development of
+the same kind which causes the human liver to take on sauropsidian
+peculiarities. Man in this particular as well as the orang is lower than
+the carnivora, who have lost this worse than useless organ. Its tendency
+to disappearance in man indicates once more the truth that degeneracy of
+an organ is often, through the law of economy of growth, for the benefit
+of the organism as a whole.
+
+I may conclude this outline of human reversionary tendencies by mentioning
+that merycism, or rumination, has been very frequently found among
+imbeciles, paranoiacs, hysterics, and epileptics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+DEGENERACY OF THE BRAIN
+
+
+One illustration, and a very striking one, of the influence of degeneracy
+on the brain is the durencephalous child which so often appears in
+degenerate families. Here the cerebral hemispheres and everything but the
+medulla and pons may be absent, while the rest of the body is in a
+comparatively normal state of development. Starting with such an extreme
+expression of degeneracy in the brain, a wide but closely linked range of
+deficiencies may be found in the brain of degenerates, involving even in
+some almost normal individuals more than simple deficiency. What was
+pointed out by Spitzka,[245] of New York, twenty years ago concerning the
+brain of hereditary lunatics, is equally true of the brains of the other
+degenerate branches of the same tree. The conventional notion associating
+idiocy and imbecility with quantitative deficiency of the forebrain only
+is, as Spitzka remarked, a very imperfect one. The researches of numerous
+observers have shown that qualitative defects (using the term qualitative
+in its wider sense to cover both morphologic and histologic aberrations)
+are as common, and are more characteristic features of the degenerate
+brain. These defects may be enumerated under the following heads: 1.
+Atypical asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres as regards bulk. 2.
+Atypical asymmetry in the gyral development. 3. Persistence of embryonic
+features in the gyral arrangement. 4. Defective development of the great
+interhemispherical commisure. 5. Irregular and defective development of
+the great ganglia and of the conducting tracts. 6. Anomalies in the
+development of the minute elements or neurons (as the cells and
+associating of fibres are now generally called) of the brain. 7. Abnormal
+arrangements of the cerebral vascular channels. All of these conditions,
+separately or in the combination of several of the features above
+mentioned, are occasionally found in the brain of paranoiacs, moral
+imbeciles, criminals, deaf-mutes and other degenerates. Of the first type
+the brain (Fig. 111), from the practice of Kiernan, is an excellent
+illustration. This brain came from a paranoiac criminal who died in the
+Chicago (Cook County) Insane Hospital. A very similar brain was observed
+by Kiernan in one of the paranoiacs dying in the New York City Insane
+Hospital. Similar brains have been observed in deaf-mutes[246] whose
+mental status passed muster because of the allowance made for mental
+deficiency due to deaf-muteness. A brain showing as great asymmetry was
+found in the case of a French physician of standing who was a member of a
+mutual autopsy society. He proved, however, to have had degenerates in his
+ancestry and had exhibited peculiarities which showed that much of the
+degeneracy due to this ancestry had been corrected by proper training. The
+defects enumerated under Spitzka's second head are also observable in the
+illustration given. The gyres are not only asymmetrical as to their number
+in the two hemispheres, but also as to their size. The contrast between
+this brain and the ideally normal one of the mathematician Gauss[247]
+(Fig. 112) could not well be greater. Both of these as regards complexity
+of gyres contrast very decidedly with both the foetal brain given by
+Bastian (Fig. 113) and the idiot brain (Fig. 114) of a patient of Kiernan.
+The persistency of embryonic features in the gyral arrangement is
+excellently illustrated in Fig. 115, which represents the brain of an
+imbecile examined by Spitzka. Here the convolutions in general were few,
+large, and well marked.[248] The occipital and parietal lobes
+preponderated in mass as compared with the temporal and frontal. The
+latter were greatly hollowed out on the orbital face, and the gyri here
+found were few, simple, and atypical. On the whole the convolutions of the
+right hemisphere were better marked and the secondary folds more numerous
+than those of the left hemisphere, and the type of the convolutions
+presented differences on the two sides. The most pronounced differences
+were exhibited in the island of Reil and in the occipital lobe. The island
+of Reil on the left side had fewer and flatter gyri than that of the right
+side, and resembled in its general aspect the first impression of the
+brain of an orang-outang. The right island had six folds better marked
+than those of the left side, but their type was more decidedly radiatory,
+which was in relation with the unusual shortening of the insular field.
+The external perpendicular occipital sulcus which Bischoff never found in
+the adult human brain (but which has been found persistent in a case of
+imbecility with moral perversion by Sander and in a sane neurotic
+individual by Meynert) was finely marked upon the right side of the brain
+under consideration. The fissure was very deep, its posterior wall was
+slightly bevelled, and covered several secondary gyri of its anterior
+walls. It differed in position from the similar fissures described by
+Meynert and Sander in that it did not, as in these cases, unite with the
+internal perpendicular occipital sulcus and thus simulate the arrangement
+found in the anthropoid apes. It was merely the unobliterated external
+occipital fissure of the embryo, and, as in the latter, its medial end if
+prolonged would have fallen behind the internal perpendicular occipital
+sulcus. The anomaly consisted therefore in the preservation of an
+embryonic feature. The arrest of development involved the generally better
+developed hemisphere. On the left side gyri and sulci were few and simple
+but typical, the external perpendicular occipital sulcus being interrupted
+by a broad crossing gyrus. On transverse vertical sections through the
+hemispheres the average vertical thickness is found to be the same on both
+sides and normal. The great ganglia were of relatively large dimension,
+and the white mass of the hemisphere, aside from the internal capsule and
+the other detachments mediating the connection of the cortex with lower
+centres, relatively reduced. The caudate nucleus appeared to be of bolder
+contour on the right side. The right lenticular nucleus presented a larger
+section area by about 25 per cent. than its fellow of the opposite side.
+It was much shorter, however, like the insular territory of the same side,
+and in corresponding sections the posterior end of the left lenticular
+nucleus was struck while the right was absent. The right nucleus was
+rounder, the left more triangular in contour in corresponding altitudes.
+The olivary bodies were asymmetrical, the right one being flatter and
+smoother than the left. On transverse sections no difference between the
+olivary nuclei beyond that which occurs in healthy persons could be found;
+the asymmetry was ascertainably one of prominence only. There was one
+morphologic appearance noticeable in the fourth layer of the paracentral
+cortex. This consisted of the presence of round bodies comparable to the
+nuclei of nerve cells within a thin or no mantle of protoplasm, and
+presenting every gradation from the free nuclei of the neurolgia, so
+called, to nerve cells with imperfect processes. These bodies in the human
+cortex represent imperfectly developed nerve cells and are normally found
+in the cortex of lower animals. The barren layer or ependyma of the cortex
+was in places twice as thick in this brain as in the brain of normal
+beings. This ependyma is the histologic factor of the enormous weight of
+macrocephalic brains. In a macrocephalic case coming under the observation
+of Kiernan, of Chicago, in which the brain weighed 68 ounces, the ependyma
+was five times the normal thickness. The conditions to which Spitzka
+refers are more or less constantly found in degeneracy. The readiness with
+which any form of the degenerate series may undergo a metamorphosis into
+another in the course of hereditary transmission is not, Spitzka remarks,
+interpretable in any other light than that of the transmission of
+structure defects either intensified or mitigated in the course of such
+transmission.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.]
+
+
+Transmission of many of these cerebral defects occurs at the moment of
+conception. The embryonic mechanism of these defects, and the influence
+which foetal and maternal impressions and injuries exert on the
+development of the nerve centres, furnish valuable argument by analogy in
+support of conclusions regarding the degeneracy group. Embryologists
+imitate known natural teratological states of the nerve centres by
+artificial methods. By wounding the embryonic and vascular areas of the
+chick's germ with a cataract needle malformations are induced, varying in
+intensity and character with the earliness of the injury and its precise
+extent. More delicate injuries produce less monstrous development. It is
+particularly the partial varnishing or irregular heating of the egg-shell
+that results in the production of anomalies comparable to microcephaly and
+cerebral asymmetry. The constancy of the injurious effect of so apparently
+slight an impression as the partial varnishing of a structure not directly
+connected with the embryo at all, suggests a most plausible explanation of
+maternal and other impressions acting on the germ. The delicate problems
+in this connection may be inferred from the observations of Dareste that
+eggs transported in railroad cars, and thus subject to the vibration and
+repeated shocks of a railroad journey, are checked in development for
+several days. A less coarse molecular transmission taking place during the
+maturation of the ovum or its fertilisation, or, finally, during the
+embryonic stages of the more complex and hence more readily disturbed and
+distorted human germ, would account for the disastrous effects of
+insanity, emotional explosions, and mental or physical shocks of either
+parent on the offspring.
+
+For the majority of cerebral deformities the causes of the deformity must
+exist in the germ prior to the appearance of the separate organs of the
+body. Artificial deformities produce analogous results because they
+imitate original germ defects either by mechanical removal or by some
+other interference with a special part of the germ. Early involvement of
+the germ is shown in the fact that the somatic malformation in degeneracy
+often involves other parts of the body than the nervous axis: defective
+development of the uro-genital system, deformities in the face, skull,
+irregularities of the teeth, misshapen ears and limbs.
+
+Those who seek for the source of the arrested or perverted brain
+development in the reaction of an abnormally growing and ossifying skull
+on the skull contents are in error. The premature ossification theory does
+not hold good even for the microcephali; it is to be doubted if it ever
+had any justification in view of the often open character of the sutures.
+Taking the well-studied cases of asymmetry, the variability of a single
+factor shows that caution is needed in referring cerebral anomalies to any
+single influence. In Muhr's case (cited by Spitzka) the atrophic
+cerebellar hemisphere was on the same side with the atrophic cerebral
+hemisphere. The internal carotid artery of that side was of lesser calibre
+and the entire skull half shortened. Here the lagging behind in growth of
+one half of the skull appears on first sight to explain the retarded
+development of the corresponding halves of the cerebrum and cerebellum. In
+view of the atypy of the gyri, however, an atypy not to be explained
+purely on mechanical grounds, it is more reasonable to believe that the
+imperfect development of certain vascular channels was either concomitant
+or secondary to a primitive anomaly of the cerebral hemisphere. The
+retarded skull growth would have to be looked upon as a tertiary
+occurrence and the cerebellar defect as a final ensuing result. Ordinarily
+with defective development of one cerebral hemisphere the cerebellar
+defect is on the opposite side, herein following the course of the
+anatomical connections of that development and of the secondary
+degenerations. The deviation from this rule in Muhr's case was due to the
+entering of the abnormal skull-shape, itself secondary to other defects,
+as an element influencing brain growth at a special period of development.
+An abnormal shape of the skull, generally associated with a cerebral
+defect, and hence valuable as a physical sign presumably indicating mental
+anomalies, may exert an important modifying influence at a late period on
+the contained brain, but the grosser defects in the cerebral architecture
+must antedate the period of skull growth and be deeply planted as an
+original intrinsic fault in the brain blastema itself. The researches of
+His have shown how important for the definitive shape of the body and its
+organs are the position of individual cells, the portion of the germ area,
+the convexity and length of germ curves and the relative rate of growth of
+different germ areas. And as the experiments of other embryologists have
+established the possibility of producing monstrosities analogous to
+cerebral defects by altering the conditions ever so slightly, the general
+conclusion follows that the fundamental error of development at the
+foundation of malformations associated with degeneracy is to be located at
+a very early period of embryonic, or possibly of ovuline life. Certain of
+these anomalies are due to a disturbance of the balance between the
+growth of the epiblast and mesoblast derivatives of the brain, others to a
+disharmony in the development of related associated brain segments; in the
+severer cases both elements are combined.
+
+It is not difficult to perceive the relation existing between a defective
+brain weight, paucity of the gyri, deficiency of properly developed
+cortical cells and such an elementary form of mental aberration as simple
+imbecility. The subject of the relation between structure and function
+gains in interest when we leave this domain of simple mental weakness to
+analyse the relation between structural defects and the positive symptoms
+of insanity and degeneracy--that is, moral perversion, mental obliquity,
+delusions, and morbid impulses. Such symptoms are not limited to the
+higher forms of the degenerate series; they occur, though less constantly
+and less markedly, in the lower forms.
+
+C. K. Mills,[249] of Philadelphia, on examination of imbecile, paranoiac,
+and criminal brains, found atypical asymmetry as to gyral and fissure
+development present. The features of this atypical asymmetry were the
+existence of a Sylvian fissure shorter on one side than the other, both
+absolutely and comparatively, and also a more vertical direction of the
+fissure on one side than on the other, greater exposure of the insula on
+one side with marked differences in the development of its fissures and
+gyri, confluence of the central fissure with the Sylvian on one side only,
+and great tortuosity or bridging of the former fissure in one hemisphere,
+unusual narrowness, straightness of complication of the precentral or
+postcentral gyrus on one side; marked difference in the simplicity of
+complexity of the frontal lobes, great simplicity of the orbital surface
+on one side, differences in the parietal fissure as to length and
+interruption, a smaller parietal or marginal or angular gyrus on one side,
+very great difference in the degrees of confluence and interruption of the
+fissures in general, exceeding great length vertically of the
+supertemporal or parallel fissure on one side, unusual differences in the
+size of the precuneus and cuneus.
+
+A. W. Wilmarth,[250] of Philadelphia, Pa., after a careful study of idiots
+and imbeciles ranging in intellectual power from the idiot, properly
+so-called, to the juvenile criminal, paranoiac, and "ne'er-do-well," finds
+that the brains of these vary greatly along the line pointed out by
+Spitzka and Mills. One type of brain in this class of children is very
+simple in its outward configuration. The convolutions are usually coarse,
+but little convoluted and comparatively free from secondary folds. The
+fissures tend to assume a confluent type. Another variety, found chiefly
+among the lowest grades, might well be termed "atypic." A brain without a
+corpus callosum is a marked example. In the frontal lobe of the right
+hemisphere the first frontal convolution is quite regular. Below this from
+the centre of the lobe seven fissures passed in different directions,
+cutting the tube into a number of radiating convolutions, entirely
+different from its usual appearance. The short fissure of Sylvius (about
+three inches in length) passed upward, turned sharply, and passed almost
+directly behind. Two parallel gyri curved around its posterior extremity.
+The arrangement of the convolutions of the temporal and parietal lobes
+were so exceedingly irregular and complex that it was impossible to
+classify them. In the occipital lobe, on the contrary, the gyri were
+complete in number and of regular arrangements. In the left hemisphere the
+arrangement of the frontal convolutions was more regular, but the temporal
+and parietal lobes presented the same complicated area of surface folding,
+bearing but little resemblance to the normal brain. The tendency of the
+convolutions to arrange themselves in parallel curves around the posterior
+extremity of the fissure of Sylvius was well shown in the brain of a boy
+of exceedingly low intellect. The frontal lobes in this brain are
+proportionately large; the convolutions straight, especially the third
+frontal, the fissures shallow. In the left temporal lobe they are nearly
+obliterated from pressure of fluid in the ventricles. The ascending
+frontal convolution on each side appears to be wanting. On the left side a
+large bridging convolution crosses the middle of the fissure of Rolando.
+Confluence of fissure is a decided feature of idiot brains. Even where
+confluence is not complete, the tendency of the principal fissure to cut
+through separating convolutions is very evident. Were the cases where
+confluence is nearly complete included, the number would be considerably
+augmented. The fissure of Sylvius passed into the fissure of Rolando in
+one case on both sides, in another on one side only. In two other cases
+they were connected by deep secondary fissures. The interparietalis has
+its origin in the fissure of Sylvius in four cases on both sides, in five
+cases on one side only. The calcarine fissure passed completely across
+the gyrus frontitatus on both sides in two cases, on one side in four
+cases. In one case the first occipital convolution sank nearly beneath the
+surface, the next occipital gyrus projecting over it, forming a parietal
+operculum. There also seems to be a strong tendency to form annectant gyri
+in the upper part of the parieto-occipital fissure. In no less than six
+hemispheres of 15 brains were these supplementary gyri found more or less
+complete. In one case on both sides, in five cases on one side, the
+parieto-occipital fissure cut through the first occipital convolution into
+the interparietal fissure. A tendency of the transverse occipital fissure
+to approach the parieto-occipital fissure is very apparent, though in no
+case do they coincide. The folds of the cerebral cortex, from a lack of
+the stimulus of healthy growth, sometimes revert to forms resembling those
+found in other groups of the animal kingdom.
+
+The fundamental factors of thought and action, as Spitzka terms them, are
+two: perceptions and motor innervation. These are, in other words, the
+units of thought and action. They can be properly referred to nerve cell
+groups as their anatomical seat, and, as far as intellect is in question,
+to the cell group represented in the more or less diffused and dovetailing
+areas of specialised function in the cortex cerebri (Fig. 116). But the
+largest hemisphere known, with the most crowded and most highly developed
+nerve cells, and the most extensive connections with the periphery, and
+the most perfect projection of that periphery in its intricately
+convoluted mass would, functionally speaking, represent nothing but a mass
+of pigeon-holed impressions stored away without method and without
+purpose, useless to the organism were it not for those arched fibres
+uniting the different cortical centres with each other.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.]
+
+
+These fibre constitute by far the greater part of the white centrum oval
+of the hemisphere. The total transverse section of the crus and the fibre
+masses from the thalamus and basilar ganglia, does not comprise more than
+one-third of the entire mass. In the lower animal this relation is
+different. The projecting fibres, such as those of crus and capsule and
+the great ganglia, are not as massive as in man, but they are nearly equal
+to, and in still lower forms exceed, those connecting the gyri with each
+other. Hence the chief point of contrast noted on examining a transverse
+frontal section through the cerebral hemisphere of a man and an ape
+consists in the mass of the centrum ovale of Vieussens. The whole
+substance in man actually appears hypertrophied when compared with that
+of lower animals. It is the associating fibres which mainly mediate that
+complex co-ordination of the separate units of thought and action which
+constitute the anatomical basis of the highest mental functions (Fig.
+117). The study of the human mind does not resolve itself merely into an
+analysis of individual faculties such as simple perceptions and motor
+innervations, but above all requires the establishment of their synthesis
+into the complex abstractions on which the ego depends.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.]
+
+
+Neither anatomic nor physiologic researches are calculated to demonstrate
+just what associating fasciculi or what groups of such fasciculi are
+subservient to any particular co-ordination. Where, for example, the
+cortical area for vision overlaps that of the centre for forearm and hand,
+the associating fasciculus underlying the debatable land is subservient to
+the co-ordinations employed in writing and drawing. In like manner a
+similar associating bond extending from the centre of auditory word
+symbols to that of the tongue and lip centres may be considered a chief
+factor mediating the speech co-ordinations. A child originally has no
+adequate notion of distance or perspective, but will, in the first week of
+life, grasp at objects fifty feet away. Its first ideas of space are
+gathered from its own skin sensations; it learns to distinguish between
+single impressions when touching foreign bodies, and associated double
+ones as when it touches a part of its own body. In great part this may
+even be accomplished by an active infant during the last months of
+utero-gestation; it has learned thus to separate the conception of its own
+body from the confused chaos which all impressions originally constitute
+to the infant; the next lesson is to learn that to reach certain objects
+it moves a certain distance, while others are immediately in reach. It
+then discovers, therefore, that the discrimination by the eye is possible,
+since intervening objects which it has learned to measure by its own body
+or bodily movements as a gauge permit an approximate judgment of distance,
+in aid of which comes experiment in the shape of time requirements, since
+to go so far requires such time, while to go further requires a much
+greater. The crude ideas of space at this time must involve areas in the
+cortex devoted to motion and to general sensation situated in the Rolandic
+region. Those devoted to visual impressions are largely situated in the
+occipital region, and those devoted to time may be located in the frontal
+lobes. Further analysis of the more elaborate sense of space possessed by
+adults, involving the play of equilibrium and the appreciation of movement
+and direction in foreign objects, shows that cortical areas situated in
+nearly every part of the hemispheres are subsidiary to it and connected by
+fibre tracts of different lengths and courses. It is evident, therefore,
+that the mal-connection of cortical centres is at the root of various
+tropho-neurotic, nervous, mental, moral and other perversions exhibited in
+degenerates. Deformity and deficiency of the corpus callosum in some
+degenerates is but an expression of general defect of associating tracts.
+Convolutional aberration in others is but an expression of imperfect
+development of end stations and fibre systems. All mental and moral
+disturbances are associated with perversions of the functions of the
+cerebral hemisphere, but the converse, that cerebral hemisphere lesions
+only are the essential accompaniments of mental symptoms evinced during
+life, is not true. Lesions of the pons, the crura, and thalami are
+accompanied by more or less complete obliteration of consciousness,
+blurring of the perception, confusion in the intellectual sphere, even
+where the lesion is not of such a character as to disturb the neighbouring
+ganglia by pressure. Two explanations are possible of this phenomenon.
+Either the vaso-motor centre for the cortical vessels is under the control
+of isthmus ganglia partially, and hence isthmus lesions by irritation or
+destruction of the centre excite or paralyse the vascular tubes of certain
+cortical districts, or pathologic interruption of the great nerve tracts
+involves functional disturbance of cortical end stations. The first
+explanation is applicable in cases where general and widespread
+disturbance, somnolence, excitement, or depression are found. The latter
+where the disturbance is partial in character. If all avenues of sensory
+perception be closed unconsciousness in the way of sleep speedily follows.
+Interruption of the perception tracts is followed by corresponding
+phenomena, though less extensive when occurring in the isthmus territory.
+That an irritative lesion in the line of the centripetal tracts can
+influence cortical life is shown by thalamus lesions in which
+hallucinations are sometimes present. Here the cause of the hallucinations
+is in the lower centre, but the entry of these into the intellectual
+sphere can take place only in the cortical termination of that tract,
+since at this point only through the connecting associating tracts can it
+become a part of the ego.
+
+Meynert traced an enormous division of the crus directly to the frontal
+lobe and the lenticular nucleus, and showed that this portion through the
+transverse fibres of the pons was of necessity connected with the
+cerebellum, and that far other functions are to be located in the cortex
+than merely muscular innervation, visual and auditory perceptions. The
+restiform columns derived from spinal fibres enter the cerebellum and
+terminate chiefly in its hemispheres. The cortex of these hemispheres is
+connected by radiatory fibres, with the dentated nucleus, which is a
+recipient of fibres of the auditory nerve. The cortex of the cerebellar
+hemisphere receives fibres both from the sensorial periphery of the body
+and the semicircular canals. From this reception area the transverse
+fibres of the pons originate and enter the crus. It is these which enter
+the frontal lobe and lenticular nucleus. In no respect does man so much
+differ from the ape as in the quantitative development of these
+fasciculi. Their development is intimately associated with the mass of the
+frontal lobe, and there is every reason for considering them the channel
+of information of the equilibrium and possibly of the senses of space and
+time, on which the scope of the mind is so closely dependent. Lesions in
+these tracts may disturb these sensations, and the entire mental
+architecture may totter with the withdrawal or weakening of so important
+pillars. The congenital asymmetry of the peduncular tracts observed in
+certain cases of mental and moral perversion are not without bearing on
+the symptoms of those cases. And this explanation would be adjunct to the
+principle of mal-development of the associating tracts here advanced in
+explanation of other symptoms of these same states. It is a logical truism
+that complex cerebral functions have a complex substratum. Nothing could
+be more unphilosophical, for example, than to speak of "intellectual
+cells" (Denkzellen) in the cerebral cortex. Simple elements can have but
+simple functions; complex functions require a union of numerous simpler
+elements in a complex structural combination.
+
+Such symptoms as epileptic explosions are admittedly connected with no
+demonstrable anatomical aberration, and yet when epileptic explosions of a
+certain type are found associated with a cortical lesion they are to be
+regarded as symptoms of that lesion. Morbid projects, delusions, and moral
+perversion are simply functional perversions of a properly built cerebral
+mechanism or the outcome of a visible structural defect. And when the
+latter is palpably attributable to an error in development and occurs
+with a certain constancy in similar cases, a fundamental relation must be
+assumed between the defect and the general tenor of the symptoms.
+
+There is a great difference clinically between the effect of congenital
+and acquired lesions. When porencephaly (a deformity originally studied by
+Heschl) dates from infantile or foetal life, imbecility is always present
+during life; but where it is developed in the matured brain imbecility
+does not necessarily result.
+
+Deficiencies in the cerebral vascular system underlie the pathological
+phenomena on the basis of infantile cerebral paralysis, and allied
+hereditary and congenital states. The degenerate conditions in the spinal
+cord are essentially those described by Spitzka as occurring in the brain.
+Vascular states, either as to irregularities in the number of vessels or
+in the vessels themselves, underlie, as in the case of the cerebral
+palsies, hereditary ataxias and other congenital and hereditary spinal
+cord disorders.[251]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DEGENERACY OF MENTALITY AND MORALITY
+
+
+In the mental and moral degeneracies there is a complete transition from
+the durencephalic monster through the microcephalus, the idiot, the
+imbecile, and the feeble-minded to the mentally normal individual. Between
+the feeble-minded and the normal individual occurs a group whose general
+characteristics is, as was pointed out by Magnan, a disharmony and lack of
+equilibrium, not only between the intellectual operations, properly
+so-called on the one hand, and the emotions and propensities on the other,
+but even between the intellectual faculties themselves. A degenerate may
+be a scientist, an able lawyer, a great artist, a poet, a mathematician, a
+politician, a skilled administrator, and present from a moral standpoint
+profound defects, strange peculiarities and surprising lapses of conduct.
+As the moral element--the emotions and propensities--is the base of
+determination, it follows that these brilliant faculties are at the
+service of a bad cause, of the instincts and appetites which, thanks to
+the defects of the will, lead to very extravagant or very dangerous acts.
+In other cases the opposite occurs. Degenerates of irreproachable
+character show strange defects in their intellect. They often have a
+feeble memory in certain directions. Sometimes they cannot understand
+figures, or music, or drawing. In a word, an otherwise normal individual's
+intelligence is lacking as regards certain faculties. The centres of
+perception are unequally impressionable, unequally apt to gather together
+impressions, only certain impressions are registered and leave durable
+images; certain relations, certain associations between different centres,
+are perverted or even entirely destroyed.
+
+The mental stigmata of degeneracy, therefore, may be divided into those
+involving the moral elements (in which case there is no very striking
+intellectual disorder) and those involving the intellectual elements, in
+which the conditions may be divided into states where intellectual
+disorder alternates with periods of complete lucidity or with neuroses
+(periodical insanity, neuroticism, hysteria, and epilepsy), and states in
+which the intellectual disorder is a permanent quantity (paranoia,
+one-sided genius, imbecility, and idiocy). Great as is the apparent gap
+between idiocy and one-sided genius, on the one hand, and between idiocy
+and crime, on the other, this gap is, as already stated, filled by
+numerous closely interlinked forms, dependent on the proportionate removal
+of checks (which the race has acquired during evolution) on the explosive
+expressions of egotism and mentality. The removal of these checks is
+dependent on the removal or weakening of the power of associating tracts,
+to which reference has been made in connection with the degenerate brain.
+The idiot, capable only of purely vegetative functions, who would perish
+were food not placed far back in his mouth, is one step lower than the
+normal infant, who is essentially, as has been remarked, an egotistic
+parasite. On slightly increased development this idiot, with the powers of
+a rather low animal, gains food and satisfies its instincts. These
+instincts at this stage may manifest themselves in the explosive manner
+characteristic of the undomesticated and non-social animals. With these
+instincts may appear others which man has long lost; thus an idiot girl
+(who was delivered of an infant when alone) gnawed through the umbilical
+cord in the manner of animals, thus effecting separation and preventing
+hæmorrhage. At still a higher stage the imbecile may manifest destructive
+instincts, may steal without the signs of remorse displayed by a housebred
+dog, or may kill without recognising the results of killing. The intellect
+may be comparatively developed in certain imbeciles in comparison with the
+ethical defects. For lack of proper associating fibres, the imbecile may
+be unable to acquire those higher associations constituting the secondary
+ego, in the most elevated sense. To this class ultimately belong the
+instinctive homicides, torturers, sexual criminals and thieves, so
+frequently found among the juvenile offspring of degenerate stock. In them
+the primary ego is strong, and the restraints of the secondary ego, which
+perceives the rights of others, weakened or completely absent. This class
+forms the germ of the congenital criminal whom no discipline can tame, and
+who is incapable of being taught the dangers of his procedures under the
+law of the land. Between this class and the paranoiac there is at once a
+curious likeness and distinction. The lack of proper associating powers
+prevents the moral imbecile from recognising any rights of others. The
+same lack in the paranoiac prevents him from recognising the force and
+rights of other people in opinion. The moral imbecile has lost the
+greatest acquirement of the race in evolution, that acquirement which
+fully recognises the secondary ego in accordance with the sublime precept,
+"Do unto others as ye would that they should do unto you."
+
+For practical purposes the division of criminals given by Tyndall is
+sufficient. Crime is essentially an anti-social factor, and violations of
+law can be regarded as crimes only in proportion as they are anti-social.
+The essential character of crime is its parasitic nature. Parasites, in a
+general way, may be divided into those which live on their host, without
+any tendency to injure his well-being (like the dermodex in the skin
+follicules); those which live more or less at his expense, but do not tend
+to destroy him; and, finally, those which are destructive of the
+well-being of man and lack proper recognition of individual rights which
+constitutes the essential foundation of society. The first type is
+impurely represented by the idiots, imbeciles, lunatics, paupers by
+deprivation, blind, crippled, senile, insane, and deaf mutes. Society,
+either indirectly or directly, has been the source of the parasitic state
+of many of these, and hence, as also in the case of law-made criminals,
+such parasitism really takes nothing from society. The second class is
+represented by prostitutes, sexual degenerates, paupers, and inebriates.
+Some of these, however, could be put into the third class, among those
+moral lunatics and criminals who fail to recognise that individual rights
+constitute social order. Prostitutes, paupers, and inebriates have this in
+common, that crime in them has taken the line of least resistance. The
+great ethical defect in the prostitute is not lack of checks on explosive
+sexual propensities so much as the use of these last as a method of living
+by her wits. In essence prostitution is the expression of the criminal
+tendency manifested by the confidence operator. The researches of
+sociologists like Chaplain Merrick,[252] of the Millbank Prison, London,
+show that at least one-half of the prostitutes leave their homes
+voluntarily to take up a "life of pleasure." Pauline Tarnowsky[253] finds
+that in Russia prostitution is crime in women taking the line of least
+resistance. The prostitutes, like the other criminals, are divisible into
+criminals on occasion (vice, monetary reasons, &c.), accidental criminals,
+law-made criminals, weak-willed criminals, and insane criminals. The
+proportion of the law-made and accidental criminals among the prostitutes
+is much less than among other criminals, as Merrick has shown. Seduction
+stands very low in the list of causes. The proportion of the occasional
+criminal type is very large. Pauline Tarnowsky concludes from her
+researches, which my own tend to verify, that the prostitute, as a rule,
+is a degenerate being, the subject of an arrest of development, tainted
+with a morbid heredity, and presenting stigmata of physical and mental
+degeneracy fully in consonance with her imperfect evolution. C. Andronico,
+of Messina, Italy, arrived some time previously[254] at the same
+conclusions as those of Tarnowsky. Tarnowsky found that 44-1/3 per cent.
+of the prostitutes had skull deformities, 42-2/8 face deformities, 42 ear
+deformities, and 54 teeth deformities. Andronico found among 230
+prostitutes the following anomalies: Flat nose, 20; handle-shaped ear,
+35; vicious implantation of teeth, 10; convergent strabismus, 2; facial
+asymmetry, 4; prognathism, 7; receding forehead, 35. Grimaldi, in a study
+of 26 prostitutes, had similar results to those of Tarnowsky. Lombroso, in
+an examination of 50 prostitutes, found exaggerated jaws, 27 times;
+plagiocephaly, 23 times; nasal asymmetry, 8 times; exaggerated zygomæ, 40
+times. Tarnowsky found that in 150 prostitutes, taken at random from those
+answering to the necessary conditions (uniformity of race, ability to give
+their family history and years of residence in licensed houses), there
+were present signs of physical degeneracy in 87. Among the abnormalities
+were oxycephaly, platycephaly, stenocephaly, plagiocephaly, and heads with
+marked depression either at the bregma or the lambda. The majority had a
+marked development of the external occipital protuberance; in an equal
+number of virtuous women it was present but four times. These and other
+anomalies were thus distributed among the 150 prostitutes: Malformation of
+the head (oxycephaly, plagiocephaly, &c.), noticed in 62; development of
+the occipital protruberance, 62; very receding foreheads, 18;
+hydrocephalic, 15; various anomalies of the face (prognathism, asymmetry),
+64; ogival palatine vault, 38; congenital division of palate, 14; vicious
+implantation of teeth, 62; Hutchinson's and Parrot's teeth, 19; absence of
+lateral incisors, 10; Morel ears, 16; defective ears (detached from head,
+deformed, &c.), 47; anomalies of the extremities, 8.
+
+In my researches in the same class, with the assistance of Harriet C. B.
+Alexander and J. G. Kiernan, the subjects chosen were those committed to
+the Chicago House of Correction. They are the least intelligent of
+Chicago's professional prostitutes. The number examined was 30. As regards
+the race they included 13 Celtic-Irish, 5 Irish-American, 3 Scandinavian,
+1 German, 1 German-American, 2 American, 1 English-American, 1
+Latin-Swiss, 2 Negro.
+
+It should here be remembered that the "fine" system of Chicago places only
+the "obtuse" class in the Bridewell. One was seventeen years old, two
+eighteen years, one nineteen years, five between twenty and twenty-five
+years, three between twenty-five and thirty, six between thirty and
+thirty-five, five between thirty-five and forty-five, one was forty-six
+years old, two were fifty-five, three sixty-one, and one sixty-five. There
+were eighteen blondes, ten brunettes, and two negroes. Four were
+demonstrably insane and one was an epileptic.
+
+In sixteen cases the zygomatic processes were unequal and very prominent.
+There were fourteen other asymmetries of the face. Three heads were
+Mongoloid (one Irish-Celt, one Swiss, and one Scandinavian). There are
+Mongoloid race types in the regions where all three come from. Sixteen
+were epignathic and eleven prognathic. In one there was arrested
+development of the lower jaw, and in four arrested development of the face
+bones. The nose was abnormal in six. There were sixteen brachycephalic and
+thirteen mesaticephalic skulls. There were no dolichocephalic skulls.
+There were three with oxycephalic skulls, of whom one was a Celt, one a
+German, and one a Scandinavian. There were eighteen dome-type skulls, of
+whom seven were Irish-Celts, five Celtic-American, one English
+Anglo-Saxon, one American Anglo-Saxon, and one German-American. There were
+four tectocephalic skulls, of whom one was an Irish-Celt, one an
+Anglo-Saxon American, and one a Scandinavian. There were three
+platycephalic skulls, of whom two were Celts and one a Scandinavian. There
+was a plagiocephalic German and a stenocephalic Celt. One skull had a
+protuberance at the bregma. Twelve occiputs were flattened, and in four of
+these there was no tubercle; eighteen had an enormously developed
+occipital protuberance. The percentage of deformities of the jaws was
+large. Twenty-nine had defective ears. Normal ears were present only in a
+member of a family which had furnished one mother and two sisters to the
+institution.
+
+The direct hereditary history of prostitutes is excellently illustrated in
+Marie Duplessis, idealised by Alexandre Dumas in _La Dame aux Camélias_.
+Her paternal grandmother, who was half prostitute, half beggar, gave birth
+to a son by a country priest. This son was a country Don Juan, a peddler
+by trade. The maternal great-grandmother was a nymphomaniac, whose son
+married a woman of loose morals, by whom a daughter was born. This
+daughter married a peddler, and their child was Marie. She had the
+confidence-operator tendencies of many of her class. She died childless,
+early in life, from consumption.[255] With their ancestry, habits,
+perverse instincts, prostitutes cannot be cured or reformed by the
+enforcement of municipal ordinances. Though those of criminal and
+congenital type be taken from their surroundings and placed where they can
+earn an honest livelihood, they soon go back, voluntarily, to their old
+mode of life.
+
+An allied class, belonging to a still blacker phase of biology, are the
+sexual perverts. The congenital form associated with the stigmata of
+degeneracy, as already shown, is an expression of the defective line
+whence the victim has sprung. The congenital types are, like the similar
+types of the prostitute, victims of inherited defects. The sexual pervert
+may be divided into precisely the same classes as other criminals. The
+congenital type often links degenerate lunatics, epileptics, &c., with a
+born criminal class.
+
+Between the criminal and the insane is a debatable line occupied by moral
+imbeciles, reasoning maniacs, &c. There are many insane persons in whom
+the principal deviation from the normal consists in disorder of the moral
+faculties. In most closer inspection generally reveals signs of
+degeneracy. The seeming immorality is the striking factor of the case and
+superficially the mind otherwise appears clear and rational by contrast.
+As Krafft-Ebing has shown in these cases, the most striking features are
+moral insensibility, lack of moral judgment and ethical ideas, the place
+of which is usurped by a narrow sense of loss or profit, logically
+apprehended only. Such persons may mechanically know the laws of morality,
+but if such laws enter their conscience these persons do not experience by
+any real appreciation, still less regard, for them. These laws to them are
+cold, lifeless statements. The morally defective know not how to draw from
+them motive for omission or commission. To this "moral colour-blindness"
+the whole moral and governmental order appears as a mere hindrance to
+egotistic ambition and feeling, which necessarily leads to negation of
+the rights of others and to violation of the same.
+
+These defective individuals are without interest for aught good or
+beautiful, albeit capable of a sentimentality which is shallow cant. Such
+persons are repellent by their lack of love for children or relatives, and
+of all social inclinations, and by cold-hearted indifference to the weal
+or woe of those nearest to them. They are without other than egotistic
+care for questions of social life or sensibility to either the respect or
+the scorn of others, without control of conscience and without sense or
+remorse for evil. Morality they do not understand. Law is nothing more
+than police regulation. The greatest crimes are regarded as mere
+transgressions of some arbitrary order. If such persons come in conflict
+with individuals, then, hatred, envy, and revenge take the place of
+coldness and negation, and their brutality and indifference to others know
+no bounds.
+
+These ethically defective persons, when incapable of holding a place in
+society, are often converted into candidates for the workhouse or the
+insane hospital, one or the other of which places they reach after they
+have been, as children, the terror of parents and teachers, through their
+untruthfulness, laziness, and general meanness, and in youth the shame of
+the family and the torment of the community and the officers of the law,
+by thefts, vagabondage, profligacy, and excesses. Finally, they are the
+despair of the insane hospital, the "incorrigibles" of the prisons, and
+(Krafft-Ebing might have added) the veritable burdens of the poor-house.
+If intellectual insanity or crime do not claim them, pauperism or
+criminality is likely to be their destiny. The moral imbecile may,
+however, keep within the law, and as in the instance of the "Napoleon of
+Finance," cited elsewhere from Kiernan, may achieve business success. His
+descendants often, however, evince degeneracy in an aggravated form. Many
+of the supposed reformers of various alleged social evils are often of
+this class. Their morbid egotism takes the direction of cant and
+sentimentality, so common at certain states in evolution, as points of
+least resistance. Like Guiteau, the assassin of President Garfield, they
+aim at doing a "big thing for humanity and myself," the humanity being
+concentrated in "my" ideas. The moral lunatic needs but a slight twist
+intellectually to become the paranoiac in whom there is, as Spitzka has
+pointed out,[256] a permanent undercurrent of perverted mental action
+peculiar to the individual, running like an unbroken thread through his
+whole mental life, obscured, it may be, for these patients are often able
+to correct and conceal their insane symptoms, but it nevertheless exists,
+and only requires friction to bring it to the surface. The general
+intellectual status of these patients, though rarely of a very high order,
+is moderately fair, and often the mental powers are sufficient to keep the
+delusion under check for practical purposes of life. While many are what
+is termed crochety, irritable, and depressed, yet the sole symptoms of the
+typical cases of this disorder consist of the fixed delusions. Since the
+subject matter of the delusion is of such a character that these patients
+consider themselves either the victim of a plot or as unjustly deprived of
+certain rights and position, or as narrowly observed by others, delusions
+of persecution are added to the fixed ideas, and the patient becomes sad,
+thoughtful, or depressed in consequence. The patient is depressed
+logically, as far as his train of idea is concerned and his sadness and
+thoughtfulness have causes, which he can explain, and which are intimately
+allied with that peculiar, faulty grouping of ideas which constitutes the
+rendezvous, as it were, of all the mental conceptions of the patient. Nay,
+the process may be reversed, and the patient, beginning with a
+hypochondriac or hysteric state, imagines himself watched with no
+favourable eye. Because he is watched and made the subject of audible
+comments (hallucinatory or delusional), he concludes that he must be a
+person of some importance. Some great political movement takes place; he
+throws himself into it, either in a fixed character that he has already
+constructed for himself, or with the vague idea that he is an influential
+personage. He seeks interviews, holds actual conversation with the big men
+of the day, accepts the common courtesy shown him by those in office as a
+tribute to his value, is rejected, however, and then judges himself to be
+the victim of jealousy or of rival cabals, makes intemperate and querulous
+complaints to higher officials, perhaps makes violent attacks upon them,
+and being incarcerated in jail or asylum, looks upon this as the end of a
+long series of persecutions which have broken the power of a skilled
+diplomatist, a capable military commander, a prince of the blood, an agent
+of a camarilla, a paramour of some exalted personage, or finally the
+Messiah Himself. All through this train of ideas there runs a chain of
+logic and inference in which there is no gap. If the inferences of the
+patient were based on correctly observed facts and properly correlated
+with his actual surroundings, his conclusions would be perfectly correct.
+For years and years many such patients exhibit a single delusive idea as
+the only prominent symptom. There is hereditary taint in most of these
+subjects, who are strange in disposition from infancy. As children they
+frequently shun society and indulge in day-dreams. Their bodily growth is
+normal, but even trifling disease takes on a cerebral tinge. They may show
+talent in special directions, but their intelligence rarely passes out of
+the puerile stage. They often brood over a feminine ideal, a girl who has
+never encouraged them, and whom they persecute with absurd plans of
+marriage.
+
+Connecting the paranoiac with the moral imbecile are the so-called
+"reasoning maniacs." Here the intellectual power is less than either that
+of the moral imbecile or of the paranoiac, twisted though the intellect of
+the latter be. Loquacious or unusually taciturn, heedless or morbidly
+cautious, dreamers, wearisome to all brought in contact with them,
+capricious and unmitigated liars, their qualities are often, in a certain
+manner, brilliant, but are entirely without solidity or depth. Sharpness
+and cunning are not often wanting, especially for little things and
+insignificant intrigues. Ever armed with a lively imagination and quick
+comprehension, they readily appropriate the ideas of others, developing or
+transforming them and giving them the stamp of their own individuality.
+But the creative force is not there, and they rarely possess enough mental
+vigour to get their own living. Passing without the slightest transition
+from one extreme to the other, they felicitate themselves to-day on an
+event which they sneered at the night before. In the course of a single
+second they change their opinions of persons and things, novelty
+captivates and wearies them almost in the same instant. They sell for
+insignificant sums things they have just bought, in order to buy others
+which, in their turn, will be subjected to like treatment; and, strange to
+say, before possessing these objects, they covet them with a degree of
+ardour only equalled by the eagerness they exhibit to get rid of them as
+soon as they become their own. To see, to desire, and to become
+indifferent are three stages which follow each other with astonishing
+rapidity.
+
+The intense egotism of these persons makes them, as W. A. Hammond remarks,
+utterly regardless of the feelings and rights of others. Everybody and
+everything must give way to them. Their comfort and convenience are to be
+secured though every one else is made uncomfortable or unhappy; and
+sometimes they display positive cruelty in their treatment of persons who
+come in contact with them. This tendency is especially seen in their
+relations with the lower animals.
+
+Another manifestation of their intense egotism is their entire lack of
+appreciation of kindness done them or benefits of which they have been the
+recipients. They look upon these as so many rights to which they are
+justly entitled, and which in the bestowal are more serviceable to the
+giver than to the receiver. They are hence ungrateful and abusive to those
+who have served them, insolent, arrogant, and shamelessly hardened in
+their conduct toward them. At the same time, if advantages are yet to be
+gained, they are sycophantic to nauseousness in their deportment towards
+those from whom the favours are to come.
+
+The egotism of these people is unmarked by the least trace of modesty in
+obtruding themselves and their assumed good qualities upon the public at
+every opportunity. They boast of their genius, their righteousness, their
+goodness of heart, their high sense of honour, their learning and other
+qualities and acquirements, and this, when they are perfectly aware that
+they are commonplace, irreligious, cruel, and vindictive, utterly devoid
+of every chivalrous feeling, and saturated with ignorance. They know that
+in their ratings they are attempting to impose upon those whom they
+address and will even subsequently brag of their success.
+
+It is no uncommon thing for the reasoning maniac, still influenced by his
+supreme egotism and desire for notoriety, to attempt the part of reformer.
+Generally he selects a practice or custom in which there really is no
+abuse. His energy and the logical manner in which he presents his views,
+based as they often are on cases and statistics, impose on many people,
+who eagerly adopt him as a genuine overthrower of a vicious or degrading
+measure. Even when his hypocrisy and falsehood are exposed he continues
+his attempts at imposition, and when the strong arm of the law is laid
+upon him, he prates of the ingratitude of those he has been endeavouring
+to assist, and of the distinctiveness and purity of his own motives.
+
+Closely akin to that instability of inter-association resulting in loss of
+proper checks on action in the types just described, is the sentimentalism
+which often covers real hardness, but which charms and allures the mass.
+
+This has essentially the same psychological basis as the suspicional
+tendencies and pessimism with which it is so often associated. Suspicional
+tendencies arise from states of anxiety resultant on instability of
+association, dependent on lack of associating fibres. Pessimism (so
+frequently present in the otherwise healthy degenerate) is often, as
+Magalhaes has shown, nervous instability with alternations of irritability
+and prostration. The subject is supersensitive; impressions call forth
+intense and prolonged reactions followed by exhaustion. The state is
+characterised by a general hyperæsthesia, which naturally results in an
+excess of suffering. From instability and hyperæsthesia results discord
+between the feelings themselves, between the feelings and the
+intelligence, between the feelings, the ideas and volitions. Discord
+between the feelings shows itself in a great variety of paradoxes,
+contradictions, and inconsistencies. To the pessimist possession of a
+desired object does not atone for former privation. Pain or unsatisfied
+desire is replaced by the pain of _ennui_. With inability to enjoy what he
+has are coupled extravagant expectations regarding that which he does not
+have. He is extremely susceptible both to kindness and to contempt. He
+passes suddenly from violent irritability to languor, from self-confidence
+and vanity to extreme self abasement. His intense sensitiveness results in
+intellectual disorders. For this involves a great vivacity of the
+intuitive imagination, which favours the setting up of extravagant ideals,
+lacking in solid representative elements. Hence a gap opens between his
+ideal and the actual. He can never realise the ideal he pursues and so his
+feelings are of a sombre hue. From this excessive realism results a state
+of doubt, a certain distrust of all this rational objective knowledge. It
+assumes another form in extreme subjectivism. The pessimist is haunted by
+images of the tiniest religious scruples, suspicions, fears, and
+anxieties, resulting in alienation from friends, seclusion, misanthropy.
+The pessimist is further characterised by an incapacity for prolonged
+attention, a refractory attention and a feeble will. These result in
+inaction, quietism, reverie, self-abnegation, abolition of the
+personality, annihilation of the will, amounting sometimes even to poetic
+or religious ecstasy. Pessimism is frequently associated with a morbid
+fear of death. The tramp is one phase of the degenerate in whom the
+restless wandering tendencies of the neurasthenic and paranoiac are added
+to the parasitic tendencies of the pauper, and the suspicional egotism of
+the "reasoning maniac."
+
+The one-sided genius is a link between the neurotic, the epileptic, the
+paranoiac, the hysteric, and the imbecile. Cases crop up in which all
+these elements are so mingled as to create a puzzle where they shall be
+placed. In some cases, in accordance with the general law that physiologic
+atrophy is accompanied by hypertrophy in other directions, the
+intellectual powers other than along certain lines may be remarkably
+deficient. Moreover, the intellectual power due to healthy atavism is
+increased by the degeneracy in certain directions. Without going into the
+question, raised by Lombroso,[257] as to genius being an epileptoid
+neurosis, sufficient evidence exists to show that ill-balanced genius
+often coexists with defects in a large number of directions. The
+coexistence of genius with imbecility and even idiocy has been well
+illustrated by Langdon Down, who cites numerous instances thereof.[258]
+Defect in genius, whether of the imbecile stamp or otherwise, accompanied
+by deficiency, is not expressed in the genius, but in its deficient
+accompaniment. Even the mental instability of the highest type of
+defective genius is closely akin to that of the neurotic.
+
+The hysterics, as has been shown by Des Champs,[259] are neurotic women in
+whom an aggravated sensibility exists. Neurotic women are divisible into
+three categories according to the predominance of one of three
+centres--cerebral, genital, and neuropathic. These types may be pure or
+intermixed. The general characteristics are an absolute want of
+equilibrium in sensibility and will power. There exists mobility of humour
+in direct relation with facile impressionability to external influences or
+to internal states. The nerves vibrate to all sentiments coming from
+within or without, and all are registered without proper relation. One
+fact chased by another is forgotten. Another produces a momentary
+hyperexcitation, which takes place of the truth, whence it is that
+falsehood is instinctive, but the patient protests her good faith if
+accused of the same. This lack of equilibrium leads to a decided
+modification of the mental faculties. Intellectual activity is over
+excited, but in diverse degrees and variable ways, according to the
+particular tendencies adopted. Absorbed by a preoccupation or controlled
+by an idea, they become indifferent to all else. Their ideas are abundant,
+and they rapidly pass from the idea to the act. Their vivid imagination,
+coupled with a bright intelligence, gives them a seducing aspect, but
+their judgment is singularly limited, attenuated, or false. They judge
+from a non-personal standpoint excellently. They are quick at discovering
+the faults of even their own relatives, but faults rightly attributed to
+themselves are repudiated. Their memory is capricious. They forget their
+faults and their acts under impulse, albeit these may be consciously done.
+The cerebral type is led by the intelligence. She has little or no
+coquetry; what coquetry there may be is the result of intention and
+temporary. There is an ethical sense, frankness and nobility in her ideas,
+disinterestedness and tact in her acts, and she is capable of friendship.
+Her tastes carry her to male pursuit, in which she succeeds. She becomes
+often what is called a "superior woman," and too often what is called an
+"incomprehensible woman." She has but little guile. To the sensual type
+voluptuousness is the aim of life and the centre of her acts and thoughts.
+She is well endowed with guile and extremely diplomatic. She is full of
+finesse, but not very delicate. Her lack of scruple often spoils her tact.
+She is ruseful, dissimulating, and unconsciously mendacious. She despises
+friendship and needs watching. If circumstances permit she loses all
+delicacy, reserve and modesty. She is destitute of scruples. Her crimes
+are coolly remorseless. The neuropathic type is one to which the
+grasshopper is a burden. Her nerves are always on edge. She is a heroic
+invalid who displays the air of a martyr about trivialities.
+
+The character of the neurotic, as Kiernan remarks, recalls the observation
+of Milne-Edwards concerning the monkey character. Levity is one of its
+salient features, and its mobility is extreme. One can get it to shift in
+an instant from one mood or train of ideas to another. It is now plunged
+into black melancholy and in a moment may be vastly amused at some object
+presented to its attention.
+
+Neuroticism in man differs in no respect from that in woman except that
+anæsthesia, paralysis of emotional origin, and conscious convulsions are
+less common. The male neurotic could be subdivided precisely as Des Champs
+has the hysteric. Neurotics are often long-lived, peculiarly resistant to
+certain acute and fatal disease, and are frequently retentive of their
+youthful appearance, which is to a certain extent an evidence of their
+resistance to the wear and tear of life and advancing old age, and due to
+emotional anæsthesia. Recognition of the neurotic tendency often induces
+the individual to take better care of himself. The youthful appearance may
+be due largely to arrest of facial development at an early age, the face
+thus retaining the child character throughout life. Considering,
+therefore, this class of neurotics, which does not include those afflicted
+with the more serious nervous disorders such as epilepsy, they may be
+looked upon as the victims of evolutionary processes that are constantly
+going on in the race and under civilised conditions.
+
+Neurotics are not met with to any extent among barbarous races, but are
+numerous in civilised communities, where the weak are preserved from early
+death and then subjected to the struggle for existence. Neurotics are
+individuals naturally imperfect in some directions, but by the law of
+economy of growth they are often superior in others. Their disordered
+nervous functions and hyperæsthesia are not, necessarily, indicative of
+inferiority of general organisation compared to their ancestry. They may
+simply imply a more rapid advance in some one direction in the development
+of the nervous system than can be kept up with by the remainder. These
+defects may in some cases be the advance guards in the progress of the
+development of the race.
+
+As the nervous system controls nutrition in all departments of the
+organism, anomalies occur with erratic nervous functions in such
+individuals. In these neurotics are often found defective development
+involving the bony and other structures. They have fine and delicate
+features, small jaws and defective teeth. These are the results of general
+systemic modifications connected with the neurotic state. The arthritic
+diathesis occurs also; it is one of the underlying conditions of many
+neurotic manifestations, often responsible for acquired bony deformities,
+not infrequently involving the jaws to some extent.
+
+Neurotic degenerate symptoms from a mental standpoint are noticeable long
+before deformities of the osseous system are developed. They show
+themselves in mental weakness, extreme stupidity, and precocity. Under the
+first class the child is obstinate, quarrelsome, malignant, even immorally
+inclined, and is often spoken of as being wicked or vicious. Harriet C. B.
+Alexander[260] says the ruling instinct in the child of three or four is
+self-gratification. It destroys what it dislikes. Among the earliest
+manifestations of morbid mental activity in childhood are hallucinations,
+which depend on already registered perceptions.
+
+In many instances even moral agencies produce sudden explosions of mental
+disorders. The inherited tendencies of childhood predispose to these
+attacks. As Clouston has shown, neuroses and psychoses not requiring
+hospital treatment are by no means uncommon in the too sensitive child
+with hereditary taint. Children of this class have crying fits and
+miserable periods on slight or no provocation. As Clouston has also shown,
+precocity, over-sensitiveness, unhealthy strictness in morals and religion
+for a child, or too vivid imagination, want of courage, thinness and
+craving for animal food, are common characters. These children are
+over-sensitive, over-imaginative, are too fearful to be physiologic, and
+tend, as a general thing, to be unhealthily religious, precociously
+intellectual, and at first hyperæsthetically conscientious.
+
+The other class of children, as a rule, are very handsome babies and
+children. The brightness is noted by parents at a very early age, and they
+extol their many clever qualities and sayings. The tendency is for the
+parents to cultivate these precocious qualities and believe it to be the
+proper thing to encourage them; while in early life this class may possess
+the peculiarities of the other class and also show those of degeneracy.
+These children are the best scholars in the schoolroom and learn their
+lessons with apparently little or no study. They are usually thin, frail
+children, and very nervous. Very little food is taken and much of that is
+not assimilated. Especially is this true of the lime salts, which form
+bone and tooth structure. These lime salts are excreted through the
+kidneys and salivary glands. This is easily demonstrated by an examination
+of urine, mouth, and teeth. Large collections of tartar are always found
+in these cases. Children of both classes are sure to show stigmata of
+degeneracy. This period of degeneracy commences at the sixth year, or at
+about the time the first period of brain development ceases. The bulk of
+the brain has obtained its growth. In some the child commences to improve
+mentally very fast. In others mental development is slow. In still others
+it ceases altogether. From the time the second set of teeth begins to
+develop until the twelfth year, neuroses of development and stigmata of
+degeneracy are stamped upon the head, face, nose, jaws and teeth, and
+later any of the conditions mentioned under the heads of nutritive
+degeneracy and local perversion tendencies may appear.
+
+Closely akin to these states are expressions of degeneracy manifesting
+themselves with some approach to regularity in periods, as in epilepsy and
+the periodical insanities. The periodical insanities may be simply
+emotional states of exaltation (as in mania), of extreme depression (as in
+melancholia), of stupor, or of mental confusion. They may show themselves
+in periodical acts, as in dipsomania. This condition differs from the
+condition called inebriety in the fact that it is a periodical expression
+of degeneracy whose form has been accidently determined, but which would
+exist even were its form changed. The differences are excellently outlined
+by Dana,[261] who divides intemperate drinkers into four classes:
+Periodical inebriates or dipsomaniacs, pseudo-inebriates, common drunkards
+and victims of delirium inebriosum. The disease in the first class is a
+periodical insanity. In the pseudo-inebriates the desire for drink is
+only one of many manifestations of a weakened constitution or inherently
+unstable nervous system. The third type are those which approximate the
+occasional criminals. Another periodical insanity is kleptomania, in which
+insane stealing occurs at intervals of greater or lesser regularity.
+Nymphomania or satyrasis is a periodical insanity in which there is an
+insane impulse for sexual intercourse. Pyromania is a periodical tendency
+to commit arson. All of these periodical conditions may occur alone or in
+combination with other degeneracies.
+
+Closely related to the periodical insanities are the epileptic states
+which play so large a part in many of the phenomena presented by the
+degenerates. In the epileptic the mental rather than the gross nervous
+expression merits attention. From what has already been said about
+epilepsy, it and the periodical insanities are in no small degree the
+effect of mal-development of the fore brain as compared with the centres
+of organic life. The great convulsive centre is, according to
+Spitzka,[262] the reticular grey matter of the brain isthmus, particularly
+of the pons and medulla. All characteristic features of the full epileptic
+onset can be produced in animals deprived of the related cerebral cortex.
+It needs but a slight puncture with a thin needle to produce typical
+convulsions in the rabbit, and some of the convulsive movements reported
+by Nothnagel have not only shown the true epileptic character but also
+that peculiar automatism noted in aberrant attacks. It is in this segment
+of the nervous system that all the great nerve strands conveying motor
+impulses, both of a voluntary and automatic and some of a reflex
+character, are found united in a relatively small area, and just here a
+relatively slight irritation might produce functional disturbances
+involving the entire bodily periphery.
+
+The experiments of physiologists have shown that if a sensory irritation
+of a given spinal nucleus be kept up, after having produced a reflex
+movement in the same segment, any reaction beyond the plain of that
+segment is not in the next or succeeding planes but in the medulla
+oblongata. The motor reaction then manifests itself in laughing, crying,
+or deglutitory spasms, and, if the irritation be of the severest kind,
+epileptic or tetanic spasms in addition. Now the occurrence of laughing,
+crying, or deglutitory spasms could be easily understood if the molecular
+oscillation induced by the irritation were to travel along the associating
+tracts from the given spinal segment to the nuclei of the medulla
+oblongata. For in the medulla are found the nerve nuclei which preside
+over the facial, laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles. It is not easy at first
+to understand how tetanus and epilepsy, that is, spasms consisting in
+movements whose direct projection is not in the medulla oblongata but in
+the cord, can be produced by irritation of the former.
+
+There are scattered groups of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata which
+have either no demonstrable connection with the nerve nuclei, or are
+positively known to be connected with the longitudinal associating
+strands. These cells hence can safely be regarded as representing a
+presiding centre over the entire spinal system. No spinal centre exerts
+any influence even remotely as pronounced as that of the entire cord.
+This applies to man and other mammals. That the elaboration of the
+medullary centre was as gradual a process as that of other higher
+differentiations is illustrated by the case of the frog, whose medulla has
+acquired the faculty of reproducing general spasms while the spinal cord
+itself retains this property also; hence here the predominance of the
+medulla is not so marked as in mammals.
+
+The reticular ganglion of the oblongata is not in the adult a part of the
+central tubular grey matter, but has, through originally developing from
+it in the embryo, become ultimately isolated from its mother bed. It
+constitutes a second ganglionic category, and the association fibres
+bringing it in functional union with the spinal grey (first category) in
+lower animals and shown to have assumed the position of projection fibres
+in the higher, constitute a second projection tract; both together are a
+second projection system. The scattered grey matter of the medulla has
+great importance. Anatomically it is (though its cells be scattered
+diffusely as a rule) a large ganglion with numerous multipolar cells of
+all sizes, many of them gigantic, sometimes exceeding the so-called motor
+cells (which they simulate in shape) of the lumbar enlargement in size.
+Scattered in the "reticular substance" of the medulla from the upper end
+of the fourth ventricle to the pyramidal decussation, they merit the
+collective designation of reticular ganglia.
+
+The cells of the reticular formation are known to be connected with the
+nerve nuclei, on the one hand, and with longitudinal fasciculi, which,
+since they run into the cord, terminate either in the grey matter or the
+nerve roots directly, for nerve fibres do not terminate with, as it were,
+blind ends. Now in the mammalian brain the reticular ganglion lies
+scattered among fibres which come from the higher centres, and the
+interpellation might be made whether, after all, the reticular ganglion be
+not a mere intercalar station for fibres derived from a higher source.
+Originally the ganglion was an independent station. In reptiles this body
+of cells is too considerable to account for a termination in them of the
+few cerebral fibres possessed by these animals. And, on the other hand,
+the vertical strands are notably increased in their passage through the
+field of the medulla oblongata.
+
+The medulla oblongata with its reticular ganglion seems to be the great
+rhythmic centre. In fish the movements of the operculum and mouth, in
+sharks those of the spiraculum, in perenni-branchiate amphibians the
+branchial tree, in the infant the suctorial muscles, in all vertebrates
+the movements of deglutition, of the heart and respiratory muscles, all
+movements presenting a more or less regular rhythm, are under the control
+of the medulla oblongata. The early differentiation of this part of the
+cerebro-spinal axis is related to the manifestations of rhythmic movements
+in the embryo and their predominant importance in lower animals. The
+possibility should not be excluded that a rhythmic movement may be spinal,
+nay even controlled by peripheral ganglia (heart of embryo). A higher
+development, however, implies the concentration of rhythmic innervations
+at some point where that anatomical association may be effected which is
+the expression of the mutual influence these movements exercise among
+themselves.
+
+Two sets of phenomena must be borne in mind in studying the physiological
+pathology of the epileptic attack. First, the condition of the epileptic
+in the interval. Second, the explosion itself. Too much attention is paid
+to the last, too little attention to the first. The constitutional
+epileptic is characterised by a general deficiency of tone associated with
+exaggerated reaction and irritability. Thus the pupils are at once widely
+dilated and unusually mobile. The muscular system, though generally
+relaxed, manifests exaggerated reflex excitability. The mental state is
+characterised at once by great indifference and undue irascibility. In the
+same way the vascular system is depressed in tone in the interval with
+rapid marked changes under excitation. The state of the nervous system as
+a whole Spitzka forcibly compares to that of an elastic band which, being
+on the stretch continually, is apt to rebound violently when one end is
+let go. Under normal circumstances the band is less stretched and hence
+not as liable to fly so far when the check is removed.
+
+An irritation which, in health, produces restlessness of the muscular
+system, accelerated respiration and pulsation and various mental phenomena
+within the normal limits, in the epileptic results in more intense
+phenomena in the same direction. The nervous irritability of the epileptic
+manifests itself in one direction especially. An important vaso-motor
+centre for the brain vessels exists, possibly diffused through an area
+somewhere between the thalamus and subthalamic region above the pyramidal
+decussation below. The irritability of this centre results in sudden
+arterial spasm in the carotid distribution (so characteristic a feature of
+the fit onset); simultaneously with the contraction of the vessel the
+pupil undergoes an initial contraction, and relaxation instantly results
+in both cases. The sudden interference with the brain circulation produces
+unconsciousness, and destroys the checking influence of the higher centres
+on the reflexes in a manner analogous to any shock affecting the nerve
+centres. In the meantime, while there has been a sudden deprivation of
+arterial blood and a sinking of intracranial pressure so far as the great
+cerebral masses are concerned, there has been as sudden an influx of blood
+to the unaffected district of the vertebral arteries whose irrigation
+territory is now the seat of an arterial hyperæmia. The result of this is
+that the great convulsion centre, the medulla, being over-nourished,
+functional excess, that is, convulsion, occurs unchecked by the cerebral
+hemispheres, which are disabled by their nutritive shock. The
+unconsciousness and coma of epilepsy more resemble shock than they do
+cerebral anæmia or syncope. The impeded return circulation of venous blood
+now comes into play. The contraction of the neck muscles explains this
+obstruction and especially the accumulation of venous blood in the
+cerebral capillaries of the medulla.
+
+True epilepsy presents an enormous number of sub-groups, exhibiting every
+variety of deviation from the ideal convulsive form, and the existence of
+these forms tends to demonstrate the views just expressed. In ordinary
+petit mal the initial arterial spasm has but to be confined to the surface
+of the hemispheres, leaving the thalamus ganglia undisturbed, and it can
+readily be understood how the momentary unconsciousness or abolition of
+cortical function can occur without the patient falling, his automatic
+ganglia still carrying on their functions. At the same time with the
+lesser spasm there would be a less extensive sinking of intracranial
+pressure with less consecutive collateral hyperæmia of the lower centres
+and therefore no convulsion.
+
+In certain cases the arterial spasm fails to affect the entire cortical
+surface simultaneously; some one trunk may be more pervious, and as afflux
+of blood may occur in its special field where certain impressions and
+motor innervations are stored, the result will then be that the function
+of the relatively well-nourished territory will be exalted. If it be a
+visual perception territory, sights, colours or luminous spectra will be
+seen; if it be an olfactory territory, odours will be smelt; if a tactile
+centre, crawling, tingling and cold sensation are felt; if a speech
+centre, cries, phrases, and songs may be observed. This explains the
+manifold epileptic aura, which is simply an isolated, exaggerated, and
+limited cortical function. The recurrence of the aura is readily
+explicable on the ground of the well-known physiological law that any
+nervous process, morbid or normal, having run through certain paths, those
+paths will be the paths of least resistance for that process to follow in
+the future.
+
+These conditions will be greatly exaggerated in proportion to the
+deficiencies in the associating tracts and will often, in turn, pervert
+these. The sexo-religious and other mental states of epilepsy often
+closely mimic normal mentation and serve to disguise the intense depth of
+degeneracy which epilepsy implies.
+
+In their explosive, unchecked character the morbid restlessness of the
+neurotic, hysteric, and criminal depend upon like brain disorder to that
+of the epileptic, except that consciousness is not involved, and with
+conscious acts are intermingled those preceding from the lower automatic
+processes described. Consciousness, however, is sometimes lost in part,
+whence frequently the defects so often noticed in the thoughts of the
+degenerates.
+
+The two following cases which have come to my notice illustrate the
+obliteration of the function of limited areas of the brain. A young lady,
+aged 22, of refinement and highly accomplished, was engaged to be married.
+One evening her _fiancé_ called; she failed to recognise him and he
+remained ever after a stranger to her. In every other respect her mind was
+seemingly normal. She died of tuberculosis. In another case a young lady,
+an expert stenographer, while riding her wheel, fell striking her head
+against a stone. She remained unconscious for some days, and was quite ill
+for three or four months. After her recovery she was much surprised to
+find that she knew nothing about her former employment, although her brain
+was perfectly normal in other respects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+Since, as Weismann[263] admits, interference with the nutrition of the
+germ plasm will result in the production of variations, the fact is
+evident that even according to the Weismannian principle the nutrition of
+the parents will determine the power of the embryo to pass through the
+various embryonic stages up to the developed child. Impairment of
+nutrition may check this development at any standpoint, and may thus
+produce any or all of the defects due to degeneracy. Weismann has no doubt
+about the inheritance of a "tuberculous habit whose peculiarities are
+certainly transmissible." Practically, therefore, even according to
+Weismann, that most emphatic critic of the transmission of hereditary
+defect, a condition of nervous exhaustion is produced in the parents which
+may be transmitted as a whole to the offspring, or may simply so affect
+the ovum as to produce various arrests in development with hypertrophies
+elsewhere. The influence of nervous prostration in the father may be
+overcome by conditions in the mother tending to help development. As her
+share in the germ plasm is most emphatic, not only at the time of the
+formation, but also during the entire development of the embryo,
+production of degeneracy will largely depend on her nutrition. The
+influence of healthy atavism is much more emphatically exerted through the
+female, albeit even in the male it may overcome the nervous exhaustion of
+the ancestor so far as reproduction of it is concerned.
+
+While many are called, few, owing to healthy atavism, are therefore chosen
+for complete degeneracy. Although heredity plays a large part in the
+degeneracy of the individual, still environment in many cases exerts a
+greater influence in determining, according as it strengthens or weakens
+healthy atavism, the depth of degeneracy. Treatment, therefore, both of
+the individual and of the family is largely a question of prophylaxis or
+prevention.
+
+In prophylaxis of the family the first indication is to stop the
+production of degenerates. Two measures have attracted considerable
+attention, and from their seeming simplicity have met with much favour.
+The first is regulation of marriage. This, as a means of preventing
+degeneracy, has been much over-estimated. Laws claiming to regulate
+marriage have ignored two factors. In the first place the graver
+degeneracies only are taken into account. From what has been shown as
+regards the tendency of the degenerate to intermarry, and from the fact
+that restraints on marriage inevitably result in illicit relationships of
+permanent character (equally productive of degenerates whose defects have
+been increased by the condition in which they are born), the only
+procedure likely to be of value in this relation is to regard marriage
+simply as a contract designed for certain ends and permit its annulment
+for fraud, for concealment of defects (intentionally or otherwise)
+incompatible with the procreation of healthy children. In its essence this
+is the English common law theory. Its principle is recognised by the
+divorce codes of various continental European countries. Furthermore, it
+is on this principle that the Pope not infrequently annuls marriages,
+divorce not being recognised by the Church of which he is the head. It is
+certainly best for the stability of the family that unhealthy unions
+should have the least permanency possible.
+
+Another element in prophylaxis, castration, ignores completely the rights
+of individuals under the English common law (and, so far as the United
+States is concerned, a provision of its constitution). Although
+sacrificing these important guards against that degeneracy in the body
+politic which inevitably reflects itself in degeneracy in the individual,
+this procedure fails to accomplish its end, since it ignores completely
+the principle of transformation in heredity. The distance between the
+criminals (whom it is proposed to castrate) and the hysteric offspring of
+good family is not so great that the progeny of one will not be as
+degenerate as the progeny of the other. Whatever may be said of the value
+of this procedure as a deterrent, its use as a prophylactic is
+comparatively small.
+
+Much better results are obtainable by guarding women from the factors of
+degeneracy during puberty and during matronhood. Many nations whose laws
+ostentatiously regulate marriage in a manner most oppressive to individual
+liberty entail by their customs over-work in a spasmodic manner during
+puberty and during matronhood. Nations whose customs permit women and
+dogs to be harnessed together as beasts of burden, to carry the hod and to
+dig trenches for sewers, gas, and waterpipes, cry out very loudly against
+the dangerous license of the English-speaking nations in permitting women
+to intrude on male occupations. There is no doubt but that women (and it
+may be said a large majority of men) are now through evolution unsuited to
+occupations involving spasmodic expenditure of force, and well suited to
+those implying continuity. As Bachhofen, Reclus, and Otis T. Mason have
+shown, two-thirds of the occupations of this last type have been created
+by women. Man, as Havelock Ellis demonstrates, in accordance with the law
+of evolutionary advance, is adjusting himself to these occupations.
+Attempts to regulate employment of women in unhealthy trades are a step in
+the right direction so far as prevention of a factor of degeneracy is
+concerned, since it can be carried out without that disregard of personal
+liberty which is more dangerous in such attempts at regulation than the
+defect to be regulated.
+
+The periods of menstruation and pregnancy in degenerate women require
+(from what has been said on maternal impressions) special attention suited
+to the individual, and not prescribed indiscriminately for all classes. An
+excellent illustration of the dangers of Procrustean prescription is the
+instance where the vegetarianism of the mother during pregnancy was
+followed by the production of ill-nourished offspring. Diet during
+pregnancy undoubtedly can exercise a great influence for good, but this
+diet must ignore the "longings" of pregnant women, which are simply the
+bulimia, or abnormal appetite for food, produced by irritation of the
+medulla.
+
+In dealing with the toxic factors the question of legal regulation of the
+opium and alcohol habits requires attention. There is very little doubt
+but that the routine prescription of alcohol and opium (in the shape of
+paregoric and soothing syrup) by the laity for painful menses, teething,
+toothache, &c., underlies many cases of degeneracy in the offspring. This
+prescription is the more dangerous because it is recommended in the hidden
+guise of nostrums by hysterics with blatant alcoholophobia. One of the
+most energetic female advocates of the legal prohibition of alcohol
+beverages endorsed very emphatically the nostrum of one of her hysteric
+supporters which contained 50 per cent. alcohol and 1 per cent. each of
+cocaine and morphine. As the persons largely under the influence of such
+endorsement were hysterics whose zeal for reform was largely an expression
+for desire for notoriety, the dangers of its use during menstruation
+cannot well be over-estimated. To reach this serious source of degeneracy
+from alcohol and the narcotics, statement on each bottle of the exact
+composition of nostrums should be exacted by law.
+
+Government could exercise a potent influence for good on alcohol abuse by
+improvement of sanitary conditions in the tenement or apartment house
+districts. Experience in New York and elsewhere has shown that improvement
+in tenement houses produces decided decrease in the number of dram shops
+in tenement-house neighbourhoods. The earlier tenement-houses in New York,
+as elsewhere, were originally dwellings intended for one family. As these
+were replaced by houses specially built for tenements, with proper
+sanitary arrangements and improved ventilation, not only did a tremendous
+decrease occur in the infantile death-rate, but a decrease also in the
+patronage of dram shops. In many instances it was apparent that alcoholic
+abuse had grown out of poverty. Foul air and crowded quarters had begotten
+not only a desire for stimulants but a desire for social intercourse. The
+dram shop met social needs as a club. It is along this line that
+Government can make best use of its police powers.
+
+The Government, in exercise of its police powers directed to sanitary
+ends, could enable the trade unions to secure improved sanitation in shops
+in which occupations unhealthy by themselves or because of environment,
+are carried on. In this way improved sanitation of unhealthy occupations
+could be best secured.
+
+The prophylaxis of degeneracy in the mother and father may be summed up as
+simply the prevention of a state of neurasthenia, or nervous exhaustion,
+whether this condition (involving the functions of growth, motion and
+sensation, which, as Marinesco has shown, exist in every neuron and its
+processes) exhibit itself in the general nervous system or in the organs
+connected with alimentation, elaboration, and excretion. Every factor of
+acquired degeneracy produces what is practically this condition of
+neurasthenia ere exerting any influence in the production of degeneracy.
+In other words, the neurasthenia of the ancestor becomes the neurosis of
+the descendant. Therefore the neurasthenia requires in its treatment in
+the ancestor the removal of the exciting cause and the treatment of the
+effect by physiologic rest in the truest sense of the word. In a general
+way, therefore, the ordinary principles of hygiene applied to each
+individual case will suffice to prevent development of this neurasthenia.
+The part of Government in this is very small. It is true here that, as
+remarked by Johnson--
+
+  "How small of all that human hearts endure,
+  That part which kings or laws can cure!"
+
+Training of the individual rather than governmental regulation must be the
+factor to prevent degeneracy in the ancestor. Indeed governmental
+regulation by injuring self-reliance (that factor so easily destroyed and
+so hardly regained) may itself be a potent factor in degeneracy.
+
+Prophylaxis of degeneracy in the individual should commence with the birth
+of the child. Whatever may be said of hypothetical ante-natal training,
+there is no doubt that considerable benefit can be accomplished during the
+first months of life. As the great aim of training is to secure
+self-control, it must be obvious that to accustom an infant to expect
+attention at every moment it cries, whether the cry be the expression of
+need or not, is to weaken, not to strengthen, its self-control.
+Furthermore, regularity in bodily functions is a great source of strength.
+The child can be trained during the first months of life by careful
+attention to its wants on the one hand, and as careful inattention to its
+caprice on the other, so that all its functions become equably regular and
+automatic. With this regularity many of the factors underlying caprice,
+peevishness, and anger can be prevented in the earliest months of life.
+Unless there be enormous deficiency in the associating fibres a good start
+can then be made toward the creation of a secondary ego. It is at this
+period and during that of the first dentition that training is too often
+neglected or perverted in such a way as to strengthen the primary ego at
+the expense of the secondary. At this period the extent of training needed
+may be judged by the amount of stigmata, few though they be, present in
+the child. With the period of the first dentition certain mental and
+nervous stigmata manifest themselves. If the child be liable to
+convulsions on the slightest causes, if it manifest screaming fits without
+apparent reason, if it be frequently assailed by night terrors, serious
+attention is needed, and this attention should be directed not only to its
+mental and nervous condition, but also to its functions of assimilation,
+elaboration, and excretion. Here dangerous degeneracy may show itself
+which is not apparent elsewhere. The training of the child should be
+conducted along the lines recommended during the first months of life. The
+essential principles governing this have been excellently outlined by
+Jules Morel.[264] The treatment of all degenerates, and consequently their
+preservation from the evils that threaten them, ought to begin in their
+earliest infancy. First avoid exaggerating hereditary predisposition when
+serious neurosis has occurred in the parental line. Too often such a
+conclusion is adopted, and hope of recovery in the descendants is
+abandoned because one of the parents or the grandparents was affected with
+insanity by reason of organic disease of the brain. Preliminary
+examination of the neurotic needs to be made before one is enabled to
+judge as to the effects of heredity. Only after a careful examination can
+the extent of heredity be determined. The proof will be beyond doubt when
+in parents and in their children stigmata of anatomic and physical
+degeneration are abundantly found.
+
+In dealing with the question of the education of the child, the signs of
+fatigue expressed in the ears and face should receive attention. Attempts
+are being made in the schools of Chicago and elsewhere to determine these.
+The following schedule prepared by Colin A. Scott for the Chicago Public
+Schools is an excellent means towards this end:--
+
+    _Eye_:--Each eye should be examined separately and in a good light.
+    Hold a card over one eye while the other is being examined. In using
+    the optometer, find the place where vision of the dots is the easiest
+    and most distinct. In using Snellen's test card, place the pupil at
+    the distance marked upon the card. Have him begin at the top and read
+    down as far as he can, first with one eye and then with the other. He
+    should be able to read a majority of the test type. Test with
+    optometer, and in reporting use the number on the stem preceded by F
+    for far-sightedness, and N for near-sightedness.
+
+    Place the card for astigmatism at the distance marked upon it. Cover
+    one eye and ask pupil to indicate, without moving nearer, the circles
+    which appear blacker or lighter than the others. Bring the card nearer
+    and find at how many feet distant he still sees any of the circles
+    darker or lighter than the others. At a sufficient distance every one
+    betrays some degree of astigmatism, which is of consequence as a
+    defect only when capable of detection within the distance indicated
+    upon the card. Outside of this point astigmatism may be reckoned as
+    absent and marked 0 in the report. Note if the pupil suffers
+    habitually from inflamed eyelids, and inquire if he complains of tired
+    and painful eyes or headaches after reading, studying, or using his
+    eyes in other similar ways. Note any other defect of formation or
+    position of either eye. Test the movement of the eyes by moving a coin
+    to about eighteen inches of the eyes.
+
+    Test each ear with the same watch in the same place and position.
+    Establish the normal degree of hearing for your room under these
+    conditions. Describe each ear in the report as--(1) normal; (2)
+    slightly hard of hearing; (3) hard of hearing; (4) considerably deaf;
+    or (5) deaf. As a further test, place the pupil at a distance and ask
+    him to repeat a number of words or letters. In all of these tests care
+    must be taken to avoid the possibility of suggestion in asking
+    questions or by other means. Note if the child is a mouth-breather, or
+    gives other signs of adenoids or enlarged tonsils. Notice circulation
+    in each ear.
+
+    _Signs of Fatigue, &c._:--In no case should it be said in the presence
+    of a young child that he is nervous or defective in development or
+    nutrition.
+
+    Note the position and balance of the body in standing and sitting, and
+    whether the movements are--(1) habitually restless and fidgety; (2)
+    note especially the balance of the head; and (3) position and
+    occupation of the hands, showing nervousness or not; (4) note any
+    twitching or marked lack of motor control in any part of the body; (5)
+    note whether the pupil flushes periodically or frequently; is the
+    pupil (6) easily excited or (7) fatigued by task in school or at home?
+    Inquire if the pupil has frequent "morning tire" (number of days per
+    month) or headaches not connected with serious defects of the eyes.
+    (8) Is he unduly irritable or irascible? Are there any other signs of
+    lack of emotional control--for example, (9) being too easily
+    impressed; or (10) with an undue tendency to tears, or uncontrollable
+    laughter?
+
+    Note the general condition of bodily nutrition (this by no means
+    depends directly upon food), and the number of signs of failure in
+    physical development (height, weight, &c.)
+
+Researches along this line in Germany and England have shown that the
+fatigue produced by studies varies, and that it is possible by arranging
+sequence of studies to remove fatigue produced by one study through the
+rest furnished by another. It has been found that biology exhausts least
+and mathematics and grammar most. While there is undoubtedly a spirit of
+emulation stirred by these last two studies which is injurious, the
+limited associations affected by them are further a source of fatigue as
+well. The numerous associations of biology afford points of rest on the
+one hand while not tending to emulation on the other. It is this spirit of
+emulation, with its attendant alternation of worry and hope, that causes
+so many of the acquired nervous disorders of the adult, and which hence is
+obviously much more potent for evil in the child.
+
+Physical and mental training in the special asylums for imbeciles and
+idiots gives such splendid results that it is surprising that parents, and
+especially those charged with bad heredity, are not encouraged and advised
+by their physicians and friends to try from the first year of the child's
+life special measures for their preservation. If a persevering physical
+and psychic management of the weak-minded gives such admirable results in
+asylums, it would be still better if the child could be trained from the
+earliest period of its life. This subject is ignored by the public, and in
+every case not sufficiently appreciated. First of all try to preserve
+patients of a nervous or of a weak constitution. They should know in what
+state of health they are living, they must be informed of the great danger
+of matrimonial union with a person of the same tendencies, and especially
+when consanguinity exists between them. The greatest care is to be given
+to children of this class. Experience has already led to the conclusion
+that mental and physical overwork increases this defect: hence young
+brains must not be over-excited with worry or emotionalism. The will of
+children ought to be cultivated and strengthened. Their minds should be
+methodically educated. The bodily functions should never be artificially
+stimulated in any way, to increase unduly the assimilation of the food.
+Development of the intelligence, the sensibility and the physical
+training, should be looked after in the same way. Once a plan of living is
+laid down it should be followed. Success depends on this. The great
+influence of hygienic conditions (air, light, food, dress, habitation,
+sleep, muscular exercise, &c.) should not be forgotten, for without them
+efforts made for mental training are useless. By putting these methods
+into execution an increase of the congenital taint is prevented, and such
+methods perceptibly amend the psychopathic depreciation which in the usual
+way of living would certainly become worse. The object very often thus
+secured is double; aggravation has been prevented, amelioration has been
+obtained.
+
+In dealing with nervous exhaustion produced by the infectious diseases,
+the dangers of the convalescent period are not sufficiently taken into
+account. Parents are but too apt from mistaken motives of economy to
+dismiss the physician at the onset of convalescence. It is precisely at
+this period that the system hovers between permanent systemic defect and
+recovery. Proper diet and proper training at this time will often prevent
+the checking of puberty development, and hence a breakdown under the
+stress of that period. The same is true of the convalescent period from
+such diseases in adults. Many a mother has thus injured her constitution
+and given birth to degenerate children in marked contrast with the
+normality of the children born before.
+
+Frequently efforts are unsuccessful either because the family physician
+and the educator have no time to superintend treatment, or because they
+are unable, for many reasons, to individualise treatment properly. Hence
+the high value of well-organised special boarding schools for the
+degenerate.
+
+The special aim, says Koch, is to teach the patient to govern himself, to
+repose confidence in himself. To reach this end a great deal is required
+of him who undertakes the treatment. He has to exercise himself with
+patience. He must know how to divide the time for work and the time for
+rest. For many of these ill-balanced subjects variety is wanted as well in
+physical work as mental training.
+
+Those charged with these remedies, exercising good judgment, are soon able
+to distinguish the more favourable cases from the more difficult. They can
+soon say that a favourable remedy for the one may be noxious for another,
+and _vice versâ_. Tonics, spirits, cold baths, &c., and even hypnotism may
+be tried, but great caution is to be exercised, and these remedies should
+never be employed except by prescription of physicians.
+
+Even subjects of congenital mental instability suffering from obsession
+(imperative ideas) without delusions are not inaccessible to treatment. In
+these cases naturally the most important part belongs to the medical
+treatment as in most mental cases. The more serious cases, dating from the
+first youth and aggravated in proportion to the age, are not to be
+completely cured. The progressive evolution can be stopped and patients
+ameliorated in such a way that improvement makes their life bearable.
+
+The same results can be obtained with less degenerate subjects. Success
+occurs often when patients are enabled to understand the nature of their
+sufferings, to discern that their disease does not belong to insanity,
+that it is unlikely to lead to mental disease. This understanding is one
+of the best of all anodynes. Donders, of Utrecht, said to one of his
+patients suffering from optic hyperæsthesia of neurasthenic origin: "What
+medicine cannot do, time and oftentime hygiene realise." The intelligent
+patient having thus received assurance of his sight, good hygiene and
+mental rest soon after produced a cure. Acquired mental depreciation may
+exist from the first years of the child's life. These depreciations in
+proportion to their intensity are characterised by fatigue and even
+nervous exhaustion accompanied with physical weakness and functional
+trouble in one or more organs of sense, by pathological debility of the
+intelligence and impaired memory especially for recent facts, difficulty
+of comprehension and of associating ideas and judgment, as well as
+worries, fears, despairs, especially in cases of intoxications by
+morphine, cocaine, bromides, coffee, &c. These are increased by
+irritability and excitability when the troubles arise from onanism,
+puberty, or other periods of transformation in the sexual life.
+
+Fight from the first the symptoms of predisposing and occasional causes,
+because if aggravation be prevented recovery is possible. Especially in
+these depreciations must the physician utilise all his knowledge and prove
+that only mental science is sufficient to cure such patients. Not only has
+he to guide the intellectual life, and life of sensibility and will, but
+he has also to remedy the morbid physical conditions, to superintend the
+general régime, times of work and rest, air, light, dressing, preservation
+from alcoholic and other excesses.
+
+One great element of possible danger of the first importance is training
+in the sexual sphere. To avoid and at the same time to enlighten is the
+problem presented. In dealing with this problem the great requirement,
+balance, not repression, must be kept in mind. Masturbation is very
+frequently an expression not of mental or moral deficiency, but of purely
+local (first in at least most cases) physical conditions. Irritation (from
+the presence of worms in the rectum or vagina, an intensely acid state of
+the urine, or constipation) to male foreskin and female clitoris has
+produced a local itching, the attempt to relieve which has led to
+masturbation. Granting all that has been said about the deteriorating
+effects, especially in degenerates, the source should first be sought
+here. Attention to these physical states will often prevent the
+development of this practice and its resultant moral deterioration.
+
+In dealing with the sexual appetite the fact should be remembered that
+encouragement of healthy modesty is a duty in both sexes, and
+pre-eminently so in the male. Too much of what is called "sexual purity"
+is very often an expression of sexual perversity. While great stress has
+been laid on the evil effects of association between boys, too little
+stress has been laid on the danger of the training of boys by women. The
+sexual history of boys often demonstrates that their initiation into the
+sexual life was first at the instance of women older than themselves,
+often servants, but not rarely sexual "purists" or persons whose
+ostentatious religiosity covered a sexual perversity. In the healthy
+association of the sexes there is very little danger, but in such morbid
+association there is great danger, the more that the morbid conceals
+itself under religiosity and the allied phases of sexual perversion. Great
+stress has been laid on the dangers of co-education, but the growing
+opinion is that education limited to one sex is the source of even greater
+dangers to both boy and girl. It is a matter of common observation among
+genito-urinary specialists, alienists and gynecologists, that much of the
+alleged "purity" so ostentatiously displayed by graduates of colleges
+limited to one sex, is often the offspring of a sexual perversion which,
+whether congenital or not, has been fostered by the environment of one sex
+without the modifying, healthy influence of the other.
+
+In dealing with these cases the stigmata first likely to attract the
+physician's attention are in the milder cases those of the jaws, teeth,
+nose, throat, ear, and eye. Rapid decay of the teeth often leads to the
+discovery not merely of constitutional degeneracy, but also of the effects
+of certain strains which aggravated this. Dentists, mouth, throat, ear,
+and to a lesser degree eye specialists, are hence in a position to detect
+degeneracy at its outset. If they do not put the cart before the horse,
+and refer the constitutional symptoms to the local disturbances, they are
+in a position to be of eminent service to the race.
+
+What Jules Morel has said of the more evident degenerates is equally true
+of the others. Education should be conducted along the lines which Froebel
+indicated when he pointed out that play is the child's work, and that a
+development of this work is the natural problem for education. Extension
+of the general training of the whole body, from the properly conducted
+kindergarten to the school, is the principle on which all education should
+be conducted. This is recognised by advanced educators, as previously it
+had been recognised by the physician confronted with the effects of school
+strain resulting from the opposite theory. Manual training is a principle
+long adopted by idiot schools, where training of certain muscles through
+both mental and physical methods precedes intellectual training alone.
+Manual training may, however, be the source of equal dangers with the
+excessive abuse of intellectual training which preceded it. In the
+education of the degenerate, as in the education of the other members of
+the race, the true source of success is to avoid "the falsehood of
+extremes."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF AUTHORS
+
+
+  Agassiz, 43
+
+  Aitken, Sir W., 86
+
+  Alexander, Harriet C. B., 57, 151, 285, 320, 335
+
+  Amabile, 61, 109
+
+  Amadei, 20
+
+  Annandale, 263
+
+  Andronico, 319
+
+  Anstie, 83
+
+  Aquinas, St. Thomas, 6
+
+  Aristotle, 5, 6, 10, 11, 66
+
+  Attmyer, 12
+
+  Aubry, 77
+
+  Augustine, St., 6
+
+  Awl, 144
+
+  Ayres, Howard, 201
+
+
+  Bacon, Francis, 3
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 6
+
+  Bachhofen, 349
+
+  Baer, Von, 13, 70, 172
+
+  Bannister, H. M., 87
+
+  Bastian, 297
+
+  Bauer, S., 47
+
+  Beach, Fletcher, 25
+
+  Bemiss, S. M., 81, 86
+
+  Benedikt, 22
+
+  Berwig, Elise, 60
+
+  Billod, 143
+
+  Bischoff, 298
+
+  Bjornstrom, 20
+
+  Bock, 204
+
+  Boëthius, 4
+
+  Bourgeois, 86
+
+  Bremer, L., 117
+
+  Brigham, 8, 18, 21, 144
+
+  Broca, 18
+
+  Brown-Sequard, 48
+
+  Bruce, 204
+
+  Buchanan, 214
+
+  Buffon, 5, 67
+
+  Bullard, 115, 116
+
+  Bulwer, 122
+
+  Bureau, 109
+
+  Burnett, 45
+
+  Burton, 3
+
+  Byron, Lord, 78
+
+
+  Calkins, 109
+
+  Campagne, 18, 176
+
+  Camper, 12, 181, 183, 185, 187
+
+  Carpenter, G. T., 245
+
+  Carson, 61
+
+  Catlin, 173
+
+  Charrin, 65, 71, 72, 122
+
+  Chiarrurgi, 8
+
+  Christopher, W. S., 145, 150, 156
+
+  Clapham, Crochley, 176
+
+  Clark, C. K., 142
+
+  Clouston, 25, 336
+
+  Cohen, M. A., 47, 48
+
+  Cohn, 287
+
+  Conger, 88, 89
+
+  Coolidge, F. S., 71, 122, 268
+
+  Cope, E. D., 52, 179
+
+  Cowles, 21
+
+  Cullen, 287
+
+  Cunningham, 31
+
+
+  Dally, 12
+
+  Dana, C. L., 24, 197, 337
+
+  Dareste, 67, 70, 203, 268, 301
+
+  Darier, 90
+
+  Davis, Barnard, 174
+
+  Davis, Chas., 81
+
+  Darwin, Chas., 9, 131, 212, 213, 214
+
+  Darwin, Erasmus, 7, 12
+
+  Darwin, G. H., 82, 83
+
+  Defoe, 92
+
+  Demarquay, 200
+
+  Dent, 286
+
+  Des Champs, 332, 334
+
+  Despine, 18
+
+  Dewees, W. P., 125
+
+  Dickens, Chas., 289
+
+  Dixon, 102
+
+  Dohrn, 5, 15, 32
+
+  Donders, 359
+
+  Down, Langdon, 25, 82, 91, 105, 199, 331
+
+  Double, Le, 64
+
+  Doutrebente, 75
+
+  Dryden, 10
+
+  Duncan, J. M., 91
+
+  Du Puy, 50, 51, 52, 71
+
+  Dumas, Alexander, 322
+
+  Dyer, Thistleton, 2
+
+
+  Earle, F. B., 61, 109
+
+  Eimer, 49
+
+  Ellis, Havelock, 34, 103, 133, 349
+
+  Erlenmeyer, 61, 109
+
+  Esquirol, 9, 24
+
+  Etienne, 115
+
+  Ewald, 159
+
+  Eykman, 137
+
+
+  Farnham, Eliza, 2
+
+  Féré, 45, 56, 66, 69, 159, 200, 289
+
+  Felken, 138, 139
+
+  Fernelius, 3
+
+  Fisher, 21
+
+  Fletcher, 142
+
+  Folsom, 21, 154, 203
+
+  Fothergill, 31, 287
+
+  Foville, 20, 175, 362
+
+  Fowler, G. B., 157
+
+  Frigerio, 217, 218
+
+
+  Galen, 5
+
+  Galt, 18, 21
+
+  Galton, 54, 207
+
+  Geddes, 40
+
+  Gibney, V. P., 55
+
+  Gihon, 135
+
+  Giovanni, De, 73, 126
+
+  Gley, 65, 71, 72, 122
+
+  Godding, W. W., 21, 22
+
+  Goethe, 6
+
+  Gomme, 95
+
+  Gordon, B. O., 47, 48
+
+  Gray, J. P., 22, 24, 62
+
+  Grenzer, 199
+
+  Griesinger, 24
+
+  Grille, 20
+
+  Grimaldi, 320
+
+  Grohmann, 12, 17
+
+
+  Hæckel, 282
+
+  Hamilton, A. McL., 24
+
+  Hammond, W. A., 328
+
+  Hannover, 203
+
+  Harris, Elisha, 18
+
+  Harvey, William, 1
+
+  Hawthorne, N., 218
+
+  Heschl, 314
+
+  Heuse, 64
+
+  Heusinger, 10
+
+  Hilaire, G. St., 6
+
+  Hippocrates, 6, 138
+
+  His, 303
+
+  Hogden, 119
+
+  Howard, H., 24
+
+  Howe, Delia E., 194
+
+  Hoyt, C. S., 20
+
+  Hubbard, F. H., 20, 61, 109
+
+  Hughes, C. H., 21, 61, 109
+
+  Huss, 105
+
+  Huss, Magnus, 107
+
+  Hutchinson, 200, 238, 240
+
+  Huth, A. H., 82, 83
+
+
+  Ireland, 25, 201
+
+  Irving, Washington, 43
+
+  Itard, 25
+
+
+  Jacobi, 9, 25
+
+  James, Alex., 73
+
+  Johnson, 105
+
+  Johnston, Sir H. H., 101, 117, 118
+
+  Julien, 281
+
+
+  Kant, 162
+
+  Kasparek, 64
+
+  Keane, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99
+
+  Kerlin, 20, 21, 24, 25
+
+  Key, Axel, 20
+
+  Kiernan, J. G., 1, 8, 10, 22, 24, 30, 53, 59, 62, 63, 71, 73, 87, 88,
+  90, 94, 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 109, 119, 139, 144, 152, 166, 201, 206,
+  265, 267, 278, 285, 296, 297, 300, 320, 325, 333
+
+  Kingsley, 181
+
+  Knecht, 199
+
+  Kowalevsky, 14, 19
+
+  Krafft-Ebing, 20, 66, 105, 323, 324
+
+  Koch, 368
+
+
+  Lagorio, A., 59
+
+  Lamarck, 7
+
+  Landolt, 204
+
+  Lankester, Ray, 14, 31
+
+  Laing, 96
+
+  Lauvergne, 12
+
+  Le Double, 64
+
+  Lélut, 12
+
+  Levenstein, 61
+
+  Lind, Jas., 138
+
+  Lockwood, 48
+
+  Lombroso, 13, 21, 60, 320, 331
+
+  Lucas, Prosper, 12, 200
+
+  Luys, 78
+
+
+  Macaulay, 5
+
+  Macdonald, Jas., 21
+
+  Magalhaes, 330
+
+  Magnan, 20
+
+  Manning, 87
+
+  Marestang, 137
+
+  Marie, 278
+
+  Marro, 89
+
+  Marsh, 200
+
+  Marshall, 17
+
+  Mason, O. P., 349
+
+  Maudsley, 17, 24, 25, 66
+
+  Maupas, 41, 44, 80
+
+  Maupertius, 263
+
+  Mattison, 61, 109
+
+  McFarland, A., 21
+
+  McBride, J. H., 21
+
+  Meige, 274
+
+  Menatta, 102, 103
+
+  Mendel, 117
+
+  Mercier, 66
+
+  Merrick, 319
+
+  Merrill, 64
+
+  Meynert, 15, 20, 66, 298, 299, 312
+
+  Mickle, 176
+
+  Mills, C. K., 25, 304, 305
+
+  Milne-Edwards, 333
+
+  Minot, 35, 161, 178
+
+  Mitchell, A., 82, 91
+
+  Mitchell, Weir, 159
+
+  Monteyel, De, 87, 285
+
+  Moor, 71
+
+  Moquia-Tandea, 43
+
+  Moreau (de Tours), 10, 12, 16, 66, 72
+
+  Morel, A. B., 9, 10, 13, 24, 27, 63, 66, 67, 142, 213
+
+  Morel, Jules, 253, 362
+
+  Morton, 173
+
+  Moyer, H. N., 268
+
+  Muhr, 303
+
+  Mummery, 247
+
+  Munson, 141
+
+  Murray, 200
+
+  Murrell, 61, 109
+
+  Myer, Ludwig, 214
+
+
+  Nichols, C. H., 21
+
+  Nicolson, 20, 25
+
+  Niepce, 7
+
+  Nothnagel, 338
+
+
+  Obersteiner, 50
+
+  Obici, 175
+
+  Ogle, 200
+
+  Osborn, 5, 202
+
+  Osler, 25, 286, 289
+
+
+  Paddock, C. E., 73, 129
+
+  Parkman, 8, 12, 153
+
+  Patterson, 21, 144
+
+  Petrie, Flinders, 96
+
+  Petersen, F., 173
+
+  Phisalix, C., 204
+
+  Pinckard, C. P., 206
+
+  Pinel, 8
+
+  Planches, Tanquerel des, 119
+
+  Plato, 11
+
+  Potain, 286
+
+  Prichard, 8, 18
+
+  Proctor, 53
+
+  Pruner-Bey, 132
+
+
+  Raleigh, Sir Walter, 111
+
+  Ray, I., 8, 24, 81
+
+  Réclus, 349
+
+  Remondino, P. C., 47
+
+  Rennert, 62, 119
+
+  Ribot, 45
+
+  Ricochon, 73
+
+  Rilliet, 80
+
+  Ringer, 109
+
+  Roller, 87
+
+  Rolph, 106
+
+  Roof, 106
+
+  Rosser, C. V., 246
+
+  Royce, 18
+
+  Rush, Benjamin, 7, 18, 21, 66, 109
+
+
+  Sachs, B., 165
+
+  Sampson, 12
+
+  Sander, 16, 298, 299
+
+  Saulle, Legrande du, 59
+
+  Schüle, 20
+
+  Scott, Sir Walter, 95
+
+  Scott, Colin A., 156, 254
+
+  Semper, 202
+
+  Shakespeare, 1
+
+  Shuttleworth, 25
+
+  Siebold, 43
+
+  Souques, 287
+
+  Spencer, 28, 70
+
+  Spitzka, 20, 21, 24, 42, 43, 45, 59, 66, 67, 91, 105, 176, 294, 296,
+  297, 300, 302, 305, 325, 338
+
+  Stearns, H. M., 24
+
+  Stedman, 8
+
+  Stokvis, 136, 137, 138
+
+  Strahan, 76, 77, 83, 86
+
+  Saurez, 6
+
+  Sue, Eugene, 12
+
+  Suetonius, 6
+
+  Sully, 150
+
+  Sutton, Bland, 27, 28
+
+  Sylvius, 5
+
+
+  Tamassia, 20
+
+  Tamburini, 20
+
+  Tarnowsky, Pauline, 199, 319, 320
+
+  Taylor, 94, 96
+
+  Tennyson, Lord, 62
+
+  Tessier, 9
+
+  Thiebault, 86, 87
+
+  Thomson, Bruce, 8, 25
+
+  Tissot, 8
+
+  Tonnini, 20
+
+  Topinard, 96
+
+  Trélat, 200
+
+  Tuke, D. H., 80
+
+  Tyler, 174
+
+  Tyndall, 25, 318
+
+
+  Valenta, 285
+
+  Valude, 204
+
+  Verga, 20
+
+  Vecchio, Dei, 175
+
+  Vesalius, 5
+
+  Viault, 139
+
+  Vidocq, 12
+
+  Virchow, 50
+
+  Voisin, 12
+
+  Vogt, 17, 95, 132, 133
+
+
+  Warner, Francis, 155
+
+  Weigenberg, 42
+
+  Weismann, 46, 47, 51, 52, 125, 130, 131, 346
+
+  Westphal, 1, 20, 49, 50
+
+  Wharton, 268
+
+  Wilbur, 21
+
+  Wiley, 14
+
+  Wilson, D., 100
+
+  Wilson, G., 19
+
+  Wilson, 13
+
+  Wilmarth, A. W., 305
+
+  Wolf, William, 47
+
+  Wood, Jas., 115
+
+  Workman, J., 25, 88
+
+
+  Ziegler, 296
+
+  Zola, 77
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+  Achondroplasia, 267
+
+  Acrocephaly, 171
+
+  Acromegaly, 37, 278, 279, 280
+
+  Alcohol, 350
+
+  Alcohol and Degeneracy, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108
+
+  Ambidexterity, 55
+
+  Animals and Defectives, 1
+
+  Anthropology, Morel on Morbid, 13
+
+  Anthropoid Apes, 34
+
+  Appendix Vermiformis, 30, 290, 291, 292, 293
+
+  Arch of Jaw, Deformed, 249, 250, 251, 252
+
+  Arch of Jaw, Normal, 248, 249
+
+  Arrest of Development, 30
+
+  Artero-capillary fibrosis, 288
+
+  Atavism, 40, 307, 311, 347
+
+
+  "Bleeders," 286, 287
+
+  Blue Babies, 284
+
+  Bowel Disorders from School Strain, 157, 158
+
+  Brachycephaly, 170, 171, 172
+
+  Brain, Criminal, 22, 295, 304
+    " Degeneracy of, 294, 295
+    " Degeneracy, Types of, 295, 296, 297, 298
+    " Imbecile, 297, 304, 305
+    " Weight of, and Intellect, 166, 300
+
+  Breasts, Degeneracy of, 274
+
+
+  Cancer, Degenerate nature of, 28
+    " Fecundity in, 74, 75, 76, 77
+
+  Castration, 3, 4, 348
+
+  Cell and Heredity, 40, 41, 42, 43, 51
+
+  Chæmacephaly, 171
+
+  Chest, Deformities of, 261, 262
+    " Degenerate, 261, 271
+
+  Child and Degeneracy, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156
+    " and nutrition, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+    Fatigue in, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357
+    Neurotic, 335, 336, 337
+
+  Chondrocranium, 163, 164
+
+  Circumcision, 47, 48
+
+  Cleft-Palate, 197, 198, 200
+
+  Climate and Degeneracy, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,
+        139, 140
+
+  Cloaca, 283
+
+  Club-foot, 267, 268
+
+  Club-hand, 267, 268
+
+  Coca and Degeneracy, 117, 118
+
+  Coccyx, 259, 260
+
+  Coffee and Degeneracy, 116
+
+  Collateral Heredity, 46
+
+  Concrescence Theory, 221, 222, 223
+
+  Conjugation and Nutrition, 42
+
+  Contagion and Degeneracy, 121, 122, 123, 124
+
+  Convalescence, Hygiene of, 350, 351
+
+  Cranium, Degenerate, 165
+    " Embryology of, 161, 162
+
+  Crime, 318, 319
+
+  Criminal, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25
+    " Brain, 22, 295, 304
+    " Stigmata, 18
+
+  Criminology, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25
+
+  Cryptorchidism, 274, 283
+
+  Cuvier, Brain of, 166
+
+  Cyclopic Eye, 33, 202, 203, 204, 205
+
+
+  Darwin's Tubercle, 212, 213, 214, 215
+
+  Deaf-mutism, 283
+
+  Degeneracy, 2, 15, 19
+    " Alcoholic, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108
+    " Childhood and, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156
+    " Child Nutrition and, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+    " Climate and, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140
+    " Coca, 117, 118
+    " Coffee, 116
+    " Contagion and, 121, 123, 124
+    " Disease and, 28
+    " Ethical, 37
+    " Folklore of, 1
+    " Fungi and, 143, 144
+    " Infection, 121, 123, 124
+    " Intellectual, 37
+    " Isolation, 144
+    " Local, 38
+    " Maize, 143
+    " Mental, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326,
+            327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338,
+            339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345
+    " Metallic Poisoning, 119, 120
+    " Moral, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326,
+            327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338,
+            339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345
+    " Neurasthenia, 39
+    " Nutritive, 38
+    " Opium, 109, 110
+    " Parental Age and, 89
+    " Potato, 144
+    " Prophylaxis of, 351, 352, 353
+    " Race Intermixture and, 92, 93, 97, 99
+    " Reversional, 38
+    " Savages and, 1, 2
+    " School Strain and, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157
+    " Sensory, 37
+    " Soil and, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140,
+            141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+    " Spinal, 38
+    " Stigmata of, 37
+    " Syphilis and, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128
+    " Tea, 115, 116
+    " Tobacco, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115
+    " Toxic Agents and, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
+            114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120
+    " Tuberculosis and, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128
+
+  Development, Arrested, 68, 69, 70
+    " Excessive, 68, 69, 70
+
+  Diabetes, Fecundity in, 73, 74
+
+  Dipsomania, 337, 338
+
+  Direct Heredity, 45
+
+  Dolichocephaly, 169, 170
+
+  Durencephaly, 315
+
+  Dwarfism, 277, 278
+
+
+  Ear, Evolution of, 207
+    " Jug-handled, 213, 214
+    " Morel, 213, 214
+    " Satanic, 218
+
+  Ectrodactylia, 263
+
+  Ectromelia, 262
+
+  Embryology, Morbid, 71, 72, 73
+    " Vertebrate, 70
+
+  Environment, 350, 351
+
+  Epilepsy, 6, 313, 338, 339, 343
+
+  Epistaxis in Degenerates, 194
+
+  Evolution and Disease, 28
+    " in Fertilisation, 41
+
+  Eye Degeneracy, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207
+    " Evolution of, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207
+
+
+  Face and Brain, 34, 35, 36, 37
+    " Degenerate, 177, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188
+    " Embryology of, 35, 36, 37, 38, 181, 182, 183
+    " Evolution of, 35, 36, 37, 38, 181, 182, 183
+    " Ideal, 181
+    " in Man, 34, 35, 36, 37
+    " in the Vertebrates, 34, 35, 36, 37
+
+  Facial Angle, 181, 182
+
+  Fatigue at Puberty, 154, 155
+
+  Fecundity and Mortality, 30
+
+  Feminism, 273, 274, 275, 276
+
+  Fertilisation, Evolution in, 41
+
+  Fetichism and Defectives, 1
+
+  Fingers, Degenerate, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Folklore of Degeneracy, 1
+
+  Foot, Flat, 280, 281
+    " Prehensile, 281
+
+  Fungi and Degeneracy, 143, 144
+
+
+  Genius, 11
+    " and the Child Type, 35
+
+  Giantism, 277, 278
+
+  Goitre, 141
+
+  Golden Age Myth, 2
+
+  Gout, 289
+
+
+  Hare-lip, 200, 201
+
+  Hæmophilia, 286
+
+  Heredity, 2, 3, 19, 40
+    " of Acquired Characters, 48
+    " and Ambidexterity, 55
+
+  Heredity and Atavism, 70
+    " of Circumcision, 47, 48
+    " and Face Deformity, 55
+    " and Germ Plasm, 46, 346
+    " and Hairy Deformity, 53
+    " and Healthy Atavism, 63, 64, 65
+    " and Hernia, 268, 269
+    " Indirect, 45
+    " Morbid Manifestations of, 69
+    " Motor Disturbance and, 56
+    " Mutilation and, 48, 49, 50
+    " and Onychophagia, 55
+    " Reversional, 52, 53, 54
+    " Sexes in, 44, 45, 46, 47
+    " Skin Deformity and, 53
+    " Transformation of, 75, 76
+    " Types of, 45, 46
+
+  Hermaphrodism, 41, 42, 60
+
+  Heterophagy, 42
+
+  Hutchinson's Teeth, 238, 240
+
+  Hydrocephaly, 166
+
+
+  Idiot, 17, 25
+    " Biology of, 17, 25
+    " Brain of, 17, 25
+    " Epileptic Change in, 25
+
+  Ichthyosis, 288
+
+  Individuation, 28, 29
+
+  Inebriety, 337, 338
+
+  Infantilism, 272, 276, 278
+
+  Infection and Degeneracy, 121, 122, 123, 124
+
+  Intermarriage, 81
+    " Consanguinous, 83
+    " Neurotic, 87
+
+  Instinct, 317
+
+  Intermaxillary Bones, 5
+
+  Iris, 206
+
+  Isophagy, 42
+
+  Isolation and Degeneracy, 144
+
+
+  Jaws--
+    " Blind, 257
+    " Criminal, 258
+    " Deaf-mutes, 257
+    " Degenerate, 239, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 255, 256
+    " Evolution, 232
+    " Idiot, 257
+    " Inebriate, 257
+    " Insane, 257
+    " Prostitutes, 257
+    " Stigmata of, 253, 254, 255
+
+
+  Kephalones, 167
+
+  Kleptomania, 338
+
+  Klinocephaly, 170
+
+  Kidney Disorders from School Strain, 158
+
+
+  Law of Economy of Growth, 67
+
+  Leontiasis, 278, 279
+
+  Leptocephaly, 170
+
+  Limbs, Degenerate, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Lipomatosis, 289
+
+
+  Macrocephaly, 166
+
+  Macrodactylia, 266
+
+  Macrophthalmia, 206
+
+  Maize and Degeneracy, 143
+
+  Marriage, Regulation of, 81, 83, 87, 347, 348
+
+  Masculinism, 273, 274, 275, 276
+
+  Maternal Diet and the Foetus, 60
+    " Emotional Stress and Foetal Defect, 59, 60, 61
+    " Impressions in Bird, 57, 58
+    " Impressions in Man, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62
+    " Lead Poisoning and the Foetus, 62
+    " Opium Habit and the Foetus, 61, 62
+    " Sensory Disturbance and the Foetus, 56
+    " Stigmatisation and the Foetus, 57
+
+  Merycism, 293
+
+  Mesocephaly, 169
+
+  Metallic Poisoning and Degeneracy, 119, 120
+
+  Microcephaly, 167, 168
+
+  Microdactylia, 266
+
+  Microphthalmia, 206
+
+  Monstrosity artificially Produced, 67, 68
+
+  Moral Insanity, 4, 25
+
+  Mouth-breathing, 248
+
+  Muscle Degeneracy, 268
+
+  Myxoedema, 288
+
+
+  Nanocephaly, 168
+
+  Nervous Heredity, 16
+
+  Nervous Prostration, 351, 352, 357
+
+  Neurotics, 333, 334
+
+  Nose Degeneracy, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193
+    " Degeneracy and Tuberculosis, 193
+    " Development of, 193, 194
+    " Erectile Tissue of, 194
+    " in Bleeders, 194, 195
+
+  Night Terrors, 152
+
+  Nutrition and Conjugation, 41, 42
+
+  Nymphomania, 338
+
+
+  Obesity--
+    " Fecundity in, 72, 73
+    " Juvenile, 159, 289
+
+  Occiput Degeneracy, 175
+
+  Onychophagia, 55
+
+  Opium and Degeneracy, 109
+
+  Opium Habit, 350
+
+  Organs as Parasites, 30
+
+
+  Pachycephaly, 171
+
+  Paranoia, 325
+
+  Paranucleus, Hermaphrodism of, 41
+
+  Parasitism, 30
+
+  Palate Degeneracy, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200
+
+  Parental Age and Degeneracy, 89
+
+  Parthenogenesis, 44
+
+  Patella Degeneracy, 268
+
+  Paupers, 19
+
+  Periods of Stress in Man, 33
+
+  Perversion, Sexual, 319, 320, 321
+
+  Pessimist, 331
+
+  Phocomelia, 262
+
+  Phthisis, Degeneracy Stigmata of, 78
+    " Fecundity in, 71, 72, 73
+    " Nervous States of, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75
+
+  Physical Effects of School Strain, 152, 153
+
+  Pineal Body, 202
+
+  Plagiocephaly, 172
+
+  Platycephaly, 171
+
+  Plural Births, 285, 286
+
+  Polydactylia, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Polydactylism, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Polymastia, 284
+
+  Porencephaly, 314
+
+  Potato and Degeneracy, 144
+
+  Predisposition, Unilateral, 64
+
+  Prostitution, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322
+
+  Puberty, Anomalies of, 154
+    " in Anthropoid Apes, 34, 35
+    " in Europeans, 35, 36
+    " and Maturity Development, 36, 37
+    " in Negro, 35
+    " Promise and Maturity Fulfilment, 35, 36, 37
+
+  Pyromania, 338
+
+
+  Race Intermixture, 93
+
+  Reasoning Maniacs, 327
+
+  Reproduction Cell, 28
+    " Destroyed Tissue and, 40
+    " Unicellular, 42
+    " Unisexual, 29
+    " Virgin, 44
+
+  Rheumatism and Gout, Fecundity in, 72, 73
+
+  Ribs, Degenerate, 260
+
+
+  Sacrum, 259, 260
+
+  Satyriasis, 333, 338
+
+  Scaphocephaly, 174
+
+  School Strain and Degeneracy, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 354, 355,
+      356, 357
+
+  School Strain and Puberty Anomalies, 154
+
+  School Overstrain, 354, 355, 356, 357
+
+  Sea Squirt, 14
+
+  Sexdigitism, 263
+
+  Sexual Appetite, Training of, 361
+    " "Purity," 361
+    " Perversion, 319, 320, 321
+
+  Skin, Senile, 287, 288, 289
+
+  Skull, Flattened, 171
+
+  Soil and Degeneracy, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,
+      140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+
+  Spenocephaly, 169
+
+  Spina-bifida, 258, 259
+
+  Spine, Development of 258, 259, 260
+
+  Sterility, Race Intermixture and, 98
+
+  Stigmata, 1, 27
+
+  Stigmata, Union of, 263
+
+  Stomach Disorders from School Strain, 158
+
+  Studies, Alternation of, 358
+
+  Sub-microcephaly and Intellect, 167
+
+  Suture Closing and Brain Defect, 162, 163, 164, 165
+
+  Symelia, 262
+
+  Syndactylia, 263
+
+  Syphilis and Degeneracy, 128
+
+
+  Tail in Degenerates, 260
+
+  Tapeisocephaly, 172
+
+  Teeth--
+    " Atavistic, 232, 233, 234, 240, 241, 242, 244, 246, 247
+    " Degenerate, 219, 226, 231, 234, 235, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245,
+            246, 247, 248
+    " Evolution of, 220, 221
+    " Supernumerary, 230, 232, 233
+    " and Hair Deformity 53, 54
+
+  Tobacco and Degeneracy, 111, 112, 113
+
+  Tramps, 331
+
+  Trigonocephaly, 173
+
+  Trochocephaly, 172
+
+  Tuberculosis and Degeneracy, 124, 125, 126, 127
+
+  Tumours, 285, 286
+
+
+  Unhealthy Trades, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353
+
+  Unilateral Predisposition, 63, 64
+
+  Uvula Degeneracy, 198
+
+
+  Women--
+    " Neurotic, 332
+    " Occupations of, 349, 350, 351
+    " Status in Evolution, 274
+
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1895.
+
+[2] _Folklore of Shakespeare._
+
+[3] _Anatomy of Melancholy_, sixth edition, 1652, part i., sec. ii., mem.
+i., sub. sec. vi.
+
+[4] _From the Greeks to Darwin_, p. 25.
+
+[5] _Works_, Sydenham Society Edition.
+
+[6] _Histoire Naturelle_, edition 1761.
+
+[7] _Zoonomia_, "Generation," vol. i.
+
+[8] _Diseases of the Mind_, p. 46.
+
+[9] _Traité des Dégénérescences Physiques, Intellectuelles et Morales de
+l'Espèce Humaine_, 1857, p. 3.
+
+[10] _Traité de Pathologie Comparée._
+
+[11] _La Psychologie Morbide dans ses Rapports avec la Philosophie de
+l'Histoire._
+
+[12] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January 1892.
+
+[13] _Traité Physiologique et Philosophique de l'Hérédité Naturelle_,
+1847.
+
+[14] _Les Forçats._
+
+[15] _The Mysteries of Paris._
+
+[16] _Les Vrais Mystères de Paris._
+
+[17] _Annales Judiciares_, 1840.
+
+[18] _American Journal of Insanity_, April, 1846.
+
+[19] _Criminal Jurisprudence and Cerebral Development_, 1841.
+
+[20] _De la Formation de Type dans les Variétés Dégénérés_, 1864.
+
+[21] _Chapters on Evolution_, p. 349.
+
+[22] Wiley, _Origin of the Vertebrates_.
+
+[23] _Degeneration._
+
+[24] _Die Ursprung der Wirbelthier_, 1875.
+
+[25] _Psychiatrie_, 1859.
+
+[26] _Psychologie Morbide_, 1889.
+
+[27] _Archiv f. Psychiatrie_, 1868.
+
+[28] Cited by Griesinger, edition 1845, p. 252.
+
+[29] _Recherches sur les Idiots_, 1860.
+
+[30] Cited by Havelock Ellis, _The Criminal_, p. 29.
+
+[31] _Gulstonian Lectures_, 1870.
+
+[32] See, for instance, Art. "Microcephaly," _Dict. of Psych. Medicine_,
+and, especially, Mingazzini's study of the morphology of cerebral
+hemispheres, _Il Cervello_, 1895.
+
+[33] _Psychologie Naturelle._
+
+[34] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1870.
+
+[35] _American Prison Association Report_, 1866.
+
+[36] _Deterioration and Race Education_, 1876.
+
+[37] _Report of the New York Board of Charities_, 1876.
+
+[38] _W. S. Tuke Prize Essay on the Somatic Ætiology of Insanity_, 1877.
+
+[39] _Allgemeine Zeitschrift f. Psychiatrie_, 1869-78.
+
+[40] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1873.
+
+[41] _L'Uomo Delinquente_, 1876.
+
+[42] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, January, 1878.
+
+[43] _Studien au Verbrecker-Gehirnen._
+
+[44] _Chicago Medical Review_, July 1, 1881, p. 310.
+
+[45] _Two Hard Cases_, 1882.
+
+[46] _Trial of Charles J. Guiteau_, vol. ii.
+
+[47] Every Asylum Report of the Gray School gave statistics of hereditary
+transmission.
+
+[48] _Medical Jurisprudence._
+
+[49] _Mental Disease._
+
+[50] _American Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry_, vol. ii.
+
+[51] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1882.
+
+[52] _Canada Medical and Surgical Journal_, Feb., 1882.
+
+[53] _Medical Times_, May 20, 1882.
+
+[54] _Transactions of Pennsylvania Medical Society_, 1882.
+
+[55] _Selection dans les Aristocracies._
+
+[56] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1879.
+
+[57] _Canada Medical and Surgical Journal_, Feb., 1882.
+
+[58] _Journal of Mental Science_, April, 1878.
+
+[59] _Evolution and Disease._
+
+[60] _Medicine_, 1897.
+
+[61] _Brain_, 1894.
+
+[62] Ray Lankester, _Degeneration_.
+
+[63] _Man and Woman_, pp. 23, 390.
+
+[64] _Human Embryology_, p. 567.
+
+[65] E. S. Talbot, _Etiology of the Osseous Deformities of the Head, Face,
+Jaws, and Teeth_.
+
+[66] _Evolution of Sex_, p. 129.
+
+[67] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, 1878-81.
+
+[68] _Germ Plasm_, pp. 431, 565.
+
+[69] _American Medico-Surgical Bulletin_, August 15, 1893.
+
+[70] _Circumcision_, p. 204.
+
+[71] _Medicine_, July, 1898.
+
+[72] _Medical Record_, vol. xlii.
+
+[73] _Organic Evolution_, p. 178.
+
+[74] _Comptes rendus_, 1882, xciv., p. 697.
+
+[75] _Transactions of the American Neurological Association_, 1877.
+
+[76] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1877, p. 544.
+
+[77] _Factors of Organic Evolution._
+
+[78] _Hereditary Traits._
+
+[79] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1877, page 548.
+
+[80] _Sensation et Mouvement_, chap. xiv.
+
+[81] Harriet C. B. Alexander, _Transactions Chicago Academy of Medicine_,
+January, 1895.
+
+[82] _Medical Classics_, July and August, 1888.
+
+[83] _Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner_, 1883-4, p. 426.
+
+[84] _Somatic Ætiology of Insanity_, p. 41.
+
+[85] _Medicine_, September, 1898.
+
+[86] _Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease_, March, 1891.
+
+[87] _American Journal of Obstetrics_, October, 1882.
+
+[88] _American Medico-Surgical Bulletin_, July 15, 1896.
+
+[89] _American Journal of the Medical Sciences_, October, 1856.
+
+[90] _La Famille Névropathique_, 2nd ed., 1898.
+
+[91] _Transactions American Neurological Association_, 1877.
+
+[92] _Transactions de l'Institut Pasteur_, 1896.
+
+[93] _La Psychologie Morbide._
+
+[94] _On the Mind_, 1805.
+
+[95] _Pathology of the Mind._
+
+[96] _Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie._
+
+[97] _La Famille Névropathique._
+
+[98] _Dégénérescence de l'Espèce Humaine._
+
+[99] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, 1878-81.
+
+[100] _Neurological Review_, vol. i., 1886.
+
+[101] _La Famille Névropathique._
+
+[102] _Medicine_, June, 1898.
+
+[103] _Bulletin Medical_, 1887.
+
+[104] _Medicine_, September, 1897.
+
+[105] _Annales Medico-Psychologique_, March and April, 1869.
+
+[106] _Marriage and Disease_, pp. 186-7.
+
+[107] _Annalles Medico-Psychologiques_, S. 7, t. xvi.
+
+[108] _Maladies Mentales_, p. 215.
+
+[109]
+
+  "The darkness of her Oriental eye
+    Accorded with her Moorish origin
+  (Her blood was not all Spanish, by the by;
+    In Spain, you know, this is a sort of sin).
+  When proud Grenada fell, and, forced to fly,
+    Boabdil wept; of Donna Julia's kin
+  Some went to Africa, some stayed in Spain,
+  Her great-great-grandmamma chose to remain.
+
+  "She married (I forget the pedigree)
+    With an Hidalgo who transmitted down
+  His blood less noble than such blood should be;
+    At such alliances his sires would frown,
+  In that point so precise in each degree
+    That they bred in and in, as might be shown,
+  Marrying their cousins--nay, their aunts and nieces,
+  Which always spoils the breed, if it increases.
+
+  "This heathenish cross restored the breed again,
+    Ruined its blood, but much improved its flesh;
+  For, from a root, the ugliest in Old Spain,
+    Sprung up a branch as beautiful as fresh,
+  The sons no more were short, the daughters plain."
+
+[110] The origins of the prohibition of incest have lately been fully
+discussed by Durkheim, _L'Année Sociologique_, 1898.
+
+[111] _Psychological Dictionary_, "Consanguinity."
+
+[112] _Bulletin de L'Académie de Médecine_, t. xxi. p. 746.
+
+[113] _American Medical Bi-Weekly_, vol. xii., No. 13.
+
+[114] _Mental Hygiene_, p. 25.
+
+[115] _Intermarriage of Relations_, p. 40.
+
+[116] _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, October, 1865.
+
+[117] _Marriage of Near Kin_, p. 218.
+
+[118] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1869-70.
+
+[119] _Marriage and Disease_, p. 266.
+
+[120] Cited by Ribot, _Heredity_, p. 292.
+
+[121] Cited by Huth.
+
+[122] _Allgemeine Zeitschrifft für Psychiatrie_, B. xxvii.
+
+[123] _L'Encephale_, October, 1882.
+
+[124] _Detroit Lancet_, September, 1882.
+
+[125] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1883.
+
+[126] _Australian Medical Gazette_, 1886.
+
+[127] _Il Manicomio_, May, 1886.
+
+[128] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1887.
+
+[129] _La Pubertà_, 1898, pp. 242-60.
+
+[130] _Archives d'Ophthalmologie_, 1887.
+
+[131] _Transactions International Medical Congress_, 1887, p. 264, vol. v.
+
+[132] _Lancet_, January to March, 1883.
+
+[133]
+
+  "For Englishmen to boast of generation
+  Cancels their knowledge, and lampoons the nation.
+  A true-born Englishman's a contradiction,
+  In speech an irony, in fact a fiction.
+
+  And here begins the ancient pedigree
+  That so exalts our poor nobility.
+  'Tis that from some French trooper they derive,
+  Who with the Norman bastard did arrive.
+  The trophies of the families appear.
+  Some show the sword, the bow, and some the spear,
+  Which their great ancestor, forsooth, did wear.
+  These in the herald's register remain
+  Their noble mean extraction to explain;
+  Yet who the hero was no man can tell,
+  Whether a drummer or a colonel;
+  The silent record blushes to reveal
+  Their undescended, dark original.
+
+  These are the heroes that despise the Dutch
+  And rail at new-come foreigners so much,
+  Forgetting that themselves are all derived
+  From the most scoundrel race that ever lived;
+  A horrid crowd of rambling thieves and drones,
+  Who ransacked kingdoms and dispeopled towns;
+  The Pict and painted Briton, treacherous Scot,
+  By hunger, theft, and rapine hither brought,
+  Norwegian pirates, buccaneering Danes,
+  Whose red-haired offspring everywhere remains,
+  Who, joined with Norman-French, compound the breed
+  From whence your true-born Englishmen proceed.
+
+  And, lest by length of time, it be pretended
+  The climate may this modern breed have mended,
+  Wise Providence, to keep us where we are,
+  Mixes us daily with exceeding care.
+  We have been Europe's sink, the jakes where she
+  Voids all her offal outcast progeny.
+  For ages, fugitives from neighbouring lands
+  Have here a certain sanctuary found;
+  The eternal refuge of the vagabond,
+  Wherein but half a common age of time,
+  Borrowing new blood and manners from the clime,
+  Proudly they learn all mankind to contemn,
+  And all their race are true-born Englishmen."
+
+[134] _Ethnology_, p. 201.
+
+[135] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1892, 1895, 1896.
+
+[136] _Origin of the Aryans._
+
+[137] _Ethnology in Folklore._
+
+[138] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1886.
+
+[139] _Origin of the Aryans._
+
+[140] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1892.
+
+[141] Cited by S. Laing, _Human Origins_, pp. 38-41.
+
+[142] _Anthropology._
+
+[143] _Alienist and Neurologist_, October, 1896.
+
+[144] _Origin of the Aryans._
+
+[145] Talbot, _Osseous Deformities_.
+
+[146] _Osseous Deformities of the Jaw_, p. 30.
+
+[147] _Hybridity and Heredity_, p. 307.
+
+[148] Cited by Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 265. See also Johnston, _British
+Central Africa_, 1897.
+
+[149] _Journal Am. Medical Ass._, vol. xx., 1893.
+
+[150] _La Razza Negra_, p. 20, 1864.
+
+[151] _Man and Woman_, pp. 25, 390.
+
+[152] Johnson, _Chemistry of Common Life_, vol. i. p. 239.
+
+[153] _Detroit Lancet_, September, 1882.
+
+[154] _Observations on the Brain and Mind_, p. 10, 1798.
+
+[155] _The Opium Habit._
+
+[156] _Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease_, 1890.
+
+[157] _Annual Universal Medical Sciences_, 1895.
+
+[158] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892; and (for Summary
+of Etienne's Report on the offspring of the young married women in the
+Nancy factories), _British Medical Journal_, April 23, 1898.
+
+[159] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1889.
+
+[160] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1895.
+
+[161] _Lancet_, November 30, 1891.
+
+[162] _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, 1887.
+
+[163] _Chemistry of Common Life_, vol. ii.
+
+[164] _Lead Diseases_, American edition, 1848.
+
+[165] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases_, 1881.
+
+[166] _American Journal of Obstetrics_, October, 1882.
+
+[167] _Birmingham Medical Review_, January, 1887.
+
+[168] C. E. Paddock, of Chicago, cites very analogous cases.
+
+[169] _Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication_, vol. i. p.
+37.
+
+[170] Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 203.
+
+[171] _Lectures on Man_, 1868.
+
+[172] _Man and Woman_, chap. iv.
+
+[173] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892, K. 18, vol. v.
+
+[174] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892.
+
+[175] Boies, _Pauper and Prisoner_.
+
+[176] _New York Medical Journal_, vol. lxii.
+
+[177] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1887.
+
+[178] _La Pellagra._
+
+[179] _Journal of the American Medical Association_, vol. xxii.
+
+[180] _Psychology of Childhood._
+
+[181] _Journal American Medical Association_, vol. xxii.
+
+[182] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1897.
+
+[183] _Illustrations of Insanity_, 1817.
+
+[184] _Pepper's System of Medicine_, vol. i.
+
+[185] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1886-87.
+
+[186] _Nervous Diseases of Children._
+
+[187] _Diseases of the Stomach._
+
+[188] _Embryology_, p. 465.
+
+[189] Virchow, _Gesam. Abhandlg., Wis. Med._, 1856.
+
+[190] _Report New York City Asylum for the Insane_, 1875.
+
+[191] Kiernan, _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1891.
+
+[192] _Annales Medico-Psychologiques_, 1849.
+
+[193] _Anthropology._
+
+[194] _American Journal of Insanity_, July, 1895.
+
+[195] _Revista Sperimentale_, xxii.
+
+[196] _Human Embryology_, p. 468.
+
+[197] _American Naturalist_, 1883.
+
+[198] _Oral Deformities_, p. 480.
+
+[199] _Medicine_, September, 1897.
+
+[200] For cases see, _e.g._, Gould's _Anomalies_.
+
+[201] Bland Sutton, _Evolution and Disease_, p. 193.
+
+[202] _Osseous Deformities_, p. 398.
+
+[203] _Journal of Morphology_, vol. v.
+
+[204] _Arb. Zoolog. Institut_, Wurzburg, iii.
+
+[205] _The Amphioxus._
+
+[206] _Sajous' Annual_, 1889.
+
+[207] _Sajous' Annual_, vol. iv., 1892.
+
+[208] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases_, 1878.
+
+[209] _La Famille Névropathique_, p. 156.
+
+[210] _Medicine_, May, 1898.
+
+[211] For further particulars, see "The Degenerate Ear," by Eugene S.
+Talbot, _Journal of The American Medical Association_, January 11, 1896.
+
+[212] Minot, _Embryology_.
+
+[213] Minot's _Embryology_.
+
+[214] _The Descent of Man_, p. 15.
+
+[215] Frigerio's measurements of the auriculo-temporal angle were taken
+with a specially devised instrument from the pinna to the mastoid.
+Buchanan's were apparently taken from the anterior edge of the mastoid to
+the helix, giving the angle of the external face of the whole ear.
+
+[216] See "Degenerate Jaws and Death," by Talbot, _Journal Am. Medical
+Association_, vol. xxvii. p. 134.
+
+[217] Osborn.
+
+[218] Talbot, "Mouth breathing not the cause of contracted jaws and high
+vaults" (_Dental Cosmos_, 1891).
+
+[219] Per cent.
+
+[220] Féré, _La Famille Névropathique_, p. 158.
+
+[221] Ibid., _Nouv. Icon. de la Salpêtrière_, 1890.
+
+[222] _Jour. de l'Anat. et de la Phys._, 1893, p. 564.
+
+[223] Cited by Gould in _Anomalies_.
+
+[224] Gould, _op. cit._
+
+[225] Gould, _Anomalies_, p. 272.
+
+[226] _Revue Internat. des Sciences Med._, November 1886.
+
+[227] Achondroplasia, or imperfect development of cartilage with resulting
+imperfections in the extremities, has come under my observation. The first
+case, a man of 38, had a face arrested in development and the appearance
+of a ten-year-old boy. His jaws were small with a protrusion of the lower.
+His arms were absent. The hands were full sized and attached to the
+shoulder. Another case was that of a member of the Spanish nobility in
+whom degeneracy was stamped on the entire body. He was short in body and
+had an enormous head. The jaws were undeveloped with a V-shaped arch. His
+left hand was located near the shoulder.
+
+[228] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1898.
+
+[229] _Medicine_, January, 1898.
+
+[230] Wharton, _Proc. Royal Society of Ireland_, 1863.
+
+[231] _British Medical Journal_, January 25, 1897.
+
+[232] Meige, _L'Anthropologie_, T. 6, Nos. 3, 4, 5.
+
+[233] Havelock Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, vol. i. "Sexual Inversion."
+
+[234] Otis T. Mason, _Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge_, 1888.
+
+[235] Julien, _Monatschrift für Prakt. Dermatologie_, March, 1898.
+
+[236] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892.
+
+[237] _L'Encephale_, 1883.
+
+[238] _Neurological Review_, 1886.
+
+[239] _Malthusianism and Crime._
+
+[240] _Wiener Med. Wochenschrift_, February 13, 1897.
+
+[241] _British Medical Journal_, April 23, 1898.
+
+[242] "Stigmata of Degeneracy in Royal Families," _Jour. Am. Med. Assoc._,
+vol. xxvii. 1894.
+
+[243] _Practice of Medicine._
+
+[244] _Progrès Medical_, July 15, 1888.
+
+[245] _Somatic Etiology of Insanity_, 1877.
+
+[246] Ziegler, _Pathologic Anatomy_.
+
+[247] Vogt, _Lectures on Man_. The lettering refer to the text of that
+work.
+
+[248] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, vol. viii. p. 66.
+
+[249] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1886, p. 54.
+
+[250] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1886.
+
+[251] In the foregoing, and to some extent in the following, chapters it
+has been necessary to touch on many complicated questions of brain
+function, more or less outside the main topic of this book. The aspect of
+such questions is, however, constantly changing in the light of new
+investigations, and our knowledge is still far from certain in many most
+important respects. For excellent statements of the prevailing views of
+brain localisation, brought up to date, the reader may be referred to the
+special sections of the latest editions of Foster's _Physiology_, or of
+Waller's _Physiology_; Donaldson's _Growth of the Brain_ may also be
+consulted.
+
+[252] _Work among the Fallen_, summarised in _Journal of Mental Science_,
+1892.
+
+[253] _Études Anthropométriques sur les Prostituées._
+
+[254] _Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1882.
+
+[255] And see the biography of Marie Duplessis by Georges Soreau in _Revue
+de France_, 1898.
+
+[256] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, 1879-80.
+
+[257] _The Man of Genius._
+
+[258] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1886.
+
+[259] _Review of Insanity and Nervous Diseases_, 1891.
+
+[260] _Alienist and Neurologist_, July, 1893.
+
+[261] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1893-4.
+
+[262] _New England Medical Monthly_, 1881.
+
+[263] _Germ Plasm._
+
+[264] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1893-4.
+
+
+
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+  LIFE OF DICKENS. By FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+  LIFE OF DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. By J. KNIGHT.
+  LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON. By Colonel F. GRANT.
+  LIFE OF DARWIN. By G. T. BETTANY.
+  LIFE OF CHARLOTTE BRONTË. By A. BIRRELL.
+  LIFE OF THOMAS CARLYLE. By R. GARNETT, LL.D.
+  LIFE OF ADAM SMITH. By R. B. HALDANE, M.P.
+  LIFE OF KEATS. By W. M. ROSSETTI.
+  LIFE OF SHELLEY. By WILLIAM SHARP.
+  LIFE OF SMOLLETT. By DAVID HANNAY.
+  LIFE OF GOLDSMITH. By AUSTIN DOBSON.
+  LIFE OF SCOTT. By Professor YONGE.
+  LIFE OF BURNS. By Professor BLACKIE.
+  LIFE OF VICTOR HUGO. By FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+  LIFE OF EMERSON. By RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
+  LIFE OF GOETHE. By JAMES SIME.
+  LIFE OF CONGREVE. By EDMUND GOSSE.
+  LIFE OF BUNYAN. By Canon VENABLES.
+  LIFE OF CRABBE. By T. E. KEBBEL.
+  LIFE OF HEINE. By WILLIAM SHARP.
+  LIFE OF MILL. By W. L. COURTNEY.
+  LIFE OF SCHILLER. By HENRY W. NEVINSON.
+  LIFE OF CAPTAIN MARRYAT. By DAVID HANNAY.
+  LIFE OF LESSING. By T. W. ROLLESTON.
+  LIFE OF MILTON. By R. GARNETT, LL.D.
+  LIFE OF BALZAC. By FREDERICK WEDMORE.
+  LIFE OF GEORGE ELIOT. By OSCAR BROWNING.
+  LIFE OF JANE AUSTEN. By GOLDWIN SMITH.
+  LIFE OF BROWNING. By WILLIAM SHARP.
+  LIFE OF BYRON. By Hon. RODEN NOEL.
+  LIFE OF HAWTHORNE. By MONCURE D. CONWAY.
+  LIFE OF SCHOPENHAUER. By Professor WALLACE.
+  LIFE OF SHERIDAN. By LLOYD SANDERS.
+  LIFE OF THACKERAY. By HERMAN MERIVALE and FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+  LIFE OF CERVANTES. By H. E. WATTS.
+  LIFE OF VOLTAIRE. By FRANCIS ESPINASSE.
+  LIFE OF LEIGH HUNT. By COSMO MONKHOUSE.
+  LIFE OF WHITTIER. By W. J. LINTON.
+  LIFE OF RENAN. By FRANCIS ESPINASSE.
+  LIFE OF THOREAU. By H. S. SALT.
+
+LIBRARY EDITION OF 'GREAT WRITERS,' Demy 8vo, 2s. 6d.
+
+
+Ibsen's Prose Dramas
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM ARCHER
+
+_Complete in Five Vols. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 3s. 6d. each._
+
+_Set of Five Vols., in Case, 17s. 6d.; in Half Morocco, in Case, 32s. 6d._
+
+'_We seem at last to be shown men and women as they are; and at first it
+is more than we can endure.... All Ibsen's characters speak and act as if
+they were hypnotised, and under their creator's imperious demand to reveal
+themselves. There never was such a mirror held up to nature before; it is
+too terrible.... Yet we must return to Ibsen, with his remorseless
+surgery, his remorseless electric-light, until we, too, have grown strong
+and learned to face the naked--if necessary, the flayed and
+bleeding--reality._'--SPEAKER (London).
+
+
+VOL. I. 'A DOLL'S HOUSE,' 'THE LEAGUE OF YOUTH', and 'THE PILLARS OF
+SOCIETY.' With Portrait of the Author, and Biographical Introduction by
+WILLIAM ARCHER.
+
+VOL. II. 'GHOSTS,' 'AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE,' and 'THE WILD DUCK.' With an
+Introductory Note.
+
+VOL. III. 'LADY INGER OF ÖSTRAT,' 'THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND,' 'THE
+PRETENDERS.' With an Introductory Note and Portrait of Ibsen.
+
+VOL. IV. 'EMPEROR AND GALILEAN.' With an Introductory Note by WILLIAM
+ARCHER.
+
+VOL. V. 'ROSMERSHOLM,' 'THE LADY FROM THE SEA,' 'HEDDA GABLER.' Translated
+by WILLIAM ARCHER. With an Introductory Note.
+
+The sequence of the plays _in each volume_ is chronological; the complete
+set of volumes comprising the dramas presents them in chronological
+order.
+
+
+Library of Humour
+
+_Cloth Elegant, Large Crown 8vo, Price 3s. 6d. per Vol._
+
+'_The books are delightful in every way, and are notable for the high
+standard of taste and the excellent judgment that characterise their
+editing, as well as for the brilliancy of the literature that they
+contain._'--BOSTON (U.S.A.) GAZETTE.
+
+
+_VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED._
+
+THE HUMOUR OF FRANCE. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by
+ELIZABETH LEE. With numerous Illustrations by PAUL FRÉNZENY.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF GERMANY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by HANS
+MÜLLER-CASENOV. With numerous Illustrations by C. E. BROCK.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF ITALY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by A.
+WERNER. With 50 Illustrations and a Frontispiece by ARTURO FALDI.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF AMERICA. Selected with a copious Biographical Index of
+American Humorists, by JAMES BARR.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF HOLLAND. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by A.
+WERNER. With numerous Illustrations by DUDLEY HARDY.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF IRELAND. Selected by D. J. O'DONOGHUE. With numerous
+Illustrations by OLIVER PAQUE.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF SPAIN. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by
+SUSETTE M. TAYLOR. With numerous Illustrations by H. R. MILLAR.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF RUSSIA. Translated, with Notes, by E. L. BOOLE, and an
+Introduction by STEPNIAK. With 50 Illustrations by PAUL FRÉNZENY.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF JAPAN. Translated, with an Introduction by A. M. With
+Illustrations by GEORGE BIGOT (from drawings made in Japan). [_In
+preparation._
+
+
+_COMPACT AND PRACTICAL._
+
+_In Limp Cloth; for the Pocket. Price One Shilling._
+
+THE EUROPEAN CONVERSATION BOOKS.
+
+  FRENCH
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+CONTENTS.
+
+_Hints to Travellers--Everyday Expressions--Arriving at and Leaving a
+Railway Station--Custom House Enquiries--In a Train--At a Buffet and
+Restaurant--At an Hotel--Paying an Hotel Bill--Enquiries in a Town--On
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+as to Diligences--Enquiries as to Boats--Engaging Apartments--Washing List
+and Days of Week--Restaurant Vocabulary--Telegrams and Letters, etc.,
+etc._
+
+The contents of these little handbooks are so arranged as to permit direct
+and immediate reference. All dialogues or enquiries not considered
+absolutely essential have been purposely excluded, nothing being
+introduced which might confuse the traveller rather than assist him. A few
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+
+
+  EVERY-DAY HELP SERIES
+  OF USEFUL HAND-BOOKS. Price 6d. each,
+  OR IN ROAN BINDING, PRICE 1s.
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+Contributors--J. LANGDON DOWN, M.D., F.R.C.P.; HENRY POWER, M.B.,
+F.R.C.S.; J. MORTIMER-GRANVILLE, M.D.; J. CRICHTON BROWNE, M.D., LL.D.;
+ROBERT FARQUHARSON, M.D. Edin.; W. S. GREENFIELD, M.D., F.R.C.P.; and
+others.
+
+  The Secret of a Clear Head.
+  Common Mind Troubles.
+  The Secret of a Good Memory.
+  The Heart and its Function.
+  Personal Appearances in Health and Disease.
+  The House and its Surroundings.
+  Alcohol: Its Use and Abuse.
+  Exercise and Training.
+  Baths and Bathing.
+  Health in Schools.
+  The Skin and its Troubles.
+  How to make the Best of Life.
+  Nerves and Nerve-Troubles.
+  The Sight, and How to Preserve it.
+  Premature Death: Its Promotion and Prevention.
+  Change, as a Mental Restorative.
+  Youth: Its Care and Culture.
+  The Gentle Art of Nursing the Sick.
+  The Care of Infants and Young Children.
+  Invalid Feeding, with Hints on Diet.
+  Every-day Ailments, and How to Treat Them.
+  Thrifty Housekeeping.
+  Home Cooking.
+  How to do Business. A Guide to Success in Life.
+  How to Behave. Manual of Etiquette and Personal Habits.
+  How to Write. A Manual of Composition and Letter Writing.
+  How to Debate. With Hints on Public Speaking.
+  Don't: Directions for avoiding Common Errors of Speech.
+  The Parental Don't: Warnings to Parents.
+  Why Smoke and Drink. By James Parton.
+  Elocution. By T. R. W. Pearson, M.A., of St. Catharine's College,
+    Cambridge, and F. W. Waithman, Lecturers on Elocution.
+
+
+THE SCOTT LIBRARY.
+
+Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top. Price 1s. 6d. per Volume.
+
+VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED--
+
+  1 ROMANCE OF KING ARTHUR.
+  2 THOREAU'S WALDEN.
+  3 THOREAU'S "WEEK."
+  4 THOREAU'S ESSAYS.
+  5 ENGLISH OPIUM-EATER.
+  6 LANDOR'S CONVERSATIONS.
+  7 PLUTARCH'S LIVES.
+  8 RELIGIO MEDICI, &c.
+  9 SHELLEY'S LETTERS.
+  10 PROSE WRITINGS OF SWIFT.
+  11 MY STUDY WINDOWS.
+  12 THE ENGLISH POETS.
+  13 THE BIGLOW PAPERS.
+  14 GREAT ENGLISH PAINTERS.
+  15 LORD BYRON'S LETTERS.
+  16 ESSAYS BY LEIGH HUNT.
+  17 LONGFELLOW'S PROSE.
+  18 GREAT MUSICAL COMPOSERS.
+  19 MARCUS AURELIUS.
+  20 TEACHING OF EPICTETUS.
+  21 SENECA'S MORALS.
+  22 SPECIMEN DAYS IN AMERICA.
+  23 DEMOCRATIC VISTAS.
+  24 WHITE'S SELBORNE.
+  25 DEFOE'S SINGLETON.
+  26 MAZZINI'S ESSAYS.
+  27 PROSE WRITINGS OF HEINE.
+  28 REYNOLDS' DISCOURSES.
+  29 PAPERS OF STEELE AND ADDISON.
+  30 BURNS'S LETTERS.
+  31 VOLSUNGA SAGA.
+  32 SARTOR RESARTUS.
+  33 WRITINGS OF EMERSON.
+  34 LIFE OF LORD HERBERT.
+  35 ENGLISH PROSE.
+  36 IBSEN'S PILLARS OF SOCIETY.
+  37 IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.
+  38 ESSAYS OF DR. JOHNSON.
+  39 ESSAYS OF WILLIAM HAZLITT.
+  40 LANDOR'S PENTAMERON, &c.
+  41 POE'S TALES AND ESSAYS.
+  42 VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.
+  43 POLITICAL ORATIONS.
+  44 AUTOCRAT OF THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.
+  45 POET AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.
+  46 PROFESSOR AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.
+  47 CHESTERFIELD'S LETTERS.
+  48 STORIES FROM CARLETON.
+  49 JANE EYRE.
+  50 ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND.
+  51 WRITINGS OF THOMAS DAVIS.
+  52 SPENCE'S ANECDOTES.
+  53 MORE'S UTOPIA.
+  54 SADI'S GULISTAN.
+  55 ENGLISH FAIRY TALES.
+  56 NORTHERN STUDIES.
+  57 FAMOUS REVIEWS.
+  58 ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS.
+  59 PERICLES AND ASPASIA.
+  60 ANNALS OF TACITUS.
+  61 ESSAYS OF ELIA.
+  62 BALZAC.
+  63 DE MUSSET'S COMEDIES.
+  64 CORAL REEFS.
+  65 SHERIDAN'S PLAYS.
+  66 OUR VILLAGE.
+  67 MASTER HUMPHREY'S CLOCK.
+  68 TALES FROM WONDERLAND.
+  69 JERROLD'S ESSAYS.
+  70 THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN.
+  71 "THE ATHENIAN ORACLE."
+  72 ESSAYS OF SAINTE-BEUVE.
+  73 SELECTIONS FROM PLATO.
+  74 HEINE'S TRAVEL SKETCHES.
+  75 MAID OF ORLEANS.
+  76 SYDNEY SMITH.
+  77 THE NEW SPIRIT.
+  78 MALORY'S BOOK OF MARVELLOUS ADVENTURES.
+  79 HELPS' ESSAYS & APHORISMS.
+  80 ESSAYS OF MONTAIGNE.
+  81 THACKERAY'S BARRY LYNDON.
+  82 SCHILLER'S WILLIAM TELL.
+  83 CARLYLE'S GERMAN ESSAYS.
+  84 LAMB'S ESSAYS.
+  85 WORDSWORTH'S PROSE.
+  86 LEOPARDI'S DIALOGUES.
+  87 THE INSPECTOR-GENERAL.
+  88 BACON'S ESSAYS.
+  89 PROSE OF MILTON.
+  90 PLATO'S REPUBLIC.
+  91 PASSAGES FROM FROISSART.
+  92 PROSE OF COLERIDGE.
+  93 HEINE IN ART AND LETTERS.
+  94 ESSAYS OF DE QUINCEY.
+  95 VASARI'S LIVES OF ITALIAN PAINTERS.
+  96 LESSING'S LAOCOON.
+  97 PLAYS OF MAETERLINCK.
+  98 WALTON'S COMPLETE ANGLER.
+  99 LESSING'S NATHAN THE WISE.
+  100 STUDIES BY RENAN.
+  101 MAXIMS OF GOETHE.
+  102 SCHOPENHAUER.
+  103 RENAN'S LIFE OF JESUS.
+  104 CONFESSIONS of St. AUGUSTINE.
+  105 PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESS IN LITERATURE.
+
+May be had in the following Bindings:--Cloth, uncut edges, gilt top, 1s.
+6d.; Half-Morocco, gilt top, antique; Red Roan, gilt edges, etc.
+
+
+THE TWO CYCLING BOOKS OF THE SEASON.
+
+Foolscap 8vo, Cloth Gilt, Elegant, Price 2s. 6d. Paper Cover, 1s.
+
+Lady Cycling.
+
+BY MISS F. J. ERSKINE.
+
+"Her (Miss Erskine's) remarks and suggestions are lucid, direct,
+thoroughly sensible, and invariably worthy of serious
+consideration."--_Daily Mail._
+
+
+Foolscap 8vo, Cloth Gilt, Elegant, Price 2s. 6d. Paper Cover, 1s.
+
+All-Round Cycling.
+
+By Sir B. W. Richardson, G. Lacy Hillier, Evelyn Everett Green, J. Rivers
+Vine, John Watson, F.L.S., and P. A. Thomas, B.A.
+
+"A little book that cyclists will know how to value, of whatever
+description they may be."--_National Observer._
+
+"A useful and entertaining volume."--_Daily Mail._
+
+"The chapter on 'Cycle and Camera' is particularly fascinating, and that
+on 'Health' especially valuable."--_Liverpool Mercury._
+
+"Bound to interest all cyclists."--_Black and White._
+
+
+UNIFORM WITH PREVIOUS YEARS' ISSUES.
+
+Crown 8vo, Half Antique, Paper Boards, Price 3s. 6d.
+
+The Theatrical 'World' of 1897.
+
+BY WILLIAM ARCHER.
+
+With an Introduction by SYDNEY GRUNDY, an Epilogue by WILLIAM ARCHER, and
+a Synopsis of Playbills of the Year by HENRY GEORGE HIBBERT.
+
+_May still be had uniform with the above_--
+
+THE THEATRICAL 'WORLD' OF 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1896.
+
+_Each of the above vols. contains Complete Indices of the Plays, Authors,
+Actors, Actresses, Managers, Critics, etc., referred to._
+
+The above volumes are also supplied in a uniform Cloth Binding, Price 3s.
+6d. per vol.
+
+
+THE CANTERBURY POETS.
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM SHARP. Cloth, Cut and Uncut Edges, 1s.; Red Roan, Gilt
+Edges, 2s. 6d.; Pad. Morocco, Gilt Edges, 5s.
+
+_A Superior Edition Bound in Art Linen, with Photogravure Frontispiece,
+2s._
+
+  1 CHRISTIAN YEAR
+  2 COLERIDGE
+  3 LONGFELLOW
+  4 CAMPBELL
+  5 SHELLEY
+  6 WORDSWORTH
+  7 BLAKE
+  8 WHITTIER
+  9 POE
+  10 CHATTERTON
+  11 BURNS. Songs
+  12 BURNS. Poems
+  13 MARLOWE
+  14 KEATS
+  15 HERBERT
+  16 HUGO
+  17 COWPER
+  18 SHAKESPEARE'S POEMS, etc.
+  19 EMERSON
+  20 SONNETS OF THIS CENTURY
+  21 WHITMAN
+  22 SCOTT. Lady of the Lake, etc.
+  23 SCOTT. Marmion, etc.
+  24 PRAED
+  25 HOGG
+  26 GOLDSMITH
+  27 LOVE LETTERS, etc.
+  28 SPENSER
+  29 CHILDREN OF THE POETS
+  30 JONSON
+  31 BYRON. Miscellaneous.
+  32 BYRON. Don Juan.
+  33 THE SONNETS OF EUROPE
+  34 RAMSAY
+  35 DOBELL
+  36 POPE
+  37 HEINE
+  38 BEAUMONT & FLETCHER
+  39 BOWLES, LAMB, etc.
+  40 SEA MUSIC
+  41 EARLY ENGLISH POETRY
+  42 HERRICK
+  43 BALLADES AND RONDEAUS
+  44 IRISH MINSTRELSY
+  45 MILTON'S PARADISE LOST
+  46 JACOBITE BALLADS
+  47 DAYS OF THE YEAR
+  48 AUSTRALIAN BALLADS
+  49 MOORE
+  50 BORDER BALLADS
+  51 SONG-TIDE
+  52 ODES OF HORACE
+  53 OSSIAN
+  54 FAIRY MUSIC
+  55 SOUTHEY
+  56 CHAUCER
+  57 GOLDEN TREASURY
+  58 POEMS OF WILD LIFE
+  59 PARADISE REGAINED
+  60 CRABBE
+  61 DORA GREENWELL
+  62 FAUST
+  63 AMERICAN SONNETS
+  64 LANDOR'S POEMS
+  65 GREEK ANTHOLOGY
+  66 HUNT AND HOOD
+  67 HUMOROUS POEMS
+  68 LYTTON'S PLAYS
+  69 GREAT ODES
+  70 MEREDITH'S POEMS
+  71 IMITATION OF CHRIST
+  72 UNCLE TOBY BIRTHDAY BK
+  73 PAINTER-POETS
+  74 WOMEN POETS
+  75 LOVE LYRICS
+  76 AMERICAN HUMOROUS VERSE
+  77 MINOR SCOTCH LYRICS
+  78 CAVALIER LYRISTS
+  79 GERMAN BALLADS
+  80 SONGS OF BERANGER
+  81 RODEN NOEL'S POEMS
+  82 SONGS OF FREEDOM
+  83 CANADIAN POEMS
+  84 CONTEMPORARY SCOTTISH VERSE
+  85 POEMS OF NATURE
+  86 CRADLE SONGS
+  87 BALLADS OF SPORT
+  88 MATTHEW ARNOLD
+  89 CLOUGH'S BOTHIE
+  90 BROWNING'S POEMS Pippa Passes, etc. Vol. 1
+  91 BROWNING'S POEMS A Blot in the 'Scutcheon, etc. Vol. 2
+  92 BROWNING'S POEMS Dramatic Lyrics. Vol. 3
+  93 MACKAY'S LOVER'S MISSAL
+  94 HENRY KIRKE WHITE
+  95 LYRA NICOTIANA
+
+
+The Canterbury Poets.
+
+_IMPORTANT ADDITIONS._
+
+WORKS BY ROBERT BROWNING.
+
+
+VOL. I.
+
+    Pippa Passes, and other Poetic Dramas, by Robert Browning. With an
+    Introductory Note by Frank Rinder.
+
+VOL. II.
+
+    A Blot in the 'Scutcheon, and other Poetic Dramas, by Robert Browning.
+    With an Introductory Note by Frank Rinder.
+
+VOL. III.
+
+    Dramatic Romances and Lyrics; and Sordello, by Robert Browning. To
+    which is prefixed an Appreciation of Browning by Miss E. DIXON.
+
+
+BINDINGS.
+
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+
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+
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+
+IN BROCADE, 2 Vols., in Shell Case to match (each vol. with Frontispiece),
+price 4s. per Set, or 3 vols. 6s. per Set.
+
+And in the ordinary SHILLING BINDINGS, Green Cloth, Cut Edges, and Blue
+Cloth, Uncut Edges (without Photogravure).
+
+The Three Volumes form an admirable and representative "Set," including a
+great part of Browning's best-known and most admired work, and (being each
+of about 400 pages) are among the largest yet issued in the CANTERBURY
+POETS. The Frontispiece of Vol. I. consists of a reproduction of one of
+Browning's last portraits; Mr. RUDOLF LEHMANN has kindly given permission
+for his portrait of Browning to be reproduced as a Frontispiece of Vol.
+II.; while a reproduction of a drawing of a View of Asolo forms the
+Frontispiece of the third Volume.
+
+
+The World's Great Novels.
+
+_Large Crown 8vo, Illustrated, 3s. 6d. each._
+
+Uniform with the New Edition of "Anna Karénina."
+
+A series of acknowledged masterpieces by the most eminent writers of
+fiction.
+
+
+THE COUNT OF MONTE-CRISTO. By ALEXANDRE DUMAS. With Sixteen Full-page
+Illustrations drawn by FRANK T. MERRILL, and over 1100 pages of
+letterpress, set in large clear type.
+
+THE THREE MUSKETEERS. By ALEXANDRE DUMAS. With Twelve Full-page
+Illustrations by T. EYRE MACKLIN, a Photogravure Frontispiece Portrait of
+the Author, and over 600 pages of letterpress, printed from large clear
+type.
+
+TWENTY YEARS AFTER. By ALEXANDRE DUMAS. With Sixteen Full-page
+Illustrations by FRANK T. MERRILL, and 800 pages of letterpress, set from
+new type.
+
+LES MISÉRABLES. By VICTOR HUGO. With Eleven Full-page Illustrations, and
+1384 pages of letterpress.
+
+NOTRE DAME. By VICTOR HUGO. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+JANE EYRE. By CHARLOTTE BRONTË. With Sixteen Full-page Illustrations, and
+Thirty-two Illustrations in the Text, by EDMUND H. GARRETT, and
+Photogravure Portrait of Charlotte Brontë. Printed in large clear type;
+660 pages of letterpress.
+
+Tolstoy's Great Masterpiece. New Edition of Anna Karénina.
+
+ANNA KARÉNINA: A NOVEL. By COUNT TOLSTOY. With Ten Illustrations drawn by
+PAUL FRÉNZENY, and a Frontispiece Portrait of Count Tolstoy in
+Photogravure.
+
+
+"Other novels one can afford to leave unread, but _Anna Karénina_ never;
+it stands eternally one of the peaks of all fiction."--_Review of
+Reviews._
+
+
+LONDON: WALTER SCOTT, LTD., PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+Punctuation has been corrected without note.
+
+The following misprints have been corrected:
+  "hemipheres" corrected to "hemispheres" (page 36)
+  "Louisana" corrected to "Louisiana" (page 99)
+  "somtimes" corrected to "sometimes" (page 112)
+  "manifestions" corrected to "manifestations" (page 148)
+  "two" corrected to "too" (page 212)
+  "centrals" corrected to "central" (page 234)
+  "from" corrected to "form" (page 258)
+  "looses" corrected to "loses" (page 260)
+  "mathemacian" corrected to "mathematician" (page 297)
+  "cortes" corrected to "cortex" (page 313)
+  "Nevropathique" corrected to Névropathique (footnote 209)
+
+Other than the corrections listed above, inconsistencies in spelling and
+hyphenation have been retained from the original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Degeneracy, by Eugene S. Talbot
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEGENERACY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 36003-8.txt or 36003-8.zip *****
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Degeneracy, by Eugene S. Talbot
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Degeneracy
+       Its Causes, Signs and Results
+
+Author: Eugene S. Talbot
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2011 [EBook #36003]
+
+Language: English
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+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>WITH THE PUBLISHERS&#8217;<br />COMPLIMENTS.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">[<i>The Published Price of this Book is</i> ...........]</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="verts">
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">The Contemporary Science Series.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">Edited by Havelock Ellis.</span></p>
+
+<p class="hang">I. THE EVOLUTION OF SEX. By Prof. <span class="smcap">Patrick Geddes</span> and <span class="smcap">J. A. Thomson</span>. With
+90 Illustrations. Second Edition. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;The authors have brought to the task&mdash;as indeed their names guarantee&mdash;a
+wealth of knowledge, a lucid and attractive method of treatment and a rich
+vein of picturesque language.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">II. ELECTRICITY IN MODERN LIFE. By <span class="smcap">G. W. de Tunzelmann</span>. With 88
+Illustrations. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;A clearly-written and connected sketch of what is known about electricity
+and magnetism, the more prominent modern applications, and the principles
+on which they are based.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">III. THE ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Isaac Taylor</span>. Illustrated. Second
+Edition. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Canon Taylor is probably the most encyclop&aelig;dic all-round scholar now
+living. His new volume on the Origin of the Aryans is a first-rate example
+of the excellent account to which he can turn his exceptionally wide and
+varied information.... Masterly and exhaustive.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">IV. PHYSIOGNOMY AND EXPRESSION. By <span class="smcap">P. Mantegazza</span>. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Brings this highly interesting subject even with the latest
+researches.... Professor Mantegazza is a writer full of life and spirit,
+and the natural attractiveness of his subject is not destroyed by his
+scientific handling of it.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Literary World</i> (Boston).</p>
+
+<p class="hang">V. EVOLUTION AND DISEASE. By <span class="smcap">J. B. Sutton</span>, F.R.C.S. With 135
+Illustrations. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;The book is as interesting as a novel, without sacrifice of accuracy or
+system, and is calculated to give an appreciation of the fundamentals of
+pathology to the lay reader, while forming a useful collection of
+illustrations of disease for medical reference.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Journal of Mental
+Science.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">VI. THE VILLAGE COMMUNITY. By <span class="smcap">G. L. Gomme</span>. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;His book will probably remain for some time the best work of reference
+for facts bearing on those traces of the village community which have not
+been effaced by conquest, encroachment, and the heavy hand of Roman
+law.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Scottish Leader.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">VII. THE CRIMINAL. By <span class="smcap">Havelock Ellis</span>. Illustrated. Second Edition. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;The sociologist, the philosopher, the philanthropist, the novelist&mdash;all,
+indeed, for whom the study of human nature has any attraction&mdash;will find
+Mr. Ellis full of interest and suggestiveness.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Academy.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">VIII. SANITY AND INSANITY. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Charles Mercier</span>. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Taken as a whole, it is the brightest book on the physical side of mental
+science published in our time.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">IX. HYPNOTISM. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Albert Moll</span>. Fourth Edition. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Marks a step of some importance in the study of some difficult
+physiological and psychological problems which have not yet received much
+attention in the scientific world of England.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">X. MANUAL TRAINING. By Dr. <span class="smcap">C. M. Woodward</span>, Director of the Manual Training
+School, St. Louis. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;There is no greater authority on the subject, than Professor
+Woodward.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XI. THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES. By <span class="smcap">E. Sidney Hartland</span>. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Mr. Hartland&#8217;s book will win the sympathy of all earnest students, both
+by the knowledge it displays, and by a thorough love and appreciation of
+his subject, which is evident throughout.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Spectator.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XII. PRIMITIVE FOLK. By <span class="smcap">Elie Reclus</span>. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;An attractive and useful introduction to the study of some aspects of
+ethnography.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XIII. THE EVOLUTION OF MARRIAGE. By Professor <span class="smcap">Letourneau</span>. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Among the distinguished French students of sociology, Professor
+Letourneau has long stood in the first rank. He approaches the great study
+of man free from bias and shy of generalisations. To collect, scrutinise,
+and appraise facts is his chief business. In the volume before us he shows
+these qualities in an admirable degree.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Science.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XIV. BACTERIA AND THEIR PRODUCTS. By Dr. <span class="smcap">G. Sims Woodhead</span>. Illustrated.
+Second Edition. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;An excellent summary of the present state of knowledge of the subject.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Lancet.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XV. EDUCATION AND HEREDITY. By <span class="smcap">J. M. Guyau</span>. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;It is at once a treatise on sociology, ethics, and p&aelig;edagogics. It is
+doubtful whether among all the ardent evolutionists who have had their say
+on the moral and the educational question any one has carried forward the
+new doctrine so boldly to its extreme logical consequence.&#8221;&mdash;Professor
+<span class="smcap">Sully</span> in <i>Mind</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">XVI. THE MAN OF GENIUS. By Prof. <span class="smcap">Lombroso</span>. Illustrated. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;By far the most comprehensive and fascinating collection of facts and
+generalisations concerning genius which has yet been brought
+together.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Journal of Mental Science.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XVII. PROPERTY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT. By <span class="smcap">Ch. Letourneau</span>, General
+Secretary to the Anthropological Society, Paris, and Professor in the School of Anthropology, Paris. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;M. Letourneau has read a great deal, and he seems to us to have selected
+and interpreted his facts with considerable judgment and
+learning.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Westminster Review.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XVIII. VOLCANOES, PAST AND PRESENT. By Prof. <span class="smcap">Edward Hull</span>, LL.D., F.R.S. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;A very readable account of the phenomena of volcanoes and
+earthquakes.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XIX. PUBLIC HEALTH. By Dr. <span class="smcap">J. F. J. Sykes</span>. With numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Not by any means a mere compilation or a dry record of details and
+statistics, but it takes up essential points in evolution, environment,
+prophylaxis, and sanitation bearing upon the preservation of public
+health.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Lancet.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XX. MODERN METEOROLOGY. <span class="smcap">An Account of the Growth and Present Condition of
+some Branches of Meteorological Science.</span> By <span class="smcap">Frank Waldo, Ph.D.</span>, Member of
+the German and Austrian Meteorological Societies, etc.; late Junior
+Professor, Signal Service, U.S.A. With 112 Illustrations. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;The present volume is the best on the subject for general use that we
+have seen.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Daily Telegraph</i> (London).</p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXI. THE GERM-PLASM: A THEORY OF HEREDITY. By <span class="smcap">August Weismann</span>, Professor
+in the University of Freiburg-in-Breisgau. With 24 Illustrations. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;There has been no work published since Darwin&#8217;s own books which has so
+thoroughly handled the matter treated by him, or has done so much to place
+in order and clearness the immense complexity of the factors of heredity,
+or, lastly, has brought to light so many new facts and considerations
+bearing on the subject.&#8221;&mdash;<i>British Medical Journal.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXII. INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. By <span class="smcap">F. Houssay</span>. With numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;His accuracy is undoubted, yet his facts out-marvel all romance. These
+facts are here made use of as materials wherewith to form the mighty
+fabric of evolution.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXIII. MAN AND WOMAN. By <span class="smcap">Havelock Ellis</span>. Illustrated. Second Edition. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Mr. Havelock Ellis belongs, in some measure, to the continental school of
+anthropologists; but while equally methodical in the collection of facts,
+he is far more cautious in the invention of theories, and he has the
+further distinction of being not only able to think, but able to write.
+His book is a sane and impartial consideration, from a psychological and
+anthropological point of view, of a subject which is certainly of primary
+interest.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Athen&aelig;um.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXIV. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN CAPITALISM. By <span class="smcap">John A. Hobson</span>, M.A. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Every page affords evidence of wide and minute study, a weighing of facts
+as conscientious as it is acute, a keen sense of the importance of certain
+points as to which economists of all schools have hitherto been confused
+and careless, and an impartiality generally so great as to give no
+indication of his [Mr. Hobson&#8217;s] personal sympathies.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Pall Mall
+Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXV. APPARITIONS AND THOUGHT-TRANSFERENCE. By <span class="smcap">Frank Podmore</span>, M.A. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;A very sober and interesting little book.... That thought-transference is
+a real thing, though not perhaps a very common thing, he certainly shows.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Spectator.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXVI. AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. By Professor <span class="smcap">C. Lloyd
+Morgan</span>. With Diagrams. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;A strong and complete exposition of Psychology, as it takes shape in a
+mind previously informed with biological science.... Well written,
+extremely entertaining, and intrinsically valuable.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXVII. THE ORIGINS OF INVENTION: <span class="smcap">A Study of Industry among Primitive
+Peoples.</span> By <span class="smcap">Otis T. Mason</span>, Curator of the Department of Ethnology in the
+United States National Museum. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;A valuable history of the development of the inventive faculty.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXVIII. THE GROWTH OF THE BRAIN: <span class="smcap">A Study of the Nervous System in Relation
+to Education.</span> By <span class="smcap">Henry Herbert Donaldson</span>, Professor of Neurology in the
+University of Chicago. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;We can say with confidence that Professor Donaldson has executed his work
+with much care, judgment, and discrimination.&#8221;&mdash;<i>The Lancet.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXIX. EVOLUTION IN ART: <span class="smcap">As Illustrated by the Life-Histories of Designs.</span>
+By Professor <span class="smcap">Alfred C. Haddon</span>. With 130 Illustrations. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;It is impossible to speak too highly of this most unassuming and
+invaluable book.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Journal Anthropological Institute.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXX. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE EMOTIONS. By <span class="smcap">Th. Ribot</span>, Professor at the
+College of France, Editor of the <i>Revue Philosophique</i>. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;Charmingly written, and full of lucid explanation and brilliant
+comparison. A masterly exposition.&#8221;&mdash;<i>British Medical Journal.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXXI. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS: <span class="smcap">A Study of the Fallacies of
+Perception.</span> By <span class="smcap">Edmund Parish</span>. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;The most comprehensive and most scientific work on false perception that
+has up till now been written in any language.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Journal of Mental Science.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXXII. THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY By <span class="smcap">E. W. Scripture</span>, Ph.D. (Leipzig). With 124
+Illustrations. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;We have at present no work in English which gives in so compact a form so
+comprehensive a view of the subject.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Liverpool Post.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXXIII. SLEEP: <span class="smcap">Its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene, and Psychology</span>. By
+<span class="smcap">Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne</span> (St. Petersburg). Illustrated. 3s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;The book is a complete and wonderfully interesting exposition, and as
+such ought to receive a hearty welcome.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Scotsman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DIGESTION. By <span class="smcap">A. Lockhart Gillespie, M.D.,
+F.R.C.P. Ed., F.R.S. Ed.</span> With a large number of Illustrations and
+Diagrams. 6s.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">XXXV. DEGENERACY: <span class="smcap">Its Causes, Signs, and Results</span>. By Professor <span class="smcap">Eugene S.
+Talbot</span>, M.D., Chicago. With Illustrations. 6s.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="u"><i>THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES</i></span></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Edited by HAVELOCK ELLIS</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">DEGENERACY</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">DWARFISM AND GIANTISM.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="giant"><span class="smcap">Degeneracy</span></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><i>ITS CAUSES, SIGNS, AND RESULTS</i></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><small>BY</small><br />
+<span class="big">EUGENE S. TALBOT, M.D., D.D.S.,</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>FELLOW OF THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF MEDICINE; MEMBER OF THE CHICAGO<br />
+ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE BERLIN<br />
+ODONTOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT, AND THE ASSOCIATION<br />
+G&Eacute;N&Eacute;RALE DES DENTISTES DE FRANCE; PROFESSOR OF<br />
+DENTAL AND ORAL SURGERY, WOMAN&#8217;S MEDICAL<br />
+SCHOOL, NORTH-WESTERN UNIVERSITY, U.S.A.</small></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">WITH 120 ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">LONDON<br />WALTER SCOTT, LTD., PATERNOSTER SQUARE<br />1898</p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>The present work is the result of more than twenty years&#8217; labour in a
+limited medical department of biology. It demonstrates once more the truth
+of the scientific principle, that the truth or falsity of any theory or
+working hypothesis becomes more and more demonstrable the further its
+application is attempted in the explanation of new lines of facts. The
+truth of the degeneracy doctrine had forced itself on the writer long
+before its popular apotheosis under Lombroso and Nordau, because it alone
+sufficed for an explanation of constitutional and local defects
+(encountered in a seemingly limited speciality of medicine), which local
+causes failed entirely to explain. The investigations thereon resultant
+have appeared in medical and dental journals for the past two decades. The
+present work is chiefly based on these researches. At the same time, the
+author has drawn largely from all fields of biology cultivated by European
+investigators, while he must acknowledge a particular indebtedness to the
+investigations (of which he has made large use beside that elsewhere
+specifically acknowledged) of certain American investigators&mdash;Rush,
+Parkmen, Ray, G.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> Frank Lydston, C. L. Dana, C. F. Folsom, W. W. Godding,
+E. C. Spitzka, E. D. Cope, D. R. Brower, Marsh, B. Sachs, Harriet C. B.
+Alexander, Clara Barrus, H. M. Bannister, Delia E. Howe, Grace Peckham,
+Adolph Meyer, Kerlin, Wiley, J. G. Kiernan, W. E. Allison, Osborn, R.
+Dewey, Frederick Peterson, Gihon, Cowles, W. A. Hammond, A. B. Holder, C.
+H. Hughes, F. W. Starr, F. C. Hoyt, J. H. McBride, C. K. Mills, C. B.
+Burr, T. D. Crothers, W. S. Christopher, W. X. Sudduth, A. Lagorio, J.
+Workman, Wilmarth, and others. These scientists had raised an exceedingly
+stable foundation for the doctrine of degeneracy long before Lombroso and
+Nordau (forcing one phase of the subject into popular recognition)
+compelled an examination of the entire doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>The work has been written with a special intention of reaching educators
+and parents. With this object, it has avoided laying stress on any one
+cause of degeneracy, and ignoring factors which produce it and are
+aggravated by it. The doctrinaire reformer will here find no support for
+any limited theory. While it does not pretend in the slightest degree to
+give all the details of degeneracy, it attempts to lay down general
+principles for practical purposes in a way that permits their application
+to the solution of sociologic problems.</p>
+
+<p>From a sense of scientific accuracy no attempts have been made to
+demarcate, rigidly, abnormality from disease, or atavism from arrested
+development, except as may be done by the features of the cases in which
+the terms are used. The guiding principle adopted has been that the
+factors of degeneracy affect in the ancestor the checks on excessive
+action<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> acquired during the evolution of the race, thus producing a state
+of nervous exhaustion. The descendant in consequence is unable to reach
+the state of the ancestor thus nervously exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>For the illustrations, other than those that are original, the author is
+indebted to the <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i>, <i>Dental
+Cosmos</i>, <i>The International Dental Journal</i>, <i>The St. Louis Clinical
+Record</i>, to M. F&eacute;lix Alcan, and to the officers of the New York State
+Reformatory and Illinois State Reformatory, Drs. Geo. T. Carpenter, W. A.
+Pusey, F. S. Coolidge, Ch. F&eacute;r&eacute;, Zuckerkandl, John E. Greves, Amsterdam;
+Ernst Sjoberg, Stockholm; Bastian, J. G. Kiernan, E. C. Spitzka, John
+Ridlon, James W. Walker, and Ignatius Donnelly.</p>
+
+<p class="right">E. S. T.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><small>CHAP.</small></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td>INTRODUCTION</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td>THE STIGMATA OF DEGENERACY</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td>HEREDITY AND ATAVISM</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td>CONSANGUINEOUS AND NEUROTIC INTERMARRIAGES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td>INTERMIXTURE OF RACES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td>TOXIC AGENTS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td>CONTAGIOUS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td>CLIMATE, SOIL, AND FOOD</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td>SCHOOL STRAIN</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td><td>THE DEGENERATE CRANIUM</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td><td>THE DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td><td>DEGENERACY OF THE LIP PALATE, EYE, AND EAR</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td><td>THE DEGENERATE TEETH AND JAWS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td><td>DEGENERACY OF THE BODY</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td><td>DEGENERACY IN REVERSIONAL TENDENCIES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td><td>DEGENERACY OF THE BRAIN</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td><td>DEGENERACY OF MENTALITY AND MORALITY</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td><td>CONCLUSIONS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>INDEX OF AUTHORS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>INDEX OF SUBJECTS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="right"><small>FIG.</small></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>DWARFISM AND GIANTISM (<i>Journal of American Medical Association</i>)</td><td><a href="#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_1">1.</a></td><td>ANTE-CHRISTIAN IRISH PIPES (Donnelly, <i>Atlantis</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_2">2.</a></td><td>ANTE-COLUMBIAN PIPES FROM SCULPTURE AT STRATFORD-ON-AVON (Donnelly, <i>Atlantis</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_3">3-6.</a></td><td>CHANGES IN SKULL TYPES (<i>Original</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_7">7.</a></td><td>WANT OF UNION IN FRONTAL SUTURE (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_8">8.</a></td><td>STIGMATA OF DEGENERATE CRANIUM (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_9">9.</a></td><td>HYDROCEPHALY (Dr. Ernst Sj&ouml;berg, Stockholm)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_10">10.</a></td><td>KEPHALONES (Dr. Ernst Sj&ouml;berg, Stockholm)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_11">11.</a></td><td>MICROCEPHALY (Dr. Ernst Sj&ouml;berg, Stockholm)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_12">12.</a></td><td>DOLICHOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_13">13.</a></td><td>SPHENOCEPHALY (New York State Reformatory)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_14">14.</a></td><td>BRACHYCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_15">15.</a></td><td>PLATYCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_16">16.</a></td><td>PLAGIOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_17">17.</a></td><td>SCAPHOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_18">18.</a></td><td>LARGE ORBITS (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_19">19.</a></td><td>CAMPER&#8217;S ANGLE (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_20">20.</a></td><td>JOHANNA, FEMALE CHIMPANZEE (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_21">21.</a></td><td>NEGRO CRIMINAL YOUTH (Illinois State Reformatory)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span><a href="#fig_22">22.</a></td><td>CAUCASIAN FACE (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_23">23.</a></td><td>DEGENERATE FACE AND ARREST OF UPPER JAW (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_24">24.</a></td><td>DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE (<i>Dental Cosmos</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_25">25.</a></td><td>DEGENERATE FACE AND ARREST OF LOWER JAW (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_26">26.</a></td><td>ASYMMETRICAL FACE (New York State Reformatory)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_27">27.</a></td><td>DEFLECTION OF NASAL SEPTUM (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_28">28.</a></td><td>HYPERTROPHY OF TURBINATES (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_29">29.</a></td><td>IRREGULAR DEVELOPMENT OF THE BONES OF THE NOSE (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_30">30.</a></td><td>OBLITERATED ANTRUM (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_31">31.</a></td><td>CLEFT PALATE (Dr. G. T. Carpenter, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_32">32.</a></td><td>HARE-LIP (Dr. G. T. Carpenter, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_33">33.</a></td><td>CYCLOPIC EYE (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_205">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_34">34.</a></td><td>CYCLOPIC MONSTER WITH SINGLE EYE (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_35">35.</a></td><td>F&OElig;TUS WITHOUT CHIN AND EARS AT EXTERNAL OPENING OF FIRST GILL CLEFT (Bland Sutton, London)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_208">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_36">36.</a></td><td>EAR EMBRYOLOGY (Minot, Boston)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_37">37.</a></td><td>ARREST OF EAR DEVELOPMENT (<i>Journal of American Medical Association</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_38">38.</a></td><td>NORMAL EAR (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">211</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_39">39.</a></td><td>MOREL EAR (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_40">40-45.</a></td><td>DARWINIAN EARS AND ABNORMAL EARS (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_46">46</a>, <a href="#fig_47">47.</a></td><td>UNDEVELOPED EARS (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">216</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span><a href="#fig_48">48</a>, <a href="#fig_49">49.</a></td><td>ELEPHANTINE EARS (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_218">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#plate_a">Plates A</a> and <a href="#plate_b">B.</a></td><td>EVOLUTION OF THE TEETH (Osborn, <i>International Dental Journal</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_224">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_50">50</a>, <a href="#fig_51">51.</a></td><td>CALCIFICATION OF THE TEETH (Dr. C. N. Pierce, Philadelphia)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_227">226-7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_52">52-56.</a></td><td>SUPERNUMERARY TEETH (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_230">230-1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_57">57-60.</a></td><td>SUPERNUMERARY AND CONE-SHAPED TEETH (<i>Dental Cosmos</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_232">232-3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_61">61.</a></td><td>CONE-SHAPED TEETH (Smale &amp; Colyer, London)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_62">62.</a></td><td>MISSING THIRD MOLARS (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_63">63.</a></td><td>MISSING THIRD MOLARS (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_64">64-66.</a></td><td>MISSING LATERAL INCISORS (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_236">236-7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_67">67.</a></td><td>SO-CALLED HUTCHINSON&#8217;S TEETH (<i>American System of Dentistry</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_68">68.</a></td><td>DEGENERATE V-SHAPED JAW (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_69">69.</a></td><td>HUTCHINSON&#8217;S TEETH (<i>Dental Cosmos</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_70">70</a>, <a href="#fig_71">71.</a></td><td>CONE-SHAPED MOLARS (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_72">72</a>, <a href="#fig_73">73.</a></td><td>CONE-SHAPED MOLARS (Ibid.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_74">74.</a></td><td>MIGRATING TEETH (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_75">75.</a></td><td>CONE-SHAPED TEETH (Smale &amp; Colyer, London)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_76">76-78.</a></td><td>RUDIMENTARY CUSPS (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_242">242-3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_79">79.</a></td><td>EXCESSIVELY DEVELOPED CUSPS (Smale &amp; Colyer, London)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_80">80-89.</a></td><td>TEETH JOINED TOGETHER (<i>Dental Cosmos</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_246">246-7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_90">90.</a></td><td>V-SHAPED ARCH (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_91">91.</a></td><td>SADDLE-SHAPED ARCH (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_92">92.</a></td><td>HYPERTROPHY OF THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_93">93.</a></td><td>HYPERTROPHY OF THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span><a href="#fig_94">94.</a></td><td>ARREST OF THE FACE (New York State Reformatory)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_95">95.</a></td><td>ARREST OF THE FACE AND LOWER JAW (New York State Reformatory)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_96">96.</a></td><td>SPINA BIFIDA (Dr. W. A. Pusey, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_97">97.</a></td><td>ARRESTED CHEST (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_98">98.</a></td><td>ECTRODACTYLIA (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_99">99.</a></td><td>MARCRODACTYLIA (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_100">100.</a></td><td>CLUB-FEET (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_101">101.</a></td><td>ARREST OF FACE (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_102">102.</a></td><td>FEMINISM (Dr. F&eacute;r&eacute;, Paris)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_103">103.</a></td><td>FEMINISM (Dr. F&eacute;r&eacute;, Paris)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_276">275</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_104">104.</a></td><td>ACROMEGALY (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_276">277</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_105">105.</a></td><td>ACROMEGALY (<i>Journal of American Medical Association</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_106">106.</a></td><td>DEGENERATE FEET (New York State Reformatory)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_107">107.</a></td><td>PREMATURE SENESCENCE (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_108">108.</a></td><td>EXCESSIVE DEVELOPED APPENDIX (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_109">109.</a></td><td>NORMALLY DEVELOPED APPENDIX (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_110">110.</a></td><td>ARRESTED APPENDIX (Original)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_291">292</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_111">111.</a></td><td>BRAIN FROM PARANOIAC CRIMINAL (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_300">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_112">112.</a></td><td>BRAIN OF GAUSS (Vogt, <i>Lectures on Man</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_300">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_113">113.</a></td><td>F&OElig;TAL BRAIN (Bastian)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_300">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_114">114.</a></td><td>IDIOT BRAIN (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_300">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_115">115.</a></td><td>IMBECILE BRAIN (Spitzka, <i>Insanity</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_300">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_116">116.</a></td><td>SPECIALISED FUNCTION IN THE CORTEX CEREBRI (Dana)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig_117">117.</a></td><td>CELLS OF THE BRAIN (Spitzka, <i>Insanity</i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">310</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>DEGENERACY</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Considered</span> as a condition hurtful to the type, the conception of
+degeneracy may be said to appear even in the precursors of man, since
+animals destroy soon after birth offspring which, to them, appear
+peculiar. With that stage of development of the religious sense marked by
+assigning malign occult powers to natural objects and forces, this view of
+degeneracy became systematised, and exposed weakly or deformed offspring,
+charged to evil powers, to death. This occult conception of degeneracy is
+even yet a part of American folklore. Against degenerate children charms
+are still used by the &#8220;witch-doctors&#8221; among the &#8220;Pennsylvania Dutch.&#8221;
+These people are on the level of culture of the early seventeenth century
+middle class English, if not a little below it. The folklore of these, as
+embodied in Shakespeare, demonstrates, according to J. G. Kiernan,<a name="fna_1_1" id="fna_1_1"></a><a href="#fn_1_1"><small>[1]</small></a> that
+ere the seventeenth century the fact that &#8220;mental and moral defect
+expressed itself in physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> stigmata was recognised and even the term
+used.&#8221; Thistleton Dyer<a name="fna_2_2" id="fna_2_2"></a><a href="#fn_2_2"><small>[2]</small></a> remarks that it is an old prejudice, not yet
+extinct, that those who are defective or deformed are marked by nature as
+prone to mischief. Thus in <i>King Richard III.</i> (i. 3) Margaret calls
+Richard&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Thou elvish-marked, abortive, rooting hog!<br />
+Thou that wast sealed in thy nativity<br />
+The slave of nature and the son of hell!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>She calls him hog in allusion to his cognisance, which was a boar. A
+popular expression in Shakespeare&#8217;s day for a deformed person was
+&#8220;stigmatic.&#8221; It denoted any one who had been stigmatised or burnt with
+iron (an ignominious punishment), and hence was employed to represent a
+person on whom nature had set a mark of deformity. Thus in the Third Part
+of <i>Henry VI.</i> (ii. 2) Queen Margaret says&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;But thou art neither like thy sire nor dam;<br />
+But like a foul misshapen stigmatic,<br />
+Marked by the destinies to be avoided,<br />
+As venom toads, or lizards&#8217; dreadful stings.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Again in the Second Part of <i>Henry VI.</i> (v. 1) young Clifford says to
+Richard&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Foul stigmatic, that&#8217;s more than thou canst tell.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In <i>A Midsummer Night&#8217;s Dream</i> (v. 1) Oberon wards off degeneracy from the
+issue of the happy lovers by the following charm&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;And the blots of Nature&#8217;s hand<br />
+Shall not in their issue stand;<br />
+Never mole, hare-lip nor scar,<br />
+Nor mark prodigious, such as are<br />
+Despised in nativity,<br />
+Shall upon their children be.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>Constant allusions to this subject occur in old writers, showing how
+strong was the belief of the early English on this point. King John (iv.
+2) calls Hubert, the supposed murderer of Prince Arthur,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;A fellow by the hand of Nature marked,<br />
+Quoted and signed to do a deed of shame.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Concerning this adaptation of the mind to the deformity of the body
+Francis Bacon remarks: &#8220;Deformed persons are commonly even with Nature,
+for as Nature hath done ill by them so do they by Nature, being void of
+natural affection, and so they have their revenge on Nature.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The quaint old &#8220;Anatomist of Melancholy,&#8221;<a name="fna_3_3" id="fna_3_3"></a><a href="#fn_3_3"><small>[3]</small></a> Burton, seems but to
+paraphrase modern curers of degeneracy when, at the end of his chapter on
+the inheritance of defects, he remarks concerning this fetichistic notion:
+&#8220;So many several ways are we plagued and published for our father&#8217;s
+defaults; in so much that as Fernelius truly saith: &#8216;It is the greatest
+part of our felicity to be well born, and it were happy for human kind, if
+only such parents as are sound of body and mind should be suffered to
+marry.&#8217; An husbandman will sow none but the best and choicest seed upon
+his land, he will not rear a bull or an horse, except he be right shapen
+in all parts, or permit him to cover a mare, except he be well assured of
+his breed; we make choice of the best rams for our sheep, rear the neatest
+kine, and keep the best dogs, <i>quanto id diligentius in procreandis
+liberis observandum</i>! And how careful, then, should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> we be in begetting of
+our children! In former times some countries have been so chary in this
+behalf, so stern, that if a child were crooked or deformed in body or
+mind, they made him away; so did the Indians of old by the relation of
+Curtius, and many other well-governed commonwealths according to the
+discipline of those times. &#8216;Heretofore in Scotland,&#8217; saith Hect Boethius,
+&#8216;if any were visited with the falling sickness, madness, gout, leprosy, or
+any such dangerous disease which was likely to be propagated from the
+father to the son, he was instantly gelded; a woman kept from all company
+of men; and if by chance having some such disease she were found to be
+with child, she with her brood were buried alive&#8217;; and this was done for
+the common good, lest the whole nation should be injured or corrupted. A
+severe doom, you will say, and not to be used amongst Christians, yet more
+to be looked into than it is. For now by our too much facility in this
+kind, in giving way for all to marry that will, too much liberty and
+indulgence in tolerating all sorts, there is a vast confusion of
+hereditary diseases, no family secure, no man almost free, from some
+grievous infirmity or other, when no choice is had, but still the eldest
+must marry, as so many stallions of the race; or if rich, be they fools or
+dizzards, lame or maimed, unable, intemperate, dissolute, exhaust through
+riot, as he said, they must be wise and able by inheritance. It comes to
+pass that our generation is corrupt, we have many weak persons both in
+body and mind, many feral diseases raging among us, crazed families; our
+fathers bad, and we are like to be worse.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This conception gradually developed into the widespread myth of a
+primevally perfect man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> through the natural operation of that
+psychological law whereby, as Macaulay remarks, society, constantly moving
+forward with eager speed, is as constantly looking backward with tender
+regret. They turn their eyes and see a lake where an hour before they were
+toiling through sand.</p>
+
+<p>From this view came the belief that man as existing is degenerate. This
+degeneracy, while popularly charged to occult influences, was early
+ascribed by scientists to physical causes. Aristotle, as Osborn<a name="fna_4_4" id="fna_4_4"></a><a href="#fn_4_4"><small>[4]</small></a> points
+out, appears to have recognised degeneration or the gradual decline of
+structures in form and usefulness, in his analysis of &#8220;movement&#8221; in
+connection with development. Degeneration is first met with as a term in
+an explanation of the origin of species by Buffon in the eighteenth
+century. The conception itself occurs in a criticism by Sylvius of
+Vesalius (1514-64), who had asserted that the anatomy of Galen could not
+have been founded upon the human body, because he had described an
+intermaxillary bone. This bone, Vesalius observed, is found in the lower
+animals but not in man. Sylvius (1614-72) defends Galen on the ground that
+though man had no intermaxillary bone at present this is no proof of its
+absence in Galen&#8217;s time. &#8220;It is luxury, it is sensuality, which has
+gradually deprived man of this bone.&#8221; This passage, as Osborn remarks,
+proves that the idea of degeneration of structures through disuse, as well
+as the idea of the inheritance of the effect of habit, or the
+&#8220;transmission of acquired characters,&#8221; is a very ancient one. Sylvius,
+while here recognising factors of degeneracy, erred in considering
+disappearance of the intermaxillary bone, not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>reappearance, as
+degeneracy. He failed to recognise, moreover, the law of economy of growth
+by which one structure is sacrificed for another or for the organism as a
+whole. This law, indicated by Aristotle, but clearly outlined by Goethe in
+1807, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire in 1818, underlies the physiological
+atrophies and hypertrophies which play such a part in degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Twelve C&aelig;sars</i> of Suetonius (that stud book of imperial degeneracy as
+it has been styled) stamps the decided impression on its readers that
+Hippocratian notions of degenerate heredity strongly permeated Roman
+thought, to revive in those Arabic, Italian, and British (Roger Bacon)
+thinkers who created the scientific phase of the revival of learning.</p>
+
+<p>In the science of medicine, as developed by Hippocrates,<a name="fna_5_5" id="fna_5_5"></a><a href="#fn_5_5"><small>[5]</small></a> the modern
+conception of degeneracy is evident. Hippocrates argues against the
+&#8220;sacred&#8221; nature of epilepsy, since it is a hereditary disease and hence
+comes under the operation of physical law. He furthermore points out, as
+did Aristotle, that epilepsy produced in the ancestor by traumatism and
+other physical causes may be inherited by the child.</p>
+
+<p>As the degeneration phase of evolution was less antagonistic to the
+religious theory forced into biblical dogma by the Jesuit Suarez (in
+opposition to the evolutionary views of St. Augustine and St. Thomas
+Aquinas), being supported by biblical dicta (that when the fathers had
+eaten sour grapes the children&#8217;s teeth were set on edge) and fetichistic
+folklore, it retained a dominance that the advanced phase lost. From the
+time of Hippocrates, psychiatry (the science devoted to mental disorders)
+continued to accumulate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> data of the origin and transmission of human
+defects. The impetus given the evolutionary explanation of these data by
+the seventeenth and eighteenth century biologists (Harvey, Buffon,
+Lamarck, Erasmus Darwin, and others) laid the foundation for the modern
+doctrine of degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>Buffon<a name="fna_6_6" id="fna_6_6"></a><a href="#fn_6_6"><small>[6]</small></a> remarks that many species are being perfected or degenerated by
+the great changes in land and sea, by the favours or disfavours of Nature,
+by food, by the prolonged influences of climate, contrary or favourable,
+and are no longer what they formerly were. He regarded temperature, food,
+and climate as the three great factors in the alteration and degeneration
+of animals.</p>
+
+<p>Erasmus Darwin<a name="fna_7_7" id="fna_7_7"></a><a href="#fn_7_7"><small>[7]</small></a> considers that all life starts from a living filament
+having the capability of being excited into action by certain stimuli.
+This capability is that whereby plants and animals react to their
+environment, causing changes in them which are transmitted to their
+offspring. All animals undergo transformations which are in part produced
+by their own exertions in response to pleasures and pains, and many of
+these acquired forms or propensities are transmitted to their posterity.
+Other effects of this excitability (such as constitute hereditary
+diseases, like scrofula, epilepsy, insanity) have their origin in one or
+perhaps two generations, as in the progeny of those who drink much vinous
+spirits. Those hereditary propensities cease again if one or two sober
+generations succeed, otherwise the family becomes extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin Rush<a name="fna_8_8" id="fna_8_8"></a><a href="#fn_8_8"><small>[8]</small></a> (greatly
+influenced by the Erasmus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> Darwin school)
+remarks that through hereditary sameness of organisation of the nerves,
+brain and blood vessels, the predisposition to insanity pervades whole
+families and renders them liable to this disease from a transient and
+feeble operation of its causes. Insanity when hereditary is excited by
+more feeble causes than in persons in whom this predisposition has been
+acquired. It generally attacks the descendants in those stages of life in
+which it has appeared in the ancestors. Children born previously to the
+attack of madness in their parents are less liable to inherit it than
+those who are born after it. Children born of parents who are in the
+decline of life are more predisposed to insanity than children born under
+contrary circumstances. A predisposition to certain diseases, seated in
+parts contiguous to the seat of insanity, often descends from parents to
+their children. Thus it occurs in a son whose father or mother has been
+afflicted only with hysteria or habitual headaches. The reverse likewise
+takes place. There are families in which insanity has existed where the
+disease has spared the mind in the posterity, but appeared in great
+strength and eccentricity of the memory and of the passions, or in great
+perversion of their moral faculties. Sometimes it passes by all the
+faculties of the mind, and appears only in the nervous system of persons
+descended from deranged parents; again, madness occurs in children whose
+parents were remarkable only for eccentricity of mind. Among the diseases
+that attack the children of the insane, but did not exist in their
+ancestors, are consumption and epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>Similar studies were later published by Pinel, Tissot, Chiarrurgi,
+Stedman, Parkman, Brigham,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> Prichard, Esquirol, Jacobi, and other
+American, English, French, Italian, and German alienists. Based upon the
+data thus obtained, and upon the general principles thus outlined, then
+appeared&mdash;nearly at the same time as the like epoch-making work (on
+another phase of evolution), Darwin&#8217;s <i>Origin of Species</i>&mdash;Morel&#8217;s
+<i>Treatise on Human Degeneracy</i>, wherein the principle of natural selection
+was shown to involve the recognition of the physical conditions that
+constitute degeneracy, and, necessarily, to exclude primeval perfection.
+Morel&#8217;s definition of degeneration as a marked departure from the original
+type tending more or less rapidly to the extinction of it, forms the basis
+of commonly accepted definitions.</p>
+
+<p>While Morel practically outlined the modern study of degeneracy, his
+theologic timidity forced an absolute definition of a state which,
+according to his own admission, was purely relative. After fencing
+somewhat with the position that there was a primevally perfect man,<a name="fna_9_9" id="fna_9_9"></a><a href="#fn_9_9"><small>[9]</small></a> he
+admits with Tessier the primeval lowness of man, but also thinks that the
+fall of man could create new conditions which, in his descendants, from
+heredity and from causes acting on their health, tended to make them
+depart from the primitive type. These departures from the primitive type
+have led to varieties, some of which constitute races capable of
+transmitting racial characteristics. Other varieties in the races
+themselves have created the abnormal states which Morel has denominated
+degeneracies. Each of these degeneracies has its own stamp from the cause
+that produces it. Their common <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>characteristic is hereditary transmission
+under graver conditions than normal heredity. With certain exceptional
+instances of regeneration, the progeny of degenerates presents progressive
+degradation. This may reach such limits that humanity is preserved by its
+excess. It is not necessary, however, that the ultimate stage of
+degradation be reached before sterility occurs. Morel confines degeneracy
+to a pathologic type, criticising F. Heusinger<a name="fna_10_10" id="fna_10_10"></a><a href="#fn_10_10"><small>[10]</small></a> for applying the term
+degenerate to domestic animals which &#8220;throw back&#8221; to the wild or original
+type. Morel&#8217;s admission that causes influencing health produce deviations
+which, under favouring conditions, become racial types capable of
+indefinite transmission, saves him from absolute scientific inaccuracy,
+but renders inconsistent his limitation of degeneracy. It may be
+convenient to separate diseased states from anomalies, but such separation
+can only be very relative. From his conservatism and his plentiful data,
+Morel aroused much less antagonism than did a contemporary, Moreau (de
+Tours), who bore to him the relation of Darwin to Wallace.<a name="fna_11_11" id="fna_11_11"></a><a href="#fn_11_11"><small>[11]</small></a> While
+Moreau devotes much attention to the factors of degeneracy and its
+stigmata (or marks), like Morel, his main point is the expansion of the
+theory of Aristotle which Dryden epigrammatised into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Great wit to madness nearly is allied,<br />
+And thin partitions do their bounds divide.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>As J. G. Kiernan shows,<a name="fna_12_12" id="fna_12_12"></a><a href="#fn_12_12"><small>[12]</small></a> this
+doctrine, early in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> the history of the
+race, obtained dominance through the evolution of arts, sciences, and
+religions from fetichism. Phenomena manifested by fetich priests (of the
+Shaman type) so closely resembled epileptic insanity in its frenzies and
+visions that the two states were long regarded as identical, whence the
+term &#8220;<i>morbus sacer</i>.&#8221; The supernatural influences which, in current
+belief, underlay epilepsy were, at the outset, malign or benign as they
+were offended or placated. They became benign, and the insane were under
+protection of a deity, as in Mussulman countries. Later still the
+demon-possession theory gained dominance, and at length the demon sank
+into disease. Throughout all this evolution the belief in an inherent
+affinity between insanity and genius persisted.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle, in whose day the disease notion was becoming dominant, asserts
+that, under the influence of head congestion, persons sometimes become
+prophets, sybils, and poets. Thus Mark, the Syracusan, was a pretty fair
+poet during a maniacal attack, but could not compose when sane. Men
+illustrious in poetry, arts, and statesmanship are often insane, like
+Ajax, or misanthropic like Bellerophon. Even at a recent period similar
+dispositions are evident in Plato, Socrates, Empedocles, and many others,
+above all, the poets.</p>
+
+<p>According to Plato, &#8220;Delirium is by no means evil, but when it comes by
+gift of the gods, a very great benefit. In delirium the sibyls of Delphi
+and Dodona were of great service to Greece, but when in cold blood were of
+little or none. Frequently, when the gods afflicted men with epidemics, a
+sacred delirium inspired some men with a remedy for these.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> The Muses
+excite some souls to delirium to glorify heroes with poetry, or to
+instruct future generations.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Precedent to the works of Morel and Moreau appeared their source and
+inspiration, Prosper Lucas&#8217;s <i>Natural Heredity</i>.<a name="fna_13_13" id="fna_13_13"></a><a href="#fn_13_13"><small>[13]</small></a> Here the biologic
+current of thought encountered the sociologic current; although the waves
+clashed, the two currents merged into and modified each other. The
+biologist demonstrated that degenerate types often &#8220;threw back&#8221; in their
+structures, and this very &#8220;throwing back&#8221; made them the fittest to
+survive. The sociologist found that the only test of acquired or inherited
+degeneracy in man was disaccord with environment. The co-existent moral
+and physical defects resultant on heredity found by Erasmus Darwin, Rush,
+Parkman, Grohmann, and others tended to show that all types of defectives
+might be a product of heredity.</p>
+
+<p>These stimulating researches into the sources of crime led to a
+controversy which reached its height two decades ere the treatise of
+Morel. To this controversy three suggestive works owed their origin: a
+psychological treatise by Dr. Lauvergne<a name="fna_14_14" id="fna_14_14"></a><a href="#fn_14_14"><small>[14]</small></a> on felons, a romance with a
+purpose by Eug&egrave;ne Sue,<a name="fna_15_15" id="fna_15_15"></a><a href="#fn_15_15"><small>[15]</small></a> and a suggestively practical brochure by a
+rather corrupt police official, Vidocq.<a name="fna_16_16" id="fna_16_16"></a><a href="#fn_16_16"><small>[16]</small></a> Seemingly conflicting as were
+these productions, all strikingly illustrated the influence of heredity
+and environment in the production of defectives. To these productions were
+soon added those of Moreau (de Tours),<a name="fna_17_17" id="fna_17_17"></a><a href="#fn_17_17"><small>[17]</small></a>
+Attemyer, Eliza Farnham,<a name="fna_18_18" id="fna_18_18"></a><a href="#fn_18_18"><small>[18]</small></a>
+the American Sampson,<a name="fna_19_19" id="fna_19_19"></a><a href="#fn_19_19"><small>[19]</small></a>
+Dally, L&eacute;lut, Camper, and the older Voisin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>Morel<a name="fna_20_20" id="fna_20_20"></a><a href="#fn_20_20"><small>[20]</small></a>
+laid the foundation of what is widely known as the Lombroso
+School by a brochure wherein he proposed to entitle morbid anthropology,
+&#8220;that part of the science of man the aim of which is to study phenomena
+due to morbid influences and to malign heredity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>To the factor of atavism, inconsistently ignored by Morel, the early
+embryologic studies of Von Baer and the biologic studies resultant on the
+transmutation of species lent special emphasis. Three possibilities of
+life await, as Wilson<a name="fna_21_21" id="fna_21_21"></a><a href="#fn_21_21"><small>[21]</small></a> remarks, each living being: either it remains
+primitive and unchanged, or it progresses toward a higher type, or it
+backslides and retrogresses. The factors underlying the stable state force
+the animal to remain as it is; those underlying the progressive tendency
+make it more elaborate, while the factors of degeneration, on the other
+hand, tend to simplify its structure. It requires no special thought to
+perceive that progress is a great fact of nature. The development of every
+animal and plant shows the possibilities of nature in this direction. But
+the bearings of physiological backsliding are not so clearly seen.</p>
+
+<p>That certain animals degenerate or retrogress in their development is
+susceptible of ready and familiar illustration. No better illustration is
+needed than is derived from the domain of parasitic existence. When an
+animal or plant attaches itself partly or wholly to another living being,
+and becomes more or less dependent upon the latter for support and
+nourishment, it exhibits, as a rule, retrogression and degeneration. The
+parasitic &#8220;guest&#8221; dependent on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> its &#8220;host&#8221; for lodging alone, or it may be
+for both board and lodging, is in a fair way to become degraded in
+structure, and, as a rule, exhibits marked degradation where the
+association has persisted sufficiently long. Parasitism and servile
+dependence act very much in structural lower life as analogous instances
+of mental dependence on others act on man.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of characteristic individuality and the extinction of
+personality are natural results of that form of association wherein one
+form becomes absolutely dependent on another for all the conditions of
+life. A life of mere attachment exhibits similar results, and organs of
+movement disappear by the law of disuse. A digestive system is a
+superfluity to an animal which, like the tapeworm, obtains its food ready
+made in the very kitchen, so to speak, of its host. Hence the lack of
+digestive apparatus follows the finding of a free commissariat by the
+parasite. Organs of sense are not necessary for an attached and rooted
+animal; these latter, therefore, go by the board and the nervous system
+itself becomes modified and altered. Degradation wholesale and complete is
+the penalty the parasite has to pay for its free board and lodging; and in
+this fashion Nature may be said to revenge the host for the pains and
+troubles wherewith, like Job of old, he may be tormented.</p>
+
+<p>The most emphatic biologic degeneration is that discovered by
+Kowalevsky<a name="fna_22_22" id="fna_22_22"></a><a href="#fn_22_22"><small>[22]</small></a> in the sea squirt, which, in its larval state, is a
+vertebrate, and when adult is an ascidian, seemingly far below the
+cuttlefish and the worms. This strikingly illustrates that, as Ray
+Lankester<a name="fna_23_23" id="fna_23_23"></a><a href="#fn_23_23"><small>[23]</small></a> has said, degeneration is a gradual change of structure by
+which the organism becomes adapted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> to less varied and less complex
+conditions of life; a reverse of evolution which proceeds from the
+indefinite and homogeneous to the definite and heterogeneous with a loss
+of explosive force due to the acquirement of inhibitions or checks.</p>
+
+<p>This principle of biologic degeneration, long recognised, was most lucidly
+enforced by Dohrn<a name="fna_24_24" id="fna_24_24"></a><a href="#fn_24_24"><small>[24]</small></a>, whose views were later extended by Ray Lankester.
+The parallelism of animal degeneracy with that of man, so clearly evident
+even in the parasitic nature of defectives, was, as Meynert<a name="fna_25_25" id="fna_25_25"></a><a href="#fn_25_25"><small>[25]</small></a> showed,
+due to the fact that the fore-brain is an inhibitory apparatus against the
+lower and more instinctive natural impulses. The higher its development
+the greater is the tendency to subordinate the particular to the general.
+Even in insects a high social growth occurs, as in the bee and ant
+communities. The same is the case in the development of man; in the
+infant, a being entirely wrapped in its instincts of self-preservation,
+the &#8220;primary ego&#8221; is predominant and the child is an egotistic parasite.
+As development goes on this standpoint is passed, conscience assumes its
+priority, the fore-brain acts as a check on the purely vegetative
+functions and the &#8220;secondary ego&#8221; takes precedence over the primary one;
+this is the general order of society, designated as civilisation or social
+order. If this inhibition become weakened or disordered, predominance of
+the natural instincts or impulses occurs, and when it is totally lost the
+individual is in the position of a criminal who opposes the ethical order
+of society&mdash;a parasite, and one of the worst kind who not only lives upon
+his host but destroys him in doing so.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>Hence degenerate tendencies are reversions in type indicating the original
+source of the inhibition.</p>
+
+<p>The tree of Moreau<a name="fna_26_26" id="fna_26_26"></a><a href="#fn_26_26"><small>[26]</small></a> illustrates clearly the essential principles of
+these inter-relations of defect, further elucidated by the observations of
+Sander<a name="fna_27_27" id="fna_27_27"></a><a href="#fn_27_27"><small>[27]</small></a> on the connection of deformed central nervous systems with
+mental and moral disorder.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>NERVOUS HEREDITY.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Science</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Exceptional Intelligence</td><td>Arts</td><td><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Music.<br />Painting.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Letters</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="8"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="8"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Paretic dementia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Paralyses.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Brain</td><td>Tumours.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lesions of the Nerve Centres</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Brain Softening.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Congestion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Softening of Spinal</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Spinal Cord</td><td>Cord.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Myelitis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="5"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Epilepsy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Chorea.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Neuroses</td><td>Stammering.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Convulsive Fits.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hysteria.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Utopians.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Intellectual States</td><td>Eccentrics.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Mixed Conditions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Prostitutes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Emotional States</td><td>Criminals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Unstable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="2"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>External.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Neuralgia</td><td>Internal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="6"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Symptomatical.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Acute Insanity</td><td>Idiopathic.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Alcoholic.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Psychoses</td><td>Imbecility</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Idiocy</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>General Insanity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Chronic Insanity</td><td>Dementia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Partial Insanity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="4"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Congenital Blindness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>An&aelig;sthesi&aelig;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">Special and General Conditions of the Senses</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Deafness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hyper&aelig;sthesi&aelig;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nutritional Defect.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>The extensive studies of
+Niepce,<a name="fna_28_28" id="fna_28_28"></a><a href="#fn_28_28"><small>[28]</small></a>
+Vogt,<a name="fna_29_29" id="fna_29_29"></a><a href="#fn_29_29"><small>[29]</small></a> and others on idiot biology
+sought to show that the brain was not merely arrested in development, but
+sometimes reverted even as low as the sauropsida type (reptiles and
+birds). Grohmann,<a name="fna_30_30" id="fna_30_30"></a><a href="#fn_30_30"><small>[30]</small></a> as early as 1820, had &#8220;often been impressed in
+criminals, especially in those of defective development, by the prominent
+ears, the shape of the cranium, the projecting cheek-bones, the large
+lower jaws, the deeply placed eyes, the shifty, animal-like gaze.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Maudsley<a name="fna_31_31" id="fna_31_31"></a><a href="#fn_31_31"><small>[31]</small></a> observes that in the case of such an extreme morbid variety
+as a congenital idiot we have to do with a defective nervous organisation.
+Marchand, in the brain of two idiots of European descent, found the
+convolutions fewer in number, individually less complex, broader and
+smoother than in the apes. The condition results neither from atrophy nor
+mere arrest of growth, but consists essentially in an imperfect evolution
+of the cerebral hemispheres or their parts, dependent on an arrest of
+development. The proportion of the weight of brain to that of body is
+extraordinarily diminished. With the brain of the orang type comes a
+corresponding defect of function. With this animal type of brain in idiocy
+sometimes appear animal traits and instincts. One class of idiots is
+justly designated theroid, so brute-like are its members.</p>
+
+<p>The human brain in the course of f&oelig;tal development passes through the
+same stages as other vertebrate brains, and to some extent these
+transitional stages resemble the permanent forms of their brain. Summing
+up, as it were, in itself the leading forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> of vertebrate type, there is
+truly a brute brain within the man&#8217;s, and when the latter stops short of
+its characteristic development, it is natural that it should manifest only
+its most primitive functions.</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be pointed out that the human brain, even of the idiot
+or microcephales, never resembles, <i>as a whole</i>, the brain of any
+anthropoid or lower animal form. Such a position was maintained by Vogt,
+but has long since been abandoned. The existing anthropoid apes are not
+the ancestors of man, and have pursued a different development.<a name="fna_32_32" id="fna_32_32"></a><a href="#fn_32_32"><small>[32]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>Despine&#8217;s<a name="fna_33_33" id="fna_33_33"></a><a href="#fn_33_33"><small>[33]</small></a> researches revealed the absence of human checks on the
+instinctive tendencies in criminals. He, however, started from the
+doctrine of moral imbecility as elaborated by Rush, Prichard, Brigham,
+Ray, Galt, and others. Bruce Thomson,<a name="fna_34_34" id="fna_34_34"></a><a href="#fn_34_34"><small>[34]</small></a> testing Despine&#8217;s results by
+primitive races and Scotch criminals, found that defective, abnormal, and
+anomalous states of the instinctive faculties exist in entire races and in
+the &#8220;moral idiots&#8221; that occur in the best races. Criminals form a variety
+of the human family quite distinct from law-abiding men. A low type of
+physique indicating a deteriorated character gives a family likeness due
+to the fact that they form a community which retrogrades from generation
+to generation. The low physical condition of juvenile criminals in
+reformatories, &amp;c., becomes at once obvious if they be compared with
+healthy, active school children. They are puny, sickly, scrofulous, often
+deformed, with peculiar, unnaturally developed heads, sluggish, stupid,
+liable to fits, mean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> in figure, and defective in vital energy, while at
+the same time they are irritable, violent, and too often quite
+incorrigible. The adults usually have a singularly stupid and insensate
+look. The complexion is bad. The outlines of the head are harsh and
+angular. The boys are ugly in feature, and have, as a rule, repulsive
+appearances. These diseases of criminals are a proof of their low type and
+deteriorated condition. Their deaths are mainly due to tubercular diseases
+and affections of the nervous system. In the greater number crime is
+hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily
+defect, such as spinal deformities, stammering or other imperfect speech,
+club-foot, cleft-palate, hare-lip, deformed jaws and teeth, deaf-mutism,
+congenital blindness, paralysis, epilepsy, and scrofula.</p>
+
+<p>Elisha Harris,<a name="fna_35_35" id="fna_35_35"></a><a href="#fn_35_35"><small>[35]</small></a> of New York, among 233 convicts found 54 to belong to
+families in which insanity, epilepsy, and other neuroses existed.
+Eighty-three per cent. belonged to a criminal, pauper, or inebriate stock,
+and were, therefore, hereditarily or congenitally affected. Nearly 76 per
+cent. of their number hence proved habitual criminals. According to
+Harris, crime, pauperism, and insanity revert into each other, so that
+insanity in the parent produces crime or pauperism in the offspring, or,
+<i>vice vers&acirc;</i>, crime or pauperism in the parent produces disease or
+insanity in the offspring. Campagne, Broca, G. Wilson, and others about
+the same time made similar researches.</p>
+
+<p>The American sociologist, Samuel Royce, after a careful study of American
+and European defective classes,<a name="fna_36_36" id="fna_36_36"></a><a href="#fn_36_36"><small>[36]</small></a> found that observation of the
+hereditary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> nature of pauperism which congenitally reverts into insanity,
+disease or crime, leaves no doubt but that pauperism is one of the worst
+forms of race deterioration, and that the paralysis of the human will and
+its energies is but the result of a fearful dissolution in progress.</p>
+
+<p>Extensive researches made by Charles S. Hoyt,<a name="fna_37_37" id="fna_37_37"></a><a href="#fn_37_37"><small>[37]</small></a> of the New York State
+Board of Charities (1874), into the origin of the defective classes of
+that state, show that the pauper, hysteric, epileptic, prostitute,
+criminal, born-blind, deaf-mute, paranoiac, recurrent lunatic and idiot
+were buds of the same tree of degenerate heredity. E. C. Spitzka,<a name="fna_38_38" id="fna_38_38"></a><a href="#fn_38_38"><small>[38]</small></a>
+basing his researches on the principles of Morel as expanded and
+critically applied by Meynert,<a name="fna_39_39" id="fna_39_39"></a><a href="#fn_39_39"><small>[39]</small></a> reached essentially the same results as
+also did Westphal, Krafft-Ebing, Grille, Kerlin, Axel Key, Magnan,
+Foville, Bjornstrom, Amadei, Sch&uuml;le, Nicolson,<a name="fna_40_40" id="fna_40_40"></a><a href="#fn_40_40"><small>[40]</small></a> Tonnini, Tamburini,
+Verga, Tamassia, Kowalevsky, and it may be said the German Psychiatrical
+Society (which, by accepting a conception of the distortion of mental
+faculties otherwise seemingly high, based on brain deformity rather than
+disease, accepted the degeneracy doctrine of to-day).</p>
+
+<p>For several decades, moreover, the stigmata of degeneracy have appeared in
+French, German, Austrian, Russian, Italian, and Scandinavian court reports
+as evidence of hereditary defects.</p>
+
+<p>As often happens in science&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Thought by thought is piled till some great truth<br />
+Is loosened and the nations echo round.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>Wherefore about this period (1870-78) appeared the first volume of the
+epoch-making work of Cesare Lombroso,<a name="fna_41_41" id="fna_41_41"></a><a href="#fn_41_41"><small>[41]</small></a> who, erroneously credited with
+being the apostle of the modern doctrine of degeneracy, has admittedly
+done more to stimulate research than any other investigator. This work
+exerted an influence at first in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia,
+and the Scandinavian countries, while on the English-speaking countries,
+despite the apparently fertile soil prepared for it, its influence was
+seemingly slight. Under the degradation produced in many American
+charitable and correctional institutions by corruption, naturally
+resultant on a civil war, science therein was at a decided discount
+between 1861 and 1881. A school arose which, defying the individualistic
+rule of English common law underlying the institutions of the United
+States, pandered to mob-law and theologic prejudice by denying certain
+well-ascertained facts in human degeneracy. This school, represented at
+the Guiteau trial by the experts for the prosecution, denied heredity and
+that moral defect could result from physical abnormality. This school,
+however, was by no means representative of American psychiatry or
+sociology. Rush, Brigham, James MacDonald, Gait, McFarland, W. W. Godding,
+Ray, C. H. Hughes, Kerlin, Patterson, Wilbur, Fisher, J. H. McBride, C. H.
+Nichols, C. A. Folsom, Cowles, and others accepted Morel&#8217;s principles.
+Spitzka,<a name="fna_42_42" id="fna_42_42"></a><a href="#fn_42_42"><small>[42]</small></a> long ere the trial, pointed out that criminals displayed the
+stigmata of Morel, and that the more intellectual types of insanity were
+based on brain deformity rather than disease.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>Benedikt,<a name="fna_43_43" id="fna_43_43"></a><a href="#fn_43_43"><small>[43]</small></a>
+of Vienna, in 1879 stated that &#8220;criminals generally have
+nothing analogous to monomaniacs. They tend to develop distinct
+peculiarities of organisation and psychic features, and these
+peculiarities are the product of their social condition.&#8221; J. G.
+Kiernan,<a name="fna_44_44" id="fna_44_44"></a><a href="#fn_44_44"><small>[44]</small></a> reviewing his work, remarked that any one who had at all
+examined the question would be convinced that between the true criminal
+type, the imbecile and the paranoiac (<i>prim&auml;re verr&uuml;ckt</i>) the
+psychological relations and their anatomical bases are intimate and close.
+Had Benedikt examined the insane and criminals, not for convolutional
+aberrations alone, but also for heterotopias, &amp;c., he would never have
+written the sentence just quoted.</p>
+
+<p>W. W. Godding,<a name="fna_45_45" id="fna_45_45"></a><a href="#fn_45_45"><small>[45]</small></a> commenting
+on the evidence of J. P. Gray,<a name="fna_46_46" id="fna_46_46"></a><a href="#fn_46_46"><small>[46]</small></a> the
+leader of the American school that denies degeneracy, feelingly remarked
+that &#8220;the disordered mind does not cease to be a unit although the
+observed manifestations of its insanity may seem to be confined in some
+cases to the emotion; in others to the affection; and in still others to
+the intellectual powers. We cannot deny that the old masters were as
+keen-sighted observers as ourselves. I dislike to hear drunkenness called
+dipsomania, as I so often do; but I do not therefore say that dipsomania
+is only drunkenness. It might improve my standing with the legal
+fraternity if I should pronounce kleptomania only another name for
+stealing, but my personal observations convince me that the insane have
+sometimes a disposition to steal, which is a direct result of their
+disease, and for which they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> no more accountable than the puerperal
+maniac is for her oaths.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And now, after all these years of careful research, and our asylum
+reports<a name="fna_47_47" id="fna_47_47"></a><a href="#fn_47_47"><small>[47]</small></a> rendered bulky with long tables prepared with so much care,
+involving inquiry on the origin of the disease not alone in the direct
+family line, but in the collateral branches also; just when the medical
+profession has come to believe that if one fact in medical science be
+better established than another, it is that insanity is hereditary, and we
+undertake in the present case to look up hereditary predisposition, and
+the family disposition likewise, we are met with the withering conundrum,
+&#8216;Can a man inherit insanity from his uncle?&#8217; and we are told that there is
+no such thing as hereditary insanity. Yes, gentlemen, I understand you;
+the tendency to the disease is inherited. And so in the strict use of
+language there is no such thing as insane delusion; but we know that
+language is seldom used with scientific exactness, and no one is at a loss
+to understand what we mean when we say that Jones is full of insane
+delusions, insanity being hereditary in his family. Yes, and if Jones
+should marry an insane woman, the chances are good that Jones&#8217;s son will
+turn out crazy, no matter how carefully he may be brought up under the
+direction of the most eminent psychist, for that little germ which you
+call &#8216;a tendency&#8217;&mdash;so minute that it will elude your most careful scrutiny
+with scalpel and microscope&mdash;is a fixed fact, and will prove more potent
+than all theories. Not born there; develops. Ah, how is it that science
+shows us that syphilis and small-pox<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> and tubercle are born in the
+offspring, that the infant comes into the world with spina bifida,
+idiotic, hydrocephalic, acephalic, that the child is blind and mute and
+misshapen in his mother&#8217;s womb, but is never insane? Because, forsooth, we
+have seen fit to limit insanity to disease of the brain, and disease is
+not inherited. Is it possible that in all these years it has not been Dr.
+Gray&#8217;s lot as it has been mine to be consulted about those &#8216;queer&#8217;
+children of insane parentage, who are perverse from the start? Will he say
+that the perverseness is only a &#8216;badness&#8217; which should be whipped out of
+the child? But that has generally been thoroughly tried before the
+physician is consulted. Heterodox I know it is, but observed facts compel
+me to be heterodox with Prichard and Esquirol and Ray, with Morel and
+Griesinger and Maudsley, and I know not how many others, in recognising in
+some cases a condition of inherent defect born in the individual, and not
+a result of education&mdash;a condition which writers have recognised under
+various names as hereditary mental disorder, insane diathesis, insane
+temperament.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The Guiteau trial so stimulated studies of degeneracy that two experts for
+the prosecution, A. McL. Hamilton<a name="fna_48_48" id="fna_48_48"></a><a href="#fn_48_48"><small>[48]</small></a>
+and H. M. Stearns,<a name="fna_49_49" id="fna_49_49"></a><a href="#fn_49_49"><small>[49]</small></a> later changed
+their views as to degeneracy, while C. L. Dana, a strong supporter of the
+Gray school in 1881, subsequently made valuable contributions to the
+literature of the degeneracy stigmata. The position then taken by Spitzka
+and Kiernan as to the cerebral basis of degeneracy was in 1882 supported
+by H. Howard,<a name="fna_50_50" id="fna_50_50"></a><a href="#fn_50_50"><small>[50]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>of Montreal;
+Workman,<a name="fna_51_51" id="fna_51_51"></a><a href="#fn_51_51"><small>[51]</small></a> of
+Toronto; Kerlin,<a name="fna_52_52" id="fna_52_52"></a><a href="#fn_52_52"><small>[52]</small></a> of
+Pennsylvania; Osler,<a name="fna_53_53" id="fna_53_53"></a><a href="#fn_53_53"><small>[53]</small></a>
+of Baltimore; and C. K. Mills,<a name="fna_54_54" id="fna_54_54"></a><a href="#fn_54_54"><small>[54]</small></a> of
+Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>It was during 1881, moreover, that Jacobi made extensive studies of
+degeneracy in royalty and aristocracy,<a name="fna_55_55" id="fna_55_55"></a><a href="#fn_55_55"><small>[55]</small></a>
+as earlier had Ireland.<a name="fna_56_56" id="fna_56_56"></a><a href="#fn_56_56"><small>[56]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>From the time of Itard degenerate phenomena in idiots had been traced to
+cerebral mal-development. Kerlin<a name="fna_57_57" id="fna_57_57"></a><a href="#fn_57_57"><small>[57]</small></a> pointed out that &#8220;epileptic change&#8221;
+in them was marked by moral alteration similar in explosive characters to
+that so frequently observed in criminals. In England students of idiocy
+like Clouston, Shuttleworth, Beach, Ireland, Langdon Down, and others, had
+early brought the recognition of its inter-relations with insanity, crime
+and neuroses into strong relief. To the studies of Bruce Thomson,
+Maudsley, and Nicolson, Tyndall<a name="fna_58_58" id="fna_58_58"></a><a href="#fn_58_58"><small>[58]</small></a> gave strong support from the actual
+experience of a governor of a great British prison, who found that the
+prisoners in his charge might be divided into three distinct classes: the
+first class consisted of persons who ought never to have been in prison;
+external accident and not internal taint had brought them within the grasp
+of the law, and what had happened to them might happen to most of us; they
+were essentially men of sound moral stamina, though wearing the prison
+garb. Then came the largest class, formed of individuals possessing no
+strong bias, moral or immoral, plastic to the touch of circumstances which
+would mould them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> into either good or evil members of society. Thirdly,
+came a class, happily not a large one, whom no kindness could conciliate
+and no discipline tame. They were sent into the world labelled
+&#8220;incorrigible,&#8221; wickedness being stamped, as it were, upon their
+organisation.</p>
+
+<p>With the close of the year 1883 the degeneracy doctrine may be regarded as
+having practically been accepted in biology, in anthropology, in
+sociology, in criminology, in psychiatry, and general pathology. Debate
+was henceforth not as to its existence, but as to its limitations.
+Precedent to 1835 determinism in popular thought due to Calvinistic
+predestination had, in English-speaking countries, fought for the
+doctrine; subsequent thereto the theologic reaction against Calvinism was
+a strong opposing force, whose influence was finally destroyed by the
+practically general acceptance of the doctrine of evolution in the late
+seventies.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">The Stigmata of Degeneracy</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> attempt made by Morel to limit the doctrine of degeneracy to the
+domain of the morbid proved impossible, because of the rapid accumulation
+of data by his own school, which demonstrated that atavistic deformity
+played a larger part in the production of diseases. Bland Sutton does not
+too forcibly put this result when he states<a name="fna_59_59" id="fna_59_59"></a><a href="#fn_59_59"><small>[59]</small></a> that if it be difficult to
+define disease when restricted to the human family, it becomes obviously
+more difficult when disease is investigated on a broad biological basis.
+As the great barrier which exists between man and those members of his
+class most closely allied to him consists not in structural characters but
+in mental power, it necessarily follows that there should be a similarity
+in the structural alterations induced by diseased conditions in all kinds
+of animals, allowing of course for the difference in environment. This is
+known to be the case, and it is clear that as there has been a gradual
+evolution of complex from simple organisms, it necessarily follows that
+the principles of evolution ought to apply to diseased conditions if they
+hold good for the normal or healthy states or organism; in plain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> words,
+there has been an evolution of disease <i>pari passu</i> with evolution of
+animal forms. For a long time it has been customary to talk of physiologic
+types of diseased tissues; Sutton&#8217;s earlier efforts were directed to
+searching among animals for the purpose of detecting in them the
+occurrence of tissues, which in man are only found under abnormal
+conditions. The statement proved to be true in a limited sense. At the
+same time the truth of an opinion held by nearly all thoughtful
+physicians, that disease may in many instances be regarded as an
+exaggerated function, was forcibly illustrated; the manifestations of
+disease were found to be regulated by the same law which governs
+physiological processes in general, and many conditions regarded as
+pathological in one animal were revealed as physiological in another.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine, therefore, has its scope limited only by biologic data. It
+of necessity begins with the cell itself in its relation to other cells of
+that practically compound organism which constitutes a single vertebrate.
+The cell may, therefore, degenerate as a single member of that organism,
+producing danger or benefit to the other cells. Thus the cancer cell
+degenerates in its power of reproduction below the tissue to which it
+belongs. It is peculiarly true here, as has been said by Herbert Spencer,
+that every vertebrate is an aggregate whose internal actions are adapted
+to counterbalance its external actions; hence the preservation of its
+movable equilibrium depends upon its development and the proper number of
+these actions; the movable equilibrium may be ruined when one of these
+actions is too great or too small, and through deficiency or need of some
+organic or inorganic cause in its surroundings. Every individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> can
+adapt itself to these changeable influences in two ways, either directly
+or by producing new individuals who will take the place of those whom the
+equilibrium has destroyed. Therefore there exist forces preservative and
+destructive of the race. As it is impossible that these two kinds of force
+should counterbalance each other, it is necessary that the equilibrium
+should re-establish itself in an orderly way. Since there are two
+preservative forces of every animal group&mdash;the impulse of every individual
+to self-preservation and the impulse to the production of other
+individuals&mdash;these faculties must vary in an inverse ratio; the former
+must diminish when the second augments. Degeneration constitutes a process
+of disintegration, the reverse of integration. Hence, if the term
+individuation be applied to all the processes which complete and sustain
+the life of the individual, and that of generation to those which aid the
+formation and development of new individuals, individuation and generation
+are necessarily antagonistic.</p>
+
+<p>In the phenomena of unisexual generation we see that the larger organisms
+never reproduce themselves in the unisexual way, while the smaller
+organisms reproduce themselves with the greatest rapidity by this method.
+Between these two extremes unisexual reproduction decreases while the size
+increases. In the history of all plants and animals is evident the
+physiologic truth, that while the general growth of the individual
+proceeds rapidly, the reproductive organs remain imperfectly developed and
+inactive. On the contrary, the principle of reproduction indicates
+decrease in the intensity of growth and becomes a cause of cessation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>Great fecundity is always attended by great mortality. Each superior
+degree of organic evolution is accompanied by an inferior degree of
+fecundity. The greater the germs the less is the individuation, and <i>vice
+vers&acirc;</i>. The greater and more complex the organisation, the less is the
+power of multiplication.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of the cells is also true of organs composed of them. Each
+organ can be regarded as a distinct animal (a parasite is preferable for
+comparison) which has its own nervous system (the ganglia), but is fed and
+controlled by the organism as a whole. Degeneration of this organ may
+therefore be an expression of a local state peculiar to it and either
+beneficial or maleficent, or both in inverse degree, to the organism as a
+whole, or it may be the expression of a general defect in the whole
+organism. The sclerotic states of the appendix vermiformis in man and of
+the human liver are, as Kiernan has shown, two excellent illustrations of
+the degeneracies last described. Man, in common with the four anthropoid
+apes, has a little thin tube attached to the c&aelig;cum known as the appendix
+vermiformis. In the early embryo it is equal in calibre to the other
+bowels, but ceases to grow proportionately after a certain time. In the
+new-born child it is almost as large as in the adult. As this tube proved
+disadvantageous to man&#8217;s precursor (as it does to certain mammals) from
+catching foreign bodies which form the nucleus of enteroliths or bowel
+stones, it has lost the nutritive supply of the other intestines and is
+tending to disappear. It is often absent in man. The defect in its
+structure, while predisposing to the attacks of germs and an expression of
+its own degeneracy, is an evidence of an advance in evolution in the
+organism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> as a whole by which great danger and waste of nutritive force
+are avoided.</p>
+
+<p>Recent researches<a name="fna_60_60" id="fna_60_60"></a><a href="#fn_60_60"><small>[60]</small></a> have shown that &#8220;hob-nail&#8221; liver, once supposed to
+be due entirely to abuse of alcohol, usually occurs in states of
+congenital deficiency in persons of defective heredity. The change in the
+appendix which is tending to cause its disappearance is essentially a
+sclerosis, and hence is morbid, considered from the appendix standpoint
+alone. As the same process occurs in &#8220;hob-nail&#8221; liver, it is obvious that
+degeneracy may be an expression of general advance and local defect or may
+be a local expression of general defect. The same phenomenon is seen in
+the nervous system. The researches of Cunningham<a name="fna_61_61" id="fna_61_61"></a><a href="#fn_61_61"><small>[61]</small></a> have shown that in
+man the struggle for existence between the sympathetic and the
+cerebro-spinal system has ended in the victory of the latter, while the
+first is tending to disappear. Such changes must necessarily result in
+local degeneracies which are for the benefit of the organism as a whole.
+Degeneracy on this basis may express itself in simple disturbance of the
+lower or nutritive functions. The uric acid or gouty states, for example,
+are, as Fothergill long ago pointed out, assumptions by mammalian organs
+of the functions of those of birds and reptiles. In conditions like
+myx&oelig;dema the skin, through thyroid gland disturbances, takes on
+features which resemble in result those found in certain mollusks and low
+fish. These nutritive disturbances may show themselves in disorders of the
+pituitary body (acromegaly, giantism, &amp;c.), whereby the bony system of man
+reverts to conditions like those of the gorilla. The same conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> also
+appear in the diathesis of the &#8220;bleeders.&#8221; All these conditions, however,
+may be an expression of a degenerate type assuming a normal equilibrium,
+as well as of a normal organism taking the first steps in degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>In a general way, therefore, as Dohrn has pointed out, this principle
+holds good of man not only as an organic unit but as a compound organism.
+Degeneracy<a name="fna_62_62" id="fna_62_62"></a><a href="#fn_62_62"><small>[62]</small></a> is a gradual change of structures by which the organism
+becomes adapted to less varied and less complex conditions of life. The
+opposite progression process of elaboration is a gradual change of
+structure in which the organism becomes adapted to more and more varied
+and complex conditions of existence. In elaboration there is a new
+expression of form corresponding to new perfection of work in the animal
+machine. In degeneracy there is suppression of form corresponding to the
+cessation of work. Elaboration of some one organ may be a necessary
+accompaniment of degeneracy in all the others. This is very generally the
+case. Only when the total result of the elaboration of some organs, and
+the degeneracy of others, is such as to leave the whole mass in a lower
+condition&mdash;that is, fitted to less complex action and reaction in regard
+to its surroundings than is the type&mdash;can the individual be regarded as an
+instance of degeneracy. These degeneracies appear at varying periods,
+since struggles for existence on the part of the different organs and
+systems of the body are most ardent during periods of body evolution and
+involution. During f&oelig;tal life, during the first dentition, during the
+second dentition (often as late as the thirteenth year), during puberty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+and adolescence (fourteen to twenty-five), during the climacteric (forty
+to sixty), when uterine involution occurs in woman and prostatic
+involution in man, and finally during senility (sixty and upwards), during
+all these periods degeneracy may be shown by mental or physical defect, a
+congenital tendency to which has remained latent until the period of
+stress. These defects may be such biochemic alterations (undemonstrable by
+existing methods) as lead to diminished inhibitory power or other altered
+function, or to secondary pathologic or teratologic change of decidedly
+demonstrable nature. Organs and structures checked at a certain phase of
+development may pursue a course of development differing from that pointed
+out in man but outlined in other vertebrates. The human cyclopean
+monstrosities, for example, might be regarded as reversions to the
+single-eyed sea-squirts, who are possibly the Ascidian precursors of the
+vertebrates.</p>
+
+<p>The scope of degeneracy may therefore be limited to certain signs which
+are its sole expressions. These signs (stigmata as they were early called)
+may be the only expression of degeneracy, and their significance must be
+determined by a careful examination of the organism in which these
+expressions are found, since they may be merely defects produced by
+degeneracy, or may indicate how deep such degeneracy has penetrated. They
+may, therefore, indicate either slight or serious defect. In proportion to
+the depth of degeneracy in the organism will the stigmata affect the
+earlier simpler or later complicated acquisitions through evolution. Of
+necessity, when the organism is affected by degeneracy, the morbid element
+will take the line of least resistance, determined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> by the depth of
+degeneracy as well as the variability of the structures concerned. The
+same influence must equally affect functions of the structures.
+Furthermore, expressions of degeneracy will, as already stated, be
+influenced by the periods of stress; the first and second dentition,
+puberty, the climacteric and the senile period. In a general way these
+stigmata are divisible into mental and physical, and are best observable
+in their relations to the periods of stress. In certain races, as in
+certain animals, conditions appearing before puberty was completed cannot
+be considered as settling the position of the animal in evolution. What is
+true of individuals is also true of classes. The anthropoid apes and the
+negroes are much higher in physical characteristics, with potential mental
+results, before puberty than after. The infant ape, as Havelock Ellis<a name="fna_63_63" id="fna_63_63"></a><a href="#fn_63_63"><small>[63]</small></a>
+points out, is very much nearer to man than the adult ape. &#8220;The infant ape
+is higher in the line of evolution than the adult, and the female ape, by
+approximating to the infant type, is somewhat higher than the male. Man,
+in carrying on the line of evolution, started not from some adult male
+simian, but from the infant ape and, in a less degree, from the female
+ape. The human infant bears precisely the same relation to his species as
+the simian infant bears to his, and we are bound to conclude that his
+relation to the future evolution of the race is similar. The human infant
+presents, in an exaggerated form, the chief distinctive characteristics of
+humanity&mdash;the large head and brain, the small face, the hairlessness, the
+delicate bony system. By some strange confusion of thought we usually
+ignore this fact, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> assume that the adult form is more highly developed
+than the infantile form. From the point of view of adaptation to the
+environment, it is undoubtedly true that the coarse, hairy, large-boned
+and small-brained gorilla is better fitted to make his way in the world
+than his delicate offspring; but from a zoological point of view we
+witness anything but progress. In man, from about the third year onwards,
+further growth&mdash;though an absolutely necessary adaptation to the
+environment&mdash;is to some extent growth in degeneration and senility. It is
+not carried to so low a degree as in the apes, although by it man is to
+some extent brought nearer to the apes, and among the higher human races
+the progress towards senility is less marked than among the lower human
+races. The child of many African races is scarcely, if at all, less
+intelligent than the European child, but while the African as he grows up
+becomes stupid and obtuse, and his whole social life falls into a state of
+hide-bound routine, the European retains much of his childlike vivacity.
+And if we turn to what we are accustomed to regard as the highest human
+types, as represented in men of genius, we shall find a striking
+approximation to the child type.&#8221; The face, in its contest for existence
+with the brain, has finally caused both the cranium and the jaws to assume
+(for defence and food purposes) a lower type, although as regards existing
+functions and the higher standpoint of environment the infantile type must
+be considered the higher. Still a casual glance at the Ascidian tadpole
+shows that deficient as is the development of the ganglia afterward
+forming the medulla, the face is still more deficient. The face, as Minot
+shows,<a name="fna_64_64" id="fna_64_64"></a><a href="#fn_64_64"><small>[64]</small></a>
+is a characteristic of the higher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> vertebrates, and acquires
+increased importance with rise in the evolution. The position of the face
+in embryonic development is originally determined by the head-bend. If a
+median, longitudinal section of the head be imagined to occupy a
+rectangular area divided into quarters, then the lower posterior quarter
+corresponds to the mouth region, the other three-quarters to the brain. As
+development progresses, the mouth quarter so disproportionately enlarges
+in relation to the rest of the head as to project forward in front of the
+fore-brain. In this stage, which is represented by the adult amphibians,
+the bulk of the facial apparatus is very great, proportionately to the
+cranium. In the reptiles the mouth region is elongated still further in
+front of the brain-case, resulting in the long snout. In mammals a third
+stage is established by the great increase in size of the brain,
+especially of the cerebral <ins class="correction" title="original: hemipheres">hemispheres</ins>. In consequence the brain comes to
+extend over the snout, as it were; in man, whose brain has the maximum
+enlargement, the facial apparatus is almost entirely covered by the brain.
+In the course of evolution the face, while serviceable to the animal for
+certain reasons of general constitutional character (food-getting, means
+of defence and means of obtaining mates), is less so than brain growth. A
+struggle for existence, therefore, inevitably results between the tendency
+of the face to appropriate power of growth and the like tendency of the
+brain, which, in defective organisms, produces marked reversions of the
+one for the benefit of the other. This struggle is further complicated by
+the embryonic relations to both of the hypophysis, since this body
+admittedly exerts an influence over bone growth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> most markedly (but
+abnormally) exhibited in acromegaly (excessive bone growth). In this
+contest for existence in the degenerate types, degeneracy will, of
+necessity, take the direction of least resistance. As the brain is the
+last acquirement in vertebrates, considered from the standpoint of
+necessity, while the face (also a late acquirement) is much less complex,
+the last, obviously, will present the derangements from degeneration in
+shape, while the former will show these in shape and function.
+Furthermore, during the embryonic period the development of the brain
+will, of necessity, be more immediately affected by degeneracy than the
+face, which will gain in evolution at its expense. The stigmata of
+degeneracy, therefore, most likely to attract attention are in the order
+given, those of the face, jaws, and teeth; ear, eye, cranium; body, bodily
+functions; brain and spinal cord. Under these last are to be included
+their mental and nervous functions.</p>
+
+<p>The following table summarizes in practical form these stigmata<a name="fna_65_65" id="fna_65_65"></a><a href="#fn_65_65"><small>[65]</small></a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle">Ethical<br />Degeneracy.</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Crime.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Prostitution and Sexual Degeneracy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Moral Insanity, Pauperism, and Inebriety.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="8" valign="middle">Cerebral.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td rowspan="8" align="center" valign="middle">Intellectual<br />Degeneracy.</td><td rowspan="8"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Paranoia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Adolescent Insanity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Periodical Insanity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hysteria.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Epilepsy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Neuroses.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>One-sided Genius.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Idiocy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="3" align="center" valign="middle">Sensory<br />Degeneracy.</td><td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Deaf-Mutism.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Congenital Colour Blindness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Smell Abnormalities.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Spinal</td><td>Various congenital and hereditary disorders</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="12" align="center" valign="middle">Nutritive<br />Degeneracy.</td><td rowspan="12"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Exophthalmic Go&icirc;tre.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Lymphoid Degeneracy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Acromegaly.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Tissue Instability.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Adenoids.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Myx&oelig;dema.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Plural Births.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Bleeders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cancer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Excessive Fecundity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Gout.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Early Lipomatosis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan="11" align="center" valign="middle">Local<br />Reversionary<br />Tendencies.</td><td rowspan="11"><span class="bracket3">{</span></td><td>Jaws.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cleft Palate.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Teeth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Primitive Uteri.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cloacal conditions (and allied male states)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Horseshoe Kidney and allied states.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cyclopian Monstrosities.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Amelia and Polymelia, Club feet, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Plural mamm&aelig;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Simian muscular and bony states.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Liver and other organ reversions.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The factors producing degeneration act by causing nervous exhaustion in
+the first generation. This implies a practical degeneration in function
+since tone is lost.</p>
+
+<p>Every nerve cell has two functions, one connected with sensation or
+motion, and the other with growth. If the cell be tired by excessive work
+along the line of sensation or motion the function as regards growth
+becomes later impaired, and it not only ceases to continue in strength,
+but becomes self-poisoned. Each of the organs (heart, liver, kidneys, &amp;c.)
+has its own system of nerves (the sympathetic ganglia), which while under
+control by the spinal cord and brain act independently. If these nerves
+become tired the organ fails to perform its function, the general system
+becomes both poisoned and ill-fed, and nervous exhaustion results. In most
+cases, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>however, the brain and spinal cord are first exhausted. The nerves
+of the organs are thus allowed too free play, and exhaust themselves
+later. This systemic exhaustion has local expression in the testicles in
+the male, in the womb and ovaries in the female. Through this the body is
+imperfectly supplied with natural tonics (antitoxins) formed by the
+structures, and the general nervous exhaustion becomes still more
+complete. All the organs of the body are weakened in their function.
+Practically the neurasthenic in regard to his organs has taken on a
+degenerative function albeit not degenerating in structure, since the
+restlessness of the organs is a return to the undue expenditure of force
+which occurs in the lower animals in proportion as it is unchecked by a
+central nervous system. Through the influence of various exhausting
+agencies the spinal cord and the brain lose the gains of evolution and the
+neurasthenic is no longer adjusted to environment. Since the reproductive
+organs suffer particularly, children born after the acquirement of nervous
+exhaustion, more or less checked in development as the influence of
+atavism is healthy or not, repeat degenerations in the structure of their
+organs, which in the parent were represented by neurasthenic disorders in
+function. As the ovaries of the neurasthenic women generally exhibit
+prominently the effects of the nervous exhaustion, the offspring of these
+do not retain enough vigour to pass through the normal process of
+development.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Heredity and Atavism</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Heredity,</span> like other biologic factors, starts with the cell. As elsewhere
+pointed out, reproduction is first unicellular in type and involves an
+expenditure of nutritive force antagonistic to the growth of the cell. As
+Geddes remarks,<a name="fna_66_66" id="fna_66_66"></a><a href="#fn_66_66"><small>[66]</small></a> no one can dispute that the nutritive, vegetative, or
+self-regarding processes within the plant or animal are as opposed to the
+reproductive, multiplying, species-regarding processes, as income to
+expenditure or as building up to breaking down. But within the ordinary
+nutritive or vegetative functions of the body there is necessarily a
+continuous antithesis between two tissue-changing sets of processes,
+constructive and destructive metabolism. The contrast between these two
+processes is seen throughout nature, whether in the alternating phases of
+cell-life or in the great antithesis of growth and reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>The starfish, deprived of an arm, replaces this by a fresh growth; crabs
+can renew the great claws which they have lost in fighting; even as high
+up as the lizard the loss of a leg or a tail can be made good. In a great
+variety of cases a kind of physiological<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> forgiveness is shown in the
+reparation of even serious injuries. Now this &#8220;regeneration,&#8221; as it is
+called, is a process of reproduction. By continuous growth the cells of a
+persistent stump are able to reproduce the entire number. A sponge, a
+hydra or a sea-anemone may be cut into pieces with the result that each
+fragment grows into a new organism. The same is done with many plants; and
+though the division is artificial the result shows how very far from
+unique is the process spoken of as reproduction, which is but more or less
+discontinuous growth. This is well shown in the evolution onward
+insensibly from cases of continuous budding, as in sponge or rosebush, to
+discontinuous budding in hydra zoophyte and tiger-lily, where the
+offspring vegetatively produced are sooner or later set free.</p>
+
+<p>The enormous expenditure of force required for unicellular reproduction is
+lessened by conjugation with another cell through satisfaction of cell
+hunger; and this, by making two cells do the work of one, lessens the
+amount of nutritive force expended by each. Evolution in fertilisation has
+the following steps:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td>Formation of plasmodia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td>Multiple conjugation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td>Conjugation of the two similar cells.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td>Union of incipiently dimorphic (different) cells.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td>Fertilisation of differentiated sex elements.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As Maupas has shown, by the time conjugation of two similar cells is
+reached, the paranucleus in both is incipiently hermaphroditic. The
+impelling force leading to conjugation is, as Rolph has shown, cell
+hunger. Conjugation, he remarks, is a necessity for satisfaction, a
+gnawing hunger which drives the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> animal to engulf its neighbour, to
+isophagy (self-eating). The process of conjugation is only a special form
+of nutrition which occurs because of a reduction of the nutritive income
+or an increase of the nutritive needs. It is an &#8220;isophagy&#8221; which occurs in
+place of &#8220;heterophagy&#8221; (eating of others). &#8220;The less nutritive, and
+therefore smaller, hungrier, and more mobile organism is the male, the
+more nutritive and usually relatively more quiescent organism the female.
+Therefore, too, is it that the small starving male seeks out the large,
+well-nourished female for purpose of conjugation, to which the latter, the
+larger and better nourished, is on its own motive less inclined.&#8221; The
+unicellular type of reproduction long remains after sex differentiation
+has occurred and assumes the form of parthenogenesis (virgin generation).
+The phenomena of this demonstrate that the female element is the highest
+in evolution. Spitzka<a name="fna_67_67" id="fna_67_67"></a><a href="#fn_67_67"><small>[67]</small></a> has shown that the ovum possesses an inherent
+activity independently of fructification. How far this may extend in the
+direction of more mature development is shown by what is known about
+parthenogenesis. This is the development of living beings without a
+father. Bees, some butterflies, ants and wasps notoriously multiply their
+kind without sexual congress. As a rule the parthenogenetic offspring are
+themselves incapable of further procreating their kind. But to this there
+are remarkable exceptions. The aphides multiply for many generations
+without the intervention of a male. Weigenbergh has shown that the
+silk-moth can be propagated as long as the male element is permitted to
+act at every fourth generation. The <i>Artemsia salina</i>, a minute
+crustacean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> living in saline springs, reproduces its kind for years
+without a male being present, males being produced at definite intervals
+only (Von Siebold). Among the vertebrata parthenogenetic development has
+also been observed, though rarely reaching maturity. Thus, segmentation
+occurs in unfertilised ova of the chicken (Oellacher), of the fish
+(Burnett and Agassiz), and of frogs (Moquia-Tanden). Spitzka has seen a
+blastoderm form in unfertilised ova of the toad-fish (<i>Batrachus tau</i>).
+Hensen isolated the oviducts of a rabbit, thus rendering the admission of
+semen impossible, while the ova, discharged at heat, were compelled to
+remain in these oviducts. Three years later he killed the animal and found
+the ova had developed into twisted, club-shaped, hollow sacs. The
+development in the female ovary (also, though very rarely, in the male
+testicle and parotid gland, which show such a remarkable metastatic
+sympathy in mumps), of dermoid cysts (containing bones recognisable as
+maxillaries with teeth, hair, and skin, rudimentary bowel, gland, and
+brain traces), even in undoubted virgins, proves that even the human ovum
+is capable of parthenogenetic development. While such development, so far
+as known to science, is always abortive, and while, as Washington Irving
+remarks, the ingenious maiden who to-day would attribute conception to any
+other cause than sexual congress would find it difficult to overcome the
+prejudice of scientists, yet embryology, while declaring immaculate
+generation improbable, does not pronounce it impossible. A worker bee may
+be an offspring of an unimpregnated queen bee. What is a regular
+occurrence in one class of animals is sometimes observed as an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>exceptional one in another class. If the startling and apparently
+miraculous nature of a virgin generation of a living child be regarded as
+the sole objection to receiving such a fact, its defender might urge that
+the virgin generation of a dermoid cyst with all the traces, however
+aborted, of vertebrate organisation, is only a shade less startling and
+miraculous.</p>
+
+<p>This power of parthenogenesis, however, cannot continue indefinitely
+without extinction. This has been shown by the careful experiments of
+Maupas, who had observed 215 generations of an infusorian without sexual
+union. He found that then the family became extinct. Powers of nutrition,
+division, and conjugation with unrelated forms come to a standstill. The
+first symptom of this senile degeneration is decrease in size, which may
+go on till the individuals only measure a quarter of their normal
+proportions. Various internal structures then follow suit &#8220;until at last
+formless abortions occur, incapable of living and reproducing themselves.&#8221;
+The nuclear changes are no less momentous. The important paranucleus is
+fatally sterile. The larger nucleus may also become affected, &#8220;the
+chromatin gradually disappears altogether.&#8221; Physiologically, too, the
+organisms become manifestly weaker, though there is excessive sexual
+excitation. Such senile decay of the individuals and of the isolated
+family inevitably ends in death. Sexual union in those infusorians,
+dangerous perhaps for the individual life, a loss of time so far as
+immediate multiplication is concerned, is, in a new sense, necessary for
+the species. The life runs in cycles of a sexual division which are
+strictly limited. Conjugation with unrelated forms must occur else the
+whole life ebbs. Without it the protozoa, which some have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> called
+&#8220;immortal,&#8221; die a natural death. Conjugation is the necessary condition of
+their eternal youth and immortality.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from this standpoint the relative functions of the two sexes in
+heredity are apparent. The original function of reproduction, that of cell
+division, is the part of the female. The male in the lower instances
+simply supplies the female with nutriment. Thus in certain plants there is
+nothing but a subtle osmosis between the sexes. This is also the case with
+some of the lower infusoria. With a rise in evolution protoplasm becomes
+differentiated. At the outset of the subject of heredity it is evident,
+therefore, that the female furnishes the type which is best capable of
+development when properly nourished by a highly developed male. To
+deficiencies in both particulars are due defects and variations in the
+offspring. As the product of fructification is longest under the nutritive
+control of the female, her influence is most emphatic in either redeeming
+defects or producing them. Heredity, according to Ribot, Spitzka, F&eacute;r&eacute;,
+and others, is divisible into direct heredity, indirect heredity, and,
+more dubiously, telegony. Direct heredity consists in the transmission of
+paternal and maternal qualities to the children. This form of heredity has
+two aspects: (1) The child takes after father and mother equally as
+regards both physical and moral characters, a case strictly speaking of
+very rare occurrence; or (2) the child, while taking after both parents,
+more especially resembles one of them. Here again distinction must be made
+between two cases. The first of these is when the heredity takes place in
+the same sex from father to son, from mother to daughter. The other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> which
+occurs more frequently, is where heredity occurs between different
+sexes&mdash;from father to daughter or from mother to son. Reversional heredity
+or atavism consists in the reproduction in the descendants of the moral or
+physical qualities of their ancestors. It occurs frequently between
+grandfather and grandson, as well as between grandmother and
+granddaughter. Collateral or indirect heredity, which is of rarer
+occurrence than the foregoing, and is simply a form of atavism, subsists,
+as indicated by the name, between individuals and their ancestors in the
+indirect line&mdash;uncle, or grand-uncle and nephew, aunt and niece. Finally
+(3) there is telegony, or the heredity of influence, very rare from the
+physiological point of view, which consists in reproduction in the
+children by a second marriage of some peculiarity belonging to a former
+spouse.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with heredity the position of Weismann and others, that
+acquired characters cannot be inherited, needs a short examination. In his
+later work Weismann has practically abandoned the essential basis of his
+position by admitting that maternal nutrition may play a part in
+determining variation. He<a name="fna_68_68" id="fna_68_68"></a><a href="#fn_68_68"><small>[68]</small></a> now asserts that the origin of a variation
+is equally independent of selection and amphimixis, and is due to the
+constant occurrence of slight inequalities of nutrition in the germ plasm.
+As acquired characters affecting the constitution of the parents are
+certain to affect the nutrition of the germ plasm, it is therefore
+obvious, according to Weismann&#8217;s admission, that acquired characters or
+their consequences will be inherited. This is an emphatic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> though
+concealed abandonment of the central position of Weismann.</p>
+
+<p>One of the stock arguments of the Weismann school is drawn from results of
+the Jewish rite of circumcision. While the operation is not calculated to
+make a profound impression on the constitution, and furthermore, as being
+performed on the male, less likely to affect the race, still the alleged
+non-inheritance of its results is much over-estimated. William Wolf,<a name="fna_69_69" id="fna_69_69"></a><a href="#fn_69_69"><small>[69]</small></a>
+of Baltimore, Maryland, who has circumcised six hundred Jewish children,
+finds on careful examination, that 2 per cent. were born partially
+circumcised and 6 per cent. were born with a short prepuce. P. C.
+Remondino,<a name="fna_70_70" id="fna_70_70"></a><a href="#fn_70_70"><small>[70]</small></a> of Los Angeles, California, has seen a large number of
+cases of absence of the prepuce which proved to be hereditary. After a
+confinement his attention was once called to the child by the nurse, who
+thought it was deformed. The nurse was astonished at the size and
+appearance of the glans penis. On examination the prepuce was found to be
+completely absent. On inquiry, the father and another son, born more than
+twenty years previously (comprising every male member of the family), were
+found to have been born with the glands fully exposed. He has seen a
+French family similarly affected.</p>
+
+<p>Similar, but much stronger, results have been obtained by me through the
+courtesy of the Reverend Drs. S. Bauer, M. A. Cohen, and B. Gordon, all of
+Chicago. Dr. Bauer, who has been seventeen years in the practice of the
+religious rite of circumcision, has circumcised 3,400 boys and has found
+preputial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> absence in about 3&#189; per cent. of the cases. Dr. Cohen, who
+has been two decades in the practice, has performed 10,000 circumcisions.
+He has found the prepuce wanting in 500 cases; partially developed in 300
+cases; slightly developed in 2,000 cases. Dr. Gordon has performed 4,400
+circumcisions in twenty-five years. He has found the prepuce absent in 15
+cases; partly wanting in 200, and slightly developed in 2,200 cases.
+These, it should be remembered, are only cases where preputial change
+forced itself on the observer, who was not pursuing investigations on this
+point.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of Hebrew casuistic religious literature collected in the
+Medrash, evidences as I have elsewhere<a name="fna_71_71" id="fna_71_71"></a><a href="#fn_71_71"><small>[71]</small></a> shown the frequency of
+congenital preputial defect.</p>
+
+<p>That acquired characters can be transmitted has been definitely shown by
+the experiments of George Roe Lockwood,<a name="fna_72_72" id="fna_72_72"></a><a href="#fn_72_72"><small>[72]</small></a> of New York, anent hereditary
+transmission of mutilations. White mice were selected, as they begin to
+breed when thirty days old, and breed every thirty days. He bred in-and-in
+for thirty-six generations, destroying the weakly, and thus obtained finer
+animals than the first pair. He selected a pair, caged them by themselves,
+and clipped the tails of the young. When they were old enough to breed, he
+selected a pair and clipped the tails of their progeny. In the seventh
+generation he obtained some tailless mice, and finally a tailless breed.
+The experiments have one possible element of error; white mice, like all
+albinoes, are a degenerate type. At the same time these experiments show
+that accidental mutilations favoured by circumstances are inherited.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>Eimer<a name="fna_73_73" id="fna_73_73"></a><a href="#fn_73_73"><small>[73]</small></a>
+reports the case of a pair of long-tailed pointers which had
+once produced a litter of long-tailed pups. In order to obtain
+short-tailed pups the owner had the tails of both shortened. The bitch
+from that time produced repeatedly short-tailed pups only. As the most
+careful attention was paid to the parents, no error can be suspected in
+this case, which, moreover, excites no surprise among dog-breeders.</p>
+
+<p>Brown-S&eacute;quard<a name="fna_74_74" id="fna_74_74"></a><a href="#fn_74_74"><small>[74]</small></a> has shown that a peculiar alteration of the shape of the
+ear or a partial closing of the eyelids is inherited by the offspring of
+animals in which these changes were caused by dividing the sympathetic.
+Exophthalmia (eye protrusion) was inherited by guinea-pigs in whose
+parents this protrusion of the eyes had occurred after an injury to the
+spinal cord, and so were bruises and dry gangrene, as well as other
+trophic disturbances in the ear, due in the parents to an injury to the
+restiform body of the brain. Loss of certain phalanges or of whole toes of
+the hind feet which had occurred in the parents in consequence of division
+of the sciatic nerve was inherited. Diseased conditions of the sciatic
+nerve occurred in the offspring of guinea-pigs in which this nerve was
+divided. Forty guinea-pigs in which one or both eyes showed more or less
+morbid change were descended from three individuals in which one eye had
+become diseased in consequence of transverse section of the restiform
+body. Twenty guinea-pigs exhibited muscular atrophy on the upper and lower
+sides of the thigh, when in the parents such atrophy had been caused by
+section of the sciatic nerve.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments of Brown-S&eacute;quard, Westphal,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+Dupuy<a name="fna_75_75" id="fna_75_75"></a><a href="#fn_75_75"><small>[75]</small></a> and Obersteiner,
+which show that artificially induced epilepsy is inherited, still further
+bear out the conclusions resultant on the inheritance of these
+mutilations. Indeed, Weismann has been forced to that <i>reductio ad
+absurdum</i> in science, narrowly limited definitions, in order to maintain
+his position. &#8220;But although I hold it improbable,&#8221; he remarks, &#8220;that
+individual variability can depend on a direct action of external
+influences upon the germ cells and their contained germ plasm, because, as
+follows from sundry facts, the molecular structure of the germ plasm must
+be very difficult to change, yet it is by no means to be implied that this
+structure may not possibly be altered by influences of the same kind
+continuing for a very long time. This much may be maintained: that
+influences which are mostly of variable nature, tending now in one
+direction, now in another, can hardly produce a change in the structure of
+the germ plasm, and this is the reason why the cause of inheritable
+individual differences must be sought elsewhere than in these varying
+influences.&#8221; &#8220;No one has doubted,&#8221; he says, in reply to objections made by
+Virchow, &#8220;that there are a number of congenital deformities, birth-marks,
+and other individual peculiarities which are inherited. But these are
+acquired characters in the above sense. True, they must once have appeared
+for the first time, but we cannot say exactly from what causes; we only
+know that at least a great proportion of them proceed from the germ
+itself, and must therefore be due to alterations of the germinal
+substance. If Virchow could show that any single one of these hereditary
+deformities had its origin in the action of some external<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> cause upon the
+already formed body (soma) of the individual and not upon the germ cell,
+then the inheritance of acquired characters would be proved. But this no
+one has yet succeeded in proving, often as it has been maintained.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The crucial test which Weismann demands is furnished by Dupuy,<a name="fna_76_76" id="fna_76_76"></a><a href="#fn_76_76"><small>[76]</small></a> who
+made one thousand experiments on guinea-pigs to the fifth generation,
+critically rejecting all results which did not correspond to the most
+rigid tests of direct heredity, excluding all instances of indirect
+heredity, however demonstrable. He found that certain lesions of the
+spinal cord, or the brain or the sciatic nerve, give rise in guinea-pigs
+to epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>In from three to six weeks after the operation an alteration in the
+nutrition takes place in an area of skin which is limited by a line
+starting from the outer canthus of the eye, and running to the median line
+on the upper lip, enclosing the nostril, thence backward enclosing the
+lower jaw, to the anterior portion of the shoulder to the median dorsal
+line, to the base of the ear and inner canthus of the eye. The alteration
+in nutrition occurs on the side corresponding to the injury. The pain,
+heat and cold sense disappear by degrees, while touch appears to be
+exalted. Very soon, tickling this zone of skin gives rise to twitchings
+limited to the muscles of the eye and the eyelids on the same side. Later,
+the muscles of the mouth and of the face are affected, still later the
+contractions become more general, until the whole side is the seat of
+convulsions, then the convulsions attack the other side also. When things
+have come to this point the convulsions precede by a very short time
+complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> loss of consciousness. If the subject of experiment be white, it
+is found that there is paleness of the face, but in all cases there is
+little foam at the mouth and dilatation of the pupils. The animal
+sometimes utters a cry corresponding to the epileptic cry in the man. Not
+only are the convulsions identical with those in epileptic man, but there
+is also loss of consciousness, a state of torpor, stupor, and even
+sometimes insanity. When epilepsy is due to the destruction of the sciatic
+nerve, the foot of the affected side loses the two outer toes, so that the
+animal has only one toe, the inner. When young are born to such a parent
+or parents (for it matters not whether one or both of the parents have
+been operated upon), they have very often only one toe on the posterior
+foot. Sometimes, however, they have additional toes, which, in this case,
+are attached by a pedicle to the limb.</p>
+
+<p>Those peculiarities observed in the parents are in all their details
+witnessed in the guinea-pigs hereditarily born toeless, who have developed
+epileptic phenomena. In Dupuy&#8217;s cases not only is the epileptic tendency
+(of which Weismann gives a wholly imaginative microbic explanation)
+inherited, but the very stigmata (loss of toes) which mark development of
+the parental epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>E. D. Cope&#8217;s<a name="fna_77_77" id="fna_77_77"></a><a href="#fn_77_77"><small>[77]</small></a> careful studies of the effects of impacts and strains on
+the feet of mammals are testimony difficult for Weismann to explain, since
+they also meet his requirements.</p>
+
+<p>Weismann&#8217;s admission of the inheritance of a tuberculous habit must
+logically, from the standpoint of degeneracy, be regarded as destroying
+his claims.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>Kiernan has observed the case of a female cat in which brain mutilation
+had been induced to secure secondary cerebro-spinal degenerations. The
+mutilations were made under antiseptic precautions. The descendants of
+this cat had traces of the mutilation, and its results until the fourth
+generation, when the breed became extinct. This instance certainly fulfils
+all Weismann requirements.</p>
+
+<p>In the Lambert family a skin deformity, the last result of degeneracy in
+previous generations, was transmitted. This peculiarity appeared first,
+according to Proctor,<a name="fna_78_78" id="fna_78_78"></a><a href="#fn_78_78"><small>[78]</small></a> in the person of Edward Lambert, whose whole
+body, except his face, the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet,
+was covered with a horny excrescence. He was the father of six children,
+all of whom as soon as they had reached the age of six weeks presented the
+same peculiarity. The only one of them who lived transmitted the
+peculiarity to all his sons. For five generations all the male members of
+the family were distinguished by the horny excrescence which had adorned
+the body of Edward Lambert.</p>
+
+<p>Shwe-Maong, one of the hairless Burmese, when thirty years old had his
+whole body covered with silky hairs, which attained a length of nearly
+five inches on the shoulders and spine. He had four daughters, but only
+one of them resembled him. She had a son who was hairy like his
+grandfather. The case of this family illustrates rather curiously the
+relation between the hair and teeth; for Shwe-Maong retained his milk
+teeth till he was twenty (when he attained puberty); then they were
+replaced by nine teeth only, five in the upper and four in the lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> jaw.
+Eight of these were incisors, the ninth (in the upper jaw) being a cuspid
+tooth.</p>
+
+<p>Certain motor expressions of disturbed functions are also inherited.
+Galton describes the case of a man who, when he lay fast asleep on his
+back in bed, had the curious trick of raising his right arm slowly in
+front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk,
+so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did
+not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any
+ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or
+more. The gentleman&#8217;s nose was prominent and its bridge often became sore
+from blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced
+that was long in healing on account of the recurrence, night after night,
+of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the buttons
+from the wrist of his nightgown, as it made severe scratches, and some
+means were attempted of tying his arm. Many years after his death his son
+married a lady who had never heard of the family incident. She, however,
+observed precisely the same peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from
+not being particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the
+blows. The trick does not occur when he is half asleep, as, for example,
+when he is dozing in his armchair, but the moment he is fast asleep he is
+apt to begin. It, as with his father, is intermittent, sometimes ceasing
+for many nights, and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every
+night. It is performed, as it was with his father, with his right hand.
+One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs it
+likewise with the right hand but in a slightly modified form; for after
+raising the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> arm she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of
+the nose, but the palm of her half-closed hand falls over and down the
+nose, striking it rather rapidly, a decided improvement on the father&#8217;s
+and grandfather&#8217;s method. The trick is intermittent in the girl&#8217;s case
+also, sometimes not occurring for periods of several months, but sometimes
+almost incessantly. These &#8220;tricks&#8221; suggest nocturnal epilepsy, however.</p>
+
+<p>The face of a child is often fully developed, yet, owing to some of the
+constitutional diseases, arrested development of the face at this point
+takes place. The second generation inherits this deformity, while the
+grandparents possess normally developed faces.</p>
+
+<p>The following case came under my own immediate observation. The
+grandfather was in the habit of sitting in front of the fire with fingers
+locked together twirling the thumbs in one direction, and then
+occasionally knocking the thumb nails together. Two of his three sons
+inherited this habit; the third brother had the habit of biting his nails
+when in a fit of abstraction. The nephew of the last has a similar habit
+under the like conditions. The children of this nephew have in two
+instances shown a tendency to pick at the nails when in an unconscious
+state, from acute disease. The third child has a periodical tendency to do
+the same since it was four months old.</p>
+
+<p>V. P. Gibney,<a name="fna_79_79" id="fna_79_79"></a><a href="#fn_79_79"><small>[79]</small></a> of New York, has reported a family consisting of father
+and mother, five children, and one grandchild. The father and mother are
+semi-ambidextrous. All of the children and the grandchild are
+semi-ambidextrous to an annoying degree;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> all of the movements which they
+perform with one hand are simultaneously performed by the other hand. The
+girls are obliged to use only one hand when dressing themselves, or when
+cutting patterns, and hold the other hand down by their side, because the
+two hands perform the same movements at the same time and would interfere
+with each other.</p>
+
+<p>One factor in heredity concerning which there has been much dispute, and
+whose existence has been denied because of certain theories anent the
+nerve connection of the mother and f&oelig;tus, is that of maternal
+impressions. As F&eacute;r&eacute;<a name="fna_80_80" id="fna_80_80"></a><a href="#fn_80_80"><small>[80]</small></a> has shown, the f&oelig;tus exhibits very decided
+reaction to sensory impressions on the mother. He cites cases of several
+women who, often in the midst of an ordinary dream, producing but very
+moderate excitation, not generally interrupting sleep, were awakened by
+f&oelig;tal movements. The dreams had nothing of the nightmare which would
+cause sudden contraction under the influence of a terrifying idea. They
+were merely the ordinary phenomena of sleep. Mental changes of the mother
+hence excite motor reactions in the f&oelig;tus, and, as with sensorial
+excitations, these reactions are stronger in the f&oelig;tus than in the
+mother. The mechanism of these motor reactions is, F&eacute;r&eacute; points out,
+obviously due to unconscious and involuntary movement of the muscle walls
+of the womb. The organisation of a morbid predisposition may be largely
+influenced by an accident accompanying conception or gestation. In some
+degenerates cannot be found a trace of hereditary defect. The fact cited
+explains how sensorial excitations or repeated and violent emotions in the
+mother during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> pregnancy give rise to profound nutritive troubles in the
+f&oelig;tus, and especially in its nervous system. These congenitally
+degenerated beings (<i>ab utero</i>) can hardly be distinguished from those
+having direct heredity. A considerable number of cases of epilepsy,
+idiocy, &amp;c., are recognised as having arisen from alcoholism in the
+mother. Psychic troubles in the mother may react upon the f&oelig;tus in an
+analogous way. The prominent facts which show the influence of the psychic
+state of the mother upon the somatic condition of the f&oelig;tus explain the
+action of the imagination of the mother upon the development of the
+product of conception. The opinion which refers the origin of birth-marks
+to intense mental impressions on the part of the mother is not without
+physiological foundation. Concurrently with the motor phenomena,
+stigmata<a name="fna_81_81" id="fna_81_81"></a><a href="#fn_81_81"><small>[81]</small></a> may become developed by vascular and nutritive troubles
+produced under the influence of a strong excitation or by the imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Spitzka,<a name="fna_82_82" id="fna_82_82"></a><a href="#fn_82_82"><small>[82]</small></a> who approached maternal impressions from an actively
+sceptical standpoint, had his scepticism shaken by specimens (preserved in
+the British Museum) of newly hatched chicks, all of which had a curved
+beak like a parrot, and the toes set back as in that bird. According to
+the report of the curator the hens in the farmyard where these
+monstrosities were hatched had been frightened by a parrot which, having
+escaped, fluttered among them some time before the eggs were laid and
+greatly frightened those from whom the malformed chicks were <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>received. It
+is certain that the chief argument of those who deny that maternal
+impressions are transmitted is defeated by this case. They have usually
+asserted that the explanation of the nature and cause of a birth-mark was
+always an after-thought on the part of the mother. But there was no
+after-thought in this case. The hens did not publish a theory as to the
+malformation of their chicks. It was their owner, a gentleman of
+intelligence and culture, who observed the casual occurrence, and who
+verified the almost photographic truthfulness of the germ monstrosity by
+depositing it in a museum as a permanent record at which none may cavil.</p>
+
+<p>Since then, the singular freaks attributable to maternal impressions of
+women, seen by Spitzka, have become so numerous that he has been compelled
+to negative the argument that they were merely accidental coincidences. He
+has never seen an idiotic, malformed child or one afflicted with morbid
+impulses derived from healthy parents free from hereditary taint in which
+a maternal impression could not be traced.</p>
+
+<p>In a large number a direct correspondence between the maternal impression
+and the nature of the deformity or peculiarity could be discovered. He
+reports the case of a woman, about five months pregnant, who, while
+standing in her yard, saw her husband stab into the belly of a goat he had
+slaughtered. The sight of the suddenly protruding visceral mass, which
+happened to be imperfectly bilobar, shocked her extremely, and, starting
+back, she, in her great revulsion, feeling a strange sensation at the nape
+of the neck or back of the head, clutched the former with her right hand.
+The impression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> continued to haunt her. When the child was born and she
+saw its deformity she instantly exclaimed, &#8220;Oh, the intestines of that
+goat!&#8221; At the back of its head the child had a large tumour of the
+consistency of a loose sac of a bluish colour, showing convolutions
+interpreted by the mother as a reproduction of the intestinal convolutions
+that had so shocked her. In reality they were the convolutions of a hernia
+containing the posterior ends of both cerebral hemispheres. The accidental
+resemblance of the deformity to the mental impressions was striking.</p>
+
+<p>A. Lagorio<a name="fna_83_83" id="fna_83_83"></a><a href="#fn_83_83"><small>[83]</small></a> brought before the Chicago Medical Society several cases in
+which maternal impressions had produced decidedly abnormal births with
+deformities resembling those feared by the mother. Kiernan, in discussing
+these, pointed out that all were instances of checked development. He was
+of opinion that moral shock, generally directed, played the chief part in
+maternal impressions through checking development and causing either
+general or local reversion. Here, as Spitzka<a name="fna_84_84" id="fna_84_84"></a><a href="#fn_84_84"><small>[84]</small></a> shows, the statistical
+method can be applied. It has been long known that profound grief, mental
+or physical shock acting on the mother, produce cerebral defect or
+generally arrested development in the offspring. Of 92 children born in
+Paris during the great siege, 1870-71, 64 had mental or physical anomalies
+and the remaining 28 were weakly, 21 were intellectually defective
+(imbecile or idiotic), and 8 showed moral or emotional insanity. These
+figures, furnished by Legrand du Saulle, justify the popular designation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+by the working men of Paris of the defective children born in 1871 as
+&#8220;<i>enfants du si&egrave;ge</i>.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>After the great Chicago fire in 1871 birth-marks, deformities, and mental
+defects were noticed to occur among the offspring whose mothers were
+pregnant with them pending the exciting time during and after the
+conflagration.</p>
+
+<p>Spitzka has seen in practice, constitutionally melancholic or mentally
+defective children in whom no other predisposing cause could be discovered
+than that the mother was struggling with direct or indirect results of the
+financial crisis of 1873. In several of these cases the death of the
+father was a contributory cause of maternal depression. In Berlin the
+financial crisis of 1875-80 was followed by an increase in the number of
+idiots born. Lombroso attributes a series of cases of microcephaly to
+profound mental impressions occurring during pregnancy. To the same class
+of cases belong the hermaphrodites born by mothers who have been
+frightened in their first pregnancy and who continue to bear
+hermaphrodites. The continual and not ill-founded dread that the
+succeeding children may resemble the first is to be regarded as a
+contributory cause. Observers who have had a large experience with
+illegitimate births believe that the mental agony suffered by the
+unfortunate mother reacts upon the f&oelig;tus, causing arrest of
+development, and thus accounting for the frequent occurrence of idiocy in
+illegitimate children.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of maternal diet on the f&oelig;tus is excellently illustrated
+in the results of the &#8220;fruit diet&#8221; advised by certain vegetarians. Here
+the children<a name="fna_85_85" id="fna_85_85"></a><a href="#fn_85_85"><small>[85]</small></a>
+become, as Elise Berwig has recently shown,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> rickety,
+irritable, peevish, liable to convulsions, morally peculiar, and otherwise
+defective in contrast with children born of the same parents without
+&#8220;fruit diet&#8221; during pregnancy.</p>
+
+<p>Kiernan,<a name="fna_86_86" id="fna_86_86"></a><a href="#fn_86_86"><small>[86]</small></a> after citing instances reported by Amabile, Carson, F. B.
+Earle, Erlenmeyer, F. H. Hubbard, C. H. Hughes, Mattison, and others, of
+congenital opium habit where opium was needed to preserve the infant
+during the first months of life, states that inheritance of the opium
+habit seems at first an isolated phenomenon, but zoologists have pointed
+out that pigeons whose ancestors were fed on poppies became intractable to
+opium. Murrell found that the same was relatively true in England of
+persons descended from Bedfordshire ancestors who used infusions of
+poppies as a prophylactic against malaria. Nervous diseases were, however,
+relatively prevalent in these districts. Narcotic habits in the ancestors
+produces descendants in whom the normal checks on excessive nervous action
+are removed, so that paranoiacs, periodical lunatics, epileptics,
+hysterics, congenital criminals, congenital paupers, or other degenerates
+result. This influence is most strongly exerted when the maternal ancestor
+is the one affected, for to her is committed the development of the ovum
+prior to conception and of the child subsequently. If either is interfered
+with by a habit, a being defective in some respects is the result. The
+direct inheritance of the opium habit has been shown experimentally by
+Levenstein, who found by experiments on pregnant dogs and rabbits that the
+use of opium during pregnancy produced either abortion or still-births, or
+rapidly dying offspring.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>In a similar manner
+Rennert<a name="fna_87_87" id="fna_87_87"></a><a href="#fn_87_87"><small>[87]</small></a> has shown that lead-poisoning occurring in
+the mother is apt to produce macrocephalism with frequent idiocy in the child.</p>
+
+<p>This brings the observer face to face with the problem of morbid heredity.
+It may at once be admitted that, as has been claimed by a large number of
+observers, morbid heredity, especially in its graver forms, is much less
+frequent than at first would be expected. J. P. Gray, of Utica, New York,
+went so far as to claim that disease is never transmitted, but this is
+contradicted by his own hospital reports, which, to the day of his death,
+contained a table headed, &#8220;Statistics of hereditary transmission of the
+disease.&#8221; It is true, however, that the descendants of a victim of
+morbidity or abnormality do not always exhibit the morbidity or
+abnormality of the ancestor. In some cases all apparent morbidity or
+abnormality is wanting. In other cases slighter abnormalities are to be
+detected. Here the observer is brought face to face with the operation of
+two general principles which are interdependent: the transmutation of
+heredity and atavism, or &#8220;throwing back&#8221; as the cattle breeders call it.
+Tennyson voices the general erroneous opinion of the always evil effects
+of atavism in his &#8220;Locksley Hall Sixty Years After&#8221;:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;Evolution ever climbing after some ideal good<br />
+And Reversion ever dragging Evolution in the mud.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>As Kiernan has shown, atavism at times tends to preserve the type, and
+offsets the influence of degeneracy. This element of atavism underlies not
+merely the production of the sound scions of degenerate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> stock, but also
+those in whom the degeneracy affects the earlier and not the later
+acquirements of the race. The contrast of the moral imbecile who is unable
+to acquire an idea of right, or the idiot of the lowest grade who can
+hardly be taught to keep himself clean, with the otherwise sound, sane,
+able victim of hereditary gout, is very great. Yet all the links of the
+chain connecting, in the same family, these contrasted types, can often be
+found. The law laid down as to absolute extinction through degeneracy by
+Morel and others can only be regarded as absolutely true when applied to a
+given type rather than the race as a whole. Indeed, environment may play a
+part in preserving a degenerate who would otherwise die out. Thus in
+societies at a certain stage of culture imbeciles, paupers, lunatics, and
+congenital criminals live at large and even propagate through legal
+marriage. The seemingly enormous increase of the defective class which
+occurs in frontier communities when the classes begin to be placed in
+public institutions is an excellent illustration of this.</p>
+
+<p>Manifestations of morbid heredity result not in inheritance of the whole
+defect but in disturbance of relations of structure and hence of function,
+producing, as Kiernan remarks, a constitutional deficiency which takes the
+line of least resistance. The extent and direction of this line of least
+resistance depend on the amount of healthy atavism which separate organs
+and structures of the body preserve. The line of least resistance
+sometimes taken is excellently illustrated in the occurrence of stigmata
+already pointed out in the case of epileptic guinea-pigs.</p>
+
+<p>This unilateral predisposition (which, as Kiernan has shown, is due
+usually to heredity or intra-uterine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> causes) may be artificially
+produced. Kasparek<a name="fna_88_88" id="fna_88_88"></a><a href="#fn_88_88"><small>[88]</small></a> cut one sciatic nerve of a guinea-pig and (after
+all inflammatory symptoms had subsided) injected the opposite ear with
+cultures of pus microbes. He killed the animal after some days. The sound
+side was found free from suppuration, but immense abscesses existed on the
+side of the cut nerve. Such local predisposition was pointed out by
+Merrill<a name="fna_89_89" id="fna_89_89"></a><a href="#fn_89_89"><small>[89]</small></a> over forty years ago. This condition occurs, as F&eacute;r&eacute; has
+shown,<a name="fna_90_90" id="fna_90_90"></a><a href="#fn_90_90"><small>[90]</small></a> in many systemic and infectious diseases which presents a
+localisation due to heredity, or determined by anterior morbid state of
+the nervous symptom. Sometimes these manifestations are limited to the
+side free from nervous trouble.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule they attack the side which is the predominant seat of nervous
+symptoms. F&eacute;r&eacute; points out that in chromatic iris asymmetry the iris
+(coloured part of the eye) is most coloured on the side most affected by
+arrest of development. Localisation of nervous trouble occurs on the side
+most affected by hare-lip. Heuse has observed the co-existence on the same
+side of congenital cataract and of deformities of the skull and chest.</p>
+
+<p>Hernia is often an expression of hereditary defect (Le Double) taking the
+unilateral line of least resistance. Testicle inflammations of microbic
+origin (venereal or otherwise) occur as a rule on the side where hernia is
+located in the groin. In one-sided malformations of ovary or testicle
+(decreased or increased in size, or changed in shape or location) microbe
+inflammation almost always occurs at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> seat of the anomaly. This
+principle is illustrated in the experiments of Dupuy.<a name="fna_91_91" id="fna_91_91"></a><a href="#fn_91_91"><small>[91]</small></a> Here, while as a
+rule, the scions of guinea-pigs (rendered epileptic by section of the
+sciatic nerve) were epileptics and had deficient toes, still in some
+epilepsy resulted without the toe anomaly, while still more rarely the toe
+anomaly was present without the epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>The same principle is shown by certain observations of Charin and
+Gley,<a name="fna_92_92" id="fna_92_92"></a><a href="#fn_92_92"><small>[92]</small></a> who for five years conducted experiments calculated to throw
+light on the influence on the offspring of parental reception of virus.
+Either both male and female have been inoculated with the bacillus of blue
+pus or its toxins, or but one animal has been inoculated. The results have
+not been uniform. Most frequently there ensues sterility, abortion, or
+birth of progeny that die immediately. In rare instances the offspring
+survive; more rarely still are they healthy. Certain rabbits (born of
+these undeveloped animals) were provided with enormous epiphyses (ends of
+bones), the shafts of the bones being shortened. Two rabbits were born of
+a couple of which the male alone received inoculations of sterilised
+culture. Five rabbits were born of these two, of which two were normal,
+and a third (whose ears were rudimentary) died in a few days. In the
+remaining two the ears comprised only fragments with jagged upper edges.
+The tails were but two centimetres long. The external orifice of the
+vagina (one rabbit was a male and the other a female) was oblique. One of
+the limbs (the hind in the male and the fore in the female) was much
+shorter than its fellow, the difference being four centimetres. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+shortened limb ended in a kind of stump, there being no foot or toes.</p>
+
+<p>These experiments illustrate the transformation of heredity, that is the
+manifestations which show the line of least resistance that the morbid
+heredity has taken. As Moreau (de Tours) remarks,<a name="fna_93_93" id="fna_93_93"></a><a href="#fn_93_93"><small>[93]</small></a> &#8220;An incorrect
+conception of the law of heredity looks for identical phenomena in each
+succeeding generation. Some have refused to admit that mental faculties
+were subject to heredity, because the mental characters of the descendants
+were not precisely those of the progenitors. Each generation must copy the
+preceding. Father and son must present the spectacle of one being, having
+two births, and each time leading the same life, under the same
+conditions. But it is not in the heredity of functions, or of organic or
+intellectual facts that the application of the law of heredity must be
+sought, but at the very fountain-head of the organism, in its inmost
+constitution. A family whose head is insane or epileptic does not of
+necessity consist of lunatics or epileptics, but the children may be
+idiotic, paralytic, or scrofulous. What the parents transmit to the
+children is not insanity, but a vicious constitution which will manifest
+itself under various forms in epilepsy, hysteria, scrofula, rickets, &amp;c.
+This is what is to be understood by hereditary transmission.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The same position has been taken by Rush,<a name="fna_94_94" id="fna_94_94"></a><a href="#fn_94_94"><small>[94]</small></a> the pioneer American
+alienist; by Maudsley,<a name="fna_95_95" id="fna_95_95"></a><a href="#fn_95_95"><small>[95]</small></a>
+by Krafft-Ebing,<a name="fna_96_96" id="fna_96_96"></a><a href="#fn_96_96"><small>[96]</small></a> by Meynert, by Mercier, by
+F&eacute;r&eacute;,<a name="fna_97_97" id="fna_97_97"></a><a href="#fn_97_97"><small>[97]</small></a>
+and others. Morel,<a name="fna_98_98" id="fna_98_98"></a><a href="#fn_98_98"><small>[98]</small></a>
+the chief accepted apostle of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+doctrine of degeneracy, remarked, nearly at the same time as Moreau, that
+&#8220;heredity does not mean the very disorder of the parents transmitted to
+the children with the identical mental and physical symptoms observed in
+the progenitors, but means transmission of organic disposition from
+parents to children. Alienists have, perhaps, more frequent occasion than
+others for observing not merely this hereditary transmission, but likewise
+various transformations which occur in the descendants. They are aware
+that simple neuropathy (nervous tendency) of the parents may produce in
+the children an organic disposition resulting in mania or melancholia,
+nervous affections which in turn may produce more serious degeneracy and
+terminate in the idiocy or imbecility of those who form the last link in
+the chain of hereditary transmission.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>What is true of the organism as a whole is true of the cells forming its
+organs. It should be remembered that while cell life is altruistic or
+subordinated to the life of the organ, through the law of economy of
+growth, recognised by Aristotle, and through it to the life of the
+organism as a whole, altruism is not complete enough to prevent entirely a
+struggle for existence on the part of the cells or the individual organs.
+With rise in evolution this struggle decreases, to increase with the
+opposite procedure of degeneracy. From it results the phenomenon of
+arrested and excessive development.</p>
+
+<p>As Dareste has shown (and the fact has been corroborated by Spitzka<a name="fna_99_99" id="fna_99_99"></a><a href="#fn_99_99"><small>[99]</small></a>),
+embryologists can imitate natural malformation of the nerve centres by
+artificial methods. By wounding the embryonic and vascular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> areas of the
+chick&#8217;s germ with a cataract needle, malformations are induced, varying in
+intensity and character with the earliness of the injury and its precise
+extent. More delicate injuries produce less monstrous development. Partial
+varnishing or irregular heating of the egg-shell, in particular, results
+in anomalies comparable to microcephaly (little head) and cerebral
+asymmetry. This latter fact (showing the constancy of the injurious effect
+of so apparently slight an impression as the partial varnishing of a
+structure not connected with the embryo at all directly) suggests the line
+of research to be followed in determining the source of the maternal and
+other impressions acting on the germ. What delicate problems are to be
+solved in this connection may be inferred from the fact that eggs
+subjected to the vibration and shocks of a railroad journey are checked in
+development for several days, or permanently arrested. A more delicate
+molecular shock during the maturation of the ovum, during its
+fertilisation, or finally during embryonic stages of the more complex, and
+therefore more readily disturbed and distorted human germ, accounts for
+the disastrous effect of insanity, emotion, or other mental or physical
+shock of the parent on the offspring. The cause of the majority of
+cerebral deformities exists in the germ prior to the appearance of the
+separate organs of the body. Artificial deformities produce analogous
+results because they imitate original germ defects, either by mechanical
+removal, or by some other interference with a special part of the germ.
+Early involvement of the germ is shown by the fact that the somatic
+malformations of the hereditary forms of insanity often involve the body
+elsewhere than in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> nervous axis. The stigmata of heredity&mdash;defective
+development of the uro-genital system, deformities of the face and skull,
+irregular development of the teeth, misshapen ears and limbs&mdash;owe their
+grave significance to this fact. Like deformities of the brain, these
+anomalies are also more marked and constant with the lower forms of the
+hereditarily based systematised perversions of the mind than the higher.
+It is easy from these results to understand how far and how the nervous
+system has its part in the disorders of general development. It can be
+easily understood how the individuals who present most deformities are
+equally those who suffer from most decided disorders of the nervous
+system.</p>
+
+<p>These morbid manifestations of heredity occur in certain categories,
+either local as to organs or structures, or affecting the body as a whole.
+These categories Moreau (de Tours) lucidly sums up as: First, absence of
+conception; second, retardation of conception; third, imperfect
+conception; fourth, incomplete products (monstrosities); fifth, products
+whose mental, moral, and physical constitution is imperfect; sixth,
+products specially exposed to nervous disorders in order of frequency as
+follows&mdash;epilepsy, imbecility or idiocy, deaf-mutism, insanity, cerebral
+paralysis, and other cerebral disorders; seventh, lymphatic products;
+eighth, products which die in infancy in a greater proportion than sound
+infants under like conditions; ninth, products which, although they escape
+the stress of infancy, are less adapted than others to resist disease and
+death.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of these morbid manifestations lies in the very
+foundations of embryology. Bearing in mind the principles of individuation
+pointed out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> by Spencer, it is easily understood how reversal of this
+principle would produce greater and greater destruction of the complex
+functions, resultant on increased reproductive power of cells (whose
+environment is not suited to such reproductions) and thus lead to such a
+struggle for existence as to produce sterility (from interdestruction of
+the ovum cells, or the cells forming the spermatozoon). This condition is
+further increased by the operation of two biologic principles. The first
+relates to the cells or organs forming an organism. The second, as Von
+Baer has shown, deals with the relation of the organs to each other.</p>
+
+<p>Vertebrate embryos of a common type, at their origin, assume successively
+a number of common forms before definitely differentiating. Dareste points
+out that supernumerary organs do exist in these common forms at one phase
+of embryonic life. This community of embryonic types and this last fact
+explain repetition of teratologic types or monstrosities in vertebrates.
+This community of origin, moreover, indicates that a higher vertebrate
+embryo contains in essence the organs and potentialities of lower
+vertebrates, and that under the influence of heredity or accidental defect
+an organ belonging to another species may develop, or an organ constant in
+a species may be lacking in an individual, without the necessity of
+explaining the immediate effects by distant atavism. Some anomalies found
+among degenerates recall types less elevated than man, and very distant
+from him, even his possible Lemurian precursor.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious from the principles already demonstrated that the secondary
+effects of infectious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> disorders and injuries are reproduced in various
+types in the offspring. The malformations of the limbs experimentally
+demonstrated to be due to ancestral infection by Charin and Gley, and to
+injury by Dupuy, noticeably occur in men. Moor has observed supernumerary
+fingers in an imbecile girl; her grandfather and one uncle are
+polydactylous and insane. F. S. Coolidge has had under observation a case
+which excellently depicts these deformities in men. Kiernan<a name="fna_100_100" id="fna_100_100"></a><a href="#fn_100_100"><small>[100]</small></a> reports
+the case of a man whose grandfather and father had been prophets of the
+Lord, as shown by the fact that on one side of the body they had six toes
+and six fingers, and the two sides of the body were unequal, the
+six-fingered one being smaller than the other. This father and grandfather
+were highly regarded in a secluded vale in Norway as religious teachers
+and for their power to cure disease by charm. The father had ten children,
+of whom three were born dead and six died in infancy. Kiernan&#8217;s patient
+was the only survivor of this family. During boyhood he experienced
+various persecutions, some by unseen agencies, some on the part of the
+villagers, who towards the end of his father&#8217;s life also persecuted the
+father. These persecutions seem to have been withdrawal by the peasants of
+their belief in the father&#8217;s ability to charm sickness out of cattle,
+evidently due to growing popular intelligence. This was regarded by the
+father as the result of persecution by the devil, who was desirous of
+trying him as Job was tried. It was revealed to him that his son should
+likewise suffer persecution, which would also be the work of the devil.
+The son heard unseen persons, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> pointed him out in school as the son of
+the sham wizard. In consequence he was avoided by all his schoolmates
+except the members of one family who still retained their belief in the
+father&#8217;s supernatural powers. Into this family the son married; then,
+pressed by his unseen persecutors, he came to the United States. Here he
+worked at his trade as a carpenter, and had no return of any persecutory
+delusions, although he still believed he was a prophet. On admission to
+the insane hospital, twenty years after his arrival in the United States,
+he was found to have such a decidedly asymmetrical body that suspicions of
+general hemiatrophy were excited, but the condition was found to be
+congenital. The hand and foot of the seemingly atrophic side had six
+fingers and toes. The man had been sent to the insane hospital in
+consequence of an altercation with a neighbour who was clearly in the
+wrong; but both being arrested, the patient&#8217;s <i>amour propre</i> was aroused
+and he declared his prophetship, which led to his trial and commitment as
+a lunatic. His wife, who applied for his discharge, was also a paranoiac.
+They had had ten children, of whom three were still living at the ages of
+six, eight, and ten. Two of these were six-toed and six-fingered
+unilaterally, and one of them, a boy, had the peculiar general asymmetry
+of the father. The third child was seemingly normal.</p>
+
+<p>The experimental results of Charin and Gley, on the degeneration produced
+in offspring by ancestral microbic infection, tend to show that not merely
+are the extremities affected, but in certain cases the whole organism,
+along lines laid down by Moreau&#8217;s categories. This is demonstrated by
+study of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> degeneracy stigmata of phthisical families. Alex. James,
+Ricochon,<a name="fna_101_101" id="fna_101_101"></a><a href="#fn_101_101"><small>[101]</small></a>
+C. E. Paddock,<a name="fna_102_102" id="fna_102_102"></a><a href="#fn_102_102"><small>[102]</small></a> and others have shown that (in addition
+to the ordinary stigmata) the biologic stigmata of degeneracy (such as
+plural and quickly repeated births) are frequent among phthisical
+families. The same phenomena often occur in families whose scions are
+attacked with diabetes, obesity, articular rheumatism, cancer and gout. De
+Giovanni<a name="fna_103_103" id="fna_103_103"></a><a href="#fn_103_103"><small>[103]</small></a> finds that particular nervous states exist in those
+predisposed to tuberculosis, whom he divides into erethists (restless),
+torpids, and energetics. There is a diminutive heart, whose right
+ventricle has comparatively exaggerated dimensions, while the arteries
+have lessened calibre.</p>
+
+<p>A family illustrating excellently the transmutation of morbid heredity is
+one followed through five generations by Kiernan.<a name="fna_104_104" id="fna_104_104"></a><a href="#fn_104_104"><small>[104]</small></a> A farmer lived
+twenty miles distant from his nearest neighbour, whose only child he
+married. The daughter had led a lonely life till her courtship at the age
+of 28 by the farmer, then three years younger. The farmer married her for
+$300, after having impregnated her. He then found lead on his farm and
+went to a city. A stock-company bought his farm and launched him into the
+stock market, where he made money more as a cunning tool than an
+adventurer. He became a high liver, gouty and dyspeptic, and died with
+symptoms of gouty kidney at 70. The couple had five children. The eldest,
+a son, became a &#8220;Napoleon of Finance,&#8221; but, inheriting his father&#8217;s
+cunning, died wealthy and within the pale of the law. He married a society
+woman, the last scion of an old family. The second<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> child, a daughter, was
+club-footed and early suffered from gouty tophi. She married a society man
+of old family who had cleft palate. The third child, a daughter, had
+congenital squint. She married a man who suffered from migraine of a
+periodical type. The fourth child, a daughter, was normal. She married a
+thirty-year-old active business man, in whom ataxia developed a year after
+marriage. The fifth child, a son, was ataxic at eighteen. The children of
+the &#8220;Napoleon of Finance&#8221; and the society woman were an imbecile son, a
+nymphomaniac, a hysteric, a female epileptic who had a double uterus, and
+a son who wrote verses and was a society man. The cleft-palated society
+man and club-footed woman had triplets born dead and a squinting,
+migrainous son who, left penniless by his parents, married his cousin the
+nymphomaniac daughter of the &#8220;Napoleon of Finance,&#8221; after being detected
+in an intrigue with her. The migrainous man and squinting daughter of the
+farmer stockbroker had a sexually inverted masculine daughter, a daughter
+subject to periodical bleeding at the nose irrespective of menstruation,
+as well as chorea during childhood, a normal daughter, a deaf-mute
+phthisical son, a daughter with cloacal formation of the perineum, an
+ameliac son, a cyclopian daughter (with one central eye) born dead, and,
+finally, a normal son. The sexual invert married the versifier son of the
+&#8220;Napoleon of Finance.&#8221; The progeny of the normal daughter of the farmer
+stockbroker and the ataxic husband were a dead-born, sarcomatous son, a
+gouty son, twin boys paralysed in infancy, twin girls normal, a normal
+son, and a son ataxic at fourteen. The progeny of the nymphomaniac
+daughter and her strabismic, migrainous cousin were a ne&#8217;er-do-well,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> a
+periodical lunatic, a dipsomaniac daughter who died of cancer of the
+stomach, deformed triplets who died at birth, an epileptic imbecile son, a
+hermaphrodite, a prostitute, a double monster born dead, a normal
+daughter, and a paranoiac son. The ne&#8217;er-do-well married his nose-bleeding
+cousin. The gouty son of the farmer&#8217;s normal daughter married the hysteric
+daughter of the &#8220;Napoleon of Finance.&#8221; They had a son born with such
+general asymmetry as to seem hemiatrophic, a prostitute, dead triplets, a
+male sexual invert, a colour-blind daughter, and a normal son. The
+colour-blind daughter married the paranoiac grandson of the &#8220;Napoleon of
+Finance.&#8221; The progeny of the sexual invert and the versifier, who were
+soon divorced, were a daughter with periodical nymphomania, who had some
+artistic and literary ability, and a son who died of gastric cancer. The
+scions of the ne&#8217;er-do-well and his nose-bleeding cousin were a moral
+imbecile, a &#8220;bleeder,&#8221; a stammering daughter who had an uvular deformity,
+a deaf-mute with undescended testicle, dead-born triplets, an infantile
+paralytic son, and dead-born quadruplets. The progeny of the paranoiac and
+his colour-blind cousin were an exophthalmic daughter, an epileptic with
+undescended testicle, a cleft-palated imbecile with a cloaca, dead-born
+quadruplets, an idiot boy, and a &#8220;bleeder.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Doutrebente reports the following family history: First generation: Father
+intelligent, became melancholic, and died insane. Mother nervous and
+emotional. Second generation: Ten children; three died in childhood, seven
+reach maturity as follows: Daughter A, melancholiac; daughter B, insane at
+twenty; daughter C, imbecile; daughter D, a suicide; son E,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> imbecile; son
+F, melancholic; son G, a melancholic. Third generation: A has ten
+children; five die in childhood, one is deformed, one has fits of
+insanity, one is eccentric and extravagant, two are intelligent and marry,
+but are childless. B leaves no issue. C has one child, a deformed
+imbecile. D has three children; one is an imbecile, one dies of apoplexy
+at twenty-three, and the third is an artist described as &#8220;extravagant.&#8221; E
+has two children; one dies insane, the other disappears and is supposed to
+have committed suicide. F is childless. G has one child, who is
+imbecile.<a name="fna_105_105" id="fna_105_105"></a><a href="#fn_105_105"><small>[105]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>Strahan<a name="fna_106_106" id="fna_106_106"></a><a href="#fn_106_106"><small>[106]</small></a> gives a genealogy which shows very clearly the close kinship
+existing between the cancerous diathesis and other forms of constitutional
+degeneration whose outward manifestations are infantile convulsions,
+suicide, epilepsy, insanity, lymphatism, and sterility. The father of this
+family died of stomach cancer at sixty. He had a brother who cut his
+throat at fifty-six; the mother, an apparently healthy woman, died of a
+fit, at the age of fifty-four. To this pair seven children were born: 1. A
+son who died of stomach cancer at fifty-eight. 2. A son who died in
+convulsions at thirteen weeks. 3, 4, and 5. Three daughters who died of
+phthisis, one at sixteen, the other two later in life, and after being
+married for many years; none left any issue. 6. A son who is epileptic,
+and has twice been confined in lunatic asylums; married, but no issue. 7.
+A son who is sane, and enjoying fair health. Here the taint in the mother
+appears to have been slight; still, it was there, and while certainly
+preventing reversion, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> doubtless deepened the degeneration of the
+father in the children. In the father&#8217;s stock the taint was much deeper.
+While it was exhibited as cancer in him, it took the form of suicidal
+impulse in his brother. In the children of this pair the disease of the
+father is transmitted to the eldest son; but can it be denied, Strahan
+asks, that the infantile convulsions, the liability to tubercular disease,
+the epilepsy, the insanity, and the marked sterility were but the varying
+evidences of the degenerate nature, inherited from a father who might have
+died earlier of some acute disease, taking the secret of his nature with
+him?</p>
+
+<p>The value of the principle of atavism in off-setting degeneracy is nowhere
+better illustrated than in the history of famous families of degenerates
+like those of the Binswangers, of &#8220;Margaret,&#8221; of the Jukes, as well as
+those reported in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and the Scandinavian
+countries. The Rougon-Macquart family of Zola (which had its actual
+prototype in the Kerangal family described by Aubry<a name="fna_107_107" id="fna_107_107"></a><a href="#fn_107_107"><small>[107]</small></a>) had, like these,
+several scions in whom former normality regained its power through
+atavism. Sometimes this atavism is not shown to any greater extent than a
+slight modification of the abnormality or morbidity.</p>
+
+<p>Telegony, the so-called and much-debated heredity of influence, whereby
+the children of a second marriage resemble the first husband, may be
+explained by a biologic principle demonstrable in the lower animals,
+whereby conjugation not sufficient to fecundate ova is sufficient so to
+impress them that when finally fecundated they bear characteristics of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> first conjugation. Its part in either normal or degenerate heredity
+is but slight. Some instances charged to it might be attributed to mental
+impression on the mother.</p>
+
+<p>Luys<a name="fna_108_108" id="fna_108_108"></a><a href="#fn_108_108"><small>[108]</small></a> excellently sums up the whole question of heredity when he
+remarks: &#8220;Heredity governs all the phenomena of degeneracy with the same
+results and the same energy as it controls moral and physical resemblances
+in the offspring. The individual who comes into the world is not an
+isolated being separated from his kindred. He is one link in a long chain
+which is unrolled by time, and of which the first links are lost in the
+past. He is bound to those who follow him, and to the atavic influences
+which he possesses; he serves for their temporary resting-place, and he
+transmits them to his descendants. If he come from a race well endowed and
+well formed, he possesses the characters of organisation which his
+ancestors have given him. He is ready for the combat of life, and to
+pursue his way by his own virtues and energies. But inversely, if he
+spring from a stock which is already marked with an hereditary blemish,
+and in which the development of the nervous system is incomplete, he comes
+into existence with a badly balanced organisation; and his natural
+defects, existing as germs, and in a measure latent, are ready to be
+developed when some accidental cause arises to start them into activity.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Consanguineous and Neurotic Intermarriage</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Byron</span> has
+sung<a name="fna_109_109" id="fna_109_109"></a><a href="#fn_109_109"><small>[109]</small></a> of the old popular belief in the advantages of
+cross-breeding, which arose originally in the practice of exogamy
+(marriage outside the tribe), or, more often, outside those having the
+same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> totem, or coat-of-arms. In all probability casual observation of
+deformities after intermarriage enforced the prohibition which arose after
+the killing of female children had led to exogamy. Totemic relationship
+was often far from being consanguineous. The idea of incest is, as Byron&#8217;s
+stanza denotes, of religious origin rather than innate.<a name="fna_110_110" id="fna_110_110"></a><a href="#fn_110_110"><small>[110]</small></a> Its criminal
+nature is often removed by priestly dispensation in Latin countries. From
+this practice sprang the medical, theologic, and legal notions to which D.
+H. Tuke<a name="fna_111_111" id="fna_111_111"></a><a href="#fn_111_111"><small>[111]</small></a> thus refers: &#8220;The danger arising from marriages of
+consanguinity has been insisted upon from time to time by medical writers,
+and has been recognised by ecclesiastical authority, civil law, and by
+popular feeling. As regards ecclesiastical and civil law, it would be more
+correct to say that the marriage of those very nearly related has been
+forbidden on other grounds than that of the alleged danger to mental
+health. At the same time the justice of such laws receives support if
+medical observation leads to the conclusion that consanguineous marriages
+tend to generate idiocy and insanity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The biologic evidence from the experiments of Maupas on parthenogenesis,
+elsewhere cited, is seemingly supported by the results of animals breeding
+in-and-in. The evidence advanced against such marriages seems at first
+sight exceedingly strong from a biologic standpoint in man.</p>
+
+<p>Rilliet<a name="fna_112_112" id="fna_112_112"></a><a href="#fn_112_112"><small>[112]</small></a> cites cases tending to show that consanguineous marriages, in
+themselves pernicious, tend with certainty to lower vital force. The
+effects he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> divides into two categories; those which relate to the
+parents, under which head are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Failure of conception.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Retardation of conception.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Imperfect conception.</p></div>
+
+<p>Those which relate to the progeny:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Imperfections of various kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Monstrosities.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Imperfect physical and mental organisation.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Tendency to diseases of the nervous system, such as epilepsy,
+imbecility, idiocy, deaf-mutism, paralysis, and various cerebral affections.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Tendency to strumous diseases.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> Tending to die young.</p>
+
+<p><i>g.</i> Tendency to succumb to disease which others would easily resist.</p></div>
+
+<p>C. H. S. Davis,<a name="fna_113_113" id="fna_113_113"></a><a href="#fn_113_113"><small>[113]</small></a> of Meriden, Connecticut, states that intermarriages
+in families lead to a degeneration that manifests itself in deaf-mutism,
+albinism, and idiocy. Isaac Ray<a name="fna_114_114" id="fna_114_114"></a><a href="#fn_114_114"><small>[114]</small></a> is of the opinion that consanguineous
+marriages repeated through successive generations account for the numerous
+instances of insanity and idiocy occurring in quiet rural populations of
+New England, far from the excitements of city life, which are generally
+supposed to be more productive of mental unsoundness.</p>
+
+<p>S. M. Bemiss,<a name="fna_115_115" id="fna_115_115"></a><a href="#fn_115_115"><small>[115]</small></a> of New Orleans, Louisiana, giving a report of the
+condition of the offspring of 580 intermarriages of first cousins,
+gathered mostly by medical men from nearly every State in the Union, says:
+2,778 children were born of these cousins, of whom 793 were defective, 117
+deaf and dumb, 63 blind, 231 idiotic, 24 insane, 44 epileptic, 189
+scrofulous, 53 deformed, and 637 died early.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>While these figures seem very demonstrative, they contain a great many
+elements of error. One of these is incidentally pointed out by Arthur
+Mitchell,<a name="fna_116_116" id="fna_116_116"></a><a href="#fn_116_116"><small>[116]</small></a> who finds that under favourable conditions of life the
+apparent ill effects of consanguineous marriages are frequently almost
+nil, whilst if the children are ill-fed, badly housed and clothed, the
+evil may become very marked. He calculates that the percentage of
+consanguineous marriages generally in Scotland is 1&middot;3, or ten times less
+than with the parents of idiots. Taking his figures a strong case seems to
+be made out in support of the opinion that idiocy, among other evils,
+results from intermarriage. Langdon Down, although his figures are not of
+so unfavourable a character, admits consanguinity as one of the causes of
+deterioration.</p>
+
+<p>George H. Darwin concluded from a careful investigation that about 4 per
+cent. of all marriages in England are between first cousins, and between 2
+and 3 per cent. in the smaller towns and in the country; with these he
+compared the rate of similar marriages among the parents of lunatics and
+idiots in asylums, and found it to be about 3 or 4 per cent.&mdash;not higher,
+therefore, than in the general population.</p>
+
+<p>Huth<a name="fna_117_117" id="fna_117_117"></a><a href="#fn_117_117"><small>[117]</small></a> cites instances occurring regularly at the present day among
+certain isolated communities (St. Kilda, Pitcairn, and Iceland) without
+apparent evil consequences to the race. Such marriages were common among
+the North American Indians and the South Sea Islanders, people among whom
+idiocy and other degenerate hereditary conditions were remarkably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> rare.
+These cases, Strahan remarks, deal with peculiarly healthy communities.
+Therein lies the secret of such intermarriage proving innocent of evil to
+the offspring. Were such intermarriage common among the degenerates the
+result would be disastrous.</p>
+
+<p>In 1869 the New York State Medical Society<a name="fna_118_118" id="fna_118_118"></a><a href="#fn_118_118"><small>[118]</small></a> appointed a committee to
+investigate the influence of consanguineous marriages upon the offspring.
+Their results show clearly that if the family be free from degenerate
+taint, marriage among its members in no way diminishes the chances of
+healthy offspring. This conclusion is in accord with the findings of
+recent investigators like Anstie, George Darwin, and A. H. Huth, according
+to whom there is no greater amount of morbidity or abnormality among the
+offspring of consanguineous parents than among the children of parents not
+so related, provided the parents be equally free from tendency to disease
+or degeneration. With a perfectly healthy stock, as every breeder of
+animals knows, remarks Strahan,<a name="fna_119_119" id="fna_119_119"></a><a href="#fn_119_119"><small>[119]</small></a> &#8220;in-and-in breeding&#8221; may be practised
+with impunity, but where the stock is tainted with disease or
+imperfection, safety is only to be found in &#8220;crossing.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Where the error lay in the old doctrine, upon which was founded the
+prohibition of consanguineous unions, was not, as Strahan remarks, in
+asserting that disease and deformity were more often met with in children
+of these than in those of other unions, for such is true, but attributing
+these unhappy results to the mere fact that the parents were related by
+blood. Over and above the fact that these consanguineous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> marriages are
+almost certain to transmit in an accentuated form any defect or tendency
+to disease already present in the family, there is no physiological reason
+why such marriages should not take place. Breeders of prize stock
+frequently breed &#8220;in and in,&#8221; not only with impunity, but with marked
+benefit. But this fact, while going to prove that it is not the mere blood
+relationship of the parents which induces the degeneration so often found
+in the children of consanguineous marriages, can but rarely be advanced as
+an argument in support of the marriage of blood relations. The
+stock-raiser only permits the more perfect members of his flocks and herds
+to continue their kind, and for this reason the &#8220;in-and-in&#8221; breeding is
+innocuous, just as it would be in the human family under like conditions.
+But where shall we find the perfect human family? Such families are
+certainly rare. The laws of natural life have been so strained and
+perverted that almost every family nowadays has a taint or twist of some
+kind, and as all such imperfections are transmitted and rapidly deepened
+and fixed in the family by the intermarriage of its members, it is best
+that such unions should be forbidden.</p>
+
+<p>Recently acquired characters, whether physiologic or pathologic, are very
+liable to disappear when the individual bearing such characters
+intermarries with another not having the same character. The natural
+tendency in all such cases is to revert in the offspring to the normal or
+healthy type, so that unless the new character be very deeply impressed
+upon the parental organism it is almost certain it will not appear in the
+offspring, if the other parents have nothing of the character. But when
+both parents are possessed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> the character, whether it be physiologic or
+pathologic, this natural tendency to revert to the original is often
+overborne and the character is repeated in an accentuated form in the
+offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Now this accentuation of all family characters is what must always happen
+in the case of consanguineous marriages. If there be any taint in the
+family each member of the family will have inherited more or less of it
+from the common ancestor. Take the case of cousins, the descendants of a
+common grandparent who was insane and of an insane stock. Here the cousins
+are certain to have inherited more or less of the insane diathesis. Even
+if the taint has been largely diluted in their case by the wise, or, more
+likely, fortunate marriages of their blood-related parents, yet will they
+have inherited a certain tendency to nervous disease, and if they marry
+they must not be surprised if that taint appears in an aggravated form in
+their children. Some of the children of such parents are generally
+idiotic, epileptic, dumb, or lymphatic, and the parents marvel whence came
+the imperfection. It may be in some cases that the parents, and possibly
+the grandparent, of the unfortunate children, have not up till that time
+displayed any outward evidence of the tendency to disease which they have
+inherited and handed on to their descendants; and, not looking farther
+back, the parents boldly assert that such a thing as insanity, epilepsy,
+scrofula, &amp;c., is unknown to their family. They themselves have never been
+insane; why, then, should their children? In like manner children may be
+epileptic, blind, deaf-mute, lymphatic, cancerous, criminal, drunkards, or
+deformed from direct inheritance, and yet the family line be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> honestly
+declared to be healthy. Hence the truth of Sir William Aitken&#8217;s maxim,
+that &#8220;a family history including less than three generations is useless
+and may even be misleading.&#8221; From the foregoing it is evident that the
+similarity of temperament induced by a common environment, and which
+Strahan would call &#8220;social consanguinity,&#8221; must be a potent factor in the
+production of all hereditary degenerations. Living under similar customs,
+habits and surroundings, labouring at the same occupation, indulging in
+the same dissipation, tend to engender like diseases and degenerations,
+irrespective of any blood relationship. Hence it not seldom happens that
+persons not even distantly related by blood are, in reality, much more
+nearly related in temperament than cousins, or even nearer blood relations
+who have experienced widely different modes of life. This &#8220;social
+consanguinity&#8221; is the great curse which dogs every exclusive tribe and
+class, and hurries them to extinction. It has largely aided real or family
+consanguinity in the production of the diseases and degenerations which
+have so heavily fallen upon the aristocracies and royal families of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>A crucial test of the opposing positions taken respectively in such a
+positive manner by Bemiss and Strahan would be a family intermarrying
+extensively, but placed under favouring conditions unlikely of themselves
+to create degeneracy. Excellent cases of this kind are furnished by
+Bourgeois<a name="fna_120_120" id="fna_120_120"></a><a href="#fn_120_120"><small>[120]</small></a>
+and Thi&eacute;bault.<a name="fna_121_121" id="fna_121_121"></a><a href="#fn_121_121"><small>[121]</small></a> Bourgeois gives the history of his own
+family, which was the issue of a union of the third degree of
+consanguinity. During the ensuing 160 years there were ninety-one
+marriages, of which sixteen were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> consanguineous. All of these latter were
+productive. There was not a single case of malformation, or other physical
+or mental disease in the offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Thi&eacute;bault reports the case of a slave-dealer who died in the year 1849 at
+Whidah, Dahomey, leaving behind him four hundred disconsolate widows, and
+about one hundred children. By the order of the king the whole family were
+interned in a particular district, where reigned the most complete
+promiscuity. In 1863 there were children of the third generation.
+Thi&eacute;bault, after verifying these facts, states that at that time, although
+these people were born from all degrees of incestuous unions, there was
+not a single instance of deaf-mutism, albinism, blindness, cretinism, or
+other congenital malformation. From these cases it is evident that the
+position of Strahan is not too strongly taken.</p>
+
+<p>While it is true that &#8220;like clings to like,&#8221; still this does not imply
+kinship, but it very often implies likeness in mental characteristics.
+This tendency has been shown to be present in the neurotic by
+Roller,<a name="fna_122_122" id="fna_122_122"></a><a href="#fn_122_122"><small>[122]</small></a>
+De Monteyel,<a name="fna_123_123" id="fna_123_123"></a><a href="#fn_123_123"><small>[123]</small></a>
+Kiernan,<a name="fna_124_124" id="fna_124_124"></a><a href="#fn_124_124"><small>[124]</small></a>
+Bannister,<a name="fna_125_125" id="fna_125_125"></a><a href="#fn_125_125"><small>[125]</small></a>
+and Manning,<a name="fna_126_126" id="fna_126_126"></a><a href="#fn_126_126"><small>[126]</small></a> so far
+as Germany, France, the United States, and Australia are concerned.
+Bannister puts the statistical proof of this tendency very forcibly as
+follows: &#8220;There are in Illinois, according to the most recent estimates,
+in round numbers, about 6,000 insane, or one to a little over 500 of the
+population. Even if we double, treble, or quadruple this frequency to
+include all that have been or are to be insane, as well as those insane at
+the present time, it would not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> appear that there was much probability of
+two insane persons being married according to any ordinary law of chances.
+In fact, we find four out of the 104 with insane heredity had both father
+and mother insane. In one of these cases the insane heredity involved both
+parents and both grandparents on each side, though in the case of the
+latter the histories show it only as collateral. Besides these, three
+patients had direct paternal and collateral maternal heredity; two had
+direct maternal and collateral paternal heredity, and in one case there
+was collateral heredity of insanity on both sides. This makes altogether
+nearly 10 per cent. of those with insane heredity with it on both sides,
+maternal and paternal, and thus favoured with a double opportunity to
+inherit mental disease. If we add to this the instances where, with
+insanity of one parent, there is reported either epilepsy, hysteria, or
+drunkenness, &#8216;brain disease,&#8217; nervousness, &amp;c., of the other, the ratio of
+double inheritance rises to over 20 per cent.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The beneficial effects which may result from atavism are, it will be
+obvious, offset by this tendency of the neurotic to intermarry, thus
+perverting the principle of atavism to the assistance of degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>The age of the parent plays a part in degeneracy. Conger<a name="fna_127_127" id="fna_127_127"></a><a href="#fn_127_127"><small>[127]</small></a> (whose
+results have been corroborated by Joseph Workman, of Toronto, and
+Kiernan,<a name="fna_128_128" id="fna_128_128"></a><a href="#fn_128_128"><small>[128]</small></a> of Chicago) points out that in all degenerative forms we
+must take into consideration this factor, since it determines the
+development of degeneracy in childhood. Hereditary taint may be
+transmitted to descendants as a simple neuropathy, as a neurosis, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> as a
+defect of development reaching even to idiocy. Conger finds the prevailing
+age, especially the age of the mothers of degenerates, is often between
+twenty and twenty-five years, and that hence there exists a relation
+between this age and the greater transmission of degeneracy to the
+offspring. Marro, who has specially investigated the influence of the age
+of the parents, both in the normal population and among criminals,<a name="fna_129_129" id="fna_129_129"></a><a href="#fn_129_129"><small>[129]</small></a>
+finds that among all classes of criminals there is an excess of immature
+parents (under 26) or senile parents (over 40), and that only petty
+offenders possessed a normal number of mature parents (26 to 40 years). A
+man between 20 and 25 is in as favourable condition for procreating
+degenerates as the very aged. Because of incompleted organic development
+he has been unable to free himself from hereditary taint which he
+transmits to his descendants, but which in maturer age, through the
+influence of adaptation, evolution, or education, might perhaps be more or
+less notably modified.</p>
+
+<p>The organism between 20 and 25 is yet incomplete; education has not been
+able to exert much influence in determining those possible changes which
+are adapted to modify congenital tendencies. In a word, the individual
+between 20 and 25 feels too much the influence of atavic characters, and
+too readily transmits to his posterity the brands of degeneracy.
+Experience has made it well known that the children of the aged readily
+show degenerate types. Many children of old fathers have undoubtedly
+inherited all the characters of the weakness of the age in which they were
+
+begotten. Old age represents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> the period of retrogression, of involution,
+and hence readily transmits the mark of degeneracy. The children of either
+too young or too old parents, failing to escape hereditary predisposition,
+may from birth inherit those characters which are proper to incomplete
+organic development or to the period of involution.</p>
+
+<p>Kiernan has had under observation a Nova Scotian family of Scotch
+extraction, the mother of which continued to bear children until she was
+63 years old. There had been no pregnancy between 50 and 56. At 56 a son
+was born who had ear, jaw and skull stigmata, and became a periodical
+lunatic at 25. A son, born a year after, was a six-fingered idiot, with
+retinitis pigmentosa. (These last expressions of degeneracy are, as
+Darier<a name="fna_130_130" id="fna_130_130"></a><a href="#fn_130_130"><small>[130]</small></a> has shown, often associated. Darier&#8217;s cases had the following
+hereditary antecedents: One father had hemeralopia; one mother had
+defective vision; a grandfather was blind at 30; a grandfather was blind
+in one eye, and an uncle had congenital iris coloboma. Only one patient
+examined did not have hemeralopic descendants. Six patients examined
+belonged to five different families, all consisting of five or six
+children, one-third of whom had hemeralopia. Among thirty-five children
+there were eleven hemeralopes and two six-fingered children, who died too
+young to determine the existence of retinitis pigmentosa. The disease in
+all began in childhood, and hemeralopia was absent in but one case.) Three
+of the next children (two boys and a girl) became paralytic idiots in
+infancy. Here the degeneracy was expressed in that tendency to miliary
+aneurismal weakness of arteries to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+E. C. Spitzka,<a name="fna_131_131" id="fna_131_131"></a><a href="#fn_131_131"><small>[131]</small></a> called
+attention over a decade ago. One of the next children was a periodically
+sexual invert female. The last child was an epileptic. The children born
+before the age of fifty were normal and averaged 60 years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Matthews Duncan,<a name="fna_132_132" id="fna_132_132"></a><a href="#fn_132_132"><small>[132]</small></a> Arthur Mitchell, and Langdon Down, have called
+attention to the influence of premature and late marriage in the
+production of idiocy. Factors capable of producing idiocy are of course
+capable of producing less decided expressions of degeneracy.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Intermixture of Races</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Defoe,</span> in his <i>Trueborn Englishman</i>, outlines a factor of great importance
+in degeneracy.<a name="fna_133_133" id="fna_133_133"></a><a href="#fn_133_133"><small>[133]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> Race intermixture is much more common than is
+generally believed, owing to that ethnologic error consequent on the
+discovery of Sanscrit, which tests race by speech. Keane<a name="fna_134_134" id="fna_134_134"></a><a href="#fn_134_134"><small>[134]</small></a> excellently
+explodes this error by the following table:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center">Peoples.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">Race.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">Speech.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>English</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Teutonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Scotch</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Teutonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cornish</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Teutonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Irish (West)</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Keltic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Welsh</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Keltic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>French</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Ibero-Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Italic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spanish</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Ibero-Keltic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Italic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germans</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Slavo-Kelto-Teutonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Teutonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bohemians</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Kelto-Teuto-Slavonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Slavonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Russians (many)</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Finno-Slavonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Slavonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hungarians</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Ugro-Slavonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Slavonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bulgarians</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Ugro-Teuto-Slavonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Finnic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Prussians (East)</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Letto-Teuto-Slavonic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Teutonic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rumanians</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Italo-Slavo-Illyric</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Italic</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italians</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Liguro-Kelto-Italic</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Italic</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>Profoundly mixed as this table indicates European races to be, it is far
+from representing the full extent of race mingling. The primitive worship
+of the Slavonic Czernebog by the Saxons in England demonstrates a Slavonic
+strain, derivable, as Kiernan<a name="fna_135_135" id="fna_135_135"></a><a href="#fn_135_135"><small>[135]</small></a> remarks, from their contact with the
+Wends of the Baltic. Not merely are the Aryan races of Europe mixed
+together, but the blood of all has a pre-Aryan and a Turanian dash. In
+Great Britain, as Taylor<a name="fna_136_136" id="fna_136_136"></a><a href="#fn_136_136"><small>[136]</small></a> and others have shown, the Iberian type is
+found in Wales and Scotland as well as elsewhere, though in lesser degree.
+These admixtures date back to pal&aelig;olithic times when, although, as Keane
+remarks, the predominant type of skull was dolicocephalic (or
+long-headed), the brachycephalic (or round-headed type) had begun to
+appear in America, then connected by land with both Africa and Europe. In
+the subsequent neolithic time, while the type is at first generally
+brachycephalic, it soon becomes mesatocephalic (mixed long and
+round-headed), pure brachycephals and dolicocephals becoming rare. Vogt
+went so far as to maintain that were the three chief anthropoid apes
+developed further, two dolicocephalic and one brachycephalic type of man
+would result; the first two from the chimpanzee and gorilla, the last from
+the orang. The orang descendant would have long arms and red hair. The
+chimpanzee descendant would be of small size, dark colour with slender
+bones and jaws. The gorilla race would have massive chest, big bones,
+massive jaws and teeth. These three types appear in Great Britain and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+Ireland and traces of their blood are still detectable in living men. Sir
+Walter Scott draws an excellent picture of the &#8220;orang&#8221; type in <i>Rob Roy</i>,
+whose hero, according to reliable tradition, represented the Pict type.
+Gomme<a name="fna_137_137" id="fna_137_137"></a><a href="#fn_137_137"><small>[137]</small></a> has lately shown that these races persisted long enough to
+stamp their savage beliefs on coming races and intermingled with them. The
+Neolithic race in Great Britain was dark, of feeble build, short stature,
+with dolicocephalic skulls. This race remained to the historic period, as
+the Silures in Great Britain and the Firbolgs in Ireland. It had high
+cheek-bones and oblique eyes, as Kiernan<a name="fna_138_138" id="fna_138_138"></a><a href="#fn_138_138"><small>[138]</small></a> points out. Towards the
+middle of the neolithic period this race was conquered by a
+brachycephalic, tall, long-armed, muscular race, with florid complexion
+and yellowish or red hair.<a name="fna_139_139" id="fna_139_139"></a><a href="#fn_139_139"><small>[139]</small></a> Scott&#8217;s <i>Rob Roy</i> is an example of this
+type. A third race of fair complexion with prognathous face,
+dolicocephalic skulls, of tall stature, great bones, great chest
+development and massive jaws, later invaded Great Britain. While these
+races resemble Vogt&#8217;s hypothetical descendants of the anthropoid apes, it
+should be stated that there is not the slightest evidence for this line of
+descent. Writers who ignore these race characteristics have often brought
+serious criticism and even discredit on the doctrine of degeneracy.
+Lombroso, starting from the correct premise, that wide departure from the
+race type is evidence of degeneracy, erroneously cites in illustration
+Virchow&#8217;s departure from the German type, Byron&#8217;s departure from the
+English type, O&#8217;Connell&#8217;s dolicocephalic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> departure from the
+mesatocephalic Irish type, and Robert Bruce&#8217;s neanderthaloid departure
+from the Scandinavian type. As Kiernan has shown,<a name="fna_140_140" id="fna_140_140"></a><a href="#fn_140_140"><small>[140]</small></a> Virchow, as his
+name denotes, is a German-speaking Slavonic Wend; Byron was a
+Celto-Scandinavian Scotchman; O&#8217;Connell was born in a district conquered
+by the tall dolicocephalic race which invaded Ireland. The Bruce type of
+skull is still found among the purer Norwegians, Frisians, Swedes, and
+Danes, and was common just before his day and just after, as has been
+shown by Taylor.</p>
+
+<p>As the intermingling of races began early, the question of the existence
+of pure races to-day, or even during the historic period, is an open one.
+The Hebrews have been comparatively pure since the return from the
+Captivity. Before that, as the history of Solomon&#8217;s foreign marriages
+demonstrates, they were a raceless chaos, the Semitic element
+predominating. Researches by Flinders Petrie<a name="fna_141_141" id="fna_141_141"></a><a href="#fn_141_141"><small>[141]</small></a> and others show that the
+Egyptians were a mixture of Turanians, Hamites, Aryan and Semite peoples
+imposed on a negroid basis. When these elements were finally fused, the
+race bred relatively true, although the lower classes tend to the negroid
+type and the higher to the Caucasic.</p>
+
+<p>The Koreans, as Keane remarks, are a mixture of two primitive races, one
+white and one yellow. The Japanese, whose ancestors emigrated to Japan
+from Korea are, according to Topinard,<a name="fna_142_142" id="fna_142_142"></a><a href="#fn_142_142"><small>[142]</small></a> the product of the addition of
+three distinct types to that forming their Korean ancestors. The Caucasic
+to a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> extent, the Polynesian to a greater, and the Malay to a still
+greater, are mixed with the original Korean.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese are neither a homogeneous people nor a pure race, albeit the
+relatively few Mantchus are dominant. The Aryan of India, on whom Max
+M&uuml;ller laid such stress, is known to be, despite a rigid caste system, a
+non-Aryan race, feebly infused with a modicum of Aryan blood. The
+so-called &#8220;Gypsy&#8221; seems, of all the races of India, to have retained most
+Aryan speech and type as well as its original semi-nomadic
+waggon-journeying tendencies in the midst of settled civilisation. Ghetto
+seclusion long helped to preserve relative purity of race in the Jew, but
+despite vagabond surroundings the &#8220;Gypsy&#8221; has remained even purer.</p>
+
+<p>Great as has been the mixture of even widely separated types like the
+three races described as mingling in Great Britain and Ireland, even
+greater admixture occurred in comparatively late historic times. The
+so-called Scotch-Irish (whose blood enters so largely into the dominant
+race of the United States) are, despite their speech (much more Teutonic
+and monosyllabic than English), as Kiernan<a name="fna_143_143" id="fna_143_143"></a><a href="#fn_143_143"><small>[143]</small></a> has shown, a raceless
+chaos of Gaelic and Cymric Celts, Lowland Scotch, French Huguenots, Danes
+(Celto-Teuto-Slaves),<a name="fna_144_144" id="fna_144_144"></a><a href="#fn_144_144"><small>[144]</small></a> Palatinate Germans, Magyars, English Puritans,
+Hollanders, Swedes, Protestant Italians, Poles, and Spaniards. The
+intermixture of the dark, small-boned, dolichocephalic, orthognathous
+(with in-drawn jaws) race first with the brachycephalic, prognathous,
+big-boned, red-haired race, and then with the dolichocephalic prognathous,
+deep-chested, big-boned, fair race, must have produced in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> the British
+Isles as marked variations in type as now occur from the admixture of the
+Indian and negro. These are especially noticeable in the Marshpee Indians
+of Cape Cod, the Long Island tribes and the &#8220;Red Bones&#8221; of South Carolina.
+The Marshpee tribe is an admixture of Anglo-Saxon, Portuguese, Indian, and
+negro. The Indian element, while still demonstrable, is lessening. Some of
+the older people still retain Indian characteristics. A girl of ten was
+negro in all respects except her hair. An adult whose mother was half
+white, half Marshpee, while the father is negro, had all the negro
+characteristics except the skin, which was Indian in type, and the jaws,
+which were slender. Another adult who had a negro great-grandfather,
+Marshpee mother, and a three-fourths Marshpee father, had large,
+negro-like jaws, Indian hair, skin, and cheek-bones. Another adult had a
+Portuguese maternal grandmother, negro grandfather, an Indian-white
+paternal grandmother and Indian-negro paternal grandfather. His hair,
+jaws, and nose were negro, his cheek-bones were high, his upper and lower
+jaws met so that the front teeth occluded.<a name="fna_145_145" id="fna_145_145"></a><a href="#fn_145_145"><small>[145]</small></a> The like condition obtains
+in the Long Island Indians, but to a less extent with the &#8220;Red Bones,&#8221;
+who, after the type was formed, avoided admixture with the negro.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of race intermixture in the production of degeneracy is
+easily settled. Basing their opinion on the notorious sterility of the
+hybrid offspring of the horse and ass, certain biologists have assumed
+like results in man and have cited the alleged absence of Australian
+half-breeds in evidence. Since the hare and rabbit, dog and wolf, sheep
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> goat produce breeds intermediate between the parents, fertile while
+environment is unchanged, horse and ass sterility cannot be accepted as of
+much value in settling the question. Recent researches have shown that the
+half-breeds which survived birth among the Australians were killed in
+accordance with tribal usages regulating population in accordance with
+food supply.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the results of race intermixture prove degenerate or not will turn
+largely on the environment. The mulatto is certainly better adapted to the
+white environment than the pure negro, albeit less so than the white. That
+race intermixture may, however, determine degeneration, is shown by the
+relapse into voodooism and cannibalism of the Haiti and <ins class="correction" title="original: Louisana">Louisiana</ins> French
+hybrids, and the Anglo-Saxon hybrids of Liberia, who contrast
+disadvantageously with the Arabianised Moslem Mandingoes and Veys, which
+last have advanced so far as to devise a system of writing. The extent of
+the influence of environment is shown in the career of the Dumas family,
+which is of Haitian-negro origin. The grandfather was a general in the
+French army, the father and son were two stars in the literary firmament.
+The sculptor, Edmonia Lewis, was of similar stock to these. Evidences of
+degeneracy were rare among the Marshpee Indians, as I have elsewhere
+shown.<a name="fna_146_146" id="fna_146_146"></a><a href="#fn_146_146"><small>[146]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>The Abyssinians have preserved that antique type of Christianity which had
+Jewish usages; they had their own literature, alphabet, and old type of
+civilisation. According to Keane, the present inhabitants of Abyssinia
+form an extremely complex ethnical group in which it is not always
+possible to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> the constituent elements. The prevailing colour
+is a distinct brown, shading northwards to a light, olive, fair
+complexion, southwards to a deep chocolate and an almost sooty black.
+There are Abyssinians who may certainly be called black, and in whom the
+negro strain is revealed in the somewhat tumid lip, small nose, broad at
+base, and frizzly, black hair. But the majority may be described as a
+mixed Hamito-Semitic people, who, beyond question, belong fundamentally to
+the Caucasic division. While the Hamitic, Semitic, and the Latin branch of
+the Aryans are admitted to form a fertile, progressive admixture with the
+negro, the reverse is commonly assumed to be the case with the English
+speaking Celto-Teutons. Daniel Wilson<a name="fna_147_147" id="fna_147_147"></a><a href="#fn_147_147"><small>[147]</small></a> is of opinion that this is not
+true as to millions of the coloured race who now constitute the indigenous
+population of the Southern States. They are at home there in a climate to
+which the white race adapts itself with very partial success. The
+offspring of white fathers and of mothers of the African races, they have
+multiplied to millions; and now, with the recently acquired rights of
+citizenship, and with the advantage of education within their reach, the
+country is their town. The very social prejudices against miscegenation
+protect them from the effacing influence to which the Indian half-breed is
+exposed, by ever-recurrent intermarriage with the dominant race. As yet
+there are discernible the various degrees of heredity from the mulatto to
+the quinteron. But the abolition of slavery has placed the coloured race
+on an entirely new footing. Left as it now is, free to enjoy the
+healthful, social relations of a civilised community, and protected, by
+the very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> prejudices of race and caste, from any large intermixture with
+the white race, it can scarcely admit of doubt that there will survive on
+the American Continent a Melanochroi of its own, more distinctly separated
+from the white race, not only by heredity but also by climate influences,
+than the &#8220;dark Whites&#8221; of Europe are from the blonde types of Hellenic,
+Slavic, Teutonic, or Scandinavian stock. This condition will be modified
+by the fact that the negro American, like the others, is a traveller and,
+with a rise of culture, tends to city life.</p>
+
+<p>The admixture with the white has reduced negro prognathism and
+dolichocephaly. It must, however, be admitted that these reductions had
+already been begun in Africa. Sir H. H. Johnston, however, fully agrees
+with the negro writer<a name="fna_148_148" id="fna_148_148"></a><a href="#fn_148_148"><small>[148]</small></a> who holds that the &#8220;pure and unadulterated
+Negro cannot, as a rule, advance with any certainty of stability above his
+present level of culture; that he requires the admixture of a superior
+type of man.&#8221; But the white and black races are &#8220;too widely separated in
+type to produce a satisfactory hybrid&#8221;; hence Johnston thinks that, &#8220;the
+admixture of yellow that the Negro requires should come from India, and
+that Western Africa and British Central Africa should become the America
+of the Hindu. The mixture of the two races would give the Indian the
+physical development which he lacks, and he, in his turn, would transmit
+to his half Negro offspring the industry, ambition, and aspiration toward
+a civilised life which the Negro so markedly lacks.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, race intermixture will not tend to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> elevate the race where
+there is a decided difference in the state of evolution of the two races,
+and moreover especially where, as is usually the case, the mother is of
+the inferior race. It must be obvious that, given a negro pelvis and the
+head of a white, results damaging to the offspring cannot but occur. And
+these results are of a nature likely to be transmitted by heredity. The
+same would hold true with other races as well. Although the differences
+between the Hawaiian and the white are much less than those between the
+negro and the white, it is notorious that while the labours with pure
+Hawaiians are easy, those with half-whites are difficult. The same
+conditions have been observed from time to time between different breeds
+of dogs, whose pelves vary. Therefore it is safe to assume that admixtures
+of races of different grades of evolution will, if carried to any great
+extent, tend to render the superior race more liable to the action of the
+factors producing degeneracy. Dixon<a name="fna_149_149" id="fna_149_149"></a><a href="#fn_149_149"><small>[149]</small></a> has shown that mulatto families
+tend to disappear, if they be not crossed with either black or white, and
+that the limit of descent is the fourth generation. He has also pointed
+out that morbid proclivities and retrogressive tendencies are peculiarly
+rife among mulattoes. The fact, long ago shown by Menatta,<a name="fna_150_150" id="fna_150_150"></a><a href="#fn_150_150"><small>[150]</small></a> that the
+conflict for existence between brain growth and reproductive organ growth
+at puberty, results, in the mulatto, as in the negro and anthropoids, in
+the triumph of the reproductive, indicates that the mulatto has factors of
+degeneracy which would be fatal to the establishment of an intermediate
+type on the environment of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> white. While Menatta is in error in
+regarding skull mal-development as the cause, when it and brain growth
+disturbance are defects due to the same cause, still general observation
+supports his opinion that &#8220;negro children are sharp, intelligent, and full
+of vivacity, but on approaching the adult period a gradual change sets in.
+The intellect seems to become clouded, animation giving place to a sort of
+lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. We must necessarily infer that
+the development of the negro and white proceeds on different lines. While
+with the latter the volume of brain grows with the expansion of the brain
+pan, in the former the growth of the brain is, on the contrary, arrested
+by the premature closing of the cranial sutures and laternal pressure of
+the frontal bone.&#8221; Since, as Havelock Ellis remarks,<a name="fna_151_151" id="fna_151_151"></a><a href="#fn_151_151"><small>[151]</small></a> even the highest
+races do not fulfil the promise of evolution they make before puberty,
+anything which tends still further to impede the fulfilment must be
+regarded as a factor of degeneracy. Hence intermixture with an inferior
+race, having an inferior type of pelvis, would tend to degeneracy.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Toxic Agents</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> toxic agents which influence the race toward degeneracy, exert that
+deterioration in a mode which closely resembles that of the degenerative
+powers of the acute and chronic contagions and infections. The acute
+poisonings by these toxic agencies resemble the acute, nervous and other
+exhaustion caused by the toxin of the germs underlying the infections and
+contagions. The chronic conditions due to these toxic agents agree in many
+respects with the chronic states produced by the infections and
+contagions. The toxic agencies are divisible into those belonging to the
+condiments, medicines, foods and beverages, and those arising from
+occupations.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco is the most common, while alcohol and opium contend for second
+place both as to use and as to deleterious effects. Alcohol has been
+repeatedly charged with being <i>the</i> factor in degeneracy. Statistics of
+the first half of the present century seem to justify the conclusion that
+it is apparently the most potent factor, yet these statistics as a rule
+confound coincidence and cause, or effect and cause, or the vicious
+circles thereby resulting, to a remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> degree. There are but few
+races in which alcohol has not been used and abused. The American
+Indians<a name="fna_152_152" id="fna_152_152"></a><a href="#fn_152_152"><small>[152]</small></a> had tizwein, chica, and pulque long ere Columbus; the Tartars
+and Russians, bouza, kvas, and kumyss; the South Sea Islanders ava and
+toddy (from the cocoanut); the Tunisians, laymi. The vast majority of the
+races of mankind have used alcoholic beverages. Each was called by a local
+name and not by a loan word, a most demonstrable evidence of local origin.</p>
+
+<p>Even the social insects (bees and ants) at times indulge in fruit
+ferments. The claim, therefore, that alcohol is the product of high
+civilisation, hence of recent origin, and hence peculiarly destructive, is
+untenable. That excess in alcohol frequently occurs in degenerate stocks
+is, however, undeniable. But as Krafft-Ebing, Kiernan, Spitzka and others
+have shown, intolerance of alcohol is an expression of degeneracy. The
+person intolerant of alcohol becomes either a total abstainer because of a
+personal idiosyncrasy (like that which forbids certain people to eat
+shell-fish lest nettle-rash occur), or because of parsimony, or for both
+reasons combined. Such total abstainers leave degenerate offspring in
+which degeneracy assumes the type of excess in alcohol as well as even
+lower phases. The race tests of the deteriorating influence of alcohol are
+practically valueless, nor are statistics concerning alcoholism in the
+ancestry of degenerates of much more use. The enormous amount of idiocy,
+for example, in the Scandinavian countries, charged by Huss, Langdon Down
+and others to alcoholism in the parents, has been, by the most recent
+researches, cut down by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> Roof to less than 7 per cent. Insane hospital
+statistics vary to a like degree. Bad faith, however, is out of the
+question in these statistics. Lack of analytic skill, and that dangerous
+unscientific, canting, philanthropic tendency which rebels at statistics
+unfavourable to preconceived sociologic theories, explain these
+discrepancies. The ignoring of all but the alcoholic factor produces also
+great elements of error. Kiernan<a name="fna_153_153" id="fna_153_153"></a><a href="#fn_153_153"><small>[153]</small></a> cites twenty-three cases in which
+degenerate stocks were charged to alcoholic parentage, but which on
+analysis proved to be due to a degenerative factor in the parents of which
+alcoholism was merely an expression. Nearly all the offspring born after
+inebriety were prematurely born, defective, epileptic, hysteric, insane,
+idiots or criminals. Some few were healthy, apart from their intolerance
+of alcohol. In eighteen cases both father and mother were alcoholists. The
+fathers in four of these cases had been temperate, industrious, and
+affectionate ere being sunstruck. Following this came periods of
+irritability, excessive drinking and spendthriftiness. The mothers had
+remained for some years after the fathers&#8217; breakdown free from the use of
+alcohol, but were nervously exhausted from the strain. One became
+depressed during pregnancy, was given gin for the depression, and the
+habit persisted after the delivery. In the three other cases painful
+menses developed during the nervous exhaustion. The popular prescription
+for these, gin, was given, with the result of producing inebriety. In ten
+cases skull injury to the father had like results on both mother and
+father. In two cases the mother became a victim of painful menstruation
+after a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> railroad accident; gin drinking, to relieve this, followed and
+became a habit. The father&#8217;s nervous system broke down under the strain
+and both became inebriates. In two other cases nervous exhaustion from
+typhoid and typhus fever produced the same outcome in inebriety on the
+part of the father and mother. In the remaining cases the inebriety was an
+expression of nerve exhaustion after various protracted infections. The
+alcoholism in these cases was clearly an expression of the factors of race
+deterioration producing degeneracy, and not its cause.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of alcohol must therefore first be studied on the individual
+to determine its value and method of action as a cause of race
+deterioration. Careful medical researches have shown that alcohol produces
+a nervous state, closely resembling that induced by the contagions and
+infections, often accompanied with mental disturbance (delirium tremens
+and acute types of insanity). The acute nervous state to which the term
+alcoholism was applied by Magnus Huss has all the essential
+characteristics of the nervous state due to the contagions and infections.
+There is, however, a greater tendency to impotence and sterility in the
+alcohol nervous state than in the others, and consequently a lesser
+influence on race deterioration. The condition, moreover, has a tendency
+to set into action degenerative tendencies latent in the liver and
+kidneys. This action of alcohol on the liver and kidneys so interferes
+with their functions as to produce the effect already described as
+resulting in the contagions and infections from their toxins. Alcohol
+exerts a similarly deteriorating influence on the antitoxin-forming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+organs (especially on the testicles, ovaries and their appendages), to
+that already described as exerted by the toxins of the contagions and
+infections. To the direct toxic effects of alcohol are therefore added
+results of imperfect liver and kidney action and defective strengthening
+powers from deficient antitoxin secretion. Like all toxic agents, alcohol
+interferes with the functions of the eye and ear nerves. Special weakness
+thus created is transmissible to the offspring. The chronic type of
+alcoholism may well be compared in its effect with chronic contagions.
+There is, however, less tendency to infection with the microbes forming
+pus. There is a greater tendency to deteriorating action on the nervous
+system. There is in chronic alcoholism, as in syphilis, special tendency
+to that formation of connective tissue which destroys organs. The chronic
+mental disorders of chronic alcoholism resemble those of tuberculosis
+except that the capricious state and exaltation are less frequent than the
+suspicional tendency which is deeper, and takes the direction of delusions
+of poisoning and insane jealousy. The last are due to the deteriorating
+influence of alcohol on the generative organs. Alcohol may limit its
+action to the central nervous system, and thus produce hereditary losses
+of power. It causes changes in the peripheral nerves which in the
+offspring find expression in spinal cord and brain disorder through
+extension of the morbid process. But for its deteriorating effects on the
+ovaries and testicles, alcohol would be a most serious social danger.
+Through its action on the generative organs it tends to prevent the
+survival of the unfit, rather than to develop degenerates.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>Opium seems to be the Charybdis on which the human bark strikes when
+escaping from the Scylla of alcohol. Its abuse as a narcotic is much
+older, even among the English-speaking races, than is generally suspected.
+Murrell, over ten years ago, demonstrated that the inhabitants of the fens
+of Lincolnshire had long employed opium as a prophylactic against malaria.
+The ratio of insanity in these regions proved to be very great. The same
+conditions obtained in certain malarial regions of New Jersey and
+Pennsylvania, where the use of strong infusions of poppy was common. The
+statistics of Rush<a name="fna_154_154" id="fna_154_154"></a><a href="#fn_154_154"><small>[154]</small></a> as to opium-caused insanity in Pennsylvania,
+indicate that the percentage of American opium abuses at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century was very great. The drug differs in two serious
+respects from alcohol. It is nearer in chemical composition to nerve
+tissue, and the tendency to its use may be transmitted by the mother
+directly to the f&oelig;tus. This, as Bureau and Ringer have shown, receives
+through the placenta from its opium-using mother a certain amount of
+morphine. In consequence, the child in the first month of infancy must be
+nourished on the milk of an opium-using woman, or given opium in some
+other way lest it perish. To this fact Calkins<a name="fna_155_155" id="fna_155_155"></a><a href="#fn_155_155"><small>[155]</small></a> was the first to call
+attention. His results were corroborated later by Hubbard; Kiernan, of
+Chicago<a name="fna_156_156" id="fna_156_156"></a><a href="#fn_156_156"><small>[156]</small></a>; Erlenmeyer, of Berlin; F. B. Earle, of Chicago; Mattison, of
+Brooklyn; Hughes, of St. Louis; and others. Amabile, of New York, showed
+that not only were the children<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> of opium-using mothers born with tendency
+to the opium habit, but that the mothers aborted frequently with twins,
+and that the children who survived were very liable to convulsions.
+Independently of this factor the mental state produced by opium habit
+resembles in many respects that of the lunatic, in that the victim of
+opium is as unable to distinguish between his wishes and the facts, and
+therefore often utters what appear to be sheer lies. Hence he is totally
+unreliable and has taken a step in mental and moral degeneracy that, by
+the ordinary laws of heredity, must greatly increase, unless corrected by
+healthy atavism and training in the next generation. Opium is a more
+dangerous factor of degeneracy than alcohol, since the opium user must be
+in a continuous state of intoxication to carry on his usual avocation,
+while abstinence is perfectly compatible with proper work on the part of
+the drunkard. The opium habit is increased by the peculiar propaganda
+carried on by the <i>habitu&eacute;s</i> who justify their position by urging the use
+of opium for any ailment, however minimal. Opium, like alcohol, causes
+nervous exhaustion similar to, but greater than, that of the contagions
+and infections. From the affinity of opium to nerve tissue, from its
+tendency to stimulate the heart, thus causing increased blood supply to
+the brain; from its action on the bowels and the increased resultant work
+of the liver, this nervous state is much intensified. Opium does not have
+as great tendencies to interfere with the structure of the ovary and
+testicles as alcohol, hence the greater danger of the opium <i>habitu&eacute;&#8217;s</i>
+children surviving. Opium, when smoked, stimulates the reproductive
+apparatus, and thus would greatly increase the number of degenerates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> due
+to this habit but for the defects due to the inheritance of the habit and
+their consequences.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 1.&mdash;ANTE-CHRISTIAN IRISH PIPES.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 2.&mdash;ANTE-COLUMBIAN PIPES FROM SCULPTURE<br />AT STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the use of tobacco is usually ascribed to the New World.
+There is no doubt that immediately subsequent to the discovery of America,
+the use of tobacco spread over the world, and that its employment by Sir
+Walter Raleigh made it fashionable. It is certain, however, that the
+Romans and Irish employed pipes for smoking long ere the Christian era
+(Fig. <a href="#fig_1">1</a>), but the substances smoked were not tobacco but dried aromatic
+leaves. The English before Columbus (Fig. <a href="#fig_2">2</a>) did the same. In Western Asia
+historic botanical evidence leaves no doubt that tobacco was indigenous.
+Tobacco from the East hence probably encountered tobacco from the West,
+both currents meeting in Asia Minor. As with alcohol and opium the
+statistic method generally adopted proves fallacious when applied to the
+degenerative effects of tobacco. Study of its effects on the individual is
+needed to determine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> its effects on the race. The most careful researches
+show that the typical effects occur as a rule after long-continued use of
+tobacco, <ins class="correction" title="original: somtimes">sometimes</ins> not until twenty years or more. While many smokers
+reach old age, many fail to live to old age because they are smokers. The
+skin is the subject of itching and reddening, the nerves of taste are
+blunted, and patches develop in the throat; loss of appetite, epigastric
+fulness, pain, vomiting, and disturbance of bowel function are common.
+Menstrual disturbance occurs in women. In female cigar-makers abortion and
+pluriparity are frequent. The sexual appetite is impaired and sometimes
+sterility and impotence occur; also disturbed heart action, palpitation,
+rapid and intermitting pulse, precordial anxiety, weakness, faintness and
+collapse, with sclerosis of the coronary arteries of the heart and left
+ventricular hypertrophy. Cigars and cigarettes produce irritation of the
+nose, mucous <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>membrane, diminished smell, chronic hyper&aelig;mia of the
+epiglottis and larynx, and sometimes of the trachea and bronchi
+predisposing to consumption. Nicotine amblyopia, or sight weakness, is
+common, with central disturbances of the field of vision and with
+colour-weakness of sight. Often there is disorder of the ear tubes and
+congestion of drum, with loss of power of the hearing nerves, and
+consequent noises in the ear. The central nervous system is affected. In
+high schools, non-smokers get on better than smokers. Children from 9 to
+15 years of age exhibit less intelligence, laziness, or other degenerative
+tendencies. Adults have head-pressure, sleeplessness, or drowsy stupor,
+depression, apathy, and dizziness. There may also be ataxic symptoms,
+paretic weakness of bowel and bladder, trembling and spasms. Tobacco
+insanities are comparatively rare in smokers, but are common in snuffers
+and still oftener in chewers.<a name="fna_157_157" id="fna_157_157"></a><a href="#fn_157_157"><small>[157]</small></a> In the precursory stage, which lasts
+about three months, there is general uneasiness, restlessness, anxiety,
+sleeplessness, and mental depression, often of a religious type. After
+this occurs precordial anxiety, and finally the psychosis proper
+consisting of three stages: 1. Hallucinations of all senses, suicidal
+tendency, depression of spirits, attacks of fright with tendency to
+violence and sleeplessness. 2. Exhilaration, slight emotional exaltation,
+agreeable hallucinations after from two to four weeks&#8217; relaxation, again
+followed by excitement. 3. The intervals between exaltation and depression
+diminish, the patient becomes irritable, but otherwise not alive to his
+surroundings, and perception and attention are lessened. The patient may
+be cured in five or six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> months if he stop tobacco during the first stage.
+In a year or so he may recover during the second stage. After the third
+stage the disease is frequently incurable. As the patient often becomes
+(especially by the use of the cigarette) an <i>habitu&eacute;</i> ere puberty, the
+proper development and balance of the sexual and intellectual system is
+checked. These patients break down mentally and physically between 14 and
+25. The moral delinquencies, other than sexual, are often an especial
+tendency to forgery and deceit of parents. Frequently the insanity of
+puberty (hebephrenia) is precipitated by tobacco. The cigarette, if used
+moderately, may be a sedative, but as used is a stimulant, and is often
+made of spoiled tobacco, resembling in reaction morphine, and on animals
+acting in a somewhat similar manner. As tobacco turns the salivary glands
+(which are concerned in digestion of starch) into excretory glands, it
+leads to imperfect digestion of starch, to consequent irregular
+fermentation in the bowel, thus at once furnishing a culture medium for
+microbes, to form more violent toxins from, and also creating leucomaines,
+to interfere especially with a nervous system overstimulated by nicotine.
+This is one great reason why those who snuff and chew tobacco more
+frequently become insane from tobacco than smokers, albeit these last are
+not exempt.</p>
+
+<p>Statistics from the female employ&eacute;s of the Spanish, French, Cuban, and
+American tobacco factories, while defective and somewhat vitiated by the
+co-existence of other conditions producing degeneracy, support the opinion
+that the maternal tobacco habit (whether intentional or the result of an
+atmosphere consequent on occupation) is the cause of frequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+miscarriage, of high infantile mortality, of defective children, and of
+infantile convulsions.<a name="fna_158_158" id="fna_158_158"></a><a href="#fn_158_158"><small>[158]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>Tobacco, therefore, in its influence on the paternal and maternal
+organism, exhausts the nervous system so that an acquired neurosis results
+in such a way as to be transmissible.</p>
+
+<p>Professional tea-tasters have long been known to suffer from nervous
+symptoms; very early in the practice of their occupation the head pressure
+symptoms of neurasthenia occur. Tremor also occurs early. While changes in
+the optic nerve have not been demonstrated beyond a doubt, still eye
+disorders have been observed in the pauper tea-drinkers of the United
+States and in the tea-tasters of Russia, thus indicating that similar
+changes to those produced by tobacco and alcohol are likely to occur in
+the optic nerve from tea. Bullard<a name="fna_159_159" id="fna_159_159"></a><a href="#fn_159_159"><small>[159]</small></a> has found that tea has a cumulative
+effect. In his experience toxic effects are not produced by less than five
+cups daily. The symptoms manifested are those of nervous excitement
+resembling hysteria, at times almost amounting to fury; nervous dyspepsia;
+rapid and irregular heart action; neuralgia of the heart; helmet-like
+sensation on the head, and tenderness along the spine. James Wood,<a name="fna_160_160" id="fna_160_160"></a><a href="#fn_160_160"><small>[160]</small></a> of
+Brooklyn, found that 10 per cent. of those under treatment at the city
+hospitals exhibited similar symptoms. Of these 69 per cent. were females.
+Every symptom ascribed by Bullard to tea was found by Wood in his cases,
+who also found that the women manifested irregularities in menstruation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+of neurasthenic or hysteria type. He has found these symptoms to be
+produced by one-half of the quantity of tea charged with these effects by
+Bullard. The <i>Lancet</i><a name="fna_161_161" id="fna_161_161"></a><a href="#fn_161_161"><small>[161]</small></a> several years ago, from an editorial analysis
+of the effects of tea-tippling, took the position that in no small degree
+nervous symptoms occurring in children during infancy were due to the
+practice of the mothers, both of the working and society class, indulging
+in the excessive use of tea, the excess being judged by its effects on the
+individual and not by the amount taken. Convulsions and resultant
+infantile paralysis were frequently noticed among the children of these
+tea-tipplers. Observations among the factory population and the workers in
+the clothing sweating-shops show that tea neurasthenia, presenting all the
+ordinary symptoms of nervous exhaustion, is especially common among these.
+It is evident that tea produces a grave form of neurasthenia readily
+transmissible to descendants. In addition to its effects directly upon the
+nervous system, tea tends to check both stomach and bowel digestion, and
+thus increases the self-poisoning which is so prominent a cause,
+consequence, and aggravation of these nervous conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee exerts a very similar action to that of tea, albeit the nervous
+symptoms produced by it are usually secondary to the disturbances of the
+stomach and bowel digestion. Coffee produces tremor, insomnia, nervous
+dyspepsia, and helmet sensations. With the exception of certain districts
+of the United States, coffee abuse is not carried to such an extent as
+tea, albeit in these, as in some portions of Germany, the habit is an
+excessive one. The conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> described result in Germany as frequently
+as they do in the United States. Mendel<a name="fna_162_162" id="fna_162_162"></a><a href="#fn_162_162"><small>[162]</small></a> finds that in Germany coffee
+inebriety is increasing and supplanting alcohol. Profound depression with
+sleeplessness and frequent vertex headache are early symptoms. Strong
+coffee will remove these temporarily, but it soon loses its effects, and
+they recur. There is much tremor, especially of the hands. The heart&#8217;s
+action is rapid and irregular. Nervous dyspepsia is frequent. L. Bremer,
+of St. Louis, Mo., has observed similar conditions among both Germans and
+Americans there.</p>
+
+<p>While coca took its place only recently among the toxic causes of
+degeneracy, it was old as a factor in the degeneration of the Peruvian
+long ere the discovery of America by Columbus. Forty-three years ago
+Johnston<a name="fna_163_163" id="fna_163_163"></a><a href="#fn_163_163"><small>[163]</small></a> wrote that even Europeans in different parts of Peru had
+fallen into the coca habit long practised by the Indians. A confirmed
+chewer of coca is called a <i>coquero</i>, and he becomes more thoroughly a
+slave to the leaf than the inveterate drunkard is to alcohol. Sometimes
+the <i>coquero</i> is overtaken by an irresistible craving, and betakes himself
+for days together to the woods, and there indulges unrestrainedly in coca.
+Young men of the best families of Peru are considered incurable when
+addicted to this extreme degree of excess. They abandon white society, and
+live in the woods or in Indian villages. In Peru the term white <i>coquero</i>
+has the same sense as irreclaimable drunken tramp. The inveterate
+<i>coquero</i> has an unsteady gait, yellow skin, quivering lips, hesitant
+speech, and general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> apathy. The drug has assumed an unusual prominence in
+the field of degeneracy since the discovery of its alkaloid, cocaine.
+Since then there has sprung into existence in both Europe and the
+English-speaking countries the world over, a habit which, while much
+over-estimated, is undoubtedly growing, and aggravating as well as
+producing degeneracy. Many of the cases reported as due to cocaine are,
+however, chargeable to the desire of the hysteric or neurasthenic to
+secure a new sensation, or the desire on the part of the opium or whisky
+<i>habitu&eacute;</i> to try a dodge for forgiveness by friends. The habit is very
+frequently induced by patent medicines taken to cure catarrh by the
+neurasthenic, or to cure nervousness by hysterics as well. As the
+deformities of the nose passages predispose to what is called &#8220;catarrh,&#8221;
+patent medicines for local application containing cocaine are frequently
+employed in the treatment of this supposed constitutional disease, with
+the result of aggravating the original degeneracy. As the youth under the
+stress of puberty frequently ascribes all his ills to catarrh, he also
+employs very frequently snuffs containing cocaine, and has his nervous
+condition much aggravated thereby. Among the nostrums urged in the
+newspapers and magazines for this condition, so often resultant on nerve
+stress, is a certain notorious snuff containing 3 per cent. of cocaine.
+From the description given by Johnson of the <i>coquero</i> there can be no
+doubt but tramps, errabund lunatics, and paupers result from this habit,
+to give birth to degenerates in the next generation.</p>
+
+<p>Lead has been found to produce in those exposed to its fumes a systemic
+nervous exhaustion, characterised by local paralysis about the wrist as
+well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> as the general symptoms of profound systemic nerve tire. This may
+result, as Tanquerel des Planches<a name="fna_164_164" id="fna_164_164"></a><a href="#fn_164_164"><small>[164]</small></a> pointed out nearly half a century
+ago, in acute insanity of the confusional type followed very often by
+forms of mental disorder of a chronic type resembling paretic dementia. In
+some cases the patient recovers from the acute insanity to suffer
+thereafter from epilepsy. In other cases, as Kiernan has shown,<a name="fna_165_165" id="fna_165_165"></a><a href="#fn_165_165"><small>[165]</small></a> an
+irritable suspicional condition results, in which the patient may live for
+years, marry, and leave offspring. This last condition and the epileptic
+are the most dangerous as to the production of degeneracy. As has already
+been pointed out, the women employed in the pottery factories in Germany
+suffer according to Rennert<a name="fna_166_166" id="fna_166_166"></a><a href="#fn_166_166"><small>[166]</small></a> from a form of lead poisoning which
+produces decidedly degenerative effects upon the offspring. These women
+had frequent abortions, often produced deaf-mutes, and very frequently
+macrocephalic children.</p>
+
+<p>Brass workers suffer from a very similar nervous condition to that
+produced by lead. Hogden,<a name="fna_167_167" id="fna_167_167"></a><a href="#fn_167_167"><small>[167]</small></a> of Birmingham, called attention to the
+grave forms of nervous exhaustion produced among brass-workers. The period
+during which the patient is able to pursue the occupation without breaking
+down is longer than that of the lead workers. Women, like men, are exposed
+to this condition. The chief effect produced, so far as offspring have
+been observed, is chiefly frequent abortions and infantile paralysis.</p>
+
+<p>The occupations employing mercury, whether mining, mirror-making, or
+gilding, produce forms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> systemic nervous exhaustion in which the most
+marked symptom (but less important from a sanitary standpoint) is a tremor
+amounting at times almost to shaking-palsy. Like all other systemic
+nervous exhaustions, the mercurial one may appear as degeneracy in the
+offspring. The employment of women in match factories and tenement house
+sweating shops is growing. The chief toxic effect of phosphorus is not the
+localised jaw necrosis. This is but an evidence of the progressive system
+saturation with phosphorus. It bears the same relation to the more
+dangerous effects of phosphorus that &#8220;blue gum&#8221; does to the systemic
+effects of lead.</p>
+
+<p>Every condition arising from a toxic cause capable of producing profound
+systemic nervous exhaustion in the ancestor, and especially the
+ancestress, is likely to be transmitted as degeneracy to the descendant.
+Undoubtedly with the growing tendency of woman to pass from the ill-paid
+work of the seamstress to the better paid but dangerous occupations, a
+certain seeming increase in degeneracy must result.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Contagious and Infectious Disease</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Among</span> the gains of human advance in evolution stand out prominently
+complete immunity from certain diseases due to germs, and partial immunity
+from others, which last immunity results in chronic types, rather than in
+acute, because of increased vital resistance in man. Tuberculosis and
+dourine, acute diseases in the cow and horse, have become chronic
+diseases, tuberculosis (or consumption) and syphilis, in man. Such
+chronicity is evidence of advance, yet it constitutes an element of
+degeneracy, since the victim of the chronic disease is able to leave more
+offspring than would be possible were the disorder acute. In other
+respects acute and chronic contagions and infections exert the same
+influence in regard to degeneracy. The germ of the disease may be
+inherited, or general nutrition of the f&oelig;tus may be so checked in
+development that the child inherits a predisposition to disease.</p>
+
+<p>Through this check to f&oelig;tal development the phagocytes, or white blood
+cells, become so weakened that they are unable to devour f&oelig;tal
+structures as useless to man as the tadpole&#8217;s tail (which it devours) is
+useless to the developed frog. This power being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> weakened, the organs
+which form antitoxins (or protective tonics against disease), from lack of
+development fail to perform their function. For this reason in the
+degenerate many infections and contagions assume their old destructive
+type.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of these disorders in the parent may result in the bony
+mal-development shown to occur in animals by Charrin and Gley, and in man
+by Coolidge. The facial bones, jaw, and teeth are peculiarly liable to be
+thus affected. Though the effect of the disease on the parent be but
+temporary, the child&#8217;s development may be checked as to higher tendencies.
+Thus mothers have borne moral imbeciles, epileptics or lunatics, after a
+pregnancy during which they were attacked by contagious disease, albeit
+the children of subsequent and previous pregnancies were normal.</p>
+
+<p>The children of pregnancies previous to the one complicated by the
+contagious disease may be healthy, while those of subsequent pregnancies
+are defective. Any contagious or infectious disease may not only interfere
+temporarily with the bodily strength, but may produce complete change in
+the parent&#8217;s system extending even to the highest acquirement of man. In
+some occur changes thus graphically described by Bulwer: &#8220;There have been
+men who, after an illness in which life itself seemed suspended, have
+arisen as out of a sleep with characters wholly changed. Before gentle,
+good, and truthful, they now become bitter, malignant, and false. To those
+whom they before loved they evince repugnance and loathing. Sometimes this
+change is so marked and irrational that their kindred ascribe it to
+madness. Not the madness which affects them in the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> business of
+life, but that which turns into harshness and discord the moral harmony
+which results from natures whole and complete.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The nerve centres controlling nutrition, growth, repair, secretion, and
+excretion are often as deeply affected as those checks constituting
+morality. At the periods of physiologic stress these effects are
+especially noticeable. Moral insanity, intellectual insanity, unequal
+mental balance, hysteria, precocious sexuality, unconscious mendacity,
+mental parasitism (the germ of pauperism), epilepsy, neuroses, and all
+types of nutritive and constitutional defects result. The nutritional
+defects may appear chiefly in the walls of the blood vessels and
+lymphatics. While these are most common in the chronic infections and
+contagions, they often occur in acute typhoid fever, scarlatina,
+diphtheria, whooping-cough, &amp;c. Proper blood supply and utilisation of
+waste is thus prevented. Organs cannot perform their function, and are
+predisposed to disease from disuse and from weakness of the
+disease-fighting phagocytes and antitoxins. From this results irregularity
+of organ function, which is hereditarily transmissible. The weakened
+vessel walls yield to strain, and thus produce local stomach, bowel,
+liver, gland, and kidney disorders. This organ weakness may alone be
+transmitted to the offspring. The functions of the great glands (thyroid,
+thymus, suprarenals, pituitary body, bone-marrow, testicles and ovaries)
+which secrete principles necessary to the equal balance of nutrition are
+perverted. The liver, in the acute but more particularly the chronic
+contagions, paralysed in nerve tone, fails in its function of
+poison-destroyer, as for the same reason the kidneys fail in their power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+of ejecting hurtful waste. Through this interaction of perverted
+nutrition, imperfect poison-destruction, and deficient waste ejection
+result and continue the states of nervous exhaustion after the contagions
+and infections. Thus nerve exhaustion with its suspicion, its capricious
+hopefulness and gaiety, is practically continuous in tuberculosis,
+syphilis, and leprosy.</p>
+
+<p>The acute and chronic contagions and infections so lower cell vitality
+through the perverted functions described that inert connective tissue
+replaces healthy working cells. This is especially the case with syphilis,
+which, when driven from the system, leaves behind it a tendency to disease
+based on this connective tissue increase. This tendency, latent in the
+ancestor, may be so intensified in the descendant as to produce the
+hereditary ataxias (loss of movement power), and like neuroses. At the
+periods of stress such tendencies are peculiarly potent, and not only
+check, but reverse development. The chronic contagions and infections are
+most fertile sources of human degeneracy since their weakened products are
+enabled to survive under modern beneficence. Of these chronic contagions
+two (tuberculosis and syphilis) alone deserve attention, since the third
+(leprosy) exerts but little influence. Despite its existence for more than
+a century (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia on the north and Louisiana on the
+south) on the borders of the United States, despite its subsequent
+importation from Norway, Sweden, China, and Hawaii, its spread has been
+infinitesimal, and its influence on race deterioration is still less
+demonstrable.</p>
+
+<p>Tuberculosis (&#8220;the white death&#8221;) is from every standpoint a social danger
+more serious than syphilis.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> The father, as in syphilis, can infect the
+mother, but sterility is much less likely. As has already been shown in
+the chapter on heredity, plural and quickly repeated birth are common in
+tuberculous families. The tuberculous diathesis (or &#8220;habit,&#8221; as Weismann
+calls it) was very early observed in the United States. Nearly seventy
+years ago W. P. Dewees, of Philadelphia, pointed out its frequency and its
+early observation by the Greek and Roman physicians. He cites a case
+illustrative of the extent and uniformity of diathesis in a very numerous
+family. This predisposition arose on the side of the mother, though she
+lived herself to the age of forty-three, a period much exceeding that of
+any of her children, with the exception of a son, who died in his
+forty-fifth year. This lady bore twenty-three children without being able
+to suckle any but the two first. The males much exceed the females in
+number, yet there did not appear to be any exception to their favour in
+the transmission of the phthisical taint, except that they attained in
+general a greater age before they died. Some died about puberty, others at
+manhood or womanhood; but all, with the exception just stated, under
+thirty. The disease was never very rapid; they generally complained from
+one to two years before they died. The men had a healthy, even in some
+instances an athletic, appearance until the disease became open and
+decided. In their growth and stature they altogether resembled the father,
+who was not only a remarkably stout man, but lived beyond the eightieth
+year. The females, who passed puberty (two in number) were rather stout
+women, while the mother was both delicate and small. This family lived in
+the country, was very wealthy,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> and always accustomed to the various means
+generally found successful either in destroying the predisposition or
+lessening its influence, yet in no one instance in this family were they
+successful, though the open form of the disease was retarded perhaps in
+all. The females died the earliest.<a name="fna_168_168" id="fna_168_168"></a><a href="#fn_168_168"><small>[168]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>The blood vessel system is affected as regards development in such
+families. The heart is often diminutive; the right ventricle is
+exaggerated. Two great types of degenerate constitutions are produced in
+children of the tuberculous. One of these may well come under De
+Giovanni&#8217;s category of the torpid. The victim is usually coarse-featured
+and coarse-skinned, with peculiarly unstable mentality; slowness of
+comprehension is combined with power of continuity of thought; at times
+mental apathy alternates with quickness of perception. Decided
+exaggeration of the lymphatic system (connected with utilising of material
+elsewhere than at the point where it has been rendered unfit) with
+deficient function occurs, resulting in fitting a soil for germs. In other
+respects the torpid resembles the second type, the erethistic (nervously
+fussy type) of De Giovanni. This is generally characterised by the
+presence of a clear complexion, a fine skin, and features well cut and
+often beautiful. The lips are red and the teeth pearly white, though
+liable to early decay, and the eyes are large and full, the pupil being
+widely dilated and the white of the eye beautifully clear. The eyelashes
+are long, curved and silky, and the blue veins show distinctly through the
+clear thin skin. The bones are light, the hands and feet well formed, the
+stature often tall, and the whole figure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> slightly and gracefully built.
+The erethists generally remain spare, and have a strong dislike to fatty
+food. They are vivacious and excitable, and the intellectual faculties are
+often highly developed. At an early age they show marvellous activity. The
+regularity with which such precocious tubercular children die has given
+rise to proverbs anent exceptionally clever children that they are &#8220;too
+wise to live long.&#8221; Wanting in stamina, they are incapable of prolonged
+exertion either of mind or body, and break down under conditions which
+would not prove injurious to the healthy. They are continually taking
+&#8220;cold,&#8221; and are prone throughout life to affections of an inflammatory
+character. Multiple and frequent pregnancies occur. The children,
+deficient in vitality, are carried off in numbers during infancy by
+convulsions, brain fever, water on the brain, exhaustion, diarrh&oelig;a,
+teething, and other ailments, or they succumb at the second detention or
+at puberty. A small proportion reach maturity. Few live beyond thirty-five
+or forty years of age. However brilliant intellectually, they are equally
+emotional, impressionable, and impulsive. There is a marked absence of
+mental stability. They are suspiciously capricious. The great secreting
+and eliminating glands undergo with peculiar frequency the perversions
+already described.</p>
+
+<p>Neuroses and psychoses are peculiarly frequent in childhood and youth. The
+degenerative power of tuberculosis is not always due to the influence of
+the germ, or even of the toxin produced by it, but to the state of nerve
+weakness resultant on the disorder. The victim of tuberculosis (especially
+if affecting the lung) is a suspicious, yet hopeful, nervous invalid,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+whose functions are irregularly performed and who is therefore likely to
+leave scions with greater defect, especially as the maternal factor,
+either through infection or worry, can hardly escape being weakened.
+Tuberculosis attacks the bones of the offspring, especially the spine and
+hip-joint, but the victim of these last frequently regain health after
+apparent recovery from the local disease through surgical procedures. If
+the victim of the hip-joint disorder be of the erethist type marriage is
+not unlikely. Despite the deformity produced by spine disorder, popular
+superstition as to the &#8220;good luck&#8221; of a hunchback leads to marriage among
+the working class. Monetary and social considerations effect the same
+result among the wealthy classes. Here deformity does not prevent
+marriage, but predisposes to sterility through birth difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of syphilis is, in a general sense, the same as that of
+tuberculosis, except that by reversing the principle of individuation it
+leads to greater sterility. Furthermore it exhibits greater tendencies to
+revert towards health, and yields (even in the inherited form) more to
+medicinal treatment. The inherited form at times presents itself in two
+types closely simulating those due to tuberculosis. Like the bacillus of
+tuberculosis, the syphilitic germ attacks every structure and organ of the
+body. Its reversal of the principle of individuation, causing excessive
+cell formation, produces more decidedly demonstrable effects. As syphilis
+is more apt to attack the central nervous system than tuberculosis, it
+would seem that it is a greater race-deteriorating factor. The excessive
+tendency to cell formation, however, produces impotence in man, sterility
+and abortion in woman.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> There are very good reasons for believing that the
+race is becoming immune to syphilis, and that this disease will disappear.
+Its greatest race-deteriorating effect is in preparing the soil for
+tuberculosis and other infections and contagions.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of contagions and infections on degeneracy is therefore by
+no means slight. Each disease can produce grave constitutional defects in
+the ancestor likely to be intensified in the offspring. The greatest
+social dangers result from tuberculosis; the next from syphilis. Typhoid
+fever, scarlatina, small-pox, measles, diphtheria, whooping-cough, and all
+other contagions, however, may produce these constitutional defects,
+either through the mother during pregnancy or through their secondary
+effects on the ancestor&#8217;s constitution. If the subject be attacked before
+the close of the periods of dental stress an arrest of development of the
+bones of the face may result with irregularities in the shape and position
+of the teeth. These, then, are stigmata of degeneracy, especially due, in
+the individual presenting them, to the contagions and infections rather
+than to inheritance alone.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Climate, Soil, and Food</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Among</span> the factors constituting environment few have impressed the
+biologist so much as climate, soil, and food. The seeming modifications
+produced by these have made a very decided impression on the sceptical
+Weismann, who stated that &#8220;the possibility is not to be rejected that
+influences continued for a long time, that is, for generations, such as
+temperature, climate, kind of nourishment, &amp;c., which may affect the germ
+plasm, as well as any other part of the organism, may produce a change in
+the constitution of the germ plasm. But such influences would not then
+produce individual variations, but would necessarily modify, in the same
+way, all the individuals of a species living in a certain district. It is
+possible, though it cannot be proved, that many climatic varieties have
+arisen in this manner. Possibly other phenomena of variation must be
+referred to a variation in the structure of the germ plasm produced
+directly by external influences.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Considering the changes brought about in European plants and animals in
+Australia, those occurring in the East Indian mongoose in Jamaica, the
+changes in European plants and animals in America, or American<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> animals in
+Europe and European animals in Asia, Weismann&#8217;s position seems judicial.</p>
+
+<p>The influences dependent on food, soil, and climate producing normal
+modifications have been remarkably illustrated in the gilled batrachian
+Axolotl. This, under the nourishment and change of surroundings of the
+Jardin des Plantes, was transformed into a gill-less batrachian, which had
+hitherto been regarded as belonging to a totally distinct family.</p>
+
+<p>According to Darwin,<a name="fna_169_169" id="fna_169_169"></a><a href="#fn_169_169"><small>[169]</small></a> English dogs degenerate in India in a few
+generations, losing the peculiarities of form and mental character which
+distinguish their particular race, in spite of the greatest care in
+selection and prevention of crossing. An instance which well deserves the
+consideration of those anthropologists who attach but little importance to
+the influence of the environment and to the value of speech as an aid to
+the ethnologist is that of the Wurtemburgers, who settled (1816) near
+Tiflis in Russia. They had originally fair or red hair, light or blue eyes
+and coarse, broad features. In the first generation brown hair and black
+eyes began to appear; in the second black hair and eyes became the rule,
+while the face acquired an oval form. These changes were due entirely to
+the surroundings, no instance of crossing with Georgian natives being on
+record. At the same time, these transformed Wurtemburgers continue to
+speak their German mother-tongue uninfluenced by the local dialects.<a name="fna_170_170" id="fna_170_170"></a><a href="#fn_170_170"><small>[170]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>The alleged transformation of the British into the Yankee is commonly
+cited in illustration of the supposed effects of soil and climate. Three
+decades<a name="fna_171_171" id="fna_171_171"></a><a href="#fn_171_171"><small>[171]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> ago Vogt remarked that American Anglo-Saxons or Yankees were
+instanced as illustration of change of character. Already, after the
+second generation, according to Pruner-Bey, the Yankee presents features
+of the Indian type. At a later period the glandular system is reduced to
+the minimum of its normal development. The skin becomes like leather; the
+colour of the cheeks is replaced by sallowness. The head becomes smaller
+and rounder, and is covered with stiff, dark hair; the neck becomes
+longer, and there is greater development of the cheek-bones and the
+masseters. The temporal foss&aelig; becomes deeper, the jaw-bones more massive,
+the eyes lie in deep approximated sockets. The iris is dark, the glance is
+piercing and wild. The long bones, especially in the superior extremities,
+are lengthened so that the gloves manufactured in England and France for
+the American market are of a particular make, with very long fingers. The
+female pelvis approaches that of the male. According to Quatrefages,
+America has thus, from the English race, produced a new white race which
+might be called the Yankee race. Vogt believes that America dries up the
+skin and reduces the fat, an effect to which all the above differences
+might be reduced. That the head becomes smaller he utterly denies. Exact
+cranial measurements by Morton show that the skull of the Yankee is at
+least as large as that of the Englishman.</p>
+
+<p>Similar changes have been noted in the Anglo-Saxon Australians. The true
+explanation of this is that early rigorous environment tended to cause
+reversion to types not uncommon even now in Great Britain, Ireland, and
+Scandinavia, resultant on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> admixture of primitive types to which
+reference has been made. The same error has been made about the pelvis as
+about the skull. The male pelvis in the American is approximating the
+female in accordance with advance, since, as Havelock Ellis has
+shown,<a name="fna_172_172" id="fna_172_172"></a><a href="#fn_172_172"><small>[172]</small></a> not only by his skull, but by his pelvis, modern man is
+following a path first marked out by woman. The skull of the modern woman
+is more markedly feminine than that of the savage woman, while that of the
+modern man has approximated to it. Not only is the pelvis of the modern
+woman much more feminine in character than that of the primitive woman,
+but the modern man&#8217;s pelvis is also becoming more feminine.</p>
+
+<p>The validity of Vogt&#8217;s position anent the &#8220;Yankee&#8221; change of type is fully
+demonstrated by the following portraits of four generations of a noted
+American family with a Scandinavian patronymic, coming originally from a
+district in England where the alleged &#8220;Yankee&#8221; type (even to its nasal
+tone and so-called &#8220;Americanisms&#8221;) occurs. The first &#8220;American&#8221; of the
+family (Fig. <a href="#fig_3">3</a>) was born in Connecticut in 1761 and died in 1826. He had a
+dolichocephalic head with massive jaws, prominent lips, especially the
+upper. The nose is long and the eyes are set close together, the forehead
+very high and straight. Quite a change is noticeable in the second
+generation (Fig. <a href="#fig_4">4</a>). The face is not so long, the lateral diameter of the
+head is larger, the forehead more prominent, and the eyes are a little
+farther apart. The nose is about the same length and while there is a
+resemblance about the mouth and chin, the distance from the front of the
+chin to the tip of the nose is not quite so long.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> The change seems to be
+due to shortening of the chin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a><a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_3.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">FIG. 3.&mdash;DOLICHOCEPHALIC.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption">FIG. 4.&mdash;MESOCEPHALIC.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a><a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_5.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">FIG. 5.&mdash;MESOCEPHALIC.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption">FIG. 6.&mdash;BRACHYCEPHALIC.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>The next generation (Fig. <a href="#fig_5">5</a>) shows still further changes. The forehead is
+broader and less retreating than either. There is perceptibly lest
+prognathism. There is less prominence in the supraorbital region.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth generation exhibits (Fig. <a href="#fig_6">6</a>) a nearly brachycephalic head. The
+head is nearly round, forehead full, eyes set in the head to correspond
+with its width, nose broad, upper lips short, and the lower jaw is
+evidently much shorter in a perpendicular line. These changes are due to a
+protruding forehead, receding chin, and delicate features.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of the United States exercises, according to certain
+sociologists, on the first generation of European immigrants, a
+deleterious influence in regard to fecundity. The decrease in the
+fecundity of the American woman has been charged to various anti-social
+causes (abortion and prevention of conception) and to a &#8220;nervousness&#8221;
+induced by the climate. A seemingly fair test of the influence of the
+climate would be a race elsewhere fecund, and whose religion encourages
+fecundity, decreasing in the first generation after immigration to the
+United States. Such a race is the Jewish. According to Gihon&#8217;s analysis of
+the United States census of 1890<a name="fna_173_173" id="fna_173_173"></a><a href="#fn_173_173"><small>[173]</small></a> the Jewish birth rate is
+diminishing. From the mothers born in the United States the average is
+3&middot;56 children, as against 5&middot;24 for those born in Germany, 5&middot;36 for those
+in Russia and Poland, 5&middot;27 for those in Hungary, and 5&middot;44 for those in
+Bohemia. These figures, however, do not demonstrate the influence of
+climate, but of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> environment. The Jew, unlike the earlier American
+colonists, is not exposed to the stress of frontier life. He has a more
+favourable mental and physical environment than on the continent of
+Europe. This fact, therefore, does not demonstrate the effects of climate,
+but is really chargeable to climate, food, soil, and other factors
+constituting environment. That climate cannot be considered apart from
+these factors is shown, as I pointed out several years ago, by the fact
+that the United States surveyors in Minnesota reported to the national
+authorities that it was impossible to live the whole year in that state
+because of the extremely cold winter. Now, not only do people live and
+cultivate the soil throughout the entire state, but large cities have
+sprung up still farther north, and the country around has become well
+populated. Hence, in dealing with influences of climate, change of food
+and hygienic conditions must be taken into account. The error of the
+American surveyors as to the acclimatisation of the white race in cold
+climates has been emphasised as to the tropics and arctics. Here, however,
+the same error has been demonstrated by very careful researches. The
+experience of the Arctic regions as to necessity for change in diet and
+hygiene has been fully borne out by observations on the Anglo-Saxon in the
+tropics. The early experience of the English in India, upon which a fatal
+prognosis as to the future of British India was based, turns out to have
+been erroneous.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of climate involves more than temperature. Stokvis, in a
+paper read before the Tenth International Medical Congress, at Berlin, on
+the comparative pathology of the human races with reference to the vital
+resistance of Europeans in tropical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+climates,<a name="fna_174_174" id="fna_174_174"></a><a href="#fn_174_174"><small>[174]</small></a> finds that the
+European immigrant in the tropics is assailed by two hostile forces:
+tropico-thermal and tropico-infectious agencies. The expression of innate
+racial peculiarities, like the variations of vegetable life and the
+varieties of animal life from effects of increased temperature, are such
+as occur in the inhabitants of temperate regions during the height of
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>Marestang and Eykman find that neither high temperature alone nor
+meteorological agencies, apart from other deleterious influences, can
+produce that impoverishment of blood called &#8220;tropical an&aelig;mia.&#8221; Stokvis
+shows that the tropical European does not prove inferior to the aboriginal
+with respect to thermal agencies. He is less susceptible to chill than the
+native. Mortality statistics of respiratory organ affections are greater
+for the native. While the European suffers more from liver disease than
+the native, the latter is less addicted to alcoholic drinks and pork. The
+percentage of deaths from cases treated is, however, more than twice as
+great with the native as with the European. Variations of physiologic life
+under tropical thermal conditions have little to do with the race. The
+vital resistance of the immigrant European (the European transformed into
+a permanent high-summer man) is somewhat greater than that of the native
+races.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the disease-producing effects of tropical infectious agencies,
+the experience of the last ten years (1880-90) is very different from that
+prior to 1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>Average annual death-rate per thousand:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">European<br />Soldiers.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">Native<br />Soldiers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="3" valign="middle">Dutch East India Army</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="3"><span class="bracket">{</span></td><td>1819-28</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">170&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">138&middot;0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1869-78</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">60&middot;4</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">38&middot;7</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1879-88</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30&middot;6</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">40&middot;7</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="4" valign="middle">British India Army</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="4"><span class="bracket">{</span></td><td>1800-28</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">84&middot;6</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">18&middot;03</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1828-56</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">56&middot;7</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1869-78</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">19&middot;37</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1876-88</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">16&middot;27</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">21&middot;6</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">British Army, Jamaica</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="4"><span class="bracket">{</span></td><td>1820-36</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">121&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">30&middot;0</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1879-88</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">11&middot;02</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">11&middot;62</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These changes are the consequence of sound sanitation. &#8220;The fairest laurel
+practical hygiene may boast of to-day is, doubtless, the laurel acquired
+in ameliorating the sanitary conditions of the European soldiers in
+tropical climates.&#8221; A century ago James Lind said, &#8220;Much more than to the
+climate you are indebted to your own ignorance and negligence for the
+disease from which you suffer in tropical climates.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>These statistics do not entirely support the declaration of Hippocrates
+that &#8220;races are the daughter of climates,&#8221; but tend to show that the vital
+resistance of the different races in tropical climates depends more on
+external conditions than on race. Acclimatibility of strong, healthy,
+adult Europeans of both sexes in tropical climates must be admitted
+without any reserve, provided that they assiduously observe all hygienic
+rules. Stokvis disproves the allegation that the European is not able to
+produce in tropical regions more than three or four generations of true
+European blood, and that from the third or fourth generation onward
+sterility is the rule.</p>
+
+<p>So accustomed, remarked Felken, however, is a man to his environment that
+it is difficult to remove an European from his home in the temperate
+region<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> to any other, and yet for him to retain his health. Much may be
+done in the tropics to render climate more salubrious and sanitary
+precautions will do a great deal for the health of the community. But when
+all is done permanent residence for Europeans under European conditions is
+out of the question in the low-lying regions of the tropics. Comparatively
+few areas exist in the tropics where any great success for European
+colonisation can be prophesied from altitude alone. The influence of
+altitude on the physiologic characteristics is, however, very evident. The
+residents at high altitudes are strong, robust, buoyant, and of great
+mental and physical endurance.</p>
+
+<p>In disproof of this position of Felken, Viault, of Bordeaux, has shown
+that the phenomena resultant on the acclimation of man at great altitudes
+comes neither from the frequency of respiratory movements nor from greater
+activity of the pulmonary circulation as has been asserted, but from
+increase of red blood globules. While the effects of both excessive heat
+and excessive cold may be admitted, even there other factors play a part.
+Very high mean temperature with low humidity is more likely to result in
+sunstroke and allied conditions than high temperature with high humidity.
+Low temperature of the Arctic regions tends to produce an&aelig;mia in natives
+of temperate zones. Food and depressing circumstances have, however, to be
+taken into consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Sunstroke produces the ordinary phenomena of nervous exhaustion, but the
+patient becomes more irritable, suspicious, and extremely proud. As these
+patients are not recognised for a long times as insane they often marry
+and produce degenerates. Kiernan reports a case in which father and mother
+(both of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> healthy stock) were overcome by the heat during one of the
+processions of the American Centenaries. The children born before the
+sunstroke were healthy, but there had been no children for five years
+previously. A year subsequent to the sunstroke (which was followed by a
+change in character in both parents) the woman had triplets, one of which
+died soon after birth from convulsions. The second of the triplets, a
+girl, became epileptic at 2, a prostitute at 16, and chronically insane at
+20. The third triplet became a puberty lunatic at 16. Of three children
+subsequently born, two are epileptics and one is a moral imbecile who
+manifests premonitory evidences of paranoia. Sunstroke, however, underlies
+many cases of alcoholism. Not a few of the instances of degeneration
+charged to alcoholism are, in reality, due to the nervous condition
+arising from the exhaustion produced by sunstroke. To this factor was in
+no small degree due the extremely large infant mortality of the English in
+India of the first half of the present century. While temperature plays a
+part in producing degeneracy in the offspring through its production of
+systemic disorder in the ancestor, it is usually associated with other
+factors which aid or predispose to its effects. It also predisposes to the
+greater action of other causes. Very frequently the sun-struck person,
+rendered incapable of continued labour by irritability, becomes a tramp or
+a pauper, either of which conditions tends to accelerate the degenerative
+process and furthermore to increase the possible chances of passing down
+the effect through heredity by the ease with which illicit relationships
+are contracted. The least intelligent of the prostitute class, or rather,
+of that class of nymphomaniacs who have not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> fully entered upon a
+prostitute career, are driven into the workhouse or almshouse, where they
+often remain for years, or depart at intervals, leaving their offspring to
+be reared at public expense. The number of such children born yearly in
+almshouses is at least ten thousand in the United States.<a name="fna_175_175" id="fna_175_175"></a><a href="#fn_175_175"><small>[175]</small></a> An enormous
+proportion of these die in infancy but sufficient survive to form a potent
+source of degenerates.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of overheating further predisposes to the attack of microbes
+even in the temperate climates, and to constitutional defects resultant on
+these.</p>
+
+<p>A factor of degeneracy as related to soil on which much stress has been
+laid, is that of goitre. This has been carefully studied by Munson<a name="fna_176_176" id="fna_176_176"></a><a href="#fn_176_176"><small>[176]</small></a>
+among the Indians on the reservation in the United States. The number was
+77,173, of whom 2&middot;36 per cent. had goitre. As regards geographic
+distribution the disease is more prevalent in the southern part of
+Montana. Goitre was reported as practically unknown among the white
+settlers living about the reservations where goitre was prevalent among
+the Indians. Fully 80 per cent. of the cases occur in Indian women, the
+disease being not only much less frequent, but also less decided and less
+extensive in the male. The average age of onset of the disease was from 12
+to 14 years. There are many instances illustrating the apparent heredity
+of goitre. Several consecutive generations show its development. Only one
+case is reported in which goitre was associated with cretinism. Goitre
+among Indians cannot be traced to high altitudes, climate or water
+containing excess of calcium magnesium salts. The disease is apparently
+due to insanitary surroundings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> depressing constitutional conditions,
+improper and excessively nitrogenous diet. This condition of things among
+the Indians bears an important relation to the facts pointed out by C. K.
+Clarke,<a name="fna_177_177" id="fna_177_177"></a><a href="#fn_177_177"><small>[177]</small></a> of Kingston, Ontario, who found in the Canadian asylums a
+large number of goitrous patients and one goitrous attendant. The goitrous
+patients, who were of long residence, had come from all parts of the
+dominion. The size of the goitre was in proportion to the length of the
+residence. It is possible that local influence may have much to do with
+the disease, though it is evident that the insane are much more liable to
+it than normal persons. W. B. Fletcher, of Indianapolis, has observed
+similar frequency as to goitre among the insane there, especially among
+the foreigners and their immediate descendants. Cretinism, according to
+Morel, was degeneracy due to a special action which a toxic principle
+exercises on a cerebro-spinal system, whether by the air that is breathed
+or by the substances ingested in the economy, and which, above all,
+appears to have some relation to a soil where predominates the magnesian
+limestone. That the last factor has some influence is shown by the fact
+that goitrous enlargements are encountered in medical practice in Chicago
+much more frequently than among the corresponding classes in the East. The
+water in Chicago contains magnesium-lime salts, whether it be derived from
+the lake or from the artesian well. The fact, however, that the Indians
+and the insane exhibit a tendency to goitre indicates that behind the
+influence of the soil or of diet lies a neuropathic constitution, whether
+this be inherited or acquired. Cretinism is much more frequent in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+United States than was apparent ere the discovery of the value of the
+thyroid glands in treatment. Under the stimulus of investigation for cases
+in which to try this treatment, medical literature from all parts of the
+United States has been filled with reports of authenticated cases. Among
+these are scions of families which have been American for more than three
+generations and which may, therefore, be considered as products of an
+American environment. The same condition of things has occurred in both
+Great Britain and on the European continent in districts which, prior to
+1890, were supposed to be free from cretinism. This illustrates the
+results of stimulus given investigation in biology rather than increase of
+the disorder.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of spoiled maize in producing the mixed skin, nervous and
+mental disorder known as pellagra in the Italians, would seem, from the
+results of the researches of Billod,<a name="fna_178_178" id="fna_178_178"></a><a href="#fn_178_178"><small>[178]</small></a> to be chiefly due to the
+conjoined effects of unhygienic surroundings, the offspring of climate and
+soil. The fungus on maize (ustilago), like the fungus on rye (ergot),
+produces rather long-lasting neurosis of an epileptic character,
+susceptible to transmission to the offspring of women poisoned by these
+fungi. The Italian disease, pellagra, manifests the features one would
+expect from an improper food taken under unhygienic conditions. While this
+is undoubtedly exaggerated by the habits of the peasantry in Italy, still
+in a lesser degree like effects of food are observable in other races.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the potato diet in degenerating the Irish Celt in
+comparison with the Scottish Celt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> under the same conditions, is difficult
+at present to determine for lack of data. Certainly the descendants of
+this class of Irish Celts rapidly regain a handsome, healthy status under
+mixed American diet, even though the hygienic surroundings in the great
+cities be not the best. He who has to treat a class of neurasthenics in
+whom starch digestion is impaired finds that a diet of potatoes
+(undoubtedly through the auto-intoxication it produces) will increase
+certain nervous symptoms, and hence the tendency to transmission to the
+next generation.</p>
+
+<p>In the families of the pioneers in the United States, as well as the
+families of farmers in secluded valleys in Norway, Switzerland, and
+elsewhere, the influence of monotony of diet, aggravated by monotony of
+surroundings, has undoubtedly produced a large amount of degeneracy. Ray
+Brigham of New York, Awl of Ohio, and Patterson of Illinois have shown
+that there is an unusual frequency of insanity in farmers&#8217; wives which is
+undoubtedly traceable to these conditions. Kiernan, of Chicago, has
+reported a case fairly typical of those earlier described by the American
+alienists just cited. The first generation was a woman of New England
+stock, of tireless energy, to whom work was a pleasure and rest an
+abhorrence, and who lived on a farm miles from the town. She did all her
+own work and brought up a large family, chiefly on maize, potatoes, and
+bread, pork being the meat diet. At 50 this woman removed with her
+husband, who had grown wealthy, to a small country town. Here she
+conducted the entire work of the household without a servant. At 52 she
+broke down with neurasthenia, which rapidly passed into periodical gloomy
+spells, in one of which she <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>committed suicide. Her youngest daughter, who
+had an asymmetrical face, has the periodical gloomy tendency of the
+mother, alternating with periods of restlessness, which evince themselves
+in doing unnecessarily the work of the servants and other labours
+inconsistent with her husband&#8217;s social status. She had at times suicidal
+and homicidal impulses. She has three children; one exhibits no special
+abnormality; the eldest, a boy of eleven, dislikes to play with boys
+because they are rough, and plays with girls, to whom he is at times
+mischievously cruel. He likes to sew and make doll&#8217;s clothing and purchase
+dolls, while there are other indications of sexual abnormality. The
+youngest, a girl, has frequent attacks of epileptic-like fury, although
+between these she is kind-hearted, good-humoured, and very affectionate.
+In dealing with the question of soil, the factors predisposing to the
+attacks of the parasite of malaria have to be taken into consideration;
+certainly the inhabitants of certain malarial districts exhibit all the
+characteristics of degenerates.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of nutrition in producing nervous states likely to be
+transmitted as degeneracy in the offspring are excellently illustrated in
+the nervous disorders due to improper nutrition during youth. This may, as
+W. S. Christopher<a name="fna_179_179" id="fna_179_179"></a><a href="#fn_179_179"><small>[179]</small></a> of Chicago has shown, produce all possible neuroses
+to which the organism may be liable. Such neuroses relate to&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="note">A. Psychic faculties.<br />
+<br />
+B. Sensation.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. An&aelig;sthesia.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Hyper&aelig;sthesia.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. Hyperalgia (increased pain sense).</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span><br />
+C. Heat production.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Elevation of temperature.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Depression of temperature.</span><br />
+<br />
+D. Muscular tissues.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Hypertrophy.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Atrophy.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. Paralysis.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">4. Convulsions.</span><br />
+<br />
+E. Skeletal muscles.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. General convulsions.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Chorea.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. Tetany (toe and finger jerks).</span><br />
+<br />
+F. Pharynx.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Dyspn&oelig;a (difficult breathing).</span><br />
+<br />
+G. &OElig;sophagus.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Dysphagia (difficult swallowing).</span><br />
+<br />
+H. Stomach.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Vomiting.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Merycism (rumination).</span><br />
+<br />
+I. Intestines.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Increased peristalsis (movement of bowel).</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Decreased peristalsis.</span><br />
+<br />
+J. Larynx.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Dyspn&oelig;a.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Laryngismus stridulus (croup spasm).</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. Chorea.</span><br />
+<br />
+K. Bronchi.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Asthma.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Bronchorrh&oelig;a (excessive secretion).</span><br />
+<br />
+L. Bladder.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Incontinence.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Retention.</span><br />
+<br />
+M. Urethra.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Spasmodic stricture.</span><br />
+<br />
+N. Uterus.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Neuralgias.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Spasms.</span><br />
+<br />
+O. Vagina.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Vaginismus (painful spasm).</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span><br />
+P. Heart.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Chorea.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Disturbance of rate.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">3. Disturbance of rhythm.</span><br />
+<br />
+Q. Secretory organs.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">1. Decrease of secretion.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">2. Modification of composition of secretion.</span><br />
+<br />
+R. Absorptive organs.<br />
+<br />
+S. Elaborative organs.<br />
+<br />
+T. Respiratory organs. Other than those cited.<br />
+<br />
+U. Excretory organs.<br />
+<br />
+V. Reproductory organs.</p>
+
+<p>Those of the genital organs only exist in precocious childhood, while
+still others occur, some occasionally, some very frequently.</p>
+
+<p>Of the psychic neuroses, perhaps the commonest are the night terrors,
+which occur in ill-nourished children with great frequency. Hyperesthesia
+(or increased sensitiveness) is a starvation neurosis occurring especially
+in unrecognised scurvy. Variations of temperature, both increased and
+subnormal, occur in children suffering from evident in-nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>Of the starvation neuroses, the commonest are muscular convulsions.
+Naturally enough, any muscle or any group of muscles may be affected, and
+the manifestations may present all the varieties of convulsive movements
+to which muscles are liable. Probably no child whose nutrition is perfect
+ever has general convulsions except as the result of actual brain disease
+or at the onset of some infectious process where the convulsion takes the
+place of the initial chill of the adult. The so-called reflex convulsions
+occur only in children whose nutrition is below par. In a rickety child
+the slight irritation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> produced by an erupting tooth may be sufficient to
+weaken the mechanism which checks explosive action, just as in the same
+child it may be the determining cause of bronchorrh&oelig;a. In the healthy
+child teething can cause no such effect. Both these <ins class="correction" title="original: manifestions">manifestations</ins>, the
+convulsions and the bronchorrh&oelig;a, are starvation neuroses. In such
+children many other trivial conditions may weaken the controlling
+mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>In older children chorea, whatever be its cause, is evidently connected
+with the developmental process. The beneficial effects in chorea of
+absolute rest in bed and forced feeding are a matter of common
+observation. Dysphagia as a neurosis in children is uncommon. Vomiting and
+diarrh&oelig;a occur so frequently in infants from a wide variety of causes,
+that it is very difficult to say when they are merely starvation neuroses.
+In rickets, diarrh&oelig;a often occurs, with no adequate explanation in the
+conditions present in the intestinal canal, and which is an essential
+feature of the disease itself.</p>
+
+<p>Laryngismus stridulus is a very common manifestation of muscular
+starvation neurosis. Spasmodic asthma occurs in ill-nourished children.
+Incontinence of urine in older children is often a starvation neurosis.</p>
+
+<p>The younger the child the more rapid are its processes of growth. Hence in
+infants the results of defective nutrition are quickly manifested, and the
+curative effects of food arranged to supply the nutritive deficiencies
+also become apparent very soon. In older children with more stable tissues
+a defective food supply is longer borne without apparent effect; but, on
+the other hand, the beneficial effect of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> antidotal diet becomes
+apparent only after a prolonged use.</p>
+
+<p>The relatively simple diet of the infant makes it easy to discover the
+particular kind of food which is supplied in sufficient quantity, and
+makes the supply of the deficiency comparatively easy. But in older
+children with a more varied diet the defect is less readily discovered and
+less readily supplied.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of climate, soil, and food in the production of degeneracy are
+first shown in the causation of general loss of nerve tone in the
+ancestor, often with special local expressions. This loss of nerve tone
+may show itself in the offspring by any type of degeneracy from nutritive
+defect to loss of moral tone.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">School Strain</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Like</span> all factors of degeneracy, school strain evinces itself in a systemic
+nervous exhaustion manifest along lines of least resistance, as in the
+neuroses of Christopher. The first types of his neuroses are due to
+overstrain of certain territories related with memory, as contrasted with
+diminished use of the association fibres connecting these. As Schopenhauer
+has excellently observed, man is one-third intellect and two-thirds will,
+and much of this last two-thirds is the result of training. Capacity for
+training may be greater in one individual than another, because of
+inherited or congenital deficiencies. It is, as Sully<a name="fna_180_180" id="fna_180_180"></a><a href="#fn_180_180"><small>[180]</small></a> remarks, &#8220;a
+happy circumstance in healthy children that that most prolific excitant of
+fear, the presentation of something new and uncanny, is also provocative
+of curiosity, with its impulse to look and examine. A very tiny child, on
+first making acquaintance with some form of physical pain, as a bump on
+the head, will deliberately repeat the experience by knocking his head
+against something as if experimenting and watching the effect. A clearer
+case of curiosity overpowering fear is that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> of a child who, after pulling
+the tail of a cat in a bush and getting scratched, proceeded to dive into
+the bush again. Still more interesting here are gradual transitions from
+actual fear, before the new and strange, to bold inspection. The child who
+was frightened by her Japanese doll insisted on seeing it every day. The
+behaviour of one of these small persons on the arrival at the house of a
+strange dog, of a dark foreigner or some other startling novelty is a
+pretty and amusing sight. The first overpowering timidity, the shrinking
+back to the mother&#8217;s breast, followed by curious peers, then by bolder
+outstretchings of head and arms, mark the stage by which curiosity and
+interest gain on fear, and finally leave it far behind. Very soon the
+small, timorous creatures will grow into bold adventurers. They will make
+playthings of the alarming animals and of the alarming shadows too. Later
+on still perhaps they will love nothing so much as to probe the awful
+mysteries of gunpowder.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In degenerate children, because of deficiencies of proper
+inter-association of the memory territories in the brain, healthy
+curiosity, and the instinct of sheltering are deficient, so that states of
+uncertainty, producing terror, result. These become permanent in after
+life, even when training as an adult is strongly antagonistic to them.</p>
+
+<p>This is illustrated, as Harriet C. B. Alexander has shown,<a name="fna_181_181" id="fna_181_181"></a><a href="#fn_181_181"><small>[181]</small></a> in George
+Eliot, who during childhood &#8220;suffered from a low general state of health
+and great susceptibility to terror at night, and the liability to have all
+her soul become a quivering fear,&#8221; which remained during life. She had
+periods<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> of depression and vertex headache, which latter gave place to
+sick headache, often attended with rheumatoid phenomena. &#8220;She was an
+awkward girl, reserved and serious far beyond her years, but observant,
+and addicted to the habit of sitting in corners and watching her elders.&#8221;
+Fear of the unknown in childhood, seemingly a reversion to the fear of the
+unknown of savages, tends, like it, to produce occult belief. Despite the
+German rationalism of George Eliot, such fear found utterance in her
+<i>Behind the Veil</i>, a mystically occult contrast with her novels and with
+the positivism which was her religion. Theoretically the philosophy of
+George Eliot should have destroyed much mysticism, yet as a survival of
+&#8220;night terrors&#8221; it came to the surface. A very vivid autobiographical
+narrative of night-terrors and similar nervous phenomena in the childhood
+of a distinguished man of letters will be found in Horatio Brown&#8217;s <i>Life
+of John Addington Symonds</i>.</p>
+
+<p>School over-pressure in certain respects checks, even in well-developed
+minds, the transition from the terror of the unknown of childhood into the
+calm of maturity. Morbid fears, imperative conceptions, and imperative
+acts which torture the individual during an otherwise healthy career
+unquestionably originate in the early periods of life.</p>
+
+<p>Degenerate children, as Kiernan<a name="fna_182_182" id="fna_182_182"></a><a href="#fn_182_182"><small>[182]</small></a> remarks, early manifest decided
+neurotic excitability, and tend to neuroses at physiologic crises like the
+first and second dentition, and the onset and close of puberty. Slight
+physical or mental perturbation is followed by sleeplessness, delirium,
+hallucinations, &amp;c. Hyper&aelig;sthesia and excessive reaction to pleasant or
+offensive <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>impressions exist. Vasomotor instability is present, pallor,
+blushing, palpitations or pre-cardial anxiety result from trivial moral or
+physical excitants. There is no precocity or aberration of the sexual
+instinct. The disposition is irritable. The grasshopper is a burden.
+Psychic pain arises from the most trivial cause, and finds expression in
+emotional outbursts. Sympathies and antipathies are equally intense. The
+mental life swings between periods of exaltation and depression,
+alternating with brief epochs of healthy indifference. Egotism is supreme,
+and morality absent or perverted. This absence or perversion is often
+concealed under the guise of moral superiority, religiosity, or cant.
+Vanity and jealous suspiciousness are common. The intellect and temper are
+exceedingly irregular. Monotonously feeble, scanty ideation passes readily
+into seeming brilliance, even to the extent of hallucinations. But ideas
+are barren as a rule, because generated so rapidly as to destroy each
+other ere they pass into action. Energy fails ere aught can be completed.
+The inability to distinguish between desires and facts produces seeming
+mendacity. The will in its apparent exuberance, its capricious energy, and
+innate futility, matches and distorts the one-sided talent or whimsical
+genius which may exist. The whole of this mental state may not be present.
+The tendency to introspection, to morbid fear, to gloom, to
+hallucinations, to alternations of depression and exaltation, may occur in
+a degenerate child in whom has been otherwise preserved that secondary ego
+which is the latest and greatest acquirement of the race.</p>
+
+<p>In the same class, according to George Parkman,<a name="fna_183_183" id="fna_183_183"></a><a href="#fn_183_183"><small>[183]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> an American alienist
+of more than eighty years ago, brilliant talents, astonishing facility of
+receiving and communicating ideas often appear suddenly at puberty,
+especially in females, to be later followed by mediocrity, disappointment,
+and supineness.</p>
+
+<p>These degenerate children have a tendency, as C. F. Folsom<a name="fna_184_184" id="fna_184_184"></a><a href="#fn_184_184"><small>[184]</small></a> remarks,
+to manifest aberrant tendencies at the periods of stress, which may, in
+Folsom&#8217;s judgment, be congenital, or due to early interference with normal
+brain development. These show themselves in childhood and infancy by
+irregularity or disturbed sleep, irritability, apprehension, strange
+ideas, great sensitiveness to external impressions, high temperature,
+delirium or convulsions from slight causes, disagreeable dreams and
+visions, romancing, intense feeling, periodic headache, muscular
+twitching, capricious appetite, and great intolerance of stimulants and
+narcotics. At puberty developmental anomalies, and not infrequently
+perverted sexual instincts, are observed in both sexes. During adolescence
+there is often excessive shyness or bravado, always introspection and
+self-consciousness, and sometimes abeyance or absence of the sexual
+instinct, which, however, is frequently of extraordinary intensity. The
+imitative and imaginative faculties may be quick. The affections or
+emotions are vehement but shallow. Vehement dislikes are formed, and
+intense personal attachments result in extraordinary friendships, which
+not seldom swing around suddenly into bitter enmity or indifference. The
+passions are unduly a force in the character, which lacks will power. The
+individual&#8217;s higher brain centres are not well inhibited, and he dashes
+about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> like a ship without a rudder, fairly well if the winds be fair and
+the seas be calm, but dependent on the elements for the character and the
+time of the final wreck. Invention, poetry, music, artistic taste,
+philanthropy, intensity, and originality, are sometimes of a higher order
+among these persons, but desultory, half-finished work and shiftlessness
+are much more common. With many of them concentrated, sustained effort,
+and attempts to keep them to it are impossible. Their common-sense
+perception of the relations of life, executive or business faculty and
+judgment are seldom well developed. The memory is now and then
+extraordinary. They are apt to be self-conscious, egotistic, and morbidly
+conscious. They easily become victims of insomnia, neurasthenia,
+hypochondria, neuroticism, hysteria, or insanity. They offend against the
+proprieties of life and commit crime with less cause or provocation than
+other persons. While many of them are among the most gifted and attractive
+people in their community, the majority are otherwise, and possess an
+uncommon capacity for making fools of themselves, and of being a nuisance
+to their friends and of little use to the world.</p>
+
+<p>These conditions occur from heredity in degenerates, but, as Francis
+Warner<a name="fna_185_185" id="fna_185_185"></a><a href="#fn_185_185"><small>[185]</small></a> remarks, while &#8220;it is very common to see disordered conditions
+of the nervous system in children with defective construction of body,
+these nerve disturbances may also be seen in children with normal
+construction of body. Such signs result from the disorder, produced by
+special circumstances, aiding as well as producing defect which results
+from, or in the next generation becomes, defect in original construction.
+Among the signs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> fatigue in children is the slight amount of force
+expended in movement, often with asymmetry of balance in the body. The
+fatigued centres may be unequally exhausted; spontaneous finger twitches
+like those of younger children may be seen, and slight movements may be
+excited by noises. The head is often held on one side. The arms when
+extended are not held horizontally. Usually the left is lower. The face is
+no evidence of bodily nutrition. It may be well nourished, yet the body be
+thin. Three per cent. of the children seen in school are below par in
+nutrition. These children are of lower general constitutional power. They
+tend to an ill-nourished condition under the stress of life, and many
+cases of mental excitement which, while they render them sharper mentally,
+militate against general nutrition.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Colin A. Scott has found corroborative evidences of similar effects of
+strain in the children of the New England and Illinois schools.</p>
+
+<p>These systemic nervous exhaustions may, as W. S. Christopher, of Chicago,
+has shown (in remarks on neuroses already cited), take unexpected local
+directions, especially involving, in accordance with the general law of
+reversal, evolution or degeneracy checks on excessive action. Among the
+conditions produced by school strain of serious consequence in after-life
+are headaches, usually charged to an&aelig;mia or neurasthenia. These headaches,
+as Sachs,<a name="fna_186_186" id="fna_186_186"></a><a href="#fn_186_186"><small>[186]</small></a> of New York, has shown, usually appear after emotional
+excitement or fatiguing ordeal. There are other symptoms expressive of
+neurasthenia, such as slight tremor of the tongue and fingers and
+exaggeration of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> the deep reflexes, but, above all, the very persistent
+vertex headache, and the child&#8217;s description of pressure or heat there. In
+children emotional conditions, school strain, rivalry between class-mates,
+are as liable to produce neurasthenia as are the more serious struggles
+for existence in later life. These headaches may pass very readily at
+periods of stress into migraine. The vertigo characteristic of migraine is
+not rarely found in the neurasthenic headache of childhood. What is true
+of migraine is also true of epilepsy. The tremors, &amp;c., accompanying
+neurasthenic headache become the convulsions of epilepsy. G. B. Fowler
+reports a case emphasising very clearly the position of Christopher. It
+was that of a seven-year-old boy of mushroom growth and hothouse culture.
+He began every day before breakfast with an hour at Spanish, and until
+three in the afternoon was unceasingly occupied with French, German,
+music, and the ordinary school curriculum. This policy, initiated four
+years before, the pressure being gradually increased, had been maintained
+almost without interruption. The child had consequently developed into a
+sort of phonograph, capable of starting automatic expressions which
+afforded much entertainment to visitors, and gave the ambitious father
+great hope and comfort. Under such conditions it is not to be wondered at
+that something gave way, and, fortunately for the brain, it was the
+sphincter of the anus. When this deplorable occurrence first took place
+the child was sharply reprimanded; the accident repeating itself, however,
+two or three times weekly, and later about once a day, more pronounced
+measures were instituted. The boy was often severely flogged, deprived of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+liberty, luxuries, &amp;c., yet without avail. The lower bowel was perfectly
+normal. The sphincter was tight, grasped the finger with the usual
+firmness, and there were no sources of irritation about the anus. The
+abnormal conditions under which the child had been living very naturally
+at the outset were the cause of the difficulty. Cessation of the
+punishment and release from books was ordered. The result was
+satisfactory. In three weeks the involuntary discharge became gradually
+less frequent, and finally ceased altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Mental strain produces precisely similar effects on the nerve control of
+the stomach. All types of nervous disturbances of the stomach&mdash;merycism
+(cud-chewing), bulimia (ox appetite), acoria (incapacity for getting
+enough)&mdash;result, as Ewald<a name="fna_187_187" id="fna_187_187"></a><a href="#fn_187_187"><small>[187]</small></a> has shown, from nerve strain, and increase
+this through auto-intoxication.</p>
+
+<p>The sphincter of bladder often gives way, and is a very frequent
+expression of nervous exhaustion in the child, often increased by the
+effects of nerve strain on the kidneys, which do their work of
+purification imperfectly, while excreting nearly pure water. The enormous
+quantity of clear urine passed during worry is a generally recognised
+expression of such strain. This nerve-strain interference with the
+purifying work of the kidneys leads to increased strain on the liver and
+other glands, whence result migraine, the uric acid states, rheumatisms,
+and the other perversions of nutrition. Nerve-strain on either liver,
+bowel, or other glands, has similar secondary effects on the kidneys. In
+part this is an organ degeneracy in function whereby man&#8217;s liver and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+kidneys do the work of the sauropsidal liver and kidneys.</p>
+
+<p>Among the nutritive disturbances resulting from nerve-strain is the fatty
+an&aelig;mia of Weir Mitchell, the juvenile obesity of F&eacute;r&eacute; and others. This is
+generally associated with the uric acid states which so often result from
+school strain. The apparent improvement shown in increased weight leads to
+increased strain, and many of these fat victims of school over-pressure
+enter insane hospitals as puberty lunatics.</p>
+
+<p>Other effects of the nutritive disturbances produced by school strain are
+local irritations about the sexual organs. These may arise from irritation
+by uric acid of the mouth of the bladder in boys, or of the vagina and
+bladder in girls. Neurotic persons are liable to nerve storms, which
+express themselves in emotional displays or restlessness or nagging
+tendencies. These often coincide with the uric acid tendency to express
+itself in &#8220;storms,&#8221; like other periodical phenomena of the nervous system.
+In consequence, &#8220;sexual storms&#8221; result in neuropaths, whether the
+neuropathy be inherited or acquired. Local genital organ irritation leads
+to scratching. From this are produced &#8220;masturbation storms,&#8221; which the
+subject loathes but cannot control. These occur also from the direct
+effects of constipation, as well as from the worms and other parasites
+which constipation fosters in the bowel. Teachers, by compelling children
+to retain urine through fear of masturbation, often lead to what they
+intend to prevent. At the outset masturbation and sexual explosions are
+often a physical expression of school strain destitute of moral
+significance. They are removable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> by removing the school strain and its
+consequences. If strengthened by protracted existence they intensify
+degeneracy due to school strain.</p>
+
+<p>The states of imperfect nutrition, resultant from nerve strains on gland
+function, in this way and in others, interfere with the proper evolution
+of puberty and the involutional changes at the &#8220;change of life,&#8221; which
+occurs in both sexes. The conditions of &#8220;nervous cough,&#8221; of so-called
+&#8220;catarrh,&#8221; and its ally, bronchorrh&oelig;a, are often found as expressions
+of the systemic exhaustion from school strain, and are treated as purely
+local conditions.</p>
+
+<p>School strain, therefore, produces, like all the acquired factors of
+degeneracy, a systemic nervous exhaustion which may be expressed either in
+general neuropathy or hysteria after puberty, or in the tropho-neuroses,
+like gout and allied states, or in epilepsy or arterial change,
+predisposing to rupture of arteries at periods of stress, with resultant
+convulsions and paralysis.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">The Degenerate Cranium</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> cranium or skull is a development in part of the vertebr&aelig; or bones
+forming the backbone, and in part of dermal or membranous bones, which of
+old in reptiles, as in the alligator to-day, formed the protective armour
+of the skin of the head. As the head end of the spinal cord of the
+lancelet developed, the cartilage enclosing it developed to protect it.
+This was the earlier evolution. Later, another skull developed in
+connection with this. The cranium or skull therefore has, as Minot
+remarks,<a name="fna_188_188" id="fna_188_188"></a><a href="#fn_188_188"><small>[188]</small></a> a double origin, or, rather, there are two skulls which were
+originally distinct. In evolution from the lowest fish to the highest
+mammal, and in the embryonic development of man, these become united.</p>
+
+<p>The primary skull, as already stated, is practically an extension of the
+vertebr&aelig;, which send side outgrowths to cover the brain as the backbone
+covers the spinal cord. This primary skull extended in front of the
+notochord (the spinal cord of the human embryo, and the permanent spinal
+cord of the lancelet), where it gave off two trabecul&aelig; cranii or front<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+skull plates. Behind, the primary skull or chondrocranium gives off two
+occipal or rear skull plates. It gives off also two plates midway between
+the trabecul&aelig; and occipitals, which, as they gradually enclose the
+primitive hearing apparatus, the otocysts (permanent in fish, and
+embryonic in man), are called periotic capsules. This primary skull is at
+first cartilaginous, as in sharks. With the increase in the size of the
+brain in evolution and in human embryology, this cartilaginous primary
+skull became insufficient to roof over the brain, and thus resulted gaps
+in it. The fontanelles, or soft places at the top, sides, and back of the
+head of the new-born child, are the remains of this failure of the
+chondrocranium, or primary skull, to cover the gains of the nervous system
+in the struggle for existence. This deficiency, resultant on advance in
+evolution, would have been a long-standing serious block to further
+advance, were it not that the skin of the mammal retained a function
+inherited from the reptiles and bony fish.</p>
+
+<p>These cavities were filled by dermal bones, which, at first serving merely
+as armour in the skin of the head, came to be protectors of the nervous
+system. The following bones represent these dermal bones in the embryonic
+human skull: The frontals, which form the chief part of the forehead; the
+sutures, or dovetails, of these normally disappear in the adult, so that
+the forehead seems to be but one bone. This union may not occur (Fig. <a href="#fig_7">7</a>),
+as in the case of the philosopher Kant, who had a frontal suture all his
+life. The dovetails are replaced by solid bone, through a process called
+synostosis. In the case of the frontal bone it is normal, and in the line
+of advance. Elsewhere in the skull it is often an expression of defect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+which may give rise to various cranial states which are either absolutely
+degenerate in type or degenerate only when occurring in certain races. The
+parietals and interparietals are also dermal bones which are united by
+synostosis to form the parietals or side bones of the normal adult skull.
+The nasal bones which, together with the vomer, form the nose, are
+likewise dermal bones, and so are the pterygoids and palatines. The
+maxillaries and pr&aelig;maxillaries, which, with the mandibles, form the jaws,
+are dermal bones. The mandibles, however, are in part derived from the
+chondrocranium.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 301px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_7.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 7.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>With rise in evolution, and during the progress of human embryonic
+development, these bones become fewer through their early gristly union or
+their synostosis. The openings in the skull resultant on the deficiencies
+in the chondrocranium are larger in the sauropsida (birds and reptiles)
+than in the ichthyopsida (amphibious and fish); in the monotremata
+(egg-laying mammals) than in the sauropsida; in the marsupials (pouched
+mammals) than in the monotremata, and in the higher mammals than in the
+marsupials. The development of the brain therefore depends on the growing
+and expanding power of the secondary skull formed by the dermal bones.
+These, considered as bones, are degenerate from the high type of the
+vertebr&aelig;, and are a mere reminiscence of that outer skeleton whereby early
+fish and reptiles emulated the lobster. The influence of any check to
+development such as produces degeneracy, is exerted first on the
+development of the bone itself, and finally on the relation to other bones
+by dovetailing.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the general laws governing growth, deficiency in one
+place is apt to result in increase elsewhere. The brain-protective
+function of the dermal bones being later in development than their old
+armour function, is apt to be checked by degeneracy in two ways; in the
+first the bone does not grow in size or sufficiently to unite with its
+fellows, or this growth occurs only for the benefit of the bone itself,
+through Spencer&#8217;s law of individuation, so that union with the other bones
+occurs too early for the benefit of the organism as a whole. To the
+factors underlying this is due the non-increase in intellect after puberty
+which occurs in the higher apes, and in some of the lower races of men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>These checks also tend to the nutritional benefit of the older primary
+skull, whence result the irregularities in development that constitute so
+many of the stigmata of the degenerate cranium. The sutures sometimes do
+not form because sufficient gristle is not produced to fill the gaps.
+(Fig. <a href="#fig_8">8</a>.) These secondary gaps are often filled by new dermal bones called
+Wormian. Sometimes this deficiency coexists with too early synostosis
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_8.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 8.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Degenerate skulls have therefore been divided from the standpoint of these
+various unions (by synostosis or otherwise) and non-unions of the sutures,
+on the principle that premature synostosis of a suture produces shortness
+of the diameter, perpendicular to the direction of the obliterated
+suture.<a name="fna_189_189" id="fna_189_189"></a><a href="#fn_189_189"><small>[189]</small></a> The bones stop growing prematurely at the seat of the
+synostosis, but the unaffected borders continue growing. The following
+types result on this principle:</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 439px;"><img src="images/fig_9.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 9.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>I. Simple macrocephaly (largeness of head). (<i>a</i>) Hydrocephaly (water in
+the head. Fig. <a href="#fig_9">9</a>.) (<i>b</i>) Kephalones (all heads. Fig. <a href="#fig_10">10</a>), without
+hydrocephaly. These two conditions result from the inability of the dermal
+bones to fill at the proper period the gaps in the chondrocranium. Neither
+of these denotes complete intellectual degeneracy on the one hand, nor
+vast intellect on the other. Cuvier was a case of healed-up hydrocephalus,
+whence his large brain and skull. In a case of kephalones observed by
+Kiernan there was a brain-weight of 68 ounces. The patient was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> an
+imbecile, practically unteachable.<a name="fna_190_190" id="fna_190_190"></a><a href="#fn_190_190"><small>[190]</small></a> Both these conditions denote deep
+degeneracy, which, however, may find expression elsewhere than in the
+moral sense or intellect.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 355px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_10.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 10.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 316px;"><img src="images/fig_11.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 11.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>II. Simple microcephaly (smallness of head. Fig. <a href="#fig_11">11</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> or nannocephaly
+(dwarf head). As a rule these are found among idiots, but much has been
+done by training, even for them. Many seemingly great intellects, however,
+have heads approaching, if not reaching this type.<a name="fna_191_191" id="fna_191_191"></a><a href="#fn_191_191"><small>[191]</small></a> Des Cartes,
+Foscolo, and Schumann had sub-microcephaly. The poet Shelley had a head
+belonging very nearly to this category, but while he exhibited many
+stigmata of degeneracy, that of intellectual deficiency was wanting. This
+type of skull, however, is usually associated with deep degeneracy. It
+represents in man the condition underlying the premature suture-closing
+which occurs in the ape. It sometimes may exist with considerable
+intellect, as in the case of Donizetti. Sometimes this suture-closing
+directly prevents brain growth. This condition is rarer than many surgeons
+admit, but it does occur, as witness the cases of Vico, Malebranche, and
+Clement VI. The fact that these three fractured their skulls in infancy
+saved them from being imbeciles and idiots like their brothers, sisters,
+and cousins.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 400px; height: 378px;"><img src="images/fig_12.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 12.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>III. Dolichocephaly (long-headedness. Fig. <a href="#fig_12">12</a>). (<i>a</i>) Upper middle
+synostosis. (1) Simple dolichocephaly is due to synostosis of the
+sagittal, or antero-posterior suture of the skull. Whether this be due to
+degeneracy or not depends entirely on the race in which it occurs. The
+ultra-dolichocephaly of Daniel O&#8217;Connell was due, in Kiernan&#8217;s opinion, to
+his birth in an Irish district settled by dolichocephalics. Undoubtedly
+dolichocephaly is tending to mesocephaly (medium size of head). Even the
+negro, generally regarded by ethnologists as dolichocephalic, is tending
+in this direction, as numerous observations of my own show.
+Dolichocephaly, however, while it does not demonstrate, suggests
+degeneracy, since it seems to be a disappearing type of skull. The changes
+in American families in this particular indicate this. (2) Sphenocephaly
+(wedge-shape of head. Fig. <a href="#fig_13">13</a>) is due to synostosis of the sagittal
+suture, with compensatory growth in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> region of the large fontanelle.
+(<i>b</i>) Dolichocephalic states, resulting from inferior lateral synostosis
+are: (1) Leptocephaly (narrowness of head), due to synostosis of the
+frontal and sphenoid bones. (2) Klinocephaly (saddle-shaped head) is due
+to synostosis of the parietal bones with the greater wings of the
+sphenoid, or of the parietal with the squamous portion of the temporal
+bone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_13" id="fig_13"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 343px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_13.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 13.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_14" id="fig_14"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 362px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_14.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 14.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>IV. Brachycephaly (shortness of head. Fig. <a href="#fig_14">14</a>). The pure type like pure
+dolichocephaly is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> necessarily by itself evidence of degeneracy, as it
+may represent race. It is, however, a disappearing type of skull, and
+hence should lead to critical examination. In the case of the philosopher
+Kant his ultra-brachycephaly could not be charged to race, since he sprang
+from dolichocephalic Scotch on one side and dolichocephalic Germans on the
+other. (<i>a</i>) Posterior stenosis. (1) Pachycephaly (thickness of head) is
+due to synostosis of the parietal bone with the occipital. (2) Oxycephaly
+(sugar-loaf head) is due to synostosis of the parietal bones and the
+occipital with compensatory growth of the region of the anterior
+fontanelle; a variety of this is acrocephaly (spire head). (<i>b</i>) Upper,
+anterior, and lateral synostosis. (1) Platycephaly (flat head. Fig. <a href="#fig_15">15</a>),
+or ch&aelig;macephaly, is due to extensive synostosis of the temporal bones with
+the parietal. Kant, in addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> to his cranial stigmata, had this
+condition. (2) Trochocephaly (roundness of head) is due to partial
+synostosis of the frontals and parietals in the centre of the coronal
+suture. (3) Plagiocephaly (wry head. Fig. <a href="#fig_16">16</a>) is due to unilateral
+synostosis of the frontal and parietal bones. (<i>c</i>) Brachycephaly due to
+inferior medium synostosis. Simple brachycephaly is due to early
+synostosis of the nasal and sphenoid.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_15" id="fig_15"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 395px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_15.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 15.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>To these should be added kyphocephaly (lump head), due to synostosis of
+the posterior part of the squamous portion of the temporal and the
+parietal bones with Wormian bones in the lambdoid fissure. Tapeisocephaly
+(low head) is due to synostosis of the great wings of the sphenoid with
+the frontal. Scaphocephaly (boat-shaped head. Fig. <a href="#fig_17">17</a>) was a term applied
+by Von Baer to skulls which are very narrow and compressed at the sides,
+and in which there is no trace of the sagittal suture, but its region is
+so elevated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> that the skull cap has the form of a keel boat bottom upward.
+Trigonocephaly (triangular head) is a variety of scaphocephaly in which
+depression occurs in place of the keel. Sir Walter Scott had a skull in
+which premature closure of the sagittal suture produced the appearance of
+scaphocephaly, but compensation for this elsewhere produced a decidedly
+different type. Scott presented neurotic phenomena during youth, albeit
+the brain disease from which he died had anything but a degenerate origin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_16" id="fig_16"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 264px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_16.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 16.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_17" id="fig_17"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 400px; height: 381px;"><img src="images/fig_17.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 17.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Morton and Catlin claim that while the artificial distortions of the
+cranium may play a part in developing synostosis these have no effect upon
+the intellectual functions. It has been stated further that there are no
+mental data to show the effect of artificial malformation of the child&#8217;s
+head during development. Frederick Peterson expresses the opinion that
+this practice only exists among the lower races<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> of mankind. In this he is
+in decided error, since, as Barnard Davis pointed out many years ago, the
+practice is far more widespread than is usually suspected. It was common
+all over Europe, was practised by the Turanians, by the Slaves, by the
+Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. Less than half a century ago
+Foville<a name="fna_192_192" id="fna_192_192"></a><a href="#fn_192_192"><small>[192]</small></a> proved that the nurses in Normandy were still giving
+children&#8217;s heads a sugar-loaf shape by bandages and a tight cap. In
+Britanny they preferred to press it round. In those districts Foville
+found that not only congenital cranial irregularities of all types, but
+epilepsy, idiocy, and insanity were exceedingly frequent. As customs like
+these survive in folklore long after the original superstition which gave
+them birth, it is exceedingly probable that such crop out in descendants
+of these races to the present day, to confront the anthropologist with
+some remarkable crania. Tylor<a name="fna_193_193" id="fna_193_193"></a><a href="#fn_193_193"><small>[193]</small></a>
+is of opinion that without <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>respecting
+the repressive action of the Government, the Bretons and Normans secretly
+continue this practice. Despite the labours of Foville these people openly
+defied the Government for ten years.</p>
+
+<p>Certain conditions of the occiput have been described as associated with
+degeneracy. As Obici<a name="fna_194_194" id="fna_194_194"></a><a href="#fn_194_194"><small>[194]</small></a>
+and Dei Vecchio<a name="fna_195_195" id="fna_195_195"></a><a href="#fn_195_195"><small>[195]</small></a> have shown, the occipital
+condyle, in man normally convex, abnormally varies between two extremes,
+the flat and angular condyles. The flat condyle indicates a degenerative
+type. In the angular condyle the anterior face is derived from that
+portion of the basi-occipital nucleus that normally takes part in the
+formation of the anterior condyle region; the posterior face forms the
+embryonal germ of the occipital.</p>
+
+<p>The occipital of the adult is the final outcome of the fusion of an
+uncertain number of vertebr&aelig;. The occipital bone in man is practically
+made up of five bones, union between which does not occur completely until
+the fifth or sixth year. The deficiencies in the chondrocranium appear in
+the occipital bone, which requires a small portion of the dermal bone to
+complete it on each side.</p>
+
+<p>The variability of the occipital bone which, as just shown, is so
+frequently associated with all forms of degeneracy, is still better
+understood when we remember that it is of vertebral character. The
+investing mass of the head and of the notochord is the skeleton of the
+occipital bone. Between this skeleton and the pituitary body the important
+portion of the brain formed by the occipital lobes takes its origin. As
+these lobes are practically, as Spitzka has shown,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> the great centres of
+sense and other inter-associations it is not astonishing that their
+imperfect development should be accompanied by changes in the occipital
+bone. As Crochley Clapham, Mickle, and Spitzka have shown, a flat occiput
+is common in imbecility and moral insanity. It has been found quite
+frequently in &#8220;reasoning maniacs&#8221; by Campagne. The proper development of
+the occiput influences the proper development of association tracts which
+serve as a balance wheel to the individual. The proper development of the
+occipital bone is, moreover, connected with the proper development of the
+two last vertebr&aelig;, which like it are losing their vertebral
+characteristics.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">The Degenerate Face and Nose</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> development of the face depends, as I have already shown, upon the
+enlargement and fusion of the mouth and nose cavities, and upon the later
+partial separation of the nose and mouth and the nose cavities, leaving
+the posterior nose open. It depends further upon the growth and
+specialisation of the face region, of which the elongation is the most
+prominent indication, and finally upon the development of a prominent
+external nose. The relations of face to cranium in embryology have already
+been described. When the medullary tube of the notochord enlarges to form
+the brain the end of the head bends over to make room for that
+enlargement. The bending of the head carries the mouth plate, which is to
+be the mouth, over to the front of the head. The changes which develop the
+mouth cavity are the growth of the brain and the increase in size of the
+heart cavity, which expand to the front, leaving the mouth cavity between
+them. The mouth cavity represents two gill-slits united in the front line.
+The nose is formed from two olfactory plates situated just in front of the
+mouth and in contact with the fore-brain. These olfactory plates grow in
+size by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> increase of tissue, and the resulting pits pass away from the
+brain. At first these pits, although widely separated by what is called
+the nasal process, communicate freely with the mouth. The nasal process
+includes the origin of the future nose and of the future intermaxillary
+region of the upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>The human face is modified backward from the vertebrate type. It is an
+additional illustration of the degeneracy of a series of related
+structures for the benefit of the organism as a whole. The progress of
+development of the face in the vertebrates is checked in man. First, as
+Minot remarks,<a name="fna_196_196" id="fna_196_196"></a><a href="#fn_196_196"><small>[196]</small></a> because the upright position renders it unnecessary to
+bend the head as in quadrupeds. Second, because the enormous cerebral
+development has rendered an enlargement of the brain cavity necessary.
+This has taken place by extending the cavity over the nose region as well
+as by enlarging the whole skull. Third, because the development of the
+face is arrested at an embryonic stage; the production of a long snout
+being really an advance of development which does not take place in man.
+From what has been said of the relations of the dermal bones to the nose
+and face in the chapter on the skull, it will be obvious that these must
+follow the same laws as to degeneracy as the skull itself. These checks
+from degeneracy in arrest of development are apt to affect most obviously
+the unilateral development of the face. From this results the exaggerated
+asymmetry so frequently observed.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob Baumler, the founder of the Zoar community of the United States, a
+religious fanatic, had a very marked asymmetry of the face and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> mind
+of a degenerate. His orbits were unequal, one being exceedingly large and
+the other correspondingly small.</p>
+
+<p>The human face at birth is so near that of the monkeys that if only the
+heads of both were exposed to view at birth it would be difficult for a
+casual observer to distinguish one from the other. Cope<a name="fna_197_197" id="fna_197_197"></a><a href="#fn_197_197"><small>[197]</small></a> has made the
+following classification of the head and face for comparative study: The
+relative size of the cerebral to the facial regions, the prominence of the
+forehead, the prominence of the superciliary regions, the prominence of
+the alveolar borders of the jaws, the prominence and width of the chin,
+the relation of length to width of the skull, the prominence of the
+cheek-bones, the form of the nose, the relative size of the orbits and
+eyes, the size of the mouth and lips.</p>
+
+<p>At birth in the infant ape the facial region of the skull is smaller than
+in the adult, the forehead is more prominent, the superciliary ridges are
+more prominent, the edges of the jaws are more prominent, the chin is
+less, while the cheek-bones are more prominent, the nose is without a
+bridge and has short and flat cartilages, the face is flattened, the
+orbits and eyes are smaller and closer together, the mouth is small and
+the lips thin.</p>
+
+<p>In the typical infant child as he begins to develop the cerebral part of
+the skull predominates over the facial more than in the adult, the
+superciliary ridges are not developed, the alveolar borders are not
+prominent, the cheek-bones are not prominent, the nose is without a bridge
+and the cartilages are flat and generally short, the eyes are larger. In
+this last particular the human infant resembles the lemurs and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> thus
+retains an embryonic tendency. In some degenerates this tendency remains
+unchecked, and the result is unusually large orbits as in Fig. <a href="#fig_18">18</a>. In
+other instances the human f&oelig;tus passes through this lemurian stage to
+reach and even exceed the anthropoid in smallness and closeness together.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_18" id="fig_18"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 360px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_18.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 18.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In determining a standard by which to measure the face two principles come
+into play: the general principle of evolution, and also that &aelig;sthetic
+principle governing profile, which has practically obtained supremacy,
+after long struggles for existence, from the Egyptian period of the first
+dynasty until its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> final acceptance by the Greeks, as shown, for instance,
+in the Apollo Belvedere. Indeed, so nearly does the modern standard
+approximate to the Greek, that Kingsley,<a name="fna_198_198" id="fna_198_198"></a><a href="#fn_198_198"><small>[198]</small></a> speaking of modern profiles,
+remarks that if he were to describe the American type he should be as much
+inclined to give that name to the form of features of the Apollo Belvedere
+as any other, since it is quite universal, distinctive, and possesses the
+same elements of beauty.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_19" id="fig_19"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_19.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 19.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among Aryan-speaking races this type would be accepted as the ideal one.
+Since each nationality, and peoples of the same nationality, living in
+different countries do not possess exactly the same type of face, the
+general presumption of evolution as modifying notions of beauty must also
+be taken into consideration. In the determination of the extent to which
+the profile exists the facial angle plays a part. This angle was early
+pointed out by Camper as a means of distinguishing the relative
+development of the skull and face. &#8220;The basis on which a distinction of
+nationality is founded,&#8221; said Camper, &#8220;may be displayed by two straight
+lines (Fig. <a href="#fig_19">19</a>), one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius
+to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of
+the forehead and falling thence on the most advancing portion of the upper
+jaw, the head being used in profile. In the angle produced in these two
+lines may be said to consist not only the distinctions between the skulls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+of different species of animals, but also those which are found to exist
+between different races. The angle which the facial line or characteristic
+line of the visage makes varies from 70&deg; to 80&deg; in the race. All who raise
+it higher disobey the rules of art (from imitation of the antique). All
+who bring it lower fall into the likeness of the monkeys. If I cause the
+facial line to fall in front I have the antique head. If I incline it
+backward I have the head of a negro. If I incline it still further I have
+the head of a monkey; inclined still more I have the head of a dog; and,
+lastly, that of a goose.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>This is excellently shown by the following illustrations. Fig. <a href="#fig_20">20</a> is the
+head of Johanna, the female chimpanzee of Central Park, New York City.
+This head has (by Camper&#8217;s method) an angle between 40&deg; and 50&deg;. The brain
+of this animal occupies one-third of the skull, and the jaws two-thirds.
+The negro criminal (Fig. <a href="#fig_21">21</a>) has an angle of about 70&deg;. Here the brain is
+encroaching, while the jaws are receding. The Caucasic race (Fig. <a href="#fig_22">22</a>) has
+an angle of 75&deg; to 80&deg;. In many cases the frontal development of the
+brain and resultant recession of the jaws produce an angle of 90&deg;, with a
+general result not unlike the Apollo.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_20" id="fig_20"></a><a name="fig_21" id="fig_21"></a></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_20.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_21.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">FIG. 20.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption">FIG. 21. COLOURED CRIMINAL YOUTH.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>Although the general outlines of facial evolution as sighted by Camper are
+in accord with my own views, yet, as regards accuracy, this angle is not
+an ideal from whence to study face degeneracy, since the line does not
+fall low enough to include the chin, and also, as I have elsewhere shown,
+in the degenerate, the ear varies as much as one to one and one-half
+inches upon heads of different individuals. Frequently, in the degenerate
+classes, the ears of the same individual differ as much as one inch in
+height.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_22" id="fig_22"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 239px; height: 350px;"><img src="images/fig_22.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 22.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>An ideal line, from whence to study a degenerate face, should be drawn
+perpendicularly from the supra-orbital ridge intersecting the upper and
+lower jaw and chin. While the chin of the Apollo Belvedere falls slightly
+inside of this line, yet this is hardly perceptible. Having now fixed a
+standard from which to study the degenerate face, it should be remembered
+that jaws which protrude beyond this line are atavistic, and those which
+recede are even more degenerate.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_23" id="fig_23"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 309px; height: 350px;"><img src="images/fig_23.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 23.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_24" id="fig_24"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_24.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 24.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The angle between 80&deg; and 90&deg; may be accepted as an ideal by which to
+study degeneracy. This factor alone, however, can not be accepted: the
+evolution of the face itself must be also taken into consideration. It is
+obvious that in the struggle for existence and supremacy between the brain
+and the face (both expressions of vertebrate advance), stress may be
+concentrated on one particular part. Whence result certain factors which
+modify the conclusion to be drawn from the facial angle. The hollowed out
+condition of the face from the supra-orbital ridges down to and including
+the base of the nose (illustrated in Johanna) merits attention here. The
+same condition is observable in the negro, only it extends farther down
+and includes both jaws. One jaw, however, may alone be affected. Most of
+the Chinese, Japanese, Eskimo, Polynesians, Australians, Aryan Caucasic
+Africans, and some American Indians, possess this feature. As has been
+already remarked,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> the facial regions of man and the ape up to a certain
+point are similar. Not until the sense organs of man begin to develop are
+changes noticeable in facial expression. If, through heredity or
+constitutional defect, that part of the brain which presides over
+development of the facial bones lose its control, arrest of development of
+that particular tissue results at any period between birth and the
+twenty-fifth year, while other parts of the head and face continue to
+develop. With this understanding Camper&#8217;s method can be safely applied to
+certain cases. If a line be dropped from the supra-orbital ridge to the
+upper lip in its most prominent part (Fig. <a href="#fig_23">23</a>), it will be found here that
+in place of the face presenting the full appearance illustrated in Fig. <a href="#fig_19">19</a>
+and Fig. <a href="#fig_22">22</a>, it has the hollow appearance observable in Johanna and in
+Fig. <a href="#fig_25">25</a>. This is due to arrest of development of the bones of the face and
+the upper jaw. The extent of depression depends upon the time of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> arrest,
+the frontal development of the skull, and the position of the upper jaw.
+The nose may present and retain the appearance of that of a child six
+months old, or any other shape up to normal development, but will not
+protrude from the face nor present a normal symmetrical appearance. It has
+the appearance of having been driven into the face. It has been claimed
+that the bridge of the nose is pushed out by the advancing brain and
+cranium. This may be true to a certain extent, but one is not necessarily
+dependent on the other, since an arrested nose is frequently found in a
+fully developed cranium (Fig. <a href="#fig_24">24</a>), which is not unlike Fig. <a href="#fig_23">23</a> and a
+&#8220;throw-back&#8221; to Fig. <a href="#fig_20">20</a>. This is due to the fact that in the struggle for
+existence the bones of the face and skull base became arrested early in
+life, while the brain and cranium continued to advance. The lower jaw is
+usually normal since, while the tendency to arrest may be present in a
+slight degree, mobility of the jaw often causes such increased nutrition
+of the part that normal development in many cases thereby results.
+Overlooking this fact has often led to the assertion that a large lower
+jaw exists when, in reality, this appearance is due to an arrest of the
+face and upper jaw, the lower remaining normal. The expression of
+degeneracy is rather in the arrest of the upper jaw than in the normal
+lower (see Fig. <a href="#fig_23">23</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The criminals of the Elmira Reformatory, and those of the Pontiac
+Reformatory, present marked instances of this stigma, nearly 50 per cent.
+being so affected. Arrest of the lower jaw may occur alone, or may be
+associated with arrest of development of the face (Fig. <a href="#fig_25">25</a>). When this is
+the case a deep, broad groove extends from below the eyes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> downward and
+backward to the lower jaw, also showing a lateral arrest of development,
+producing a hatchet-shaped face. The upper part of the face may be normal,
+and the lower jaw arrested antero-posteriorly.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_25" id="fig_25"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 325px; height: 350px;"><img src="images/fig_25.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 25.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_26" id="fig_26"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 239px; height: 350px;"><img src="images/fig_26.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 26.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>It has been broadly asserted that this is an atavism, but more probably it
+is an expression of that phase of evolution whereby both jaws are becoming
+subservient to the advance in evolution represented by the gains of the
+brain and cranium. When both jaws are arrested Camper&#8217;s disobedience of
+the rules of art, whereby the facial angle is increased over 90&deg;, occurs.
+This condition has been found in many degenerates. Almost invariably in
+connection with the arrest of development of the face occurs arrest of the
+bones of the nose. The diameter of the nasal cavities is much smaller
+than normal. Owing to the unstable condition of the nervous system there
+is also hypertrophy of the turbinate bone and mucous membrane of the nose
+and throat, tonsil hypertrophy, arrested development of the chest walls
+and lung tissue, and unstable mucous membranes throughout the lungs. Such
+a degenerate face, body, and unstable nervous system is a fruitful soil
+for the germs of tuberculosis. In these cases even a casual glance will
+show that the two halves of the face and head are not symmetrically
+developed. It looks as though the two halves were made separately and
+joined together, one half higher than the other. This condition is
+excellently illustrated in Fig. <a href="#fig_26">26</a>. In this case the left half is higher
+than the right. (Frequently the right side is the higher.) There is arrest
+of the upper and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> lower jaw. The left corner of the mouth is higher than
+the right. The left half of the lower jaw is higher than the right, the
+body of the lower jaw is longer, the ramus is shorter. The left eye and
+ear are higher. The left supra-orbital ridge is higher. The ears stand
+almost at right angles, while the malar processes are quite prominent.
+Viewing the face from a three-quarters&#8217; angle (which should always be done
+in making an examination, or photographing the degenerate face for study)
+it will be found that there is not only arrest of development of the bones
+of the face, but also of the lower jaw.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated in the chapter on the cranium, the nasal bones belong to
+the dermal category, their special function as nose bones being a later
+acquisition. In their acquirement of this function they have passed
+through many changes, especially as the human face in its nasal features
+has assumed an embryonic type. In consequence, like all late embryonic
+acquisitions, degeneracy is apt to involve the nose.</p>
+
+<p>When arrest of development of the face takes place stigmata of the nasal
+bones always result. Under such conditions narrowing or arrest of
+development of the entire nasal cavity ensues.</p>
+
+<p>Deformities of the nasal septum, deflection, hypertrophy and atrophy of
+the turbinate bones, deformities of the maxillary sinus, hypertrophy of
+the mucous membrane and polypi are common. Deflection of the external nose
+is a very common stigma of degeneracy. Not only is the septum involved,
+but also the outer plates of the nasal cavity. So unstable are the bones
+of the face in their development that it is not an uncommon thing for the
+nasal process of the upper jaw on one side to be much more developed than
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> other. Not only is the nasal septum involved, but also the bones of
+the face as well, producing a fulness on the long side of the face. This
+stigma is very common among criminal youth. In such cases the deflected
+septum is due to the development of the outer plate and not <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>.
+Deflection of the septum to the left may entirely obliterate (as in Fig.
+<a href="#fig_27">27</a>) the left nasal cavity. If one nostril of a rabbit be permanently
+closed, after the animal has attained its full growth, the nasal cavity of
+the affected side remains undeveloped and facial asymmetry results.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_27" id="fig_27"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 421px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_27.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 27.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Therefore two factors are common: first, the arrest of development of the
+bones of the nose, and second, the clogging of the cavity, both active
+agents in producing a closure, resulting in mouth-breathing.</p>
+
+<p>Coexisting with these is often (as in Fig. <a href="#fig_27">27</a>) smallness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> of the upper
+jaw. In the same connection grooved teeth occur, as in the same
+illustration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_28" id="fig_28"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 408px;"><img src="images/fig_28.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 28.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The turbinated (Fig. <a href="#fig_28">28</a>) bones are often hypertrophied, as is also the
+nasal septum (vomer or dividing bone) and the mucous membrane. This
+results from the general instability of the nervous system with its
+special expression in increased blood supply, whence occur overgrowth in
+and imperfect work by the mucous membrane, causing mouth-breathing and
+polypi, which again increase this defect. All these predispose to germ
+invasion.</p>
+
+<p>In the figure are also shown grooves upon the teeth. Sufficient symptoms
+are here evident to stamp this as a marked degenerate skull.</p>
+
+<p>Hypertrophy of the turbinate bones, septum, and mucous membrane, as it
+occurs among degenerates, appears in Fig. <a href="#fig_29">29</a>, and is due, first, to an
+unstable nervous system, and, second, a larger system of blood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> vessels
+which ramify through these parts. Stimulation, together with the stenosis
+(narrowing), tend to produce a closure. Still further, irritation and an
+unstable mucous membrane results, with polypi or adenoid vegetation
+following.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_29" id="fig_29"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 420px;"><img src="images/fig_29.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 29.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Not only do deflection of septum and hypertrophy of the nasal bones occur,
+but the antrum (cavity behind the nose) may be almost entirely
+obliterated, while the upper jaw is arrested (Fig. <a href="#fig_29">29</a>). The antrum may be
+entirely wanting, as in Fig. <a href="#fig_30">30</a>; so unstable may these tissues develop
+that the nasal cavities may become almost entirely obliterated, as
+observed in this figure.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_30" id="fig_30"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 418px;"><img src="images/fig_30.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 30.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>These conditions are due to the unstable structure and large nerve and
+blood supply. Perhaps one of the most interesting points in connection
+with degeneracy of the nose is the fact that in most cases the structures
+are either arrested or excessively developed, to the extent of the entire
+absence of the inferior turbinate bone. This was the case in a girl
+thirteen years of age who died of tuberculosis. Her skull revealed many
+other forms of degeneracy as well. The deviation in the development of the
+two nasal cavities results from the excessive and arrested development of
+the turbinates, thus preventing inhalation and exhalation of air, the free
+side developing and the closed side remaining undeveloped. In such case
+the nose is deflected to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> right or left, depending on which side is
+arrested. When both nostrils are closed the nose becomes thin and pointed
+and mouth-breathing results. In degenerate nasal cavities polypi (tumours)
+are apt to occur.</p>
+
+<p>Persons with long, thin noses, arrested nasal cavities, sunken faces (as a
+result mouth-breathers), and with contracted chest walls are the subjects
+for tuberculosis. In such cases, especially when the nervous system is
+unstable, the different forms of catarrh are present. This condition
+worries the youth under the strain of puberty. To the catarrh which is
+merely a result is ascribed his constitutional defects. These somatic
+signs are quite noticeable in most of these cases, and by early
+recognition proper treatment, with change of climate, frequently prolongs
+life for years.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called erectile tissue of the nose (containing blood whose flow is
+checked through spasm to increase sensation), that relic of a time when
+smell played a greater part among the senses, is apt to be affected by
+degeneracy either as to its excessive or imperfect development. From this
+comes the bleeding of the nose, so frequently an expression of nerve
+strain at puberty, which may take the place of menstruation. It is to be
+noted that while true h&aelig;mophilia (&#8220;bleeder&#8221; tendency) occurs chiefly in
+boys, epistaxis shows itself very frequently in their sisters. A
+remarkable illustration of this was reported by Dr. Delia E. Howe,<a name="fna_199_199" id="fna_199_199"></a><a href="#fn_199_199"><small>[199]</small></a> of
+the Fort Wayne (Indiana) School for the Feeble-minded. In cases of
+so-called male menstruation<a name="fna_200_200" id="fna_200_200"></a><a href="#fn_200_200"><small>[200]</small></a>
+the symptom is apt to be epistaxis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>The irregularity in blood supply predisposes the nose to attacks on its
+structure from pathogenic germs. Hay fever is an expression of nervous
+instability of these structures, and is especially apt to occur in
+neurasthenics, hysterics, and degenerates.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Degeneracy of the Lip, Palate, Eye, and Ear</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Each</span> part or sense organ may, independently of the face as a whole,
+exhibit signs of degeneracy. The palate, lip, nose, eye, and ear have
+their own expressions of degeneracy. The palate, so far as the joining of
+its two parts is concerned, resists degeneracy to a remarkable degree. The
+cleft, which results from non-union, is usually an expression of general
+degeneracy acted on by its nutritive expression, albeit cleft-palate may
+be associated with the graver degeneracies like idiocy.</p>
+
+<p>As the subjects of the deeper degeneracies associated with cleft-palate
+usually perish in early infancy, the nutritive degeneracies are most
+frequently found associated with cleft-palate in adult life. The mouth in
+the vertebrates does not agree in character with the invertebrate mouth.
+The mouth has grown in proportion to evolution in the lower vertebrates.
+It is larger, however, in proportion in the human embryo than in the
+adult. In this it agrees with the general lower type of the human face.
+The human chin is at first retreating, and does not become distinctly
+prominent until the fifth month of f&oelig;tal life. The nose separates from
+the mouth toward the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> second month. It is at first short and
+broad and resembles at three months the type of some of the lower negro
+races. When the nose is separated from the mouth a partition forms between
+the cavities of the nose and the mouth, later supplemented by the true
+palate, which divides the mouth into an upper respiratory passage and a
+lower digestive passage. This palate is partly composed of bone and partly
+of flesh. The fleshy part ends in what is called the uvula. This is very
+subject to abnormalities, as has been pointed out by C. L. Dana; it is a
+very frequent mark of degeneracy. Dickens noticed the uvular tone of voice
+in young thieves, due to deformity of the uvula.</p>
+
+<p>Cleft palates are comparatively rare in proportion to other forms of
+nutritive degeneracy. Palatal embryology casts light on the causation. At
+a very early period of f&oelig;tal life a series of clefts appear on each
+side of the cephalic extremity, separated by rods of tissue called
+branchial arches. The clefts communicate with the alimentary canal. These
+various clefts have usually coalesced about the ninth and tenth week of
+f&oelig;tal life, but occasionally this coalescence fails or is incomplete.
+This leads to various deformities, the chief of which are cleft palate and
+hare-lip. Cleft palate has been known to affect several members of the
+same family, and to occur in the offspring of the affected members. There
+are instances of the transmission of this deformity from an affected
+pug-bitch to her offspring. If it were possible to practise selective
+breeding in man as in dogs a race of men with hare-lips and cleft palates
+could probably be produced.<a name="fna_201_201" id="fna_201_201"></a><a href="#fn_201_201"><small>[201]</small></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_31" id="fig_31"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 293px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_31.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 31.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Cleft palate may be divided into two classes, congenital and acquired,
+acquired cleft palate being the result of disease either inherited or
+acquired, but only affecting the part after birth. Congenital cleft palate
+is divisible into two kinds, complete and partial; complete when the
+fissure extends the entire length, from the uvula to and including the
+anterior alveolar process and even the lips (Fig. <a href="#fig_31">31</a>), partial when only a
+small part of the structure is involved. Thus the cleft may extend through
+the anterior alveolar process, involving the incisive bone only, which is
+very rare; when present single or double hare-lip almost invariably
+coexists. I have observed in practice six cases where a small portion of
+the interior alveolar process was involved, with the jaw and one or two
+teeth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> The hard palate only may be involved to the extent of a small
+fissure, or the whole palate may be wanting. The soft palate only may
+contain the cleft, or simply the uvula. Cases are on record in which the
+non-development of the intermaxillary bones produces fissures in the lip.
+<i>A priori</i>, cleft palate is an evident expression of hereditary defect.
+Langdon Down found a constant relation between brain deformity, cleft
+palate, and deformed vaults.</p>
+
+<p>In a case cited elsewhere,<a name="fna_202_202" id="fna_202_202"></a><a href="#fn_202_202"><small>[202]</small></a> three members of one family had cleft
+palate; one 17 years old, the other 30, and the third 35. The first and
+last are women, the other a married man with a family, who have no trace
+of the father&#8217;s deformity. In these cases no instance of cleft palate
+could be found either among the ancestors or the collateral branches of
+the family.</p>
+
+<p>Another family has a remarkable history. G. H. C., born 1853, perfect; L.
+C., born 1855, single hare-lip and cleft palate; J. F. C., born 1856,
+perfect; F. W. C., born 1860, double hare-lip and cleft palate; H. E. C.,
+born 1868, perfect. The paternal grandmother also had cleft palate.</p>
+
+<p>Knecht found that 5 per cent. of 1,200 criminals examined had cleft
+palate. Fourteen per cent. of the prostitutes examined by Pauline
+Tarnowsky had cleft palates. Langdon Down, among congenital idiots, found
+only a half per cent. of cleft palates. Grenzer found only nine cases in
+14,466 children, or one in 1,607. I examined 1,977 feeble-minded children
+without finding a single case. In 207 blind only one case was observed. In
+1,235 deaf mutes two cases were found. The percentage among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> defective
+classes, while not large, is, undoubtedly, much larger than among normal
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p>A keeper of the Zoological Gardens in Philadelphia observed cleft palate
+in the mouths of lion cubs born in the gardens. Cleft palates were also
+observed in a number of pups born in Buffalo. Dr. Ogle found that 99 per
+cent. of the lion cubs born in the London Zoological Gardens had cleft
+palates. He claims that this is due to the artificial diet, as the result
+of enforced captivity. Similar results observed in other gardens in Europe
+are charged to feeding the mothers with meat without bone, as feeding with
+the whole carcass of small animals greatly diminished these deformities.
+It would seem that if cleft palate is due to this cause other bony
+structures should also be involved, and, as a matter of fact, many of the
+lions born in captivity are rickety. Cleft palate has been observed among
+dogs, sheep, goats, &amp;c. The question, therefore, whether domesticity here
+does not play the alleged part of civilisation in man can be solved only
+by a knowledge of the frequency of the condition among wild animals of the
+same genus. It is evident that, in dealing with the question of &aelig;tiology,
+the influence of shock on the mother&#8217;s nervous system cannot be excluded
+in the cases charged to feeding.</p>
+
+<p>It should be remembered that cleft palate is a factor which predisposes to
+death by infectious diseases whose local manifestations are in the mouth
+and throat; hence the majority of the degenerates in whom cleft palate
+occurs are liable to die before the completion of their fifth year.
+Hare-lip (Fig. <a href="#fig_32">32</a>) is an exceedingly hereditary disorder, as Murray,
+Demarquay, Tr&eacute;lat, Hutchinson, F&eacute;r&eacute;, Marsh, Lucas,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> Ireland, and others
+have shown. It occurs with great frequency in almost all forms of
+degeneracy. Kiernan, of Chicago, has found that 5 per cent. of the
+hereditary lunatics in that city and in New York City have hare-lip.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_32" id="fig_32"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 279px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_32.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 32.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>How far degeneracy may turn back the page of evolution is excellently
+illustrated in the cyclopian descendants of degenerate families elsewhere
+cited from Kiernan, of Chicago. While there is a seeming conflict as to
+the primitive eye type of vertebrates between morphologists represented by
+Howard Ayres<a name="fna_203_203" id="fna_203_203"></a><a href="#fn_203_203"><small>[203]</small></a>
+(who claims that the eyes were derived from the median<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+eye of the ascidian lancelet) and Semper<a name="fna_204_204" id="fna_204_204"></a><a href="#fn_204_204"><small>[204]</small></a> (who is of the opinion that
+the existing vertebrate eyes represent the paired eyes of a hypothetical
+annelid precursor); still both opinions are fully reconcilable through the
+results of study of the ascidian and lancelet eye collated with cyclopian
+and triophthalmic (three-eyed) degeneracies in man, the human eye and the
+third eye of reptiles like the hatteria of New Zealand. The eye of the
+ascidian tadpole agrees fundamentally with the type of eye peculiar to the
+vertebrates in that the retina is derived from the wall of the brain. On
+this account it is called a myolonic eye. In the typical invertebrate eye,
+on the contrary, the retinal cells are differentiated from the external
+ectoderm.</p>
+
+<p>The ascidian eye, however, differs, as Osborn<a name="fna_205_205" id="fna_205_205"></a><a href="#fn_205_205"><small>[205]</small></a> remarks, essentially
+from the paired eyes of the craniate (skulled) vertebrates in that the
+lens as well as the retina is derived from the wall of the brain. The lens
+of the lateral eye of the vertebrates is derived by an invagination of the
+ectoderm, which meets and fits in the retinal cup at the end of the optic
+vesicle. The ascidian eye, however, agrees in respect to the origin of its
+lens with the parietal or pineal eye of the lizard, in which the lens is
+likewise derived from cells which form part of the wall of the cerebral
+outgrowth which gives rise to the pineal body.</p>
+
+<p>The pineal body is another of those remarkable rudimentary structures
+whose constant presence in all groups of vertebrates forms such an
+eminently characteristic median outgrowth from the dorsal wall of the
+brain (thalamencephalon), the distal extremity of which dilates into a
+vesicle and becomes separated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> from the proximal portion. The distal
+vesicle becomes entirely constricted off from the primary epiphysial
+(pineal) outgrowth of the brain, and the parietal nerve does not represent
+the primitive connection of the pineal eye with the roof of the brain, but
+arises quite independently of the proximal portion of the epiphysis.</p>
+
+<p>The remote ancestors of the vertebrates possessed a median, unpaired,
+myolonic eye, which was subsequently replaced in function by the evolution
+of the paired eyes. The cyclopic condition occurs very frequently among
+human monstrosities, much more frequently than among animals, Hannover
+claims,<a name="fna_206_206" id="fna_206_206"></a><a href="#fn_206_206"><small>[206]</small></a> but this is clearly due to the fact that human monstrosities
+are much more frequently recorded. Of the 120 cases I have been able to
+collect from literature, 56 presented other evidences of degeneracy than
+cyclopic conditions, and 60 had neuropathic or other taint in the
+ancestry. Dareste<a name="fna_207_207" id="fna_207_207"></a><a href="#fn_207_207"><small>[207]</small></a> has shown that the production of a single eye, the
+changes in the structure of the mouth, the atrophy and abnormal situation
+of the olfactory apparatus and of the vesicle of the hemispheres, all
+result from an arrest of development. The determining influence must be
+exerted very early in the life history of the embryo.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_33" id="fig_33"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 389px;"><img src="images/fig_33.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 33.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Hannover points out that there often is coincident hydrocephalus and
+harelip, imperfect genital development, and allied arrest of development.
+J. R. Folsom, of Cecil, Georgia, has reported a female, born alive to a
+negro multipara, who died two hours after birth. The eye was centrally
+located in the forehead, on a line with the nose. The brow was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> complete
+arch, as was the upper eyelid. The lower lid had a mark midway, indicating
+an attempt at division. The nasal bones were wanting, but the soft part of
+the nose, destitute of the orifice, hung over the mouth, which was
+completely covered. The chin was recedent. C. Phisalix described a case in
+which the nose was wanting. Its place in the median was occupied by a
+single eye; on the horizontal diameter were two pupils separated by a
+narrow space. Landolt, discussing a case reported by Valude, points out
+that in cyclopic eyes all the parts may be double or united in every
+degree except that there is never a single lens or double vitreous. Bock
+and others, however, describe cases in which the eye has not been formed
+by the conglomeration of two separately developed eyes, but it is a single
+developed eye; the other being wanting entirely. Bruce reports a cyclop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+in which there was a single socket for the eye of a lozenge-shape,
+situated in the lower middle of the forehead. The socket was furnished
+with two pairs of eyelids, upper and lower. The eye was found to consist
+of two rudimentary eyes, with two rudimentary retin&aelig;, apparently springing
+from a single optic vesicle. The nose was represented by a short process
+attached to the forehead, above the median eye.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_34" id="fig_34"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 424px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_34.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 34.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The cyclops illustrated (Figs. <a href="#fig_33">33</a>, <a href="#fig_34">34</a>) was born to a 17-year old
+neuropathic primipara, after a protracted labour. The child was living,
+but was killed by pressure on the funis. The mouth contained an ivory,
+tusk-like tooth at each corner. There was mane-like hair around the neck.</p>
+
+<p>Cyclopia is very frequently associated with the absence of both the
+internal and external ear, and with synotia (joined ears).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>In triophthalmic cases the three eyes are usually separate, two occupying
+the usual position, while the third is situated as illustrated in the case
+cited. Ninety families of degenerates, averaging eleven children each, had
+five cases of cyclops.</p>
+
+<p>Degeneracy, which affects so deeply the development of the eye, naturally
+tends to evince itself in other anomalous states in the organ. As
+excessive asymmetry of the body is one of the most noticeable of the
+stigmata of degeneracy, it is not astonishing to find that this asymmetry
+expresses itself both in the position as well as in the size and structure
+of the eye. As Kiernan<a name="fna_208_208" id="fna_208_208"></a><a href="#fn_208_208"><small>[208]</small></a> pointed out, twenty years ago, asymmetrical
+irides are exceedingly frequent in the types of insanity due to hereditary
+defect. This observation has since been confirmed by F&eacute;r&eacute;,<a name="fna_209_209" id="fna_209_209"></a><a href="#fn_209_209"><small>[209]</small></a> not only
+as to the insane, but as to other classes of the degenerate. The
+conditions of the eye known as microphthalmia (small eye), macrophthalmia
+(big eyes) and anophthalmia (absence of eyes), are found quite frequent in
+degenerate families. Very frequently the pupil of the eye is asymmetrical.
+This was pointed out by Kiernan in the case of Guiteau. Corectopia
+(displacement of the pupil so that it is not in the centre of the iris)
+often exists. Coloboma (eye fissure) is also not infrequent among the
+degenerate. These vary greatly in situation and general results. The iris
+is sometimes completely absent on one or both sides. Beside the anomalies,
+diseased conditions like retinitis pigmentosa, congenital cataract and the
+macular degeneracy cited by C. P. Pinckard,<a name="fna_210_210" id="fna_210_210"></a><a href="#fn_210_210"><small>[210]</small></a> of Chicago, are far from
+infrequent expressions of degenerate taint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> in the eye; the organ in this
+particular obeying the general law that degeneracy may show itself in the
+minute change resulting in disturbance of function or in that producing
+disease, or, finally, in atavism. The defects of the eyes requiring
+glasses are exceedingly frequent in degenerates, and often aggravate their
+morbidity. Here, as in the case of the teeth, the chief factor is often
+ignored.</p>
+
+<p>The external ear is, of all organs, that most affected by degeneracy.<a name="fna_211_211" id="fna_211_211"></a><a href="#fn_211_211"><small>[211]</small></a>
+It is a cartilaginous organ extending from a bony base, without a bony
+framework for its support and with very deficient blood supply, on account
+of its distances from the great blood centres, so that any defect in the
+nerve centres which control the local blood supply is likely to affect its
+nutrition. As a cartilaginous organ it has no lymphatics, which of
+necessity affects its growth. The sensitiveness of the ear to vasomotor
+changes is evident by the results of the extremes in heat and cold,
+emotional blushing and fatigue. Galton reports a schoolmistress who judges
+the fatigue of her pupils by the condition of their ears. If the ears be
+white, flabby and pendant, she concludes that the children are much
+fatigued. If they be relaxed, but red, they are suffering, not from
+overwork, but from a struggle with the nervous system rarely under control
+in children. These states are very common among degenerates.</p>
+
+<p>To appreciate the degeneracy observed in the ear its embryology requires
+study. Before the end of the first month<a name="fna_212_212" id="fna_212_212"></a><a href="#fn_212_212"><small>[212]</small></a> there appears around the
+external<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> opening of the first gill-cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig_35">35</a>) a series of six
+tubercles, two in front on the hind edge of the first visceral arch, one
+above the cleft and three behind it (Fig. <a href="#fig_36">36</a>). A little later a vertical
+furrow appears down the middle of the hyoid arch, in such a way as to mark
+off a little ridge which joins on to tubercle 3 and descends behind
+tubercles 4 and 5. The second stage is reached by the growth of all the
+parts; the fusion of tubercles 2 and 3 and the growth of the ridge down
+behind tubercle 5 to become continuous with 6. After these changes it is
+not difficult to identify the parts.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_35" id="fig_35"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 275px; height: 450px;"><img src="images/fig_35.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 35.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_36" id="fig_36"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_36.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 36.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Tubercle No. 1 is the tragus; 2 and 3, together with the arching ridge,
+represent the helix; 4, the anti-helix; 5, the anti-tragus; and 6, the
+lobule; the pit between the tubercles the fossa angularis. During the
+latter part of the second month the ear changes in its proportion somewhat
+in the irregular development. The third stage begins at the third month.
+The upper and posterior part of the concha arises from the surface of the
+head, and gradually but rapidly bends forward so as to completely cover
+the anti-helix and the upper portion of the fossa angularis. During this
+stage in mammals the assumption of the pointed form of the ear commences.
+The fourth stage begins at the fourth month, when the tubercles, which are
+now joined together by cartilages, commence to unfold and are completed by
+the fifth month. Finally, the sixth tubercle develops to form the lobule.
+This unfolding or development of the tubercles to produce the different
+portions of the ear and make it complete is not unlike the development of
+a flower from the bud. By this process may be understood how if,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> by
+malnutrition in one tubercle or bud, or should there be a larger supply of
+nutriment in one than another, malformation of the ear would result. If
+arrest of development of all the tubercles should take place at any
+period, from the first to the fifth month of f&oelig;tal life, the ear would
+resemble a semi-developed flower! (Fig. <a href="#fig_37">37</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_37" id="fig_37"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 274px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_37.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 37.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_38" id="fig_38"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 289px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_38.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 38.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>As in other cases, it is necessary to fix an approximately normal standard
+for the ear from the standpoint of man&#8217;s status in evolution. The ear
+grows more or less through life, but, like the skeleton,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> practically
+reaches its full development about the twenty-sixth year. That this is not
+always the case, however, is demonstrated by the results of the
+examination of 546 persons. In an examination of 63 children between 6 and
+18 months old the ears measured from 1&middot;60 to 2&middot;12, the average being 1&middot;90
+inches; in width from &middot;75 to 1, with an average of &middot;96. In 127 children
+from 8 to 12 years old the ear measured from 1&middot;95 to 2&middot;32 inches, the
+average being 2&middot;19; width &middot;81 to 1&middot;50, the average being 1&middot;06. In 356
+persons between 12 and 50 years old the shortest ear was 2, the longest 3,
+the average 2&middot;50; width, smallest 1, largest 1&middot;50, the average being 1&middot;22
+inches. The normal ear, or rather the ideal one (for few persons possess
+it in its entirety), should have a gracefully curved outline, be nowhere
+pointed or irregular, have a well-defined helix, separated from the
+anti-helix by a distinct scaphoid fossa extending down nearly to the level
+of the anti-tragus (Fig. <a href="#fig_38">38</a>). Its root should be lost in the concha before
+reaching the anti-helix. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> anti-helix should not be unduly prominent,
+and should have a well-marked bifurcation at its superior extremity. The
+lobule should be shapely, not adherent, not too pendulous and free from
+grooves extending from the scaphoid fossa. The whole should be well
+shaped, and its proper proportion and size may be inferred from the table
+just given; in the adult it should not average over two and a half inches
+in length and one and a quarter in breadth.</p>
+
+<p>The aural deformities that fall under the head of stigmata, or have been
+classed as such, affect all portions of the external ear. The helix may be
+imperfect, it may be angular, from Darwin&#8217;s tubercle it may lack its
+inward roll, it may be interrupted, the root of the helix may extend
+inward completely across the concha, and in very rare instances it may be
+bifurcated. The anti-helix may be unduly prominent or be insignificant;
+the scaphoid fossa may extend through the lobule or be triple.<a name="fna_213_213" id="fna_213_213"></a><a href="#fn_213_213"><small>[213]</small></a> The
+lobule may be adherent and sometimes almost absent, thus producing the
+jug-handle-shaped, or so-called Morel ear. It may be exaggerated in size;
+the whole ear may be misshapen, too large or <ins class="correction" title="original: two">too</ins> small. These deformities
+may exist in nearly every degree, only when pronounced can they be
+considered as stigmata. Others have been noted, but their importance as
+signs of degeneracy is not very significant unless they co-exist with
+several of those above mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_39" id="fig_39"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 285px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_39.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 39.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The ears of degenerates frequently grow in later life to an enormous size.
+On examination of 207 paupers over 50 years old the shortest ear was found
+to be 2&middot;25 inches, the longest 3&middot;36; the average on the right side was
+2&middot;73, on the left 2&middot;76; the narrowest ear was &middot;88, the widest 1&middot;50, the
+average 1&middot;26. These results, compared with the results of the measurements
+of normal persons from 12 to 50 years, plainly demonstrate that the ears
+of degenerates grow after the twenty-sixth year, when the skeleton has
+completed its development. With such large ears other stigmata are
+generally associated. A few of the best types of stigmata of the ear
+illustrate better than any description the general characteristics. Fig.
+<a href="#fig_39">39</a> illustrates the ear <i>par excellence</i> of degeneracy, the typical
+jug-handled ear first described by Morel and called by his name. This
+consists of a long, narrow ear attached its entire length, and tapering
+upward and outward from the lobe to the point where the Darwinian tubercle
+is located, and there it may take any shape&mdash;round, straight, or
+pointed&mdash;as illustrated in the drawing. The most singular deformity of the
+helix is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> tubercle of Darwin, which is a little blunt point,
+projecting from the inwardly folded margin or helix. When present it is
+developed at birth and, according to Ludwig Meyer, more frequent in men
+than in women. Fig. <a href="#fig_40">40</a> shows ear and tubercle taken from Darwin.<a name="fna_214_214" id="fna_214_214"></a><a href="#fn_214_214"><small>[214]</small></a>
+These points not only project in toward the centre of the ear, but open a
+little outwards (Fig. <a href="#fig_41">41</a>) from its plane, so as to be visible when the
+head is viewed from directly in front and behind. They are variable in
+size, number and somewhat in position (Fig. <a href="#fig_42">42</a>), standing either a little
+higher or lower, and they sometimes occur on one ear and not on the other.
+Another marked form of ear degeneracy is one in which the ear is developed
+backward at an angle of about 45&deg; (Fig. <a href="#fig_43">43</a>). The general outline of the
+ear is fairly good. The anti-helix is much larger than it should be.
+Degeneracy usually extends deeply into the organisation of those in whom
+this ear is present.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_40" id="fig_40"></a><a name="fig_41" id="fig_41"></a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_40.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_41.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 40.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 41.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig_42" id="fig_42"></a><a name="fig_43" id="fig_43"></a>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_42.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_43.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" valign="top" align="center">FIG. 42.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 43. EAR ALMOST HORIZONTAL<br />AND AT RIGHT ANGLES<br />WITH THE HEAD.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig_44" id="fig_44"></a><a name="fig_45" id="fig_45"></a>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_44.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_45.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 44. EAR ALMOST ROUND<br />WITH THREE DARWINIAN<br />TUBERCLES AT<br />INNER BORDER.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td valign="top" class="caption" align="center">FIG. 45.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_44">44</a> illustrates noticeable stigmata. The ear stands at right angles
+with the head. It is, however, almost as broad as it is long and differs
+in shape. The outer helix is excessively developed. The scaphoid fossa
+extends through the lobe, which is continuous with the body of the ear and
+is not distinct. The root of the helix is excessively developed. There are
+three Darwinian tubercles on its border. The anti-tragus is undeveloped.
+The tragus is very small and divided into two parts. The auricle-temporal
+angle, for functional purposes, should not exceed, according to Buchanan,
+30&deg;, or be less than 15&deg;. The difference in this respect is not clear,
+since free movement of head and body will readily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> adjust the auricle to
+receive sound. For functional purposes it would seem that the construction
+and shape of the ear, especially the anti-helix and concha, would be of
+greater importance than its position to the head, since it is necessary to
+collect the waves of sound for transmission. From a degeneracy
+standpoint, however, the position of the ear is important. Frigerio,<a name="fna_215_215" id="fna_215_215"></a><a href="#fn_215_215"><small>[215]</small></a>
+from the examination of several hundred subjects, concludes that the
+auricle-temporal angle undergoes a gradual progress from below 90&deg; in
+criminals and the insane to above 90&deg; in apes. He found the large angle
+very marked in homicides, less so in thieves. There is no question but
+that Frigerio is correct in regard to this point. In an examination of the
+ears of 465 boy criminals at Pontiac, it was found that 198 were close to
+the head, or from 10 to 15&deg;; 152 at an angle of 45&deg;, and 115 at right
+angles or 90&deg;. Of 1,041 criminals at Elmira 285 were close, 567 at an
+angle of 45&deg;, and 187 at right angles.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_46" id="fig_46"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_46.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 46.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_47" id="fig_47"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_47.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 47.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_48" id="fig_48"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_48.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 48.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_49" id="fig_49"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_49.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 49.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_45">45</a> shows the ear which Hawthorne gives Donatello in the <i>Marble
+Faun</i>; it has been called the &#8220;Satanic&#8221; ear, because of the pointed
+extremities and its narrowness. The helix is rolled upon itself its entire
+length, giving the impression of great thickness. The anti-helix is
+excessively developed. Figs. <a href="#fig_46">46</a>, <a href="#fig_47">47</a>, <a href="#fig_48">48</a> (ears of three illegitimate
+children at birth) show different stages of development as well as marked
+stigmata. Arrest of development occurs between the fourth and fifth month,
+owing to the trophic nerve centres being affected by the malnutrition of
+the mother. Fig. <a href="#fig_49">49</a> exhibits the development of a congenital, elephantine
+ear in monstrosities. The resemblance to the large ear of the orang and
+chimpanzee is very marked.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">The Degenerate Teeth and Jaws</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Next</span> to the ears, the jaws and teeth (as was to be expected from the
+variability of these organs in allied animals) are most affected by
+degeneracy. This is particularly true of the vertebrates, especially
+mammals, as might have been anticipated from their phylogeny. At the head
+of the vertebrates is man; at the foot is the lancelet (amphioxus), which
+is perhaps most akin to those semi-vertebrates the ascidians, who, in
+their larval phase, are higher than when adult, and whose life-history
+excellently illustrates that potent phase of evolution, degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>The lancelet has a spinal cord enclosed in a half-gristly canal (the
+notochord). It is practically destitute of a brain. The cerebral vesicle
+which represents this is a plain cavity without true subdivision into
+ventricles. There is no cranium. The eye (central in position) is a mere
+pigment spot with which it is able to distinguish light from darkness. The
+nose (behind this) is a small pit, lined with cilia, for purposes of
+smell. Into this the cerebral vesicle of the larval lancelet opens. The
+mouth is well guarded against the intrusion of noxious substances which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+have to pass through a vestibule richly provided with sensitive cells,
+resembling the taste buds of the human mouth. There is no heart. In this,
+as in the case of the eye, the lancelet is lower than the ascidians, the
+insects, crustaceans, and many molluscs. It approximates those worms
+which, despite a very elaborate vascular system, are destitute of a heart,
+the function of which is performed by contractile blood-vessels. From an
+embryologic and morphologic standpoint the proximate ancestor of the
+vertebrates may have been a free swimming animal, intermediate between an
+ascidian tadpole and the lancelet, and the primordial ancestor, a
+worm-like animal organised on a level with the star-fish. The vertebrates
+embryologically develop from this stage to the lampreys; thence to the
+cartilaginous fish (shark); to the amphibia (frog, toad, axolotl); to the
+reptiles; and thence to the oviparous mammals (duck-bill and echidna or
+spiny ant-eater); to the lemurs, and through forms like the
+<i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i> to man. Mammal teeth pass, in evolution, from
+the simple types found in that oviparous edentate, the spiny ant-eater of
+Australia, to those of the indeciduous ancestors of the sloths and
+armadilloes, and their descendants, inclusive of the dolphins and whales,
+whose teeth, both in the fetal Greenland and adult sperm whale, preserve
+this old type. (The whales have degenerated from the hoofed mammals to
+suit their environment.) While, as in the edentates, these teeth may be
+few, they may also, as in the insectivorous marsupials, approximate those
+of the reptilia in number (sixty or seventy on a side) and characteristic
+location.</p>
+
+<p>The evolution of this primitive tooth to the bicuspid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> and molar type has
+been explained by two theories: that of concrescence and that of
+differentiation.<a name="fna_216_216" id="fna_216_216"></a><a href="#fn_216_216"><small>[216]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>A number of conical teeth, in line as they lie in the jaws of the sperm
+whale, represent the primitive dentition.<a name="fna_217_217" id="fna_217_217"></a><a href="#fn_217_217"><small>[217]</small></a> In time a number of these
+teeth, according to the concresent theory, cluster together so as to form
+the four cusps of a human molar, each one of the whale tooth points
+forming one of the cusps of the mammalian tooth. Vertically succeeding
+teeth might also be grouped. What evidence is there in favour of this
+theory? and what is there against it? All primitive reptiles from which
+the mammals have descended, and many of the existing mammals, have a large
+number of isolated teeth of a conical form. Further, by shortening of the
+jaws, the embryonic germ from which each of the numerous tooth-caps is
+budded off in course of development could have been brought together in
+such a manner that any cusps originally stretched out in a line would form
+groups of a variable number of cusps, according to the more or less
+complex pattern of the crown. Against the acceptance of this theory stands
+the fact that cusps quite similar in all respects to each of the cusps
+which form the angles of the human molar are even now being added to the
+teeth in certain animals, such as the elephant, whose molar teeth cusps
+are being thus complicated. In the mesozoic period certain animals with
+tricuspid teeth occur. According to the theory of concrescence these teeth
+ought not to show any increase of cusps in later geologic periods, but
+down through the ages to the present time successors of those animals
+continue to present a very much larger number of cusps.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> How is this
+increase of cusps to be accounted for? Has there been a reserve store of
+conical teeth to increase the number? Most obviously to every student of
+the fossil history of cusps there is no reserve store, but new cusps are
+constantly rising upon the original crown itself by cusp addition.</p>
+
+<p>In the Triassic occur the first mammalia with conical, round, reptilian
+teeth. There are also some aberrant types which possess complex or
+multitubercular teeth.</p>
+
+<p>These teeth begin to show the first trace of cusp addition.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 1, <a href="#plate_a">Plate A</a>, the teeth of the dromatherium of the coal beds of
+North Carolina occur on the sides of the main cone, cusps or rudimentary
+cuspules. On either side of the main cone are two cuspules. In the same
+deposit occurred another animal represented by a single tooth (Fig. 3), in
+which these cusps are slightly larger. These cusps have obviously been
+added to the side of the teeth and are now growing. In teeth of the
+Jurassic period, found in large numbers both in America and in England,
+but still of very minute size, are observed the same three cusps. These
+cusps have now taken two different positions; in one case they have the
+arrangement presented in <a href="#plate_b">Plate B</a>. The middle cusp is relatively lower, and
+the lateral cusps are relatively higher; in fact these cones are almost
+equal in size. These teeth are termed triconodont, as having three nearly
+equal cones. But associated with this is the spalacotherium, the teeth of
+which are represented in <a href="#plate_a">Plate A</a>, Fig. 4. This tooth illustrates the
+transformation of a tooth (triconodont) with three cusps in line into a
+tooth with three cusps forming a triangle. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>Here the primitive cusp is
+the apex of a triangle of which the two lateral cusps are the base. This
+tooth, in this single genus, is the key of comparison of the teeth of all
+mammalia. By this can be determined that part of a human molar which
+corresponds with a conical reptilian tooth. This stage is the triangle
+stage; the next stage is the development of a heel or spur upon this
+triangle (see in the amphitherium, Fig. 5). The opossum still distinctly
+preserves the ancient triangle. Look at it in profile, inside or in top
+view, and see that the anterior part of the tooth is unmodified. This
+triangle is traceable through a number of intermediate types. In Miacia
+(Fig. 6), a primitive carnivore, is a high triangle and a heel; looked at
+from above (Fig. 6a), the heel is seen to have spread out broader so that
+it is as broad as the triangle. The three molars of this animal illustrate
+a most important principle, namely, that the anterior, triangular portion
+of the crown has been simply levelled down to the posterior portion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate_a" id="plate_a"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 406px; height: 500px;"><img src="images/plate_a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE A.</p>
+<p><a name="plate_b" id="plate_b"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/plate_b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE B.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>These three teeth form a series of intermediate steps between a most
+ancient molar and the modern molar of the human type. The second tooth is
+halfway between the first and third. The second molar, seen from above,
+has exactly the same cusps as the first, so it is not difficult to
+recognise that each cusp has been directly derived from its fellow. The
+third tooth of the series (Fig. 7) has lost one of its cusps; it has lost
+a cusp of the triangle. It is now a tooth where only half the triangle is
+left on the anterior side and with a very long heel. That tooth has
+exactly the same pattern as the lower human molar tooth (Fig. 8), the only
+difference is that the heel is somewhat more prolonged. These teeth belong
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> one of the oldest fossil monkeys, anaptomorphus. Human lower molars,
+not very exceptionally, instead of four cusps, have five. The fifth cusp
+always appears in the middle of the heel, or between the posterior lingual
+and the posterior buccal. This occurs in monkeys and other animals, but no
+record exists of the ancient anterior lingual reappearing. The human lower
+molar, with its low, quadritubercular crown, has hence evolved by addition
+of cusps and by gradual modelling from a high-crowned, simple, pointed
+tooth.</p>
+
+<p>Human teeth are of excellent service in the initial determination of
+degeneracy in the child. For this purpose the teeth should be studied from
+the first evidence of their development until they are all in place, which
+occurs normally, in most cases, by the twenty-second year.</p>
+
+<p>Teeth-enamel is formed from the epiblast, and dentine, cementum, pulp
+(except as to nerve tissue) from the mesoblast. The enamel organs of the
+first set appear during the seventh week of f&oelig;tal life; the dentine
+bulb during the ninth week. At this period the tooth obtains its
+periphery. This models the enamel cap which fits over the dentine like a
+glove. When imperfections in hand or fingers exist these deformities are
+distinctly observed upon the glove, and in precisely the same manner are
+observed the different shapes and sizes of the incisors, cuspids, and
+molars. Calcification of the teeth begins at the seventeenth week of
+f&oelig;tal life. The illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig_50">50</a>) shows the progress of
+calcification and development of the temporary set of teeth. Examination
+will show that any defect in nutrition, from conception to birth (due to
+inherited states or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> maternal impressions), has been registered upon the
+teeth. The state of the constitution and the locality register the date of
+such defects. Thus if the tooth, as a whole, be larger or smaller than
+normal, or abnormally irregular, taint is undoubtedly inherited from one
+or both parents. If, on the other hand, there be defect at any part on the
+crowns of the teeth, and the contour be perfect, the date of malnutrition
+can be easily determined from this chart. More or less than the normal
+number of teeth, abnormally placed, demonstrates the existence of
+inherited defect, since the germs must have been deposited at the period
+mentioned. No absolute rule can be laid down as to date of the eruption of
+the teeth. The teeth of the temporary set erupt nearly as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>After Birth.</i></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>Time of Eruption.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lower Central Incisors</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7 months</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>1 to 10 weeks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Upper<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9 months</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>4 to 6 weeks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Upper and Lower Lateral</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>12 months</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>4 to 6 weeks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>First Molars</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>14 months</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>1 to 2 months.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cuspids</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>18 months</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>2 to 3 months.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Second Molars</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>26 months</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>3 to 5 months.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="fig_50" id="fig_50"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_50.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 50.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_51" id="fig_51"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_51.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 51. SHOWS LINES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERMANENT TEETH.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The enamel organs and dentine bulb for the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>permanent teeth form just
+before birth (Fig. <a href="#fig_51">51</a>) in like manner with the temporary set. They form
+just above the temporary set on the upper and below on the lower jaw. The
+permanent molars begin to calcify at the twenty-fifth week of f&oelig;tal
+life. The permanent incisors do not calcify until a year after birth. Any
+deviation in size or contour of the permanent teeth from the normal must
+hence be due to defect in nutrition in the dentine bulb, between the
+fifteenth and twenty-fifth week of f&oelig;tal life. Any deviation in
+calcification (except the cusps of the first permanent molars) must occur
+after birth. At the third year twenty-four teeth are fairly well
+calcified. At the fifth year the second permanent molars, and at the
+eighth year the third molars or wisdom teeth, begin to calcify.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the age of eruption of permanent teeth:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>First Permanent Molars</td><td>Circa</td><td align="right">6 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Upper and Lower Central Incisors</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">7 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Upper and Lower Lateral &nbsp; <span class="spacer">"</span></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>First Bicuspids</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">9 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Second Bicuspids</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cuspids</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Second Permanent Molars</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12 years.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Third Permanent Molars</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">17 to 24 years.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Man, at this present stage of evolution, has twenty teeth in his temporary
+and thirty-two in his permanent set. Any deviation in number is the result
+of embryonic change occurring between the sixth and fifteenth week, for
+the temporary teeth, and the fifteenth week and birth for the permanent.
+The germs of teeth which erupt late in life, and are called third sets, of
+necessity appear ere birth and are completely formed at the beginning of
+the second<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> year, although they remain protected in the jaw until
+eruption.</p>
+
+<p>More than twenty teeth in the temporary set, or thirty-two in the
+permanent set, is hence an atavistic abnormality. From the maxillary and
+dental standpoint man reached his highest development when well-developed
+jaws held twenty temporary and thirty-two permanent teeth. Decrease in the
+numbers of teeth meant, from the dental standpoint, degeneracy, albeit it
+might mark advance in man&#8217;s evolution as a complete being. In the New
+Mexican Lower Eocene occur monkeys like the lemurarius and limnotherium,
+each the type of a distinct family. The lemurarius, most nearly allied to
+the lemurs, is the most generalised monkey yet found. It had forty-four
+teeth in continuous series, above and below. The limnotherium, while
+related to the lemurs, had some affinities with the American marmosets.
+These solved the problem of the origin of the extra teeth (known as
+supernumeraries) that sometimes occur in man, and demonstrated that man,
+during his evolution from the lowest monkey, lost twelve teeth. These
+supernumerary teeth assume two forms; either they resemble the adjoining
+teeth or are cone-shaped. While they are rarely exactly counterparts,
+every tooth can be duplicated, as the following illustrations show.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_52">52</a> illustrates fairly well-formed duplicate central incisors, the
+normal incisors being outside the dental arch. They are crowded laterally
+by the large roots of the supernumerary incisors.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_52" id="fig_52"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_52.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 52.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_53" id="fig_53"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_53.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 53.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_54" id="fig_54"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_54.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 54.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_53">53</a> shows an extra right lateral in a temporary set in the upper jaw.
+Fig. <a href="#fig_54">54</a> an extra right lateral in the permanent set. Fig. <a href="#fig_55">55</a> illustrates
+normally developed supernumerary cuspids which are all grouped together
+upon the right side, the bicuspid being also duplicated on each side;
+indeed, all but the molars are duplicate. Fig. <a href="#fig_56">56</a> shows super<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>numerary
+third molars, easily demarcated from the normal molars. The teeth which
+fail to approximate their normal neighbours assume the cone shape of the
+primitive tooth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_55" id="fig_55"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_55.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 55.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_56" id="fig_56"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_56.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 56.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the cone-shaped tooth, as a rule perfect in construction, is
+found everywhere in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> jaw, but especially in the anterior and posterior
+part of the mouth, is of much value in outlining tooth and jaw evolution,
+especially in the degeneracy phase. The upper jaw, being an integral part
+of the skull and fixed, is, of necessity, influenced by brain and skull
+growth; hence degeneracy is more detectable in it than in the lower.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_57" id="fig_57"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_57.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 57.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_58" id="fig_58"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_58.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 58.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_59" id="fig_59"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_59.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 59.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_60" id="fig_60"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_60.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 60.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_61" id="fig_61"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_61.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 61.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The evolution of the jaw is toward shortening in both directions. This
+shortening will continue so long as the jaw must be adjusted to a varying
+environment. The jaw of man having originally contained more teeth than at
+present, lack of adjustment to environment produces, from the shortening,
+degeneracy of the jaw and atavism of the teeth. While this may coincide
+with general advances of the individual, it indicates that he is not yet
+adjusted to his new environment. The shortening of the upper jaw causes
+supernumerary, cone-shaped teeth to erupt, in mass, at the extreme ends of
+the jaw, as shown in the following figures. Fig. <a href="#fig_57">57</a> illustrates a
+cone-shaped tooth between the two central incisors, forcing them out of
+position. Fig. <a href="#fig_58">58</a> shows three supernumerary teeth&mdash;a cone-shaped tooth
+between the <ins class="correction" title="original: centrals">central</ins> laterals, and the cuspids out of position. The left
+permanent lateral is at the median line; another cone-shaped tooth remains
+in the vault, while the supernumerary left lateral is in place. As many as
+eight are at times to be observed in the anterior vault. Posteriorly these
+teeth are most often noticed in connection with the third molars, usually
+on a line with other teeth posterior to the last molar. Fig. <a href="#fig_59">59</a> shows two
+supernumerary teeth in the anterior and two in the posterior part of the
+left arch; the molars have been extracted. Supernumerary teeth are not
+confined to these localities, but may be observed at any point in the
+dental arch (Figs. <a href="#fig_60">60</a> and <a href="#fig_61">61</a>). The primitive cone-shaped tooth is rarely
+observed in the lower jaw. In twenty-six years&#8217; practice I have not seen a
+case. The mobility of the lower jaw prevents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> that mal-adjustment to
+environment present in the upper. The continual shortening, in both
+directions, of the jaw causes the third molars frequently to wedge in
+between the angle of the jaw and the second molars, so that eruption, if
+possible, is difficult.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_62" id="fig_62"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_62.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 62.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_63" id="fig_63"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_63.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 63.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_64" id="fig_64"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_64.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 64.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The third molar is often absent in the English-speaking and Scandinavian
+races. In 46 per cent. of 670 patients it was missing. Frequently its
+development is abortive. This tooth, in the struggle for existence, seems
+destined to disappear. It is more often absent from the upper than the
+lower jaw. When absent, or badly developed, the jaw is smaller and
+frequently teeth irregularities, nasal stenosis, hypertrophy of nasal bone
+and mucous membrane, adenoids and eye disorders coexist. Fig. <a href="#fig_62">62</a> shows
+absence of the left third molar with irregularities of that side of the
+arch. In Fig. <a href="#fig_63">63</a> both third molars are seen to be missing. Anteriorly,
+the lateral incisors are most often wanting; 14 per cent. of the laterals
+were wanting in 670 patients. In the progress of evolution man has lost
+one lateral upon each side of the mouth and the second lateral seems also
+destined to disappear. In Fig. <a href="#fig_64">64</a> the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> left lateral incisor has
+disappeared; and in Fig. <a href="#fig_65">65</a> both lateral incisors are absent. Not
+infrequently does it occur that centrals, cuspids, bicuspids, and even
+molars are absent, even their germs not being detectable. Fig. <a href="#fig_66">66</a> shows
+three supernumeraries in the anterior part of the mouth and but two
+molars. The absence of the teeth indicates lack of development of germs,
+due either to heredity or defective maternal nutrition at the time of
+conception or during early pregnancy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_65" id="fig_65"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_65.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 65.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_66" id="fig_66"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_66.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 66.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_67" id="fig_67"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_67.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 67.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Crescent-shaped, bitubercular, and tribucular as well as deformed teeth,
+tend to be cone-shaped. The malformation of these teeth results from
+precongenital trophic change in dentine development, dwarfing and notching
+the cutting and grinding edges of the second set of teeth, of which a
+familiar example is the so-called Hutchinson&#8217;s teeth, usually referred to
+a syphilitic causation. Hutchinson&#8217;s position has, however, been more
+strongly stated than his words justify, since he admits that in at least
+one-tenth of the cases this cause could be excluded.</p>
+
+<p>Syphilis only plays the part of a diathetic state profoundly affecting the
+maternal constitution at the time of dentine development; while these
+teeth may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> be due to secondary results of syphilis, they do not
+demonstrate syphilitic heredity.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. <a href="#fig_67">67</a> are seen the teeth of an individual affected with
+constitutional disease (referring to Fig. <a href="#fig_51">51</a> it becomes evident that the
+defective lines represent the respective ages, 2&#189;, 4, and 5 years). The
+degree of pitting will depend, as a rule, on the severity of the
+constitutional disorder. In the case just cited, however, although
+nutrition was but slightly disordered, each tooth shows a tendency to
+conate. Not infrequently cavities extend completely through the tooth. The
+cusps of the (permanent) first molars, calcifying at the first year, are
+usually attacked also, and arrested in development, producing the cone
+shape. These data, together with the dates of eruption of the temporary
+and permanent teeth, furnish an absolute basis for calculation as to
+malnutrition producing excessive or arrested development, not only of the
+teeth and jaws but all parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_68" id="fig_68"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_68.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 68.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_69" id="fig_69"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_69.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 69.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_70" id="fig_70"></a><a name="fig_71" id="fig_71"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_70_71.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIGS. 70, 71.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_68">68</a> shows a very degenerate jaw with cone-shaped, malformed
+bicuspids. The right lateral missing, the cuspids are erupting in the
+vault and the dental arch is assuming a V-shape. The jaw shows, as a
+whole, marked arrest in development. Fig. <a href="#fig_69">69</a> shows Hutchinson&#8217;s teeth.
+Were the first molars visible, they would present marked contraction of
+the outer surface with a malformed centre. Referring again to Fig. <a href="#fig_51">51</a>, it
+is observable that trophic changes affected the system at the age of
+birth. The outer surface exhibits a tendency to take the cone shape. Figs.
+<a href="#fig_70">70</a>, <a href="#fig_71">71</a>, <a href="#fig_72">72</a>, <a href="#fig_73">73</a>, and the molars in Fig. <a href="#fig_66">66</a>, exhibit malformations that
+assume the cone shape and the centre frequently associated with this type
+of teeth. The coincidence in form between Hutchinson&#8217;s and malformed teeth
+and those of the chameleon suggests that tropho-neurotic change produces
+atavistic teeth. Fig. <a href="#fig_74">74</a> illustrates the tendency of human bicuspids (when
+there is no antagonism) to rotate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> one-fourth round, thus again indicating
+an atavistic tendency toward the teeth of the chameleon. Fig. <a href="#fig_75">75</a> exhibits
+extreme atavism; all teeth anterior to the molars are cone-shaped. The
+third molars are missing and would, probably, never erupt. In Fig. <a href="#fig_76">76</a>
+appears more marked atavism. The upper and lower are both cone-shaped, and
+the superior first bicuspid exhibits tendency thereto. The right superior
+second bicuspid, second and third molars, the right inferior first and
+second bicuspids, with second and third molars are missing. The same
+condition, probably, exists on the left side. The space in the upper jaw
+is due to the insufficient width of the teeth. Alternation of teeth in the
+upper and lower jaw is a reptilian feature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_72" id="fig_72"></a><a name="fig_73" id="fig_73"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_72.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_73.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 72.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 73.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="fig_74" id="fig_74"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_74.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 74.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_75" id="fig_75"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_75.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 75.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_76">76</a> furnishes excellent illustration of the principles already stated.
+In degenerate jaws every tooth in the jaw, at one point or another, may
+display rudimentary cusps. On the incisors they are always to be found on
+the lingual surface.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_76" id="fig_76"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_76.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 76.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_77" id="fig_77"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 400px; height: 235px;"><img src="images/fig_77.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 77.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fig. <a href="#fig_77">77</a> illustrates the centrals with two rudimentary cusps, the laterals
+with one, and the cuspids with one also. Fig. <a href="#fig_78">78</a> represents cusps upon the
+lingual surface of the molars. The cuspids are not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> unlike the lower
+cuspids with a rudimentary lingual cusp.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_78" id="fig_78"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 350px; height: 290px;"><img src="images/fig_78.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 78.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There is a gradation from central incisors toward the bicuspids, in
+evolution. This grading of form is not observed in passing from the cuspid
+to the bicuspid in man. But the cuspid often presents a cingulum on the
+lingual face that inclines it toward the bicuspid forms in lower mammals,
+like the mole, and the first premolar, or bicuspid, is then more
+caniniform, the inner tubercle being much more reduced. This inner
+tubercle is very variable and erratic as to its position. It appears as
+far front as the centrals and is often present on the lingual face of the
+laterals of man. The lingual tubercle is very constant on the first
+bicuspid of man and is as well developed as the buccal. But in some lower
+forms, as in the lemurs, it is quite deficient. It attains the highest
+development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> only in the anthropoids and man. Considering these stages of
+development, the grading from the cuspid to the bicuspid forms was more
+gradual in the earlier species than in the later, where the individual
+teeth have taken on special development.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_79" id="fig_79"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_79.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 79.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The skull of a degenerate girl who died from tuberculosis, at thirteen
+years, presented, among other stigmata, a cusp on the external surface of
+a right inferior cuspid. In Fig. <a href="#fig_79">79</a>, where every tooth is present, a most
+remarkable display of cusps occurs. The cusps upon the cutting and
+grinding edges are not obliterated. Commencing with the left superior
+central incisors, three cusps are present with a rudimentary palatine
+cusp. The laterals also show three cusps, while the cuspid has two very
+distinct. The first and second bicuspids have tubercular cusps, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+being in line. The buccal cusps upon the molars, two or three, and are
+still in position. The palatine cusps are worn away. The same is the case
+upon the opposite side, except that the cuspid has cusps that have fused
+together, leaving a small projection upon the mesial side and a
+rudimentary palatine cusp. The cusp upon the third molar is lost. In
+another case (Fig. <a href="#fig_61">61</a>) the primitive cone teeth are seen trying to shape
+themselves into incisors. The lateral incisors, cuspids and bicuspids are
+still cone-shaped. The first permanent molar is fairly formed while the
+second molars are still in a primitive condition.</p>
+
+<p>Degenerate teeth unite in twos, threes, fours, and fives. These single,
+cone-shaped teeth grow together and form bicuspids and molars. The germ of
+any two normal teeth may intermingle and unite; not only are the crowns
+found united with separate roots, but crowns and roots are united
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. <a href="#fig_80">80</a> and <a href="#fig_81">81</a> show two superior, central and lateral incisors joined
+together throughout the entire length of crown and root. In Fig. <a href="#fig_82">82</a> two
+lower incisors are united throughout. Fig. <a href="#fig_83">83</a> shows a cuspid with two
+roots. George T. Carpenter, of Chicago, has a right superior, second
+bicuspid with three well formed roots. Fig. <a href="#fig_84">84</a> illustrates two bicuspids
+united at the crowns. Fig. <a href="#fig_85">85</a> shows two molars perfectly united. Fig. <a href="#fig_86">86</a>
+illustrates central and lateral incisors of the permanent set perfectly
+united. Fig. <a href="#fig_87">87</a> shows two molars united. Fig. <a href="#fig_88">88</a> a molar and supernumerary
+taking the cone-shape with deformed centre. Fig. <a href="#fig_89">89</a> shows three malformed
+teeth, each coated and completely united. It is not uncommon to find three
+molars united together, as, for instance, the second, third, and
+supernumerary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> molars. C. V. Rosser, of Atlanta, Georgia, has two small
+molars and a supernumerary cuspid perfectly united, from crown to root,
+and these three further united to the roots of a well-formed molar.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_80" id="fig_80"></a><a name="fig_81" id="fig_81"></a><a name="fig_82" id="fig_82"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_80.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_81.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_82.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 80.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 81.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 82.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig_83" id="fig_83"></a><a name="fig_84" id="fig_84"></a><a name="fig_85" id="fig_85"></a>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_83.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_84.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_85.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 83.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 84.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 85.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="fig_86" id="fig_86"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_86.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 86.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>That human jaws, like human ears, are degenerating is demonstrable by
+actual measurements.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> Mummery, who examined the skulls of 200 Briton and
+Roman soldiers, found the narrowest 2&middot;12 inches, the highest 2&middot;62, with an
+average of 2&middot;50. The width of jaws of 402 British soldiers to-day is:
+narrowest, 1&middot;88; widest, 2&middot;63; average 2&middot;28. The highest width was very
+rare; only eight measured 2&middot;50. The jaws of the mound builders, compared
+with the existing cliff dwellers, show similar results. The average width
+is about 2&middot;50 inches. This is also true of nearly pure negro races.
+Measurements of normal jaws of 855 Italians of Central Italy were:
+narrowest, 1&middot;88; widest, 2&middot;63; average 2&middot;17. Measurements of normal jaws
+of 4,935 Americans gave the following results: narrowest, 1&middot;75; widest,
+only one case, 2&middot;56; average 2&middot;13. If in the highest type of physical man
+the width of the upper jaw from the outer surface of the permanent molars
+near the gum margin was originally 2&middot;50 inches in diameter, the jaw of
+people now living in the same locality is from 0&middot;25 to 0&middot;33 inches
+smaller. Although the jaw has thus been growing smaller, since there are
+no breaks or deformities in the contour of the dental arch this must be
+regarded simply as an adaptation to environment, and not degeneracy in the
+proper sense of the term. The degeneracy of the jaws, on which I would lay
+special stress, is that in which deformity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> has resulted from inability to
+adjust structure to a changing environment. When arrest of development so
+takes place that deformities of the dental arch result, the jaws vary from
+two inches to one inch in width. As a rule, the teeth are the same size
+to-day that they were thousands of years ago. This is due to the fact that
+they are ante-natal and not influenced by post-natal systemic changes. The
+jaws do not contract as a result of mouth breathing.<a name="fna_218_218" id="fna_218_218"></a><a href="#fn_218_218"><small>[218]</small></a> If the jaw be
+arrested and be smaller in circumference than the teeth, a break takes
+place in the dental arch and deformity results. Two types of deformity
+occur, the V-shaped arch and the saddle arch. All other types of
+deformity, not due to local causes, are modifications of these two. These
+deformities always occur with the second teeth only. In these cases the
+facial profile assumes the perpendicular line or arrested face, as
+illustrated in the chapter on Degeneracy of the Face. They are never seen
+before the sixth year, when the second set begin to erupt and are complete
+with development of the second molars at 12. They may become exaggerated
+later in life from want of room, the eruption of the third molar and want
+of harmony in relation of the two jaws when closed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_87" id="fig_87"></a><a name="fig_88" id="fig_88"></a><a name="fig_89" id="fig_89"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig_87.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_88.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig_89.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 87.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 88.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="caption" align="center">FIG. 89.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="fig_90" id="fig_90"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_90.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 90.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There are three characteristics of the normal arch. Independent of
+temperamental peculiarities, the line extending from one cuspid to the
+other should be an arc of a circle, not an angle or straight line; the
+lines from the cuspids to the third molar should be straight, curving
+neither in nor out, the sides not approximating parallel lines. Absolute
+bilateral uniformity is not implied in this, as the two sides of the
+human jaw are rarely, if ever, wholly alike. A uniform arch necessitates
+uniformity of development between the arch of the maxilla and the arch of
+the teeth and a correct position of the individual teeth in their relation
+to each other. When there is inharmonious development between the jaws and
+the teeth, as may happen when one parent has a small maxilla with
+correspondingly small teeth, and the other a large one, with
+correspondingly large teeth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> if the child inherit the jaw of one and the
+teeth of the other, irregularities must follow. Such difference in
+diameter between the arch of the maxilla and that of the crowns of the
+teeth is a constitutional cause of irregularity. When there is a
+difference between these diameters the line formed by the teeth must
+either fall outside or within the arch of the maxilla and irregularities
+of arrangements result. The primary division of irregularities is the
+V-shaped and saddle-shaped arches. We have the V-shaped variety (Fig. <a href="#fig_90">90</a>,
+one of the typical forms), where the apex of a triangle is formed by the
+incisors, the base of the triangle being a line connecting the first two
+molars. If, because of premature or tardy extraction, the first molars
+move forward, or by coincidence of the arch of the maxilla and the arch of
+the crown of the teeth in trying to accommodate itself to the lesser arch
+of the maxilla, the arch becomes a broken line, forming an angle at the
+incisors. This angle results from two causes: the thinness of the process
+at this point and the diminution of resistance which must follow.</p>
+
+<p>When the permanent bicuspids erupt under a favourable condition, so that
+their greatest diameter is in a line with the greater diameter of both
+cuspids and first molar, they will be held firmly in place, since the
+greatest pressure is on this very line. On the other hand, when the
+bicuspids are erupted after their proper time, while the cuspids progress
+duly, and meeting no resistance fall into their proper places, but the
+bicuspids adapt themselves as best they can to the space left for them,
+and if the arch of the maxilla does not coincide with that of the crowns,
+they must fall within or without the arch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> Now, if the first molar have
+moved forward, diminishing the space, the bicuspid must erupt either
+within or without the arch.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_91" id="fig_91"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_91.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 91.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>To understand why they are generally found within the arch, the shape of
+the molar and cuspids must be kept in mind. A transverse section of their
+crowns shows their proximal walls not to be parallel, but wedge-shaped,
+their diameter being greater on the buccal than on the palatal side. When
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> crowned bicuspid falls within the greatest diameter of these teeth,
+finding more room within the arch, they naturally slip in the direction of
+least resistance, <i>i.e.</i>, toward the palate. A local cause for the same
+condition is found in the fact that the crown of the bicuspids, before
+their eruption, was held between the roots of the temporary molars, and,
+as these form an arch of a smaller circle than that of the permanent
+teeth, the bicuspids will be found generally inside the arch. From both
+causes occurs an inward curvature, which is termed the saddle-shaped arch
+(Fig. <a href="#fig_91">91</a>). It should be noted here that, since the V-shaped irregularity
+is found anterior to the cuspid, the upper incisors are always projecting
+beyond the lower; the saddle-shaped irregularity is invariably posterior
+to the cuspid from an inward curve. The incisors never project. Both forms
+contract the arch; the V-shaped anteriorly, the saddle-shaped posteriorly.
+In both forms the forward movement of the first molar is the local cause.</p>
+
+<p>Deformities of the dental arch are due, first, to arrest of development of
+the jaws, and, second, in the nature of the deformity, to the order of
+eruption of teeth, which rarely erupt twice alike. From an evolution
+standpoint these deformities are atavistic. The V-shaped reverts to the
+reptilian type; the saddle-shaped to the lower mammals. In the gorilla,
+the nearest to man in dentition, there is a very distinct approach to the
+saddle shape. In the chimpanzee it remains. The orang-outang exhibits less
+of this tendency. The arch of some of the cebid&aelig; very nearly approaches
+man. It all depends upon the extent of prognathism. When that is reduced
+the arch appears and rectangular arrangements of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> teeth are lost. Most
+carnivors exhibit a distinct approach to the saddle shape. Some felines
+have a shortening of the jaw, partly obliterating the tendency, but in
+most canid&aelig; it is quite marked.</p>
+
+<p>These are facts which cannot be overlooked, since, from the very nature of
+development and eruption of the teeth, they cannot take any other form.
+The arrangement of the crowns of the cuspid (canine) in the jaw before
+eruption is such that, no matter what the local condition of the jaws or
+teeth may be the V-shaped or saddle-shaped dental arch must be produced.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_92" id="fig_92"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_92.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 92.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In no symptoms is degeneracy so evident as in the stigmata resultant on
+hypertrophy of the alveolar process. This occurs at all ages, but more
+particularly at the period of development of the permanent set of teeth.
+The entire alveolar process may become involved (Fig. <a href="#fig_92">92</a>), or only a
+portion (Fig. <a href="#fig_93">93</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>Hypertrophy of the alveolar process is the result of irritation incident
+upon eruption and the shedding of the temporary teeth, and eruption of the
+permanent teeth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_93" id="fig_93"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_93.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 93.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Laryngologists, rhinologists, and neurologists claim that certain vaults
+are deformities; in reality the alveolar process is hypertrophied. The
+jaws, as a whole, owing to an unstable and ill-balanced nervous system,
+are liable to become excessively developed, as well as arrested in
+development. Excessive development of the superior maxilla is evinced by a
+fulness of the upper lip. In these cases the upper maxilla is too large
+for the lower, and stands out beyond it. The lower may be quite normal.
+When there is simply a want of proportion between the two jaws, it is due
+to the diminutive or excessive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> size of one while the other is normal. The
+criterion in these cases must be the facial angle. The upper jaw is
+usually in harmony with the skeleton, while the lower jaw depends for its
+size largely upon function, its size being the result of accident rather
+than the result of general proportions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_94" id="fig_94"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 365px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_94.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 94.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>When the upper jaw is normal, or smaller than the lower, the extent of the
+posterior portion is determined by the occlusion of the first permanent
+molar, which keeps the alveolar processes in permanent relation to each
+other at this point and allows freedom of development in front. If the
+occlusion be not normal, the upper jaw and alveolar process will develop
+laterally as well as anteriorly. The teeth of the anterior columns may
+either stand vertically, or they may be turned in toward the lower
+incisors. The latter defect is produced by the action of the lips. When
+the cuspids are in their normal position the upper incisors form a larger
+arch than the lower, and this permits of their being turned inward; but
+when the cuspids have moved so far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> forward that they are not normally
+interlocked with the lower teeth, the incisors are too crowded to permit
+this. While the jaws are growing smaller the teeth tend to cause reversion
+to the original form. Arrest of development of the superior maxilla is
+always associated with marked depression at the al&aelig; of the nose, producing
+the appearance of having been hollowed out from a point at the floor of
+the orbit to the grinding surface of the lower teeth (Fig. <a href="#fig_94">94</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_95" id="fig_95"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 375px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_95.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 95.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Arrest of the lower jaw (Fig. <a href="#fig_95">95</a>) is common among degenerates. This
+consists of a shortening of the body of the jaw. Sometimes it is arrested
+to such an extent that there is apparently no chin. About 50 per cent. of
+criminals of Elmira, New York, have this deformity. The following table
+shows the number of deformities of the jaws and teeth which I have found
+among some of the degenerate classes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td valign="top" class="btr" colspan="11" align="center"><span class="smcap">Jaws.</span></td>
+<td class="bt" colspan="4" align="center"><span class="smcap">Teeth.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Number<br />examined.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">V-<br />shaped.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Partial<br />V.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Semi-<br />V.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Saddle.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Partial<br />Saddle.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Semi-<br />Saddle.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Normal.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Arrested<br />Development.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Excessive<br />Development.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Irregular.</td>
+    <td class="btr" colspan="2" align="center">Tubercles<br />of<br />teeth.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">Regular.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">&nbsp;</td><td class="btr" align="center">Present.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Absent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr">Criminals at<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pontiac, Ill.</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">465</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">75</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">71</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">66</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">63</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">16</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">171</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">123</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">13</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="bottom">452</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center" valign="bottom">342</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Criminals at<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elmira,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">N. Y.</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">1041</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">381</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">49</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">157</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">26</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">422</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">220</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">26</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">1015</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">821</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Criminals at<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joliet, Ill.</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">468</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">13</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">79</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">19</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">59</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">92</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">24</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">163</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Prostitutes at<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bridewell</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">30</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">10</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">17</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">27</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Insane at<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dunning,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ill.</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">700</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">26</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">47</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">12</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">486</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Insane at<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kankakee,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ill.</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">613</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">69</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">107</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">29</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">89</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">105</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">61</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">153</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Idiots,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">imbeciles</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">1977</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">129</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">236</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">207</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">1095</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Deaf and<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dumb</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">1935</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">169</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">192</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">203</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">901</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">Blind</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">207</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">11</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">105</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="dent" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbr">Inebriates<a name="fna_219_219" id="fna_219_219"></a><a href="#fn_219_219"><small>[219]</small></a></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">514</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">1&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">24&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">0&middot;3</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">9&middot;3</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">13&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">7&middot;7</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">25&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">...</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Degeneracy of the Body</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">As</span> degeneracy checks the natural course of embryonic development it
+necessarily finds expression in the body as well as in the skull. One most
+striking condition is that by which development of the bones enclosing the
+spinal cord is checked. The spinal cord is at first essentially a
+notochord as in the lowest types of vertebrates. The structures
+surrounding the cord are not divided into vertebr&aelig;. This condition is
+permanent in the lancelet. Around the notochord is later formed a species
+of membrane which protects it, called the perichord. This condition is the
+second stage of development of the cord and is the permanent condition in
+the lampreys. Later still the cartilaginous vertebr&aelig; develop, and then
+these ossify at the point in the perichord which is to form a vertebra,
+bows of dense tissue <ins class="correction" title="original: from">form</ins> which unite behind. In front similar bows form
+to constitute the bodies of the vertebr&aelig;. These bows remain ununited in
+some of the lower fish and at certain stages in the human embryo. As
+degeneracy checks the union of the bows of the vertebr&aelig;, imperfection, and
+even absence, of the union occur, which is called spina-bifida (Fig. <a href="#fig_96">96</a>).
+This condition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> when complete is rarely compatible with life. In a partial
+state it is often found among degenerates.<a name="fna_220_220" id="fna_220_220"></a><a href="#fn_220_220"><small>[220]</small></a> The seat of the trouble is
+frequently covered by an excessive development of hair (hypertrichosis),
+especially in the small of the back; this, which occurs very frequently in
+degenerates, resembles the tail which the ancients represented as that of
+the fauns.<a name="fna_221_221" id="fna_221_221"></a><a href="#fn_221_221"><small>[221]</small></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_96" id="fig_96"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_96.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 96.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>As the vertebr&aelig; unite irregularly, deviations or bends of the spine occur
+very frequently among degenerates. These may be of any of the types known
+to surgeons. In man the spinal column terminates in two bones. One of
+those (composed of five vertebr&aelig;) begins at eighteen years to unite slowly
+into a single bone called the sacrum. The bones of the sacral vertebr&aelig;
+form processes similar to those which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> formed from the vertebr&aelig; of the
+chest region. These serve to cover the nerves of the sacral region. The
+bone immediately below the sacrum, called the coccyx, is essentially the
+representative of the tail in man. At a certain stage of human
+development, as in the tadpole, the tail disappears, the nine vertebr&aelig;
+forming the coccyx unite together and become a very diminutive bone which
+<ins class="correction" title="original: looses">loses</ins> nearly all vertebral characteristics. Sometimes this bone retains
+its embryonic peculiarities to such an extent that it simulates in some
+degenerates a rudimentary tail. Of this many instances are on record. A
+greater degree of this condition has been found to occur, with comparative
+frequency, amongst the lowest negro races. In this respect these are below
+the anthropoid apes, where the tail, considered from the tail standpoint,
+has degenerated as in man for the benefit of the organism as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_97" id="fig_97"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 239px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_97.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 97.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The ribs and breastbone develop from the processes of the vertebr&aelig;. It is
+probable that every vertebra originally had ribs. Traces of these exist in
+most vertebr&aelig; in the human embryo. In man, as a rule, there are but twelve
+vertebr&aelig; which develop true ribs. In degenerates, as in the gibbon, a
+thirteenth pair sometimes appears. Normally, the two lowest ribs are,
+however, very imperfectly developed as compared with the other ten, and
+one is sometimes absent. The rib develops from the ends of the vertebral
+bows, which, coming in contact with the muscle plates of their own segment
+of the body, are by the resulting bulging forced to expand, and later come
+together through the formation of the breastbone. Checking of these
+conditions produces various deformities of the chest which have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>divided into &#8220;funnel-shaped&#8221; and &#8220;dropper&#8221; deformities.<a name="fna_222_222" id="fna_222_222"></a><a href="#fn_222_222"><small>[222]</small></a> Frequently
+the entire chest wall is arrested early in life (Fig. <a href="#fig_97">97</a>). The relation
+between the muscle plates and the course of development of the chest is
+illustrated by the fact that an arrest of development of important muscles
+often coexists with deformities of the chest. The human limbs are
+developments from the fin-folds as found in fishes and the human embryo.
+In one of these the fins are divided into four segments. The upper segment
+contains one long bone, the humerus (or arm bone), or the femur (or thigh
+bone). The second segment contains two long bones, the radius and ulna (or
+arm bones), or the tibia and fibula (or leg bones). The third segment
+consists of nine small bones, the carpals of the wrist or the tarsals of
+the ankle. The fourth segment consists of five separate digits. These
+limbs pass through three stages in embryonic development as to their
+
+position, which may be designated as amphibian, reptilian, and mammalian.
+Many of these bones fuse together (carpals and tarsals). The digits have
+long before the late fish stage been formed of more than one bone. At
+times this condition persists even after the completion of human embryonic
+development. Limb anomalies resulting from checks of development causing
+either excess or arrest of development are far from uncommon among
+degenerates, but are not so common as anomalies of form and proportion.
+Among such anomalies may be mentioned joined limbs (symelia), or the more
+or less complete absence of limbs (ectromelia), or the absence of a
+peripheric segment (hemimelia), or the complete or partial absence of a
+central segment <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>(phocomelia). Among the other important degeneracies of
+the limbs are supernumerary digits. These Annadale<a name="fna_223_223" id="fna_223_223"></a><a href="#fn_223_223"><small>[223]</small></a> classifies as:
+First, a deficient digit loosely attached to the hand or foot or to
+another digit. Second, a more or less developed digit free at its
+extremity and articulating with other bones. Thirdly, a fully developed
+separate digit. Fourth, a digit united along its whole length with another
+digit. The first three types have been called polydactylia. The last has
+been called syndactylia. There is finally a condition in which union
+between the digits results in the disappearance of some of the fingers and
+toes (Fig. <a href="#fig_98">98</a>). This condition is called ectrodactylia. Supernumerary
+digits to the extent of six fingers and six toes are exceedingly common in
+the families of degenerates. The influence of heredity in this particular
+has been well demonstrated. The Kelleia family of Malta was one of the
+earliest reported. The condition may last for five generations,<a name="fna_224_224" id="fna_224_224"></a><a href="#fn_224_224"><small>[224]</small></a> but
+often disappears on marriage with normal persons outside the community or
+family. A family of the Arabian Hyabites, named Boldi, confined marriages
+to their own tribe. They all have twenty-four digits. Children born with a
+normal number are killed as being the offspring of adultery. The
+inhabitants of Cycaux, France, till the end of the eighteenth century, had
+nearly all supernumerary digits either on the hands or feet. Isolated in a
+mountainous region, they for years intermarried. On communication being
+opened, they emigrated or married strangers, and sexdigitism vanished.
+Maupertius reports the case of a German family whose members had
+twenty-four digits for many generations.<a name="fna_225_225" id="fna_225_225"></a><a href="#fn_225_225"><small>[225]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> One of them refused to
+acknowledge a normal child. In one instance in the United States
+supernumerary digits lasted through five generations. A case reported<a name="fna_226_226" id="fna_226_226"></a><a href="#fn_226_226"><small>[226]</small></a>
+some years ago was the following: The first instance of the appearance of
+the deformity was in a man, born of a degenerate family in 1752, who had
+six toes on one foot. His son was born with six toes on one foot, but the
+daughter was normal. This daughter had five children; among them were a
+son and daughter, each of whom had six fingers on one hand. The
+granddaughter had eight children, including one son with six toes on one
+foot. Another son had two daughters, each having six fingers on each hand,
+and one daughter having twenty-four digits. This last girl had three
+children; the son was doubly deformed like his mother, while a second son
+had six fingers on each hand, the toes being normal. One of the two
+daughters of the fourth generation (with only the hands affected) had
+eight children, several of whom were normally developed, but the rest were
+deformed as follows: One daughter had an osseous thickening at the end of
+the digits, one son had twenty-four digits, another had twelve fingers,
+the toes being normal in number.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_98" id="fig_98"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 400px; height: 390px;"><img src="images/fig_98.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 98.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_99" id="fig_99"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 389px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_99.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 99.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>I have elsewhere cited an instance from Kiernan in which unilateral
+sexdigitism was found in four generations of Norwegian degenerates.</p>
+
+<p>Not unfrequently polydactylia is associated with the absence or union or
+decrease in size of bones of the limbs. It happens that the upper or
+lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> extremities may be increased or diminished disproportionately
+through the body. This disproportion in size of the fingers and toes is
+exceedingly frequent. Big digits (macrodactylia, Fig. <a href="#fig_99">99</a>) are
+comparatively rare, and may only involve a supernumerary bone in the
+thumb. Short digits (microdactylia) are much more frequent. This state may
+be constituted by the absence of one bone or the union of two bones, or
+the shortening of metacarpal or metatarsal bones, or the shortness of
+several phalangeal bones. There may be increased disproportion between the
+different fingers. The method of determining this is by comparison with
+the middle finger. This disproportion may vary greatly. F&eacute;r&eacute; is of opinion
+that shortening of all the fingers constitutes a grave mark of degeneracy.
+Relative shortness is exceedingly common.</p>
+
+<p>Under the conditions of development of the limbs from the fin-fold, it
+follows that these may be checked completely so that the condition
+approximates the earlier development from the fish. On the other hand the
+large bones of the arm and thigh may be checked while the digits and the
+two lower bones (radius and ulna, tibia and fibula) go on to full
+development as do the digits. Sometimes the arms develop completely while
+the lower extremity remains in the fin-fold state. On the other hand the
+arms may be checked and remain in the fin-fold state while the legs go on
+to full development. Sometimes the bones of the arm and forearm are
+checked while the digits go on to full development. The lower extremities
+are sometimes fused together. This condition, from its resemblance to the
+like state in the seal, is called phocomelia, or seal limbs. They are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
+also called sirens, on account of the resemblance to the sirens of
+mythology.<a name="fna_227_227" id="fna_227_227"></a><a href="#fn_227_227"><small>[227]</small></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_100" id="fig_100"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 400px; height: 367px;"><img src="images/fig_100.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 100.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Other expressions of degeneracy, albeit sometimes secondary, are club-foot
+and club-hands (Fig. <a href="#fig_100">100</a>). In many instances these are retentions of
+positions assumed by the limbs of the f&oelig;tus in the course of evolution,
+and are therefore, in the adult, expressions of degeneracy. Club-foot was
+an expression of degeneracy which appeared in Byron, the poet, as a
+consequence of the degeneracy present in both the Byrons and the Gordons,
+as Kiernan has shown.<a name="fna_228_228" id="fna_228_228"></a><a href="#fn_228_228"><small>[228]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> Commenting on this condition as found in
+Byron, F. S. Coolidge, of Chicago, remarks: &#8220;Byron undoubtedly suffered
+from double congenital club-foot, the deformity being worse on the right.&#8221;
+While in Coolidge&#8217;s opinion congenital club-foot unquestionably arises
+from different causes, it is, however, so frequently an accompaniment of
+severe forms of mal-development and of congenital brain defects, that
+there can be no doubt but that imperfect constitutional development is one
+of its causes. That the deformity with the many limitations which it
+involves may tend to create morbidness is very likely to be an additional
+symptom of the degeneracy which, in certain cases, is the underlying cause
+for the deformity. Dareste, who has studied the club-foot and the
+club-hand from the standpoint of experimental teratology, finds that in no
+small number of cases club-foot and club-hand result from checked
+development. Absence of the kneecap or patella may, as H. N. Moyer has
+shown, be an expression of degeneracy.<a name="fna_229_229" id="fna_229_229"></a><a href="#fn_229_229"><small>[229]</small></a></p>
+
+<p>The conditions resultant on checked development may appear in any of the
+bony or muscular structures. At times muscles checked in development pass
+on to conditions present in the lower apes.<a name="fna_230_230" id="fna_230_230"></a><a href="#fn_230_230"><small>[230]</small></a> Sometimes the checked
+development of bones results in artery courses which are present in some
+of the lower animals. Just above the bend of the elbow in the embryo is an
+opening through which an artery passes in many quadrupeds. In adult man,
+as a rule, this has disappeared, but not rarely in degenerates the opening
+persists with the artery through it.</p>
+
+<p>Hernias, of all varieties, are noticeably hereditary,<a name="fna_231_231" id="fna_231_231"></a><a href="#fn_231_231"><small>[231]</small></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> but what is
+hereditary is not the rupture, but the laxity of the orifice of the cavity
+of the abdomen. As descent of the testicles from the abdomen (where they
+are embryonically in man and normally in many animals) is often delayed
+and even does not occur in degenerates, hernia of the groin variety is
+particularly apt to occur in them. These hernias are often found united
+with defects of the testicles as well as deficiencies of the chest.
+Deformities of the nose are also especially apt to coexist with these.</p>
+
+<p>Degenerate women frequently have supernumerary milk glands arranged on the
+abdomen as in some lemurs, while males may have supernumerary breasts of
+either male or female type. These breasts may be represented by nipples
+alone. In either sex arrested development of the face, middle ear, and
+palate often coexists with these supernumerary breasts.</p>
+
+<p>The degeneracies of the body combine so frequently with those of the skull
+and the brain as to indicate a common origin. Polydactylia is found with
+almost all the degeneracies of the body. It occurs with all the
+degeneracies of the eye, from those which are purely atavistic like
+coloboma to those like retinitis pigmentosa and amauroses, which are
+atavistic in origin. Hare-lip, cleft palate, and deformities of the jaws
+and teeth are often found associated with all the bodily degeneracies and
+the nutritive, intellectual, and moral degeneracies as well. Phocomelia
+with brain deformity has been found associated with them. Anomalies of the
+genital organs are also quite frequently associated with these and with
+finger anomalies. In the subjects of juvenile obesity are frequently
+associated unstable mentality and will-power, and delayed or precocious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+sexual maturity. My own observations have shown this condition to be
+frequently associated with the jaw and teeth degeneracies.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_101" id="fig_101"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 330px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_101.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 101.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Aside from their general significance as stigmata of degeneracy, anomalies
+of the external ear have been found frequently associated with
+mal-development of lungs, kidneys, liver, and intestines. Hidden
+spina-bifida is often associated with the same anomalies, and not rarely
+with irregular development of the genital organs of both sexes. Albinism
+or deficient pigment in the skin and hair is not only often associated
+with grave degeneracies, intellectual and moral, but appears combined with
+mal-development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> of the spleen, liver, and kidneys. The opposite state
+(melanoderma, or black skin) is often associated with similar deformities,
+especially with early precocity in development. It has also been found in
+connection with hairlessness and irregularities in development of the
+teeth and jaws.</p>
+
+<p>The deformities of the chest and their resulting interferences with
+respiration are not only associated with conditions like narrowing of the
+pulmonary artery, of the aorta, and with cardiac deformities, but also
+lead to diminution of the respiratory power and, in consequence, to
+conditions predisposing to pneumonia and consumption. They are also, as my
+own observation has shown, associated with deformities of the face, of the
+nose, of the mouth cavity, of the palate, and of the jaws. These
+conditions result in mouth breathing and in other conditions which
+predispose to the attacks of microbes. The deformities of the arterial
+system coexisting with checked development of the chest are apt to extend
+to the blood vessels of the kidneys, and therefore to retain these in the
+embryonic condition, thus predisposing them to disease. To a somewhat
+lesser degree this arterial condition coexisting with checked development
+of the chest or with the other arrested conditions of development
+associated with it, may extend to the liver in such a degree as to prevent
+it destroying the toxins of typhoid fever and allied diseases, thereby
+increasing the dangers from these disorders. The same influence may be
+exerted on the spleen and suprarenal capsules, thus interfering with the
+physiologic guards these organs furnish against disease and its results.
+Not infrequently do these last conditions tend to give an epileptic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+character to degeneracies which would otherwise be destitute of it. With
+the interference with the proper blood supply, due to checked conditions
+of the organs named, may occur gout, diabetes, and many forms of
+rheumatism with their secondary consequences.</p>
+
+<p>The imperfect and irregular action of the lungs associated with the
+arrests in development of the face, nose, palate, jaws, and chest may
+produce an irregular blood supply to the brain, which will exaggerate the
+mental instability of the degenerate.</p>
+
+<p>Among the conditions which are expressions of degeneracy of the body,
+combined with degeneracy of the head and face, are three conditions known
+as infantilism, masculinism, and feminism. Practically all three are
+arrests of development of the promise of the child type. Owing to the
+struggle for existence which occurs at puberty between the old type of the
+chondrocranium and its new type as supplemented by the dermal bones, the
+nervous system takes a distorted ply which arrests both the bodily,
+nervous, and mental development at certain points. In infantilism the
+arrest is of the future promise of the child, so that the body and face
+remain at the childish point, or the body and nervous system are checked,
+or finally the nervous system or certain organs alone are checked while
+the body goes on to full development. Not infrequently the face is
+arrested at any period from birth to puberty (Fig. <a href="#fig_101">101</a>). Hence the reason
+many persons retain their youthful appearance throughout life. These
+people are often vain and egotistic. The mental stamina is weak, and they
+are frequently unreliable, while the females are often prostitutes or
+prurient prudes, hysteric reformers or gossip mongers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_102" id="fig_102"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 252px; height: 500px;"><img src="images/fig_102.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 102.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The female type, from the standpoint of bodily and nervous development,
+most nearly approximates the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> promise of the child type, and checks of
+development will result in masculinism and feminism. In the first the
+female has proceeded so far in development as to have female organs and
+their functions while retaining traces of a predominant character of the
+lower male type. In the second, the male has proceeded along the line of
+evolution toward the female type, but ere sex has been fixed, further
+development has been checked and the male type is finally assumed as the
+predominant one. Both sexes proceed embryologically from an indifferent
+type nearly resembling the hermaphroditic type found in the lower
+vertebrates. The arrest of development may therefore take place at any
+point in the embryonic evolution. The male may preserve only the female
+breasts<a name="fna_232_232" id="fna_232_232"></a><a href="#fn_232_232"><small>[232]</small></a> (Fig. <a href="#fig_102">102</a>), while normal in other respects; or, again (Fig.
+<a href="#fig_103">103</a>), present cryptorchidism or sloping shoulders, and be otherwise
+masculine. On the other hand, his nervous system may have taken such a ply
+that at the period of puberty the sexual instincts may be female in type.
+In some instances, this may extend merely to an extreme modesty toward
+males, to an intense liking for female occupations and disgust for male
+occupations. In the female precisely analogous conditions may occur. In
+certain cases the sex side is entirely dormant until awakened at puberty.
+Education of these cases of arrested development may give the sex
+direction rather than any in-born tendency. In one case, a male who had
+undergone arrest of development in his evolution towards the female type
+was brought up as a girl, had unusually pleasing womanly qualities; as a
+result was married twice to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> intensely devoted husbands, and the real sex
+was never even suspected until post-mortem examination revealed that the
+supposed woman was a male. In other cases where the nervous system has
+taken one sexual ply, while the body has taken another, an exceedingly
+unfortunate class of beings results. This class of beings needs especially
+careful training during puberty and adolescence. In some instances in
+addition to the sexual distortion there exist in these beings conditions
+of mental defect and moral obliquity. In the last case they approximate
+the criminal type. In the first case residence in an insane hospital
+protects the community and these beings against themselves. In some
+instances no mental defect nor, in a strict sense, moral obliquity occurs.
+Here the patient requires very careful study from every standpoint.<a name="fna_233_233" id="fna_233_233"></a><a href="#fn_233_233"><small>[233]</small></a>
+There is in the higher and lower races a tendency in different directions
+as to the predominance of sex. The woman of the lower races more nearly
+resembles the male of the race. The male of the higher races more nearly
+resembles in structure the female of his race than does this female the
+females of the lower race. This is in part due, in the course of
+evolution, to the intrusion of the male on female occupations, since all
+occupations, other than war, hunting, and fishing, were created by
+women.<a name="fna_234_234" id="fna_234_234"></a><a href="#fn_234_234"><small>[234]</small></a> The male, however, in the higher races, while thus taking on
+the female intellectual and &aelig;sthetic qualities, retains the male sexual
+characteristics, mentally and physically, but in accordance with the law
+of evolution, these manifest themselves less explosively as in the case of
+the female. As the victim of masculinism or feminism is a degenerate the
+explosive manifestations are more marked. Every one of the stigmata of
+degeneracy already described may coexist with any one of the three
+conditions named: infantilism, masculinism, and feminism.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_103" id="fig_103"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 186px; height: 500px;"><img src="images/fig_103.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 103.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_104" id="fig_104"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 263px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_104.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 104.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among the most striking manifestations arising<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> from arrest of development
+in certain directions with possible hypertrophy in others, are the
+conditions known as giantism and dwarfism (<i>see</i> <a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a>). Both these
+conditions may be expressions of atavism to no very remote ancestors and
+present little if any evidences of degeneracy. In other cases degeneracy
+may be well marked, and the condition be due to imperfect gland action,
+such as disorder of the pituitary body, which causes very frequently an
+enlargement of many of the bones of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> the body, and very often a uniform
+enlargement of all the bones. Indeed, as Marie has said, giantism is
+acromegaly occurring during the period of adolescence. In many instances
+the opposite condition, dwarfism, occurs during infancy from causes which
+check the further growth of the body, although the general functions
+remain unchanged. Dwarfism is very apt to be attended by preservation of
+the intellectual faculties without evidence of degeneracy, other than the
+egotism shown in extreme vanity. Moral defects are, however, more apt to
+occur in dwarfism than in giantism, in which last condition mental defect
+is apt to occur, varying from a simple good-humoured stupidity to
+feeble-mindedness. In proportion as the central nervous system has been
+affected will the stigmata of degeneracy appear in both conditions. As the
+line between disease and disordered function is not thinly drawn in these
+cases, disorders like rickets or local bony tendencies to extensive growth
+may coexist with both conditions. Infantilism is peculiarly apt to occur
+with giantism, and while less frequent in dwarfism it also occurs, but is
+then especially apt to be associated with rickets.</p>
+
+<p>Closely akin to these conditions are leontiasis ossium and acromegaly,
+both of which are characterised by similar trophoneurotic defects. The
+first of these conditions may occur precedent to puberty and cease in its
+completion. Kiernan has observed this in the case of an imbecile on Ward&#8217;s
+Island, who lived until the age of 75, after spending more than sixty
+years in the charitable institutions of New York. His ancestry was of the
+criminal and defective classes. Acromegaly is characterised by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> abnormal
+growth, chiefly in the bones of the head, face, and extremities. As a
+rule, the disorder begins at the completion of puberty, although it
+occasionally occurs at the onset of the climacteric. The illustration
+given (Fig. <a href="#fig_104">104</a>) presents the characteristic features of the disease. In
+this case there are local evidences of congenital defect. The prevailing
+trend of opinion is that this condition is due to irregular action of the
+pituitary body which controls osseous development.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_105" id="fig_105"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 450px; height: 291px;"><img src="images/fig_105.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 105.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>As already pointed out in the chapter on Heredity and Atavism, the arrests
+of development may affect one side of the body, while the other pursues
+the direct course of development. This may show itself in over-growth, as
+well as in under-growth, on the affected side. The person may appear, even
+from the centre of the forehead down, as if the halves of the bodies of
+two different persons had been joined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> in one. Conditions may vary from
+this extreme type to a state in which a lack of proper nerve and blood
+supply on the undeveloped side predisposes to attacks of disease, as
+already pointed out.</p>
+
+<p>Not rarely does it happen that acromegaly attacks the side most deficient
+in nerve supply. The same is true of allied disorders affecting the growth
+of the muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions of development may be such that both sides are equally
+defective in nerve supply, so that when acromegaly occurs it may attack
+both sides equally. This is particularly apt to be the case with the lower
+extremities, and enlarged feet (Fig. <a href="#fig_105">105</a>) are not an uncommon result.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_106" id="fig_106"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_106.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 106.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The feet, in addition to the condition already described as being common
+in both extremities, exhibit special stigmata of their own in consonance
+with the evolutionary advance which the foot has shown as compared with
+the hand in man&#8217;s evolution. In the lower races the hollow of the foot
+does not exist, and the condition known as flat-foot occurs (Fig. <a href="#fig_106">106</a>).
+This is usually associated with low instep. It occurs among the stigmata
+of degeneracy, and is not rarely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> associated with grave moral defects and
+intellectual distortions. It and other feet degeneracies have been found
+frequently among paranoiacs, moral imbeciles, and prostitutes. This is
+particularly true of the prehensile power of the foot.<a name="fna_235_235" id="fna_235_235"></a><a href="#fn_235_235"><small>[235]</small></a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Degeneracy in Reversional Tendencies</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">The</span> hair of the head and body may never develop from the condition of down
+(lanugo) present in the new-born. The hair over the sexual organs may
+alone remain in this condition, not showing itself at puberty. In women
+the hair may be unusually developed on the face and chest. It may also
+cover the whole body, a condition which is normal in the Ainus of Japan.
+It may develop, as already shown, very markedly in the lumbar regions.</p>
+
+<p>Speech may be markedly disturbed, reverting to the condition of Haeckel&#8217;s
+Homo-alalus in the shape of deaf-mutism, which is one of the extreme
+expressions of degeneracy. Not less than 93 per cent. of the cases of
+congenital deaf-mutism possess deformities of the head, face, jaws, and
+teeth. The mere fact of the exceedingly primitive structure of the
+internal auditory mechanism has abnormal or defective hearing power as a
+consequence. Many cases of congenital deaf-mutism owe their origin to
+this, inasmuch as the auditory mechanism is not in a condition to
+appreciate sound, even though the individual may not have been born deaf,
+and the whole auditory apparatus subsequently degenerates. A mental
+defect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> is sometimes superadded, thus aggravating the case. Upon general
+principles, since deformities of the head, face, jaws, nose, antra,
+vaults, &amp;c., are common in neurotics and degenerates, stigmata of the
+ear-bones must occasionally take place. From the complicated structure of
+the ear, lesions must often result from such deformities. The deaf-mutism
+here considered is the result of congenital conditions not produced by
+disease. Dumbness may result from congenital defects of the tongue or
+deformities of the larynx of an atavistic or a degenerate type, but
+degeneracy rarely extends so deeply into the organism as in the case of
+deaf-mutism. No greater error is committed than the confusion of deaf
+mutism secondary to ear disease with the congenital type.</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent reversional tendencies occur in the genitals. One very
+common condition is retention of the testicles within the abdomen
+(<i>cryptorchidism</i>), which has been already pointed out, and may represent
+the last expiring trace of degeneracy. The testicles may, however, be
+perfectly normal in structure and function. In the female the uterus may
+present every type of mammalian uterus from the marsupial up. The female
+may also revert (as more rarely the male) to the condition of the reptiles
+and oviparous mammals in which the urinary organs and bowels empty into a
+single opening, the cloaca. This condition has been found in the female
+offspring of degenerate families, who are otherwise normal and who have
+produced children, despite the cloaca.</p>
+
+<p>Another reversion is the occurrence of breasts without nipples, resembling
+those found in the oviparous mammals. The breasts in degenerates, as
+already shown, are frequently multiple, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> because the law of
+individuation is reversed, but more often as a reversion to the
+many-breasted condition (<i>polymastia</i>) of the precursor of man.<a name="fna_236_236" id="fna_236_236"></a><a href="#fn_236_236"><small>[236]</small></a> The
+human kidney and liver may revert not merely in function alone to the
+sauropsida, but also in structure.</p>
+
+<p>The human heart may present in degenerates all types from the pulsating
+vessel found in the lancelet up to that of the mammal. The imperfect types
+of these sometimes perform their functions properly, except under strain.
+In other cases mixture of arterial and venous blood results, producing the
+so-called &#8220;blue babies.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Under the teachings of the extreme disciples of Morel, it has been assumed
+that the family of the degenerate tends to irrevocable extinction. On the
+principle of individuation already outlined from Spencer, degeneracy,
+through its tendency to generalise rather than specialise function, causes
+too rapid development of cells which tend to extinguish each other, thus
+preventing proper ovulation; and, in the next place, the same condition
+prevents proper development of the ovum if formed and fecundated; and,
+finally, causes too numerous simultaneous developments of ova, which would
+tend to destroy each other. The same cause produces also premature
+extrusion of ova. At the same time, however, under given conditions, this
+principle also tends to produce reversions in type in the shape of too
+frequently repeated and abnormally multiple births. It has been noted that
+even the ancestors of those predisposed to phthisis have numerous families
+and many children at a birth albeit most of these die ere reaching the
+sixth year.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> Marandon
+de Monteyel<a name="fna_237_237" id="fna_237_237"></a><a href="#fn_237_237"><small>[237]</small></a> finds that multiple and frequently
+repeated pregnancies often occur among the families of hereditary
+lunatics. This has been corroborated by Kiernan<a name="fna_238_238" id="fna_238_238"></a><a href="#fn_238_238"><small>[238]</small></a> and Harriet C. B.
+Alexander,<a name="fna_239_239" id="fna_239_239"></a><a href="#fn_239_239"><small>[239]</small></a> of Chicago, in connection with the hereditary lunatics in
+Cook County. They found that 90 families of the hereditary insane averaged
+11 children each. Six families had 5 children, 4 had 7 children, 8 had 8,
+10 had 9, 14 had 10, 8 had 11, 4 had 12, 4 had 13, 4 had 14, 3 had 16, 3
+had 17, 4 had 18, 3 had 19, 5 had 20, and 1 had 21 children, each. Twins,
+triplets, and quadruplets were six times as frequent as among normal
+families. Manning has found similar conditions among the hereditary insane
+in Australia. Valenta, of Vienna,<a name="fna_240_240" id="fna_240_240"></a><a href="#fn_240_240"><small>[240]</small></a> has noted this also among
+epileptics. He reports the case of an epileptic mother who had 36
+children, including six twins, four times quadruplets, twice triplets. Her
+daughter, also an epileptic, bore 32 children before she was 40, including
+quadruplets twice, triplets four times, and twins once. Similar, though
+less striking, statistics occur with other classes of degenerates with
+proportionate frequency when the sterilising effect of certain diseases to
+which they are specially liable is taken into account. The general
+acceptance of the opinion as to large families being a test of advance in
+evolution seems strange when the extent and force of the action of the
+principle of individuation is taken into account, and when it is
+remembered how prolific are the lower vertebrates as compared with the
+higher.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of tumours on the principle now adopted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> depends essentially on
+that reverse of the principle of individuation, illustrated in plural
+births.</p>
+
+<p>One most striking expression of nutritive degeneracy is h&aelig;mophilia or the
+diathesis of the &#8220;bleeders.&#8221; This, as Potain has pointed out, is not met
+with except in families which are subject to nutritive or graver
+degeneracies. Dent has shown that definite mental peculiarities,
+especially an inability (stronger than unwillingness) to tell the truth,
+are especially common in bleeders.<a name="fna_241_241" id="fna_241_241"></a><a href="#fn_241_241"><small>[241]</small></a> H&aelig;mophilia was frequently
+encountered in the Valois<a name="fna_242_242" id="fna_242_242"></a><a href="#fn_242_242"><small>[242]</small></a> family, and has been met with in the
+descendants of Ernest the Pious of Hanover. The condition, as Osler,<a name="fna_243_243" id="fna_243_243"></a><a href="#fn_243_243"><small>[243]</small></a>
+of Baltimore, points out, is characterised by a tendency to uncontrollable
+bleeding, either spontaneous or from slight wounds. The hereditary
+transmission in this disorder is decided. In the Appleton-Swain family, of
+Reading, Mass., there have been cases for nearly two centuries. Instances
+have already occurred in the seventh generation. The usual mode of
+transmission is through the mother, who is not herself a bleeder, but the
+daughter of one. Atavism through the female is the rule. The daughters of
+a bleeder, though healthy and free from any tendency, are almost certain
+to transmit the disposition to the male offspring. The affection is much
+more common in males than in females, the proportion being estimated at 11
+to 1, or even 13 to 1. The tendency usually appears within the first two
+years of life. It is rare for manifestations to be delayed until the tenth
+or twelfth year. Families in all conditions of life are affected.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+Bleeders, like other degenerates, may have large families; the members
+usually have fine soft skin. In all probability, as the researches of Cohn
+show, this condition is due to incomplete inhibition, resultant in
+excessive activity of the blood-making organs. Such inhibition is, of
+course, cerebral, and hence, as a later acquirement, readily affected by
+degeneracy which may find its chief expression in this defect.</p>
+
+<p>Among the conditions that have been recognised as an expression of
+degeneracy is gout, which, as Fothergill long ago pointed out, is a
+reversion to the condition found in the sauropsidian liver and kidneys.
+Cullen had previously expressed the opinion that gout is a neurosis. Later
+researches tend to show that this neurosis is one controlling nutritive
+tissue change. The condition may occur early in childhood as well as at
+the periods of stress. The same is true of conditions like arthritis
+deformans, all of which may be the sole expression of degeneracy in an
+individual who exhibits many marked stigmata. Another expression of
+nutritive degeneracy is the senile atrophy of the skin described by
+Souques.<a name="fna_244_244" id="fna_244_244"></a><a href="#fn_244_244"><small>[244]</small></a> In a case of this kind under my care the patient, a
+twenty-six-year-old man, was born with club-foot. He has some musical
+talent. He is a marked degenerate. The skin is thick, coarse, and dry,
+giving him a very old appearance on account of its shrivelled condition.
+The ears are undeveloped, eyes small and sunken; excessive development of
+the cheek-bones; hair coarse and stiff; face arrested in development,
+possessing a partial V-shaped arch. The width outside first molar is 2;
+outside second bicuspid, 1&middot;75; width of vault, 1&middot;50; height of vault,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+&middot;58. One of the prominent features of degeneracy noticed in this case was
+the lack of hair upon the face.</p>
+
+<p>Disorder of the thyroid produces both dwarfing cretinism, and a
+myx&oelig;dematous condition of the subcutaneous tissues, increasing the
+quantity of the jelly-like material in these, and therefore approximating
+some conditions found in the invertebrates. Ichthyosis (the skin disorder
+producing the &#8220;fish men&#8221; of shows) is frequently an expression of
+degeneracy, often associated with deficient limbs and monsters in the same
+family.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_107" id="fig_107"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 309px; height: 400px;"><img src="images/fig_107.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 107.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>A condition due to heredity (involving an arterial change called
+arterio-capillary fibrosis) underlies many disorders like cirrhosis of the
+liver, kidneys, and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> organs. It is usually an expression of
+premature senescence. Certain families for this reason exhibit a tendency
+to an early appearance of old age (Fig. <a href="#fig_107">107</a>), a tendency which, as Osler
+remarks, cannot be explained in any other way than that in the make-up of
+the machine bad material was used for tubing.</p>
+
+<p>Obesity or lipomatosis is a nutritive expression of degeneracy especially
+noticeable in the second dentition, at puberty, and sometimes at the
+climacteric. As F&eacute;r&eacute; has shown, lipomatosis (first noticed by Cruveilhier)
+is an expression of stress at the period of evolution. Youthful obesity
+occurs in descendants of degenerates. In my experience it is attended by
+great liability to disease and systemic weakness when under morbid
+influence. These lipomatosic children are liable to rheumatism (more
+properly gout) and great hemorrhage from slight causes. Youthful obesity
+is sometimes, as F&eacute;r&eacute; remarks, associated with precocious maturity and
+resultant early senescence, but more often with extended infantilism, as
+in the case of Dickens&#8217;s &#8220;fat boy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this question of obesity I examined 267 corpulent
+school children and adults. Nearly all had marked stigmata of degeneracy;
+92 per cent. had deformed ears to a marked degree; 66 per cent. had
+arrested development as compared with their age, while 12 per cent.
+presented excessive development; 34 were too young to show the final form
+and size of the jaw. Of the 34, in about 33&#8531; per cent., the molars,
+incisors, cuspids and bicuspids were present; 96 per cent. of these had
+small teeth. Of the remaining 233, 87 per cent. had arrested development
+of the upper jaw, 22 per cent. of the lower jaw, 64 per cent. had V or
+saddle-shaped arches or their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> modifications and protruding teeth; 17 per
+cent. had hypertrophy of the alveolar process; 83 per cent. had small
+teeth; 27 per cent. had extra tubercles upon the molars; 82 per cent. had
+stenosis of the nasal cavity more or less marked; 36 per cent. had
+deflection of the nasal septum to the left, and 29 per cent. to the right;
+21 per cent. wore glasses for eye defects. In 58 per cent. there was
+enlargement of the thyroid gland, and in 7 per cent. arrest of development
+of the same.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_108" id="fig_108"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_108.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 108.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_109" id="fig_109"></a>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_109.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 109.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_110" id="fig_110"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_110.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 110.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among the structures of reversionary type that have attracted most
+attention of late years is the appendix vermiformis. This, as elsewhere
+shown, is a rudimentary offshoot which is extremely variable. Man retains
+this structure as a relic of having been at one time a vegetable feeder.
+In the koala (Australian native bear), a vegetable-feeding marsupial, it
+is more than thrice the size of the body. In the carnivora it has entirely
+vanished. In man, where it is sometimes absent and sometimes is as largely
+developed as in the orang, it is commonly from four to five inches in
+length and about a third of an inch in diameter. The appendix is poorly
+supplied with blood, which predisposes it to attacks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> by microbes because
+of the absence of leucocytes to fight these, and also because being, so to
+speak, a blind ally of the intestine, microbes find in it a suitable
+culture medium for them. The secretions of the appendix are very apt to
+decompose: hence a culture medium. The extreme variability of this
+disappearing organ may be judged from the Figs. <a href="#fig_108">108</a>, <a href="#fig_109">109</a>, <a href="#fig_110">110</a>. As it is
+best developed in degenerates, it constitutes in them one source of
+predisposition to death from blood poisoning or from sudden shock. The
+location of this organ also tends to facilitate disease. In degenerates it
+may be situated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> at any point upon the end of the big bowel, varying from
+two to three inches. This little bowel is worse than useless in man, being
+a source of serious danger. It is an instance of checked development of
+the same kind which causes the human liver to take on sauropsidian
+peculiarities. Man in this particular as well as the orang is lower than
+the carnivora, who have lost this worse than useless organ. Its tendency
+to disappearance in man indicates once more the truth that degeneracy of
+an organ is often, through the law of economy of growth, for the benefit
+of the organism as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>I may conclude this outline of human reversionary tendencies by mentioning
+that merycism, or rumination, has been very frequently found among
+imbeciles, paranoiacs, hysterics, and epileptics.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Degeneracy of the Brain</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">One</span> illustration, and a very striking one, of the influence of degeneracy
+on the brain is the durencephalous child which so often appears in
+degenerate families. Here the cerebral hemispheres and everything but the
+medulla and pons may be absent, while the rest of the body is in a
+comparatively normal state of development. Starting with such an extreme
+expression of degeneracy in the brain, a wide but closely linked range of
+deficiencies may be found in the brain of degenerates, involving even in
+some almost normal individuals more than simple deficiency. What was
+pointed out by Spitzka,<a name="fna_245_245" id="fna_245_245"></a><a href="#fn_245_245"><small>[245]</small></a> of New York, twenty years ago concerning the
+brain of hereditary lunatics, is equally true of the brains of the other
+degenerate branches of the same tree. The conventional notion associating
+idiocy and imbecility with quantitative deficiency of the forebrain only
+is, as Spitzka remarked, a very imperfect one. The researches of numerous
+observers have shown that qualitative defects (using the term qualitative
+in its wider sense to cover both morphologic and histologic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> aberrations)
+are as common, and are more characteristic features of the degenerate
+brain. These defects may be enumerated under the following heads: 1.
+Atypical asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres as regards bulk. 2.
+Atypical asymmetry in the gyral development. 3. Persistence of embryonic
+features in the gyral arrangement. 4. Defective development of the great
+interhemispherical commisure. 5. Irregular and defective development of
+the great ganglia and of the conducting tracts. 6. Anomalies in the
+development of the minute elements or neurons (as the cells and
+associating of fibres are now generally called) of the brain. 7. Abnormal
+arrangements of the cerebral vascular channels. All of these conditions,
+separately or in the combination of several of the features above
+mentioned, are occasionally found in the brain of paranoiacs, moral
+imbeciles, criminals, deaf-mutes and other degenerates. Of the first type
+the brain (Fig. <a href="#fig_111">111</a>), from the practice of Kiernan, is an excellent
+illustration. This brain came from a paranoiac criminal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> who died in the
+Chicago (Cook County) Insane Hospital. A very similar brain was observed
+by Kiernan in one of the paranoiacs dying in the New York City Insane
+Hospital. Similar brains have been observed in deaf-mutes<a name="fna_246_246" id="fna_246_246"></a><a href="#fn_246_246"><small>[246]</small></a> whose
+mental status passed muster because of the allowance made for mental
+deficiency due to deaf-muteness. A brain showing as great asymmetry was
+found in the case of a French physician of standing who was a member of a
+mutual autopsy society. He proved, however, to have had degenerates in his
+ancestry and had exhibited peculiarities which showed that much of the
+degeneracy due to this ancestry had been corrected by proper training. The
+defects enumerated under Spitzka&#8217;s second head are also observable in the
+illustration given. The gyres are not only asymmetrical as to their number
+in the two hemispheres, but also as to their size. The contrast between
+this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> brain and
+the ideally normal one of the <ins class="correction" title="original: mathemacian">mathematician</ins> Gauss<a name="fna_247_247" id="fna_247_247"></a><a href="#fn_247_247"><small>[247]</small></a>
+(Fig. <a href="#fig_112">112</a>) could not well be greater. Both of these as regards complexity
+of gyres contrast very decidedly with both the f&oelig;tal brain given by
+Bastian (Fig. <a href="#fig_113">113</a>) and the idiot brain (Fig. <a href="#fig_114">114</a>) of a patient of Kiernan.
+The persistency of embryonic features in the gyral arrangement is
+excellently illustrated in Fig. <a href="#fig_115">115</a>, which represents the brain of an
+imbecile examined by Spitzka. Here the convolutions in general were few,
+large, and well marked.<a name="fna_248_248" id="fna_248_248"></a><a href="#fn_248_248"><small>[248]</small></a> The occipital and parietal lobes
+preponderated in mass as compared with the temporal and frontal. The
+latter were greatly hollowed out on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> the orbital face, and the gyri here
+found were few, simple, and atypical. On the whole the convolutions of the
+right hemisphere were better marked and the secondary folds more numerous
+than those of the left hemisphere, and the type of the convolutions
+presented differences on the two sides. The most pronounced differences
+were exhibited in the island of Reil and in the occipital lobe. The island
+of Reil on the left side had fewer and flatter gyri than that of the right
+side, and resembled in its general aspect the first impression of the
+brain of an orang-outang. The right island had six folds better marked
+than those of the left side, but their type was more decidedly radiatory,
+which was in relation with the unusual shortening of the insular field.
+The external perpendicular occipital sulcus which Bischoff never found in
+the adult human brain (but which has been found persistent in a case of
+imbecility with moral perversion by Sander and in a sane neurotic
+individual by Meynert) was finely marked upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> right side of the brain
+under consideration. The fissure was very deep, its posterior wall was
+slightly bevelled, and covered several secondary gyri of its anterior
+walls. It differed in position from the similar fissures described by
+Meynert and Sander in that it did not, as in these cases, unite with the
+internal perpendicular occipital sulcus and thus simulate the arrangement
+found in the anthropoid apes. It was merely the unobliterated external
+occipital fissure of the embryo, and, as in the latter, its medial end if
+prolonged would have fallen behind the internal perpendicular occipital
+sulcus. The anomaly consisted therefore in the preservation of an
+embryonic feature. The arrest of development involved the generally better
+developed hemisphere. On the left side gyri and sulci were few and simple
+but typical, the external perpendicular occipital sulcus being interrupted
+by a broad crossing gyrus. On transverse vertical sections through the
+hemispheres the average vertical thickness is found to be the same on both
+sides and normal. The great ganglia were of relatively large dimension,
+and the white mass of the hemisphere, aside from the internal capsule and
+the other detachments mediating the connection of the cortex with lower
+centres, relatively reduced. The caudate nucleus appeared to be of bolder
+contour on the right side. The right lenticular nucleus presented a larger
+section area by about 25 per cent. than its fellow of the opposite side.
+It was much shorter, however, like the insular territory of the same side,
+and in corresponding sections the posterior end of the left lenticular
+nucleus was struck while the right was absent. The right nucleus was
+rounder, the left more triangular in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> contour in corresponding altitudes.
+The olivary bodies were asymmetrical, the right one being flatter and
+smoother than the left. On transverse sections no difference between the
+olivary nuclei beyond that which occurs in healthy persons could be found;
+the asymmetry was ascertainably one of prominence only. There was one
+morphologic appearance noticeable in the fourth layer of the paracentral
+cortex. This consisted of the presence of round bodies comparable to the
+nuclei of nerve cells within a thin or no mantle of protoplasm, and
+presenting every gradation from the free nuclei of the neurolgia, so
+called, to nerve cells with imperfect processes. These bodies in the human
+cortex represent imperfectly developed nerve cells and are normally found
+in the cortex of lower animals. The barren layer or ependyma of the cortex
+was in places twice as thick in this brain as in the brain of normal
+beings. This ependyma is the histologic factor of the enormous weight of
+macrocephalic brains. In a macrocephalic case coming under the observation
+of Kiernan, of Chicago, in which the brain weighed 68 ounces, the ependyma
+was five times the normal thickness. The conditions to which Spitzka
+refers are more or less constantly found in degeneracy. The readiness with
+which any form of the degenerate series may undergo a metamorphosis into
+another in the course of hereditary transmission is not, Spitzka remarks,
+interpretable in any other light than that of the transmission of
+structure defects either intensified or mitigated in the course of such
+transmission.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_111" id="fig_111"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_111.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 111.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_112" id="fig_112"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_112.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 112.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_113" id="fig_113"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_113.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 113.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_114" id="fig_114"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_114.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 114.</p>
+<p><a name="fig_115" id="fig_115"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_115.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 115.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Transmission of many of these cerebral defects occurs at the moment of
+conception. The embryonic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> mechanism of these defects, and the influence
+which f&oelig;tal and maternal impressions and injuries exert on the
+development of the nerve centres, furnish valuable argument by analogy in
+support of conclusions regarding the degeneracy group. Embryologists
+imitate known natural teratological states of the nerve centres by
+artificial methods. By wounding the embryonic and vascular areas of the
+chick&#8217;s germ with a cataract needle malformations are induced, varying in
+intensity and character with the earliness of the injury and its precise
+extent. More delicate injuries produce less monstrous development. It is
+particularly the partial varnishing or irregular heating of the egg-shell
+that results in the production of anomalies comparable to microcephaly and
+cerebral asymmetry. The constancy of the injurious effect of so apparently
+slight an impression as the partial varnishing of a structure not directly
+connected with the embryo at all, suggests a most plausible explanation of
+maternal and other impressions acting on the germ. The delicate problems
+in this connection may be inferred from the observations of Dareste that
+eggs transported in railroad cars, and thus subject to the vibration and
+repeated shocks of a railroad journey, are checked in development for
+several days. A less coarse molecular transmission taking place during the
+maturation of the ovum or its fertilisation, or, finally, during the
+embryonic stages of the more complex and hence more readily disturbed and
+distorted human germ, would account for the disastrous effects of
+insanity, emotional explosions, and mental or physical shocks of either
+parent on the offspring.</p>
+
+<p>For the majority of cerebral deformities the causes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> of the deformity must
+exist in the germ prior to the appearance of the separate organs of the
+body. Artificial deformities produce analogous results because they
+imitate original germ defects either by mechanical removal or by some
+other interference with a special part of the germ. Early involvement of
+the germ is shown in the fact that the somatic malformation in degeneracy
+often involves other parts of the body than the nervous axis: defective
+development of the uro-genital system, deformities in the face, skull,
+irregularities of the teeth, misshapen ears and limbs.</p>
+
+<p>Those who seek for the source of the arrested or perverted brain
+development in the reaction of an abnormally growing and ossifying skull
+on the skull contents are in error. The premature ossification theory does
+not hold good even for the microcephali; it is to be doubted if it ever
+had any justification in view of the often open character of the sutures.
+Taking the well-studied cases of asymmetry, the variability of a single
+factor shows that caution is needed in referring cerebral anomalies to any
+single influence. In Muhr&#8217;s case (cited by Spitzka) the atrophic
+cerebellar hemisphere was on the same side with the atrophic cerebral
+hemisphere. The internal carotid artery of that side was of lesser calibre
+and the entire skull half shortened. Here the lagging behind in growth of
+one half of the skull appears on first sight to explain the retarded
+development of the corresponding halves of the cerebrum and cerebellum. In
+view of the atypy of the gyri, however, an atypy not to be explained
+purely on mechanical grounds, it is more reasonable to believe that the
+imperfect development of certain vascular channels was either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> concomitant
+or secondary to a primitive anomaly of the cerebral hemisphere. The
+retarded skull growth would have to be looked upon as a tertiary
+occurrence and the cerebellar defect as a final ensuing result. Ordinarily
+with defective development of one cerebral hemisphere the cerebellar
+defect is on the opposite side, herein following the course of the
+anatomical connections of that development and of the secondary
+degenerations. The deviation from this rule in Muhr&#8217;s case was due to the
+entering of the abnormal skull-shape, itself secondary to other defects,
+as an element influencing brain growth at a special period of development.
+An abnormal shape of the skull, generally associated with a cerebral
+defect, and hence valuable as a physical sign presumably indicating mental
+anomalies, may exert an important modifying influence at a late period on
+the contained brain, but the grosser defects in the cerebral architecture
+must antedate the period of skull growth and be deeply planted as an
+original intrinsic fault in the brain blastema itself. The researches of
+His have shown how important for the definitive shape of the body and its
+organs are the position of individual cells, the portion of the germ area,
+the convexity and length of germ curves and the relative rate of growth of
+different germ areas. And as the experiments of other embryologists have
+established the possibility of producing monstrosities analogous to
+cerebral defects by altering the conditions ever so slightly, the general
+conclusion follows that the fundamental error of development at the
+foundation of malformations associated with degeneracy is to be located at
+a very early period of embryonic, or possibly of ovuline life. Certain of
+these anomalies are due to a disturbance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> of the balance between the
+growth of the epiblast and mesoblast derivatives of the brain, others to a
+disharmony in the development of related associated brain segments; in the
+severer cases both elements are combined.</p>
+
+<p>It is not difficult to perceive the relation existing between a defective
+brain weight, paucity of the gyri, deficiency of properly developed
+cortical cells and such an elementary form of mental aberration as simple
+imbecility. The subject of the relation between structure and function
+gains in interest when we leave this domain of simple mental weakness to
+analyse the relation between structural defects and the positive symptoms
+of insanity and degeneracy&mdash;that is, moral perversion, mental obliquity,
+delusions, and morbid impulses. Such symptoms are not limited to the
+higher forms of the degenerate series; they occur, though less constantly
+and less markedly, in the lower forms.</p>
+
+<p>C. K. Mills,<a name="fna_249_249" id="fna_249_249"></a><a href="#fn_249_249"><small>[249]</small></a> of Philadelphia, on examination of imbecile, paranoiac,
+and criminal brains, found atypical asymmetry as to gyral and fissure
+development present. The features of this atypical asymmetry were the
+existence of a Sylvian fissure shorter on one side than the other, both
+absolutely and comparatively, and also a more vertical direction of the
+fissure on one side than on the other, greater exposure of the insula on
+one side with marked differences in the development of its fissures and
+gyri, confluence of the central fissure with the Sylvian on one side only,
+and great tortuosity or bridging of the former fissure in one hemisphere,
+unusual narrowness, straightness of complication of the precentral or
+postcentral gyrus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> on one side; marked difference in the simplicity of
+complexity of the frontal lobes, great simplicity of the orbital surface
+on one side, differences in the parietal fissure as to length and
+interruption, a smaller parietal or marginal or angular gyrus on one side,
+very great difference in the degrees of confluence and interruption of the
+fissures in general, exceeding great length vertically of the
+supertemporal or parallel fissure on one side, unusual differences in the
+size of the precuneus and cuneus.</p>
+
+<p>A. W. Wilmarth,<a name="fna_250_250" id="fna_250_250"></a><a href="#fn_250_250"><small>[250]</small></a> of Philadelphia, Pa., after a careful study of idiots
+and imbeciles ranging in intellectual power from the idiot, properly
+so-called, to the juvenile criminal, paranoiac, and &#8220;ne&#8217;er-do-well,&#8221; finds
+that the brains of these vary greatly along the line pointed out by
+Spitzka and Mills. One type of brain in this class of children is very
+simple in its outward configuration. The convolutions are usually coarse,
+but little convoluted and comparatively free from secondary folds. The
+fissures tend to assume a confluent type. Another variety, found chiefly
+among the lowest grades, might well be termed &#8220;atypic.&#8221; A brain without a
+corpus callosum is a marked example. In the frontal lobe of the right
+hemisphere the first frontal convolution is quite regular. Below this from
+the centre of the lobe seven fissures passed in different directions,
+cutting the tube into a number of radiating convolutions, entirely
+different from its usual appearance. The short fissure of Sylvius (about
+three inches in length) passed upward, turned sharply, and passed almost
+directly behind. Two parallel gyri curved around its posterior extremity.
+The arrangement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> of the convolutions of the temporal and parietal lobes
+were so exceedingly irregular and complex that it was impossible to
+classify them. In the occipital lobe, on the contrary, the gyri were
+complete in number and of regular arrangements. In the left hemisphere the
+arrangement of the frontal convolutions was more regular, but the temporal
+and parietal lobes presented the same complicated area of surface folding,
+bearing but little resemblance to the normal brain. The tendency of the
+convolutions to arrange themselves in parallel curves around the posterior
+extremity of the fissure of Sylvius was well shown in the brain of a boy
+of exceedingly low intellect. The frontal lobes in this brain are
+proportionately large; the convolutions straight, especially the third
+frontal, the fissures shallow. In the left temporal lobe they are nearly
+obliterated from pressure of fluid in the ventricles. The ascending
+frontal convolution on each side appears to be wanting. On the left side a
+large bridging convolution crosses the middle of the fissure of Rolando.
+Confluence of fissure is a decided feature of idiot brains. Even where
+confluence is not complete, the tendency of the principal fissure to cut
+through separating convolutions is very evident. Were the cases where
+confluence is nearly complete included, the number would be considerably
+augmented. The fissure of Sylvius passed into the fissure of Rolando in
+one case on both sides, in another on one side only. In two other cases
+they were connected by deep secondary fissures. The interparietalis has
+its origin in the fissure of Sylvius in four cases on both sides, in five
+cases on one side only. The calcarine fissure passed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>completely across
+the gyrus frontitatus on both sides in two cases, on one side in four
+cases. In one case the first occipital convolution sank nearly beneath the
+surface, the next occipital gyrus projecting over it, forming a parietal
+operculum. There also seems to be a strong tendency to form annectant gyri
+in the upper part of the parieto-occipital fissure. In no less than six
+hemispheres of 15 brains were these supplementary gyri found more or less
+complete. In one case on both sides, in five cases on one side, the
+parieto-occipital fissure cut through the first occipital convolution into
+the interparietal fissure. A tendency of the transverse occipital fissure
+to approach the parieto-occipital fissure is very apparent, though in no
+case do they coincide. The folds of the cerebral cortex, from a lack of
+the stimulus of healthy growth, sometimes revert to forms resembling those
+found in other groups of the animal kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental factors of thought and action, as Spitzka terms them, are
+two: perceptions and motor innervation. These are, in other words, the
+units of thought and action. They can be properly referred to nerve cell
+groups as their anatomical seat, and, as far as intellect is in question,
+to the cell group represented in the more or less diffused and dovetailing
+areas of specialised function in the cortex cerebri (Fig. <a href="#fig_116">116</a>). But the
+largest hemisphere known, with the most crowded and most highly developed
+nerve cells, and the most extensive connections with the periphery, and
+the most perfect projection of that periphery in its intricately
+convoluted mass would, functionally speaking, represent nothing but a mass
+of pigeon-holed impressions stored away without method and without
+purpose, useless to the organism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> were it not for those arched fibres
+uniting the different cortical centres with each other.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_116" id="fig_116"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_116.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 116.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>These fibre constitute by far the greater part of the white centrum oval
+of the hemisphere. The total transverse section of the crus and the fibre
+masses from the thalamus and basilar ganglia, does not comprise more than
+one-third of the entire mass. In the lower animal this relation is
+different. The projecting fibres, such as those of crus and capsule and
+the great ganglia, are not as massive as in man, but they are nearly equal
+to, and in still lower forms exceed, those connecting the gyri with each
+other. Hence the chief point of contrast noted on examining a transverse
+frontal section through the cerebral hemisphere of a man and an ape
+consists in the mass of the centrum ovale of Vieussens. The whole
+substance in man actually appears hypertrophied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> when compared with that
+of lower animals. It is the associating fibres which mainly mediate that
+complex co-ordination of the separate units of thought and action which
+constitute the anatomical basis of the highest mental functions (Fig.
+<a href="#fig_117">117</a>). The study of the human mind does not resolve itself merely into an
+analysis of individual faculties such as simple perceptions and motor
+innervations, but above all requires the establishment of their synthesis
+into the complex abstractions on which the ego depends.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig_117" id="fig_117"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig_117.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="caption">FIG. 117.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Neither anatomic nor physiologic researches are calculated to demonstrate
+just what associating fasciculi or what groups of such fasciculi are
+subservient to any particular co-ordination. Where, for example, the
+cortical area for vision overlaps that of the centre for forearm and hand,
+the associating fasciculus underlying the debatable land is subservient to
+the co-ordinations employed in writing and drawing. In like manner a
+similar associating bond extending from the centre of auditory word
+symbols to that of the tongue and lip centres may be considered a chief
+factor mediating the speech co-ordinations. A child originally has no
+adequate notion of distance or perspective, but will, in the first week of
+life, grasp at objects fifty feet away. Its first ideas of space are
+gathered from its own skin sensations; it learns to distinguish between
+single impressions when touching foreign bodies, and associated double
+ones as when it touches a part of its own body. In great part this may
+even be accomplished by an active infant during the last months of
+utero-gestation; it has learned thus to separate the conception of its own
+body from the confused chaos which all impressions originally constitute
+to the infant; the next lesson is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> to learn that to reach certain objects
+it moves a certain distance, while others are immediately in reach. It
+then discovers, therefore, that the discrimination by the eye is possible,
+since intervening objects which it has learned to measure by its own body
+or bodily movements as a gauge permit an approximate judgment of distance,
+in aid of which comes experiment in the shape of time requirements, since
+to go so far requires such time, while to go further requires a much
+greater. The crude ideas of space at this time must involve areas in the
+cortex devoted to motion and to general sensation situated in the Rolandic
+region. Those devoted to visual impressions are largely situated in the
+occipital region, and those devoted to time may be located in the frontal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
+lobes. Further analysis of the more elaborate sense of space possessed by
+adults, involving the play of equilibrium and the appreciation of movement
+and direction in foreign objects, shows that cortical areas situated in
+nearly every part of the hemispheres are subsidiary to it and connected by
+fibre tracts of different lengths and courses. It is evident, therefore,
+that the mal-connection of cortical centres is at the root of various
+tropho-neurotic, nervous, mental, moral and other perversions exhibited in
+degenerates. Deformity and deficiency of the corpus callosum in some
+degenerates is but an expression of general defect of associating tracts.
+Convolutional aberration in others is but an expression of imperfect
+development of end stations and fibre systems. All mental and moral
+disturbances are associated with perversions of the functions of the
+cerebral hemisphere, but the converse, that cerebral hemisphere lesions
+only are the essential accompaniments of mental symptoms evinced during
+life, is not true. Lesions of the pons, the crura, and thalami are
+accompanied by more or less complete obliteration of consciousness,
+blurring of the perception, confusion in the intellectual sphere, even
+where the lesion is not of such a character as to disturb the neighbouring
+ganglia by pressure. Two explanations are possible of this phenomenon.
+Either the vaso-motor centre for the cortical vessels is under the control
+of isthmus ganglia partially, and hence isthmus lesions by irritation or
+destruction of the centre excite or paralyse the vascular tubes of certain
+cortical districts, or pathologic interruption of the great nerve tracts
+involves functional disturbance of cortical end stations. The first
+explanation is applicable in cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> where general and widespread
+disturbance, somnolence, excitement, or depression are found. The latter
+where the disturbance is partial in character. If all avenues of sensory
+perception be closed unconsciousness in the way of sleep speedily follows.
+Interruption of the perception tracts is followed by corresponding
+phenomena, though less extensive when occurring in the isthmus territory.
+That an irritative lesion in the line of the centripetal tracts can
+influence cortical life is shown by thalamus lesions in which
+hallucinations are sometimes present. Here the cause of the hallucinations
+is in the lower centre, but the entry of these into the intellectual
+sphere can take place only in the cortical termination of that tract,
+since at this point only through the connecting associating tracts can it
+become a part of the ego.</p>
+
+<p>Meynert traced an enormous division of the crus directly to the frontal
+lobe and the lenticular nucleus, and showed that this portion through the
+transverse fibres of the pons was of necessity connected with the
+cerebellum, and that far other functions are to be located in the cortex
+than merely muscular innervation, visual and auditory perceptions. The
+restiform columns derived from spinal fibres enter the cerebellum and
+terminate chiefly in its hemispheres. The cortex of these hemispheres is
+connected by radiatory fibres, with the dentated nucleus, which is a
+recipient of fibres of the auditory nerve. The cortex of the cerebellar
+hemisphere receives fibres both from the sensorial periphery of the body
+and the semicircular canals. From this reception area the transverse
+fibres of the pons originate and enter the crus. It is these which enter
+the frontal lobe and lenticular nucleus. In no respect does man so much
+differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> from the ape as in the quantitative development of these
+fasciculi. Their development is intimately associated with the mass of the
+frontal lobe, and there is every reason for considering them the channel
+of information of the equilibrium and possibly of the senses of space and
+time, on which the scope of the mind is so closely dependent. Lesions in
+these tracts may disturb these sensations, and the entire mental
+architecture may totter with the withdrawal or weakening of so important
+pillars. The congenital asymmetry of the peduncular tracts observed in
+certain cases of mental and moral perversion are not without bearing on
+the symptoms of those cases. And this explanation would be adjunct to the
+principle of mal-development of the associating tracts here advanced in
+explanation of other symptoms of these same states. It is a logical truism
+that complex cerebral functions have a complex substratum. Nothing could
+be more unphilosophical, for example, than to speak of &#8220;intellectual
+cells&#8221; (Denkzellen) in the cerebral <ins class="correction" title="original: cortes">cortex</ins>. Simple elements can have but
+simple functions; complex functions require a union of numerous simpler
+elements in a complex structural combination.</p>
+
+<p>Such symptoms as epileptic explosions are admittedly connected with no
+demonstrable anatomical aberration, and yet when epileptic explosions of a
+certain type are found associated with a cortical lesion they are to be
+regarded as symptoms of that lesion. Morbid projects, delusions, and moral
+perversion are simply functional perversions of a properly built cerebral
+mechanism or the outcome of a visible structural defect. And when the
+latter is palpably attributable to an error in development and occurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
+with a certain constancy in similar cases, a fundamental relation must be
+assumed between the defect and the general tenor of the symptoms.</p>
+
+<p>There is a great difference clinically between the effect of congenital
+and acquired lesions. When porencephaly (a deformity originally studied by
+Heschl) dates from infantile or f&oelig;tal life, imbecility is always
+present during life; but where it is developed in the matured brain
+imbecility does not necessarily result.</p>
+
+<p>Deficiencies in the cerebral vascular system underlie the pathological
+phenomena on the basis of infantile cerebral paralysis, and allied
+hereditary and congenital states. The degenerate conditions in the spinal
+cord are essentially those described by Spitzka as occurring in the brain.
+Vascular states, either as to irregularities in the number of vessels or
+in the vessels themselves, underlie, as in the case of the cerebral
+palsies, hereditary ataxias and other congenital and hereditary spinal
+cord disorders.<a name="fna_251_251" id="fna_251_251"></a><a href="#fn_251_251"><small>[251]</small></a></p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Degeneracy of Mentality and Morality</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">In</span> the mental and moral degeneracies there is a complete transition from
+the durencephalic monster through the microcephalus, the idiot, the
+imbecile, and the feeble-minded to the mentally normal individual. Between
+the feeble-minded and the normal individual occurs a group whose general
+characteristics is, as was pointed out by Magnan, a disharmony and lack of
+equilibrium, not only between the intellectual operations, properly
+so-called on the one hand, and the emotions and propensities on the other,
+but even between the intellectual faculties themselves. A degenerate may
+be a scientist, an able lawyer, a great artist, a poet, a mathematician, a
+politician, a skilled administrator, and present from a moral standpoint
+profound defects, strange peculiarities and surprising lapses of conduct.
+As the moral element&mdash;the emotions and propensities&mdash;is the base of
+determination, it follows that these brilliant faculties are at the
+service of a bad cause, of the instincts and appetites which, thanks to
+the defects of the will, lead to very extravagant or very dangerous acts.
+In other cases the opposite occurs. Degenerates of irreproachable
+character show strange defects in their intellect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> They often have a
+feeble memory in certain directions. Sometimes they cannot understand
+figures, or music, or drawing. In a word, an otherwise normal individual&#8217;s
+intelligence is lacking as regards certain faculties. The centres of
+perception are unequally impressionable, unequally apt to gather together
+impressions, only certain impressions are registered and leave durable
+images; certain relations, certain associations between different centres,
+are perverted or even entirely destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The mental stigmata of degeneracy, therefore, may be divided into those
+involving the moral elements (in which case there is no very striking
+intellectual disorder) and those involving the intellectual elements, in
+which the conditions may be divided into states where intellectual
+disorder alternates with periods of complete lucidity or with neuroses
+(periodical insanity, neuroticism, hysteria, and epilepsy), and states in
+which the intellectual disorder is a permanent quantity (paranoia,
+one-sided genius, imbecility, and idiocy). Great as is the apparent gap
+between idiocy and one-sided genius, on the one hand, and between idiocy
+and crime, on the other, this gap is, as already stated, filled by
+numerous closely interlinked forms, dependent on the proportionate removal
+of checks (which the race has acquired during evolution) on the explosive
+expressions of egotism and mentality. The removal of these checks is
+dependent on the removal or weakening of the power of associating tracts,
+to which reference has been made in connection with the degenerate brain.
+The idiot, capable only of purely vegetative functions, who would perish
+were food not placed far back in his mouth, is one step lower than the
+normal infant, who is essentially,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> as has been remarked, an egotistic
+parasite. On slightly increased development this idiot, with the powers of
+a rather low animal, gains food and satisfies its instincts. These
+instincts at this stage may manifest themselves in the explosive manner
+characteristic of the undomesticated and non-social animals. With these
+instincts may appear others which man has long lost; thus an idiot girl
+(who was delivered of an infant when alone) gnawed through the umbilical
+cord in the manner of animals, thus effecting separation and preventing
+h&aelig;morrhage. At still a higher stage the imbecile may manifest destructive
+instincts, may steal without the signs of remorse displayed by a housebred
+dog, or may kill without recognising the results of killing. The intellect
+may be comparatively developed in certain imbeciles in comparison with the
+ethical defects. For lack of proper associating fibres, the imbecile may
+be unable to acquire those higher associations constituting the secondary
+ego, in the most elevated sense. To this class ultimately belong the
+instinctive homicides, torturers, sexual criminals and thieves, so
+frequently found among the juvenile offspring of degenerate stock. In them
+the primary ego is strong, and the restraints of the secondary ego, which
+perceives the rights of others, weakened or completely absent. This class
+forms the germ of the congenital criminal whom no discipline can tame, and
+who is incapable of being taught the dangers of his procedures under the
+law of the land. Between this class and the paranoiac there is at once a
+curious likeness and distinction. The lack of proper associating powers
+prevents the moral imbecile from recognising any rights of others. The
+same lack in the paranoiac prevents him from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> recognising the force and
+rights of other people in opinion. The moral imbecile has lost the
+greatest acquirement of the race in evolution, that acquirement which
+fully recognises the secondary ego in accordance with the sublime precept,
+&#8220;Do unto others as ye would that they should do unto you.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>For practical purposes the division of criminals given by Tyndall is
+sufficient. Crime is essentially an anti-social factor, and violations of
+law can be regarded as crimes only in proportion as they are anti-social.
+The essential character of crime is its parasitic nature. Parasites, in a
+general way, may be divided into those which live on their host, without
+any tendency to injure his well-being (like the dermodex in the skin
+follicules); those which live more or less at his expense, but do not tend
+to destroy him; and, finally, those which are destructive of the
+well-being of man and lack proper recognition of individual rights which
+constitutes the essential foundation of society. The first type is
+impurely represented by the idiots, imbeciles, lunatics, paupers by
+deprivation, blind, crippled, senile, insane, and deaf mutes. Society,
+either indirectly or directly, has been the source of the parasitic state
+of many of these, and hence, as also in the case of law-made criminals,
+such parasitism really takes nothing from society. The second class is
+represented by prostitutes, sexual degenerates, paupers, and inebriates.
+Some of these, however, could be put into the third class, among those
+moral lunatics and criminals who fail to recognise that individual rights
+constitute social order. Prostitutes, paupers, and inebriates have this in
+common, that crime in them has taken the line of least resistance. The
+great ethical defect in the prostitute is not lack<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> of checks on explosive
+sexual propensities so much as the use of these last as a method of living
+by her wits. In essence prostitution is the expression of the criminal
+tendency manifested by the confidence operator. The researches of
+sociologists like Chaplain Merrick,<a name="fna_252_252" id="fna_252_252"></a><a href="#fn_252_252"><small>[252]</small></a> of the Millbank Prison, London,
+show that at least one-half of the prostitutes leave their homes
+voluntarily to take up a &#8220;life of pleasure.&#8221; Pauline Tarnowsky<a name="fna_253_253" id="fna_253_253"></a><a href="#fn_253_253"><small>[253]</small></a> finds
+that in Russia prostitution is crime in women taking the line of least
+resistance. The prostitutes, like the other criminals, are divisible into
+criminals on occasion (vice, monetary reasons, &amp;c.), accidental criminals,
+law-made criminals, weak-willed criminals, and insane criminals. The
+proportion of the law-made and accidental criminals among the prostitutes
+is much less than among other criminals, as Merrick has shown. Seduction
+stands very low in the list of causes. The proportion of the occasional
+criminal type is very large. Pauline Tarnowsky concludes from her
+researches, which my own tend to verify, that the prostitute, as a rule,
+is a degenerate being, the subject of an arrest of development, tainted
+with a morbid heredity, and presenting stigmata of physical and mental
+degeneracy fully in consonance with her imperfect evolution. C. Andronico,
+of Messina, Italy, arrived some time previously<a name="fna_254_254" id="fna_254_254"></a><a href="#fn_254_254"><small>[254]</small></a> at the same
+conclusions as those of Tarnowsky. Tarnowsky found that 44&#8531; per cent.
+of the prostitutes had skull deformities, 42<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>2</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">8</span> face deformities, 42 ear
+deformities, and 54 teeth deformities. Andronico found among 230
+prostitutes the following anomalies: Flat nose, 20; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>handle-shaped ear,
+35; vicious implantation of teeth, 10; convergent strabismus, 2; facial
+asymmetry, 4; prognathism, 7; receding forehead, 35. Grimaldi, in a study
+of 26 prostitutes, had similar results to those of Tarnowsky. Lombroso, in
+an examination of 50 prostitutes, found exaggerated jaws, 27 times;
+plagiocephaly, 23 times; nasal asymmetry, 8 times; exaggerated zygom&aelig;, 40
+times. Tarnowsky found that in 150 prostitutes, taken at random from those
+answering to the necessary conditions (uniformity of race, ability to give
+their family history and years of residence in licensed houses), there
+were present signs of physical degeneracy in 87. Among the abnormalities
+were oxycephaly, platycephaly, stenocephaly, plagiocephaly, and heads with
+marked depression either at the bregma or the lambda. The majority had a
+marked development of the external occipital protuberance; in an equal
+number of virtuous women it was present but four times. These and other
+anomalies were thus distributed among the 150 prostitutes: Malformation of
+the head (oxycephaly, plagiocephaly, &amp;c.), noticed in 62; development of
+the occipital protruberance, 62; very receding foreheads, 18;
+hydrocephalic, 15; various anomalies of the face (prognathism, asymmetry),
+64; ogival palatine vault, 38; congenital division of palate, 14; vicious
+implantation of teeth, 62; Hutchinson&#8217;s and Parrot&#8217;s teeth, 19; absence of
+lateral incisors, 10; Morel ears, 16; defective ears (detached from head,
+deformed, &amp;c.), 47; anomalies of the extremities, 8.</p>
+
+<p>In my researches in the same class, with the assistance of Harriet C. B.
+Alexander and J. G. Kiernan, the subjects chosen were those committed to
+the Chicago House of Correction. They are the least<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> intelligent of
+Chicago&#8217;s professional prostitutes. The number examined was 30. As regards
+the race they included 13 Celtic-Irish, 5 Irish-American, 3 Scandinavian,
+1 German, 1 German-American, 2 American, 1 English-American, 1
+Latin-Swiss, 2 Negro.</p>
+
+<p>It should here be remembered that the &#8220;fine&#8221; system of Chicago places only
+the &#8220;obtuse&#8221; class in the Bridewell. One was seventeen years old, two
+eighteen years, one nineteen years, five between twenty and twenty-five
+years, three between twenty-five and thirty, six between thirty and
+thirty-five, five between thirty-five and forty-five, one was forty-six
+years old, two were fifty-five, three sixty-one, and one sixty-five. There
+were eighteen blondes, ten brunettes, and two negroes. Four were
+demonstrably insane and one was an epileptic.</p>
+
+<p>In sixteen cases the zygomatic processes were unequal and very prominent.
+There were fourteen other asymmetries of the face. Three heads were
+Mongoloid (one Irish-Celt, one Swiss, and one Scandinavian). There are
+Mongoloid race types in the regions where all three come from. Sixteen
+were epignathic and eleven prognathic. In one there was arrested
+development of the lower jaw, and in four arrested development of the face
+bones. The nose was abnormal in six. There were sixteen brachycephalic and
+thirteen mesaticephalic skulls. There were no dolichocephalic skulls.
+There were three with oxycephalic skulls, of whom one was a Celt, one a
+German, and one a Scandinavian. There were eighteen dome-type skulls, of
+whom seven were Irish-Celts, five Celtic-American, one English
+Anglo-Saxon, one American Anglo-Saxon, and one German-American. There were
+four tectocephalic skulls, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> whom one was an Irish-Celt, one an
+Anglo-Saxon American, and one a Scandinavian. There were three
+platycephalic skulls, of whom two were Celts and one a Scandinavian. There
+was a plagiocephalic German and a stenocephalic Celt. One skull had a
+protuberance at the bregma. Twelve occiputs were flattened, and in four of
+these there was no tubercle; eighteen had an enormously developed
+occipital protuberance. The percentage of deformities of the jaws was
+large. Twenty-nine had defective ears. Normal ears were present only in a
+member of a family which had furnished one mother and two sisters to the
+institution.</p>
+
+<p>The direct hereditary history of prostitutes is excellently illustrated in
+Marie Duplessis, idealised by Alexandre Dumas in <i>La Dame aux Cam&eacute;lias</i>.
+Her paternal grandmother, who was half prostitute, half beggar, gave birth
+to a son by a country priest. This son was a country Don Juan, a peddler
+by trade. The maternal great-grandmother was a nymphomaniac, whose son
+married a woman of loose morals, by whom a daughter was born. This
+daughter married a peddler, and their child was Marie. She had the
+confidence-operator tendencies of many of her class. She died childless,
+early in life, from consumption.<a name="fna_255_255" id="fna_255_255"></a><a href="#fn_255_255"><small>[255]</small></a> With their ancestry, habits,
+perverse instincts, prostitutes cannot be cured or reformed by the
+enforcement of municipal ordinances. Though those of criminal and
+congenital type be taken from their surroundings and placed where they can
+earn an honest livelihood, they soon go back, voluntarily, to their old
+mode of life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>An allied class, belonging to a still blacker phase of biology, are the
+sexual perverts. The congenital form associated with the stigmata of
+degeneracy, as already shown, is an expression of the defective line
+whence the victim has sprung. The congenital types are, like the similar
+types of the prostitute, victims of inherited defects. The sexual pervert
+may be divided into precisely the same classes as other criminals. The
+congenital type often links degenerate lunatics, epileptics, &amp;c., with a
+born criminal class.</p>
+
+<p>Between the criminal and the insane is a debatable line occupied by moral
+imbeciles, reasoning maniacs, &amp;c. There are many insane persons in whom
+the principal deviation from the normal consists in disorder of the moral
+faculties. In most closer inspection generally reveals signs of
+degeneracy. The seeming immorality is the striking factor of the case and
+superficially the mind otherwise appears clear and rational by contrast.
+As Krafft-Ebing has shown in these cases, the most striking features are
+moral insensibility, lack of moral judgment and ethical ideas, the place
+of which is usurped by a narrow sense of loss or profit, logically
+apprehended only. Such persons may mechanically know the laws of morality,
+but if such laws enter their conscience these persons do not experience by
+any real appreciation, still less regard, for them. These laws to them are
+cold, lifeless statements. The morally defective know not how to draw from
+them motive for omission or commission. To this &#8220;moral colour-blindness&#8221;
+the whole moral and governmental order appears as a mere hindrance to
+egotistic ambition and feeling, which necessarily leads to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> negation of
+the rights of others and to violation of the same.</p>
+
+<p>These defective individuals are without interest for aught good or
+beautiful, albeit capable of a sentimentality which is shallow cant. Such
+persons are repellent by their lack of love for children or relatives, and
+of all social inclinations, and by cold-hearted indifference to the weal
+or woe of those nearest to them. They are without other than egotistic
+care for questions of social life or sensibility to either the respect or
+the scorn of others, without control of conscience and without sense or
+remorse for evil. Morality they do not understand. Law is nothing more
+than police regulation. The greatest crimes are regarded as mere
+transgressions of some arbitrary order. If such persons come in conflict
+with individuals, then, hatred, envy, and revenge take the place of
+coldness and negation, and their brutality and indifference to others know
+no bounds.</p>
+
+<p>These ethically defective persons, when incapable of holding a place in
+society, are often converted into candidates for the workhouse or the
+insane hospital, one or the other of which places they reach after they
+have been, as children, the terror of parents and teachers, through their
+untruthfulness, laziness, and general meanness, and in youth the shame of
+the family and the torment of the community and the officers of the law,
+by thefts, vagabondage, profligacy, and excesses. Finally, they are the
+despair of the insane hospital, the &#8220;incorrigibles&#8221; of the prisons, and
+(Krafft-Ebing might have added) the veritable burdens of the poor-house.
+If intellectual insanity or crime do not claim them, pauperism or
+criminality is likely to be their destiny. The moral imbecile<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> may,
+however, keep within the law, and as in the instance of the &#8220;Napoleon of
+Finance,&#8221; cited elsewhere from Kiernan, may achieve business success. His
+descendants often, however, evince degeneracy in an aggravated form. Many
+of the supposed reformers of various alleged social evils are often of
+this class. Their morbid egotism takes the direction of cant and
+sentimentality, so common at certain states in evolution, as points of
+least resistance. Like Guiteau, the assassin of President Garfield, they
+aim at doing a &#8220;big thing for humanity and myself,&#8221; the humanity being
+concentrated in &#8220;my&#8221; ideas. The moral lunatic needs but a slight twist
+intellectually to become the paranoiac in whom there is, as Spitzka has
+pointed out,<a name="fna_256_256" id="fna_256_256"></a><a href="#fn_256_256"><small>[256]</small></a> a permanent undercurrent of perverted mental action
+peculiar to the individual, running like an unbroken thread through his
+whole mental life, obscured, it may be, for these patients are often able
+to correct and conceal their insane symptoms, but it nevertheless exists,
+and only requires friction to bring it to the surface. The general
+intellectual status of these patients, though rarely of a very high order,
+is moderately fair, and often the mental powers are sufficient to keep the
+delusion under check for practical purposes of life. While many are what
+is termed crochety, irritable, and depressed, yet the sole symptoms of the
+typical cases of this disorder consist of the fixed delusions. Since the
+subject matter of the delusion is of such a character that these patients
+consider themselves either the victim of a plot or as unjustly deprived of
+certain rights and position, or as narrowly observed by others, delusions
+of persecution are added to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> fixed ideas, and the patient becomes sad,
+thoughtful, or depressed in consequence. The patient is depressed
+logically, as far as his train of idea is concerned and his sadness and
+thoughtfulness have causes, which he can explain, and which are intimately
+allied with that peculiar, faulty grouping of ideas which constitutes the
+rendezvous, as it were, of all the mental conceptions of the patient. Nay,
+the process may be reversed, and the patient, beginning with a
+hypochondriac or hysteric state, imagines himself watched with no
+favourable eye. Because he is watched and made the subject of audible
+comments (hallucinatory or delusional), he concludes that he must be a
+person of some importance. Some great political movement takes place; he
+throws himself into it, either in a fixed character that he has already
+constructed for himself, or with the vague idea that he is an influential
+personage. He seeks interviews, holds actual conversation with the big men
+of the day, accepts the common courtesy shown him by those in office as a
+tribute to his value, is rejected, however, and then judges himself to be
+the victim of jealousy or of rival cabals, makes intemperate and querulous
+complaints to higher officials, perhaps makes violent attacks upon them,
+and being incarcerated in jail or asylum, looks upon this as the end of a
+long series of persecutions which have broken the power of a skilled
+diplomatist, a capable military commander, a prince of the blood, an agent
+of a camarilla, a paramour of some exalted personage, or finally the
+Messiah Himself. All through this train of ideas there runs a chain of
+logic and inference in which there is no gap. If the inferences of the
+patient were based on correctly observed facts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> properly correlated
+with his actual surroundings, his conclusions would be perfectly correct.
+For years and years many such patients exhibit a single delusive idea as
+the only prominent symptom. There is hereditary taint in most of these
+subjects, who are strange in disposition from infancy. As children they
+frequently shun society and indulge in day-dreams. Their bodily growth is
+normal, but even trifling disease takes on a cerebral tinge. They may show
+talent in special directions, but their intelligence rarely passes out of
+the puerile stage. They often brood over a feminine ideal, a girl who has
+never encouraged them, and whom they persecute with absurd plans of
+marriage.</p>
+
+<p>Connecting the paranoiac with the moral imbecile are the so-called
+&#8220;reasoning maniacs.&#8221; Here the intellectual power is less than either that
+of the moral imbecile or of the paranoiac, twisted though the intellect of
+the latter be. Loquacious or unusually taciturn, heedless or morbidly
+cautious, dreamers, wearisome to all brought in contact with them,
+capricious and unmitigated liars, their qualities are often, in a certain
+manner, brilliant, but are entirely without solidity or depth. Sharpness
+and cunning are not often wanting, especially for little things and
+insignificant intrigues. Ever armed with a lively imagination and quick
+comprehension, they readily appropriate the ideas of others, developing or
+transforming them and giving them the stamp of their own individuality.
+But the creative force is not there, and they rarely possess enough mental
+vigour to get their own living. Passing without the slightest transition
+from one extreme to the other, they felicitate themselves to-day on an
+event which they sneered at the night<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> before. In the course of a single
+second they change their opinions of persons and things, novelty
+captivates and wearies them almost in the same instant. They sell for
+insignificant sums things they have just bought, in order to buy others
+which, in their turn, will be subjected to like treatment; and, strange to
+say, before possessing these objects, they covet them with a degree of
+ardour only equalled by the eagerness they exhibit to get rid of them as
+soon as they become their own. To see, to desire, and to become
+indifferent are three stages which follow each other with astonishing
+rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>The intense egotism of these persons makes them, as W. A. Hammond remarks,
+utterly regardless of the feelings and rights of others. Everybody and
+everything must give way to them. Their comfort and convenience are to be
+secured though every one else is made uncomfortable or unhappy; and
+sometimes they display positive cruelty in their treatment of persons who
+come in contact with them. This tendency is especially seen in their
+relations with the lower animals.</p>
+
+<p>Another manifestation of their intense egotism is their entire lack of
+appreciation of kindness done them or benefits of which they have been the
+recipients. They look upon these as so many rights to which they are
+justly entitled, and which in the bestowal are more serviceable to the
+giver than to the receiver. They are hence ungrateful and abusive to those
+who have served them, insolent, arrogant, and shamelessly hardened in
+their conduct toward them. At the same time, if advantages are yet to be
+gained, they are sycophantic to nauseousness in their deportment towards
+those from whom the favours are to come.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>The egotism of these people is unmarked by the least trace of modesty in
+obtruding themselves and their assumed good qualities upon the public at
+every opportunity. They boast of their genius, their righteousness, their
+goodness of heart, their high sense of honour, their learning and other
+qualities and acquirements, and this, when they are perfectly aware that
+they are commonplace, irreligious, cruel, and vindictive, utterly devoid
+of every chivalrous feeling, and saturated with ignorance. They know that
+in their ratings they are attempting to impose upon those whom they
+address and will even subsequently brag of their success.</p>
+
+<p>It is no uncommon thing for the reasoning maniac, still influenced by his
+supreme egotism and desire for notoriety, to attempt the part of reformer.
+Generally he selects a practice or custom in which there really is no
+abuse. His energy and the logical manner in which he presents his views,
+based as they often are on cases and statistics, impose on many people,
+who eagerly adopt him as a genuine overthrower of a vicious or degrading
+measure. Even when his hypocrisy and falsehood are exposed he continues
+his attempts at imposition, and when the strong arm of the law is laid
+upon him, he prates of the ingratitude of those he has been endeavouring
+to assist, and of the distinctiveness and purity of his own motives.</p>
+
+<p>Closely akin to that instability of inter-association resulting in loss of
+proper checks on action in the types just described, is the sentimentalism
+which often covers real hardness, but which charms and allures the mass.</p>
+
+<p>This has essentially the same psychological basis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> as the suspicional
+tendencies and pessimism with which it is so often associated. Suspicional
+tendencies arise from states of anxiety resultant on instability of
+association, dependent on lack of associating fibres. Pessimism (so
+frequently present in the otherwise healthy degenerate) is often, as
+Magalhaes has shown, nervous instability with alternations of irritability
+and prostration. The subject is supersensitive; impressions call forth
+intense and prolonged reactions followed by exhaustion. The state is
+characterised by a general hyper&aelig;sthesia, which naturally results in an
+excess of suffering. From instability and hyper&aelig;sthesia results discord
+between the feelings themselves, between the feelings and the
+intelligence, between the feelings, the ideas and volitions. Discord
+between the feelings shows itself in a great variety of paradoxes,
+contradictions, and inconsistencies. To the pessimist possession of a
+desired object does not atone for former privation. Pain or unsatisfied
+desire is replaced by the pain of <i>ennui</i>. With inability to enjoy what he
+has are coupled extravagant expectations regarding that which he does not
+have. He is extremely susceptible both to kindness and to contempt. He
+passes suddenly from violent irritability to languor, from self-confidence
+and vanity to extreme self abasement. His intense sensitiveness results in
+intellectual disorders. For this involves a great vivacity of the
+intuitive imagination, which favours the setting up of extravagant ideals,
+lacking in solid representative elements. Hence a gap opens between his
+ideal and the actual. He can never realise the ideal he pursues and so his
+feelings are of a sombre hue. From this excessive realism results a state
+of doubt, a certain distrust of all this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> rational objective knowledge. It
+assumes another form in extreme subjectivism. The pessimist is haunted by
+images of the tiniest religious scruples, suspicions, fears, and
+anxieties, resulting in alienation from friends, seclusion, misanthropy.
+The pessimist is further characterised by an incapacity for prolonged
+attention, a refractory attention and a feeble will. These result in
+inaction, quietism, reverie, self-abnegation, abolition of the
+personality, annihilation of the will, amounting sometimes even to poetic
+or religious ecstasy. Pessimism is frequently associated with a morbid
+fear of death. The tramp is one phase of the degenerate in whom the
+restless wandering tendencies of the neurasthenic and paranoiac are added
+to the parasitic tendencies of the pauper, and the suspicional egotism of
+the &#8220;reasoning maniac.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The one-sided genius is a link between the neurotic, the epileptic, the
+paranoiac, the hysteric, and the imbecile. Cases crop up in which all
+these elements are so mingled as to create a puzzle where they shall be
+placed. In some cases, in accordance with the general law that physiologic
+atrophy is accompanied by hypertrophy in other directions, the
+intellectual powers other than along certain lines may be remarkably
+deficient. Moreover, the intellectual power due to healthy atavism is
+increased by the degeneracy in certain directions. Without going into the
+question, raised by Lombroso,<a name="fna_257_257" id="fna_257_257"></a><a href="#fn_257_257"><small>[257]</small></a> as to genius being an epileptoid
+neurosis, sufficient evidence exists to show that ill-balanced genius
+often coexists with defects in a large number of directions. The
+coexistence of genius with imbecility and even idiocy has been well
+illustrated by Langdon Down, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+cites numerous instances thereof.<a name="fna_258_258" id="fna_258_258"></a><a href="#fn_258_258"><small>[258]</small></a>
+Defect in genius, whether of the imbecile stamp or otherwise, accompanied
+by deficiency, is not expressed in the genius, but in its deficient
+accompaniment. Even the mental instability of the highest type of
+defective genius is closely akin to that of the neurotic.</p>
+
+<p>The hysterics, as has been shown by Des Champs,<a name="fna_259_259" id="fna_259_259"></a><a href="#fn_259_259"><small>[259]</small></a> are neurotic women in
+whom an aggravated sensibility exists. Neurotic women are divisible into
+three categories according to the predominance of one of three
+centres&mdash;cerebral, genital, and neuropathic. These types may be pure or
+intermixed. The general characteristics are an absolute want of
+equilibrium in sensibility and will power. There exists mobility of humour
+in direct relation with facile impressionability to external influences or
+to internal states. The nerves vibrate to all sentiments coming from
+within or without, and all are registered without proper relation. One
+fact chased by another is forgotten. Another produces a momentary
+hyperexcitation, which takes place of the truth, whence it is that
+falsehood is instinctive, but the patient protests her good faith if
+accused of the same. This lack of equilibrium leads to a decided
+modification of the mental faculties. Intellectual activity is over
+excited, but in diverse degrees and variable ways, according to the
+particular tendencies adopted. Absorbed by a preoccupation or controlled
+by an idea, they become indifferent to all else. Their ideas are abundant,
+and they rapidly pass from the idea to the act. Their vivid imagination,
+coupled with a bright intelligence, gives them a seducing aspect, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
+their judgment is singularly limited, attenuated, or false. They judge
+from a non-personal standpoint excellently. They are quick at discovering
+the faults of even their own relatives, but faults rightly attributed to
+themselves are repudiated. Their memory is capricious. They forget their
+faults and their acts under impulse, albeit these may be consciously done.
+The cerebral type is led by the intelligence. She has little or no
+coquetry; what coquetry there may be is the result of intention and
+temporary. There is an ethical sense, frankness and nobility in her ideas,
+disinterestedness and tact in her acts, and she is capable of friendship.
+Her tastes carry her to male pursuit, in which she succeeds. She becomes
+often what is called a &#8220;superior woman,&#8221; and too often what is called an
+&#8220;incomprehensible woman.&#8221; She has but little guile. To the sensual type
+voluptuousness is the aim of life and the centre of her acts and thoughts.
+She is well endowed with guile and extremely diplomatic. She is full of
+finesse, but not very delicate. Her lack of scruple often spoils her tact.
+She is ruseful, dissimulating, and unconsciously mendacious. She despises
+friendship and needs watching. If circumstances permit she loses all
+delicacy, reserve and modesty. She is destitute of scruples. Her crimes
+are coolly remorseless. The neuropathic type is one to which the
+grasshopper is a burden. Her nerves are always on edge. She is a heroic
+invalid who displays the air of a martyr about trivialities.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the neurotic, as Kiernan remarks, recalls the observation
+of Milne-Edwards concerning the monkey character. Levity is one of its
+salient features, and its mobility is extreme. One can get<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> it to shift in
+an instant from one mood or train of ideas to another. It is now plunged
+into black melancholy and in a moment may be vastly amused at some object
+presented to its attention.</p>
+
+<p>Neuroticism in man differs in no respect from that in woman except that
+an&aelig;sthesia, paralysis of emotional origin, and conscious convulsions are
+less common. The male neurotic could be subdivided precisely as Des Champs
+has the hysteric. Neurotics are often long-lived, peculiarly resistant to
+certain acute and fatal disease, and are frequently retentive of their
+youthful appearance, which is to a certain extent an evidence of their
+resistance to the wear and tear of life and advancing old age, and due to
+emotional an&aelig;sthesia. Recognition of the neurotic tendency often induces
+the individual to take better care of himself. The youthful appearance may
+be due largely to arrest of facial development at an early age, the face
+thus retaining the child character throughout life. Considering,
+therefore, this class of neurotics, which does not include those afflicted
+with the more serious nervous disorders such as epilepsy, they may be
+looked upon as the victims of evolutionary processes that are constantly
+going on in the race and under civilised conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Neurotics are not met with to any extent among barbarous races, but are
+numerous in civilised communities, where the weak are preserved from early
+death and then subjected to the struggle for existence. Neurotics are
+individuals naturally imperfect in some directions, but by the law of
+economy of growth they are often superior in others. Their disordered
+nervous functions and hyper&aelig;sthesia are not, necessarily, indicative of
+inferiority of general organisation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> compared to their ancestry. They may
+simply imply a more rapid advance in some one direction in the development
+of the nervous system than can be kept up with by the remainder. These
+defects may in some cases be the advance guards in the progress of the
+development of the race.</p>
+
+<p>As the nervous system controls nutrition in all departments of the
+organism, anomalies occur with erratic nervous functions in such
+individuals. In these neurotics are often found defective development
+involving the bony and other structures. They have fine and delicate
+features, small jaws and defective teeth. These are the results of general
+systemic modifications connected with the neurotic state. The arthritic
+diathesis occurs also; it is one of the underlying conditions of many
+neurotic manifestations, often responsible for acquired bony deformities,
+not infrequently involving the jaws to some extent.</p>
+
+<p>Neurotic degenerate symptoms from a mental standpoint are noticeable long
+before deformities of the osseous system are developed. They show
+themselves in mental weakness, extreme stupidity, and precocity. Under the
+first class the child is obstinate, quarrelsome, malignant, even immorally
+inclined, and is often spoken of as being wicked or vicious. Harriet C. B.
+Alexander<a name="fna_260_260" id="fna_260_260"></a><a href="#fn_260_260"><small>[260]</small></a> says the ruling instinct in the child of three or four is
+self-gratification. It destroys what it dislikes. Among the earliest
+manifestations of morbid mental activity in childhood are hallucinations,
+which depend on already registered perceptions.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances even moral agencies produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> sudden explosions of mental
+disorders. The inherited tendencies of childhood predispose to these
+attacks. As Clouston has shown, neuroses and psychoses not requiring
+hospital treatment are by no means uncommon in the too sensitive child
+with hereditary taint. Children of this class have crying fits and
+miserable periods on slight or no provocation. As Clouston has also shown,
+precocity, over-sensitiveness, unhealthy strictness in morals and religion
+for a child, or too vivid imagination, want of courage, thinness and
+craving for animal food, are common characters. These children are
+over-sensitive, over-imaginative, are too fearful to be physiologic, and
+tend, as a general thing, to be unhealthily religious, precociously
+intellectual, and at first hyper&aelig;sthetically conscientious.</p>
+
+<p>The other class of children, as a rule, are very handsome babies and
+children. The brightness is noted by parents at a very early age, and they
+extol their many clever qualities and sayings. The tendency is for the
+parents to cultivate these precocious qualities and believe it to be the
+proper thing to encourage them; while in early life this class may possess
+the peculiarities of the other class and also show those of degeneracy.
+These children are the best scholars in the schoolroom and learn their
+lessons with apparently little or no study. They are usually thin, frail
+children, and very nervous. Very little food is taken and much of that is
+not assimilated. Especially is this true of the lime salts, which form
+bone and tooth structure. These lime salts are excreted through the
+kidneys and salivary glands. This is easily demonstrated by an examination
+of urine, mouth, and teeth. Large collections of tartar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> are always found
+in these cases. Children of both classes are sure to show stigmata of
+degeneracy. This period of degeneracy commences at the sixth year, or at
+about the time the first period of brain development ceases. The bulk of
+the brain has obtained its growth. In some the child commences to improve
+mentally very fast. In others mental development is slow. In still others
+it ceases altogether. From the time the second set of teeth begins to
+develop until the twelfth year, neuroses of development and stigmata of
+degeneracy are stamped upon the head, face, nose, jaws and teeth, and
+later any of the conditions mentioned under the heads of nutritive
+degeneracy and local perversion tendencies may appear.</p>
+
+<p>Closely akin to these states are expressions of degeneracy manifesting
+themselves with some approach to regularity in periods, as in epilepsy and
+the periodical insanities. The periodical insanities may be simply
+emotional states of exaltation (as in mania), of extreme depression (as in
+melancholia), of stupor, or of mental confusion. They may show themselves
+in periodical acts, as in dipsomania. This condition differs from the
+condition called inebriety in the fact that it is a periodical expression
+of degeneracy whose form has been accidently determined, but which would
+exist even were its form changed. The differences are excellently outlined
+by Dana,<a name="fna_261_261" id="fna_261_261"></a><a href="#fn_261_261"><small>[261]</small></a> who divides intemperate drinkers into four classes:
+Periodical inebriates or dipsomaniacs, pseudo-inebriates, common drunkards
+and victims of delirium inebriosum. The disease in the first class is a
+periodical insanity. In the pseudo-inebriates the desire for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> drink is
+only one of many manifestations of a weakened constitution or inherently
+unstable nervous system. The third type are those which approximate the
+occasional criminals. Another periodical insanity is kleptomania, in which
+insane stealing occurs at intervals of greater or lesser regularity.
+Nymphomania or satyrasis is a periodical insanity in which there is an
+insane impulse for sexual intercourse. Pyromania is a periodical tendency
+to commit arson. All of these periodical conditions may occur alone or in
+combination with other degeneracies.</p>
+
+<p>Closely related to the periodical insanities are the epileptic states
+which play so large a part in many of the phenomena presented by the
+degenerates. In the epileptic the mental rather than the gross nervous
+expression merits attention. From what has already been said about
+epilepsy, it and the periodical insanities are in no small degree the
+effect of mal-development of the fore brain as compared with the centres
+of organic life. The great convulsive centre is, according to
+Spitzka,<a name="fna_262_262" id="fna_262_262"></a><a href="#fn_262_262"><small>[262]</small></a> the reticular grey matter of the brain isthmus, particularly
+of the pons and medulla. All characteristic features of the full epileptic
+onset can be produced in animals deprived of the related cerebral cortex.
+It needs but a slight puncture with a thin needle to produce typical
+convulsions in the rabbit, and some of the convulsive movements reported
+by Nothnagel have not only shown the true epileptic character but also
+that peculiar automatism noted in aberrant attacks. It is in this segment
+of the nervous system that all the great nerve strands conveying motor
+impulses, both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> of a voluntary and automatic and some of a reflex
+character, are found united in a relatively small area, and just here a
+relatively slight irritation might produce functional disturbances
+involving the entire bodily periphery.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments of physiologists have shown that if a sensory irritation
+of a given spinal nucleus be kept up, after having produced a reflex
+movement in the same segment, any reaction beyond the plain of that
+segment is not in the next or succeeding planes but in the medulla
+oblongata. The motor reaction then manifests itself in laughing, crying,
+or deglutitory spasms, and, if the irritation be of the severest kind,
+epileptic or tetanic spasms in addition. Now the occurrence of laughing,
+crying, or deglutitory spasms could be easily understood if the molecular
+oscillation induced by the irritation were to travel along the associating
+tracts from the given spinal segment to the nuclei of the medulla
+oblongata. For in the medulla are found the nerve nuclei which preside
+over the facial, laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles. It is not easy at first
+to understand how tetanus and epilepsy, that is, spasms consisting in
+movements whose direct projection is not in the medulla oblongata but in
+the cord, can be produced by irritation of the former.</p>
+
+<p>There are scattered groups of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata which
+have either no demonstrable connection with the nerve nuclei, or are
+positively known to be connected with the longitudinal associating
+strands. These cells hence can safely be regarded as representing a
+presiding centre over the entire spinal system. No spinal centre exerts
+any influence even remotely as pronounced as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> that of the entire cord.
+This applies to man and other mammals. That the elaboration of the
+medullary centre was as gradual a process as that of other higher
+differentiations is illustrated by the case of the frog, whose medulla has
+acquired the faculty of reproducing general spasms while the spinal cord
+itself retains this property also; hence here the predominance of the
+medulla is not so marked as in mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The reticular ganglion of the oblongata is not in the adult a part of the
+central tubular grey matter, but has, through originally developing from
+it in the embryo, become ultimately isolated from its mother bed. It
+constitutes a second ganglionic category, and the association fibres
+bringing it in functional union with the spinal grey (first category) in
+lower animals and shown to have assumed the position of projection fibres
+in the higher, constitute a second projection tract; both together are a
+second projection system. The scattered grey matter of the medulla has
+great importance. Anatomically it is (though its cells be scattered
+diffusely as a rule) a large ganglion with numerous multipolar cells of
+all sizes, many of them gigantic, sometimes exceeding the so-called motor
+cells (which they simulate in shape) of the lumbar enlargement in size.
+Scattered in the &#8220;reticular substance&#8221; of the medulla from the upper end
+of the fourth ventricle to the pyramidal decussation, they merit the
+collective designation of reticular ganglia.</p>
+
+<p>The cells of the reticular formation are known to be connected with the
+nerve nuclei, on the one hand, and with longitudinal fasciculi, which,
+since they run into the cord, terminate either in the grey matter or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> the
+nerve roots directly, for nerve fibres do not terminate with, as it were,
+blind ends. Now in the mammalian brain the reticular ganglion lies
+scattered among fibres which come from the higher centres, and the
+interpellation might be made whether, after all, the reticular ganglion be
+not a mere intercalar station for fibres derived from a higher source.
+Originally the ganglion was an independent station. In reptiles this body
+of cells is too considerable to account for a termination in them of the
+few cerebral fibres possessed by these animals. And, on the other hand,
+the vertical strands are notably increased in their passage through the
+field of the medulla oblongata.</p>
+
+<p>The medulla oblongata with its reticular ganglion seems to be the great
+rhythmic centre. In fish the movements of the operculum and mouth, in
+sharks those of the spiraculum, in perenni-branchiate amphibians the
+branchial tree, in the infant the suctorial muscles, in all vertebrates
+the movements of deglutition, of the heart and respiratory muscles, all
+movements presenting a more or less regular rhythm, are under the control
+of the medulla oblongata. The early differentiation of this part of the
+cerebro-spinal axis is related to the manifestations of rhythmic movements
+in the embryo and their predominant importance in lower animals. The
+possibility should not be excluded that a rhythmic movement may be spinal,
+nay even controlled by peripheral ganglia (heart of embryo). A higher
+development, however, implies the concentration of rhythmic innervations
+at some point where that anatomical association may be effected which is
+the expression of the mutual influence these movements exercise among
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>Two sets of phenomena must be borne in mind in studying the physiological
+pathology of the epileptic attack. First, the condition of the epileptic
+in the interval. Second, the explosion itself. Too much attention is paid
+to the last, too little attention to the first. The constitutional
+epileptic is characterised by a general deficiency of tone associated with
+exaggerated reaction and irritability. Thus the pupils are at once widely
+dilated and unusually mobile. The muscular system, though generally
+relaxed, manifests exaggerated reflex excitability. The mental state is
+characterised at once by great indifference and undue irascibility. In the
+same way the vascular system is depressed in tone in the interval with
+rapid marked changes under excitation. The state of the nervous system as
+a whole Spitzka forcibly compares to that of an elastic band which, being
+on the stretch continually, is apt to rebound violently when one end is
+let go. Under normal circumstances the band is less stretched and hence
+not as liable to fly so far when the check is removed.</p>
+
+<p>An irritation which, in health, produces restlessness of the muscular
+system, accelerated respiration and pulsation and various mental phenomena
+within the normal limits, in the epileptic results in more intense
+phenomena in the same direction. The nervous irritability of the epileptic
+manifests itself in one direction especially. An important vaso-motor
+centre for the brain vessels exists, possibly diffused through an area
+somewhere between the thalamus and subthalamic region above the pyramidal
+decussation below. The irritability of this centre results in sudden
+arterial spasm in the carotid distribution (so characteristic a feature of
+the fit onset); simultaneously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> with the contraction of the vessel the
+pupil undergoes an initial contraction, and relaxation instantly results
+in both cases. The sudden interference with the brain circulation produces
+unconsciousness, and destroys the checking influence of the higher centres
+on the reflexes in a manner analogous to any shock affecting the nerve
+centres. In the meantime, while there has been a sudden deprivation of
+arterial blood and a sinking of intracranial pressure so far as the great
+cerebral masses are concerned, there has been as sudden an influx of blood
+to the unaffected district of the vertebral arteries whose irrigation
+territory is now the seat of an arterial hyper&aelig;mia. The result of this is
+that the great convulsion centre, the medulla, being over-nourished,
+functional excess, that is, convulsion, occurs unchecked by the cerebral
+hemispheres, which are disabled by their nutritive shock. The
+unconsciousness and coma of epilepsy more resemble shock than they do
+cerebral an&aelig;mia or syncope. The impeded return circulation of venous blood
+now comes into play. The contraction of the neck muscles explains this
+obstruction and especially the accumulation of venous blood in the
+cerebral capillaries of the medulla.</p>
+
+<p>True epilepsy presents an enormous number of sub-groups, exhibiting every
+variety of deviation from the ideal convulsive form, and the existence of
+these forms tends to demonstrate the views just expressed. In ordinary
+petit mal the initial arterial spasm has but to be confined to the surface
+of the hemispheres, leaving the thalamus ganglia undisturbed, and it can
+readily be understood how the momentary unconsciousness or abolition of
+cortical function can occur without the patient falling, his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> automatic
+ganglia still carrying on their functions. At the same time with the
+lesser spasm there would be a less extensive sinking of intracranial
+pressure with less consecutive collateral hyper&aelig;mia of the lower centres
+and therefore no convulsion.</p>
+
+<p>In certain cases the arterial spasm fails to affect the entire cortical
+surface simultaneously; some one trunk may be more pervious, and as afflux
+of blood may occur in its special field where certain impressions and
+motor innervations are stored, the result will then be that the function
+of the relatively well-nourished territory will be exalted. If it be a
+visual perception territory, sights, colours or luminous spectra will be
+seen; if it be an olfactory territory, odours will be smelt; if a tactile
+centre, crawling, tingling and cold sensation are felt; if a speech
+centre, cries, phrases, and songs may be observed. This explains the
+manifold epileptic aura, which is simply an isolated, exaggerated, and
+limited cortical function. The recurrence of the aura is readily
+explicable on the ground of the well-known physiological law that any
+nervous process, morbid or normal, having run through certain paths, those
+paths will be the paths of least resistance for that process to follow in
+the future.</p>
+
+<p>These conditions will be greatly exaggerated in proportion to the
+deficiencies in the associating tracts and will often, in turn, pervert
+these. The sexo-religious and other mental states of epilepsy often
+closely mimic normal mentation and serve to disguise the intense depth of
+degeneracy which epilepsy implies.</p>
+
+<p>In their explosive, unchecked character the morbid restlessness of the
+neurotic, hysteric, and criminal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> depend upon like brain disorder to that
+of the epileptic, except that consciousness is not involved, and with
+conscious acts are intermingled those preceding from the lower automatic
+processes described. Consciousness, however, is sometimes lost in part,
+whence frequently the defects so often noticed in the thoughts of the
+degenerates.</p>
+
+<p>The two following cases which have come to my notice illustrate the
+obliteration of the function of limited areas of the brain. A young lady,
+aged 22, of refinement and highly accomplished, was engaged to be married.
+One evening her <i>fianc&eacute;</i> called; she failed to recognise him and he
+remained ever after a stranger to her. In every other respect her mind was
+seemingly normal. She died of tuberculosis. In another case a young lady,
+an expert stenographer, while riding her wheel, fell striking her head
+against a stone. She remained unconscious for some days, and was quite ill
+for three or four months. After her recovery she was much surprised to
+find that she knew nothing about her former employment, although her brain
+was perfectly normal in other respects.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="big"><span class="smcap">Conclusions</span></span></p>
+
+<p class="dropcap"><span class="caps">Since,</span> as Weismann<a name="fna_263_263" id="fna_263_263"></a><a href="#fn_263_263"><small>[263]</small></a>
+admits, interference with the nutrition of the
+germ plasm will result in the production of variations, the fact is
+evident that even according to the Weismannian principle the nutrition of
+the parents will determine the power of the embryo to pass through the
+various embryonic stages up to the developed child. Impairment of
+nutrition may check this development at any standpoint, and may thus
+produce any or all of the defects due to degeneracy. Weismann has no doubt
+about the inheritance of a &#8220;tuberculous habit whose peculiarities are
+certainly transmissible.&#8221; Practically, therefore, even according to
+Weismann, that most emphatic critic of the transmission of hereditary
+defect, a condition of nervous exhaustion is produced in the parents which
+may be transmitted as a whole to the offspring, or may simply so affect
+the ovum as to produce various arrests in development with hypertrophies
+elsewhere. The influence of nervous prostration in the father may be
+overcome by conditions in the mother tending to help development. As her
+share in the germ plasm is most emphatic, not only at the time of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> the
+formation, but also during the entire development of the embryo,
+production of degeneracy will largely depend on her nutrition. The
+influence of healthy atavism is much more emphatically exerted through the
+female, albeit even in the male it may overcome the nervous exhaustion of
+the ancestor so far as reproduction of it is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>While many are called, few, owing to healthy atavism, are therefore chosen
+for complete degeneracy. Although heredity plays a large part in the
+degeneracy of the individual, still environment in many cases exerts a
+greater influence in determining, according as it strengthens or weakens
+healthy atavism, the depth of degeneracy. Treatment, therefore, both of
+the individual and of the family is largely a question of prophylaxis or
+prevention.</p>
+
+<p>In prophylaxis of the family the first indication is to stop the
+production of degenerates. Two measures have attracted considerable
+attention, and from their seeming simplicity have met with much favour.
+The first is regulation of marriage. This, as a means of preventing
+degeneracy, has been much over-estimated. Laws claiming to regulate
+marriage have ignored two factors. In the first place the graver
+degeneracies only are taken into account. From what has been shown as
+regards the tendency of the degenerate to intermarry, and from the fact
+that restraints on marriage inevitably result in illicit relationships of
+permanent character (equally productive of degenerates whose defects have
+been increased by the condition in which they are born), the only
+procedure likely to be of value in this relation is to regard marriage
+simply as a contract designed for certain ends and permit its annulment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+for fraud, for concealment of defects (intentionally or otherwise)
+incompatible with the procreation of healthy children. In its essence this
+is the English common law theory. Its principle is recognised by the
+divorce codes of various continental European countries. Furthermore, it
+is on this principle that the Pope not infrequently annuls marriages,
+divorce not being recognised by the Church of which he is the head. It is
+certainly best for the stability of the family that unhealthy unions
+should have the least permanency possible.</p>
+
+<p>Another element in prophylaxis, castration, ignores completely the rights
+of individuals under the English common law (and, so far as the United
+States is concerned, a provision of its constitution). Although
+sacrificing these important guards against that degeneracy in the body
+politic which inevitably reflects itself in degeneracy in the individual,
+this procedure fails to accomplish its end, since it ignores completely
+the principle of transformation in heredity. The distance between the
+criminals (whom it is proposed to castrate) and the hysteric offspring of
+good family is not so great that the progeny of one will not be as
+degenerate as the progeny of the other. Whatever may be said of the value
+of this procedure as a deterrent, its use as a prophylactic is
+comparatively small.</p>
+
+<p>Much better results are obtainable by guarding women from the factors of
+degeneracy during puberty and during matronhood. Many nations whose laws
+ostentatiously regulate marriage in a manner most oppressive to individual
+liberty entail by their customs over-work in a spasmodic manner during
+puberty and during matronhood. Nations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> whose customs permit women and
+dogs to be harnessed together as beasts of burden, to carry the hod and to
+dig trenches for sewers, gas, and waterpipes, cry out very loudly against
+the dangerous license of the English-speaking nations in permitting women
+to intrude on male occupations. There is no doubt but that women (and it
+may be said a large majority of men) are now through evolution unsuited to
+occupations involving spasmodic expenditure of force, and well suited to
+those implying continuity. As Bachhofen, Reclus, and Otis T. Mason have
+shown, two-thirds of the occupations of this last type have been created
+by women. Man, as Havelock Ellis demonstrates, in accordance with the law
+of evolutionary advance, is adjusting himself to these occupations.
+Attempts to regulate employment of women in unhealthy trades are a step in
+the right direction so far as prevention of a factor of degeneracy is
+concerned, since it can be carried out without that disregard of personal
+liberty which is more dangerous in such attempts at regulation than the
+defect to be regulated.</p>
+
+<p>The periods of menstruation and pregnancy in degenerate women require
+(from what has been said on maternal impressions) special attention suited
+to the individual, and not prescribed indiscriminately for all classes. An
+excellent illustration of the dangers of Procrustean prescription is the
+instance where the vegetarianism of the mother during pregnancy was
+followed by the production of ill-nourished offspring. Diet during
+pregnancy undoubtedly can exercise a great influence for good, but this
+diet must ignore the &#8220;longings&#8221; of pregnant women, which are simply the
+bulimia, or abnormal appetite for food, produced by irritation of the medulla.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>In dealing with the toxic factors the question of legal regulation of the
+opium and alcohol habits requires attention. There is very little doubt
+but that the routine prescription of alcohol and opium (in the shape of
+paregoric and soothing syrup) by the laity for painful menses, teething,
+toothache, &amp;c., underlies many cases of degeneracy in the offspring. This
+prescription is the more dangerous because it is recommended in the hidden
+guise of nostrums by hysterics with blatant alcoholophobia. One of the
+most energetic female advocates of the legal prohibition of alcohol
+beverages endorsed very emphatically the nostrum of one of her hysteric
+supporters which contained 50 per cent. alcohol and 1 per cent. each of
+cocaine and morphine. As the persons largely under the influence of such
+endorsement were hysterics whose zeal for reform was largely an expression
+for desire for notoriety, the dangers of its use during menstruation
+cannot well be over-estimated. To reach this serious source of degeneracy
+from alcohol and the narcotics, statement on each bottle of the exact
+composition of nostrums should be exacted by law.</p>
+
+<p>Government could exercise a potent influence for good on alcohol abuse by
+improvement of sanitary conditions in the tenement or apartment house
+districts. Experience in New York and elsewhere has shown that improvement
+in tenement houses produces decided decrease in the number of dram shops
+in tenement-house neighbourhoods. The earlier tenement-houses in New York,
+as elsewhere, were originally dwellings intended for one family. As these
+were replaced by houses specially built for tenements, with proper
+sanitary arrangements and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> improved ventilation, not only did a tremendous
+decrease occur in the infantile death-rate, but a decrease also in the
+patronage of dram shops. In many instances it was apparent that alcoholic
+abuse had grown out of poverty. Foul air and crowded quarters had begotten
+not only a desire for stimulants but a desire for social intercourse. The
+dram shop met social needs as a club. It is along this line that
+Government can make best use of its police powers.</p>
+
+<p>The Government, in exercise of its police powers directed to sanitary
+ends, could enable the trade unions to secure improved sanitation in shops
+in which occupations unhealthy by themselves or because of environment,
+are carried on. In this way improved sanitation of unhealthy occupations
+could be best secured.</p>
+
+<p>The prophylaxis of degeneracy in the mother and father may be summed up as
+simply the prevention of a state of neurasthenia, or nervous exhaustion,
+whether this condition (involving the functions of growth, motion and
+sensation, which, as Marinesco has shown, exist in every neuron and its
+processes) exhibit itself in the general nervous system or in the organs
+connected with alimentation, elaboration, and excretion. Every factor of
+acquired degeneracy produces what is practically this condition of
+neurasthenia ere exerting any influence in the production of degeneracy.
+In other words, the neurasthenia of the ancestor becomes the neurosis of
+the descendant. Therefore the neurasthenia requires in its treatment in
+the ancestor the removal of the exciting cause and the treatment of the
+effect by physiologic rest in the truest sense of the word. In a general
+way, therefore, the ordinary principles of hygiene applied to each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+individual case will suffice to prevent development of this neurasthenia.
+The part of Government in this is very small. It is true here that, as
+remarked by Johnson&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;How small of all that human hearts endure,<br />
+That part which kings or laws can cure!&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Training of the individual rather than governmental regulation must be the
+factor to prevent degeneracy in the ancestor. Indeed governmental
+regulation by injuring self-reliance (that factor so easily destroyed and
+so hardly regained) may itself be a potent factor in degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p>Prophylaxis of degeneracy in the individual should commence with the birth
+of the child. Whatever may be said of hypothetical ante-natal training,
+there is no doubt that considerable benefit can be accomplished during the
+first months of life. As the great aim of training is to secure
+self-control, it must be obvious that to accustom an infant to expect
+attention at every moment it cries, whether the cry be the expression of
+need or not, is to weaken, not to strengthen, its self-control.
+Furthermore, regularity in bodily functions is a great source of strength.
+The child can be trained during the first months of life by careful
+attention to its wants on the one hand, and as careful inattention to its
+caprice on the other, so that all its functions become equably regular and
+automatic. With this regularity many of the factors underlying caprice,
+peevishness, and anger can be prevented in the earliest months of life.
+Unless there be enormous deficiency in the associating fibres a good start
+can then be made toward the creation of a secondary ego. It is at this
+period and during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> that of the first dentition that training is too often
+neglected or perverted in such a way as to strengthen the primary ego at
+the expense of the secondary. At this period the extent of training needed
+may be judged by the amount of stigmata, few though they be, present in
+the child. With the period of the first dentition certain mental and
+nervous stigmata manifest themselves. If the child be liable to
+convulsions on the slightest causes, if it manifest screaming fits without
+apparent reason, if it be frequently assailed by night terrors, serious
+attention is needed, and this attention should be directed not only to its
+mental and nervous condition, but also to its functions of assimilation,
+elaboration, and excretion. Here dangerous degeneracy may show itself
+which is not apparent elsewhere. The training of the child should be
+conducted along the lines recommended during the first months of life. The
+essential principles governing this have been excellently outlined by
+Jules Morel.<a name="fna_264_264" id="fna_264_264"></a><a href="#fn_264_264"><small>[264]</small></a> The treatment of all degenerates, and consequently their
+preservation from the evils that threaten them, ought to begin in their
+earliest infancy. First avoid exaggerating hereditary predisposition when
+serious neurosis has occurred in the parental line. Too often such a
+conclusion is adopted, and hope of recovery in the descendants is
+abandoned because one of the parents or the grandparents was affected with
+insanity by reason of organic disease of the brain. Preliminary
+examination of the neurotic needs to be made before one is enabled to
+judge as to the effects of heredity. Only after a careful examination can
+the extent of heredity be determined. The proof will be beyond doubt when
+in parents and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> in their children stigmata of anatomic and physical
+degeneration are abundantly found.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the question of the education of the child, the signs of
+fatigue expressed in the ears and face should receive attention. Attempts
+are being made in the schools of Chicago and elsewhere to determine these.
+The following schedule prepared by Colin A. Scott for the Chicago Public
+Schools is an excellent means towards this end:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Eye</i>:&mdash;Each eye should be examined separately and in a good light.
+Hold a card over one eye while the other is being examined. In using
+the optometer, find the place where vision of the dots is the easiest
+and most distinct. In using Snellen&#8217;s test card, place the pupil at
+the distance marked upon the card. Have him begin at the top and read
+down as far as he can, first with one eye and then with the other. He
+should be able to read a majority of the test type. Test with
+optometer, and in reporting use the number on the stem preceded by F
+for far-sightedness, and N for near-sightedness.</p>
+
+<p>Place the card for astigmatism at the distance marked upon it. Cover
+one eye and ask pupil to indicate, without moving nearer, the circles
+which appear blacker or lighter than the others. Bring the card nearer
+and find at how many feet distant he still sees any of the circles
+darker or lighter than the others. At a sufficient distance every one
+betrays some degree of astigmatism, which is of consequence as a
+defect only when capable of detection within the distance indicated
+upon the card. Outside of this point astigmatism may be reckoned as
+absent and marked 0 in the report. Note if the pupil suffers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+habitually from inflamed eyelids, and inquire if he complains of tired
+and painful eyes or headaches after reading, studying, or using his
+eyes in other similar ways. Note any other defect of formation or
+position of either eye. Test the movement of the eyes by moving a coin
+to about eighteen inches of the eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Test each ear with the same watch in the same place and position.
+Establish the normal degree of hearing for your room under these
+conditions. Describe each ear in the report as&mdash;(1) normal; (2)
+slightly hard of hearing; (3) hard of hearing; (4) considerably deaf;
+or (5) deaf. As a further test, place the pupil at a distance and ask
+him to repeat a number of words or letters. In all of these tests care
+must be taken to avoid the possibility of suggestion in asking
+questions or by other means. Note if the child is a mouth-breather, or
+gives other signs of adenoids or enlarged tonsils. Notice circulation
+in each ear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Signs of Fatigue, &amp;c.</i>:&mdash;In no case should it be said in the presence
+of a young child that he is nervous or defective in development or
+nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>Note the position and balance of the body in standing and sitting, and
+whether the movements are&mdash;(1) habitually restless and fidgety; (2)
+note especially the balance of the head; and (3) position and
+occupation of the hands, showing nervousness or not; (4) note any
+twitching or marked lack of motor control in any part of the body; (5)
+note whether the pupil flushes periodically or frequently; is the
+pupil (6) easily excited or (7) fatigued by task in school or at home?
+Inquire if the pupil has frequent &#8220;morning tire&#8221; (number of days per
+month) or headaches not connected with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> serious defects of the eyes.
+(8) Is he unduly irritable or irascible? Are there any other signs of
+lack of emotional control&mdash;for example, (9) being too easily
+impressed; or (10) with an undue tendency to tears, or uncontrollable
+laughter?</p>
+
+<p>Note the general condition of bodily nutrition (this by no means
+depends directly upon food), and the number of signs of failure in
+physical development (height, weight, &amp;c.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Researches along this line in Germany and England have shown that the
+fatigue produced by studies varies, and that it is possible by arranging
+sequence of studies to remove fatigue produced by one study through the
+rest furnished by another. It has been found that biology exhausts least
+and mathematics and grammar most. While there is undoubtedly a spirit of
+emulation stirred by these last two studies which is injurious, the
+limited associations affected by them are further a source of fatigue as
+well. The numerous associations of biology afford points of rest on the
+one hand while not tending to emulation on the other. It is this spirit of
+emulation, with its attendant alternation of worry and hope, that causes
+so many of the acquired nervous disorders of the adult, and which hence is
+obviously much more potent for evil in the child.</p>
+
+<p>Physical and mental training in the special asylums for imbeciles and
+idiots gives such splendid results that it is surprising that parents, and
+especially those charged with bad heredity, are not encouraged and advised
+by their physicians and friends to try from the first year of the child&#8217;s
+life special measures for their preservation. If a persevering physical
+and psychic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> management of the weak-minded gives such admirable results in
+asylums, it would be still better if the child could be trained from the
+earliest period of its life. This subject is ignored by the public, and in
+every case not sufficiently appreciated. First of all try to preserve
+patients of a nervous or of a weak constitution. They should know in what
+state of health they are living, they must be informed of the great danger
+of matrimonial union with a person of the same tendencies, and especially
+when consanguinity exists between them. The greatest care is to be given
+to children of this class. Experience has already led to the conclusion
+that mental and physical overwork increases this defect: hence young
+brains must not be over-excited with worry or emotionalism. The will of
+children ought to be cultivated and strengthened. Their minds should be
+methodically educated. The bodily functions should never be artificially
+stimulated in any way, to increase unduly the assimilation of the food.
+Development of the intelligence, the sensibility and the physical
+training, should be looked after in the same way. Once a plan of living is
+laid down it should be followed. Success depends on this. The great
+influence of hygienic conditions (air, light, food, dress, habitation,
+sleep, muscular exercise, &amp;c.) should not be forgotten, for without them
+efforts made for mental training are useless. By putting these methods
+into execution an increase of the congenital taint is prevented, and such
+methods perceptibly amend the psychopathic depreciation which in the usual
+way of living would certainly become worse. The object very often thus
+secured is double; aggravation has been prevented, amelioration has been
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with nervous exhaustion produced by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> infectious diseases,
+the dangers of the convalescent period are not sufficiently taken into
+account. Parents are but too apt from mistaken motives of economy to
+dismiss the physician at the onset of convalescence. It is precisely at
+this period that the system hovers between permanent systemic defect and
+recovery. Proper diet and proper training at this time will often prevent
+the checking of puberty development, and hence a breakdown under the
+stress of that period. The same is true of the convalescent period from
+such diseases in adults. Many a mother has thus injured her constitution
+and given birth to degenerate children in marked contrast with the
+normality of the children born before.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently efforts are unsuccessful either because the family physician
+and the educator have no time to superintend treatment, or because they
+are unable, for many reasons, to individualise treatment properly. Hence
+the high value of well-organised special boarding schools for the
+degenerate.</p>
+
+<p>The special aim, says Koch, is to teach the patient to govern himself, to
+repose confidence in himself. To reach this end a great deal is required
+of him who undertakes the treatment. He has to exercise himself with
+patience. He must know how to divide the time for work and the time for
+rest. For many of these ill-balanced subjects variety is wanted as well in
+physical work as mental training.</p>
+
+<p>Those charged with these remedies, exercising good judgment, are soon able
+to distinguish the more favourable cases from the more difficult. They can
+soon say that a favourable remedy for the one may be noxious for another,
+and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>. Tonics, spirits, cold baths, &amp;c., and even hypnotism may
+be tried, but great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> caution is to be exercised, and these remedies should
+never be employed except by prescription of physicians.</p>
+
+<p>Even subjects of congenital mental instability suffering from obsession
+(imperative ideas) without delusions are not inaccessible to treatment. In
+these cases naturally the most important part belongs to the medical
+treatment as in most mental cases. The more serious cases, dating from the
+first youth and aggravated in proportion to the age, are not to be
+completely cured. The progressive evolution can be stopped and patients
+ameliorated in such a way that improvement makes their life bearable.</p>
+
+<p>The same results can be obtained with less degenerate subjects. Success
+occurs often when patients are enabled to understand the nature of their
+sufferings, to discern that their disease does not belong to insanity,
+that it is unlikely to lead to mental disease. This understanding is one
+of the best of all anodynes. Donders, of Utrecht, said to one of his
+patients suffering from optic hyper&aelig;sthesia of neurasthenic origin: &#8220;What
+medicine cannot do, time and oftentime hygiene realise.&#8221; The intelligent
+patient having thus received assurance of his sight, good hygiene and
+mental rest soon after produced a cure. Acquired mental depreciation may
+exist from the first years of the child&#8217;s life. These depreciations in
+proportion to their intensity are characterised by fatigue and even
+nervous exhaustion accompanied with physical weakness and functional
+trouble in one or more organs of sense, by pathological debility of the
+intelligence and impaired memory especially for recent facts, difficulty
+of comprehension and of associating ideas and judgment, as well as
+worries, fears, despairs, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> in cases of intoxications by
+morphine, cocaine, bromides, coffee, &amp;c. These are increased by
+irritability and excitability when the troubles arise from onanism,
+puberty, or other periods of transformation in the sexual life.</p>
+
+<p>Fight from the first the symptoms of predisposing and occasional causes,
+because if aggravation be prevented recovery is possible. Especially in
+these depreciations must the physician utilise all his knowledge and prove
+that only mental science is sufficient to cure such patients. Not only has
+he to guide the intellectual life, and life of sensibility and will, but
+he has also to remedy the morbid physical conditions, to superintend the
+general r&eacute;gime, times of work and rest, air, light, dressing, preservation
+from alcoholic and other excesses.</p>
+
+<p>One great element of possible danger of the first importance is training
+in the sexual sphere. To avoid and at the same time to enlighten is the
+problem presented. In dealing with this problem the great requirement,
+balance, not repression, must be kept in mind. Masturbation is very
+frequently an expression not of mental or moral deficiency, but of purely
+local (first in at least most cases) physical conditions. Irritation (from
+the presence of worms in the rectum or vagina, an intensely acid state of
+the urine, or constipation) to male foreskin and female clitoris has
+produced a local itching, the attempt to relieve which has led to
+masturbation. Granting all that has been said about the deteriorating
+effects, especially in degenerates, the source should first be sought
+here. Attention to these physical states will often prevent the
+development of this practice and its resultant moral deterioration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>In dealing with the sexual appetite the fact should be remembered that
+encouragement of healthy modesty is a duty in both sexes, and
+pre-eminently so in the male. Too much of what is called &#8220;sexual purity&#8221;
+is very often an expression of sexual perversity. While great stress has
+been laid on the evil effects of association between boys, too little
+stress has been laid on the danger of the training of boys by women. The
+sexual history of boys often demonstrates that their initiation into the
+sexual life was first at the instance of women older than themselves,
+often servants, but not rarely sexual &#8220;purists&#8221; or persons whose
+ostentatious religiosity covered a sexual perversity. In the healthy
+association of the sexes there is very little danger, but in such morbid
+association there is great danger, the more that the morbid conceals
+itself under religiosity and the allied phases of sexual perversion. Great
+stress has been laid on the dangers of co-education, but the growing
+opinion is that education limited to one sex is the source of even greater
+dangers to both boy and girl. It is a matter of common observation among
+genito-urinary specialists, alienists and gynecologists, that much of the
+alleged &#8220;purity&#8221; so ostentatiously displayed by graduates of colleges
+limited to one sex, is often the offspring of a sexual perversion which,
+whether congenital or not, has been fostered by the environment of one sex
+without the modifying, healthy influence of the other.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with these cases the stigmata first likely to attract the
+physician&#8217;s attention are in the milder cases those of the jaws, teeth,
+nose, throat, ear, and eye. Rapid decay of the teeth often leads to the
+discovery not merely of constitutional degeneracy, but also of the effects
+of certain strains which aggravated this. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>Dentists, mouth, throat, ear,
+and to a lesser degree eye specialists, are hence in a position to detect
+degeneracy at its outset. If they do not put the cart before the horse,
+and refer the constitutional symptoms to the local disturbances, they are
+in a position to be of eminent service to the race.</p>
+
+<p>What Jules Morel has said of the more evident degenerates is equally true
+of the others. Education should be conducted along the lines which Froebel
+indicated when he pointed out that play is the child&#8217;s work, and that a
+development of this work is the natural problem for education. Extension
+of the general training of the whole body, from the properly conducted
+kindergarten to the school, is the principle on which all education should
+be conducted. This is recognised by advanced educators, as previously it
+had been recognised by the physician confronted with the effects of school
+strain resulting from the opposite theory. Manual training is a principle
+long adopted by idiot schools, where training of certain muscles through
+both mental and physical methods precedes intellectual training alone.
+Manual training may, however, be the source of equal dangers with the
+excessive abuse of intellectual training which preceded it. In the
+education of the degenerate, as in the education of the other members of
+the race, the true source of success is to avoid &#8220;the falsehood of
+extremes.&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX OF AUTHORS</h2>
+
+
+<p class="index">
+Agassiz, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Aitken, Sir W., <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Alexander, Harriet C. B., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br />
+<br />
+Amabile, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Amadei, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Annandale, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<br />
+Andronico, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br />
+<br />
+Anstie, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Aquinas, St. Thomas, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Aristotle, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Attmyer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Aubry, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Awl, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Ayres, Howard, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Roger, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Bachhofen, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Baer, Von, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Bannister, H. M., <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Bastian, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br />
+<br />
+Bauer, S., <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Beach, Fletcher, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Bemiss, S. M., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Benedikt, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Berwig, Elise, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Billod, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Bischoff, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Bjornstrom, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Bock, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Bo&euml;thius, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Bourgeois, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Bremer, L., <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Brigham, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Broca, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Brown-Sequard, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Bruce, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Buchanan, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Buffon, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Bullard, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Bulwer, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+Bureau, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Burnett, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Burton, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Byron, Lord, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Calkins, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Campagne, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Camper, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+<br />
+Carpenter, G. T., <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+Carson, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Catlin, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Charrin, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+Chiarrurgi, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Christopher, W. S., <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Clapham, Crochley, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Clark, C. K., <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Clouston, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br />
+<br />
+Cohen, M. A., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Cohn, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<br />
+Conger, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Coolidge, F. S., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Cope, E. D., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Cowles, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Cullen, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<br />
+Cunningham, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Dally, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Dana, C. L., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
+<br />
+Dareste, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br />
+<br />
+Darier, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<br />
+Davis, Barnard, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Davis, Chas., <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Darwin, Chas., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>Darwin, Erasmus, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Darwin, G. H., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Defoe, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+Demarquay, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Dent, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
+<br />
+Des Champs, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br />
+<br />
+Despine, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Dewees, W. P., <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Dickens, Chas., <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Dixon, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Dohrn, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Donders, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br />
+<br />
+Down, Langdon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br />
+<br />
+Double, Le, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Doutrebente, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+<br />
+Dryden, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+Duncan, J. M., <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Du Puy, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Dumas, Alexander, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br />
+<br />
+Dyer, Thistleton, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Earle, F. B., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Eimer, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Ellis, Havelock, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Erlenmeyer, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Esquirol, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<br />
+Etienne, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Ewald, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Eykman, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Farnham, Eliza, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+F&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Felken, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Fernelius, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Fisher, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Fletcher, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Folsom, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Fothergill, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<br />
+Foville, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+Fowler, G. B., <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Frigerio, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Galen, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Galt, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Galton, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<br />
+Geddes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Gibney, V. P., <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Gihon, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br />
+<br />
+Giovanni, De, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Gley, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+Godding, W. W., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Goethe, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Gomme, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Gordon, B. O., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Gray, J. P., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Grenzer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+Griesinger, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<br />
+Grille, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Grimaldi, <a href="#Page_320">320</a><br />
+<br />
+Grohmann, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+H&aelig;ckel, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+<br />
+Hamilton, A. McL., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<br />
+Hammond, W. A., <a href="#Page_328">328</a><br />
+<br />
+Hannover, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Harris, Elisha, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Harvey, William, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Hawthorne, N., <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br />
+<br />
+Heschl, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
+<br />
+Heuse, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Heusinger, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br />
+<br />
+Hilaire, G. St., <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+His, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Hogden, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Howard, H., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<br />
+Howe, Delia E., <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Hoyt, C. S., <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Hubbard, F. H., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Hughes, C. H., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Huss, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Huss, Magnus, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+Hutchinson, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Huth, A. H., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ireland, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<br />
+Irving, Washington, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Itard, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jacobi, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+James, Alex., <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Johnson, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Johnston, Sir H. H., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Julien, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kant, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
+<br />
+Kasparek, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Keane, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br />
+<br />
+Kerlin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>Key, Axel, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Kiernan, J. G., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
+<br />
+Kingsley, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
+<br />
+Knecht, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+Kowalevsky, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<br />
+Krafft-Ebing, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br />
+<br />
+Koch, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lagorio, A., <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Lamarck, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Landolt, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Lankester, Ray, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+Laing, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Lauvergne, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Le Double, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+L&eacute;lut, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Levenstein, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Lind, Jas., <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Lockwood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Lombroso, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br />
+<br />
+Lucas, Prosper, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Luys, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Macaulay, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Macdonald, Jas., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Magalhaes, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br />
+<br />
+Magnan, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Manning, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Marestang, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Marie, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Marro, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Marsh, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Marshall, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+<br />
+Mason, O. P., <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Maudsley, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Maupas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Maupertius, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<br />
+Mattison, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+McFarland, A., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+McBride, J. H., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Meige, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+<br />
+Menatta, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Mendel, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+<br />
+Mercier, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Merrick, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br />
+<br />
+Merrill, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Meynert, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
+<br />
+Mickle, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Mills, C. K., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
+<br />
+Milne-Edwards, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
+<br />
+Minot, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Mitchell, A., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Mitchell, Weir, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Monteyel, De, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br />
+<br />
+Moor, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Moquia-Tandea, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Moreau (de Tours), <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Morel, A. B., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br />
+<br />
+Morel, Jules, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br />
+<br />
+Morton, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Moyer, H. N., <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Muhr, <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br />
+<br />
+Mummery, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br />
+<br />
+Munson, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Murray, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Murrell, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Myer, Ludwig, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Nichols, C. H., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Nicolson, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Niepce, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Nothnagel, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Obersteiner, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Obici, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Ogle, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Osborn, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Osler, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paddock, C. E., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Parkman, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterson, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Petrie, Flinders, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Petersen, F., <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Phisalix, C., <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Pinckard, C. P., <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+<br />
+Pinel, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Planches, Tanquerel des, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Plato, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<br />
+Potain, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
+<br />
+Prichard, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Proctor, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Pruner-Bey, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+Ray, I., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+R&eacute;clus, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<br />
+Remondino, P. C., <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Rennert, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Ribot, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Ricochon, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Rilliet, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Ringer, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Roller, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Rolph, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Roof, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Rosser, C. V., <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
+<br />
+Royce, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+<br />
+Rush, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Sachs, B., <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<br />
+Sampson, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Sander, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br />
+<br />
+Saulle, Legrande du, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Sch&uuml;le, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Scott, Colin A., <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
+<br />
+Semper, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Shuttleworth, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Siebold, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Souques, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<br />
+Spencer, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Spitzka, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Stearns, H. M., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<br />
+Stedman, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Stokvis, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Strahan, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+<br />
+Saurez, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Sue, Eugene, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Suetonius, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Sully, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Sutton, Bland, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<br />
+Sylvius, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tamassia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Tamburini, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Tarnowsky, Pauline, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a><br />
+<br />
+Taylor, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Tennyson, Lord, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Tessier, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Thiebault, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Thomson, Bruce, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Tissot, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Tonnini, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Topinard, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Tr&eacute;lat, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Tuke, D. H., <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Tyler, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Tyndall, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Valenta, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br />
+<br />
+Valude, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Verga, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+<br />
+Vecchio, Dei, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Vesalius, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Viault, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Vidocq, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Virchow, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Voisin, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Vogt, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Warner, Francis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Weigenberg, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Weismann, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br />
+<br />
+Westphal, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Wharton, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilbur, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+<br />
+Wiley, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilson, D., <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilson, G., <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilson, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Wilmarth, A. W., <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
+<br />
+Wolf, William, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Wood, Jas., <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Workman, J., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ziegler, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br />
+<br />
+Zola, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX OF SUBJECTS</h2>
+
+
+<p class="index">
+Achondroplasia, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+<br />
+Acrocephaly, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Acromegaly, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+<br />
+Alcohol, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Alcohol and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+Ambidexterity, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Animals and Defectives, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Anthropology, Morel on Morbid, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br />
+<br />
+Anthropoid Apes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Appendix Vermiformis, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Arch of Jaw, Deformed, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br />
+<br />
+Arch of Jaw, Normal, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Arrest of Development, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Artero-capillary fibrosis, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Atavism, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+&#8220;Bleeders,&#8221; <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<br />
+Blue Babies, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br />
+<br />
+Bowel Disorders from School Strain, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Brachycephaly, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Brain, Criminal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degeneracy of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degeneracy, Types of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Imbecile, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Weight of, and Intellect, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Breasts, Degeneracy of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Cancer, Degenerate nature of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Fecundity in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Castration, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+Cell and Heredity, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Ch&aelig;macephaly, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Chest, Deformities of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degenerate, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Child and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and nutrition, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Fatigue in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Neurotic, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chondrocranium, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Circumcision, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Cleft-Palate, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Climate and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Cloaca, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+<br />
+Club-foot, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Club-hand, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Coca and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+<br />
+Coccyx, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Coffee and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Collateral Heredity, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Concrescence Theory, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Conjugation and Nutrition, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Contagion and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Convalescence, Hygiene of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Cranium, Degenerate, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Embryology of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Crime, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br />
+<br />
+Criminal, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Brain, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Stigmata, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Criminology, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Cryptorchidism, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+<br />
+Cuvier, Brain of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Cyclopic Eye, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Darwin&#8217;s Tubercle, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<br />
+Deaf-mutism, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+<br />
+Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Alcoholic, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Childhood and, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Child Nutrition and, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Climate and, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Coca, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Coffee, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Contagion and, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Disease and, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Ethical, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Folklore of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Fungi and, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Infection, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Intellectual, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Isolation, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Local, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Maize, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Mental, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 3em;"><a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Metallic Poisoning, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Moral, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 3em;"><a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Neurasthenia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Nutritive, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Opium, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Parental Age and, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Potato, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Prophylaxis of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Race Intermixture and, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Reversional, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Savages and, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> School Strain and, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Sensory, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Soil and, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Spinal, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Stigmata of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Syphilis and, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Tea, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Tobacco, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Toxic Agents and, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Tuberculosis and, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Development, Arrested, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Excessive, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Diabetes, Fecundity in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Dipsomania, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Direct Heredity, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Dolichocephaly, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Durencephaly, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br />
+<br />
+Dwarfism, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ear, Evolution of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Jug-handled, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Morel, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Satanic, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>Ectrodactylia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<br />
+Ectromelia, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+<br />
+Embryology, Morbid, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Vertebrate, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Environment, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<br />
+Epilepsy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a><br />
+<br />
+Epistaxis in Degenerates, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Evolution and Disease, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in Fertilisation, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Eye Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Evolution of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Face and Brain, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degenerate, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Embryology of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Evolution of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Ideal, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in Man, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in the Vertebrates, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Facial Angle, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Fatigue at Puberty, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Fecundity and Mortality, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Feminism, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+<br />
+Fertilisation, Evolution in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Fetichism and Defectives, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Fingers, Degenerate, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Folklore of Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Foot, Flat, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Prehensile, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Fungi and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Genius, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and the Child Type, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Giantism, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Goitre, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Golden Age Myth, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+Gout, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hare-lip, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<br />
+H&aelig;mophilia, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
+<br />
+Heredity, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> of Acquired Characters, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Ambidexterity, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Heredity and Atavism, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> of Circumcision, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Face Deformity, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Germ Plasm, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Hairy Deformity, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Healthy Atavism, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Hernia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Indirect, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Morbid Manifestations of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Motor Disturbance and, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Mutilation and, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Onychophagia, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Reversional, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Sexes in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Skin Deformity and, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Transformation of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Types of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hermaphrodism, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Heterophagy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Hutchinson&#8217;s Teeth, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Hydrocephaly, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Idiot, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Biology of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Brain of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Epileptic Change in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ichthyosis, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+Individuation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Inebriety, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Infantilism, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+<br />
+Infection and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
+<br />
+Intermarriage, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Consanguinous, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Neurotic, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Instinct, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br />
+<br />
+Intermaxillary Bones, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<br />
+Iris, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+<br />
+Isophagy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Isolation and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jaws&mdash;<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Blind, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Criminal, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Deaf-mutes, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degenerate, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Evolution, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Idiot, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Inebriate, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Insane, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Prostitutes, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Stigmata of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kephalones, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Kleptomania, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Klinocephaly, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Kidney Disorders from School Strain, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Law of Economy of Growth, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Leontiasis, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Leptocephaly, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Limbs, Degenerate, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Lipomatosis, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Macrocephaly, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Macrodactylia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Macrophthalmia, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+<br />
+Maize and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Marriage, Regulation of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br />
+<br />
+Masculinism, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+<br />
+Maternal Diet and the F&oelig;tus, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Emotional Stress and F&oelig;tal Defect, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Impressions in Bird, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Impressions in Man, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Lead Poisoning and the F&oelig;tus, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Opium Habit and the F&oelig;tus, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Sensory Disturbance and the F&oelig;tus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Stigmatisation and the F&oelig;tus, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Merycism, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Mesocephaly, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+<br />
+Metallic Poisoning and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br />
+<br />
+Microcephaly, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Microdactylia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Microphthalmia, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br />
+<br />
+Monstrosity artificially Produced, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Moral Insanity, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Mouth-breathing, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br />
+<br />
+Muscle Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+Myx&oelig;dema, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Nanocephaly, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Nervous Heredity, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+<br />
+Nervous Prostration, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
+<br />
+Neurotics, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br />
+<br />
+Nose Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degeneracy and Tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Development of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Erectile Tissue of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in Bleeders, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Night Terrors, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Nutrition and Conjugation, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Nymphomania, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Obesity&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Fecundity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Juvenile, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Occiput Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br />
+<br />
+Onychophagia, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Opium and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Opium Habit, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<br />
+Organs as Parasites, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Pachycephaly, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Paranoia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br />
+<br />
+Paranucleus, Hermaphrodism of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Parasitism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Palate Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Parental Age and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Parthenogenesis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Patella Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>Paupers, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br />
+<br />
+Periods of Stress in Man, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Perversion, Sexual, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br />
+<br />
+Pessimist, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br />
+<br />
+Phocomelia, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+<br />
+Phthisis, Degeneracy Stigmata of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Fecundity in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Nervous States of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Physical Effects of School Strain, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Pineal Body, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Plagiocephaly, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Platycephaly, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Plural Births, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
+<br />
+Polydactylia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Polydactylism, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+<br />
+Polymastia, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br />
+<br />
+Porencephaly, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
+<br />
+Potato and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Predisposition, Unilateral, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Prostitution, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br />
+<br />
+Puberty, Anomalies of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in Anthropoid Apes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in Europeans, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Maturity Development, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> in Negro, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Promise and Maturity Fulfilment, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Pyromania, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Race Intermixture, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+<br />
+Reasoning Maniacs, <a href="#Page_327">327</a><br />
+<br />
+Reproduction Cell, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Destroyed Tissue and, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Unicellular, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Unisexual, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Virgin, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Rheumatism and Gout, Fecundity in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Ribs, Degenerate, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Sacrum, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Satyriasis, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
+<br />
+Scaphocephaly, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+School Strain and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
+<br />
+School Strain and Puberty Anomalies, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
+<br />
+School Overstrain, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
+<br />
+Sea Squirt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+<br />
+Sexdigitism, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<br />
+Sexual Appetite, Training of, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> &#8220;Purity,&#8221; <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Perversion, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Skin, Senile, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Skull, Flattened, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Soil and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Spenocephaly, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+<br />
+Spina-bifida, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Spine, Development of <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Sterility, Race Intermixture and, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Stigmata, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Stigmata, Union of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<br />
+Stomach Disorders from School Strain, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Studies, Alternation of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br />
+<br />
+Sub-microcephaly and Intellect, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Suture Closing and Brain Defect, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<br />
+Symelia, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+<br />
+Syndactylia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<br />
+Syphilis and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tail in Degenerates, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<br />
+Tapeisocephaly, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Teeth&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Atavistic, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Degenerate, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Evolution of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Supernumerary, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> and Hair Deformity <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tobacco and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Tramps, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br />
+<br />
+Trigonocephaly, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Trochocephaly, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Tuberculosis and Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Tumours, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Unhealthy Trades, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br />
+<br />
+Unilateral Predisposition, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Uvula Degeneracy, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Women&mdash;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Neurotic, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Occupations of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;"> Status in Evolution, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">UNWIN BROTHERS, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
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+<p class="center"><i>Crown Quarto, in specially designed Cover, Cloth, Price 6s.</i><br />
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+<p class="center"><i><strong>An Entirely New Edition. Revised Throughout.</strong></i></p>
+<p class="center"><strong>With Twelve Full-Page Portraits of Celebrated Musicians.</strong></p>
+<p class="center">DEDICATED TO PADEREWSKI.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">The Music of the Poets:</span></p>
+<p class="center">A MUSICIANS&#8217; BIRTHDAY BOOK.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Compiled by</span> ELEONORE D&#8217;ESTERRE-KEELING.</p>
+
+<p>This is an entirely new edition of this popular work. The size has been
+altered, the page having been made a little longer and narrower (9 &times; 6&#189;
+inches), thus allowing space for a larger number of autographs. The
+setting-up of the pages has also been improved, and a large number of
+names of composers, instrumentalists and singers, has been added to those
+which appeared in the previous edition. A special feature of the book
+consists in the reproduction in fac-simile of autographs, and autographic
+music, of living composers; among the many new autographs which have been
+added to the present edition being those of MM. Paderewski (to whom the
+book is dedicated), Mascagni, Eugen d&#8217;Albert, Sarasate, Hamish McCunn, and
+C. Hubert Parry. Merely as a volume of poetry about music, this book makes
+a charming anthology, the selections of verse extending from a period
+anterior to Chaucer to the present day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Among the additional writers represented in the new edition are Alfred
+Austin, Arthur Christopher Benson, John Davidson, Norman Gale, Richard Le
+Gallienne, Nora Hopper, Jean Ingelow, George Meredith, Alice Meynell,
+Coventry Patmore, Mary Robinson, Francis Thompson, Dr. Todhunter,
+Katharine Tynan, William Watson, and W. B. Yeats. The new edition is
+illustrated with portraits of Handel, Beethoven, Bach, Gluck, Chopin,
+Wagner, Liszt, Rubinstein, and others. The compiler has taken the greatest
+pains to make the new edition of the work as complete as possible; and a
+new binding has been specially designed by an eminent artist.</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">Crown 8vo, about 350 pp. each, Cloth Cover, 2/6 per Vol.;<br />
+Half-Polished Morocco, Gilt Top, 5s.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">Count Tolstoy&#8217;s Works.</span></p>
+<p class="center">The following Volumes are already issued&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="br"><small>A RUSSIAN PROPRIETOR.<br />
+THE COSSACKS.<br />
+IVAN ILYITCH, AND OTHER STORIES.<br />
+MY RELIGION.<br />
+LIFE.<br />
+MY CONFESSION.<br />
+CHILDHOOD, BOYHOOD, YOUTH.<br />
+THE PHYSIOLOGY OF WAR.<br />
+ANNA KAR&Eacute;NINA. 3/6.</small></td>
+<td class="dent"><small>WHAT TO DO?<br />
+WAR AND PEACE. (4 vols.)<br />
+THE LONG EXILE, ETC.<br />
+SEVASTOPOL.<br />
+THE KREUTZER SONATA, AND FAMILY<br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">HAPPINESS.</span><br />
+THE KINGDOM OF GOD IS WITHIN YOU.<br />
+WORK WHILE YE HAVE THE LIGHT.<br />
+THE GOSPEL IN BRIEF.</small></td></tr></table>
+
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+IMPRESSIONS OF RUSSIA. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Georg Brandes</span>.<br />
+<br />
+Post 4to, Cloth, Price 1s.<br />
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+To which is appended a Reply to Criticisms of the Work.<br />
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+
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+<p class="center">Bound in White Grained Boards, with Gilt Lettering.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="br"><small>WHERE LOVE IS, THERE GOD<br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">IS ALSO.</span><br />
+THE TWO PILGRIMS.<br />
+WHAT MEN LIVE BY.</small></td>
+<td class="dent"><small>THE GODSON.<br />
+IF YOU NEGLECT THE FIRE, YOU<br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">DON&#8217;T PUT IT OUT.</span><br />
+WHAT SHALL IT PROFIT A MAN?</small></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">2/- Booklets by Count Tolstoy.</span></p>
+<p class="center">NEW EDITIONS, REVISED.</p>
+<p class="center">Small 12mo, Cloth, with Embossed Design on Cover, each containing<br />
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+H. R. Millar. In Box, Price 2s. each.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volume I. contains&mdash;</span><br />
+<small>WHERE LOVE IS, THERE GOD IS ALSO.<br />
+THE GODSON.</small><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volume II. contains&mdash;</span><br />
+<small>WHAT MEN LIVE BY.<br />
+WHAT SHALL IT PROFIT A MAN?</small></td>
+<td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volume III. contains&mdash;</span><br />
+<small>THE TWO PILGRIMS.<br />
+IF YOU NEGLECT THE FIRE, YOU DON&#8217;T<br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">PUT IT OUT.</span></small><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volume IV. contains&mdash;</span><br />
+<small>MASTER AND MAN.</small><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volume V. contains&mdash;</span><br />
+<small>TOLSTOY&#8217;S PARABLES.</small></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">COUNT TOLSTOY&#8217;S LONGEST AND MOST MAGNIFICENT WORK.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Issue in TWO Double Volumes, Price 7s. per Set.</i></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">War and Peace.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By</span> COUNT TOLSTOY.</p>
+<p class="center">(<i>Contains 1600 pages. Printed in very clear type.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This is not only one of the finest, but probably one of the longest novels
+ever written, occupying, as it does in this edition, 1600 large and
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+Peace</i> is not only intense, but unbroken throughout the immense march of
+the story, so that no reader, great though the undertaking is, will fail
+to read to the end once he has started on the book. The eminent French
+critic, Vicomte E. M. de Vog&uuml;&eacute;, writing on <i>War and Peace</i>, says:</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">&#8220;As you advance in the book, curiosity changes into astonishment, and
+astonishment into admiration, before this impassive judge, who calls
+before his tribunal all human actions, and makes the soul render to
+itself an account of all its secrets. You feel yourself swept away on
+the current of a tranquil river, the depth of which you cannot fathom;
+it is life itself which is passing, agitating the hearts of men, which
+are suddenly made bare in the truth and complexity of their
+movements.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the second volume, a complete Synopsis of the story is
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+
+
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+
+<p>This important work provides an exhaustive history of the life of the
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+sixtieth year of her reign. Any account of the life of the Queen would be
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+
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+
+<p>This work deals not only with the pathology of the subject, but with the
+occurrence of the phenomena among normal persons, bringing together the
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+
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+
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+
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+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>LIFE OF LONGFELLOW. By Professor <span class="smcap">Eric S. Robertson</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF COLERIDGE. By <span class="smcap">Hall Caine</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF DICKENS. By <span class="smcap">Frank T. Marzials</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. By <span class="smcap">J. Knight</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON. By Colonel <span class="smcap">F. Grant</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF DARWIN. By <span class="smcap">G. T. Bettany</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF CHARLOTTE BRONT&Euml;. By <span class="smcap">A. Birrell</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF THOMAS CARLYLE. By <span class="smcap">R. Garnett, LL.D.</span><br />
+LIFE OF ADAM SMITH. By <span class="smcap">R. B. Haldane, M.P.</span><br />
+LIFE OF KEATS. By <span class="smcap">W. M. Rossetti</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF SHELLEY. By <span class="smcap">William Sharp.</span><br />
+LIFE OF SMOLLETT. By <span class="smcap">David Hannay</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF GOLDSMITH. By <span class="smcap">Austin Dobson</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF SCOTT. By Professor <span class="smcap">Yonge</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF BURNS. By Professor <span class="smcap">Blackie</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF VICTOR HUGO. By <span class="smcap">Frank T. Marzials</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF EMERSON. By <span class="smcap">Richard Garnett, LL.D.</span><br />
+LIFE OF GOETHE. By <span class="smcap">James Sime</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF CONGREVE. By <span class="smcap">Edmund Gosse</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF BUNYAN. By Canon <span class="smcap">Venables</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF CRABBE. By <span class="smcap">T. E. Kebbel</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF HEINE. By <span class="smcap">William Sharp</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF MILL. By <span class="smcap">W. L. Courtney.</span><br />
+LIFE OF SCHILLER. By <span class="smcap">Henry W. Nevinson</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF CAPTAIN MARRYAT. By <span class="smcap">David Hannay</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF LESSING. By <span class="smcap">T. W. Rolleston</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF MILTON. By <span class="smcap">R. Garnett, LL.D.</span><br />
+LIFE OF BALZAC. By <span class="smcap">Frederick Wedmore</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF GEORGE ELIOT. By <span class="smcap">Oscar Browning</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF JANE AUSTEN. By <span class="smcap">Goldwin Smith</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF BROWNING. By <span class="smcap">William Sharp</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF BYRON. By Hon. <span class="smcap">Roden Noel</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF HAWTHORNE. By <span class="smcap">Moncure D. Conway</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF SCHOPENHAUER. By Professor <span class="smcap">Wallace</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF SHERIDAN. By <span class="smcap">Lloyd Sanders</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF THACKERAY. By <span class="smcap">Herman Merivale</span> and <span class="smcap">Frank T. Marzials</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF CERVANTES. By <span class="smcap">H. E. Watts</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF VOLTAIRE. By <span class="smcap">Francis Espinasse</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF LEIGH HUNT. By <span class="smcap">Cosmo Monkhouse</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF WHITTIER. By <span class="smcap">W. J. Linton</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF RENAN. By <span class="smcap">Francis Espinasse</span>.<br />
+LIFE OF THOREAU. By <span class="smcap">H. S. Salt</span>.<br />
+<br />
+LIBRARY EDITION OF &#8216;GREAT WRITERS,&#8217; Demy 8vo, 2s. 6d.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">Ibsen&#8217;s Prose Dramas</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> WILLIAM ARCHER</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Complete in Five Vols. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 3s. 6d. each.</i><br />
+<i>Set of Five Vols., in Case, 17s. 6d.; in Half Morocco,<br />in Case, 32s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8216;<i>We seem at last to be shown men and women as they are; and at first it
+is more than we can endure.... All Ibsen&#8217;s characters speak and act as if
+they were hypnotised, and under their creator&#8217;s imperious demand to reveal
+themselves. There never was such a mirror held up to nature before; it is
+too terrible.... Yet we must return to Ibsen, with his remorseless
+surgery, his remorseless electric-light, until we, too, have grown strong
+and learned to face the naked&mdash;if necessary, the flayed and
+bleeding&mdash;reality.</i>&#8217;&mdash;<span class="smcap">Speaker</span> (London).</p>
+
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vol.</span> I. &#8216;A DOLL&#8217;S HOUSE,&#8217; &#8216;THE LEAGUE OF YOUTH&#8217;, and &#8216;THE PILLARS OF
+SOCIETY.&#8217; With Portrait of the Author, and Biographical Introduction by
+<span class="smcap">William Archer</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vol.</span> II. &#8216;GHOSTS,&#8217; &#8216;AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE,&#8217; and &#8216;THE WILD DUCK.&#8217; With an
+Introductory Note.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vol.</span> III. &#8216;LADY INGER OF &Ouml;STRAT,&#8217; &#8216;THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND,&#8217; &#8216;THE
+PRETENDERS.&#8217; With an Introductory Note and Portrait of Ibsen.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vol.</span> IV. &#8216;EMPEROR AND GALILEAN.&#8217; With an Introductory Note by <span class="smcap">William
+Archer</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Vol.</span> V. &#8216;ROSMERSHOLM,&#8217; &#8216;THE LADY FROM THE SEA,&#8217; &#8216;HEDDA GABLER.&#8217; Translated
+by <span class="smcap">William Archer</span>. With an Introductory Note.</p>
+
+<p>The sequence of the plays <i>in each volume</i> is chronological; the complete
+set of volumes comprising the dramas presents them in chronological
+order.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">Library of Humour</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Cloth Elegant, Large Crown 8vo, Price 3s. 6d. per Vol.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8216;<i>The books are delightful in every way, and are notable for the high
+standard of taste and the excellent judgment that characterise their
+editing, as well as for the brilliancy of the literature that they
+contain.</i>&#8217;&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boston (U.S.A.) Gazette.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF FRANCE. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by
+<span class="smcap">Elizabeth Lee</span>. With numerous Illustrations by <span class="smcap">Paul Fr&eacute;nzeny</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF GERMANY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by <span class="smcap">Hans
+M&uuml;ller-Casenov</span>. With numerous Illustrations by <span class="smcap">C. E. Brock</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF ITALY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by <span class="smcap">A.
+Werner</span>. With 50 Illustrations and a Frontispiece by <span class="smcap">Arturo Faldi</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF AMERICA. Selected with a copious Biographical Index of
+American Humorists, by <span class="smcap">James Barr</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF HOLLAND. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by <span class="smcap">A.
+Werner</span>. With numerous Illustrations by <span class="smcap">Dudley Hardy</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF IRELAND. Selected by <span class="smcap">D. J. O&#8217;Donoghue</span>. With numerous
+Illustrations by <span class="smcap">Oliver Paque</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF SPAIN. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by
+<span class="smcap">Susette M. Taylor</span>. With numerous Illustrations by <span class="smcap">H. R. Millar</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF RUSSIA. Translated, with Notes, by <span class="smcap">E. L. Boole</span>, and an
+Introduction by <span class="smcap">Stepniak</span>. With 50 Illustrations by <span class="smcap">Paul Fr&eacute;nzeny</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE HUMOUR OF JAPAN. Translated, with an Introduction by A. M. With
+Illustrations by <span class="smcap">George Bigot</span> (from drawings made in Japan). [<i>In
+preparation.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><i>COMPACT AND PRACTICAL.</i></p>
+<p class="center"><i>In Limp Cloth; for the Pocket. Price One Shilling.</i></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">THE EUROPEAN</span><br /><span class="giant">CONVERSATION BOOKS.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>FRENCH</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>ITALIAN</td></tr>
+<tr><td>SPANISH</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>GERMAN</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>NORWEGIAN</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">CONTENTS.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hints to Travellers&mdash;Everyday Expressions&mdash;Arriving at and Leaving a
+Railway Station&mdash;Custom House Enquiries&mdash;In a Train&mdash;At a Buffet and
+Restaurant&mdash;At an Hotel&mdash;Paying an Hotel Bill&mdash;Enquiries in a Town&mdash;On
+Board Ship&mdash;Embarking and Disembarking&mdash;Excursion by Carriage&mdash;Enquiries
+as to Diligences&mdash;Enquiries as to Boats&mdash;Engaging Apartments&mdash;Washing List
+and Days of Week&mdash;Restaurant Vocabulary&mdash;Telegrams and Letters, etc., etc.</i></p>
+
+<p>The contents of these little handbooks are so arranged as to permit direct
+and immediate reference. All dialogues or enquiries not considered
+absolutely essential have been purposely excluded, nothing being
+introduced which might confuse the traveller rather than assist him. A few
+hints are given in the introduction which will be found valuable to those
+unaccustomed to foreign travel.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">EVERY-DAY HELP SERIES</span><br />
+<strong>OF USEFUL HAND-BOOKS. Price 6d. each,<br />
+OR IN ROAN BINDING, PRICE 1s.</strong></p>
+
+<p>Contributors&mdash;<span class="smcap">J. Langdon Down</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.; <span class="smcap">Henry Power</span>, M.B.,
+F.R.C.S.; <span class="smcap">J. Mortimer-Granville</span>, M.D.; <span class="smcap">J. Crichton Browne</span>, M.D., LL.D.;
+<span class="smcap">Robert Farquharson</span>, M.D. Edin.; <span class="smcap">W. S. Greenfield</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.; and
+others.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><b>The Secret of a Clear Head.</b><br />
+<b>Common Mind Troubles.</b><br />
+<b>The Secret of a Good Memory.</b><br />
+<b>The Heart and its Function.</b><br />
+<b>Personal Appearances in Health and Disease.</b><br />
+<b>The House and its Surroundings.</b><br />
+<b>Alcohol: Its Use and Abuse.</b><br />
+<b>Exercise and Training.</b><br />
+<b>Baths and Bathing.</b><br />
+<b>Health in Schools.</b><br />
+<b>The Skin and its Troubles.</b><br />
+<b>How to make the Best of Life.</b><br />
+<b>Nerves and Nerve-Troubles.</b><br />
+<b>The Sight, and How to Preserve it.</b><br />
+<b>Premature Death:</b> Its Promotion and Prevention.<br />
+<b>Change, as a Mental Restorative.</b><br />
+<b>Youth: Its Care and Culture.</b><br />
+<b>The Gentle Art of Nursing the Sick.</b><br />
+<b>The Care of Infants and Young Children.</b><br />
+<b>Invalid Feeding, with Hints on Diet.</b><br />
+<b>Every-day Ailments, and How to Treat Them.</b><br />
+<b>Thrifty Housekeeping.</b><br />
+<b>Home Cooking.</b><br />
+<b>How to do Business.</b> A Guide to Success in Life.<br />
+<b>How to Behave.</b> Manual of Etiquette and Personal Habits.<br />
+<b>How to Write.</b> A Manual of Composition and Letter Writing.<br />
+<b>How to Debate.</b> With Hints on Public Speaking.<br />
+<b>Don&#8217;t:</b> Directions for avoiding Common Errors of Speech.<br />
+<b>The Parental Don&#8217;t:</b> Warnings to Parents.<br />
+<b>Why Smoke and Drink.</b> By James Parton.<br />
+<b>Elocution.</b> By T. R. W. Pearson, M.A., of St. Catharine&#8217;s College,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cambridge, and F. W. Waithman, Lecturers on Elocution.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">THE SCOTT LIBRARY.</span></p>
+<p class="center">Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top. Price 1s. 6d. per Volume.</p>
+<p class="center">VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1 ROMANCE OF KING ARTHUR.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">2 THOREAU&#8217;S WALDEN.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">3 THOREAU&#8217;S &#8220;WEEK.&#8221;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">4 THOREAU&#8217;S ESSAYS.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">5 ENGLISH OPIUM-EATER.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">6 LANDOR&#8217;S CONVERSATIONS.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">7 PLUTARCH&#8217;S LIVES.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">8 RELIGIO MEDICI, &amp;c.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">9 SHELLEY&#8217;S LETTERS.</span><br />
+10 PROSE WRITINGS OF SWIFT.<br />
+11 MY STUDY WINDOWS.<br />
+12 THE ENGLISH POETS.<br />
+13 THE BIGLOW PAPERS.<br />
+14 GREAT ENGLISH PAINTERS.<br />
+15 LORD BYRON&#8217;S LETTERS.<br />
+16 ESSAYS BY LEIGH HUNT.<br />
+17 LONGFELLOW&#8217;S PROSE.<br />
+18 GREAT MUSICAL COMPOSERS.<br />
+19 MARCUS AURELIUS.<br />
+20 TEACHING OF EPICTETUS.<br />
+21 SENECA&#8217;S MORALS.<br />
+22 SPECIMEN DAYS IN AMERICA.<br />
+23 DEMOCRATIC VISTAS.<br />
+24 WHITE&#8217;S SELBORNE.<br />
+25 DEFOE&#8217;S SINGLETON.<br />
+26 MAZZINI&#8217;S ESSAYS.<br />
+27 PROSE WRITINGS OF HEINE.<br />
+28 REYNOLDS&#8217; DISCOURSES.<br />
+29 PAPERS OF STEELE AND ADDISON.<br />
+30 BURNS&#8217;S LETTERS.<br />
+31 VOLSUNGA SAGA.<br />
+32 SARTOR RESARTUS.<br />
+33 WRITINGS OF EMERSON.<br />
+34 LIFE OF LORD HERBERT.<br />
+35 ENGLISH PROSE.<br />
+36 IBSEN&#8217;S PILLARS OF SOCIETY.<br />
+37 IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.<br />
+38 ESSAYS OF DR. JOHNSON.<br />
+39 ESSAYS OF WILLIAM HAZLITT.<br />
+40 LANDOR&#8217;S PENTAMERON, &amp;c.<br />
+41 POE&#8217;S TALES AND ESSAYS.<br />
+42 VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.<br />
+43 POLITICAL ORATIONS.<br />
+44 AUTOCRAT OF THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.<br />
+45 POET AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.<br />
+46 PROFESSOR AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.<br />
+47 CHESTERFIELD&#8217;S LETTERS.<br />
+48 STORIES FROM CARLETON.<br />
+49 JANE EYRE.<br />
+50 ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND.<br />
+51 WRITINGS OF THOMAS DAVIS.<br />
+52 SPENCE&#8217;S ANECDOTES.<br />
+53 MORE&#8217;S UTOPIA.<br />
+54 SADI&#8217;S GULISTAN.<br />
+55 ENGLISH FAIRY TALES.<br />
+56 NORTHERN STUDIES.<br />
+57 FAMOUS REVIEWS.<br />
+58 ARISTOTLE&#8217;S ETHICS.<br />
+59 PERICLES AND ASPASIA.<br />
+60 ANNALS OF TACITUS.<br />
+61 ESSAYS OF ELIA.<br />
+62 BALZAC.<br />
+63 DE MUSSET&#8217;S COMEDIES.<br />
+64 CORAL REEFS.<br />
+65 SHERIDAN&#8217;S PLAYS.<br />
+66 OUR VILLAGE.<br />
+67 MASTER HUMPHREY&#8217;S CLOCK.<br />
+68 TALES FROM WONDERLAND.<br />
+69 JERROLD&#8217;S ESSAYS.<br />
+70 THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN.<br />
+71 &#8220;THE ATHENIAN ORACLE.&#8221;<br />
+72 ESSAYS OF SAINTE-BEUVE.<br />
+73 SELECTIONS FROM PLATO.<br />
+74 HEINE&#8217;S TRAVEL SKETCHES.<br />
+75 MAID OF ORLEANS.<br />
+76 SYDNEY SMITH.<br />
+77 THE NEW SPIRIT.<br />
+78 MALORY&#8217;S BOOK OF MARVELLOUS ADVENTURES.<br />
+79 HELPS&#8217; ESSAYS &amp; APHORISMS.<br />
+80 ESSAYS OF MONTAIGNE.<br />
+81 <span class="smcap">Thackeray&#8217;s</span> BARRY LYNDON.<br />
+82 SCHILLER&#8217;S WILLIAM TELL.<br />
+83 CARLYLE&#8217;S GERMAN ESSAYS.<br />
+84 LAMB&#8217;S ESSAYS.<br />
+85 WORDSWORTH&#8217;S PROSE.<br />
+86 LEOPARDI&#8217;S DIALOGUES.<br />
+87 THE INSPECTOR-GENERAL.<br />
+88 BACON&#8217;S ESSAYS.<br />
+89 PROSE OF MILTON.<br />
+90 PLATO&#8217;S REPUBLIC.<br />
+91 PASSAGES FROM FROISSART.<br />
+92 PROSE OF COLERIDGE.<br />
+93 HEINE IN ART AND LETTERS.<br />
+94 ESSAYS OF DE QUINCEY.<br />
+95 VASARI&#8217;S LIVES OF ITALIAN PAINTERS.<br />
+96 LESSING&#8217;S LAOCOON.<br />
+97 PLAYS OF MAETERLINCK.<br />
+98 WALTON&#8217;S COMPLETE ANGLER.<br />
+99 LESSING&#8217;S NATHAN THE WISE.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">100 STUDIES BY RENAN.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">101 MAXIMS OF GOETHE.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">102 SCHOPENHAUER.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">103 RENAN&#8217;S LIFE OF JESUS.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">104 CONFESSIONS of St. AUGUSTINE.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: -.5em;">105 PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESS IN LITERATURE.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">May be had in the following Bindings:&mdash;Cloth, uncut edges, gilt top, 1s.
+6d.;<br />Half-Morocco, gilt top, antique; Red Roan, gilt edges, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">THE TWO CYCLING BOOKS OF THE SEASON.</p>
+<p class="center">Foolscap 8vo, Cloth Gilt, Elegant, Price 2s. 6d. Paper Cover, 1s.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">Lady Cycling.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Miss</span> F. J. ERSKINE.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Her (Miss Erskine&#8217;s) remarks and suggestions are lucid, direct,
+thoroughly sensible, and invariably worthy of serious
+consideration.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Daily Mail.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />Foolscap 8vo, Cloth Gilt, Elegant, Price 2s. 6d. Paper Cover, 1s.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">All-Round Cycling.</span></p>
+<p class="center">By Sir B. W. Richardson, G. Lacy Hillier, Evelyn Everett<br />
+Green, J. Rivers Vine, John Watson, F.L.S., and P. A. Thomas, B.A.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A little book that cyclists will know how to value, of whatever
+description they may be.&#8221;&mdash;<i>National Observer.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;A useful and entertaining volume.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Daily Mail.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The chapter on &#8216;Cycle and Camera&#8217; is particularly fascinating, and that
+on &#8216;Health&#8217; especially valuable.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Liverpool Mercury.</i></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Bound to interest all cyclists.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Black and White.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br />UNIFORM WITH PREVIOUS YEARS&#8217; ISSUES.</p>
+<p class="center">Crown 8vo, Half Antique, Paper Boards, Price 3s. 6d.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">The Theatrical &#8216;World&#8217; of 1897.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By</span> WILLIAM ARCHER.</p>
+
+<p>With an Introduction by <span class="smcap">Sydney Grundy</span>, an Epilogue by <span class="smcap">William Archer</span>, and
+a Synopsis of Playbills of the Year by <span class="smcap">Henry George Hibbert</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>May still be had uniform with the above</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>THE THEATRICAL &#8216;WORLD&#8217; OF 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1896.</p>
+
+<p><i>Each of the above vols. contains Complete Indices of the Plays, Authors,
+Actors, Actresses, Managers, Critics, etc., referred to.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="u">The above volumes are also supplied in a uniform Cloth Binding, Price 3s.
+6d. per vol.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">THE CANTERBURY POETS.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Edited by William Sharp.</span> Cloth, Cut and Uncut Edges, 1s.; Red Roan,<br />
+Gilt Edges, 2s. 6d.; Pad. Morocco, Gilt Edges, 5s.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>A Superior Edition Bound in Art Linen, with Photogravure Frontispiece, 2s.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1 CHRISTIAN YEAR</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">2 COLERIDGE</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">3 LONGFELLOW</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">4 CAMPBELL</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">5 SHELLEY</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">6 WORDSWORTH</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">7 BLAKE</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">8 WHITTIER</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: .5em;">9 POE</span><br />
+10 CHATTERTON<br />
+11 BURNS. Songs<br />
+12 BURNS. Poems<br />
+13 MARLOWE<br />
+14 KEATS<br />
+15 HERBERT<br />
+16 HUGO<br />
+17 COWPER<br />
+18 SHAKESPEARE&#8217;S POEMS, etc.<br />
+19 EMERSON<br />
+20 <span class="smcap">SONNETS of this CENTURY</span><br />
+21 WHITMAN<br />
+22 SCOTT. Lady of the Lake, etc.<br />
+23 SCOTT. Marmion, etc.<br />
+24 PRAED<br />
+25 HOGG<br />
+26 GOLDSMITH<br />
+27 LOVE LETTERS, etc.<br />
+28 SPENSER<br />
+29 CHILDREN OF THE POETS<br />
+30 JONSON<br />
+31 BYRON. Miscellaneous.<br />
+32 BYRON. Don Juan.<br />
+33 THE SONNETS OF EUROPE<br />
+34 RAMSAY<br />
+35 DOBELL<br />
+36 POPE<br />
+37 HEINE<br />
+38 BEAUMONT &amp; FLETCHER<br />
+39 BOWLES, LAMB, etc.<br />
+40 SEA MUSIC<br />
+41 EARLY ENGLISH POETRY<br />
+42 HERRICK<br />
+43 <span class="smcap">BALLADES and RONDEAUS</span><br />
+44 IRISH MINSTRELSY<br />
+45 MILTON&#8217;S PARADISE LOST<br />
+46 JACOBITE BALLADS<br />
+47 DAYS OF THE YEAR<br />
+48 AUSTRALIAN BALLADS<br />
+49 MOORE<br />
+50 BORDER BALLADS<br />
+51 SONG-TIDE<br />
+52 ODES OF HORACE<br />
+53 OSSIAN<br />
+54 FAIRY MUSIC<br />
+55 SOUTHEY<br />
+56 CHAUCER<br />
+57 GOLDEN TREASURY<br />
+58 POEMS OF WILD LIFE<br />
+59 PARADISE REGAINED<br />
+60 CRABBE<br />
+61 DORA GREENWELL<br />
+62 FAUST<br />
+63 AMERICAN SONNETS<br />
+64 LANDOR&#8217;S POEMS<br />
+65 GREEK ANTHOLOGY<br />
+66 HUNT AND HOOD<br />
+67 HUMOROUS POEMS<br />
+68 LYTTON&#8217;S PLAYS<br />
+69 GREAT ODES<br />
+70 MEREDITH&#8217;S POEMS<br />
+71 IMITATION OF CHRIST<br />
+72 UNCLE TOBY BIRTHDAY BK<br />
+73 PAINTER-POETS<br />
+74 WOMEN POETS<br />
+75 LOVE LYRICS<br />
+76 AMERICAN HUMOROUS VERSE<br />
+77 MINOR SCOTCH LYRICS<br />
+78 CAVALIER LYRISTS<br />
+79 GERMAN BALLADS<br />
+80 SONGS OF BERANGER<br />
+81 RODEN NOEL&#8217;S POEMS<br />
+82 SONGS OF FREEDOM<br />
+83 CANADIAN POEMS<br />
+84 CONTEMPORARY SCOTTISH VERSE<br />
+85 POEMS OF NATURE<br />
+86 CRADLE SONGS<br />
+87 BALLADS OF SPORT<br />
+88 MATTHEW ARNOLD<br />
+89 CLOUGH&#8217;S BOTHIE<br />
+90 BROWNING&#8217;S POEMS Pippa Passes, etc. Vol. 1<br />
+91 BROWNING&#8217;S POEMS A Blot in the &#8217;Scutcheon, etc. Vol. 2<br />
+92 BROWNING&#8217;S POEMS Dramatic Lyrics. Vol. 3<br />
+93 MACKAY&#8217;S LOVER&#8217;S MISSAL<br />
+94 HENRY KIRKE WHITE<br />
+95 LYRA NICOTIANA</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">The Canterbury Poets.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>IMPORTANT ADDITIONS.</i></p>
+<p class="center">WORKS BY ROBERT BROWNING.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br />VOL. I.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Pippa Passes, and other Poetic Dramas, by Robert Browning. With an
+Introductory Note by Frank Rinder.</p>
+
+<p class="center">VOL. II.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">A Blot in the &#8217;Scutcheon, and other Poetic Dramas, by Robert Browning.
+With an Introductory Note by Frank Rinder.</p>
+
+<p class="center">VOL. III.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Dramatic Romances and Lyrics; and Sordello, by Robert Browning. To
+which is prefixed an Appreciation of Browning by Miss <span class="smcap">E. Dixon</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br />BINDINGS.</p>
+
+<p>The above volumes are supplied in the following Bindings:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>IN GREEN ROAN, Boxed, with Frontispiece in Photogravure, 2s. 6d. net.</p>
+
+<p>IN ART LINEN, with Frontispiece in Photogravure, 2s.</p>
+
+<p>IN WHITE LINEN, with Frontispiece in Photogravure, 2s.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">IN BROCADE, 2 Vols., in Shell Case to match (each vol. with Frontispiece),
+price 4s. per Set, or 3 vols. 6s. per Set.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">And in the ordinary SHILLING BINDINGS, Green Cloth, Cut Edges, and Blue
+Cloth, Uncut Edges (without Photogravure).</p>
+
+<p>The Three Volumes form an admirable and representative &#8220;Set,&#8221; including a
+great part of Browning&#8217;s best-known and most admired work, and (being each
+of about 400 pages) are among the largest yet issued in the <span class="smcap">Canterbury
+Poets</span>. The Frontispiece of Vol. I. consists of a reproduction of one of
+Browning&#8217;s last portraits; Mr. <span class="smcap">Rudolf Lehmann</span> has kindly given permission
+for his portrait of Browning to be reproduced as a Frontispiece of Vol.
+II.; while a reproduction of a drawing of a View of Asolo forms the
+Frontispiece of the third Volume.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">The World&#8217;s Great Novels.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Large Crown 8vo, Illustrated, 3s. 6d. each.</i></p>
+<p class="center">Uniform with the New Edition of &#8220;Anna Kar&eacute;nina.&#8221;</p>
+<p class="center">A series of acknowledged masterpieces by the most eminent writers of fiction.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE COUNT OF MONTE-CRISTO. By <span class="smcap">Alexandre Dumas</span>. With Sixteen Full-page
+Illustrations drawn by <span class="smcap">Frank T. Merrill</span>, and over 1100 pages of
+letterpress, set in large clear type.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">THE THREE MUSKETEERS. By <span class="smcap">Alexandre Dumas</span>. With Twelve Full-page
+Illustrations by <span class="smcap">T. Eyre Macklin</span>, a Photogravure Frontispiece Portrait of
+the Author, and over 600 pages of letterpress, printed from large clear type.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">TWENTY YEARS AFTER. By <span class="smcap">Alexandre Dumas</span>. With Sixteen Full-page
+Illustrations by <span class="smcap">Frank T. Merrill</span>, and 800 pages of letterpress, set from new type.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">LES MIS&Eacute;RABLES. By <span class="smcap">Victor Hugo</span>. With Eleven Full-page Illustrations, and
+1384 pages of letterpress.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">NOTRE DAME. By <span class="smcap">Victor Hugo</span>. With numerous Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">JANE EYRE. By <span class="smcap">Charlotte Bront&euml;</span>. With Sixteen Full-page Illustrations, and
+Thirty-two Illustrations in the Text, by <span class="smcap">Edmund H. Garrett</span>, and
+Photogravure Portrait of Charlotte Bront&euml;. Printed in large clear type; 660 pages of letterpress.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Tolstoy&#8217;s Great Masterpiece. New Edition of Anna Kar&eacute;nina.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">ANNA KAR&Eacute;NINA: <span class="smcap">A Novel.</span> By <span class="smcap">Count Tolstoy</span>. With Ten Illustrations drawn by
+<span class="smcap">Paul Fr&eacute;nzeny</span>, and a Frontispiece Portrait of Count Tolstoy in Photogravure.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Other novels one can afford to leave unread, but <i>Anna Kar&eacute;nina</i> never;
+it stands eternally one of the peaks of all fiction.&#8221;&mdash;<i>Review of
+Reviews.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London: WALTER SCOTT, Ltd., Paternoster Square.</span></p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_1_1" id="fn_1_1"></a><a href="#fna_1_1">[1]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_2_2" id="fn_2_2"></a><a href="#fna_2_2">[2]</a> <i>Folklore of Shakespeare.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_3_3" id="fn_3_3"></a><a href="#fna_3_3">[3]</a> <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, sixth edition, 1652, part i., sec.
+ii., mem. i., sub. sec. vi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_4_4" id="fn_4_4"></a><a href="#fna_4_4">[4]</a> <i>From the Greeks to Darwin</i>, p. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_5_5" id="fn_5_5"></a><a href="#fna_5_5">[5]</a> <i>Works</i>, Sydenham Society Edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_6_6" id="fn_6_6"></a><a href="#fna_6_6">[6]</a> <i>Histoire Naturelle</i>, edition 1761.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_7_7" id="fn_7_7"></a><a href="#fna_7_7">[7]</a> <i>Zoonomia</i>, &#8220;Generation,&#8221; vol. i.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_8_8" id="fn_8_8"></a><a href="#fna_8_8">[8]</a> <i>Diseases of the Mind</i>, p. 46.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_9_9" id="fn_9_9"></a><a href="#fna_9_9">[9]</a> <i>Trait&eacute; des D&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;rescences Physiques, Intellectuelles et
+Morales de l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce Humaine</i>, 1857, p. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_10_10" id="fn_10_10"></a><a href="#fna_10_10">[10]</a> <i>Trait&eacute; de Pathologie Compar&eacute;e.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_11_11" id="fn_11_11"></a><a href="#fna_11_11">[11]</a> <i>La Psychologie Morbide dans ses Rapports avec la
+Philosophie de l&#8217;Histoire.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_12_12" id="fn_12_12"></a><a href="#fna_12_12">[12]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, January 1892.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_13_13" id="fn_13_13"></a><a href="#fna_13_13">[13]</a> <i>Trait&eacute; Physiologique et Philosophique de l&#8217;H&eacute;r&eacute;dit&eacute;
+Naturelle</i>, 1847.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_14_14" id="fn_14_14"></a><a href="#fna_14_14">[14]</a> <i>Les For&ccedil;ats.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_15_15" id="fn_15_15"></a><a href="#fna_15_15">[15]</a> <i>The Mysteries of Paris.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_16_16" id="fn_16_16"></a><a href="#fna_16_16">[16]</a> <i>Les Vrais Myst&egrave;res de Paris.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_17_17" id="fn_17_17"></a><a href="#fna_17_17">[17]</a> <i>Annales Judiciares</i>, 1840.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_18_18" id="fn_18_18"></a><a href="#fna_18_18">[18]</a> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, April, 1846.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_19_19" id="fn_19_19"></a><a href="#fna_19_19">[19]</a> <i>Criminal Jurisprudence and Cerebral Development</i>, 1841.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_20_20" id="fn_20_20"></a><a href="#fna_20_20">[20]</a> <i>De la Formation de Type dans les Vari&eacute;t&eacute;s D&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;r&eacute;s</i>,
+1864.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_21_21" id="fn_21_21"></a><a href="#fna_21_21">[21]</a> <i>Chapters on Evolution</i>, p. 349.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_22_22" id="fn_22_22"></a><a href="#fna_22_22">[22]</a> Wiley, <i>Origin of the Vertebrates</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_23_23" id="fn_23_23"></a><a href="#fna_23_23">[23]</a> <i>Degeneration.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_24_24" id="fn_24_24"></a><a href="#fna_24_24">[24]</a> <i>Die Ursprung der Wirbelthier</i>, 1875.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_25_25" id="fn_25_25"></a><a href="#fna_25_25">[25]</a> <i>Psychiatrie</i>, 1859.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_26_26" id="fn_26_26"></a><a href="#fna_26_26">[26]</a> <i>Psychologie Morbide</i>, 1889.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_27_27" id="fn_27_27"></a><a href="#fna_27_27">[27]</a> <i>Archiv f. Psychiatrie</i>, 1868.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_28_28" id="fn_28_28"></a><a href="#fna_28_28">[28]</a> Cited by Griesinger, edition 1845, p. 252.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_29_29" id="fn_29_29"></a><a href="#fna_29_29">[29]</a> <i>Recherches sur les Idiots</i>, 1860.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_30_30" id="fn_30_30"></a><a href="#fna_30_30">[30]</a> Cited by Havelock Ellis, <i>The Criminal</i>, p. 29.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_31_31" id="fn_31_31"></a><a href="#fna_31_31">[31]</a> <i>Gulstonian Lectures</i>, 1870.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_32_32" id="fn_32_32"></a><a href="#fna_32_32">[32]</a> See, for instance, Art. &#8220;Microcephaly,&#8221; <i>Dict. of Psych.
+Medicine</i>, and, especially, Mingazzini&#8217;s study of the morphology of
+cerebral hemispheres, <i>Il Cervello</i>, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_33_33" id="fn_33_33"></a><a href="#fna_33_33">[33]</a> <i>Psychologie Naturelle.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_34_34" id="fn_34_34"></a><a href="#fna_34_34">[34]</a> <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, 1870.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_35_35" id="fn_35_35"></a><a href="#fna_35_35">[35]</a> <i>American Prison Association Report</i>, 1866.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_36_36" id="fn_36_36"></a><a href="#fna_36_36">[36]</a> <i>Deterioration and Race Education</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_37_37" id="fn_37_37"></a><a href="#fna_37_37">[37]</a> <i>Report of the New York Board of Charities</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_38_38" id="fn_38_38"></a><a href="#fna_38_38">[38]</a> <i>W. S. Tuke Prize Essay on the Somatic &AElig;tiology of
+Insanity</i>, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_39_39" id="fn_39_39"></a><a href="#fna_39_39">[39]</a> <i>Allgemeine Zeitschrift f. Psychiatrie</i>, 1869-78.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_40_40" id="fn_40_40"></a><a href="#fna_40_40">[40]</a> <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, 1873.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_41_41" id="fn_41_41"></a><a href="#fna_41_41">[41]</a> <i>L&#8217;Uomo Delinquente</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_42_42" id="fn_42_42"></a><a href="#fna_42_42">[42]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, January, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_43_43" id="fn_43_43"></a><a href="#fna_43_43">[43]</a> <i>Studien au Verbrecker-Gehirnen.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_44_44" id="fn_44_44"></a><a href="#fna_44_44">[44]</a> <i>Chicago Medical Review</i>, July 1, 1881, p. 310.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_45_45" id="fn_45_45"></a><a href="#fna_45_45">[45]</a> <i>Two Hard Cases</i>, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_46_46" id="fn_46_46"></a><a href="#fna_46_46">[46]</a> <i>Trial of Charles J. Guiteau</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_47_47" id="fn_47_47"></a><a href="#fna_47_47">[47]</a> Every Asylum Report of the Gray School gave statistics of
+hereditary transmission.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_48_48" id="fn_48_48"></a><a href="#fna_48_48">[48]</a> <i>Medical Jurisprudence.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_49_49" id="fn_49_49"></a><a href="#fna_49_49">[49]</a> <i>Mental Disease.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_50_50" id="fn_50_50"></a><a href="#fna_50_50">[50]</a> <i>American Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_51_51" id="fn_51_51"></a><a href="#fna_51_51">[51]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_52_52" id="fn_52_52"></a><a href="#fna_52_52">[52]</a> <i>Canada Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, Feb., 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_53_53" id="fn_53_53"></a><a href="#fna_53_53">[53]</a> <i>Medical Times</i>, May 20, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_54_54" id="fn_54_54"></a><a href="#fna_54_54">[54]</a> <i>Transactions of Pennsylvania Medical Society</i>, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_55_55" id="fn_55_55"></a><a href="#fna_55_55">[55]</a> <i>Selection dans les Aristocracies.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_56_56" id="fn_56_56"></a><a href="#fna_56_56">[56]</a> <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_57_57" id="fn_57_57"></a><a href="#fna_57_57">[57]</a> <i>Canada Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, Feb., 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_58_58" id="fn_58_58"></a><a href="#fna_58_58">[58]</a> <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, April, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_59_59" id="fn_59_59"></a><a href="#fna_59_59">[59]</a> <i>Evolution and Disease.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_60_60" id="fn_60_60"></a><a href="#fna_60_60">[60]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_61_61" id="fn_61_61"></a><a href="#fna_61_61">[61]</a> <i>Brain</i>, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_62_62" id="fn_62_62"></a><a href="#fna_62_62">[62]</a> Ray Lankester, <i>Degeneration</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_63_63" id="fn_63_63"></a><a href="#fna_63_63">[63]</a> <i>Man and Woman</i>, pp. 23, 390.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_64_64" id="fn_64_64"></a><a href="#fna_64_64">[64]</a> <i>Human Embryology</i>, p. 567.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_65_65" id="fn_65_65"></a><a href="#fna_65_65">[65]</a> E. S. Talbot, <i>Etiology of the Osseous Deformities of the
+Head, Face, Jaws, and Teeth</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_66_66" id="fn_66_66"></a><a href="#fna_66_66">[66]</a> <i>Evolution of Sex</i>, p. 129.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_67_67" id="fn_67_67"></a><a href="#fna_67_67">[67]</a> <i>St. Louis Clinical Record</i>, 1878-81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_68_68" id="fn_68_68"></a><a href="#fna_68_68">[68]</a> <i>Germ Plasm</i>, pp. 431, 565.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_69_69" id="fn_69_69"></a><a href="#fna_69_69">[69]</a> <i>American Medico-Surgical Bulletin</i>, August 15, 1893.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_70_70" id="fn_70_70"></a><a href="#fna_70_70">[70]</a> <i>Circumcision</i>, p. 204.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_71_71" id="fn_71_71"></a><a href="#fna_71_71">[71]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, July, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_72_72" id="fn_72_72"></a><a href="#fna_72_72">[72]</a> <i>Medical Record</i>, vol. xlii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_73_73" id="fn_73_73"></a><a href="#fna_73_73">[73]</a> <i>Organic Evolution</i>, p. 178.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_74_74" id="fn_74_74"></a><a href="#fna_74_74">[74]</a> <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1882, xciv., p. 697.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_75_75" id="fn_75_75"></a><a href="#fna_75_75">[75]</a> <i>Transactions of the American Neurological Association</i>,
+1877.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_76_76" id="fn_76_76"></a><a href="#fna_76_76">[76]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, 1877, p. 544.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_77_77" id="fn_77_77"></a><a href="#fna_77_77">[77]</a> <i>Factors of Organic Evolution.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_78_78" id="fn_78_78"></a><a href="#fna_78_78">[78]</a> <i>Hereditary Traits.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_79_79" id="fn_79_79"></a><a href="#fna_79_79">[79]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, 1877, page 548.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_80_80" id="fn_80_80"></a><a href="#fna_80_80">[80]</a> <i>Sensation et Mouvement</i>, chap. xiv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_81_81" id="fn_81_81"></a><a href="#fna_81_81">[81]</a> Harriet C. B. Alexander, <i>Transactions Chicago Academy of
+Medicine</i>, January, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_82_82" id="fn_82_82"></a><a href="#fna_82_82">[82]</a> <i>Medical Classics</i>, July and August, 1888.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_83_83" id="fn_83_83"></a><a href="#fna_83_83">[83]</a> <i>Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner</i>, 1883-4, p. 426.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_84_84" id="fn_84_84"></a><a href="#fna_84_84">[84]</a> <i>Somatic &AElig;tiology of Insanity</i>, p. 41.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_85_85" id="fn_85_85"></a><a href="#fna_85_85">[85]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, September, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_86_86" id="fn_86_86"></a><a href="#fna_86_86">[86]</a> <i>Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease</i>, March, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_87_87" id="fn_87_87"></a><a href="#fna_87_87">[87]</a> <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, October, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_88_88" id="fn_88_88"></a><a href="#fna_88_88">[88]</a> <i>American Medico-Surgical Bulletin</i>, July 15, 1896.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_89_89" id="fn_89_89"></a><a href="#fna_89_89">[89]</a> <i>American Journal of the Medical Sciences</i>, October, 1856.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_90_90" id="fn_90_90"></a><a href="#fna_90_90">[90]</a> <i>La Famille N&eacute;vropathique</i>, 2nd ed., 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_91_91" id="fn_91_91"></a><a href="#fna_91_91">[91]</a> <i>Transactions American Neurological Association</i>, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_92_92" id="fn_92_92"></a><a href="#fna_92_92">[92]</a> <i>Transactions de l&#8217;Institut Pasteur</i>, 1896.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_93_93" id="fn_93_93"></a><a href="#fna_93_93">[93]</a> <i>La Psychologie Morbide.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_94_94" id="fn_94_94"></a><a href="#fna_94_94">[94]</a> <i>On the Mind</i>, 1805.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_95_95" id="fn_95_95"></a><a href="#fna_95_95">[95]</a> <i>Pathology of the Mind.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_96_96" id="fn_96_96"></a><a href="#fna_96_96">[96]</a> <i>Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_97_97" id="fn_97_97"></a><a href="#fna_97_97">[97]</a> <i>La Famille N&eacute;vropathique.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_98_98" id="fn_98_98"></a><a href="#fna_98_98">[98]</a> <i>D&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;rescence de l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce Humaine.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_99_99" id="fn_99_99"></a><a href="#fna_99_99">[99]</a> <i>St. Louis Clinical Record</i>, 1878-81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_100_100" id="fn_100_100"></a><a href="#fna_100_100">[100]</a> <i>Neurological Review</i>, vol. i., 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_101_101" id="fn_101_101"></a><a href="#fna_101_101">[101]</a> <i>La Famille N&eacute;vropathique.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_102_102" id="fn_102_102"></a><a href="#fna_102_102">[102]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, June, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_103_103" id="fn_103_103"></a><a href="#fna_103_103">[103]</a> <i>Bulletin Medical</i>, 1887.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_104_104" id="fn_104_104"></a><a href="#fna_104_104">[104]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, September, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_105_105" id="fn_105_105"></a><a href="#fna_105_105">[105]</a> <i>Annales Medico-Psychologique</i>, March and April, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_106_106" id="fn_106_106"></a><a href="#fna_106_106">[106]</a> <i>Marriage and Disease</i>, pp. 186-7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_107_107" id="fn_107_107"></a><a href="#fna_107_107">[107]</a> <i>Annalles Medico-Psychologiques</i>, S. 7, t. xvi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_108_108" id="fn_108_108"></a><a href="#fna_108_108">[108]</a> <i>Maladies Mentales</i>, p. 215.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_109_109" id="fn_109_109"></a><a href="#fna_109_109">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;The darkness of her Oriental eye<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Accorded with her Moorish origin</span><br />
+(Her blood was not all Spanish, by the by;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In Spain, you know, this is a sort of sin).</span><br />
+When proud Grenada fell, and, forced to fly,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boabdil wept; of Donna Julia&#8217;s kin</span><br />
+Some went to Africa, some stayed in Spain,<br />
+Her great-great-grandmamma chose to remain.<br />
+<br />
+&#8220;She married (I forget the pedigree)<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With an Hidalgo who transmitted down</span><br />
+His blood less noble than such blood should be;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">At such alliances his sires would frown,</span><br />
+In that point so precise in each degree<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That they bred in and in, as might be shown,</span><br />
+Marrying their cousins&mdash;nay, their aunts and nieces,<br />
+Which always spoils the breed, if it increases.<br />
+<br />
+&#8220;This heathenish cross restored the breed again,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruined its blood, but much improved its flesh;</span><br />
+For, from a root, the ugliest in Old Spain,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sprung up a branch as beautiful as fresh,</span><br />
+The sons no more were short, the daughters plain.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_110_110" id="fn_110_110"></a><a href="#fna_110_110">[110]</a> The origins of the prohibition of incest have lately been
+fully discussed by Durkheim, <i>L&#8217;Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_111_111" id="fn_111_111"></a><a href="#fna_111_111">[111]</a> <i>Psychological Dictionary</i>, &#8220;Consanguinity.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_112_112" id="fn_112_112"></a><a href="#fna_112_112">[112]</a> <i>Bulletin de L&#8217;Acad&eacute;mie de M&eacute;decine</i>, t. xxi. p. 746.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_113_113" id="fn_113_113"></a><a href="#fna_113_113">[113]</a> <i>American Medical Bi-Weekly</i>, vol. xii., No. 13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_114_114" id="fn_114_114"></a><a href="#fna_114_114">[114]</a> <i>Mental Hygiene</i>, p. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_115_115" id="fn_115_115"></a><a href="#fna_115_115">[115]</a> <i>Intermarriage of Relations</i>, p. 40.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_116_116" id="fn_116_116"></a><a href="#fna_116_116">[116]</a> <i>Edinburgh Medical Journal</i>, October, 1865.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_117_117" id="fn_117_117"></a><a href="#fna_117_117">[117]</a> <i>Marriage of Near Kin</i>, p. 218.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_118_118" id="fn_118_118"></a><a href="#fna_118_118">[118]</a> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, 1869-70.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_119_119" id="fn_119_119"></a><a href="#fna_119_119">[119]</a> <i>Marriage and Disease</i>, p. 266.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_120_120" id="fn_120_120"></a><a href="#fna_120_120">[120]</a> Cited by Ribot, <i>Heredity</i>, p. 292.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_121_121" id="fn_121_121"></a><a href="#fna_121_121">[121]</a> Cited by Huth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_122_122" id="fn_122_122"></a><a href="#fna_122_122">[122]</a> <i>Allgemeine Zeitschrifft f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, B. xxvii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_123_123" id="fn_123_123"></a><a href="#fna_123_123">[123]</a> <i>L&#8217;Encephale</i>, October, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_124_124" id="fn_124_124"></a><a href="#fna_124_124">[124]</a> <i>Detroit Lancet</i>, September, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_125_125" id="fn_125_125"></a><a href="#fna_125_125">[125]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, 1883.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_126_126" id="fn_126_126"></a><a href="#fna_126_126">[126]</a> <i>Australian Medical Gazette</i>, 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_127_127" id="fn_127_127"></a><a href="#fna_127_127">[127]</a> <i>Il Manicomio</i>, May, 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_128_128" id="fn_128_128"></a><a href="#fna_128_128">[128]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, January, 1887.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_129_129" id="fn_129_129"></a><a href="#fna_129_129">[129]</a> <i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, 1898, pp. 242-60.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_130_130" id="fn_130_130"></a><a href="#fna_130_130">[130]</a> <i>Archives d&#8217;Ophthalmologie</i>, 1887.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_131_131" id="fn_131_131"></a><a href="#fna_131_131">[131]</a> <i>Transactions International Medical Congress</i>, 1887, p.
+264, vol. v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_132_132" id="fn_132_132"></a><a href="#fna_132_132">[132]</a> <i>Lancet</i>, January to March, 1883.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_133_133" id="fn_133_133"></a><a href="#fna_133_133">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p class="poem">&#8220;For Englishmen to boast of generation<br />
+Cancels their knowledge, and lampoons the nation.<br />
+A true-born Englishman&#8217;s a contradiction,<br />
+In speech an irony, in fact a fiction.<br />
+<br />
+And here begins the ancient pedigree<br />
+That so exalts our poor nobility.<br />
+&#8217;Tis that from some French trooper they derive,<br />
+Who with the Norman bastard did arrive.<br />
+The trophies of the families appear.<br />
+Some show the sword, the bow, and some the spear,<br />
+Which their great ancestor, forsooth, did wear.<br />
+These in the herald&#8217;s register remain<br />
+Their noble mean extraction to explain;<br />
+Yet who the hero was no man can tell,<br />
+Whether a drummer or a colonel;<br />
+The silent record blushes to reveal<br />
+Their undescended, dark original.<br />
+<br />
+These are the heroes that despise the Dutch<br />
+And rail at new-come foreigners so much,<br />
+Forgetting that themselves are all derived<br />
+From the most scoundrel race that ever lived;<br />
+A horrid crowd of rambling thieves and drones,<br />
+Who ransacked kingdoms and dispeopled towns;<br />
+The Pict and painted Briton, treacherous Scot,<br />
+By hunger, theft, and rapine hither brought,<br />
+Norwegian pirates, buccaneering Danes,<br />
+Whose red-haired offspring everywhere remains,<br />
+Who, joined with Norman-French, compound the breed<br />
+From whence your true-born Englishmen proceed.<br />
+<br />
+And, lest by length of time, it be pretended<br />
+The climate may this modern breed have mended,<br />
+Wise Providence, to keep us where we are,<br />
+Mixes us daily with exceeding care.<br />
+We have been Europe&#8217;s sink, the jakes where she<br />
+Voids all her offal outcast progeny.<br />
+For ages, fugitives from neighbouring lands<br />
+Have here a certain sanctuary found;<br />
+The eternal refuge of the vagabond,<br />
+Wherein but half a common age of time,<br />
+Borrowing new blood and manners from the clime,<br />
+Proudly they learn all mankind to contemn,<br />
+And all their race are true-born Englishmen.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_134_134" id="fn_134_134"></a><a href="#fna_134_134">[134]</a> <i>Ethnology</i>, p. 201.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_135_135" id="fn_135_135"></a><a href="#fna_135_135">[135]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, 1892, 1895, 1896.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_136_136" id="fn_136_136"></a><a href="#fna_136_136">[136]</a> <i>Origin of the Aryans.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_137_137" id="fn_137_137"></a><a href="#fna_137_137">[137]</a> <i>Ethnology in Folklore.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_138_138" id="fn_138_138"></a><a href="#fna_138_138">[138]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_139_139" id="fn_139_139"></a><a href="#fna_139_139">[139]</a> <i>Origin of the Aryans.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_140_140" id="fn_140_140"></a><a href="#fna_140_140">[140]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, January, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_141_141" id="fn_141_141"></a><a href="#fna_141_141">[141]</a> Cited by S. Laing, <i>Human Origins</i>, pp. 38-41.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_142_142" id="fn_142_142"></a><a href="#fna_142_142">[142]</a> <i>Anthropology.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_143_143" id="fn_143_143"></a><a href="#fna_143_143">[143]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, October, 1896.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_144_144" id="fn_144_144"></a><a href="#fna_144_144">[144]</a> <i>Origin of the Aryans.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_145_145" id="fn_145_145"></a><a href="#fna_145_145">[145]</a> Talbot, <i>Osseous Deformities</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_146_146" id="fn_146_146"></a><a href="#fna_146_146">[146]</a> <i>Osseous Deformities of the Jaw</i>, p. 30.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_147_147" id="fn_147_147"></a><a href="#fna_147_147">[147]</a> <i>Hybridity and Heredity</i>, p. 307.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_148_148" id="fn_148_148"></a><a href="#fna_148_148">[148]</a> Cited by Keane, <i>Ethnology</i>, p. 265. See also Johnston,
+<i>British Central Africa</i>, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_149_149" id="fn_149_149"></a><a href="#fna_149_149">[149]</a> <i>Journal Am. Medical Ass.</i>, vol. xx., 1893.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_150_150" id="fn_150_150"></a><a href="#fna_150_150">[150]</a> <i>La Razza Negra</i>, p. 20, 1864.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_151_151" id="fn_151_151"></a><a href="#fna_151_151">[151]</a> <i>Man and Woman</i>, pp. 25, 390.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_152_152" id="fn_152_152"></a><a href="#fna_152_152">[152]</a> Johnson, <i>Chemistry of Common Life</i>, vol. i. p. 239.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_153_153" id="fn_153_153"></a><a href="#fna_153_153">[153]</a> <i>Detroit Lancet</i>, September, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_154_154" id="fn_154_154"></a><a href="#fna_154_154">[154]</a> <i>Observations on the Brain and Mind</i>, p. 10, 1798.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_155_155" id="fn_155_155"></a><a href="#fna_155_155">[155]</a> <i>The Opium Habit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_156_156" id="fn_156_156"></a><a href="#fna_156_156">[156]</a> <i>Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease</i>, 1890.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_157_157" id="fn_157_157"></a><a href="#fna_157_157">[157]</a> <i>Annual Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_158_158" id="fn_158_158"></a><a href="#fna_158_158">[158]</a> <i>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1892; and (for
+Summary of Etienne&#8217;s Report on the offspring of the young married women in
+the Nancy factories), <i>British Medical Journal</i>, April 23, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_159_159" id="fn_159_159"></a><a href="#fna_159_159">[159]</a> <i>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1889.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_160_160" id="fn_160_160"></a><a href="#fna_160_160">[160]</a> <i>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_161_161" id="fn_161_161"></a><a href="#fna_161_161">[161]</a> <i>Lancet</i>, November 30, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_162_162" id="fn_162_162"></a><a href="#fna_162_162">[162]</a> <i>Neurologisches Centralblatt</i>, 1887.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_163_163" id="fn_163_163"></a><a href="#fna_163_163">[163]</a> <i>Chemistry of Common Life</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_164_164" id="fn_164_164"></a><a href="#fna_164_164">[164]</a> <i>Lead Diseases</i>, American edition, 1848.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_165_165" id="fn_165_165"></a><a href="#fna_165_165">[165]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases</i>, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_166_166" id="fn_166_166"></a><a href="#fna_166_166">[166]</a> <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>, October, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_167_167" id="fn_167_167"></a><a href="#fna_167_167">[167]</a> <i>Birmingham Medical Review</i>, January, 1887.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_168_168" id="fn_168_168"></a><a href="#fna_168_168">[168]</a> C. E. Paddock, of Chicago, cites very analogous cases.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_169_169" id="fn_169_169"></a><a href="#fna_169_169">[169]</a> <i>Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication</i>, vol.
+i. p. 37.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_170_170" id="fn_170_170"></a><a href="#fna_170_170">[170]</a> Keane, <i>Ethnology</i>, p. 203.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_171_171" id="fn_171_171"></a><a href="#fna_171_171">[171]</a> <i>Lectures on Man</i>, 1868.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_172_172" id="fn_172_172"></a><a href="#fna_172_172">[172]</a> <i>Man and Woman</i>, chap. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_173_173" id="fn_173_173"></a><a href="#fna_173_173">[173]</a> <i>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1892, K. 18,
+vol. v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_174_174" id="fn_174_174"></a><a href="#fna_174_174">[174]</a> <i>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_175_175" id="fn_175_175"></a><a href="#fna_175_175">[175]</a> Boies, <i>Pauper and Prisoner</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_176_176" id="fn_176_176"></a><a href="#fna_176_176">[176]</a> <i>New York Medical Journal</i>, vol. lxii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_177_177" id="fn_177_177"></a><a href="#fna_177_177">[177]</a> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, 1887.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_178_178" id="fn_178_178"></a><a href="#fna_178_178">[178]</a> <i>La Pellagra.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_179_179" id="fn_179_179"></a><a href="#fna_179_179">[179]</a> <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i>, vol. xxii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_180_180" id="fn_180_180"></a><a href="#fna_180_180">[180]</a> <i>Psychology of Childhood.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_181_181" id="fn_181_181"></a><a href="#fna_181_181">[181]</a> <i>Journal American Medical Association</i>, vol. xxii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_182_182" id="fn_182_182"></a><a href="#fna_182_182">[182]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_183_183" id="fn_183_183"></a><a href="#fna_183_183">[183]</a> <i>Illustrations of Insanity</i>, 1817.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_184_184" id="fn_184_184"></a><a href="#fna_184_184">[184]</a> <i>Pepper&#8217;s System of Medicine</i>, vol. i.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_185_185" id="fn_185_185"></a><a href="#fna_185_185">[185]</a> <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, 1886-87.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_186_186" id="fn_186_186"></a><a href="#fna_186_186">[186]</a> <i>Nervous Diseases of Children.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_187_187" id="fn_187_187"></a><a href="#fna_187_187">[187]</a> <i>Diseases of the Stomach.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_188_188" id="fn_188_188"></a><a href="#fna_188_188">[188]</a> <i>Embryology</i>, p. 465.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_189_189" id="fn_189_189"></a><a href="#fna_189_189">[189]</a> Virchow, <i>Gesam. Abhandlg., Wis. Med.</i>, 1856.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_190_190" id="fn_190_190"></a><a href="#fna_190_190">[190]</a> <i>Report New York City Asylum for the Insane</i>, 1875.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_191_191" id="fn_191_191"></a><a href="#fna_191_191">[191]</a> Kiernan, <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, January, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_192_192" id="fn_192_192"></a><a href="#fna_192_192">[192]</a> <i>Annales Medico-Psychologiques</i>, 1849.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_193_193" id="fn_193_193"></a><a href="#fna_193_193">[193]</a> <i>Anthropology.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_194_194" id="fn_194_194"></a><a href="#fna_194_194">[194]</a> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, July, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_195_195" id="fn_195_195"></a><a href="#fna_195_195">[195]</a> <i>Revista Sperimentale</i>, xxii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_196_196" id="fn_196_196"></a><a href="#fna_196_196">[196]</a> <i>Human Embryology</i>, p. 468.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_197_197" id="fn_197_197"></a><a href="#fna_197_197">[197]</a> <i>American Naturalist</i>, 1883.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_198_198" id="fn_198_198"></a><a href="#fna_198_198">[198]</a> <i>Oral Deformities</i>, p. 480.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_199_199" id="fn_199_199"></a><a href="#fna_199_199">[199]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, September, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_200_200" id="fn_200_200"></a><a href="#fna_200_200">[200]</a> For cases see, <i>e.g.</i>, Gould&#8217;s <i>Anomalies</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_201_201" id="fn_201_201"></a><a href="#fna_201_201">[201]</a> Bland Sutton, <i>Evolution and Disease</i>, p. 193.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_202_202" id="fn_202_202"></a><a href="#fna_202_202">[202]</a> <i>Osseous Deformities</i>, p. 398.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_203_203" id="fn_203_203"></a><a href="#fna_203_203">[203]</a> <i>Journal of Morphology</i>, vol. v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_204_204" id="fn_204_204"></a><a href="#fna_204_204">[204]</a> <i>Arb. Zoolog. Institut</i>, Wurzburg, iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_205_205" id="fn_205_205"></a><a href="#fna_205_205">[205]</a> <i>The Amphioxus.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_206_206" id="fn_206_206"></a><a href="#fna_206_206">[206]</a> <i>Sajous&#8217; Annual</i>, 1889.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_207_207" id="fn_207_207"></a><a href="#fna_207_207">[207]</a> <i>Sajous&#8217; Annual</i>, vol. iv., 1892.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_208_208" id="fn_208_208"></a><a href="#fna_208_208">[208]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases</i>, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_209_209" id="fn_209_209"></a><a href="#fna_209_209">[209]</a> <i>La Famille <ins class="correction" title="original: Nevropathique">N&eacute;vropathique</ins></i>, p. 156.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_210_210" id="fn_210_210"></a><a href="#fna_210_210">[210]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, May, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_211_211" id="fn_211_211"></a><a href="#fna_211_211">[211]</a> For further particulars, see &#8220;The Degenerate Ear,&#8221; by
+Eugene S. Talbot, <i>Journal of The American Medical Association</i>, January
+11, 1896.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_212_212" id="fn_212_212"></a><a href="#fna_212_212">[212]</a> Minot, <i>Embryology</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_213_213" id="fn_213_213"></a><a href="#fna_213_213">[213]</a> Minot&#8217;s <i>Embryology</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_214_214" id="fn_214_214"></a><a href="#fna_214_214">[214]</a> <i>The Descent of Man</i>, p. 15.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_215_215" id="fn_215_215"></a><a href="#fna_215_215">[215]</a> Frigerio&#8217;s measurements of the auriculo-temporal angle were
+taken with a specially devised instrument from the pinna to the mastoid.
+Buchanan&#8217;s were apparently taken from the anterior edge of the mastoid to
+the helix, giving the angle of the external face of the whole ear.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_216_216" id="fn_216_216"></a><a href="#fna_216_216">[216]</a> See &#8220;Degenerate Jaws and Death,&#8221; by Talbot, <i>Journal Am.
+Medical Association</i>, vol. xxvii. p. 134.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_217_217" id="fn_217_217"></a><a href="#fna_217_217">[217]</a> Osborn.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_218_218" id="fn_218_218"></a><a href="#fna_218_218">[218]</a> Talbot, &#8220;Mouth breathing not the cause of contracted jaws
+and high vaults&#8221; (<i>Dental Cosmos</i>, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_219_219" id="fn_219_219"></a><a href="#fna_219_219">[219]</a> Per cent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_220_220" id="fn_220_220"></a><a href="#fna_220_220">[220]</a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, <i>La Famille N&eacute;vropathique</i>, p. 158.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_221_221" id="fn_221_221"></a><a href="#fna_221_221">[221]</a> Ibid., <i>Nouv. Icon. de la Salp&ecirc;tri&egrave;re</i>, 1890.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_222_222" id="fn_222_222"></a><a href="#fna_222_222">[222]</a> <i>Jour. de l&#8217;Anat. et de la Phys.</i>, 1893, p. 564.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_223_223" id="fn_223_223"></a><a href="#fna_223_223">[223]</a> Cited by Gould in <i>Anomalies</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_224_224" id="fn_224_224"></a><a href="#fna_224_224">[224]</a> Gould, <i>op. cit.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_225_225" id="fn_225_225"></a><a href="#fna_225_225">[225]</a> Gould, <i>Anomalies</i>, p. 272.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_226_226" id="fn_226_226"></a><a href="#fna_226_226">[226]</a> <i>Revue Internat. des Sciences Med.</i>, November 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_227_227" id="fn_227_227"></a><a href="#fna_227_227">[227]</a> Achondroplasia, or imperfect development of cartilage with
+resulting imperfections in the extremities, has come under my observation.
+The first case, a man of 38, had a face arrested in development and the
+appearance of a ten-year-old boy. His jaws were small with a protrusion of
+the lower. His arms were absent. The hands were full sized and attached to
+the shoulder. Another case was that of a member of the Spanish nobility in
+whom degeneracy was stamped on the entire body. He was short in body and
+had an enormous head. The jaws were undeveloped with a V-shaped arch. His
+left hand was located near the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_228_228" id="fn_228_228"></a><a href="#fna_228_228">[228]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, January, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_229_229" id="fn_229_229"></a><a href="#fna_229_229">[229]</a> <i>Medicine</i>, January, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_230_230" id="fn_230_230"></a><a href="#fna_230_230">[230]</a> Wharton, <i>Proc. Royal Society of Ireland</i>, 1863.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_231_231" id="fn_231_231"></a><a href="#fna_231_231">[231]</a> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, January 25, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_232_232" id="fn_232_232"></a><a href="#fna_232_232">[232]</a> Meige, <i>L&#8217;Anthropologie</i>, T. 6, Nos. 3, 4, 5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_233_233" id="fn_233_233"></a><a href="#fna_233_233">[233]</a> Havelock Ellis, <i>Psychology of Sex</i>, vol. i. &#8220;Sexual
+Inversion.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_234_234" id="fn_234_234"></a><a href="#fna_234_234">[234]</a> Otis T. Mason, <i>Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge</i>,
+1888.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_235_235" id="fn_235_235"></a><a href="#fna_235_235">[235]</a> Julien, <i>Monatschrift f&uuml;r Prakt. Dermatologie</i>, March,
+1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_236_236" id="fn_236_236"></a><a href="#fna_236_236">[236]</a> <i>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences</i>, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_237_237" id="fn_237_237"></a><a href="#fna_237_237">[237]</a> <i>L&#8217;Encephale</i>, 1883.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_238_238" id="fn_238_238"></a><a href="#fna_238_238">[238]</a> <i>Neurological Review</i>, 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_239_239" id="fn_239_239"></a><a href="#fna_239_239">[239]</a> <i>Malthusianism and Crime.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_240_240" id="fn_240_240"></a><a href="#fna_240_240">[240]</a> <i>Wiener Med. Wochenschrift</i>, February 13, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_241_241" id="fn_241_241"></a><a href="#fna_241_241">[241]</a> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, April 23, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_242_242" id="fn_242_242"></a><a href="#fna_242_242">[242]</a> &#8220;Stigmata of Degeneracy in Royal Families,&#8221; <i>Jour. Am. Med.
+Assoc.</i>, vol. xxvii. 1894.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_243_243" id="fn_243_243"></a><a href="#fna_243_243">[243]</a> <i>Practice of Medicine.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_244_244" id="fn_244_244"></a><a href="#fna_244_244">[244]</a> <i>Progr&egrave;s Medical</i>, July 15, 1888.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_245_245" id="fn_245_245"></a><a href="#fna_245_245">[245]</a> <i>Somatic Etiology of Insanity</i>, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_246_246" id="fn_246_246"></a><a href="#fna_246_246">[246]</a> Ziegler, <i>Pathologic Anatomy</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_247_247" id="fn_247_247"></a><a href="#fna_247_247">[247]</a> Vogt, <i>Lectures on Man</i>. The lettering refer to the text of
+that work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_248_248" id="fn_248_248"></a><a href="#fna_248_248">[248]</a> <i>St. Louis Clinical Record</i>, vol. viii. p. 66.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_249_249" id="fn_249_249"></a><a href="#fna_249_249">[249]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, 1886, p. 54.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_250_250" id="fn_250_250"></a><a href="#fna_250_250">[250]</a> <i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_251_251" id="fn_251_251"></a><a href="#fna_251_251">[251]</a> In the foregoing, and to some extent in the following,
+chapters it has been necessary to touch on many complicated questions of
+brain function, more or less outside the main topic of this book. The
+aspect of such questions is, however, constantly changing in the light of
+new investigations, and our knowledge is still far from certain in many
+most important respects. For excellent statements of the prevailing views
+of brain localisation, brought up to date, the reader may be referred to
+the special sections of the latest editions of Foster&#8217;s <i>Physiology</i>, or
+of Waller&#8217;s <i>Physiology</i>; Donaldson&#8217;s <i>Growth of the Brain</i> may also be
+consulted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_252_252" id="fn_252_252"></a><a href="#fna_252_252">[252]</a> <i>Work among the Fallen</i>, summarised in <i>Journal of Mental
+Science</i>, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_253_253" id="fn_253_253"></a><a href="#fna_253_253">[253]</a> <i>&Eacute;tudes Anthropom&eacute;triques sur les Prostitu&eacute;es.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_254_254" id="fn_254_254"></a><a href="#fna_254_254">[254]</a> <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_255_255" id="fn_255_255"></a><a href="#fna_255_255">[255]</a> And see the biography of Marie Duplessis by Georges Soreau
+in <i>Revue de France</i>, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_256_256" id="fn_256_256"></a><a href="#fna_256_256">[256]</a> <i>St. Louis Clinical Record</i>, 1879-80.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_257_257" id="fn_257_257"></a><a href="#fna_257_257">[257]</a> <i>The Man of Genius.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_258_258" id="fn_258_258"></a><a href="#fna_258_258">[258]</a> <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, 1886.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_259_259" id="fn_259_259"></a><a href="#fna_259_259">[259]</a> <i>Review of Insanity and Nervous Diseases</i>, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_260_260" id="fn_260_260"></a><a href="#fna_260_260">[260]</a> <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, July, 1893.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_261_261" id="fn_261_261"></a><a href="#fna_261_261">[261]</a> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, 1893-4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_262_262" id="fn_262_262"></a><a href="#fna_262_262">[262]</a> <i>New England Medical Monthly</i>, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_263_263" id="fn_263_263"></a><a href="#fna_263_263">[263]</a> <i>Germ Plasm.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="fn_264_264" id="fn_264_264"></a><a href="#fna_264_264">[264]</a> <i>American Journal of Insanity</i>, 1893-4.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:</strong></p>
+
+<p>Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to a nearby paragraph break.</p>
+
+<p>The text in the list of illustrations is presented as in the original text, but the links
+navigate to the page number closest to the illustration&#8217;s loaction in this document.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation has been corrected without note.</p>
+
+<p>Other than the corrections noted by hover information, inconsistencies in
+spelling and hyphenation have been retained from the original.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Degeneracy, by Eugene S. Talbot
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,12137 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Degeneracy, by Eugene S. Talbot
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Degeneracy
+       Its Causes, Signs and Results
+
+Author: Eugene S. Talbot
+
+Release Date: May 1, 2011 [EBook #36003]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEGENERACY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
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+SULLY in _Mind_.
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+Secretary to the Anthropological Society, Paris, and Professor in the
+School of Anthropology, Paris. 3s. 6d.
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+3s. 6d.
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+
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+PERCEPTION. By EDMUND PARISH. 6s.
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+Science._
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+
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+MARIE DE MANACEINE (St. Petersburg). Illustrated. 3s. 6d.
+
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+
+XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DIGESTION. By A. LOCKHART GILLESPIE, M.D.,
+F.R.C.P. ED., F.R.S. ED. With a large number of Illustrations and
+Diagrams. 6s.
+
+XXXV. DEGENERACY: ITS CAUSES, SIGNS, AND RESULTS. By Professor EUGENE S.
+TALBOT, M.D., Chicago. With Illustrations. 6s.
+
+
+
+
+_THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES_
+
+EDITED BY HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+
+DEGENERACY
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DWARFISM AND GIANTISM.]
+
+
+
+
+  DEGENERACY
+
+  _ITS CAUSES, SIGNS, AND RESULTS_
+
+
+  BY EUGENE S. TALBOT, M.D., D.D.S.,
+
+  FELLOW OF THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF MEDICINE; MEMBER OF
+  THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; HONORARY MEMBER OF
+  THE BERLIN ODONTOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT, AND THE
+  ASSOCIATION GENERALE DES DENTISTES DE FRANCE;
+  PROFESSOR OF DENTAL AND ORAL SURGERY, WOMAN'S
+  MEDICAL SCHOOL, NORTH-WESTERN UNIVERSITY, U.S.A.
+
+
+  WITH 120 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  LONDON
+  WALTER SCOTT, LTD., PATERNOSTER SQUARE
+  1898
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present work is the result of more than twenty years' labour in a
+limited medical department of biology. It demonstrates once more the truth
+of the scientific principle, that the truth or falsity of any theory or
+working hypothesis becomes more and more demonstrable the further its
+application is attempted in the explanation of new lines of facts. The
+truth of the degeneracy doctrine had forced itself on the writer long
+before its popular apotheosis under Lombroso and Nordau, because it alone
+sufficed for an explanation of constitutional and local defects
+(encountered in a seemingly limited speciality of medicine), which local
+causes failed entirely to explain. The investigations thereon resultant
+have appeared in medical and dental journals for the past two decades. The
+present work is chiefly based on these researches. At the same time, the
+author has drawn largely from all fields of biology cultivated by European
+investigators, while he must acknowledge a particular indebtedness to the
+investigations (of which he has made large use beside that elsewhere
+specifically acknowledged) of certain American investigators--Rush,
+Parkmen, Ray, G. Frank Lydston, C. L. Dana, C. F. Folsom, W. W. Godding,
+E. C. Spitzka, E. D. Cope, D. R. Brower, Marsh, B. Sachs, Harriet C. B.
+Alexander, Clara Barrus, H. M. Bannister, Delia E. Howe, Grace Peckham,
+Adolph Meyer, Kerlin, Wiley, J. G. Kiernan, W. E. Allison, Osborn, R.
+Dewey, Frederick Peterson, Gihon, Cowles, W. A. Hammond, A. B. Holder, C.
+H. Hughes, F. W. Starr, F. C. Hoyt, J. H. McBride, C. K. Mills, C. B.
+Burr, T. D. Crothers, W. S. Christopher, W. X. Sudduth, A. Lagorio, J.
+Workman, Wilmarth, and others. These scientists had raised an exceedingly
+stable foundation for the doctrine of degeneracy long before Lombroso and
+Nordau (forcing one phase of the subject into popular recognition)
+compelled an examination of the entire doctrine.
+
+The work has been written with a special intention of reaching educators
+and parents. With this object, it has avoided laying stress on any one
+cause of degeneracy, and ignoring factors which produce it and are
+aggravated by it. The doctrinaire reformer will here find no support for
+any limited theory. While it does not pretend in the slightest degree to
+give all the details of degeneracy, it attempts to lay down general
+principles for practical purposes in a way that permits their application
+to the solution of sociologic problems.
+
+From a sense of scientific accuracy no attempts have been made to
+demarcate, rigidly, abnormality from disease, or atavism from arrested
+development, except as may be done by the features of the cases in which
+the terms are used. The guiding principle adopted has been that the
+factors of degeneracy affect in the ancestor the checks on excessive
+action acquired during the evolution of the race, thus producing a state
+of nervous exhaustion. The descendant in consequence is unable to reach
+the state of the ancestor thus nervously exhausted.
+
+For the illustrations, other than those that are original, the author is
+indebted to the _Journal of the American Medical Association_, _Dental
+Cosmos_, _The International Dental Journal_, _The St. Louis Clinical
+Record_, to M. Felix Alcan, and to the officers of the New York State
+Reformatory and Illinois State Reformatory, Drs. Geo. T. Carpenter, W. A.
+Pusey, F. S. Coolidge, Ch. Fere, Zuckerkandl, John E. Greves, Amsterdam;
+Ernst Sjoberg, Stockholm; Bastian, J. G. Kiernan, E. C. Spitzka, John
+Ridlon, James W. Walker, and Ignatius Donnelly.
+
+E. S. T.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   CHAP.                                                PAGE
+
+      I. INTRODUCTION                                      1
+
+     II. THE STIGMATA OF DEGENERACY                       27
+
+    III. HEREDITY AND ATAVISM                             40
+
+     IV. CONSANGUINEOUS AND NEUROTIC INTERMARRIAGES       79
+
+      V. INTERMIXTURE OF RACES                            92
+
+     VI. TOXIC AGENTS                                    104
+
+    VII. CONTAGIOUS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES              121
+
+   VIII. CLIMATE, SOIL, AND FOOD                         130
+
+     IX. SCHOOL STRAIN                                   150
+
+      X. THE DEGENERATE CRANIUM                          161
+
+     XI. THE DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE                    177
+
+    XII. DEGENERACY OF THE LIP PALATE, EYE, AND EAR      196
+
+   XIII. THE DEGENERATE TEETH AND JAWS                   219
+
+    XIV. DEGENERACY OF THE BODY                          258
+
+     XV. DEGENERACY IN REVERSIONAL TENDENCIES            282
+
+    XVI. DEGENERACY OF THE BRAIN                         294
+
+   XVII. DEGENERACY OF MENTALITY AND MORALITY            315
+
+  XVIII. CONCLUSIONS                                     346
+
+  INDEX OF AUTHORS                                       363
+
+  INDEX OF SUBJECTS                                      367
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                            PAGE
+
+  DWARFISM AND GIANTISM (_Journal of American Medical
+  Association_)                                         _Frontispiece_
+
+  1. ANTE-CHRISTIAN IRISH PIPES (Donnelly, _Atlantis_)             111
+
+  2. ANTE-COLUMBIAN PIPES FROM SCULPTURE AT STRATFORD-ON-AVON
+  (Donnelly, _Atlantis_)                                           112
+
+  3-6. CHANGES IN SKULL TYPES (_Original_)                         134
+
+  7. WANT OF UNION IN FRONTAL SUTURE (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)       163
+
+  8. STIGMATA OF DEGENERATE CRANIUM (Original)                     165
+
+  9. HYDROCEPHALY (Dr. Ernst Sjoeberg, Stockholm)                   166
+
+  10. KEPHALONES (Dr. Ernst Sjoeberg, Stockholm)                    167
+
+  11. MICROCEPHALY (Dr. Ernst Sjoeberg, Stockholm)                  168
+
+  12. DOLICHOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                               169
+
+  13. SPHENOCEPHALY (New York State Reformatory)                   170
+
+  14. BRACHYCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                171
+
+  15. PLATYCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                 172
+
+  16. PLAGIOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                173
+
+  17. SCAPHOCEPHALY (Barnard Davis)                                174
+
+  18. LARGE ORBITS (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)                         180
+
+  19. CAMPER'S ANGLE (Original)                                    181
+
+  20. JOHANNA, FEMALE CHIMPANZEE (Original)                        182
+
+  21. NEGRO CRIMINAL YOUTH (Illinois State Reformatory)            182
+
+  22. CAUCASIAN FACE (Original)                                    183
+
+  23. DEGENERATE FACE AND ARREST OF UPPER JAW (Original)           184
+
+  24. DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE (_Dental Cosmos_)                   185
+
+  25. DEGENERATE FACE AND ARREST OF LOWER JAW (Original)           187
+
+  26. ASYMMETRICAL FACE (New York State Reformatory)               188
+
+  27. DEFLECTION OF NASAL SEPTUM (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)           190
+
+  28. HYPERTROPHY OF TURBINATES (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)            191
+
+  29. IRREGULAR DEVELOPMENT OF THE BONES OF THE NOSE
+  (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)                                          192
+
+  30. OBLITERATED ANTRUM (Dr. Greves, Amsterdam)                   193
+
+  31. CLEFT PALATE (Dr. G. T. Carpenter, Chicago)                  198
+
+  32. HARE-LIP (Dr. G. T. Carpenter, Chicago)                      201
+
+  33. CYCLOPIC EYE (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)                    204
+
+  34. CYCLOPIC MONSTER WITH SINGLE EYE (Dr. J. G. Kiernan,
+  Chicago)                                                         205
+
+  35. FOETUS WITHOUT CHIN AND EARS AT EXTERNAL OPENING OF
+  FIRST GILL CLEFT (Bland Sutton, London)                          207
+
+  36. EAR EMBRYOLOGY (Minot, Boston)                               209
+
+  37. ARREST OF EAR DEVELOPMENT (_Journal of American
+  Medical Association_)                                            210
+
+  38. NORMAL EAR (Ibid.)                                           211
+
+  39. MOREL EAR (Ibid.)                                            213
+
+  40-45. DARWINIAN EARS AND ABNORMAL EARS (Ibid.)                  215
+
+  46, 47. UNDEVELOPED EARS (Ibid.)                                 216
+
+  48, 49. ELEPHANTINE EARS (Ibid.)                                 217
+
+  Plates A and B. EVOLUTION OF THE TEETH (Osborn,
+  _International Dental Journal_)                                  223
+
+  50, 51. CALCIFICATION OF THE TEETH (Dr. C. N. Pierce,
+  Philadelphia)                                                  226-7
+
+  52-56. SUPERNUMERARY TEETH (Original)                          230-1
+
+  57-60. SUPERNUMERARY AND CONE-SHAPED TEETH (_Dental
+  Cosmos_)                                                       232-3
+
+  61. CONE-SHAPED TEETH (Smale & Colyer, London)                   234
+
+  62. MISSING THIRD MOLARS (Original)                              235
+
+  63. MISSING THIRD MOLARS (Original)                              236
+
+  64-66. MISSING LATERAL INCISORS (Original)                     236-7
+
+  67. SO-CALLED HUTCHINSON'S TEETH (_American System of
+  Dentistry_)                                                      238
+
+  68. DEGENERATE V-SHAPED JAW (Original)                           239
+
+  69. HUTCHINSON'S TEETH (_Dental Cosmos_)                         240
+
+  70, 71. CONE-SHAPED MOLARS (Ibid.)                               240
+
+  72, 73. CONE-SHAPED MOLARS (Ibid.)                               241
+
+  74. MIGRATING TEETH (Original)                                   241
+
+  75. CONE-SHAPED TEETH (Smale & Colyer, London)                   242
+
+  76-78. RUDIMENTARY CUSPS (Original)                            242-3
+
+  79. EXCESSIVELY DEVELOPED CUSPS (Smale & Colyer, London)         244
+
+  80-89. TEETH JOINED TOGETHER (_Dental Cosmos_)                 246-7
+
+  90. V-SHAPED ARCH (Original)                                     249
+
+  91. SADDLE-SHAPED ARCH (Original)                                251
+
+  92. HYPERTROPHY OF THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS (Original)               253
+
+  93. HYPERTROPHY OF THE ALVEOLAR PROCESS (Original)               254
+
+  94. ARREST OF THE FACE (New York State Reformatory)              255
+
+  95. ARREST OF THE FACE AND LOWER JAW (New York State
+  Reformatory)                                                     256
+
+  96. SPINA BIFIDA (Dr. W. A. Pusey, Chicago)                      259
+
+  97. ARRESTED CHEST (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                      261
+
+  98. ECTRODACTYLIA (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                       264
+
+  99. MARCRODACTYLIA (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                      265
+
+  100. CLUB-FEET (Dr. J. Ridlon, Chicago)                          267
+
+  101. ARREST OF FACE (Original)                                   270
+
+  102. FEMINISM (Dr. Fere, Paris)                                  273
+
+  103. FEMINISM (Dr. Fere, Paris)                                  275
+
+  104. ACROMEGALY (Original)                                       277
+
+  105. ACROMEGALY (_Journal of American Medical Association_)      279
+
+  106. DEGENERATE FEET (New York State Reformatory)                280
+
+  107. PREMATURE SENESCENCE (Original)                             288
+
+  108. EXCESSIVE DEVELOPED APPENDIX (Original)                     290
+
+  109. NORMALLY DEVELOPED APPENDIX (Original)                      291
+
+  110. ARRESTED APPENDIX (Original)                                292
+
+  111. BRAIN FROM PARANOIAC CRIMINAL (Dr. J. G. Kiernan,
+  Chicago)                                                         295
+
+  112. BRAIN OF GAUSS (Vogt, _Lectures on Man_)                    296
+
+  113. FOETAL BRAIN (Bastian)                                      297
+
+  114. IDIOT BRAIN (Dr. J. G. Kiernan, Chicago)                    297
+
+  115. IMBECILE BRAIN (Spitzka, _Insanity_)                        298
+
+  116. SPECIALISED FUNCTION IN THE CORTEX CEREBRI (Dana)           308
+
+  117. CELLS OF THE BRAIN (Spitzka, _Insanity_)                    310
+
+
+
+
+DEGENERACY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Considered as a condition hurtful to the type, the conception of
+degeneracy may be said to appear even in the precursors of man, since
+animals destroy soon after birth offspring which, to them, appear
+peculiar. With that stage of development of the religious sense marked by
+assigning malign occult powers to natural objects and forces, this view of
+degeneracy became systematised, and exposed weakly or deformed offspring,
+charged to evil powers, to death. This occult conception of degeneracy is
+even yet a part of American folklore. Against degenerate children charms
+are still used by the "witch-doctors" among the "Pennsylvania Dutch."
+These people are on the level of culture of the early seventeenth century
+middle class English, if not a little below it. The folklore of these, as
+embodied in Shakespeare, demonstrates, according to J. G. Kiernan,[1] that
+ere the seventeenth century the fact that "mental and moral defect
+expressed itself in physical stigmata was recognised and even the term
+used." Thistleton Dyer[2] remarks that it is an old prejudice, not yet
+extinct, that those who are defective or deformed are marked by nature as
+prone to mischief. Thus in _King Richard III._ (i. 3) Margaret calls
+Richard--
+
+  "Thou elvish-marked, abortive, rooting hog!
+  Thou that wast sealed in thy nativity
+  The slave of nature and the son of hell!"
+
+She calls him hog in allusion to his cognisance, which was a boar. A
+popular expression in Shakespeare's day for a deformed person was
+"stigmatic." It denoted any one who had been stigmatised or burnt with
+iron (an ignominious punishment), and hence was employed to represent a
+person on whom nature had set a mark of deformity. Thus in the Third Part
+of _Henry VI._ (ii. 2) Queen Margaret says--
+
+  "But thou art neither like thy sire nor dam;
+  But like a foul misshapen stigmatic,
+  Marked by the destinies to be avoided,
+  As venom toads, or lizards' dreadful stings."
+
+Again in the Second Part of _Henry VI._ (v. 1) young Clifford says to
+Richard--
+
+  "Foul stigmatic, that's more than thou canst tell."
+
+In _A Midsummer Night's Dream_ (v. 1) Oberon wards off degeneracy from the
+issue of the happy lovers by the following charm--
+
+  "And the blots of Nature's hand
+  Shall not in their issue stand;
+  Never mole, hare-lip nor scar,
+  Nor mark prodigious, such as are
+  Despised in nativity,
+  Shall upon their children be."
+
+Constant allusions to this subject occur in old writers, showing how
+strong was the belief of the early English on this point. King John (iv.
+2) calls Hubert, the supposed murderer of Prince Arthur,--
+
+  "A fellow by the hand of Nature marked,
+  Quoted and signed to do a deed of shame."
+
+Concerning this adaptation of the mind to the deformity of the body
+Francis Bacon remarks: "Deformed persons are commonly even with Nature,
+for as Nature hath done ill by them so do they by Nature, being void of
+natural affection, and so they have their revenge on Nature."
+
+The quaint old "Anatomist of Melancholy,"[3] Burton, seems but to
+paraphrase modern curers of degeneracy when, at the end of his chapter on
+the inheritance of defects, he remarks concerning this fetichistic notion:
+"So many several ways are we plagued and published for our father's
+defaults; in so much that as Fernelius truly saith: 'It is the greatest
+part of our felicity to be well born, and it were happy for human kind, if
+only such parents as are sound of body and mind should be suffered to
+marry.' An husbandman will sow none but the best and choicest seed upon
+his land, he will not rear a bull or an horse, except he be right shapen
+in all parts, or permit him to cover a mare, except he be well assured of
+his breed; we make choice of the best rams for our sheep, rear the neatest
+kine, and keep the best dogs, _quanto id diligentius in procreandis
+liberis observandum_! And how careful, then, should we be in begetting of
+our children! In former times some countries have been so chary in this
+behalf, so stern, that if a child were crooked or deformed in body or
+mind, they made him away; so did the Indians of old by the relation of
+Curtius, and many other well-governed commonwealths according to the
+discipline of those times. 'Heretofore in Scotland,' saith Hect Boethius,
+'if any were visited with the falling sickness, madness, gout, leprosy, or
+any such dangerous disease which was likely to be propagated from the
+father to the son, he was instantly gelded; a woman kept from all company
+of men; and if by chance having some such disease she were found to be
+with child, she with her brood were buried alive'; and this was done for
+the common good, lest the whole nation should be injured or corrupted. A
+severe doom, you will say, and not to be used amongst Christians, yet more
+to be looked into than it is. For now by our too much facility in this
+kind, in giving way for all to marry that will, too much liberty and
+indulgence in tolerating all sorts, there is a vast confusion of
+hereditary diseases, no family secure, no man almost free, from some
+grievous infirmity or other, when no choice is had, but still the eldest
+must marry, as so many stallions of the race; or if rich, be they fools or
+dizzards, lame or maimed, unable, intemperate, dissolute, exhaust through
+riot, as he said, they must be wise and able by inheritance. It comes to
+pass that our generation is corrupt, we have many weak persons both in
+body and mind, many feral diseases raging among us, crazed families; our
+fathers bad, and we are like to be worse."
+
+This conception gradually developed into the widespread myth of a
+primevally perfect man through the natural operation of that
+psychological law whereby, as Macaulay remarks, society, constantly moving
+forward with eager speed, is as constantly looking backward with tender
+regret. They turn their eyes and see a lake where an hour before they were
+toiling through sand.
+
+From this view came the belief that man as existing is degenerate. This
+degeneracy, while popularly charged to occult influences, was early
+ascribed by scientists to physical causes. Aristotle, as Osborn[4] points
+out, appears to have recognised degeneration or the gradual decline of
+structures in form and usefulness, in his analysis of "movement" in
+connection with development. Degeneration is first met with as a term in
+an explanation of the origin of species by Buffon in the eighteenth
+century. The conception itself occurs in a criticism by Sylvius of
+Vesalius (1514-64), who had asserted that the anatomy of Galen could not
+have been founded upon the human body, because he had described an
+intermaxillary bone. This bone, Vesalius observed, is found in the lower
+animals but not in man. Sylvius (1614-72) defends Galen on the ground that
+though man had no intermaxillary bone at present this is no proof of its
+absence in Galen's time. "It is luxury, it is sensuality, which has
+gradually deprived man of this bone." This passage, as Osborn remarks,
+proves that the idea of degeneration of structures through disuse, as well
+as the idea of the inheritance of the effect of habit, or the
+"transmission of acquired characters," is a very ancient one. Sylvius,
+while here recognising factors of degeneracy, erred in considering
+disappearance of the intermaxillary bone, not reappearance, as
+degeneracy. He failed to recognise, moreover, the law of economy of growth
+by which one structure is sacrificed for another or for the organism as a
+whole. This law, indicated by Aristotle, but clearly outlined by Goethe in
+1807, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire in 1818, underlies the physiological
+atrophies and hypertrophies which play such a part in degeneracy.
+
+The _Twelve Caesars_ of Suetonius (that stud book of imperial degeneracy as
+it has been styled) stamps the decided impression on its readers that
+Hippocratian notions of degenerate heredity strongly permeated Roman
+thought, to revive in those Arabic, Italian, and British (Roger Bacon)
+thinkers who created the scientific phase of the revival of learning.
+
+In the science of medicine, as developed by Hippocrates,[5] the modern
+conception of degeneracy is evident. Hippocrates argues against the
+"sacred" nature of epilepsy, since it is a hereditary disease and hence
+comes under the operation of physical law. He furthermore points out, as
+did Aristotle, that epilepsy produced in the ancestor by traumatism and
+other physical causes may be inherited by the child.
+
+As the degeneration phase of evolution was less antagonistic to the
+religious theory forced into biblical dogma by the Jesuit Suarez (in
+opposition to the evolutionary views of St. Augustine and St. Thomas
+Aquinas), being supported by biblical dicta (that when the fathers had
+eaten sour grapes the children's teeth were set on edge) and fetichistic
+folklore, it retained a dominance that the advanced phase lost. From the
+time of Hippocrates, psychiatry (the science devoted to mental disorders)
+continued to accumulate data of the origin and transmission of human
+defects. The impetus given the evolutionary explanation of these data by
+the seventeenth and eighteenth century biologists (Harvey, Buffon,
+Lamarck, Erasmus Darwin, and others) laid the foundation for the modern
+doctrine of degeneracy.
+
+Buffon[6] remarks that many species are being perfected or degenerated by
+the great changes in land and sea, by the favours or disfavours of Nature,
+by food, by the prolonged influences of climate, contrary or favourable,
+and are no longer what they formerly were. He regarded temperature, food,
+and climate as the three great factors in the alteration and degeneration
+of animals.
+
+Erasmus Darwin[7] considers that all life starts from a living filament
+having the capability of being excited into action by certain stimuli.
+This capability is that whereby plants and animals react to their
+environment, causing changes in them which are transmitted to their
+offspring. All animals undergo transformations which are in part produced
+by their own exertions in response to pleasures and pains, and many of
+these acquired forms or propensities are transmitted to their posterity.
+Other effects of this excitability (such as constitute hereditary
+diseases, like scrofula, epilepsy, insanity) have their origin in one or
+perhaps two generations, as in the progeny of those who drink much vinous
+spirits. Those hereditary propensities cease again if one or two sober
+generations succeed, otherwise the family becomes extinct.
+
+Benjamin Rush[8] (greatly influenced by the Erasmus Darwin school)
+remarks that through hereditary sameness of organisation of the nerves,
+brain and blood vessels, the predisposition to insanity pervades whole
+families and renders them liable to this disease from a transient and
+feeble operation of its causes. Insanity when hereditary is excited by
+more feeble causes than in persons in whom this predisposition has been
+acquired. It generally attacks the descendants in those stages of life in
+which it has appeared in the ancestors. Children born previously to the
+attack of madness in their parents are less liable to inherit it than
+those who are born after it. Children born of parents who are in the
+decline of life are more predisposed to insanity than children born under
+contrary circumstances. A predisposition to certain diseases, seated in
+parts contiguous to the seat of insanity, often descends from parents to
+their children. Thus it occurs in a son whose father or mother has been
+afflicted only with hysteria or habitual headaches. The reverse likewise
+takes place. There are families in which insanity has existed where the
+disease has spared the mind in the posterity, but appeared in great
+strength and eccentricity of the memory and of the passions, or in great
+perversion of their moral faculties. Sometimes it passes by all the
+faculties of the mind, and appears only in the nervous system of persons
+descended from deranged parents; again, madness occurs in children whose
+parents were remarkable only for eccentricity of mind. Among the diseases
+that attack the children of the insane, but did not exist in their
+ancestors, are consumption and epilepsy.
+
+Similar studies were later published by Pinel, Tissot, Chiarrurgi,
+Stedman, Parkman, Brigham, Prichard, Esquirol, Jacobi, and other
+American, English, French, Italian, and German alienists. Based upon the
+data thus obtained, and upon the general principles thus outlined, then
+appeared--nearly at the same time as the like epoch-making work (on
+another phase of evolution), Darwin's _Origin of Species_--Morel's
+_Treatise on Human Degeneracy_, wherein the principle of natural selection
+was shown to involve the recognition of the physical conditions that
+constitute degeneracy, and, necessarily, to exclude primeval perfection.
+Morel's definition of degeneration as a marked departure from the original
+type tending more or less rapidly to the extinction of it, forms the basis
+of commonly accepted definitions.
+
+While Morel practically outlined the modern study of degeneracy, his
+theologic timidity forced an absolute definition of a state which,
+according to his own admission, was purely relative. After fencing
+somewhat with the position that there was a primevally perfect man,[9] he
+admits with Tessier the primeval lowness of man, but also thinks that the
+fall of man could create new conditions which, in his descendants, from
+heredity and from causes acting on their health, tended to make them
+depart from the primitive type. These departures from the primitive type
+have led to varieties, some of which constitute races capable of
+transmitting racial characteristics. Other varieties in the races
+themselves have created the abnormal states which Morel has denominated
+degeneracies. Each of these degeneracies has its own stamp from the cause
+that produces it. Their common characteristic is hereditary transmission
+under graver conditions than normal heredity. With certain exceptional
+instances of regeneration, the progeny of degenerates presents progressive
+degradation. This may reach such limits that humanity is preserved by its
+excess. It is not necessary, however, that the ultimate stage of
+degradation be reached before sterility occurs. Morel confines degeneracy
+to a pathologic type, criticising F. Heusinger[10] for applying the term
+degenerate to domestic animals which "throw back" to the wild or original
+type. Morel's admission that causes influencing health produce deviations
+which, under favouring conditions, become racial types capable of
+indefinite transmission, saves him from absolute scientific inaccuracy,
+but renders inconsistent his limitation of degeneracy. It may be
+convenient to separate diseased states from anomalies, but such separation
+can only be very relative. From his conservatism and his plentiful data,
+Morel aroused much less antagonism than did a contemporary, Moreau (de
+Tours), who bore to him the relation of Darwin to Wallace.[11] While
+Moreau devotes much attention to the factors of degeneracy and its
+stigmata (or marks), like Morel, his main point is the expansion of the
+theory of Aristotle which Dryden epigrammatised into--
+
+  "Great wit to madness nearly is allied,
+  And thin partitions do their bounds divide."
+
+As J. G. Kiernan shows,[12] this doctrine, early in the history of the
+race, obtained dominance through the evolution of arts, sciences, and
+religions from fetichism. Phenomena manifested by fetich priests (of the
+Shaman type) so closely resembled epileptic insanity in its frenzies and
+visions that the two states were long regarded as identical, whence the
+term "_morbus sacer_." The supernatural influences which, in current
+belief, underlay epilepsy were, at the outset, malign or benign as they
+were offended or placated. They became benign, and the insane were under
+protection of a deity, as in Mussulman countries. Later still the
+demon-possession theory gained dominance, and at length the demon sank
+into disease. Throughout all this evolution the belief in an inherent
+affinity between insanity and genius persisted.
+
+Aristotle, in whose day the disease notion was becoming dominant, asserts
+that, under the influence of head congestion, persons sometimes become
+prophets, sybils, and poets. Thus Mark, the Syracusan, was a pretty fair
+poet during a maniacal attack, but could not compose when sane. Men
+illustrious in poetry, arts, and statesmanship are often insane, like
+Ajax, or misanthropic like Bellerophon. Even at a recent period similar
+dispositions are evident in Plato, Socrates, Empedocles, and many others,
+above all, the poets.
+
+According to Plato, "Delirium is by no means evil, but when it comes by
+gift of the gods, a very great benefit. In delirium the sibyls of Delphi
+and Dodona were of great service to Greece, but when in cold blood were of
+little or none. Frequently, when the gods afflicted men with epidemics, a
+sacred delirium inspired some men with a remedy for these. The Muses
+excite some souls to delirium to glorify heroes with poetry, or to
+instruct future generations."
+
+Precedent to the works of Morel and Moreau appeared their source and
+inspiration, Prosper Lucas's _Natural Heredity_.[13] Here the biologic
+current of thought encountered the sociologic current; although the waves
+clashed, the two currents merged into and modified each other. The
+biologist demonstrated that degenerate types often "threw back" in their
+structures, and this very "throwing back" made them the fittest to
+survive. The sociologist found that the only test of acquired or inherited
+degeneracy in man was disaccord with environment. The co-existent moral
+and physical defects resultant on heredity found by Erasmus Darwin, Rush,
+Parkman, Grohmann, and others tended to show that all types of defectives
+might be a product of heredity.
+
+These stimulating researches into the sources of crime led to a
+controversy which reached its height two decades ere the treatise of
+Morel. To this controversy three suggestive works owed their origin: a
+psychological treatise by Dr. Lauvergne[14] on felons, a romance with a
+purpose by Eugene Sue,[15] and a suggestively practical brochure by a
+rather corrupt police official, Vidocq.[16] Seemingly conflicting as were
+these productions, all strikingly illustrated the influence of heredity
+and environment in the production of defectives. To these productions were
+soon added those of Moreau (de Tours),[17] Attemyer, Eliza Farnham,[18]
+the American Sampson,[19] Dally, Lelut, Camper, and the older Voisin.
+
+Morel[20] laid the foundation of what is widely known as the Lombroso
+School by a brochure wherein he proposed to entitle morbid anthropology,
+"that part of the science of man the aim of which is to study phenomena
+due to morbid influences and to malign heredity."
+
+To the factor of atavism, inconsistently ignored by Morel, the early
+embryologic studies of Von Baer and the biologic studies resultant on the
+transmutation of species lent special emphasis. Three possibilities of
+life await, as Wilson[21] remarks, each living being: either it remains
+primitive and unchanged, or it progresses toward a higher type, or it
+backslides and retrogresses. The factors underlying the stable state force
+the animal to remain as it is; those underlying the progressive tendency
+make it more elaborate, while the factors of degeneration, on the other
+hand, tend to simplify its structure. It requires no special thought to
+perceive that progress is a great fact of nature. The development of every
+animal and plant shows the possibilities of nature in this direction. But
+the bearings of physiological backsliding are not so clearly seen.
+
+That certain animals degenerate or retrogress in their development is
+susceptible of ready and familiar illustration. No better illustration is
+needed than is derived from the domain of parasitic existence. When an
+animal or plant attaches itself partly or wholly to another living being,
+and becomes more or less dependent upon the latter for support and
+nourishment, it exhibits, as a rule, retrogression and degeneration. The
+parasitic "guest" dependent on its "host" for lodging alone, or it may be
+for both board and lodging, is in a fair way to become degraded in
+structure, and, as a rule, exhibits marked degradation where the
+association has persisted sufficiently long. Parasitism and servile
+dependence act very much in structural lower life as analogous instances
+of mental dependence on others act on man.
+
+The destruction of characteristic individuality and the extinction of
+personality are natural results of that form of association wherein one
+form becomes absolutely dependent on another for all the conditions of
+life. A life of mere attachment exhibits similar results, and organs of
+movement disappear by the law of disuse. A digestive system is a
+superfluity to an animal which, like the tapeworm, obtains its food ready
+made in the very kitchen, so to speak, of its host. Hence the lack of
+digestive apparatus follows the finding of a free commissariat by the
+parasite. Organs of sense are not necessary for an attached and rooted
+animal; these latter, therefore, go by the board and the nervous system
+itself becomes modified and altered. Degradation wholesale and complete is
+the penalty the parasite has to pay for its free board and lodging; and in
+this fashion Nature may be said to revenge the host for the pains and
+troubles wherewith, like Job of old, he may be tormented.
+
+The most emphatic biologic degeneration is that discovered by
+Kowalevsky[22] in the sea squirt, which, in its larval state, is a
+vertebrate, and when adult is an ascidian, seemingly far below the
+cuttlefish and the worms. This strikingly illustrates that, as Ray
+Lankester[23] has said, degeneration is a gradual change of structure by
+which the organism becomes adapted to less varied and less complex
+conditions of life; a reverse of evolution which proceeds from the
+indefinite and homogeneous to the definite and heterogeneous with a loss
+of explosive force due to the acquirement of inhibitions or checks.
+
+This principle of biologic degeneration, long recognised, was most lucidly
+enforced by Dohrn[24], whose views were later extended by Ray Lankester.
+The parallelism of animal degeneracy with that of man, so clearly evident
+even in the parasitic nature of defectives, was, as Meynert[25] showed,
+due to the fact that the fore-brain is an inhibitory apparatus against the
+lower and more instinctive natural impulses. The higher its development
+the greater is the tendency to subordinate the particular to the general.
+Even in insects a high social growth occurs, as in the bee and ant
+communities. The same is the case in the development of man; in the
+infant, a being entirely wrapped in its instincts of self-preservation,
+the "primary ego" is predominant and the child is an egotistic parasite.
+As development goes on this standpoint is passed, conscience assumes its
+priority, the fore-brain acts as a check on the purely vegetative
+functions and the "secondary ego" takes precedence over the primary one;
+this is the general order of society, designated as civilisation or social
+order. If this inhibition become weakened or disordered, predominance of
+the natural instincts or impulses occurs, and when it is totally lost the
+individual is in the position of a criminal who opposes the ethical order
+of society--a parasite, and one of the worst kind who not only lives upon
+his host but destroys him in doing so.
+
+Hence degenerate tendencies are reversions in type indicating the original
+source of the inhibition.
+
+The tree of Moreau[26] illustrates clearly the essential principles of
+these inter-relations of defect, further elucidated by the observations of
+Sander[27] on the connection of deformed central nervous systems with
+mental and moral disorder.
+
+  _NERVOUS HEREDITY._
+
+                                 { Science           { Music.
+  Exceptional Intelligence       { Arts              { Painting.
+                                 { Letters
+
+                                 {                   { Paretic dementia.
+                                 {                   { Paralyses.
+                                 { Brain             { Tumours.
+  Lesions of the Nerve Centres   {                   { Brain Softening.
+                                 {                   { Congestion.
+                                 {
+                                 {                   { Softening of Spinal
+                                 { Spinal Cord       {   Cord.
+                                 {                   { Myelitis.
+
+                                 { Epilepsy.
+                                 { Chorea.
+  Neuroses                       { Stammering.
+                                 { Convulsive Fits.
+                                 { Hysteria.
+
+                                 { Utopians.
+  Intellectual States            { Eccentrics.
+                                 { Mixed Conditions.
+
+                                 { Prostitutes.
+  Emotional States               { Criminals.
+                                 { Unstable.
+
+  Neuralgia                      { External.
+                                 { Internal.
+
+                                 {                   { Symptomatical.
+                                 { Acute Insanity    { Idiopathic.
+                                 {                   { Alcoholic.
+  Psychoses                      { Imbecility
+                                 { Idiocy            { General Insanity.
+                                 { Chronic Insanity  { Dementia.
+                                                     { Partial Insanity.
+
+                                                     { Congenital
+                                                     {   Blindness.
+  Special and General Conditions of the Senses       { Anaesthesiae.
+                                                     { Deafness.
+                                                     { Hyperaesthesiae.
+
+  Nutritional Defect.
+
+The extensive studies of Niepce,[28] Vogt,[29] and others on idiot biology
+sought to show that the brain was not merely arrested in development, but
+sometimes reverted even as low as the sauropsida type (reptiles and
+birds). Grohmann,[30] as early as 1820, had "often been impressed in
+criminals, especially in those of defective development, by the prominent
+ears, the shape of the cranium, the projecting cheek-bones, the large
+lower jaws, the deeply placed eyes, the shifty, animal-like gaze."
+
+Maudsley[31] observes that in the case of such an extreme morbid variety
+as a congenital idiot we have to do with a defective nervous organisation.
+Marchand, in the brain of two idiots of European descent, found the
+convolutions fewer in number, individually less complex, broader and
+smoother than in the apes. The condition results neither from atrophy nor
+mere arrest of growth, but consists essentially in an imperfect evolution
+of the cerebral hemispheres or their parts, dependent on an arrest of
+development. The proportion of the weight of brain to that of body is
+extraordinarily diminished. With the brain of the orang type comes a
+corresponding defect of function. With this animal type of brain in idiocy
+sometimes appear animal traits and instincts. One class of idiots is
+justly designated theroid, so brute-like are its members.
+
+The human brain in the course of foetal development passes through the
+same stages as other vertebrate brains, and to some extent these
+transitional stages resemble the permanent forms of their brain. Summing
+up, as it were, in itself the leading forms of vertebrate type, there is
+truly a brute brain within the man's, and when the latter stops short of
+its characteristic development, it is natural that it should manifest only
+its most primitive functions.
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that the human brain, even of the idiot
+or microcephales, never resembles, _as a whole_, the brain of any
+anthropoid or lower animal form. Such a position was maintained by Vogt,
+but has long since been abandoned. The existing anthropoid apes are not
+the ancestors of man, and have pursued a different development.[32]
+
+Despine's[33] researches revealed the absence of human checks on the
+instinctive tendencies in criminals. He, however, started from the
+doctrine of moral imbecility as elaborated by Rush, Prichard, Brigham,
+Ray, Galt, and others. Bruce Thomson,[34] testing Despine's results by
+primitive races and Scotch criminals, found that defective, abnormal, and
+anomalous states of the instinctive faculties exist in entire races and in
+the "moral idiots" that occur in the best races. Criminals form a variety
+of the human family quite distinct from law-abiding men. A low type of
+physique indicating a deteriorated character gives a family likeness due
+to the fact that they form a community which retrogrades from generation
+to generation. The low physical condition of juvenile criminals in
+reformatories, &c., becomes at once obvious if they be compared with
+healthy, active school children. They are puny, sickly, scrofulous, often
+deformed, with peculiar, unnaturally developed heads, sluggish, stupid,
+liable to fits, mean in figure, and defective in vital energy, while at
+the same time they are irritable, violent, and too often quite
+incorrigible. The adults usually have a singularly stupid and insensate
+look. The complexion is bad. The outlines of the head are harsh and
+angular. The boys are ugly in feature, and have, as a rule, repulsive
+appearances. These diseases of criminals are a proof of their low type and
+deteriorated condition. Their deaths are mainly due to tubercular diseases
+and affections of the nervous system. In the greater number crime is
+hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily
+defect, such as spinal deformities, stammering or other imperfect speech,
+club-foot, cleft-palate, hare-lip, deformed jaws and teeth, deaf-mutism,
+congenital blindness, paralysis, epilepsy, and scrofula.
+
+Elisha Harris,[35] of New York, among 233 convicts found 54 to belong to
+families in which insanity, epilepsy, and other neuroses existed.
+Eighty-three per cent. belonged to a criminal, pauper, or inebriate stock,
+and were, therefore, hereditarily or congenitally affected. Nearly 76 per
+cent. of their number hence proved habitual criminals. According to
+Harris, crime, pauperism, and insanity revert into each other, so that
+insanity in the parent produces crime or pauperism in the offspring, or,
+_vice versa_, crime or pauperism in the parent produces disease or
+insanity in the offspring. Campagne, Broca, G. Wilson, and others about
+the same time made similar researches.
+
+The American sociologist, Samuel Royce, after a careful study of American
+and European defective classes,[36] found that observation of the
+hereditary nature of pauperism which congenitally reverts into insanity,
+disease or crime, leaves no doubt but that pauperism is one of the worst
+forms of race deterioration, and that the paralysis of the human will and
+its energies is but the result of a fearful dissolution in progress.
+
+Extensive researches made by Charles S. Hoyt,[37] of the New York State
+Board of Charities (1874), into the origin of the defective classes of
+that state, show that the pauper, hysteric, epileptic, prostitute,
+criminal, born-blind, deaf-mute, paranoiac, recurrent lunatic and idiot
+were buds of the same tree of degenerate heredity. E. C. Spitzka,[38]
+basing his researches on the principles of Morel as expanded and
+critically applied by Meynert,[39] reached essentially the same results as
+also did Westphal, Krafft-Ebing, Grille, Kerlin, Axel Key, Magnan,
+Foville, Bjornstrom, Amadei, Schuele, Nicolson,[40] Tonnini, Tamburini,
+Verga, Tamassia, Kowalevsky, and it may be said the German Psychiatrical
+Society (which, by accepting a conception of the distortion of mental
+faculties otherwise seemingly high, based on brain deformity rather than
+disease, accepted the degeneracy doctrine of to-day).
+
+For several decades, moreover, the stigmata of degeneracy have appeared in
+French, German, Austrian, Russian, Italian, and Scandinavian court reports
+as evidence of hereditary defects.
+
+As often happens in science--
+
+  "Thought by thought is piled till some great truth
+  Is loosened and the nations echo round."
+
+Wherefore about this period (1870-78) appeared the first volume of the
+epoch-making work of Cesare Lombroso,[41] who, erroneously credited with
+being the apostle of the modern doctrine of degeneracy, has admittedly
+done more to stimulate research than any other investigator. This work
+exerted an influence at first in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia,
+and the Scandinavian countries, while on the English-speaking countries,
+despite the apparently fertile soil prepared for it, its influence was
+seemingly slight. Under the degradation produced in many American
+charitable and correctional institutions by corruption, naturally
+resultant on a civil war, science therein was at a decided discount
+between 1861 and 1881. A school arose which, defying the individualistic
+rule of English common law underlying the institutions of the United
+States, pandered to mob-law and theologic prejudice by denying certain
+well-ascertained facts in human degeneracy. This school, represented at
+the Guiteau trial by the experts for the prosecution, denied heredity and
+that moral defect could result from physical abnormality. This school,
+however, was by no means representative of American psychiatry or
+sociology. Rush, Brigham, James MacDonald, Gait, McFarland, W. W. Godding,
+Ray, C. H. Hughes, Kerlin, Patterson, Wilbur, Fisher, J. H. McBride, C. H.
+Nichols, C. A. Folsom, Cowles, and others accepted Morel's principles.
+Spitzka,[42] long ere the trial, pointed out that criminals displayed the
+stigmata of Morel, and that the more intellectual types of insanity were
+based on brain deformity rather than disease.
+
+Benedikt,[43] of Vienna, in 1879 stated that "criminals generally have
+nothing analogous to monomaniacs. They tend to develop distinct
+peculiarities of organisation and psychic features, and these
+peculiarities are the product of their social condition." J. G.
+Kiernan,[44] reviewing his work, remarked that any one who had at all
+examined the question would be convinced that between the true criminal
+type, the imbecile and the paranoiac (_primaere verrueckt_) the
+psychological relations and their anatomical bases are intimate and close.
+Had Benedikt examined the insane and criminals, not for convolutional
+aberrations alone, but also for heterotopias, &c., he would never have
+written the sentence just quoted.
+
+W. W. Godding,[45] commenting on the evidence of J. P. Gray,[46] the
+leader of the American school that denies degeneracy, feelingly remarked
+that "the disordered mind does not cease to be a unit although the
+observed manifestations of its insanity may seem to be confined in some
+cases to the emotion; in others to the affection; and in still others to
+the intellectual powers. We cannot deny that the old masters were as
+keen-sighted observers as ourselves. I dislike to hear drunkenness called
+dipsomania, as I so often do; but I do not therefore say that dipsomania
+is only drunkenness. It might improve my standing with the legal
+fraternity if I should pronounce kleptomania only another name for
+stealing, but my personal observations convince me that the insane have
+sometimes a disposition to steal, which is a direct result of their
+disease, and for which they are no more accountable than the puerperal
+maniac is for her oaths.
+
+"And now, after all these years of careful research, and our asylum
+reports[47] rendered bulky with long tables prepared with so much care,
+involving inquiry on the origin of the disease not alone in the direct
+family line, but in the collateral branches also; just when the medical
+profession has come to believe that if one fact in medical science be
+better established than another, it is that insanity is hereditary, and we
+undertake in the present case to look up hereditary predisposition, and
+the family disposition likewise, we are met with the withering conundrum,
+'Can a man inherit insanity from his uncle?' and we are told that there is
+no such thing as hereditary insanity. Yes, gentlemen, I understand you;
+the tendency to the disease is inherited. And so in the strict use of
+language there is no such thing as insane delusion; but we know that
+language is seldom used with scientific exactness, and no one is at a loss
+to understand what we mean when we say that Jones is full of insane
+delusions, insanity being hereditary in his family. Yes, and if Jones
+should marry an insane woman, the chances are good that Jones's son will
+turn out crazy, no matter how carefully he may be brought up under the
+direction of the most eminent psychist, for that little germ which you
+call 'a tendency'--so minute that it will elude your most careful scrutiny
+with scalpel and microscope--is a fixed fact, and will prove more potent
+than all theories. Not born there; develops. Ah, how is it that science
+shows us that syphilis and small-pox and tubercle are born in the
+offspring, that the infant comes into the world with spina bifida,
+idiotic, hydrocephalic, acephalic, that the child is blind and mute and
+misshapen in his mother's womb, but is never insane? Because, forsooth, we
+have seen fit to limit insanity to disease of the brain, and disease is
+not inherited. Is it possible that in all these years it has not been Dr.
+Gray's lot as it has been mine to be consulted about those 'queer'
+children of insane parentage, who are perverse from the start? Will he say
+that the perverseness is only a 'badness' which should be whipped out of
+the child? But that has generally been thoroughly tried before the
+physician is consulted. Heterodox I know it is, but observed facts compel
+me to be heterodox with Prichard and Esquirol and Ray, with Morel and
+Griesinger and Maudsley, and I know not how many others, in recognising in
+some cases a condition of inherent defect born in the individual, and not
+a result of education--a condition which writers have recognised under
+various names as hereditary mental disorder, insane diathesis, insane
+temperament."
+
+The Guiteau trial so stimulated studies of degeneracy that two experts for
+the prosecution, A. McL. Hamilton[48] and H. M. Stearns,[49] later changed
+their views as to degeneracy, while C. L. Dana, a strong supporter of the
+Gray school in 1881, subsequently made valuable contributions to the
+literature of the degeneracy stigmata. The position then taken by Spitzka
+and Kiernan as to the cerebral basis of degeneracy was in 1882 supported
+by H. Howard,[50] of Montreal; Workman,[51] of Toronto; Kerlin,[52] of
+Pennsylvania; Osler,[53] of Baltimore; and C. K. Mills,[54] of
+Philadelphia.
+
+It was during 1881, moreover, that Jacobi made extensive studies of
+degeneracy in royalty and aristocracy,[55] as earlier had Ireland.[56]
+
+From the time of Itard degenerate phenomena in idiots had been traced to
+cerebral mal-development. Kerlin[57] pointed out that "epileptic change"
+in them was marked by moral alteration similar in explosive characters to
+that so frequently observed in criminals. In England students of idiocy
+like Clouston, Shuttleworth, Beach, Ireland, Langdon Down, and others, had
+early brought the recognition of its inter-relations with insanity, crime
+and neuroses into strong relief. To the studies of Bruce Thomson,
+Maudsley, and Nicolson, Tyndall[58] gave strong support from the actual
+experience of a governor of a great British prison, who found that the
+prisoners in his charge might be divided into three distinct classes: the
+first class consisted of persons who ought never to have been in prison;
+external accident and not internal taint had brought them within the grasp
+of the law, and what had happened to them might happen to most of us; they
+were essentially men of sound moral stamina, though wearing the prison
+garb. Then came the largest class, formed of individuals possessing no
+strong bias, moral or immoral, plastic to the touch of circumstances which
+would mould them into either good or evil members of society. Thirdly,
+came a class, happily not a large one, whom no kindness could conciliate
+and no discipline tame. They were sent into the world labelled
+"incorrigible," wickedness being stamped, as it were, upon their
+organisation.
+
+With the close of the year 1883 the degeneracy doctrine may be regarded as
+having practically been accepted in biology, in anthropology, in
+sociology, in criminology, in psychiatry, and general pathology. Debate
+was henceforth not as to its existence, but as to its limitations.
+Precedent to 1835 determinism in popular thought due to Calvinistic
+predestination had, in English-speaking countries, fought for the
+doctrine; subsequent thereto the theologic reaction against Calvinism was
+a strong opposing force, whose influence was finally destroyed by the
+practically general acceptance of the doctrine of evolution in the late
+seventies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE STIGMATA OF DEGENERACY
+
+
+The attempt made by Morel to limit the doctrine of degeneracy to the
+domain of the morbid proved impossible, because of the rapid accumulation
+of data by his own school, which demonstrated that atavistic deformity
+played a larger part in the production of diseases. Bland Sutton does not
+too forcibly put this result when he states[59] that if it be difficult to
+define disease when restricted to the human family, it becomes obviously
+more difficult when disease is investigated on a broad biological basis.
+As the great barrier which exists between man and those members of his
+class most closely allied to him consists not in structural characters but
+in mental power, it necessarily follows that there should be a similarity
+in the structural alterations induced by diseased conditions in all kinds
+of animals, allowing of course for the difference in environment. This is
+known to be the case, and it is clear that as there has been a gradual
+evolution of complex from simple organisms, it necessarily follows that
+the principles of evolution ought to apply to diseased conditions if they
+hold good for the normal or healthy states or organism; in plain words,
+there has been an evolution of disease _pari passu_ with evolution of
+animal forms. For a long time it has been customary to talk of physiologic
+types of diseased tissues; Sutton's earlier efforts were directed to
+searching among animals for the purpose of detecting in them the
+occurrence of tissues, which in man are only found under abnormal
+conditions. The statement proved to be true in a limited sense. At the
+same time the truth of an opinion held by nearly all thoughtful
+physicians, that disease may in many instances be regarded as an
+exaggerated function, was forcibly illustrated; the manifestations of
+disease were found to be regulated by the same law which governs
+physiological processes in general, and many conditions regarded as
+pathological in one animal were revealed as physiological in another.
+
+The doctrine, therefore, has its scope limited only by biologic data. It
+of necessity begins with the cell itself in its relation to other cells of
+that practically compound organism which constitutes a single vertebrate.
+The cell may, therefore, degenerate as a single member of that organism,
+producing danger or benefit to the other cells. Thus the cancer cell
+degenerates in its power of reproduction below the tissue to which it
+belongs. It is peculiarly true here, as has been said by Herbert Spencer,
+that every vertebrate is an aggregate whose internal actions are adapted
+to counterbalance its external actions; hence the preservation of its
+movable equilibrium depends upon its development and the proper number of
+these actions; the movable equilibrium may be ruined when one of these
+actions is too great or too small, and through deficiency or need of some
+organic or inorganic cause in its surroundings. Every individual can
+adapt itself to these changeable influences in two ways, either directly
+or by producing new individuals who will take the place of those whom the
+equilibrium has destroyed. Therefore there exist forces preservative and
+destructive of the race. As it is impossible that these two kinds of force
+should counterbalance each other, it is necessary that the equilibrium
+should re-establish itself in an orderly way. Since there are two
+preservative forces of every animal group--the impulse of every individual
+to self-preservation and the impulse to the production of other
+individuals--these faculties must vary in an inverse ratio; the former
+must diminish when the second augments. Degeneration constitutes a process
+of disintegration, the reverse of integration. Hence, if the term
+individuation be applied to all the processes which complete and sustain
+the life of the individual, and that of generation to those which aid the
+formation and development of new individuals, individuation and generation
+are necessarily antagonistic.
+
+In the phenomena of unisexual generation we see that the larger organisms
+never reproduce themselves in the unisexual way, while the smaller
+organisms reproduce themselves with the greatest rapidity by this method.
+Between these two extremes unisexual reproduction decreases while the size
+increases. In the history of all plants and animals is evident the
+physiologic truth, that while the general growth of the individual
+proceeds rapidly, the reproductive organs remain imperfectly developed and
+inactive. On the contrary, the principle of reproduction indicates
+decrease in the intensity of growth and becomes a cause of cessation.
+
+Great fecundity is always attended by great mortality. Each superior
+degree of organic evolution is accompanied by an inferior degree of
+fecundity. The greater the germs the less is the individuation, and _vice
+versa_. The greater and more complex the organisation, the less is the
+power of multiplication.
+
+What is true of the cells is also true of organs composed of them. Each
+organ can be regarded as a distinct animal (a parasite is preferable for
+comparison) which has its own nervous system (the ganglia), but is fed and
+controlled by the organism as a whole. Degeneration of this organ may
+therefore be an expression of a local state peculiar to it and either
+beneficial or maleficent, or both in inverse degree, to the organism as a
+whole, or it may be the expression of a general defect in the whole
+organism. The sclerotic states of the appendix vermiformis in man and of
+the human liver are, as Kiernan has shown, two excellent illustrations of
+the degeneracies last described. Man, in common with the four anthropoid
+apes, has a little thin tube attached to the caecum known as the appendix
+vermiformis. In the early embryo it is equal in calibre to the other
+bowels, but ceases to grow proportionately after a certain time. In the
+new-born child it is almost as large as in the adult. As this tube proved
+disadvantageous to man's precursor (as it does to certain mammals) from
+catching foreign bodies which form the nucleus of enteroliths or bowel
+stones, it has lost the nutritive supply of the other intestines and is
+tending to disappear. It is often absent in man. The defect in its
+structure, while predisposing to the attacks of germs and an expression of
+its own degeneracy, is an evidence of an advance in evolution in the
+organism as a whole by which great danger and waste of nutritive force
+are avoided.
+
+Recent researches[60] have shown that "hob-nail" liver, once supposed to
+be due entirely to abuse of alcohol, usually occurs in states of
+congenital deficiency in persons of defective heredity. The change in the
+appendix which is tending to cause its disappearance is essentially a
+sclerosis, and hence is morbid, considered from the appendix standpoint
+alone. As the same process occurs in "hob-nail" liver, it is obvious that
+degeneracy may be an expression of general advance and local defect or may
+be a local expression of general defect. The same phenomenon is seen in
+the nervous system. The researches of Cunningham[61] have shown that in
+man the struggle for existence between the sympathetic and the
+cerebro-spinal system has ended in the victory of the latter, while the
+first is tending to disappear. Such changes must necessarily result in
+local degeneracies which are for the benefit of the organism as a whole.
+Degeneracy on this basis may express itself in simple disturbance of the
+lower or nutritive functions. The uric acid or gouty states, for example,
+are, as Fothergill long ago pointed out, assumptions by mammalian organs
+of the functions of those of birds and reptiles. In conditions like
+myxoedema the skin, through thyroid gland disturbances, takes on features
+which resemble in result those found in certain mollusks and low fish.
+These nutritive disturbances may show themselves in disorders of the
+pituitary body (acromegaly, giantism, &c.), whereby the bony system of man
+reverts to conditions like those of the gorilla. The same conditions also
+appear in the diathesis of the "bleeders." All these conditions, however,
+may be an expression of a degenerate type assuming a normal equilibrium,
+as well as of a normal organism taking the first steps in degeneracy.
+
+In a general way, therefore, as Dohrn has pointed out, this principle
+holds good of man not only as an organic unit but as a compound organism.
+Degeneracy[62] is a gradual change of structures by which the organism
+becomes adapted to less varied and less complex conditions of life. The
+opposite progression process of elaboration is a gradual change of
+structure in which the organism becomes adapted to more and more varied
+and complex conditions of existence. In elaboration there is a new
+expression of form corresponding to new perfection of work in the animal
+machine. In degeneracy there is suppression of form corresponding to the
+cessation of work. Elaboration of some one organ may be a necessary
+accompaniment of degeneracy in all the others. This is very generally the
+case. Only when the total result of the elaboration of some organs, and
+the degeneracy of others, is such as to leave the whole mass in a lower
+condition--that is, fitted to less complex action and reaction in regard
+to its surroundings than is the type--can the individual be regarded as an
+instance of degeneracy. These degeneracies appear at varying periods,
+since struggles for existence on the part of the different organs and
+systems of the body are most ardent during periods of body evolution and
+involution. During foetal life, during the first dentition, during the
+second dentition (often as late as the thirteenth year), during puberty
+and adolescence (fourteen to twenty-five), during the climacteric (forty
+to sixty), when uterine involution occurs in woman and prostatic
+involution in man, and finally during senility (sixty and upwards), during
+all these periods degeneracy may be shown by mental or physical defect, a
+congenital tendency to which has remained latent until the period of
+stress. These defects may be such biochemic alterations (undemonstrable by
+existing methods) as lead to diminished inhibitory power or other altered
+function, or to secondary pathologic or teratologic change of decidedly
+demonstrable nature. Organs and structures checked at a certain phase of
+development may pursue a course of development differing from that pointed
+out in man but outlined in other vertebrates. The human cyclopean
+monstrosities, for example, might be regarded as reversions to the
+single-eyed sea-squirts, who are possibly the Ascidian precursors of the
+vertebrates.
+
+The scope of degeneracy may therefore be limited to certain signs which
+are its sole expressions. These signs (stigmata as they were early called)
+may be the only expression of degeneracy, and their significance must be
+determined by a careful examination of the organism in which these
+expressions are found, since they may be merely defects produced by
+degeneracy, or may indicate how deep such degeneracy has penetrated. They
+may, therefore, indicate either slight or serious defect. In proportion to
+the depth of degeneracy in the organism will the stigmata affect the
+earlier simpler or later complicated acquisitions through evolution. Of
+necessity, when the organism is affected by degeneracy, the morbid element
+will take the line of least resistance, determined by the depth of
+degeneracy as well as the variability of the structures concerned. The
+same influence must equally affect functions of the structures.
+Furthermore, expressions of degeneracy will, as already stated, be
+influenced by the periods of stress; the first and second dentition,
+puberty, the climacteric and the senile period. In a general way these
+stigmata are divisible into mental and physical, and are best observable
+in their relations to the periods of stress. In certain races, as in
+certain animals, conditions appearing before puberty was completed cannot
+be considered as settling the position of the animal in evolution. What is
+true of individuals is also true of classes. The anthropoid apes and the
+negroes are much higher in physical characteristics, with potential mental
+results, before puberty than after. The infant ape, as Havelock Ellis[63]
+points out, is very much nearer to man than the adult ape. "The infant ape
+is higher in the line of evolution than the adult, and the female ape, by
+approximating to the infant type, is somewhat higher than the male. Man,
+in carrying on the line of evolution, started not from some adult male
+simian, but from the infant ape and, in a less degree, from the female
+ape. The human infant bears precisely the same relation to his species as
+the simian infant bears to his, and we are bound to conclude that his
+relation to the future evolution of the race is similar. The human infant
+presents, in an exaggerated form, the chief distinctive characteristics of
+humanity--the large head and brain, the small face, the hairlessness, the
+delicate bony system. By some strange confusion of thought we usually
+ignore this fact, and assume that the adult form is more highly developed
+than the infantile form. From the point of view of adaptation to the
+environment, it is undoubtedly true that the coarse, hairy, large-boned
+and small-brained gorilla is better fitted to make his way in the world
+than his delicate offspring; but from a zoological point of view we
+witness anything but progress. In man, from about the third year onwards,
+further growth--though an absolutely necessary adaptation to the
+environment--is to some extent growth in degeneration and senility. It is
+not carried to so low a degree as in the apes, although by it man is to
+some extent brought nearer to the apes, and among the higher human races
+the progress towards senility is less marked than among the lower human
+races. The child of many African races is scarcely, if at all, less
+intelligent than the European child, but while the African as he grows up
+becomes stupid and obtuse, and his whole social life falls into a state of
+hide-bound routine, the European retains much of his childlike vivacity.
+And if we turn to what we are accustomed to regard as the highest human
+types, as represented in men of genius, we shall find a striking
+approximation to the child type." The face, in its contest for existence
+with the brain, has finally caused both the cranium and the jaws to assume
+(for defence and food purposes) a lower type, although as regards existing
+functions and the higher standpoint of environment the infantile type must
+be considered the higher. Still a casual glance at the Ascidian tadpole
+shows that deficient as is the development of the ganglia afterward
+forming the medulla, the face is still more deficient. The face, as Minot
+shows,[64] is a characteristic of the higher vertebrates, and acquires
+increased importance with rise in the evolution. The position of the face
+in embryonic development is originally determined by the head-bend. If a
+median, longitudinal section of the head be imagined to occupy a
+rectangular area divided into quarters, then the lower posterior quarter
+corresponds to the mouth region, the other three-quarters to the brain. As
+development progresses, the mouth quarter so disproportionately enlarges
+in relation to the rest of the head as to project forward in front of the
+fore-brain. In this stage, which is represented by the adult amphibians,
+the bulk of the facial apparatus is very great, proportionately to the
+cranium. In the reptiles the mouth region is elongated still further in
+front of the brain-case, resulting in the long snout. In mammals a third
+stage is established by the great increase in size of the brain,
+especially of the cerebral hemispheres. In consequence the brain comes to
+extend over the snout, as it were; in man, whose brain has the maximum
+enlargement, the facial apparatus is almost entirely covered by the brain.
+In the course of evolution the face, while serviceable to the animal for
+certain reasons of general constitutional character (food-getting, means
+of defence and means of obtaining mates), is less so than brain growth. A
+struggle for existence, therefore, inevitably results between the tendency
+of the face to appropriate power of growth and the like tendency of the
+brain, which, in defective organisms, produces marked reversions of the
+one for the benefit of the other. This struggle is further complicated by
+the embryonic relations to both of the hypophysis, since this body
+admittedly exerts an influence over bone growth, most markedly (but
+abnormally) exhibited in acromegaly (excessive bone growth). In this
+contest for existence in the degenerate types, degeneracy will, of
+necessity, take the direction of least resistance. As the brain is the
+last acquirement in vertebrates, considered from the standpoint of
+necessity, while the face (also a late acquirement) is much less complex,
+the last, obviously, will present the derangements from degeneration in
+shape, while the former will show these in shape and function.
+Furthermore, during the embryonic period the development of the brain
+will, of necessity, be more immediately affected by degeneracy than the
+face, which will gain in evolution at its expense. The stigmata of
+degeneracy, therefore, most likely to attract attention are in the order
+given, those of the face, jaws, and teeth; ear, eye, cranium; body, bodily
+functions; brain and spinal cord. Under these last are to be included
+their mental and nervous functions.
+
+The following table summarizes in practical form these stigmata[65]:--
+
+               {              { Crime.
+               { Ethical      { Prostitution and Sexual Degeneracy.
+               { Degeneracy.  { Moral Insanity, Pauperism, and Inebriety.
+               {
+               {              { Paranoia.
+               {              { Adolescent Insanity.
+               {              { Periodical Insanity.
+  Cerebral.    { Intellectual { Hysteria.
+               { Degeneracy.  { Epilepsy.
+               {              { Neuroses.
+               {              { One-sided Genius.
+               {              { Idiocy.
+               {
+               { Sensory      { Deaf-Mutism.
+               { Degeneracy.  { Congenital Colour Blindness.
+               {              { Smell Abnormalities.
+
+  Spinal       Various congenital and hereditary disorders
+
+               { Exophthalmic Goitre.
+               { Lymphoid Degeneracy.
+               { Acromegaly.
+               { Tissue Instability.
+               { Adenoids.
+               { Myxoedema.
+  Nutritive    { Plural Births.
+  Degeneracy   { Bleeders.
+               { Cancer.
+               { Excessive Fecundity.
+               { Gout.
+               { Early Lipomatosis.
+
+               { Jaws.
+               { Cleft Palate.
+               { Teeth.
+               { Primitive Uteri.
+  Local        { Cloacal conditions (and allied male states)
+  Reversionary { Horseshoe Kidney and allied states.
+  Tendencies.  { Cyclopian Monstrosities.
+               { Amelia and Polymelia, Club feet, &c.
+               { Plural mammae.
+               { Simian muscular and bony states.
+               { Liver and other organ reversions.
+
+The factors producing degeneration act by causing nervous exhaustion in
+the first generation. This implies a practical degeneration in function
+since tone is lost.
+
+Every nerve cell has two functions, one connected with sensation or
+motion, and the other with growth. If the cell be tired by excessive work
+along the line of sensation or motion the function as regards growth
+becomes later impaired, and it not only ceases to continue in strength,
+but becomes self-poisoned. Each of the organs (heart, liver, kidneys, &c.)
+has its own system of nerves (the sympathetic ganglia), which while under
+control by the spinal cord and brain act independently. If these nerves
+become tired the organ fails to perform its function, the general system
+becomes both poisoned and ill-fed, and nervous exhaustion results. In most
+cases, however, the brain and spinal cord are first exhausted. The nerves
+of the organs are thus allowed too free play, and exhaust themselves
+later. This systemic exhaustion has local expression in the testicles in
+the male, in the womb and ovaries in the female. Through this the body is
+imperfectly supplied with natural tonics (antitoxins) formed by the
+structures, and the general nervous exhaustion becomes still more
+complete. All the organs of the body are weakened in their function.
+Practically the neurasthenic in regard to his organs has taken on a
+degenerative function albeit not degenerating in structure, since the
+restlessness of the organs is a return to the undue expenditure of force
+which occurs in the lower animals in proportion as it is unchecked by a
+central nervous system. Through the influence of various exhausting
+agencies the spinal cord and the brain lose the gains of evolution and the
+neurasthenic is no longer adjusted to environment. Since the reproductive
+organs suffer particularly, children born after the acquirement of nervous
+exhaustion, more or less checked in development as the influence of
+atavism is healthy or not, repeat degenerations in the structure of their
+organs, which in the parent were represented by neurasthenic disorders in
+function. As the ovaries of the neurasthenic women generally exhibit
+prominently the effects of the nervous exhaustion, the offspring of these
+do not retain enough vigour to pass through the normal process of
+development.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HEREDITY AND ATAVISM
+
+
+Heredity, like other biologic factors, starts with the cell. As elsewhere
+pointed out, reproduction is first unicellular in type and involves an
+expenditure of nutritive force antagonistic to the growth of the cell. As
+Geddes remarks,[66] no one can dispute that the nutritive, vegetative, or
+self-regarding processes within the plant or animal are as opposed to the
+reproductive, multiplying, species-regarding processes, as income to
+expenditure or as building up to breaking down. But within the ordinary
+nutritive or vegetative functions of the body there is necessarily a
+continuous antithesis between two tissue-changing sets of processes,
+constructive and destructive metabolism. The contrast between these two
+processes is seen throughout nature, whether in the alternating phases of
+cell-life or in the great antithesis of growth and reproduction.
+
+The starfish, deprived of an arm, replaces this by a fresh growth; crabs
+can renew the great claws which they have lost in fighting; even as high
+up as the lizard the loss of a leg or a tail can be made good. In a great
+variety of cases a kind of physiological forgiveness is shown in the
+reparation of even serious injuries. Now this "regeneration," as it is
+called, is a process of reproduction. By continuous growth the cells of a
+persistent stump are able to reproduce the entire number. A sponge, a
+hydra or a sea-anemone may be cut into pieces with the result that each
+fragment grows into a new organism. The same is done with many plants; and
+though the division is artificial the result shows how very far from
+unique is the process spoken of as reproduction, which is but more or less
+discontinuous growth. This is well shown in the evolution onward
+insensibly from cases of continuous budding, as in sponge or rosebush, to
+discontinuous budding in hydra zoophyte and tiger-lily, where the
+offspring vegetatively produced are sooner or later set free.
+
+The enormous expenditure of force required for unicellular reproduction is
+lessened by conjugation with another cell through satisfaction of cell
+hunger; and this, by making two cells do the work of one, lessens the
+amount of nutritive force expended by each. Evolution in fertilisation has
+the following steps:--
+
+    I. Formation of plasmodia.
+   II. Multiple conjugation.
+  III. Conjugation of the two similar cells.
+   IV. Union of incipiently dimorphic (different) cells.
+    V. Fertilisation of differentiated sex elements.
+
+As Maupas has shown, by the time conjugation of two similar cells is
+reached, the paranucleus in both is incipiently hermaphroditic. The
+impelling force leading to conjugation is, as Rolph has shown, cell
+hunger. Conjugation, he remarks, is a necessity for satisfaction, a
+gnawing hunger which drives the animal to engulf its neighbour, to
+isophagy (self-eating). The process of conjugation is only a special form
+of nutrition which occurs because of a reduction of the nutritive income
+or an increase of the nutritive needs. It is an "isophagy" which occurs in
+place of "heterophagy" (eating of others). "The less nutritive, and
+therefore smaller, hungrier, and more mobile organism is the male, the
+more nutritive and usually relatively more quiescent organism the female.
+Therefore, too, is it that the small starving male seeks out the large,
+well-nourished female for purpose of conjugation, to which the latter, the
+larger and better nourished, is on its own motive less inclined." The
+unicellular type of reproduction long remains after sex differentiation
+has occurred and assumes the form of parthenogenesis (virgin generation).
+The phenomena of this demonstrate that the female element is the highest
+in evolution. Spitzka[67] has shown that the ovum possesses an inherent
+activity independently of fructification. How far this may extend in the
+direction of more mature development is shown by what is known about
+parthenogenesis. This is the development of living beings without a
+father. Bees, some butterflies, ants and wasps notoriously multiply their
+kind without sexual congress. As a rule the parthenogenetic offspring are
+themselves incapable of further procreating their kind. But to this there
+are remarkable exceptions. The aphides multiply for many generations
+without the intervention of a male. Weigenbergh has shown that the
+silk-moth can be propagated as long as the male element is permitted to
+act at every fourth generation. The _Artemsia salina_, a minute
+crustacean living in saline springs, reproduces its kind for years
+without a male being present, males being produced at definite intervals
+only (Von Siebold). Among the vertebrata parthenogenetic development has
+also been observed, though rarely reaching maturity. Thus, segmentation
+occurs in unfertilised ova of the chicken (Oellacher), of the fish
+(Burnett and Agassiz), and of frogs (Moquia-Tanden). Spitzka has seen a
+blastoderm form in unfertilised ova of the toad-fish (_Batrachus tau_).
+Hensen isolated the oviducts of a rabbit, thus rendering the admission of
+semen impossible, while the ova, discharged at heat, were compelled to
+remain in these oviducts. Three years later he killed the animal and found
+the ova had developed into twisted, club-shaped, hollow sacs. The
+development in the female ovary (also, though very rarely, in the male
+testicle and parotid gland, which show such a remarkable metastatic
+sympathy in mumps), of dermoid cysts (containing bones recognisable as
+maxillaries with teeth, hair, and skin, rudimentary bowel, gland, and
+brain traces), even in undoubted virgins, proves that even the human ovum
+is capable of parthenogenetic development. While such development, so far
+as known to science, is always abortive, and while, as Washington Irving
+remarks, the ingenious maiden who to-day would attribute conception to any
+other cause than sexual congress would find it difficult to overcome the
+prejudice of scientists, yet embryology, while declaring immaculate
+generation improbable, does not pronounce it impossible. A worker bee may
+be an offspring of an unimpregnated queen bee. What is a regular
+occurrence in one class of animals is sometimes observed as an
+exceptional one in another class. If the startling and apparently
+miraculous nature of a virgin generation of a living child be regarded as
+the sole objection to receiving such a fact, its defender might urge that
+the virgin generation of a dermoid cyst with all the traces, however
+aborted, of vertebrate organisation, is only a shade less startling and
+miraculous.
+
+This power of parthenogenesis, however, cannot continue indefinitely
+without extinction. This has been shown by the careful experiments of
+Maupas, who had observed 215 generations of an infusorian without sexual
+union. He found that then the family became extinct. Powers of nutrition,
+division, and conjugation with unrelated forms come to a standstill. The
+first symptom of this senile degeneration is decrease in size, which may
+go on till the individuals only measure a quarter of their normal
+proportions. Various internal structures then follow suit "until at last
+formless abortions occur, incapable of living and reproducing themselves."
+The nuclear changes are no less momentous. The important paranucleus is
+fatally sterile. The larger nucleus may also become affected, "the
+chromatin gradually disappears altogether." Physiologically, too, the
+organisms become manifestly weaker, though there is excessive sexual
+excitation. Such senile decay of the individuals and of the isolated
+family inevitably ends in death. Sexual union in those infusorians,
+dangerous perhaps for the individual life, a loss of time so far as
+immediate multiplication is concerned, is, in a new sense, necessary for
+the species. The life runs in cycles of a sexual division which are
+strictly limited. Conjugation with unrelated forms must occur else the
+whole life ebbs. Without it the protozoa, which some have called
+"immortal," die a natural death. Conjugation is the necessary condition of
+their eternal youth and immortality.
+
+Starting from this standpoint the relative functions of the two sexes in
+heredity are apparent. The original function of reproduction, that of cell
+division, is the part of the female. The male in the lower instances
+simply supplies the female with nutriment. Thus in certain plants there is
+nothing but a subtle osmosis between the sexes. This is also the case with
+some of the lower infusoria. With a rise in evolution protoplasm becomes
+differentiated. At the outset of the subject of heredity it is evident,
+therefore, that the female furnishes the type which is best capable of
+development when properly nourished by a highly developed male. To
+deficiencies in both particulars are due defects and variations in the
+offspring. As the product of fructification is longest under the nutritive
+control of the female, her influence is most emphatic in either redeeming
+defects or producing them. Heredity, according to Ribot, Spitzka, Fere,
+and others, is divisible into direct heredity, indirect heredity, and,
+more dubiously, telegony. Direct heredity consists in the transmission of
+paternal and maternal qualities to the children. This form of heredity has
+two aspects: (1) The child takes after father and mother equally as
+regards both physical and moral characters, a case strictly speaking of
+very rare occurrence; or (2) the child, while taking after both parents,
+more especially resembles one of them. Here again distinction must be made
+between two cases. The first of these is when the heredity takes place in
+the same sex from father to son, from mother to daughter. The other which
+occurs more frequently, is where heredity occurs between different
+sexes--from father to daughter or from mother to son. Reversional heredity
+or atavism consists in the reproduction in the descendants of the moral or
+physical qualities of their ancestors. It occurs frequently between
+grandfather and grandson, as well as between grandmother and
+granddaughter. Collateral or indirect heredity, which is of rarer
+occurrence than the foregoing, and is simply a form of atavism, subsists,
+as indicated by the name, between individuals and their ancestors in the
+indirect line--uncle, or grand-uncle and nephew, aunt and niece. Finally
+(3) there is telegony, or the heredity of influence, very rare from the
+physiological point of view, which consists in reproduction in the
+children by a second marriage of some peculiarity belonging to a former
+spouse.
+
+In dealing with heredity the position of Weismann and others, that
+acquired characters cannot be inherited, needs a short examination. In his
+later work Weismann has practically abandoned the essential basis of his
+position by admitting that maternal nutrition may play a part in
+determining variation. He[68] now asserts that the origin of a variation
+is equally independent of selection and amphimixis, and is due to the
+constant occurrence of slight inequalities of nutrition in the germ plasm.
+As acquired characters affecting the constitution of the parents are
+certain to affect the nutrition of the germ plasm, it is therefore
+obvious, according to Weismann's admission, that acquired characters or
+their consequences will be inherited. This is an emphatic though
+concealed abandonment of the central position of Weismann.
+
+One of the stock arguments of the Weismann school is drawn from results of
+the Jewish rite of circumcision. While the operation is not calculated to
+make a profound impression on the constitution, and furthermore, as being
+performed on the male, less likely to affect the race, still the alleged
+non-inheritance of its results is much over-estimated. William Wolf,[69]
+of Baltimore, Maryland, who has circumcised six hundred Jewish children,
+finds on careful examination, that 2 per cent. were born partially
+circumcised and 6 per cent. were born with a short prepuce. P. C.
+Remondino,[70] of Los Angeles, California, has seen a large number of
+cases of absence of the prepuce which proved to be hereditary. After a
+confinement his attention was once called to the child by the nurse, who
+thought it was deformed. The nurse was astonished at the size and
+appearance of the glans penis. On examination the prepuce was found to be
+completely absent. On inquiry, the father and another son, born more than
+twenty years previously (comprising every male member of the family), were
+found to have been born with the glands fully exposed. He has seen a
+French family similarly affected.
+
+Similar, but much stronger, results have been obtained by me through the
+courtesy of the Reverend Drs. S. Bauer, M. A. Cohen, and B. Gordon, all of
+Chicago. Dr. Bauer, who has been seventeen years in the practice of the
+religious rite of circumcision, has circumcised 3,400 boys and has found
+preputial absence in about 3-1/2 per cent. of the cases. Dr. Cohen, who
+has been two decades in the practice, has performed 10,000 circumcisions.
+He has found the prepuce wanting in 500 cases; partially developed in 300
+cases; slightly developed in 2,000 cases. Dr. Gordon has performed 4,400
+circumcisions in twenty-five years. He has found the prepuce absent in 15
+cases; partly wanting in 200, and slightly developed in 2,200 cases.
+These, it should be remembered, are only cases where preputial change
+forced itself on the observer, who was not pursuing investigations on this
+point.
+
+The volume of Hebrew casuistic religious literature collected in the
+Medrash, evidences as I have elsewhere[71] shown the frequency of
+congenital preputial defect.
+
+That acquired characters can be transmitted has been definitely shown by
+the experiments of George Roe Lockwood,[72] of New York, anent hereditary
+transmission of mutilations. White mice were selected, as they begin to
+breed when thirty days old, and breed every thirty days. He bred in-and-in
+for thirty-six generations, destroying the weakly, and thus obtained finer
+animals than the first pair. He selected a pair, caged them by themselves,
+and clipped the tails of the young. When they were old enough to breed, he
+selected a pair and clipped the tails of their progeny. In the seventh
+generation he obtained some tailless mice, and finally a tailless breed.
+The experiments have one possible element of error; white mice, like all
+albinoes, are a degenerate type. At the same time these experiments show
+that accidental mutilations favoured by circumstances are inherited.
+
+Eimer[73] reports the case of a pair of long-tailed pointers which had
+once produced a litter of long-tailed pups. In order to obtain
+short-tailed pups the owner had the tails of both shortened. The bitch
+from that time produced repeatedly short-tailed pups only. As the most
+careful attention was paid to the parents, no error can be suspected in
+this case, which, moreover, excites no surprise among dog-breeders.
+
+Brown-Sequard[74] has shown that a peculiar alteration of the shape of the
+ear or a partial closing of the eyelids is inherited by the offspring of
+animals in which these changes were caused by dividing the sympathetic.
+Exophthalmia (eye protrusion) was inherited by guinea-pigs in whose
+parents this protrusion of the eyes had occurred after an injury to the
+spinal cord, and so were bruises and dry gangrene, as well as other
+trophic disturbances in the ear, due in the parents to an injury to the
+restiform body of the brain. Loss of certain phalanges or of whole toes of
+the hind feet which had occurred in the parents in consequence of division
+of the sciatic nerve was inherited. Diseased conditions of the sciatic
+nerve occurred in the offspring of guinea-pigs in which this nerve was
+divided. Forty guinea-pigs in which one or both eyes showed more or less
+morbid change were descended from three individuals in which one eye had
+become diseased in consequence of transverse section of the restiform
+body. Twenty guinea-pigs exhibited muscular atrophy on the upper and lower
+sides of the thigh, when in the parents such atrophy had been caused by
+section of the sciatic nerve.
+
+The experiments of Brown-Sequard, Westphal, Dupuy[75] and Obersteiner,
+which show that artificially induced epilepsy is inherited, still further
+bear out the conclusions resultant on the inheritance of these
+mutilations. Indeed, Weismann has been forced to that _reductio ad
+absurdum_ in science, narrowly limited definitions, in order to maintain
+his position. "But although I hold it improbable," he remarks, "that
+individual variability can depend on a direct action of external
+influences upon the germ cells and their contained germ plasm, because, as
+follows from sundry facts, the molecular structure of the germ plasm must
+be very difficult to change, yet it is by no means to be implied that this
+structure may not possibly be altered by influences of the same kind
+continuing for a very long time. This much may be maintained: that
+influences which are mostly of variable nature, tending now in one
+direction, now in another, can hardly produce a change in the structure of
+the germ plasm, and this is the reason why the cause of inheritable
+individual differences must be sought elsewhere than in these varying
+influences." "No one has doubted," he says, in reply to objections made by
+Virchow, "that there are a number of congenital deformities, birth-marks,
+and other individual peculiarities which are inherited. But these are
+acquired characters in the above sense. True, they must once have appeared
+for the first time, but we cannot say exactly from what causes; we only
+know that at least a great proportion of them proceed from the germ
+itself, and must therefore be due to alterations of the germinal
+substance. If Virchow could show that any single one of these hereditary
+deformities had its origin in the action of some external cause upon the
+already formed body (soma) of the individual and not upon the germ cell,
+then the inheritance of acquired characters would be proved. But this no
+one has yet succeeded in proving, often as it has been maintained."
+
+The crucial test which Weismann demands is furnished by Dupuy,[76] who
+made one thousand experiments on guinea-pigs to the fifth generation,
+critically rejecting all results which did not correspond to the most
+rigid tests of direct heredity, excluding all instances of indirect
+heredity, however demonstrable. He found that certain lesions of the
+spinal cord, or the brain or the sciatic nerve, give rise in guinea-pigs
+to epilepsy.
+
+In from three to six weeks after the operation an alteration in the
+nutrition takes place in an area of skin which is limited by a line
+starting from the outer canthus of the eye, and running to the median line
+on the upper lip, enclosing the nostril, thence backward enclosing the
+lower jaw, to the anterior portion of the shoulder to the median dorsal
+line, to the base of the ear and inner canthus of the eye. The alteration
+in nutrition occurs on the side corresponding to the injury. The pain,
+heat and cold sense disappear by degrees, while touch appears to be
+exalted. Very soon, tickling this zone of skin gives rise to twitchings
+limited to the muscles of the eye and the eyelids on the same side. Later,
+the muscles of the mouth and of the face are affected, still later the
+contractions become more general, until the whole side is the seat of
+convulsions, then the convulsions attack the other side also. When things
+have come to this point the convulsions precede by a very short time
+complete loss of consciousness. If the subject of experiment be white, it
+is found that there is paleness of the face, but in all cases there is
+little foam at the mouth and dilatation of the pupils. The animal
+sometimes utters a cry corresponding to the epileptic cry in the man. Not
+only are the convulsions identical with those in epileptic man, but there
+is also loss of consciousness, a state of torpor, stupor, and even
+sometimes insanity. When epilepsy is due to the destruction of the sciatic
+nerve, the foot of the affected side loses the two outer toes, so that the
+animal has only one toe, the inner. When young are born to such a parent
+or parents (for it matters not whether one or both of the parents have
+been operated upon), they have very often only one toe on the posterior
+foot. Sometimes, however, they have additional toes, which, in this case,
+are attached by a pedicle to the limb.
+
+Those peculiarities observed in the parents are in all their details
+witnessed in the guinea-pigs hereditarily born toeless, who have developed
+epileptic phenomena. In Dupuy's cases not only is the epileptic tendency
+(of which Weismann gives a wholly imaginative microbic explanation)
+inherited, but the very stigmata (loss of toes) which mark development of
+the parental epilepsy.
+
+E. D. Cope's[77] careful studies of the effects of impacts and strains on
+the feet of mammals are testimony difficult for Weismann to explain, since
+they also meet his requirements.
+
+Weismann's admission of the inheritance of a tuberculous habit must
+logically, from the standpoint of degeneracy, be regarded as destroying
+his claims.
+
+Kiernan has observed the case of a female cat in which brain mutilation
+had been induced to secure secondary cerebro-spinal degenerations. The
+mutilations were made under antiseptic precautions. The descendants of
+this cat had traces of the mutilation, and its results until the fourth
+generation, when the breed became extinct. This instance certainly fulfils
+all Weismann requirements.
+
+In the Lambert family a skin deformity, the last result of degeneracy in
+previous generations, was transmitted. This peculiarity appeared first,
+according to Proctor,[78] in the person of Edward Lambert, whose whole
+body, except his face, the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet,
+was covered with a horny excrescence. He was the father of six children,
+all of whom as soon as they had reached the age of six weeks presented the
+same peculiarity. The only one of them who lived transmitted the
+peculiarity to all his sons. For five generations all the male members of
+the family were distinguished by the horny excrescence which had adorned
+the body of Edward Lambert.
+
+Shwe-Maong, one of the hairless Burmese, when thirty years old had his
+whole body covered with silky hairs, which attained a length of nearly
+five inches on the shoulders and spine. He had four daughters, but only
+one of them resembled him. She had a son who was hairy like his
+grandfather. The case of this family illustrates rather curiously the
+relation between the hair and teeth; for Shwe-Maong retained his milk
+teeth till he was twenty (when he attained puberty); then they were
+replaced by nine teeth only, five in the upper and four in the lower jaw.
+Eight of these were incisors, the ninth (in the upper jaw) being a cuspid
+tooth.
+
+Certain motor expressions of disturbed functions are also inherited.
+Galton describes the case of a man who, when he lay fast asleep on his
+back in bed, had the curious trick of raising his right arm slowly in
+front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk,
+so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did
+not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any
+ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or
+more. The gentleman's nose was prominent and its bridge often became sore
+from blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced
+that was long in healing on account of the recurrence, night after night,
+of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the buttons
+from the wrist of his nightgown, as it made severe scratches, and some
+means were attempted of tying his arm. Many years after his death his son
+married a lady who had never heard of the family incident. She, however,
+observed precisely the same peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from
+not being particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the
+blows. The trick does not occur when he is half asleep, as, for example,
+when he is dozing in his armchair, but the moment he is fast asleep he is
+apt to begin. It, as with his father, is intermittent, sometimes ceasing
+for many nights, and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every
+night. It is performed, as it was with his father, with his right hand.
+One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs it
+likewise with the right hand but in a slightly modified form; for after
+raising the arm she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of
+the nose, but the palm of her half-closed hand falls over and down the
+nose, striking it rather rapidly, a decided improvement on the father's
+and grandfather's method. The trick is intermittent in the girl's case
+also, sometimes not occurring for periods of several months, but sometimes
+almost incessantly. These "tricks" suggest nocturnal epilepsy, however.
+
+The face of a child is often fully developed, yet, owing to some of the
+constitutional diseases, arrested development of the face at this point
+takes place. The second generation inherits this deformity, while the
+grandparents possess normally developed faces.
+
+The following case came under my own immediate observation. The
+grandfather was in the habit of sitting in front of the fire with fingers
+locked together twirling the thumbs in one direction, and then
+occasionally knocking the thumb nails together. Two of his three sons
+inherited this habit; the third brother had the habit of biting his nails
+when in a fit of abstraction. The nephew of the last has a similar habit
+under the like conditions. The children of this nephew have in two
+instances shown a tendency to pick at the nails when in an unconscious
+state, from acute disease. The third child has a periodical tendency to do
+the same since it was four months old.
+
+V. P. Gibney,[79] of New York, has reported a family consisting of father
+and mother, five children, and one grandchild. The father and mother are
+semi-ambidextrous. All of the children and the grandchild are
+semi-ambidextrous to an annoying degree; all of the movements which they
+perform with one hand are simultaneously performed by the other hand. The
+girls are obliged to use only one hand when dressing themselves, or when
+cutting patterns, and hold the other hand down by their side, because the
+two hands perform the same movements at the same time and would interfere
+with each other.
+
+One factor in heredity concerning which there has been much dispute, and
+whose existence has been denied because of certain theories anent the
+nerve connection of the mother and foetus, is that of maternal
+impressions. As Fere[80] has shown, the foetus exhibits very decided
+reaction to sensory impressions on the mother. He cites cases of several
+women who, often in the midst of an ordinary dream, producing but very
+moderate excitation, not generally interrupting sleep, were awakened by
+foetal movements. The dreams had nothing of the nightmare which would
+cause sudden contraction under the influence of a terrifying idea. They
+were merely the ordinary phenomena of sleep. Mental changes of the mother
+hence excite motor reactions in the foetus, and, as with sensorial
+excitations, these reactions are stronger in the foetus than in the
+mother. The mechanism of these motor reactions is, Fere points out,
+obviously due to unconscious and involuntary movement of the muscle walls
+of the womb. The organisation of a morbid predisposition may be largely
+influenced by an accident accompanying conception or gestation. In some
+degenerates cannot be found a trace of hereditary defect. The fact cited
+explains how sensorial excitations or repeated and violent emotions in the
+mother during pregnancy give rise to profound nutritive troubles in the
+foetus, and especially in its nervous system. These congenitally
+degenerated beings (_ab utero_) can hardly be distinguished from those
+having direct heredity. A considerable number of cases of epilepsy,
+idiocy, &c., are recognised as having arisen from alcoholism in the
+mother. Psychic troubles in the mother may react upon the foetus in an
+analogous way. The prominent facts which show the influence of the psychic
+state of the mother upon the somatic condition of the foetus explain the
+action of the imagination of the mother upon the development of the
+product of conception. The opinion which refers the origin of birth-marks
+to intense mental impressions on the part of the mother is not without
+physiological foundation. Concurrently with the motor phenomena,
+stigmata[81] may become developed by vascular and nutritive troubles
+produced under the influence of a strong excitation or by the imagination.
+
+Spitzka,[82] who approached maternal impressions from an actively
+sceptical standpoint, had his scepticism shaken by specimens (preserved in
+the British Museum) of newly hatched chicks, all of which had a curved
+beak like a parrot, and the toes set back as in that bird. According to
+the report of the curator the hens in the farmyard where these
+monstrosities were hatched had been frightened by a parrot which, having
+escaped, fluttered among them some time before the eggs were laid and
+greatly frightened those from whom the malformed chicks were received. It
+is certain that the chief argument of those who deny that maternal
+impressions are transmitted is defeated by this case. They have usually
+asserted that the explanation of the nature and cause of a birth-mark was
+always an after-thought on the part of the mother. But there was no
+after-thought in this case. The hens did not publish a theory as to the
+malformation of their chicks. It was their owner, a gentleman of
+intelligence and culture, who observed the casual occurrence, and who
+verified the almost photographic truthfulness of the germ monstrosity by
+depositing it in a museum as a permanent record at which none may cavil.
+
+Since then, the singular freaks attributable to maternal impressions of
+women, seen by Spitzka, have become so numerous that he has been compelled
+to negative the argument that they were merely accidental coincidences. He
+has never seen an idiotic, malformed child or one afflicted with morbid
+impulses derived from healthy parents free from hereditary taint in which
+a maternal impression could not be traced.
+
+In a large number a direct correspondence between the maternal impression
+and the nature of the deformity or peculiarity could be discovered. He
+reports the case of a woman, about five months pregnant, who, while
+standing in her yard, saw her husband stab into the belly of a goat he had
+slaughtered. The sight of the suddenly protruding visceral mass, which
+happened to be imperfectly bilobar, shocked her extremely, and, starting
+back, she, in her great revulsion, feeling a strange sensation at the nape
+of the neck or back of the head, clutched the former with her right hand.
+The impression continued to haunt her. When the child was born and she
+saw its deformity she instantly exclaimed, "Oh, the intestines of that
+goat!" At the back of its head the child had a large tumour of the
+consistency of a loose sac of a bluish colour, showing convolutions
+interpreted by the mother as a reproduction of the intestinal convolutions
+that had so shocked her. In reality they were the convolutions of a hernia
+containing the posterior ends of both cerebral hemispheres. The accidental
+resemblance of the deformity to the mental impressions was striking.
+
+A. Lagorio[83] brought before the Chicago Medical Society several cases in
+which maternal impressions had produced decidedly abnormal births with
+deformities resembling those feared by the mother. Kiernan, in discussing
+these, pointed out that all were instances of checked development. He was
+of opinion that moral shock, generally directed, played the chief part in
+maternal impressions through checking development and causing either
+general or local reversion. Here, as Spitzka[84] shows, the statistical
+method can be applied. It has been long known that profound grief, mental
+or physical shock acting on the mother, produce cerebral defect or
+generally arrested development in the offspring. Of 92 children born in
+Paris during the great siege, 1870-71, 64 had mental or physical anomalies
+and the remaining 28 were weakly, 21 were intellectually defective
+(imbecile or idiotic), and 8 showed moral or emotional insanity. These
+figures, furnished by Legrand du Saulle, justify the popular designation
+by the working men of Paris of the defective children born in 1871 as
+"_enfants du siege_."
+
+After the great Chicago fire in 1871 birth-marks, deformities, and mental
+defects were noticed to occur among the offspring whose mothers were
+pregnant with them pending the exciting time during and after the
+conflagration.
+
+Spitzka has seen in practice, constitutionally melancholic or mentally
+defective children in whom no other predisposing cause could be discovered
+than that the mother was struggling with direct or indirect results of the
+financial crisis of 1873. In several of these cases the death of the
+father was a contributory cause of maternal depression. In Berlin the
+financial crisis of 1875-80 was followed by an increase in the number of
+idiots born. Lombroso attributes a series of cases of microcephaly to
+profound mental impressions occurring during pregnancy. To the same class
+of cases belong the hermaphrodites born by mothers who have been
+frightened in their first pregnancy and who continue to bear
+hermaphrodites. The continual and not ill-founded dread that the
+succeeding children may resemble the first is to be regarded as a
+contributory cause. Observers who have had a large experience with
+illegitimate births believe that the mental agony suffered by the
+unfortunate mother reacts upon the foetus, causing arrest of development,
+and thus accounting for the frequent occurrence of idiocy in illegitimate
+children.
+
+The influence of maternal diet on the foetus is excellently illustrated in
+the results of the "fruit diet" advised by certain vegetarians. Here the
+children[85] become, as Elise Berwig has recently shown, rickety,
+irritable, peevish, liable to convulsions, morally peculiar, and otherwise
+defective in contrast with children born of the same parents without
+"fruit diet" during pregnancy.
+
+Kiernan,[86] after citing instances reported by Amabile, Carson, F. B.
+Earle, Erlenmeyer, F. H. Hubbard, C. H. Hughes, Mattison, and others, of
+congenital opium habit where opium was needed to preserve the infant
+during the first months of life, states that inheritance of the opium
+habit seems at first an isolated phenomenon, but zoologists have pointed
+out that pigeons whose ancestors were fed on poppies became intractable to
+opium. Murrell found that the same was relatively true in England of
+persons descended from Bedfordshire ancestors who used infusions of
+poppies as a prophylactic against malaria. Nervous diseases were, however,
+relatively prevalent in these districts. Narcotic habits in the ancestors
+produces descendants in whom the normal checks on excessive nervous action
+are removed, so that paranoiacs, periodical lunatics, epileptics,
+hysterics, congenital criminals, congenital paupers, or other degenerates
+result. This influence is most strongly exerted when the maternal ancestor
+is the one affected, for to her is committed the development of the ovum
+prior to conception and of the child subsequently. If either is interfered
+with by a habit, a being defective in some respects is the result. The
+direct inheritance of the opium habit has been shown experimentally by
+Levenstein, who found by experiments on pregnant dogs and rabbits that the
+use of opium during pregnancy produced either abortion or still-births, or
+rapidly dying offspring.
+
+In a similar manner Rennert[87] has shown that lead-poisoning occurring in
+the mother is apt to produce macrocephalism with frequent idiocy in the
+child.
+
+This brings the observer face to face with the problem of morbid heredity.
+It may at once be admitted that, as has been claimed by a large number of
+observers, morbid heredity, especially in its graver forms, is much less
+frequent than at first would be expected. J. P. Gray, of Utica, New York,
+went so far as to claim that disease is never transmitted, but this is
+contradicted by his own hospital reports, which, to the day of his death,
+contained a table headed, "Statistics of hereditary transmission of the
+disease." It is true, however, that the descendants of a victim of
+morbidity or abnormality do not always exhibit the morbidity or
+abnormality of the ancestor. In some cases all apparent morbidity or
+abnormality is wanting. In other cases slighter abnormalities are to be
+detected. Here the observer is brought face to face with the operation of
+two general principles which are interdependent: the transmutation of
+heredity and atavism, or "throwing back" as the cattle breeders call it.
+Tennyson voices the general erroneous opinion of the always evil effects
+of atavism in his "Locksley Hall Sixty Years After":--
+
+  "Evolution ever climbing after some ideal good
+  And Reversion ever dragging Evolution in the mud."
+
+As Kiernan has shown, atavism at times tends to preserve the type, and
+offsets the influence of degeneracy. This element of atavism underlies not
+merely the production of the sound scions of degenerate stock, but also
+those in whom the degeneracy affects the earlier and not the later
+acquirements of the race. The contrast of the moral imbecile who is unable
+to acquire an idea of right, or the idiot of the lowest grade who can
+hardly be taught to keep himself clean, with the otherwise sound, sane,
+able victim of hereditary gout, is very great. Yet all the links of the
+chain connecting, in the same family, these contrasted types, can often be
+found. The law laid down as to absolute extinction through degeneracy by
+Morel and others can only be regarded as absolutely true when applied to a
+given type rather than the race as a whole. Indeed, environment may play a
+part in preserving a degenerate who would otherwise die out. Thus in
+societies at a certain stage of culture imbeciles, paupers, lunatics, and
+congenital criminals live at large and even propagate through legal
+marriage. The seemingly enormous increase of the defective class which
+occurs in frontier communities when the classes begin to be placed in
+public institutions is an excellent illustration of this.
+
+Manifestations of morbid heredity result not in inheritance of the whole
+defect but in disturbance of relations of structure and hence of function,
+producing, as Kiernan remarks, a constitutional deficiency which takes the
+line of least resistance. The extent and direction of this line of least
+resistance depend on the amount of healthy atavism which separate organs
+and structures of the body preserve. The line of least resistance
+sometimes taken is excellently illustrated in the occurrence of stigmata
+already pointed out in the case of epileptic guinea-pigs.
+
+This unilateral predisposition (which, as Kiernan has shown, is due
+usually to heredity or intra-uterine causes) may be artificially
+produced. Kasparek[88] cut one sciatic nerve of a guinea-pig and (after
+all inflammatory symptoms had subsided) injected the opposite ear with
+cultures of pus microbes. He killed the animal after some days. The sound
+side was found free from suppuration, but immense abscesses existed on the
+side of the cut nerve. Such local predisposition was pointed out by
+Merrill[89] over forty years ago. This condition occurs, as Fere has
+shown,[90] in many systemic and infectious diseases which presents a
+localisation due to heredity, or determined by anterior morbid state of
+the nervous symptom. Sometimes these manifestations are limited to the
+side free from nervous trouble.
+
+As a rule they attack the side which is the predominant seat of nervous
+symptoms. Fere points out that in chromatic iris asymmetry the iris
+(coloured part of the eye) is most coloured on the side most affected by
+arrest of development. Localisation of nervous trouble occurs on the side
+most affected by hare-lip. Heuse has observed the co-existence on the same
+side of congenital cataract and of deformities of the skull and chest.
+
+Hernia is often an expression of hereditary defect (Le Double) taking the
+unilateral line of least resistance. Testicle inflammations of microbic
+origin (venereal or otherwise) occur as a rule on the side where hernia is
+located in the groin. In one-sided malformations of ovary or testicle
+(decreased or increased in size, or changed in shape or location) microbe
+inflammation almost always occurs at the seat of the anomaly. This
+principle is illustrated in the experiments of Dupuy.[91] Here, while as a
+rule, the scions of guinea-pigs (rendered epileptic by section of the
+sciatic nerve) were epileptics and had deficient toes, still in some
+epilepsy resulted without the toe anomaly, while still more rarely the toe
+anomaly was present without the epilepsy.
+
+The same principle is shown by certain observations of Charin and
+Gley,[92] who for five years conducted experiments calculated to throw
+light on the influence on the offspring of parental reception of virus.
+Either both male and female have been inoculated with the bacillus of blue
+pus or its toxins, or but one animal has been inoculated. The results have
+not been uniform. Most frequently there ensues sterility, abortion, or
+birth of progeny that die immediately. In rare instances the offspring
+survive; more rarely still are they healthy. Certain rabbits (born of
+these undeveloped animals) were provided with enormous epiphyses (ends of
+bones), the shafts of the bones being shortened. Two rabbits were born of
+a couple of which the male alone received inoculations of sterilised
+culture. Five rabbits were born of these two, of which two were normal,
+and a third (whose ears were rudimentary) died in a few days. In the
+remaining two the ears comprised only fragments with jagged upper edges.
+The tails were but two centimetres long. The external orifice of the
+vagina (one rabbit was a male and the other a female) was oblique. One of
+the limbs (the hind in the male and the fore in the female) was much
+shorter than its fellow, the difference being four centimetres. The
+shortened limb ended in a kind of stump, there being no foot or toes.
+
+These experiments illustrate the transformation of heredity, that is the
+manifestations which show the line of least resistance that the morbid
+heredity has taken. As Moreau (de Tours) remarks,[93] "An incorrect
+conception of the law of heredity looks for identical phenomena in each
+succeeding generation. Some have refused to admit that mental faculties
+were subject to heredity, because the mental characters of the descendants
+were not precisely those of the progenitors. Each generation must copy the
+preceding. Father and son must present the spectacle of one being, having
+two births, and each time leading the same life, under the same
+conditions. But it is not in the heredity of functions, or of organic or
+intellectual facts that the application of the law of heredity must be
+sought, but at the very fountain-head of the organism, in its inmost
+constitution. A family whose head is insane or epileptic does not of
+necessity consist of lunatics or epileptics, but the children may be
+idiotic, paralytic, or scrofulous. What the parents transmit to the
+children is not insanity, but a vicious constitution which will manifest
+itself under various forms in epilepsy, hysteria, scrofula, rickets, &c.
+This is what is to be understood by hereditary transmission."
+
+The same position has been taken by Rush,[94] the pioneer American
+alienist; by Maudsley,[95] by Krafft-Ebing,[96] by Meynert, by Mercier, by
+Fere,[97] and others. Morel,[98] the chief accepted apostle of the
+doctrine of degeneracy, remarked, nearly at the same time as Moreau, that
+"heredity does not mean the very disorder of the parents transmitted to
+the children with the identical mental and physical symptoms observed in
+the progenitors, but means transmission of organic disposition from
+parents to children. Alienists have, perhaps, more frequent occasion than
+others for observing not merely this hereditary transmission, but likewise
+various transformations which occur in the descendants. They are aware
+that simple neuropathy (nervous tendency) of the parents may produce in
+the children an organic disposition resulting in mania or melancholia,
+nervous affections which in turn may produce more serious degeneracy and
+terminate in the idiocy or imbecility of those who form the last link in
+the chain of hereditary transmission."
+
+What is true of the organism as a whole is true of the cells forming its
+organs. It should be remembered that while cell life is altruistic or
+subordinated to the life of the organ, through the law of economy of
+growth, recognised by Aristotle, and through it to the life of the
+organism as a whole, altruism is not complete enough to prevent entirely a
+struggle for existence on the part of the cells or the individual organs.
+With rise in evolution this struggle decreases, to increase with the
+opposite procedure of degeneracy. From it results the phenomenon of
+arrested and excessive development.
+
+As Dareste has shown (and the fact has been corroborated by Spitzka[99]),
+embryologists can imitate natural malformation of the nerve centres by
+artificial methods. By wounding the embryonic and vascular areas of the
+chick's germ with a cataract needle, malformations are induced, varying in
+intensity and character with the earliness of the injury and its precise
+extent. More delicate injuries produce less monstrous development. Partial
+varnishing or irregular heating of the egg-shell, in particular, results
+in anomalies comparable to microcephaly (little head) and cerebral
+asymmetry. This latter fact (showing the constancy of the injurious effect
+of so apparently slight an impression as the partial varnishing of a
+structure not connected with the embryo at all directly) suggests the line
+of research to be followed in determining the source of the maternal and
+other impressions acting on the germ. What delicate problems are to be
+solved in this connection may be inferred from the fact that eggs
+subjected to the vibration and shocks of a railroad journey are checked in
+development for several days, or permanently arrested. A more delicate
+molecular shock during the maturation of the ovum, during its
+fertilisation, or finally during embryonic stages of the more complex, and
+therefore more readily disturbed and distorted human germ, accounts for
+the disastrous effect of insanity, emotion, or other mental or physical
+shock of the parent on the offspring. The cause of the majority of
+cerebral deformities exists in the germ prior to the appearance of the
+separate organs of the body. Artificial deformities produce analogous
+results because they imitate original germ defects, either by mechanical
+removal, or by some other interference with a special part of the germ.
+Early involvement of the germ is shown by the fact that the somatic
+malformations of the hereditary forms of insanity often involve the body
+elsewhere than in the nervous axis. The stigmata of heredity--defective
+development of the uro-genital system, deformities of the face and skull,
+irregular development of the teeth, misshapen ears and limbs--owe their
+grave significance to this fact. Like deformities of the brain, these
+anomalies are also more marked and constant with the lower forms of the
+hereditarily based systematised perversions of the mind than the higher.
+It is easy from these results to understand how far and how the nervous
+system has its part in the disorders of general development. It can be
+easily understood how the individuals who present most deformities are
+equally those who suffer from most decided disorders of the nervous
+system.
+
+These morbid manifestations of heredity occur in certain categories,
+either local as to organs or structures, or affecting the body as a whole.
+These categories Moreau (de Tours) lucidly sums up as: First, absence of
+conception; second, retardation of conception; third, imperfect
+conception; fourth, incomplete products (monstrosities); fifth, products
+whose mental, moral, and physical constitution is imperfect; sixth,
+products specially exposed to nervous disorders in order of frequency as
+follows--epilepsy, imbecility or idiocy, deaf-mutism, insanity, cerebral
+paralysis, and other cerebral disorders; seventh, lymphatic products;
+eighth, products which die in infancy in a greater proportion than sound
+infants under like conditions; ninth, products which, although they escape
+the stress of infancy, are less adapted than others to resist disease and
+death.
+
+The explanation of these morbid manifestations lies in the very
+foundations of embryology. Bearing in mind the principles of individuation
+pointed out by Spencer, it is easily understood how reversal of this
+principle would produce greater and greater destruction of the complex
+functions, resultant on increased reproductive power of cells (whose
+environment is not suited to such reproductions) and thus lead to such a
+struggle for existence as to produce sterility (from interdestruction of
+the ovum cells, or the cells forming the spermatozoon). This condition is
+further increased by the operation of two biologic principles. The first
+relates to the cells or organs forming an organism. The second, as Von
+Baer has shown, deals with the relation of the organs to each other.
+
+Vertebrate embryos of a common type, at their origin, assume successively
+a number of common forms before definitely differentiating. Dareste points
+out that supernumerary organs do exist in these common forms at one phase
+of embryonic life. This community of embryonic types and this last fact
+explain repetition of teratologic types or monstrosities in vertebrates.
+This community of origin, moreover, indicates that a higher vertebrate
+embryo contains in essence the organs and potentialities of lower
+vertebrates, and that under the influence of heredity or accidental defect
+an organ belonging to another species may develop, or an organ constant in
+a species may be lacking in an individual, without the necessity of
+explaining the immediate effects by distant atavism. Some anomalies found
+among degenerates recall types less elevated than man, and very distant
+from him, even his possible Lemurian precursor.
+
+It is obvious from the principles already demonstrated that the secondary
+effects of infectious disorders and injuries are reproduced in various
+types in the offspring. The malformations of the limbs experimentally
+demonstrated to be due to ancestral infection by Charin and Gley, and to
+injury by Dupuy, noticeably occur in men. Moor has observed supernumerary
+fingers in an imbecile girl; her grandfather and one uncle are
+polydactylous and insane. F. S. Coolidge has had under observation a case
+which excellently depicts these deformities in men. Kiernan[100] reports
+the case of a man whose grandfather and father had been prophets of the
+Lord, as shown by the fact that on one side of the body they had six toes
+and six fingers, and the two sides of the body were unequal, the
+six-fingered one being smaller than the other. This father and grandfather
+were highly regarded in a secluded vale in Norway as religious teachers
+and for their power to cure disease by charm. The father had ten children,
+of whom three were born dead and six died in infancy. Kiernan's patient
+was the only survivor of this family. During boyhood he experienced
+various persecutions, some by unseen agencies, some on the part of the
+villagers, who towards the end of his father's life also persecuted the
+father. These persecutions seem to have been withdrawal by the peasants of
+their belief in the father's ability to charm sickness out of cattle,
+evidently due to growing popular intelligence. This was regarded by the
+father as the result of persecution by the devil, who was desirous of
+trying him as Job was tried. It was revealed to him that his son should
+likewise suffer persecution, which would also be the work of the devil.
+The son heard unseen persons, who pointed him out in school as the son of
+the sham wizard. In consequence he was avoided by all his schoolmates
+except the members of one family who still retained their belief in the
+father's supernatural powers. Into this family the son married; then,
+pressed by his unseen persecutors, he came to the United States. Here he
+worked at his trade as a carpenter, and had no return of any persecutory
+delusions, although he still believed he was a prophet. On admission to
+the insane hospital, twenty years after his arrival in the United States,
+he was found to have such a decidedly asymmetrical body that suspicions of
+general hemiatrophy were excited, but the condition was found to be
+congenital. The hand and foot of the seemingly atrophic side had six
+fingers and toes. The man had been sent to the insane hospital in
+consequence of an altercation with a neighbour who was clearly in the
+wrong; but both being arrested, the patient's _amour propre_ was aroused
+and he declared his prophetship, which led to his trial and commitment as
+a lunatic. His wife, who applied for his discharge, was also a paranoiac.
+They had had ten children, of whom three were still living at the ages of
+six, eight, and ten. Two of these were six-toed and six-fingered
+unilaterally, and one of them, a boy, had the peculiar general asymmetry
+of the father. The third child was seemingly normal.
+
+The experimental results of Charin and Gley, on the degeneration produced
+in offspring by ancestral microbic infection, tend to show that not merely
+are the extremities affected, but in certain cases the whole organism,
+along lines laid down by Moreau's categories. This is demonstrated by
+study of the degeneracy stigmata of phthisical families. Alex. James,
+Ricochon,[101] C. E. Paddock,[102] and others have shown that (in addition
+to the ordinary stigmata) the biologic stigmata of degeneracy (such as
+plural and quickly repeated births) are frequent among phthisical
+families. The same phenomena often occur in families whose scions are
+attacked with diabetes, obesity, articular rheumatism, cancer and gout. De
+Giovanni[103] finds that particular nervous states exist in those
+predisposed to tuberculosis, whom he divides into erethists (restless),
+torpids, and energetics. There is a diminutive heart, whose right
+ventricle has comparatively exaggerated dimensions, while the arteries
+have lessened calibre.
+
+A family illustrating excellently the transmutation of morbid heredity is
+one followed through five generations by Kiernan.[104] A farmer lived
+twenty miles distant from his nearest neighbour, whose only child he
+married. The daughter had led a lonely life till her courtship at the age
+of 28 by the farmer, then three years younger. The farmer married her for
+$300, after having impregnated her. He then found lead on his farm and
+went to a city. A stock-company bought his farm and launched him into the
+stock market, where he made money more as a cunning tool than an
+adventurer. He became a high liver, gouty and dyspeptic, and died with
+symptoms of gouty kidney at 70. The couple had five children. The eldest,
+a son, became a "Napoleon of Finance," but, inheriting his father's
+cunning, died wealthy and within the pale of the law. He married a society
+woman, the last scion of an old family. The second child, a daughter, was
+club-footed and early suffered from gouty tophi. She married a society man
+of old family who had cleft palate. The third child, a daughter, had
+congenital squint. She married a man who suffered from migraine of a
+periodical type. The fourth child, a daughter, was normal. She married a
+thirty-year-old active business man, in whom ataxia developed a year after
+marriage. The fifth child, a son, was ataxic at eighteen. The children of
+the "Napoleon of Finance" and the society woman were an imbecile son, a
+nymphomaniac, a hysteric, a female epileptic who had a double uterus, and
+a son who wrote verses and was a society man. The cleft-palated society
+man and club-footed woman had triplets born dead and a squinting,
+migrainous son who, left penniless by his parents, married his cousin the
+nymphomaniac daughter of the "Napoleon of Finance," after being detected
+in an intrigue with her. The migrainous man and squinting daughter of the
+farmer stockbroker had a sexually inverted masculine daughter, a daughter
+subject to periodical bleeding at the nose irrespective of menstruation,
+as well as chorea during childhood, a normal daughter, a deaf-mute
+phthisical son, a daughter with cloacal formation of the perineum, an
+ameliac son, a cyclopian daughter (with one central eye) born dead, and,
+finally, a normal son. The sexual invert married the versifier son of the
+"Napoleon of Finance." The progeny of the normal daughter of the farmer
+stockbroker and the ataxic husband were a dead-born, sarcomatous son, a
+gouty son, twin boys paralysed in infancy, twin girls normal, a normal
+son, and a son ataxic at fourteen. The progeny of the nymphomaniac
+daughter and her strabismic, migrainous cousin were a ne'er-do-well, a
+periodical lunatic, a dipsomaniac daughter who died of cancer of the
+stomach, deformed triplets who died at birth, an epileptic imbecile son, a
+hermaphrodite, a prostitute, a double monster born dead, a normal
+daughter, and a paranoiac son. The ne'er-do-well married his nose-bleeding
+cousin. The gouty son of the farmer's normal daughter married the hysteric
+daughter of the "Napoleon of Finance." They had a son born with such
+general asymmetry as to seem hemiatrophic, a prostitute, dead triplets, a
+male sexual invert, a colour-blind daughter, and a normal son. The
+colour-blind daughter married the paranoiac grandson of the "Napoleon of
+Finance." The progeny of the sexual invert and the versifier, who were
+soon divorced, were a daughter with periodical nymphomania, who had some
+artistic and literary ability, and a son who died of gastric cancer. The
+scions of the ne'er-do-well and his nose-bleeding cousin were a moral
+imbecile, a "bleeder," a stammering daughter who had an uvular deformity,
+a deaf-mute with undescended testicle, dead-born triplets, an infantile
+paralytic son, and dead-born quadruplets. The progeny of the paranoiac and
+his colour-blind cousin were an exophthalmic daughter, an epileptic with
+undescended testicle, a cleft-palated imbecile with a cloaca, dead-born
+quadruplets, an idiot boy, and a "bleeder."
+
+Doutrebente reports the following family history: First generation: Father
+intelligent, became melancholic, and died insane. Mother nervous and
+emotional. Second generation: Ten children; three died in childhood, seven
+reach maturity as follows: Daughter A, melancholiac; daughter B, insane at
+twenty; daughter C, imbecile; daughter D, a suicide; son E, imbecile; son
+F, melancholic; son G, a melancholic. Third generation: A has ten
+children; five die in childhood, one is deformed, one has fits of
+insanity, one is eccentric and extravagant, two are intelligent and marry,
+but are childless. B leaves no issue. C has one child, a deformed
+imbecile. D has three children; one is an imbecile, one dies of apoplexy
+at twenty-three, and the third is an artist described as "extravagant." E
+has two children; one dies insane, the other disappears and is supposed to
+have committed suicide. F is childless. G has one child, who is
+imbecile.[105]
+
+Strahan[106] gives a genealogy which shows very clearly the close kinship
+existing between the cancerous diathesis and other forms of constitutional
+degeneration whose outward manifestations are infantile convulsions,
+suicide, epilepsy, insanity, lymphatism, and sterility. The father of this
+family died of stomach cancer at sixty. He had a brother who cut his
+throat at fifty-six; the mother, an apparently healthy woman, died of a
+fit, at the age of fifty-four. To this pair seven children were born: 1. A
+son who died of stomach cancer at fifty-eight. 2. A son who died in
+convulsions at thirteen weeks. 3, 4, and 5. Three daughters who died of
+phthisis, one at sixteen, the other two later in life, and after being
+married for many years; none left any issue. 6. A son who is epileptic,
+and has twice been confined in lunatic asylums; married, but no issue. 7.
+A son who is sane, and enjoying fair health. Here the taint in the mother
+appears to have been slight; still, it was there, and while certainly
+preventing reversion, it doubtless deepened the degeneration of the
+father in the children. In the father's stock the taint was much deeper.
+While it was exhibited as cancer in him, it took the form of suicidal
+impulse in his brother. In the children of this pair the disease of the
+father is transmitted to the eldest son; but can it be denied, Strahan
+asks, that the infantile convulsions, the liability to tubercular disease,
+the epilepsy, the insanity, and the marked sterility were but the varying
+evidences of the degenerate nature, inherited from a father who might have
+died earlier of some acute disease, taking the secret of his nature with
+him?
+
+The value of the principle of atavism in off-setting degeneracy is nowhere
+better illustrated than in the history of famous families of degenerates
+like those of the Binswangers, of "Margaret," of the Jukes, as well as
+those reported in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and the Scandinavian
+countries. The Rougon-Macquart family of Zola (which had its actual
+prototype in the Kerangal family described by Aubry[107]) had, like these,
+several scions in whom former normality regained its power through
+atavism. Sometimes this atavism is not shown to any greater extent than a
+slight modification of the abnormality or morbidity.
+
+Telegony, the so-called and much-debated heredity of influence, whereby
+the children of a second marriage resemble the first husband, may be
+explained by a biologic principle demonstrable in the lower animals,
+whereby conjugation not sufficient to fecundate ova is sufficient so to
+impress them that when finally fecundated they bear characteristics of
+the first conjugation. Its part in either normal or degenerate heredity
+is but slight. Some instances charged to it might be attributed to mental
+impression on the mother.
+
+Luys[108] excellently sums up the whole question of heredity when he
+remarks: "Heredity governs all the phenomena of degeneracy with the same
+results and the same energy as it controls moral and physical resemblances
+in the offspring. The individual who comes into the world is not an
+isolated being separated from his kindred. He is one link in a long chain
+which is unrolled by time, and of which the first links are lost in the
+past. He is bound to those who follow him, and to the atavic influences
+which he possesses; he serves for their temporary resting-place, and he
+transmits them to his descendants. If he come from a race well endowed and
+well formed, he possesses the characters of organisation which his
+ancestors have given him. He is ready for the combat of life, and to
+pursue his way by his own virtues and energies. But inversely, if he
+spring from a stock which is already marked with an hereditary blemish,
+and in which the development of the nervous system is incomplete, he comes
+into existence with a badly balanced organisation; and his natural
+defects, existing as germs, and in a measure latent, are ready to be
+developed when some accidental cause arises to start them into activity."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CONSANGUINEOUS AND NEUROTIC INTERMARRIAGE
+
+
+Byron has sung[109] of the old popular belief in the advantages of
+cross-breeding, which arose originally in the practice of exogamy
+(marriage outside the tribe), or, more often, outside those having the
+same totem, or coat-of-arms. In all probability casual observation of
+deformities after intermarriage enforced the prohibition which arose after
+the killing of female children had led to exogamy. Totemic relationship
+was often far from being consanguineous. The idea of incest is, as Byron's
+stanza denotes, of religious origin rather than innate.[110] Its criminal
+nature is often removed by priestly dispensation in Latin countries. From
+this practice sprang the medical, theologic, and legal notions to which D.
+H. Tuke[111] thus refers: "The danger arising from marriages of
+consanguinity has been insisted upon from time to time by medical writers,
+and has been recognised by ecclesiastical authority, civil law, and by
+popular feeling. As regards ecclesiastical and civil law, it would be more
+correct to say that the marriage of those very nearly related has been
+forbidden on other grounds than that of the alleged danger to mental
+health. At the same time the justice of such laws receives support if
+medical observation leads to the conclusion that consanguineous marriages
+tend to generate idiocy and insanity."
+
+The biologic evidence from the experiments of Maupas on parthenogenesis,
+elsewhere cited, is seemingly supported by the results of animals breeding
+in-and-in. The evidence advanced against such marriages seems at first
+sight exceedingly strong from a biologic standpoint in man.
+
+Rilliet[112] cites cases tending to show that consanguineous marriages, in
+themselves pernicious, tend with certainty to lower vital force. The
+effects he divides into two categories; those which relate to the
+parents, under which head are:--
+
+    _a._ Failure of conception.
+
+    _b._ Retardation of conception.
+
+    _c._ Imperfect conception.
+
+Those which relate to the progeny:--
+
+    _a._ Imperfections of various kinds.
+
+    _b._ Monstrosities.
+
+    _c._ Imperfect physical and mental organisation.
+
+    _d._ Tendency to diseases of the nervous system, such as epilepsy,
+    imbecility, idiocy, deaf-mutism, paralysis, and various cerebral
+    affections.
+
+    _e._ Tendency to strumous diseases.
+
+    _f._ Tending to die young.
+
+    _g._ Tendency to succumb to disease which others would easily resist.
+
+C. H. S. Davis,[113] of Meriden, Connecticut, states that intermarriages
+in families lead to a degeneration that manifests itself in deaf-mutism,
+albinism, and idiocy. Isaac Ray[114] is of the opinion that consanguineous
+marriages repeated through successive generations account for the numerous
+instances of insanity and idiocy occurring in quiet rural populations of
+New England, far from the excitements of city life, which are generally
+supposed to be more productive of mental unsoundness.
+
+S. M. Bemiss,[115] of New Orleans, Louisiana, giving a report of the
+condition of the offspring of 580 intermarriages of first cousins,
+gathered mostly by medical men from nearly every State in the Union, says:
+2,778 children were born of these cousins, of whom 793 were defective, 117
+deaf and dumb, 63 blind, 231 idiotic, 24 insane, 44 epileptic, 189
+scrofulous, 53 deformed, and 637 died early.
+
+While these figures seem very demonstrative, they contain a great many
+elements of error. One of these is incidentally pointed out by Arthur
+Mitchell,[116] who finds that under favourable conditions of life the
+apparent ill effects of consanguineous marriages are frequently almost
+nil, whilst if the children are ill-fed, badly housed and clothed, the
+evil may become very marked. He calculates that the percentage of
+consanguineous marriages generally in Scotland is 1.3, or ten times less
+than with the parents of idiots. Taking his figures a strong case seems to
+be made out in support of the opinion that idiocy, among other evils,
+results from intermarriage. Langdon Down, although his figures are not of
+so unfavourable a character, admits consanguinity as one of the causes of
+deterioration.
+
+George H. Darwin concluded from a careful investigation that about 4 per
+cent. of all marriages in England are between first cousins, and between 2
+and 3 per cent. in the smaller towns and in the country; with these he
+compared the rate of similar marriages among the parents of lunatics and
+idiots in asylums, and found it to be about 3 or 4 per cent.--not higher,
+therefore, than in the general population.
+
+Huth[117] cites instances occurring regularly at the present day among
+certain isolated communities (St. Kilda, Pitcairn, and Iceland) without
+apparent evil consequences to the race. Such marriages were common among
+the North American Indians and the South Sea Islanders, people among whom
+idiocy and other degenerate hereditary conditions were remarkably rare.
+These cases, Strahan remarks, deal with peculiarly healthy communities.
+Therein lies the secret of such intermarriage proving innocent of evil to
+the offspring. Were such intermarriage common among the degenerates the
+result would be disastrous.
+
+In 1869 the New York State Medical Society[118] appointed a committee to
+investigate the influence of consanguineous marriages upon the offspring.
+Their results show clearly that if the family be free from degenerate
+taint, marriage among its members in no way diminishes the chances of
+healthy offspring. This conclusion is in accord with the findings of
+recent investigators like Anstie, George Darwin, and A. H. Huth, according
+to whom there is no greater amount of morbidity or abnormality among the
+offspring of consanguineous parents than among the children of parents not
+so related, provided the parents be equally free from tendency to disease
+or degeneration. With a perfectly healthy stock, as every breeder of
+animals knows, remarks Strahan,[119] "in-and-in breeding" may be practised
+with impunity, but where the stock is tainted with disease or
+imperfection, safety is only to be found in "crossing."
+
+Where the error lay in the old doctrine, upon which was founded the
+prohibition of consanguineous unions, was not, as Strahan remarks, in
+asserting that disease and deformity were more often met with in children
+of these than in those of other unions, for such is true, but attributing
+these unhappy results to the mere fact that the parents were related by
+blood. Over and above the fact that these consanguineous marriages are
+almost certain to transmit in an accentuated form any defect or tendency
+to disease already present in the family, there is no physiological reason
+why such marriages should not take place. Breeders of prize stock
+frequently breed "in and in," not only with impunity, but with marked
+benefit. But this fact, while going to prove that it is not the mere blood
+relationship of the parents which induces the degeneration so often found
+in the children of consanguineous marriages, can but rarely be advanced as
+an argument in support of the marriage of blood relations. The
+stock-raiser only permits the more perfect members of his flocks and herds
+to continue their kind, and for this reason the "in-and-in" breeding is
+innocuous, just as it would be in the human family under like conditions.
+But where shall we find the perfect human family? Such families are
+certainly rare. The laws of natural life have been so strained and
+perverted that almost every family nowadays has a taint or twist of some
+kind, and as all such imperfections are transmitted and rapidly deepened
+and fixed in the family by the intermarriage of its members, it is best
+that such unions should be forbidden.
+
+Recently acquired characters, whether physiologic or pathologic, are very
+liable to disappear when the individual bearing such characters
+intermarries with another not having the same character. The natural
+tendency in all such cases is to revert in the offspring to the normal or
+healthy type, so that unless the new character be very deeply impressed
+upon the parental organism it is almost certain it will not appear in the
+offspring, if the other parents have nothing of the character. But when
+both parents are possessed of the character, whether it be physiologic or
+pathologic, this natural tendency to revert to the original is often
+overborne and the character is repeated in an accentuated form in the
+offspring.
+
+Now this accentuation of all family characters is what must always happen
+in the case of consanguineous marriages. If there be any taint in the
+family each member of the family will have inherited more or less of it
+from the common ancestor. Take the case of cousins, the descendants of a
+common grandparent who was insane and of an insane stock. Here the cousins
+are certain to have inherited more or less of the insane diathesis. Even
+if the taint has been largely diluted in their case by the wise, or, more
+likely, fortunate marriages of their blood-related parents, yet will they
+have inherited a certain tendency to nervous disease, and if they marry
+they must not be surprised if that taint appears in an aggravated form in
+their children. Some of the children of such parents are generally
+idiotic, epileptic, dumb, or lymphatic, and the parents marvel whence came
+the imperfection. It may be in some cases that the parents, and possibly
+the grandparent, of the unfortunate children, have not up till that time
+displayed any outward evidence of the tendency to disease which they have
+inherited and handed on to their descendants; and, not looking farther
+back, the parents boldly assert that such a thing as insanity, epilepsy,
+scrofula, &c., is unknown to their family. They themselves have never been
+insane; why, then, should their children? In like manner children may be
+epileptic, blind, deaf-mute, lymphatic, cancerous, criminal, drunkards, or
+deformed from direct inheritance, and yet the family line be honestly
+declared to be healthy. Hence the truth of Sir William Aitken's maxim,
+that "a family history including less than three generations is useless
+and may even be misleading." From the foregoing it is evident that the
+similarity of temperament induced by a common environment, and which
+Strahan would call "social consanguinity," must be a potent factor in the
+production of all hereditary degenerations. Living under similar customs,
+habits and surroundings, labouring at the same occupation, indulging in
+the same dissipation, tend to engender like diseases and degenerations,
+irrespective of any blood relationship. Hence it not seldom happens that
+persons not even distantly related by blood are, in reality, much more
+nearly related in temperament than cousins, or even nearer blood relations
+who have experienced widely different modes of life. This "social
+consanguinity" is the great curse which dogs every exclusive tribe and
+class, and hurries them to extinction. It has largely aided real or family
+consanguinity in the production of the diseases and degenerations which
+have so heavily fallen upon the aristocracies and royal families of
+Europe.
+
+A crucial test of the opposing positions taken respectively in such a
+positive manner by Bemiss and Strahan would be a family intermarrying
+extensively, but placed under favouring conditions unlikely of themselves
+to create degeneracy. Excellent cases of this kind are furnished by
+Bourgeois[120] and Thiebault.[121] Bourgeois gives the history of his own
+family, which was the issue of a union of the third degree of
+consanguinity. During the ensuing 160 years there were ninety-one
+marriages, of which sixteen were consanguineous. All of these latter were
+productive. There was not a single case of malformation, or other physical
+or mental disease in the offspring.
+
+Thiebault reports the case of a slave-dealer who died in the year 1849 at
+Whidah, Dahomey, leaving behind him four hundred disconsolate widows, and
+about one hundred children. By the order of the king the whole family were
+interned in a particular district, where reigned the most complete
+promiscuity. In 1863 there were children of the third generation.
+Thiebault, after verifying these facts, states that at that time, although
+these people were born from all degrees of incestuous unions, there was
+not a single instance of deaf-mutism, albinism, blindness, cretinism, or
+other congenital malformation. From these cases it is evident that the
+position of Strahan is not too strongly taken.
+
+While it is true that "like clings to like," still this does not imply
+kinship, but it very often implies likeness in mental characteristics.
+This tendency has been shown to be present in the neurotic by Roller,[122]
+De Monteyel,[123] Kiernan,[124] Bannister,[125] and Manning,[126] so far
+as Germany, France, the United States, and Australia are concerned.
+Bannister puts the statistical proof of this tendency very forcibly as
+follows: "There are in Illinois, according to the most recent estimates,
+in round numbers, about 6,000 insane, or one to a little over 500 of the
+population. Even if we double, treble, or quadruple this frequency to
+include all that have been or are to be insane, as well as those insane at
+the present time, it would not appear that there was much probability of
+two insane persons being married according to any ordinary law of chances.
+In fact, we find four out of the 104 with insane heredity had both father
+and mother insane. In one of these cases the insane heredity involved both
+parents and both grandparents on each side, though in the case of the
+latter the histories show it only as collateral. Besides these, three
+patients had direct paternal and collateral maternal heredity; two had
+direct maternal and collateral paternal heredity, and in one case there
+was collateral heredity of insanity on both sides. This makes altogether
+nearly 10 per cent. of those with insane heredity with it on both sides,
+maternal and paternal, and thus favoured with a double opportunity to
+inherit mental disease. If we add to this the instances where, with
+insanity of one parent, there is reported either epilepsy, hysteria, or
+drunkenness, 'brain disease,' nervousness, &c., of the other, the ratio of
+double inheritance rises to over 20 per cent."
+
+The beneficial effects which may result from atavism are, it will be
+obvious, offset by this tendency of the neurotic to intermarry, thus
+perverting the principle of atavism to the assistance of degeneracy.
+
+The age of the parent plays a part in degeneracy. Conger[127] (whose
+results have been corroborated by Joseph Workman, of Toronto, and
+Kiernan,[128] of Chicago) points out that in all degenerative forms we
+must take into consideration this factor, since it determines the
+development of degeneracy in childhood. Hereditary taint may be
+transmitted to descendants as a simple neuropathy, as a neurosis, or as a
+defect of development reaching even to idiocy. Conger finds the prevailing
+age, especially the age of the mothers of degenerates, is often between
+twenty and twenty-five years, and that hence there exists a relation
+between this age and the greater transmission of degeneracy to the
+offspring. Marro, who has specially investigated the influence of the age
+of the parents, both in the normal population and among criminals,[129]
+finds that among all classes of criminals there is an excess of immature
+parents (under 26) or senile parents (over 40), and that only petty
+offenders possessed a normal number of mature parents (26 to 40 years). A
+man between 20 and 25 is in as favourable condition for procreating
+degenerates as the very aged. Because of incompleted organic development
+he has been unable to free himself from hereditary taint which he
+transmits to his descendants, but which in maturer age, through the
+influence of adaptation, evolution, or education, might perhaps be more or
+less notably modified.
+
+The organism between 20 and 25 is yet incomplete; education has not been
+able to exert much influence in determining those possible changes which
+are adapted to modify congenital tendencies. In a word, the individual
+between 20 and 25 feels too much the influence of atavic characters, and
+too readily transmits to his posterity the brands of degeneracy.
+Experience has made it well known that the children of the aged readily
+show degenerate types. Many children of old fathers have undoubtedly
+inherited all the characters of the weakness of the age in which they were
+begotten. Old age represents the period of retrogression, of involution,
+and hence readily transmits the mark of degeneracy. The children of either
+too young or too old parents, failing to escape hereditary predisposition,
+may from birth inherit those characters which are proper to incomplete
+organic development or to the period of involution.
+
+Kiernan has had under observation a Nova Scotian family of Scotch
+extraction, the mother of which continued to bear children until she was
+63 years old. There had been no pregnancy between 50 and 56. At 56 a son
+was born who had ear, jaw and skull stigmata, and became a periodical
+lunatic at 25. A son, born a year after, was a six-fingered idiot, with
+retinitis pigmentosa. (These last expressions of degeneracy are, as
+Darier[130] has shown, often associated. Darier's cases had the following
+hereditary antecedents: One father had hemeralopia; one mother had
+defective vision; a grandfather was blind at 30; a grandfather was blind
+in one eye, and an uncle had congenital iris coloboma. Only one patient
+examined did not have hemeralopic descendants. Six patients examined
+belonged to five different families, all consisting of five or six
+children, one-third of whom had hemeralopia. Among thirty-five children
+there were eleven hemeralopes and two six-fingered children, who died too
+young to determine the existence of retinitis pigmentosa. The disease in
+all began in childhood, and hemeralopia was absent in but one case.) Three
+of the next children (two boys and a girl) became paralytic idiots in
+infancy. Here the degeneracy was expressed in that tendency to miliary
+aneurismal weakness of arteries to which E. C. Spitzka,[131] called
+attention over a decade ago. One of the next children was a periodically
+sexual invert female. The last child was an epileptic. The children born
+before the age of fifty were normal and averaged 60 years of age.
+
+Matthews Duncan,[132] Arthur Mitchell, and Langdon Down, have called
+attention to the influence of premature and late marriage in the
+production of idiocy. Factors capable of producing idiocy are of course
+capable of producing less decided expressions of degeneracy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INTERMIXTURE OF RACES
+
+
+Defoe, in his _Trueborn Englishman_, outlines a factor of great importance
+in degeneracy.[133] Race intermixture is much more common than is
+generally believed, owing to that ethnologic error consequent on the
+discovery of Sanscrit, which tests race by speech. Keane[134] excellently
+explodes this error by the following table:
+
+  Peoples.            Race.                    Speech.
+
+  English             Kelto-Teutonic           Teutonic
+  Scotch              Kelto-Teutonic           Teutonic
+  Cornish             Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic    Teutonic
+  Irish (West)        Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic    Keltic
+  Welsh               Siluro-Kelto-Teutonic    Keltic
+  French              Ibero-Kelto-Teutonic     Italic
+  Spanish             Ibero-Keltic             Italic
+  Germans             Slavo-Kelto-Teutonic     Teutonic
+  Bohemians           Kelto-Teuto-Slavonic     Slavonic
+  Russians (many)     Finno-Slavonic           Slavonic
+  Hungarians          Ugro-Slavonic            Slavonic
+  Bulgarians          Ugro-Teuto-Slavonic      Finnic
+  Prussians (East)    Letto-Teuto-Slavonic     Teutonic
+  Rumanians           Italo-Slavo-Illyric      Italic
+  Italians            Liguro-Kelto-Italic      Italic
+
+Profoundly mixed as this table indicates European races to be, it is far
+from representing the full extent of race mingling. The primitive worship
+of the Slavonic Czernebog by the Saxons in England demonstrates a Slavonic
+strain, derivable, as Kiernan[135] remarks, from their contact with the
+Wends of the Baltic. Not merely are the Aryan races of Europe mixed
+together, but the blood of all has a pre-Aryan and a Turanian dash. In
+Great Britain, as Taylor[136] and others have shown, the Iberian type is
+found in Wales and Scotland as well as elsewhere, though in lesser degree.
+These admixtures date back to palaeolithic times when, although, as Keane
+remarks, the predominant type of skull was dolicocephalic (or
+long-headed), the brachycephalic (or round-headed type) had begun to
+appear in America, then connected by land with both Africa and Europe. In
+the subsequent neolithic time, while the type is at first generally
+brachycephalic, it soon becomes mesatocephalic (mixed long and
+round-headed), pure brachycephals and dolicocephals becoming rare. Vogt
+went so far as to maintain that were the three chief anthropoid apes
+developed further, two dolicocephalic and one brachycephalic type of man
+would result; the first two from the chimpanzee and gorilla, the last from
+the orang. The orang descendant would have long arms and red hair. The
+chimpanzee descendant would be of small size, dark colour with slender
+bones and jaws. The gorilla race would have massive chest, big bones,
+massive jaws and teeth. These three types appear in Great Britain and
+Ireland and traces of their blood are still detectable in living men. Sir
+Walter Scott draws an excellent picture of the "orang" type in _Rob Roy_,
+whose hero, according to reliable tradition, represented the Pict type.
+Gomme[137] has lately shown that these races persisted long enough to
+stamp their savage beliefs on coming races and intermingled with them. The
+Neolithic race in Great Britain was dark, of feeble build, short stature,
+with dolicocephalic skulls. This race remained to the historic period, as
+the Silures in Great Britain and the Firbolgs in Ireland. It had high
+cheek-bones and oblique eyes, as Kiernan[138] points out. Towards the
+middle of the neolithic period this race was conquered by a
+brachycephalic, tall, long-armed, muscular race, with florid complexion
+and yellowish or red hair.[139] Scott's _Rob Roy_ is an example of this
+type. A third race of fair complexion with prognathous face,
+dolicocephalic skulls, of tall stature, great bones, great chest
+development and massive jaws, later invaded Great Britain. While these
+races resemble Vogt's hypothetical descendants of the anthropoid apes, it
+should be stated that there is not the slightest evidence for this line of
+descent. Writers who ignore these race characteristics have often brought
+serious criticism and even discredit on the doctrine of degeneracy.
+Lombroso, starting from the correct premise, that wide departure from the
+race type is evidence of degeneracy, erroneously cites in illustration
+Virchow's departure from the German type, Byron's departure from the
+English type, O'Connell's dolicocephalic departure from the
+mesatocephalic Irish type, and Robert Bruce's neanderthaloid departure
+from the Scandinavian type. As Kiernan has shown,[140] Virchow, as his
+name denotes, is a German-speaking Slavonic Wend; Byron was a
+Celto-Scandinavian Scotchman; O'Connell was born in a district conquered
+by the tall dolicocephalic race which invaded Ireland. The Bruce type of
+skull is still found among the purer Norwegians, Frisians, Swedes, and
+Danes, and was common just before his day and just after, as has been
+shown by Taylor.
+
+As the intermingling of races began early, the question of the existence
+of pure races to-day, or even during the historic period, is an open one.
+The Hebrews have been comparatively pure since the return from the
+Captivity. Before that, as the history of Solomon's foreign marriages
+demonstrates, they were a raceless chaos, the Semitic element
+predominating. Researches by Flinders Petrie[141] and others show that the
+Egyptians were a mixture of Turanians, Hamites, Aryan and Semite peoples
+imposed on a negroid basis. When these elements were finally fused, the
+race bred relatively true, although the lower classes tend to the negroid
+type and the higher to the Caucasic.
+
+The Koreans, as Keane remarks, are a mixture of two primitive races, one
+white and one yellow. The Japanese, whose ancestors emigrated to Japan
+from Korea are, according to Topinard,[142] the product of the addition of
+three distinct types to that forming their Korean ancestors. The Caucasic
+to a small extent, the Polynesian to a greater, and the Malay to a still
+greater, are mixed with the original Korean.
+
+The Chinese are neither a homogeneous people nor a pure race, albeit the
+relatively few Mantchus are dominant. The Aryan of India, on whom Max
+Mueller laid such stress, is known to be, despite a rigid caste system, a
+non-Aryan race, feebly infused with a modicum of Aryan blood. The
+so-called "Gypsy" seems, of all the races of India, to have retained most
+Aryan speech and type as well as its original semi-nomadic
+waggon-journeying tendencies in the midst of settled civilisation. Ghetto
+seclusion long helped to preserve relative purity of race in the Jew, but
+despite vagabond surroundings the "Gypsy" has remained even purer.
+
+Great as has been the mixture of even widely separated types like the
+three races described as mingling in Great Britain and Ireland, even
+greater admixture occurred in comparatively late historic times. The
+so-called Scotch-Irish (whose blood enters so largely into the dominant
+race of the United States) are, despite their speech (much more Teutonic
+and monosyllabic than English), as Kiernan[143] has shown, a raceless
+chaos of Gaelic and Cymric Celts, Lowland Scotch, French Huguenots, Danes
+(Celto-Teuto-Slaves),[144] Palatinate Germans, Magyars, English Puritans,
+Hollanders, Swedes, Protestant Italians, Poles, and Spaniards. The
+intermixture of the dark, small-boned, dolichocephalic, orthognathous
+(with in-drawn jaws) race first with the brachycephalic, prognathous,
+big-boned, red-haired race, and then with the dolichocephalic prognathous,
+deep-chested, big-boned, fair race, must have produced in the British
+Isles as marked variations in type as now occur from the admixture of the
+Indian and negro. These are especially noticeable in the Marshpee Indians
+of Cape Cod, the Long Island tribes and the "Red Bones" of South Carolina.
+The Marshpee tribe is an admixture of Anglo-Saxon, Portuguese, Indian, and
+negro. The Indian element, while still demonstrable, is lessening. Some of
+the older people still retain Indian characteristics. A girl of ten was
+negro in all respects except her hair. An adult whose mother was half
+white, half Marshpee, while the father is negro, had all the negro
+characteristics except the skin, which was Indian in type, and the jaws,
+which were slender. Another adult who had a negro great-grandfather,
+Marshpee mother, and a three-fourths Marshpee father, had large,
+negro-like jaws, Indian hair, skin, and cheek-bones. Another adult had a
+Portuguese maternal grandmother, negro grandfather, an Indian-white
+paternal grandmother and Indian-negro paternal grandfather. His hair,
+jaws, and nose were negro, his cheek-bones were high, his upper and lower
+jaws met so that the front teeth occluded.[145] The like condition obtains
+in the Long Island Indians, but to a less extent with the "Red Bones,"
+who, after the type was formed, avoided admixture with the negro.
+
+The influence of race intermixture in the production of degeneracy is
+easily settled. Basing their opinion on the notorious sterility of the
+hybrid offspring of the horse and ass, certain biologists have assumed
+like results in man and have cited the alleged absence of Australian
+half-breeds in evidence. Since the hare and rabbit, dog and wolf, sheep
+and goat produce breeds intermediate between the parents, fertile while
+environment is unchanged, horse and ass sterility cannot be accepted as of
+much value in settling the question. Recent researches have shown that the
+half-breeds which survived birth among the Australians were killed in
+accordance with tribal usages regulating population in accordance with
+food supply.
+
+Whether the results of race intermixture prove degenerate or not will turn
+largely on the environment. The mulatto is certainly better adapted to the
+white environment than the pure negro, albeit less so than the white. That
+race intermixture may, however, determine degeneration, is shown by the
+relapse into voodooism and cannibalism of the Haiti and Louisiana French
+hybrids, and the Anglo-Saxon hybrids of Liberia, who contrast
+disadvantageously with the Arabianised Moslem Mandingoes and Veys, which
+last have advanced so far as to devise a system of writing. The extent of
+the influence of environment is shown in the career of the Dumas family,
+which is of Haitian-negro origin. The grandfather was a general in the
+French army, the father and son were two stars in the literary firmament.
+The sculptor, Edmonia Lewis, was of similar stock to these. Evidences of
+degeneracy were rare among the Marshpee Indians, as I have elsewhere
+shown.[146]
+
+The Abyssinians have preserved that antique type of Christianity which had
+Jewish usages; they had their own literature, alphabet, and old type of
+civilisation. According to Keane, the present inhabitants of Abyssinia
+form an extremely complex ethnical group in which it is not always
+possible to distinguish the constituent elements. The prevailing colour
+is a distinct brown, shading northwards to a light, olive, fair
+complexion, southwards to a deep chocolate and an almost sooty black.
+There are Abyssinians who may certainly be called black, and in whom the
+negro strain is revealed in the somewhat tumid lip, small nose, broad at
+base, and frizzly, black hair. But the majority may be described as a
+mixed Hamito-Semitic people, who, beyond question, belong fundamentally to
+the Caucasic division. While the Hamitic, Semitic, and the Latin branch of
+the Aryans are admitted to form a fertile, progressive admixture with the
+negro, the reverse is commonly assumed to be the case with the English
+speaking Celto-Teutons. Daniel Wilson[147] is of opinion that this is not
+true as to millions of the coloured race who now constitute the indigenous
+population of the Southern States. They are at home there in a climate to
+which the white race adapts itself with very partial success. The
+offspring of white fathers and of mothers of the African races, they have
+multiplied to millions; and now, with the recently acquired rights of
+citizenship, and with the advantage of education within their reach, the
+country is their town. The very social prejudices against miscegenation
+protect them from the effacing influence to which the Indian half-breed is
+exposed, by ever-recurrent intermarriage with the dominant race. As yet
+there are discernible the various degrees of heredity from the mulatto to
+the quinteron. But the abolition of slavery has placed the coloured race
+on an entirely new footing. Left as it now is, free to enjoy the
+healthful, social relations of a civilised community, and protected, by
+the very prejudices of race and caste, from any large intermixture with
+the white race, it can scarcely admit of doubt that there will survive on
+the American Continent a Melanochroi of its own, more distinctly separated
+from the white race, not only by heredity but also by climate influences,
+than the "dark Whites" of Europe are from the blonde types of Hellenic,
+Slavic, Teutonic, or Scandinavian stock. This condition will be modified
+by the fact that the negro American, like the others, is a traveller and,
+with a rise of culture, tends to city life.
+
+The admixture with the white has reduced negro prognathism and
+dolichocephaly. It must, however, be admitted that these reductions had
+already been begun in Africa. Sir H. H. Johnston, however, fully agrees
+with the negro writer[148] who holds that the "pure and unadulterated
+Negro cannot, as a rule, advance with any certainty of stability above his
+present level of culture; that he requires the admixture of a superior
+type of man." But the white and black races are "too widely separated in
+type to produce a satisfactory hybrid"; hence Johnston thinks that, "the
+admixture of yellow that the Negro requires should come from India, and
+that Western Africa and British Central Africa should become the America
+of the Hindu. The mixture of the two races would give the Indian the
+physical development which he lacks, and he, in his turn, would transmit
+to his half Negro offspring the industry, ambition, and aspiration toward
+a civilised life which the Negro so markedly lacks."
+
+On the whole, race intermixture will not tend to elevate the race where
+there is a decided difference in the state of evolution of the two races,
+and moreover especially where, as is usually the case, the mother is of
+the inferior race. It must be obvious that, given a negro pelvis and the
+head of a white, results damaging to the offspring cannot but occur. And
+these results are of a nature likely to be transmitted by heredity. The
+same would hold true with other races as well. Although the differences
+between the Hawaiian and the white are much less than those between the
+negro and the white, it is notorious that while the labours with pure
+Hawaiians are easy, those with half-whites are difficult. The same
+conditions have been observed from time to time between different breeds
+of dogs, whose pelves vary. Therefore it is safe to assume that admixtures
+of races of different grades of evolution will, if carried to any great
+extent, tend to render the superior race more liable to the action of the
+factors producing degeneracy. Dixon[149] has shown that mulatto families
+tend to disappear, if they be not crossed with either black or white, and
+that the limit of descent is the fourth generation. He has also pointed
+out that morbid proclivities and retrogressive tendencies are peculiarly
+rife among mulattoes. The fact, long ago shown by Menatta,[150] that the
+conflict for existence between brain growth and reproductive organ growth
+at puberty, results, in the mulatto, as in the negro and anthropoids, in
+the triumph of the reproductive, indicates that the mulatto has factors of
+degeneracy which would be fatal to the establishment of an intermediate
+type on the environment of the white. While Menatta is in error in
+regarding skull mal-development as the cause, when it and brain growth
+disturbance are defects due to the same cause, still general observation
+supports his opinion that "negro children are sharp, intelligent, and full
+of vivacity, but on approaching the adult period a gradual change sets in.
+The intellect seems to become clouded, animation giving place to a sort of
+lethargy, briskness yielding to indolence. We must necessarily infer that
+the development of the negro and white proceeds on different lines. While
+with the latter the volume of brain grows with the expansion of the brain
+pan, in the former the growth of the brain is, on the contrary, arrested
+by the premature closing of the cranial sutures and laternal pressure of
+the frontal bone." Since, as Havelock Ellis remarks,[151] even the highest
+races do not fulfil the promise of evolution they make before puberty,
+anything which tends still further to impede the fulfilment must be
+regarded as a factor of degeneracy. Hence intermixture with an inferior
+race, having an inferior type of pelvis, would tend to degeneracy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TOXIC AGENTS
+
+
+The toxic agents which influence the race toward degeneracy, exert that
+deterioration in a mode which closely resembles that of the degenerative
+powers of the acute and chronic contagions and infections. The acute
+poisonings by these toxic agencies resemble the acute, nervous and other
+exhaustion caused by the toxin of the germs underlying the infections and
+contagions. The chronic conditions due to these toxic agents agree in many
+respects with the chronic states produced by the infections and
+contagions. The toxic agencies are divisible into those belonging to the
+condiments, medicines, foods and beverages, and those arising from
+occupations.
+
+Tobacco is the most common, while alcohol and opium contend for second
+place both as to use and as to deleterious effects. Alcohol has been
+repeatedly charged with being _the_ factor in degeneracy. Statistics of
+the first half of the present century seem to justify the conclusion that
+it is apparently the most potent factor, yet these statistics as a rule
+confound coincidence and cause, or effect and cause, or the vicious
+circles thereby resulting, to a remarkable degree. There are but few
+races in which alcohol has not been used and abused. The American
+Indians[152] had tizwein, chica, and pulque long ere Columbus; the Tartars
+and Russians, bouza, kvas, and kumyss; the South Sea Islanders ava and
+toddy (from the cocoanut); the Tunisians, laymi. The vast majority of the
+races of mankind have used alcoholic beverages. Each was called by a local
+name and not by a loan word, a most demonstrable evidence of local origin.
+
+Even the social insects (bees and ants) at times indulge in fruit
+ferments. The claim, therefore, that alcohol is the product of high
+civilisation, hence of recent origin, and hence peculiarly destructive, is
+untenable. That excess in alcohol frequently occurs in degenerate stocks
+is, however, undeniable. But as Krafft-Ebing, Kiernan, Spitzka and others
+have shown, intolerance of alcohol is an expression of degeneracy. The
+person intolerant of alcohol becomes either a total abstainer because of a
+personal idiosyncrasy (like that which forbids certain people to eat
+shell-fish lest nettle-rash occur), or because of parsimony, or for both
+reasons combined. Such total abstainers leave degenerate offspring in
+which degeneracy assumes the type of excess in alcohol as well as even
+lower phases. The race tests of the deteriorating influence of alcohol are
+practically valueless, nor are statistics concerning alcoholism in the
+ancestry of degenerates of much more use. The enormous amount of idiocy,
+for example, in the Scandinavian countries, charged by Huss, Langdon Down
+and others to alcoholism in the parents, has been, by the most recent
+researches, cut down by Roof to less than 7 per cent. Insane hospital
+statistics vary to a like degree. Bad faith, however, is out of the
+question in these statistics. Lack of analytic skill, and that dangerous
+unscientific, canting, philanthropic tendency which rebels at statistics
+unfavourable to preconceived sociologic theories, explain these
+discrepancies. The ignoring of all but the alcoholic factor produces also
+great elements of error. Kiernan[153] cites twenty-three cases in which
+degenerate stocks were charged to alcoholic parentage, but which on
+analysis proved to be due to a degenerative factor in the parents of which
+alcoholism was merely an expression. Nearly all the offspring born after
+inebriety were prematurely born, defective, epileptic, hysteric, insane,
+idiots or criminals. Some few were healthy, apart from their intolerance
+of alcohol. In eighteen cases both father and mother were alcoholists. The
+fathers in four of these cases had been temperate, industrious, and
+affectionate ere being sunstruck. Following this came periods of
+irritability, excessive drinking and spendthriftiness. The mothers had
+remained for some years after the fathers' breakdown free from the use of
+alcohol, but were nervously exhausted from the strain. One became
+depressed during pregnancy, was given gin for the depression, and the
+habit persisted after the delivery. In the three other cases painful
+menses developed during the nervous exhaustion. The popular prescription
+for these, gin, was given, with the result of producing inebriety. In ten
+cases skull injury to the father had like results on both mother and
+father. In two cases the mother became a victim of painful menstruation
+after a railroad accident; gin drinking, to relieve this, followed and
+became a habit. The father's nervous system broke down under the strain
+and both became inebriates. In two other cases nervous exhaustion from
+typhoid and typhus fever produced the same outcome in inebriety on the
+part of the father and mother. In the remaining cases the inebriety was an
+expression of nerve exhaustion after various protracted infections. The
+alcoholism in these cases was clearly an expression of the factors of race
+deterioration producing degeneracy, and not its cause.
+
+The influence of alcohol must therefore first be studied on the individual
+to determine its value and method of action as a cause of race
+deterioration. Careful medical researches have shown that alcohol produces
+a nervous state, closely resembling that induced by the contagions and
+infections, often accompanied with mental disturbance (delirium tremens
+and acute types of insanity). The acute nervous state to which the term
+alcoholism was applied by Magnus Huss has all the essential
+characteristics of the nervous state due to the contagions and infections.
+There is, however, a greater tendency to impotence and sterility in the
+alcohol nervous state than in the others, and consequently a lesser
+influence on race deterioration. The condition, moreover, has a tendency
+to set into action degenerative tendencies latent in the liver and
+kidneys. This action of alcohol on the liver and kidneys so interferes
+with their functions as to produce the effect already described as
+resulting in the contagions and infections from their toxins. Alcohol
+exerts a similarly deteriorating influence on the antitoxin-forming
+organs (especially on the testicles, ovaries and their appendages), to
+that already described as exerted by the toxins of the contagions and
+infections. To the direct toxic effects of alcohol are therefore added
+results of imperfect liver and kidney action and defective strengthening
+powers from deficient antitoxin secretion. Like all toxic agents, alcohol
+interferes with the functions of the eye and ear nerves. Special weakness
+thus created is transmissible to the offspring. The chronic type of
+alcoholism may well be compared in its effect with chronic contagions.
+There is, however, less tendency to infection with the microbes forming
+pus. There is a greater tendency to deteriorating action on the nervous
+system. There is in chronic alcoholism, as in syphilis, special tendency
+to that formation of connective tissue which destroys organs. The chronic
+mental disorders of chronic alcoholism resemble those of tuberculosis
+except that the capricious state and exaltation are less frequent than the
+suspicional tendency which is deeper, and takes the direction of delusions
+of poisoning and insane jealousy. The last are due to the deteriorating
+influence of alcohol on the generative organs. Alcohol may limit its
+action to the central nervous system, and thus produce hereditary losses
+of power. It causes changes in the peripheral nerves which in the
+offspring find expression in spinal cord and brain disorder through
+extension of the morbid process. But for its deteriorating effects on the
+ovaries and testicles, alcohol would be a most serious social danger.
+Through its action on the generative organs it tends to prevent the
+survival of the unfit, rather than to develop degenerates.
+
+Opium seems to be the Charybdis on which the human bark strikes when
+escaping from the Scylla of alcohol. Its abuse as a narcotic is much
+older, even among the English-speaking races, than is generally suspected.
+Murrell, over ten years ago, demonstrated that the inhabitants of the fens
+of Lincolnshire had long employed opium as a prophylactic against malaria.
+The ratio of insanity in these regions proved to be very great. The same
+conditions obtained in certain malarial regions of New Jersey and
+Pennsylvania, where the use of strong infusions of poppy was common. The
+statistics of Rush[154] as to opium-caused insanity in Pennsylvania,
+indicate that the percentage of American opium abuses at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century was very great. The drug differs in two serious
+respects from alcohol. It is nearer in chemical composition to nerve
+tissue, and the tendency to its use may be transmitted by the mother
+directly to the foetus. This, as Bureau and Ringer have shown, receives
+through the placenta from its opium-using mother a certain amount of
+morphine. In consequence, the child in the first month of infancy must be
+nourished on the milk of an opium-using woman, or given opium in some
+other way lest it perish. To this fact Calkins[155] was the first to call
+attention. His results were corroborated later by Hubbard; Kiernan, of
+Chicago[156]; Erlenmeyer, of Berlin; F. B. Earle, of Chicago; Mattison, of
+Brooklyn; Hughes, of St. Louis; and others. Amabile, of New York, showed
+that not only were the children of opium-using mothers born with tendency
+to the opium habit, but that the mothers aborted frequently with twins,
+and that the children who survived were very liable to convulsions.
+Independently of this factor the mental state produced by opium habit
+resembles in many respects that of the lunatic, in that the victim of
+opium is as unable to distinguish between his wishes and the facts, and
+therefore often utters what appear to be sheer lies. Hence he is totally
+unreliable and has taken a step in mental and moral degeneracy that, by
+the ordinary laws of heredity, must greatly increase, unless corrected by
+healthy atavism and training in the next generation. Opium is a more
+dangerous factor of degeneracy than alcohol, since the opium user must be
+in a continuous state of intoxication to carry on his usual avocation,
+while abstinence is perfectly compatible with proper work on the part of
+the drunkard. The opium habit is increased by the peculiar propaganda
+carried on by the _habitues_ who justify their position by urging the use
+of opium for any ailment, however minimal. Opium, like alcohol, causes
+nervous exhaustion similar to, but greater than, that of the contagions
+and infections. From the affinity of opium to nerve tissue, from its
+tendency to stimulate the heart, thus causing increased blood supply to
+the brain; from its action on the bowels and the increased resultant work
+of the liver, this nervous state is much intensified. Opium does not have
+as great tendencies to interfere with the structure of the ovary and
+testicles as alcohol, hence the greater danger of the opium _habitue's_
+children surviving. Opium, when smoked, stimulates the reproductive
+apparatus, and thus would greatly increase the number of degenerates due
+to this habit but for the defects due to the inheritance of the habit and
+their consequences.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ANTE-CHRISTIAN IRISH PIPES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ANTE-COLUMBIAN PIPES FROM SCULPTURE AT
+STRATFORD-UPON-AVON.]
+
+
+The origin of the use of tobacco is usually ascribed to the New World.
+There is no doubt that immediately subsequent to the discovery of America,
+the use of tobacco spread over the world, and that its employment by Sir
+Walter Raleigh made it fashionable. It is certain, however, that the
+Romans and Irish employed pipes for smoking long ere the Christian era
+(Fig. 1), but the substances smoked were not tobacco but dried aromatic
+leaves. The English before Columbus (Fig. 2) did the same. In Western Asia
+historic botanical evidence leaves no doubt that tobacco was indigenous.
+Tobacco from the East hence probably encountered tobacco from the West,
+both currents meeting in Asia Minor. As with alcohol and opium the
+statistic method generally adopted proves fallacious when applied to the
+degenerative effects of tobacco. Study of its effects on the individual is
+needed to determine its effects on the race. The most careful researches
+show that the typical effects occur as a rule after long-continued use of
+tobacco, sometimes not until twenty years or more. While many smokers
+reach old age, many fail to live to old age because they are smokers. The
+skin is the subject of itching and reddening, the nerves of taste are
+blunted, and patches develop in the throat; loss of appetite, epigastric
+fulness, pain, vomiting, and disturbance of bowel function are common.
+Menstrual disturbance occurs in women. In female cigar-makers abortion and
+pluriparity are frequent. The sexual appetite is impaired and sometimes
+sterility and impotence occur; also disturbed heart action, palpitation,
+rapid and intermitting pulse, precordial anxiety, weakness, faintness and
+collapse, with sclerosis of the coronary arteries of the heart and left
+ventricular hypertrophy. Cigars and cigarettes produce irritation of the
+nose, mucous membrane, diminished smell, chronic hyperaemia of the
+epiglottis and larynx, and sometimes of the trachea and bronchi
+predisposing to consumption. Nicotine amblyopia, or sight weakness, is
+common, with central disturbances of the field of vision and with
+colour-weakness of sight. Often there is disorder of the ear tubes and
+congestion of drum, with loss of power of the hearing nerves, and
+consequent noises in the ear. The central nervous system is affected. In
+high schools, non-smokers get on better than smokers. Children from 9 to
+15 years of age exhibit less intelligence, laziness, or other degenerative
+tendencies. Adults have head-pressure, sleeplessness, or drowsy stupor,
+depression, apathy, and dizziness. There may also be ataxic symptoms,
+paretic weakness of bowel and bladder, trembling and spasms. Tobacco
+insanities are comparatively rare in smokers, but are common in snuffers
+and still oftener in chewers.[157] In the precursory stage, which lasts
+about three months, there is general uneasiness, restlessness, anxiety,
+sleeplessness, and mental depression, often of a religious type. After
+this occurs precordial anxiety, and finally the psychosis proper
+consisting of three stages: 1. Hallucinations of all senses, suicidal
+tendency, depression of spirits, attacks of fright with tendency to
+violence and sleeplessness. 2. Exhilaration, slight emotional exaltation,
+agreeable hallucinations after from two to four weeks' relaxation, again
+followed by excitement. 3. The intervals between exaltation and depression
+diminish, the patient becomes irritable, but otherwise not alive to his
+surroundings, and perception and attention are lessened. The patient may
+be cured in five or six months if he stop tobacco during the first stage.
+In a year or so he may recover during the second stage. After the third
+stage the disease is frequently incurable. As the patient often becomes
+(especially by the use of the cigarette) an _habitue_ ere puberty, the
+proper development and balance of the sexual and intellectual system is
+checked. These patients break down mentally and physically between 14 and
+25. The moral delinquencies, other than sexual, are often an especial
+tendency to forgery and deceit of parents. Frequently the insanity of
+puberty (hebephrenia) is precipitated by tobacco. The cigarette, if used
+moderately, may be a sedative, but as used is a stimulant, and is often
+made of spoiled tobacco, resembling in reaction morphine, and on animals
+acting in a somewhat similar manner. As tobacco turns the salivary glands
+(which are concerned in digestion of starch) into excretory glands, it
+leads to imperfect digestion of starch, to consequent irregular
+fermentation in the bowel, thus at once furnishing a culture medium for
+microbes, to form more violent toxins from, and also creating leucomaines,
+to interfere especially with a nervous system overstimulated by nicotine.
+This is one great reason why those who snuff and chew tobacco more
+frequently become insane from tobacco than smokers, albeit these last are
+not exempt.
+
+Statistics from the female employes of the Spanish, French, Cuban, and
+American tobacco factories, while defective and somewhat vitiated by the
+co-existence of other conditions producing degeneracy, support the opinion
+that the maternal tobacco habit (whether intentional or the result of an
+atmosphere consequent on occupation) is the cause of frequent
+miscarriage, of high infantile mortality, of defective children, and of
+infantile convulsions.[158]
+
+Tobacco, therefore, in its influence on the paternal and maternal
+organism, exhausts the nervous system so that an acquired neurosis results
+in such a way as to be transmissible.
+
+Professional tea-tasters have long been known to suffer from nervous
+symptoms; very early in the practice of their occupation the head pressure
+symptoms of neurasthenia occur. Tremor also occurs early. While changes in
+the optic nerve have not been demonstrated beyond a doubt, still eye
+disorders have been observed in the pauper tea-drinkers of the United
+States and in the tea-tasters of Russia, thus indicating that similar
+changes to those produced by tobacco and alcohol are likely to occur in
+the optic nerve from tea. Bullard[159] has found that tea has a cumulative
+effect. In his experience toxic effects are not produced by less than five
+cups daily. The symptoms manifested are those of nervous excitement
+resembling hysteria, at times almost amounting to fury; nervous dyspepsia;
+rapid and irregular heart action; neuralgia of the heart; helmet-like
+sensation on the head, and tenderness along the spine. James Wood,[160] of
+Brooklyn, found that 10 per cent. of those under treatment at the city
+hospitals exhibited similar symptoms. Of these 69 per cent. were females.
+Every symptom ascribed by Bullard to tea was found by Wood in his cases,
+who also found that the women manifested irregularities in menstruation
+of neurasthenic or hysteria type. He has found these symptoms to be
+produced by one-half of the quantity of tea charged with these effects by
+Bullard. The _Lancet_[161] several years ago, from an editorial analysis
+of the effects of tea-tippling, took the position that in no small degree
+nervous symptoms occurring in children during infancy were due to the
+practice of the mothers, both of the working and society class, indulging
+in the excessive use of tea, the excess being judged by its effects on the
+individual and not by the amount taken. Convulsions and resultant
+infantile paralysis were frequently noticed among the children of these
+tea-tipplers. Observations among the factory population and the workers in
+the clothing sweating-shops show that tea neurasthenia, presenting all the
+ordinary symptoms of nervous exhaustion, is especially common among these.
+It is evident that tea produces a grave form of neurasthenia readily
+transmissible to descendants. In addition to its effects directly upon the
+nervous system, tea tends to check both stomach and bowel digestion, and
+thus increases the self-poisoning which is so prominent a cause,
+consequence, and aggravation of these nervous conditions.
+
+Coffee exerts a very similar action to that of tea, albeit the nervous
+symptoms produced by it are usually secondary to the disturbances of the
+stomach and bowel digestion. Coffee produces tremor, insomnia, nervous
+dyspepsia, and helmet sensations. With the exception of certain districts
+of the United States, coffee abuse is not carried to such an extent as
+tea, albeit in these, as in some portions of Germany, the habit is an
+excessive one. The conditions described result in Germany as frequently
+as they do in the United States. Mendel[162] finds that in Germany coffee
+inebriety is increasing and supplanting alcohol. Profound depression with
+sleeplessness and frequent vertex headache are early symptoms. Strong
+coffee will remove these temporarily, but it soon loses its effects, and
+they recur. There is much tremor, especially of the hands. The heart's
+action is rapid and irregular. Nervous dyspepsia is frequent. L. Bremer,
+of St. Louis, Mo., has observed similar conditions among both Germans and
+Americans there.
+
+While coca took its place only recently among the toxic causes of
+degeneracy, it was old as a factor in the degeneration of the Peruvian
+long ere the discovery of America by Columbus. Forty-three years ago
+Johnston[163] wrote that even Europeans in different parts of Peru had
+fallen into the coca habit long practised by the Indians. A confirmed
+chewer of coca is called a _coquero_, and he becomes more thoroughly a
+slave to the leaf than the inveterate drunkard is to alcohol. Sometimes
+the _coquero_ is overtaken by an irresistible craving, and betakes himself
+for days together to the woods, and there indulges unrestrainedly in coca.
+Young men of the best families of Peru are considered incurable when
+addicted to this extreme degree of excess. They abandon white society, and
+live in the woods or in Indian villages. In Peru the term white _coquero_
+has the same sense as irreclaimable drunken tramp. The inveterate
+_coquero_ has an unsteady gait, yellow skin, quivering lips, hesitant
+speech, and general apathy. The drug has assumed an unusual prominence in
+the field of degeneracy since the discovery of its alkaloid, cocaine.
+Since then there has sprung into existence in both Europe and the
+English-speaking countries the world over, a habit which, while much
+over-estimated, is undoubtedly growing, and aggravating as well as
+producing degeneracy. Many of the cases reported as due to cocaine are,
+however, chargeable to the desire of the hysteric or neurasthenic to
+secure a new sensation, or the desire on the part of the opium or whisky
+_habitue_ to try a dodge for forgiveness by friends. The habit is very
+frequently induced by patent medicines taken to cure catarrh by the
+neurasthenic, or to cure nervousness by hysterics as well. As the
+deformities of the nose passages predispose to what is called "catarrh,"
+patent medicines for local application containing cocaine are frequently
+employed in the treatment of this supposed constitutional disease, with
+the result of aggravating the original degeneracy. As the youth under the
+stress of puberty frequently ascribes all his ills to catarrh, he also
+employs very frequently snuffs containing cocaine, and has his nervous
+condition much aggravated thereby. Among the nostrums urged in the
+newspapers and magazines for this condition, so often resultant on nerve
+stress, is a certain notorious snuff containing 3 per cent. of cocaine.
+From the description given by Johnson of the _coquero_ there can be no
+doubt but tramps, errabund lunatics, and paupers result from this habit,
+to give birth to degenerates in the next generation.
+
+Lead has been found to produce in those exposed to its fumes a systemic
+nervous exhaustion, characterised by local paralysis about the wrist as
+well as the general symptoms of profound systemic nerve tire. This may
+result, as Tanquerel des Planches[164] pointed out nearly half a century
+ago, in acute insanity of the confusional type followed very often by
+forms of mental disorder of a chronic type resembling paretic dementia. In
+some cases the patient recovers from the acute insanity to suffer
+thereafter from epilepsy. In other cases, as Kiernan has shown,[165] an
+irritable suspicional condition results, in which the patient may live for
+years, marry, and leave offspring. This last condition and the epileptic
+are the most dangerous as to the production of degeneracy. As has already
+been pointed out, the women employed in the pottery factories in Germany
+suffer according to Rennert[166] from a form of lead poisoning which
+produces decidedly degenerative effects upon the offspring. These women
+had frequent abortions, often produced deaf-mutes, and very frequently
+macrocephalic children.
+
+Brass workers suffer from a very similar nervous condition to that
+produced by lead. Hogden,[167] of Birmingham, called attention to the
+grave forms of nervous exhaustion produced among brass-workers. The period
+during which the patient is able to pursue the occupation without breaking
+down is longer than that of the lead workers. Women, like men, are exposed
+to this condition. The chief effect produced, so far as offspring have
+been observed, is chiefly frequent abortions and infantile paralysis.
+
+The occupations employing mercury, whether mining, mirror-making, or
+gilding, produce forms of systemic nervous exhaustion in which the most
+marked symptom (but less important from a sanitary standpoint) is a tremor
+amounting at times almost to shaking-palsy. Like all other systemic
+nervous exhaustions, the mercurial one may appear as degeneracy in the
+offspring. The employment of women in match factories and tenement house
+sweating shops is growing. The chief toxic effect of phosphorus is not the
+localised jaw necrosis. This is but an evidence of the progressive system
+saturation with phosphorus. It bears the same relation to the more
+dangerous effects of phosphorus that "blue gum" does to the systemic
+effects of lead.
+
+Every condition arising from a toxic cause capable of producing profound
+systemic nervous exhaustion in the ancestor, and especially the
+ancestress, is likely to be transmitted as degeneracy to the descendant.
+Undoubtedly with the growing tendency of woman to pass from the ill-paid
+work of the seamstress to the better paid but dangerous occupations, a
+certain seeming increase in degeneracy must result.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CONTAGIOUS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE
+
+
+Among the gains of human advance in evolution stand out prominently
+complete immunity from certain diseases due to germs, and partial immunity
+from others, which last immunity results in chronic types, rather than in
+acute, because of increased vital resistance in man. Tuberculosis and
+dourine, acute diseases in the cow and horse, have become chronic
+diseases, tuberculosis (or consumption) and syphilis, in man. Such
+chronicity is evidence of advance, yet it constitutes an element of
+degeneracy, since the victim of the chronic disease is able to leave more
+offspring than would be possible were the disorder acute. In other
+respects acute and chronic contagions and infections exert the same
+influence in regard to degeneracy. The germ of the disease may be
+inherited, or general nutrition of the foetus may be so checked in
+development that the child inherits a predisposition to disease.
+
+Through this check to foetal development the phagocytes, or white blood
+cells, become so weakened that they are unable to devour foetal structures
+as useless to man as the tadpole's tail (which it devours) is useless to
+the developed frog. This power being weakened, the organs which form
+antitoxins (or protective tonics against disease), from lack of
+development fail to perform their function. For this reason in the
+degenerate many infections and contagions assume their old destructive
+type.
+
+The influence of these disorders in the parent may result in the bony
+mal-development shown to occur in animals by Charrin and Gley, and in man
+by Coolidge. The facial bones, jaw, and teeth are peculiarly liable to be
+thus affected. Though the effect of the disease on the parent be but
+temporary, the child's development may be checked as to higher tendencies.
+Thus mothers have borne moral imbeciles, epileptics or lunatics, after a
+pregnancy during which they were attacked by contagious disease, albeit
+the children of subsequent and previous pregnancies were normal.
+
+The children of pregnancies previous to the one complicated by the
+contagious disease may be healthy, while those of subsequent pregnancies
+are defective. Any contagious or infectious disease may not only interfere
+temporarily with the bodily strength, but may produce complete change in
+the parent's system extending even to the highest acquirement of man. In
+some occur changes thus graphically described by Bulwer: "There have been
+men who, after an illness in which life itself seemed suspended, have
+arisen as out of a sleep with characters wholly changed. Before gentle,
+good, and truthful, they now become bitter, malignant, and false. To those
+whom they before loved they evince repugnance and loathing. Sometimes this
+change is so marked and irrational that their kindred ascribe it to
+madness. Not the madness which affects them in the ordinary business of
+life, but that which turns into harshness and discord the moral harmony
+which results from natures whole and complete."
+
+The nerve centres controlling nutrition, growth, repair, secretion, and
+excretion are often as deeply affected as those checks constituting
+morality. At the periods of physiologic stress these effects are
+especially noticeable. Moral insanity, intellectual insanity, unequal
+mental balance, hysteria, precocious sexuality, unconscious mendacity,
+mental parasitism (the germ of pauperism), epilepsy, neuroses, and all
+types of nutritive and constitutional defects result. The nutritional
+defects may appear chiefly in the walls of the blood vessels and
+lymphatics. While these are most common in the chronic infections and
+contagions, they often occur in acute typhoid fever, scarlatina,
+diphtheria, whooping-cough, &c. Proper blood supply and utilisation of
+waste is thus prevented. Organs cannot perform their function, and are
+predisposed to disease from disuse and from weakness of the
+disease-fighting phagocytes and antitoxins. From this results irregularity
+of organ function, which is hereditarily transmissible. The weakened
+vessel walls yield to strain, and thus produce local stomach, bowel,
+liver, gland, and kidney disorders. This organ weakness may alone be
+transmitted to the offspring. The functions of the great glands (thyroid,
+thymus, suprarenals, pituitary body, bone-marrow, testicles and ovaries)
+which secrete principles necessary to the equal balance of nutrition are
+perverted. The liver, in the acute but more particularly the chronic
+contagions, paralysed in nerve tone, fails in its function of
+poison-destroyer, as for the same reason the kidneys fail in their power
+of ejecting hurtful waste. Through this interaction of perverted
+nutrition, imperfect poison-destruction, and deficient waste ejection
+result and continue the states of nervous exhaustion after the contagions
+and infections. Thus nerve exhaustion with its suspicion, its capricious
+hopefulness and gaiety, is practically continuous in tuberculosis,
+syphilis, and leprosy.
+
+The acute and chronic contagions and infections so lower cell vitality
+through the perverted functions described that inert connective tissue
+replaces healthy working cells. This is especially the case with syphilis,
+which, when driven from the system, leaves behind it a tendency to disease
+based on this connective tissue increase. This tendency, latent in the
+ancestor, may be so intensified in the descendant as to produce the
+hereditary ataxias (loss of movement power), and like neuroses. At the
+periods of stress such tendencies are peculiarly potent, and not only
+check, but reverse development. The chronic contagions and infections are
+most fertile sources of human degeneracy since their weakened products are
+enabled to survive under modern beneficence. Of these chronic contagions
+two (tuberculosis and syphilis) alone deserve attention, since the third
+(leprosy) exerts but little influence. Despite its existence for more than
+a century (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia on the north and Louisiana on the
+south) on the borders of the United States, despite its subsequent
+importation from Norway, Sweden, China, and Hawaii, its spread has been
+infinitesimal, and its influence on race deterioration is still less
+demonstrable.
+
+Tuberculosis ("the white death") is from every standpoint a social danger
+more serious than syphilis. The father, as in syphilis, can infect the
+mother, but sterility is much less likely. As has already been shown in
+the chapter on heredity, plural and quickly repeated birth are common in
+tuberculous families. The tuberculous diathesis (or "habit," as Weismann
+calls it) was very early observed in the United States. Nearly seventy
+years ago W. P. Dewees, of Philadelphia, pointed out its frequency and its
+early observation by the Greek and Roman physicians. He cites a case
+illustrative of the extent and uniformity of diathesis in a very numerous
+family. This predisposition arose on the side of the mother, though she
+lived herself to the age of forty-three, a period much exceeding that of
+any of her children, with the exception of a son, who died in his
+forty-fifth year. This lady bore twenty-three children without being able
+to suckle any but the two first. The males much exceed the females in
+number, yet there did not appear to be any exception to their favour in
+the transmission of the phthisical taint, except that they attained in
+general a greater age before they died. Some died about puberty, others at
+manhood or womanhood; but all, with the exception just stated, under
+thirty. The disease was never very rapid; they generally complained from
+one to two years before they died. The men had a healthy, even in some
+instances an athletic, appearance until the disease became open and
+decided. In their growth and stature they altogether resembled the father,
+who was not only a remarkably stout man, but lived beyond the eightieth
+year. The females, who passed puberty (two in number) were rather stout
+women, while the mother was both delicate and small. This family lived in
+the country, was very wealthy, and always accustomed to the various means
+generally found successful either in destroying the predisposition or
+lessening its influence, yet in no one instance in this family were they
+successful, though the open form of the disease was retarded perhaps in
+all. The females died the earliest.[168]
+
+The blood vessel system is affected as regards development in such
+families. The heart is often diminutive; the right ventricle is
+exaggerated. Two great types of degenerate constitutions are produced in
+children of the tuberculous. One of these may well come under De
+Giovanni's category of the torpid. The victim is usually coarse-featured
+and coarse-skinned, with peculiarly unstable mentality; slowness of
+comprehension is combined with power of continuity of thought; at times
+mental apathy alternates with quickness of perception. Decided
+exaggeration of the lymphatic system (connected with utilising of material
+elsewhere than at the point where it has been rendered unfit) with
+deficient function occurs, resulting in fitting a soil for germs. In other
+respects the torpid resembles the second type, the erethistic (nervously
+fussy type) of De Giovanni. This is generally characterised by the
+presence of a clear complexion, a fine skin, and features well cut and
+often beautiful. The lips are red and the teeth pearly white, though
+liable to early decay, and the eyes are large and full, the pupil being
+widely dilated and the white of the eye beautifully clear. The eyelashes
+are long, curved and silky, and the blue veins show distinctly through the
+clear thin skin. The bones are light, the hands and feet well formed, the
+stature often tall, and the whole figure slightly and gracefully built.
+The erethists generally remain spare, and have a strong dislike to fatty
+food. They are vivacious and excitable, and the intellectual faculties are
+often highly developed. At an early age they show marvellous activity. The
+regularity with which such precocious tubercular children die has given
+rise to proverbs anent exceptionally clever children that they are "too
+wise to live long." Wanting in stamina, they are incapable of prolonged
+exertion either of mind or body, and break down under conditions which
+would not prove injurious to the healthy. They are continually taking
+"cold," and are prone throughout life to affections of an inflammatory
+character. Multiple and frequent pregnancies occur. The children,
+deficient in vitality, are carried off in numbers during infancy by
+convulsions, brain fever, water on the brain, exhaustion, diarrhoea,
+teething, and other ailments, or they succumb at the second detention or
+at puberty. A small proportion reach maturity. Few live beyond thirty-five
+or forty years of age. However brilliant intellectually, they are equally
+emotional, impressionable, and impulsive. There is a marked absence of
+mental stability. They are suspiciously capricious. The great secreting
+and eliminating glands undergo with peculiar frequency the perversions
+already described.
+
+Neuroses and psychoses are peculiarly frequent in childhood and youth. The
+degenerative power of tuberculosis is not always due to the influence of
+the germ, or even of the toxin produced by it, but to the state of nerve
+weakness resultant on the disorder. The victim of tuberculosis (especially
+if affecting the lung) is a suspicious, yet hopeful, nervous invalid,
+whose functions are irregularly performed and who is therefore likely to
+leave scions with greater defect, especially as the maternal factor,
+either through infection or worry, can hardly escape being weakened.
+Tuberculosis attacks the bones of the offspring, especially the spine and
+hip-joint, but the victim of these last frequently regain health after
+apparent recovery from the local disease through surgical procedures. If
+the victim of the hip-joint disorder be of the erethist type marriage is
+not unlikely. Despite the deformity produced by spine disorder, popular
+superstition as to the "good luck" of a hunchback leads to marriage among
+the working class. Monetary and social considerations effect the same
+result among the wealthy classes. Here deformity does not prevent
+marriage, but predisposes to sterility through birth difficulty.
+
+The influence of syphilis is, in a general sense, the same as that of
+tuberculosis, except that by reversing the principle of individuation it
+leads to greater sterility. Furthermore it exhibits greater tendencies to
+revert towards health, and yields (even in the inherited form) more to
+medicinal treatment. The inherited form at times presents itself in two
+types closely simulating those due to tuberculosis. Like the bacillus of
+tuberculosis, the syphilitic germ attacks every structure and organ of the
+body. Its reversal of the principle of individuation, causing excessive
+cell formation, produces more decidedly demonstrable effects. As syphilis
+is more apt to attack the central nervous system than tuberculosis, it
+would seem that it is a greater race-deteriorating factor. The excessive
+tendency to cell formation, however, produces impotence in man, sterility
+and abortion in woman. There are very good reasons for believing that the
+race is becoming immune to syphilis, and that this disease will disappear.
+Its greatest race-deteriorating effect is in preparing the soil for
+tuberculosis and other infections and contagions.
+
+The influence of contagions and infections on degeneracy is therefore by
+no means slight. Each disease can produce grave constitutional defects in
+the ancestor likely to be intensified in the offspring. The greatest
+social dangers result from tuberculosis; the next from syphilis. Typhoid
+fever, scarlatina, small-pox, measles, diphtheria, whooping-cough, and all
+other contagions, however, may produce these constitutional defects,
+either through the mother during pregnancy or through their secondary
+effects on the ancestor's constitution. If the subject be attacked before
+the close of the periods of dental stress an arrest of development of the
+bones of the face may result with irregularities in the shape and position
+of the teeth. These, then, are stigmata of degeneracy, especially due, in
+the individual presenting them, to the contagions and infections rather
+than to inheritance alone.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CLIMATE, SOIL, AND FOOD
+
+
+Among the factors constituting environment few have impressed the
+biologist so much as climate, soil, and food. The seeming modifications
+produced by these have made a very decided impression on the sceptical
+Weismann, who stated that "the possibility is not to be rejected that
+influences continued for a long time, that is, for generations, such as
+temperature, climate, kind of nourishment, &c., which may affect the germ
+plasm, as well as any other part of the organism, may produce a change in
+the constitution of the germ plasm. But such influences would not then
+produce individual variations, but would necessarily modify, in the same
+way, all the individuals of a species living in a certain district. It is
+possible, though it cannot be proved, that many climatic varieties have
+arisen in this manner. Possibly other phenomena of variation must be
+referred to a variation in the structure of the germ plasm produced
+directly by external influences."
+
+Considering the changes brought about in European plants and animals in
+Australia, those occurring in the East Indian mongoose in Jamaica, the
+changes in European plants and animals in America, or American animals in
+Europe and European animals in Asia, Weismann's position seems judicial.
+
+The influences dependent on food, soil, and climate producing normal
+modifications have been remarkably illustrated in the gilled batrachian
+Axolotl. This, under the nourishment and change of surroundings of the
+Jardin des Plantes, was transformed into a gill-less batrachian, which had
+hitherto been regarded as belonging to a totally distinct family.
+
+According to Darwin,[169] English dogs degenerate in India in a few
+generations, losing the peculiarities of form and mental character which
+distinguish their particular race, in spite of the greatest care in
+selection and prevention of crossing. An instance which well deserves the
+consideration of those anthropologists who attach but little importance to
+the influence of the environment and to the value of speech as an aid to
+the ethnologist is that of the Wurtemburgers, who settled (1816) near
+Tiflis in Russia. They had originally fair or red hair, light or blue eyes
+and coarse, broad features. In the first generation brown hair and black
+eyes began to appear; in the second black hair and eyes became the rule,
+while the face acquired an oval form. These changes were due entirely to
+the surroundings, no instance of crossing with Georgian natives being on
+record. At the same time, these transformed Wurtemburgers continue to
+speak their German mother-tongue uninfluenced by the local dialects.[170]
+
+The alleged transformation of the British into the Yankee is commonly
+cited in illustration of the supposed effects of soil and climate. Three
+decades[171] ago Vogt remarked that American Anglo-Saxons or Yankees were
+instanced as illustration of change of character. Already, after the
+second generation, according to Pruner-Bey, the Yankee presents features
+of the Indian type. At a later period the glandular system is reduced to
+the minimum of its normal development. The skin becomes like leather; the
+colour of the cheeks is replaced by sallowness. The head becomes smaller
+and rounder, and is covered with stiff, dark hair; the neck becomes
+longer, and there is greater development of the cheek-bones and the
+masseters. The temporal fossae becomes deeper, the jaw-bones more massive,
+the eyes lie in deep approximated sockets. The iris is dark, the glance is
+piercing and wild. The long bones, especially in the superior extremities,
+are lengthened so that the gloves manufactured in England and France for
+the American market are of a particular make, with very long fingers. The
+female pelvis approaches that of the male. According to Quatrefages,
+America has thus, from the English race, produced a new white race which
+might be called the Yankee race. Vogt believes that America dries up the
+skin and reduces the fat, an effect to which all the above differences
+might be reduced. That the head becomes smaller he utterly denies. Exact
+cranial measurements by Morton show that the skull of the Yankee is at
+least as large as that of the Englishman.
+
+Similar changes have been noted in the Anglo-Saxon Australians. The true
+explanation of this is that early rigorous environment tended to cause
+reversion to types not uncommon even now in Great Britain, Ireland, and
+Scandinavia, resultant on the admixture of primitive types to which
+reference has been made. The same error has been made about the pelvis as
+about the skull. The male pelvis in the American is approximating the
+female in accordance with advance, since, as Havelock Ellis has
+shown,[172] not only by his skull, but by his pelvis, modern man is
+following a path first marked out by woman. The skull of the modern woman
+is more markedly feminine than that of the savage woman, while that of the
+modern man has approximated to it. Not only is the pelvis of the modern
+woman much more feminine in character than that of the primitive woman,
+but the modern man's pelvis is also becoming more feminine.
+
+The validity of Vogt's position anent the "Yankee" change of type is fully
+demonstrated by the following portraits of four generations of a noted
+American family with a Scandinavian patronymic, coming originally from a
+district in England where the alleged "Yankee" type (even to its nasal
+tone and so-called "Americanisms") occurs. The first "American" of the
+family (Fig. 3) was born in Connecticut in 1761 and died in 1826. He had a
+dolichocephalic head with massive jaws, prominent lips, especially the
+upper. The nose is long and the eyes are set close together, the forehead
+very high and straight. Quite a change is noticeable in the second
+generation (Fig. 4). The face is not so long, the lateral diameter of the
+head is larger, the forehead more prominent, and the eyes are a little
+farther apart. The nose is about the same length and while there is a
+resemblance about the mouth and chin, the distance from the front of the
+chin to the tip of the nose is not quite so long. The change seems to be
+due to shortening of the chin.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DOLICHOCEPHALIC.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--MESOCEPHALIC.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--MESOCEPHALIC.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--BRACHYCEPHALIC.]
+
+
+The next generation (Fig. 5) shows still further changes. The forehead is
+broader and less retreating than either. There is perceptibly lest
+prognathism. There is less prominence in the supraorbital region.
+
+The fourth generation exhibits (Fig. 6) a nearly brachycephalic head. The
+head is nearly round, forehead full, eyes set in the head to correspond
+with its width, nose broad, upper lips short, and the lower jaw is
+evidently much shorter in a perpendicular line. These changes are due to a
+protruding forehead, receding chin, and delicate features.
+
+The climate of the United States exercises, according to certain
+sociologists, on the first generation of European immigrants, a
+deleterious influence in regard to fecundity. The decrease in the
+fecundity of the American woman has been charged to various anti-social
+causes (abortion and prevention of conception) and to a "nervousness"
+induced by the climate. A seemingly fair test of the influence of the
+climate would be a race elsewhere fecund, and whose religion encourages
+fecundity, decreasing in the first generation after immigration to the
+United States. Such a race is the Jewish. According to Gihon's analysis of
+the United States census of 1890[173] the Jewish birth rate is
+diminishing. From the mothers born in the United States the average is
+3.56 children, as against 5.24 for those born in Germany, 5.36 for those
+in Russia and Poland, 5.27 for those in Hungary, and 5.44 for those in
+Bohemia. These figures, however, do not demonstrate the influence of
+climate, but of environment. The Jew, unlike the earlier American
+colonists, is not exposed to the stress of frontier life. He has a more
+favourable mental and physical environment than on the continent of
+Europe. This fact, therefore, does not demonstrate the effects of climate,
+but is really chargeable to climate, food, soil, and other factors
+constituting environment. That climate cannot be considered apart from
+these factors is shown, as I pointed out several years ago, by the fact
+that the United States surveyors in Minnesota reported to the national
+authorities that it was impossible to live the whole year in that state
+because of the extremely cold winter. Now, not only do people live and
+cultivate the soil throughout the entire state, but large cities have
+sprung up still farther north, and the country around has become well
+populated. Hence, in dealing with influences of climate, change of food
+and hygienic conditions must be taken into account. The error of the
+American surveyors as to the acclimatisation of the white race in cold
+climates has been emphasised as to the tropics and arctics. Here, however,
+the same error has been demonstrated by very careful researches. The
+experience of the Arctic regions as to necessity for change in diet and
+hygiene has been fully borne out by observations on the Anglo-Saxon in the
+tropics. The early experience of the English in India, upon which a fatal
+prognosis as to the future of British India was based, turns out to have
+been erroneous.
+
+The influence of climate involves more than temperature. Stokvis, in a
+paper read before the Tenth International Medical Congress, at Berlin, on
+the comparative pathology of the human races with reference to the vital
+resistance of Europeans in tropical climates,[174] finds that the
+European immigrant in the tropics is assailed by two hostile forces:
+tropico-thermal and tropico-infectious agencies. The expression of innate
+racial peculiarities, like the variations of vegetable life and the
+varieties of animal life from effects of increased temperature, are such
+as occur in the inhabitants of temperate regions during the height of
+summer.
+
+Marestang and Eykman find that neither high temperature alone nor
+meteorological agencies, apart from other deleterious influences, can
+produce that impoverishment of blood called "tropical anaemia." Stokvis
+shows that the tropical European does not prove inferior to the aboriginal
+with respect to thermal agencies. He is less susceptible to chill than the
+native. Mortality statistics of respiratory organ affections are greater
+for the native. While the European suffers more from liver disease than
+the native, the latter is less addicted to alcoholic drinks and pork. The
+percentage of deaths from cases treated is, however, more than twice as
+great with the native as with the European. Variations of physiologic life
+under tropical thermal conditions have little to do with the race. The
+vital resistance of the immigrant European (the European transformed into
+a permanent high-summer man) is somewhat greater than that of the native
+races.
+
+Respecting the disease-producing effects of tropical infectious agencies,
+the experience of the last ten years (1880-90) is very different from that
+prior to 1860.
+
+Average annual death-rate per thousand:--
+
+                                                   European      Native
+                                                   Soldiers.    Soldiers.
+
+                               { 1819-28             170.0      138.0
+  Dutch East India Army        { 1869-78              60.4       38.7
+                               { 1879-88              30.6       40.7
+
+                               { 1800-28              84.6       18.03
+                               { 1828-56              56.7
+  British India Army           { 1869-78              19.37
+                               { 1876-88              16.27      21.6
+
+                               { 1820-36             121.00      30.0
+  British Army, Jamaica        { 1879-88              11.02      11.62
+
+These changes are the consequence of sound sanitation. "The fairest laurel
+practical hygiene may boast of to-day is, doubtless, the laurel acquired
+in ameliorating the sanitary conditions of the European soldiers in
+tropical climates." A century ago James Lind said, "Much more than to the
+climate you are indebted to your own ignorance and negligence for the
+disease from which you suffer in tropical climates."
+
+These statistics do not entirely support the declaration of Hippocrates
+that "races are the daughter of climates," but tend to show that the vital
+resistance of the different races in tropical climates depends more on
+external conditions than on race. Acclimatibility of strong, healthy,
+adult Europeans of both sexes in tropical climates must be admitted
+without any reserve, provided that they assiduously observe all hygienic
+rules. Stokvis disproves the allegation that the European is not able to
+produce in tropical regions more than three or four generations of true
+European blood, and that from the third or fourth generation onward
+sterility is the rule.
+
+So accustomed, remarked Felken, however, is a man to his environment that
+it is difficult to remove an European from his home in the temperate
+region to any other, and yet for him to retain his health. Much may be
+done in the tropics to render climate more salubrious and sanitary
+precautions will do a great deal for the health of the community. But when
+all is done permanent residence for Europeans under European conditions is
+out of the question in the low-lying regions of the tropics. Comparatively
+few areas exist in the tropics where any great success for European
+colonisation can be prophesied from altitude alone. The influence of
+altitude on the physiologic characteristics is, however, very evident. The
+residents at high altitudes are strong, robust, buoyant, and of great
+mental and physical endurance.
+
+In disproof of this position of Felken, Viault, of Bordeaux, has shown
+that the phenomena resultant on the acclimation of man at great altitudes
+comes neither from the frequency of respiratory movements nor from greater
+activity of the pulmonary circulation as has been asserted, but from
+increase of red blood globules. While the effects of both excessive heat
+and excessive cold may be admitted, even there other factors play a part.
+Very high mean temperature with low humidity is more likely to result in
+sunstroke and allied conditions than high temperature with high humidity.
+Low temperature of the Arctic regions tends to produce anaemia in natives
+of temperate zones. Food and depressing circumstances have, however, to be
+taken into consideration.
+
+Sunstroke produces the ordinary phenomena of nervous exhaustion, but the
+patient becomes more irritable, suspicious, and extremely proud. As these
+patients are not recognised for a long times as insane they often marry
+and produce degenerates. Kiernan reports a case in which father and mother
+(both of healthy stock) were overcome by the heat during one of the
+processions of the American Centenaries. The children born before the
+sunstroke were healthy, but there had been no children for five years
+previously. A year subsequent to the sunstroke (which was followed by a
+change in character in both parents) the woman had triplets, one of which
+died soon after birth from convulsions. The second of the triplets, a
+girl, became epileptic at 2, a prostitute at 16, and chronically insane at
+20. The third triplet became a puberty lunatic at 16. Of three children
+subsequently born, two are epileptics and one is a moral imbecile who
+manifests premonitory evidences of paranoia. Sunstroke, however, underlies
+many cases of alcoholism. Not a few of the instances of degeneration
+charged to alcoholism are, in reality, due to the nervous condition
+arising from the exhaustion produced by sunstroke. To this factor was in
+no small degree due the extremely large infant mortality of the English in
+India of the first half of the present century. While temperature plays a
+part in producing degeneracy in the offspring through its production of
+systemic disorder in the ancestor, it is usually associated with other
+factors which aid or predispose to its effects. It also predisposes to the
+greater action of other causes. Very frequently the sun-struck person,
+rendered incapable of continued labour by irritability, becomes a tramp or
+a pauper, either of which conditions tends to accelerate the degenerative
+process and furthermore to increase the possible chances of passing down
+the effect through heredity by the ease with which illicit relationships
+are contracted. The least intelligent of the prostitute class, or rather,
+of that class of nymphomaniacs who have not fully entered upon a
+prostitute career, are driven into the workhouse or almshouse, where they
+often remain for years, or depart at intervals, leaving their offspring to
+be reared at public expense. The number of such children born yearly in
+almshouses is at least ten thousand in the United States.[175] An enormous
+proportion of these die in infancy but sufficient survive to form a potent
+source of degenerates.
+
+The influence of overheating further predisposes to the attack of microbes
+even in the temperate climates, and to constitutional defects resultant on
+these.
+
+A factor of degeneracy as related to soil on which much stress has been
+laid, is that of goitre. This has been carefully studied by Munson[176]
+among the Indians on the reservation in the United States. The number was
+77,173, of whom 2.36 per cent. had goitre. As regards geographic
+distribution the disease is more prevalent in the southern part of
+Montana. Goitre was reported as practically unknown among the white
+settlers living about the reservations where goitre was prevalent among
+the Indians. Fully 80 per cent. of the cases occur in Indian women, the
+disease being not only much less frequent, but also less decided and less
+extensive in the male. The average age of onset of the disease was from 12
+to 14 years. There are many instances illustrating the apparent heredity
+of goitre. Several consecutive generations show its development. Only one
+case is reported in which goitre was associated with cretinism. Goitre
+among Indians cannot be traced to high altitudes, climate or water
+containing excess of calcium magnesium salts. The disease is apparently
+due to insanitary surroundings, depressing constitutional conditions,
+improper and excessively nitrogenous diet. This condition of things among
+the Indians bears an important relation to the facts pointed out by C. K.
+Clarke,[177] of Kingston, Ontario, who found in the Canadian asylums a
+large number of goitrous patients and one goitrous attendant. The goitrous
+patients, who were of long residence, had come from all parts of the
+dominion. The size of the goitre was in proportion to the length of the
+residence. It is possible that local influence may have much to do with
+the disease, though it is evident that the insane are much more liable to
+it than normal persons. W. B. Fletcher, of Indianapolis, has observed
+similar frequency as to goitre among the insane there, especially among
+the foreigners and their immediate descendants. Cretinism, according to
+Morel, was degeneracy due to a special action which a toxic principle
+exercises on a cerebro-spinal system, whether by the air that is breathed
+or by the substances ingested in the economy, and which, above all,
+appears to have some relation to a soil where predominates the magnesian
+limestone. That the last factor has some influence is shown by the fact
+that goitrous enlargements are encountered in medical practice in Chicago
+much more frequently than among the corresponding classes in the East. The
+water in Chicago contains magnesium-lime salts, whether it be derived from
+the lake or from the artesian well. The fact, however, that the Indians
+and the insane exhibit a tendency to goitre indicates that behind the
+influence of the soil or of diet lies a neuropathic constitution, whether
+this be inherited or acquired. Cretinism is much more frequent in the
+United States than was apparent ere the discovery of the value of the
+thyroid glands in treatment. Under the stimulus of investigation for cases
+in which to try this treatment, medical literature from all parts of the
+United States has been filled with reports of authenticated cases. Among
+these are scions of families which have been American for more than three
+generations and which may, therefore, be considered as products of an
+American environment. The same condition of things has occurred in both
+Great Britain and on the European continent in districts which, prior to
+1890, were supposed to be free from cretinism. This illustrates the
+results of stimulus given investigation in biology rather than increase of
+the disorder.
+
+The influence of spoiled maize in producing the mixed skin, nervous and
+mental disorder known as pellagra in the Italians, would seem, from the
+results of the researches of Billod,[178] to be chiefly due to the
+conjoined effects of unhygienic surroundings, the offspring of climate and
+soil. The fungus on maize (ustilago), like the fungus on rye (ergot),
+produces rather long-lasting neurosis of an epileptic character,
+susceptible to transmission to the offspring of women poisoned by these
+fungi. The Italian disease, pellagra, manifests the features one would
+expect from an improper food taken under unhygienic conditions. While this
+is undoubtedly exaggerated by the habits of the peasantry in Italy, still
+in a lesser degree like effects of food are observable in other races.
+
+The influence of the potato diet in degenerating the Irish Celt in
+comparison with the Scottish Celt under the same conditions, is difficult
+at present to determine for lack of data. Certainly the descendants of
+this class of Irish Celts rapidly regain a handsome, healthy status under
+mixed American diet, even though the hygienic surroundings in the great
+cities be not the best. He who has to treat a class of neurasthenics in
+whom starch digestion is impaired finds that a diet of potatoes
+(undoubtedly through the auto-intoxication it produces) will increase
+certain nervous symptoms, and hence the tendency to transmission to the
+next generation.
+
+In the families of the pioneers in the United States, as well as the
+families of farmers in secluded valleys in Norway, Switzerland, and
+elsewhere, the influence of monotony of diet, aggravated by monotony of
+surroundings, has undoubtedly produced a large amount of degeneracy. Ray
+Brigham of New York, Awl of Ohio, and Patterson of Illinois have shown
+that there is an unusual frequency of insanity in farmers' wives which is
+undoubtedly traceable to these conditions. Kiernan, of Chicago, has
+reported a case fairly typical of those earlier described by the American
+alienists just cited. The first generation was a woman of New England
+stock, of tireless energy, to whom work was a pleasure and rest an
+abhorrence, and who lived on a farm miles from the town. She did all her
+own work and brought up a large family, chiefly on maize, potatoes, and
+bread, pork being the meat diet. At 50 this woman removed with her
+husband, who had grown wealthy, to a small country town. Here she
+conducted the entire work of the household without a servant. At 52 she
+broke down with neurasthenia, which rapidly passed into periodical gloomy
+spells, in one of which she committed suicide. Her youngest daughter, who
+had an asymmetrical face, has the periodical gloomy tendency of the
+mother, alternating with periods of restlessness, which evince themselves
+in doing unnecessarily the work of the servants and other labours
+inconsistent with her husband's social status. She had at times suicidal
+and homicidal impulses. She has three children; one exhibits no special
+abnormality; the eldest, a boy of eleven, dislikes to play with boys
+because they are rough, and plays with girls, to whom he is at times
+mischievously cruel. He likes to sew and make doll's clothing and purchase
+dolls, while there are other indications of sexual abnormality. The
+youngest, a girl, has frequent attacks of epileptic-like fury, although
+between these she is kind-hearted, good-humoured, and very affectionate.
+In dealing with the question of soil, the factors predisposing to the
+attacks of the parasite of malaria have to be taken into consideration;
+certainly the inhabitants of certain malarial districts exhibit all the
+characteristics of degenerates.
+
+The influence of nutrition in producing nervous states likely to be
+transmitted as degeneracy in the offspring are excellently illustrated in
+the nervous disorders due to improper nutrition during youth. This may, as
+W. S. Christopher[179] of Chicago has shown, produce all possible neuroses
+to which the organism may be liable. Such neuroses relate to--
+
+  A. Psychic faculties.
+
+  B. Sensation.
+      1. Anaesthesia.
+      2. Hyperaesthesia.
+      3. Hyperalgia (increased pain sense).
+
+  C. Heat production.
+      1. Elevation of temperature.
+      2. Depression of temperature.
+
+  D. Muscular tissues.
+      1. Hypertrophy.
+      2. Atrophy.
+      3. Paralysis.
+      4. Convulsions.
+
+  E. Skeletal muscles.
+      1. General convulsions.
+      2. Chorea.
+      3. Tetany (toe and finger jerks).
+
+  F. Pharynx.
+      1. Dyspnoea (difficult breathing).
+
+  G. Oesophagus.
+      1. Dysphagia (difficult swallowing).
+
+  H. Stomach.
+      1. Vomiting.
+      2. Merycism (rumination).
+
+  I. Intestines.
+      1. Increased peristalsis (movement of bowel).
+      2. Decreased peristalsis.
+
+  J. Larynx.
+      1. Dyspnoea.
+      2. Laryngismus stridulus (croup spasm).
+      3. Chorea.
+
+  K. Bronchi.
+      1. Asthma.
+      2. Bronchorrhoea (excessive secretion).
+
+  L. Bladder.
+      1. Incontinence.
+      2. Retention.
+
+  M. Urethra.
+      1. Spasmodic stricture.
+
+  N. Uterus.
+      1. Neuralgias.
+      2. Spasms.
+
+  O. Vagina.
+      1. Vaginismus (painful spasm).
+
+  P. Heart.
+      1. Chorea.
+      2. Disturbance of rate.
+      3. Disturbance of rhythm.
+
+  Q. Secretory organs.
+      1. Decrease of secretion.
+      2. Modification of composition of secretion.
+
+  R. Absorptive organs.
+
+  S. Elaborative organs.
+
+  T. Respiratory organs. Other than those cited.
+
+  U. Excretory organs.
+
+  V. Reproductory organs.
+
+Those of the genital organs only exist in precocious childhood, while
+still others occur, some occasionally, some very frequently.
+
+Of the psychic neuroses, perhaps the commonest are the night terrors,
+which occur in ill-nourished children with great frequency. Hyperesthesia
+(or increased sensitiveness) is a starvation neurosis occurring especially
+in unrecognised scurvy. Variations of temperature, both increased and
+subnormal, occur in children suffering from evident in-nutrition.
+
+Of the starvation neuroses, the commonest are muscular convulsions.
+Naturally enough, any muscle or any group of muscles may be affected, and
+the manifestations may present all the varieties of convulsive movements
+to which muscles are liable. Probably no child whose nutrition is perfect
+ever has general convulsions except as the result of actual brain disease
+or at the onset of some infectious process where the convulsion takes the
+place of the initial chill of the adult. The so-called reflex convulsions
+occur only in children whose nutrition is below par. In a rickety child
+the slight irritation produced by an erupting tooth may be sufficient to
+weaken the mechanism which checks explosive action, just as in the same
+child it may be the determining cause of bronchorrhoea. In the healthy
+child teething can cause no such effect. Both these manifestations, the
+convulsions and the bronchorrhoea, are starvation neuroses. In such
+children many other trivial conditions may weaken the controlling
+mechanism.
+
+In older children chorea, whatever be its cause, is evidently connected
+with the developmental process. The beneficial effects in chorea of
+absolute rest in bed and forced feeding are a matter of common
+observation. Dysphagia as a neurosis in children is uncommon. Vomiting and
+diarrhoea occur so frequently in infants from a wide variety of causes,
+that it is very difficult to say when they are merely starvation neuroses.
+In rickets, diarrhoea often occurs, with no adequate explanation in the
+conditions present in the intestinal canal, and which is an essential
+feature of the disease itself.
+
+Laryngismus stridulus is a very common manifestation of muscular
+starvation neurosis. Spasmodic asthma occurs in ill-nourished children.
+Incontinence of urine in older children is often a starvation neurosis.
+
+The younger the child the more rapid are its processes of growth. Hence in
+infants the results of defective nutrition are quickly manifested, and the
+curative effects of food arranged to supply the nutritive deficiencies
+also become apparent very soon. In older children with more stable tissues
+a defective food supply is longer borne without apparent effect; but, on
+the other hand, the beneficial effect of an antidotal diet becomes
+apparent only after a prolonged use.
+
+The relatively simple diet of the infant makes it easy to discover the
+particular kind of food which is supplied in sufficient quantity, and
+makes the supply of the deficiency comparatively easy. But in older
+children with a more varied diet the defect is less readily discovered and
+less readily supplied.
+
+The effects of climate, soil, and food in the production of degeneracy are
+first shown in the causation of general loss of nerve tone in the
+ancestor, often with special local expressions. This loss of nerve tone
+may show itself in the offspring by any type of degeneracy from nutritive
+defect to loss of moral tone.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SCHOOL STRAIN
+
+
+Like all factors of degeneracy, school strain evinces itself in a systemic
+nervous exhaustion manifest along lines of least resistance, as in the
+neuroses of Christopher. The first types of his neuroses are due to
+overstrain of certain territories related with memory, as contrasted with
+diminished use of the association fibres connecting these. As Schopenhauer
+has excellently observed, man is one-third intellect and two-thirds will,
+and much of this last two-thirds is the result of training. Capacity for
+training may be greater in one individual than another, because of
+inherited or congenital deficiencies. It is, as Sully[180] remarks, "a
+happy circumstance in healthy children that that most prolific excitant of
+fear, the presentation of something new and uncanny, is also provocative
+of curiosity, with its impulse to look and examine. A very tiny child, on
+first making acquaintance with some form of physical pain, as a bump on
+the head, will deliberately repeat the experience by knocking his head
+against something as if experimenting and watching the effect. A clearer
+case of curiosity overpowering fear is that of a child who, after pulling
+the tail of a cat in a bush and getting scratched, proceeded to dive into
+the bush again. Still more interesting here are gradual transitions from
+actual fear, before the new and strange, to bold inspection. The child who
+was frightened by her Japanese doll insisted on seeing it every day. The
+behaviour of one of these small persons on the arrival at the house of a
+strange dog, of a dark foreigner or some other startling novelty is a
+pretty and amusing sight. The first overpowering timidity, the shrinking
+back to the mother's breast, followed by curious peers, then by bolder
+outstretchings of head and arms, mark the stage by which curiosity and
+interest gain on fear, and finally leave it far behind. Very soon the
+small, timorous creatures will grow into bold adventurers. They will make
+playthings of the alarming animals and of the alarming shadows too. Later
+on still perhaps they will love nothing so much as to probe the awful
+mysteries of gunpowder."
+
+In degenerate children, because of deficiencies of proper
+inter-association of the memory territories in the brain, healthy
+curiosity, and the instinct of sheltering are deficient, so that states of
+uncertainty, producing terror, result. These become permanent in after
+life, even when training as an adult is strongly antagonistic to them.
+
+This is illustrated, as Harriet C. B. Alexander has shown,[181] in George
+Eliot, who during childhood "suffered from a low general state of health
+and great susceptibility to terror at night, and the liability to have all
+her soul become a quivering fear," which remained during life. She had
+periods of depression and vertex headache, which latter gave place to
+sick headache, often attended with rheumatoid phenomena. "She was an
+awkward girl, reserved and serious far beyond her years, but observant,
+and addicted to the habit of sitting in corners and watching her elders."
+Fear of the unknown in childhood, seemingly a reversion to the fear of the
+unknown of savages, tends, like it, to produce occult belief. Despite the
+German rationalism of George Eliot, such fear found utterance in her
+_Behind the Veil_, a mystically occult contrast with her novels and with
+the positivism which was her religion. Theoretically the philosophy of
+George Eliot should have destroyed much mysticism, yet as a survival of
+"night terrors" it came to the surface. A very vivid autobiographical
+narrative of night-terrors and similar nervous phenomena in the childhood
+of a distinguished man of letters will be found in Horatio Brown's _Life
+of John Addington Symonds_.
+
+School over-pressure in certain respects checks, even in well-developed
+minds, the transition from the terror of the unknown of childhood into the
+calm of maturity. Morbid fears, imperative conceptions, and imperative
+acts which torture the individual during an otherwise healthy career
+unquestionably originate in the early periods of life.
+
+Degenerate children, as Kiernan[182] remarks, early manifest decided
+neurotic excitability, and tend to neuroses at physiologic crises like the
+first and second dentition, and the onset and close of puberty. Slight
+physical or mental perturbation is followed by sleeplessness, delirium,
+hallucinations, &c. Hyperaesthesia and excessive reaction to pleasant or
+offensive impressions exist. Vasomotor instability is present, pallor,
+blushing, palpitations or pre-cardial anxiety result from trivial moral or
+physical excitants. There is no precocity or aberration of the sexual
+instinct. The disposition is irritable. The grasshopper is a burden.
+Psychic pain arises from the most trivial cause, and finds expression in
+emotional outbursts. Sympathies and antipathies are equally intense. The
+mental life swings between periods of exaltation and depression,
+alternating with brief epochs of healthy indifference. Egotism is supreme,
+and morality absent or perverted. This absence or perversion is often
+concealed under the guise of moral superiority, religiosity, or cant.
+Vanity and jealous suspiciousness are common. The intellect and temper are
+exceedingly irregular. Monotonously feeble, scanty ideation passes readily
+into seeming brilliance, even to the extent of hallucinations. But ideas
+are barren as a rule, because generated so rapidly as to destroy each
+other ere they pass into action. Energy fails ere aught can be completed.
+The inability to distinguish between desires and facts produces seeming
+mendacity. The will in its apparent exuberance, its capricious energy, and
+innate futility, matches and distorts the one-sided talent or whimsical
+genius which may exist. The whole of this mental state may not be present.
+The tendency to introspection, to morbid fear, to gloom, to
+hallucinations, to alternations of depression and exaltation, may occur in
+a degenerate child in whom has been otherwise preserved that secondary ego
+which is the latest and greatest acquirement of the race.
+
+In the same class, according to George Parkman,[183] an American alienist
+of more than eighty years ago, brilliant talents, astonishing facility of
+receiving and communicating ideas often appear suddenly at puberty,
+especially in females, to be later followed by mediocrity, disappointment,
+and supineness.
+
+These degenerate children have a tendency, as C. F. Folsom[184] remarks,
+to manifest aberrant tendencies at the periods of stress, which may, in
+Folsom's judgment, be congenital, or due to early interference with normal
+brain development. These show themselves in childhood and infancy by
+irregularity or disturbed sleep, irritability, apprehension, strange
+ideas, great sensitiveness to external impressions, high temperature,
+delirium or convulsions from slight causes, disagreeable dreams and
+visions, romancing, intense feeling, periodic headache, muscular
+twitching, capricious appetite, and great intolerance of stimulants and
+narcotics. At puberty developmental anomalies, and not infrequently
+perverted sexual instincts, are observed in both sexes. During adolescence
+there is often excessive shyness or bravado, always introspection and
+self-consciousness, and sometimes abeyance or absence of the sexual
+instinct, which, however, is frequently of extraordinary intensity. The
+imitative and imaginative faculties may be quick. The affections or
+emotions are vehement but shallow. Vehement dislikes are formed, and
+intense personal attachments result in extraordinary friendships, which
+not seldom swing around suddenly into bitter enmity or indifference. The
+passions are unduly a force in the character, which lacks will power. The
+individual's higher brain centres are not well inhibited, and he dashes
+about like a ship without a rudder, fairly well if the winds be fair and
+the seas be calm, but dependent on the elements for the character and the
+time of the final wreck. Invention, poetry, music, artistic taste,
+philanthropy, intensity, and originality, are sometimes of a higher order
+among these persons, but desultory, half-finished work and shiftlessness
+are much more common. With many of them concentrated, sustained effort,
+and attempts to keep them to it are impossible. Their common-sense
+perception of the relations of life, executive or business faculty and
+judgment are seldom well developed. The memory is now and then
+extraordinary. They are apt to be self-conscious, egotistic, and morbidly
+conscious. They easily become victims of insomnia, neurasthenia,
+hypochondria, neuroticism, hysteria, or insanity. They offend against the
+proprieties of life and commit crime with less cause or provocation than
+other persons. While many of them are among the most gifted and attractive
+people in their community, the majority are otherwise, and possess an
+uncommon capacity for making fools of themselves, and of being a nuisance
+to their friends and of little use to the world.
+
+These conditions occur from heredity in degenerates, but, as Francis
+Warner[185] remarks, while "it is very common to see disordered conditions
+of the nervous system in children with defective construction of body,
+these nerve disturbances may also be seen in children with normal
+construction of body. Such signs result from the disorder, produced by
+special circumstances, aiding as well as producing defect which results
+from, or in the next generation becomes, defect in original construction.
+Among the signs of fatigue in children is the slight amount of force
+expended in movement, often with asymmetry of balance in the body. The
+fatigued centres may be unequally exhausted; spontaneous finger twitches
+like those of younger children may be seen, and slight movements may be
+excited by noises. The head is often held on one side. The arms when
+extended are not held horizontally. Usually the left is lower. The face is
+no evidence of bodily nutrition. It may be well nourished, yet the body be
+thin. Three per cent. of the children seen in school are below par in
+nutrition. These children are of lower general constitutional power. They
+tend to an ill-nourished condition under the stress of life, and many
+cases of mental excitement which, while they render them sharper mentally,
+militate against general nutrition."
+
+Colin A. Scott has found corroborative evidences of similar effects of
+strain in the children of the New England and Illinois schools.
+
+These systemic nervous exhaustions may, as W. S. Christopher, of Chicago,
+has shown (in remarks on neuroses already cited), take unexpected local
+directions, especially involving, in accordance with the general law of
+reversal, evolution or degeneracy checks on excessive action. Among the
+conditions produced by school strain of serious consequence in after-life
+are headaches, usually charged to anaemia or neurasthenia. These headaches,
+as Sachs,[186] of New York, has shown, usually appear after emotional
+excitement or fatiguing ordeal. There are other symptoms expressive of
+neurasthenia, such as slight tremor of the tongue and fingers and
+exaggeration of the deep reflexes, but, above all, the very persistent
+vertex headache, and the child's description of pressure or heat there. In
+children emotional conditions, school strain, rivalry between class-mates,
+are as liable to produce neurasthenia as are the more serious struggles
+for existence in later life. These headaches may pass very readily at
+periods of stress into migraine. The vertigo characteristic of migraine is
+not rarely found in the neurasthenic headache of childhood. What is true
+of migraine is also true of epilepsy. The tremors, &c., accompanying
+neurasthenic headache become the convulsions of epilepsy. G. B. Fowler
+reports a case emphasising very clearly the position of Christopher. It
+was that of a seven-year-old boy of mushroom growth and hothouse culture.
+He began every day before breakfast with an hour at Spanish, and until
+three in the afternoon was unceasingly occupied with French, German,
+music, and the ordinary school curriculum. This policy, initiated four
+years before, the pressure being gradually increased, had been maintained
+almost without interruption. The child had consequently developed into a
+sort of phonograph, capable of starting automatic expressions which
+afforded much entertainment to visitors, and gave the ambitious father
+great hope and comfort. Under such conditions it is not to be wondered at
+that something gave way, and, fortunately for the brain, it was the
+sphincter of the anus. When this deplorable occurrence first took place
+the child was sharply reprimanded; the accident repeating itself, however,
+two or three times weekly, and later about once a day, more pronounced
+measures were instituted. The boy was often severely flogged, deprived of
+liberty, luxuries, &c., yet without avail. The lower bowel was perfectly
+normal. The sphincter was tight, grasped the finger with the usual
+firmness, and there were no sources of irritation about the anus. The
+abnormal conditions under which the child had been living very naturally
+at the outset were the cause of the difficulty. Cessation of the
+punishment and release from books was ordered. The result was
+satisfactory. In three weeks the involuntary discharge became gradually
+less frequent, and finally ceased altogether.
+
+Mental strain produces precisely similar effects on the nerve control of
+the stomach. All types of nervous disturbances of the stomach--merycism
+(cud-chewing), bulimia (ox appetite), acoria (incapacity for getting
+enough)--result, as Ewald[187] has shown, from nerve strain, and increase
+this through auto-intoxication.
+
+The sphincter of bladder often gives way, and is a very frequent
+expression of nervous exhaustion in the child, often increased by the
+effects of nerve strain on the kidneys, which do their work of
+purification imperfectly, while excreting nearly pure water. The enormous
+quantity of clear urine passed during worry is a generally recognised
+expression of such strain. This nerve-strain interference with the
+purifying work of the kidneys leads to increased strain on the liver and
+other glands, whence result migraine, the uric acid states, rheumatisms,
+and the other perversions of nutrition. Nerve-strain on either liver,
+bowel, or other glands, has similar secondary effects on the kidneys. In
+part this is an organ degeneracy in function whereby man's liver and
+kidneys do the work of the sauropsidal liver and kidneys.
+
+Among the nutritive disturbances resulting from nerve-strain is the fatty
+anaemia of Weir Mitchell, the juvenile obesity of Fere and others. This is
+generally associated with the uric acid states which so often result from
+school strain. The apparent improvement shown in increased weight leads to
+increased strain, and many of these fat victims of school over-pressure
+enter insane hospitals as puberty lunatics.
+
+Other effects of the nutritive disturbances produced by school strain are
+local irritations about the sexual organs. These may arise from irritation
+by uric acid of the mouth of the bladder in boys, or of the vagina and
+bladder in girls. Neurotic persons are liable to nerve storms, which
+express themselves in emotional displays or restlessness or nagging
+tendencies. These often coincide with the uric acid tendency to express
+itself in "storms," like other periodical phenomena of the nervous system.
+In consequence, "sexual storms" result in neuropaths, whether the
+neuropathy be inherited or acquired. Local genital organ irritation leads
+to scratching. From this are produced "masturbation storms," which the
+subject loathes but cannot control. These occur also from the direct
+effects of constipation, as well as from the worms and other parasites
+which constipation fosters in the bowel. Teachers, by compelling children
+to retain urine through fear of masturbation, often lead to what they
+intend to prevent. At the outset masturbation and sexual explosions are
+often a physical expression of school strain destitute of moral
+significance. They are removable by removing the school strain and its
+consequences. If strengthened by protracted existence they intensify
+degeneracy due to school strain.
+
+The states of imperfect nutrition, resultant from nerve strains on gland
+function, in this way and in others, interfere with the proper evolution
+of puberty and the involutional changes at the "change of life," which
+occurs in both sexes. The conditions of "nervous cough," of so-called
+"catarrh," and its ally, bronchorrhoea, are often found as expressions of
+the systemic exhaustion from school strain, and are treated as purely
+local conditions.
+
+School strain, therefore, produces, like all the acquired factors of
+degeneracy, a systemic nervous exhaustion which may be expressed either in
+general neuropathy or hysteria after puberty, or in the tropho-neuroses,
+like gout and allied states, or in epilepsy or arterial change,
+predisposing to rupture of arteries at periods of stress, with resultant
+convulsions and paralysis.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE DEGENERATE CRANIUM
+
+
+The cranium or skull is a development in part of the vertebrae or bones
+forming the backbone, and in part of dermal or membranous bones, which of
+old in reptiles, as in the alligator to-day, formed the protective armour
+of the skin of the head. As the head end of the spinal cord of the
+lancelet developed, the cartilage enclosing it developed to protect it.
+This was the earlier evolution. Later, another skull developed in
+connection with this. The cranium or skull therefore has, as Minot
+remarks,[188] a double origin, or, rather, there are two skulls which were
+originally distinct. In evolution from the lowest fish to the highest
+mammal, and in the embryonic development of man, these become united.
+
+The primary skull, as already stated, is practically an extension of the
+vertebrae, which send side outgrowths to cover the brain as the backbone
+covers the spinal cord. This primary skull extended in front of the
+notochord (the spinal cord of the human embryo, and the permanent spinal
+cord of the lancelet), where it gave off two trabeculae cranii or front
+skull plates. Behind, the primary skull or chondrocranium gives off two
+occipal or rear skull plates. It gives off also two plates midway between
+the trabeculae and occipitals, which, as they gradually enclose the
+primitive hearing apparatus, the otocysts (permanent in fish, and
+embryonic in man), are called periotic capsules. This primary skull is at
+first cartilaginous, as in sharks. With the increase in the size of the
+brain in evolution and in human embryology, this cartilaginous primary
+skull became insufficient to roof over the brain, and thus resulted gaps
+in it. The fontanelles, or soft places at the top, sides, and back of the
+head of the new-born child, are the remains of this failure of the
+chondrocranium, or primary skull, to cover the gains of the nervous system
+in the struggle for existence. This deficiency, resultant on advance in
+evolution, would have been a long-standing serious block to further
+advance, were it not that the skin of the mammal retained a function
+inherited from the reptiles and bony fish.
+
+These cavities were filled by dermal bones, which, at first serving merely
+as armour in the skin of the head, came to be protectors of the nervous
+system. The following bones represent these dermal bones in the embryonic
+human skull: The frontals, which form the chief part of the forehead; the
+sutures, or dovetails, of these normally disappear in the adult, so that
+the forehead seems to be but one bone. This union may not occur (Fig. 7),
+as in the case of the philosopher Kant, who had a frontal suture all his
+life. The dovetails are replaced by solid bone, through a process called
+synostosis. In the case of the frontal bone it is normal, and in the line
+of advance. Elsewhere in the skull it is often an expression of defect
+which may give rise to various cranial states which are either absolutely
+degenerate in type or degenerate only when occurring in certain races. The
+parietals and interparietals are also dermal bones which are united by
+synostosis to form the parietals or side bones of the normal adult skull.
+The nasal bones which, together with the vomer, form the nose, are
+likewise dermal bones, and so are the pterygoids and palatines. The
+maxillaries and praemaxillaries, which, with the mandibles, form the jaws,
+are dermal bones. The mandibles, however, are in part derived from the
+chondrocranium.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+
+With rise in evolution, and during the progress of human embryonic
+development, these bones become fewer through their early gristly union or
+their synostosis. The openings in the skull resultant on the deficiencies
+in the chondrocranium are larger in the sauropsida (birds and reptiles)
+than in the ichthyopsida (amphibious and fish); in the monotremata
+(egg-laying mammals) than in the sauropsida; in the marsupials (pouched
+mammals) than in the monotremata, and in the higher mammals than in the
+marsupials. The development of the brain therefore depends on the growing
+and expanding power of the secondary skull formed by the dermal bones.
+These, considered as bones, are degenerate from the high type of the
+vertebrae, and are a mere reminiscence of that outer skeleton whereby early
+fish and reptiles emulated the lobster. The influence of any check to
+development such as produces degeneracy, is exerted first on the
+development of the bone itself, and finally on the relation to other bones
+by dovetailing.
+
+In accordance with the general laws governing growth, deficiency in one
+place is apt to result in increase elsewhere. The brain-protective
+function of the dermal bones being later in development than their old
+armour function, is apt to be checked by degeneracy in two ways; in the
+first the bone does not grow in size or sufficiently to unite with its
+fellows, or this growth occurs only for the benefit of the bone itself,
+through Spencer's law of individuation, so that union with the other bones
+occurs too early for the benefit of the organism as a whole. To the
+factors underlying this is due the non-increase in intellect after puberty
+which occurs in the higher apes, and in some of the lower races of men.
+
+These checks also tend to the nutritional benefit of the older primary
+skull, whence result the irregularities in development that constitute so
+many of the stigmata of the degenerate cranium. The sutures sometimes do
+not form because sufficient gristle is not produced to fill the gaps.
+(Fig. 8.) These secondary gaps are often filled by new dermal bones called
+Wormian. Sometimes this deficiency coexists with too early synostosis
+elsewhere.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+
+Degenerate skulls have therefore been divided from the standpoint of these
+various unions (by synostosis or otherwise) and non-unions of the sutures,
+on the principle that premature synostosis of a suture produces shortness
+of the diameter, perpendicular to the direction of the obliterated
+suture.[189] The bones stop growing prematurely at the seat of the
+synostosis, but the unaffected borders continue growing. The following
+types result on this principle:
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+
+I. Simple macrocephaly (largeness of head). (_a_) Hydrocephaly (water in
+the head. Fig. 9.) (_b_) Kephalones (all heads. Fig. 10), without
+hydrocephaly. These two conditions result from the inability of the dermal
+bones to fill at the proper period the gaps in the chondrocranium. Neither
+of these denotes complete intellectual degeneracy on the one hand, nor
+vast intellect on the other. Cuvier was a case of healed-up hydrocephalus,
+whence his large brain and skull. In a case of kephalones observed by
+Kiernan there was a brain-weight of 68 ounces. The patient was an
+imbecile, practically unteachable.[190] Both these conditions denote deep
+degeneracy, which, however, may find expression elsewhere than in the
+moral sense or intellect.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+
+II. Simple microcephaly (smallness of head. Fig. 11) or nannocephaly
+(dwarf head). As a rule these are found among idiots, but much has been
+done by training, even for them. Many seemingly great intellects, however,
+have heads approaching, if not reaching this type.[191] Des Cartes,
+Foscolo, and Schumann had sub-microcephaly. The poet Shelley had a head
+belonging very nearly to this category, but while he exhibited many
+stigmata of degeneracy, that of intellectual deficiency was wanting. This
+type of skull, however, is usually associated with deep degeneracy. It
+represents in man the condition underlying the premature suture-closing
+which occurs in the ape. It sometimes may exist with considerable
+intellect, as in the case of Donizetti. Sometimes this suture-closing
+directly prevents brain growth. This condition is rarer than many surgeons
+admit, but it does occur, as witness the cases of Vico, Malebranche, and
+Clement VI. The fact that these three fractured their skulls in infancy
+saved them from being imbeciles and idiots like their brothers, sisters,
+and cousins.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+
+III. Dolichocephaly (long-headedness. Fig. 12). (_a_) Upper middle
+synostosis. (1) Simple dolichocephaly is due to synostosis of the
+sagittal, or antero-posterior suture of the skull. Whether this be due to
+degeneracy or not depends entirely on the race in which it occurs. The
+ultra-dolichocephaly of Daniel O'Connell was due, in Kiernan's opinion, to
+his birth in an Irish district settled by dolichocephalics. Undoubtedly
+dolichocephaly is tending to mesocephaly (medium size of head). Even the
+negro, generally regarded by ethnologists as dolichocephalic, is tending
+in this direction, as numerous observations of my own show.
+Dolichocephaly, however, while it does not demonstrate, suggests
+degeneracy, since it seems to be a disappearing type of skull. The changes
+in American families in this particular indicate this. (2) Sphenocephaly
+(wedge-shape of head. Fig. 13) is due to synostosis of the sagittal
+suture, with compensatory growth in the region of the large fontanelle.
+(_b_) Dolichocephalic states, resulting from inferior lateral synostosis
+are: (1) Leptocephaly (narrowness of head), due to synostosis of the
+frontal and sphenoid bones. (2) Klinocephaly (saddle-shaped head) is due
+to synostosis of the parietal bones with the greater wings of the
+sphenoid, or of the parietal with the squamous portion of the temporal
+bone.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+
+IV. Brachycephaly (shortness of head. Fig. 14). The pure type like pure
+dolichocephaly is not necessarily by itself evidence of degeneracy, as it
+may represent race. It is, however, a disappearing type of skull, and
+hence should lead to critical examination. In the case of the philosopher
+Kant his ultra-brachycephaly could not be charged to race, since he sprang
+from dolichocephalic Scotch on one side and dolichocephalic Germans on the
+other. (_a_) Posterior stenosis. (1) Pachycephaly (thickness of head) is
+due to synostosis of the parietal bone with the occipital. (2) Oxycephaly
+(sugar-loaf head) is due to synostosis of the parietal bones and the
+occipital with compensatory growth of the region of the anterior
+fontanelle; a variety of this is acrocephaly (spire head). (_b_) Upper,
+anterior, and lateral synostosis. (1) Platycephaly (flat head. Fig. 15),
+or chaemacephaly, is due to extensive synostosis of the temporal bones with
+the parietal. Kant, in addition to his cranial stigmata, had this
+condition. (2) Trochocephaly (roundness of head) is due to partial
+synostosis of the frontals and parietals in the centre of the coronal
+suture. (3) Plagiocephaly (wry head. Fig. 16) is due to unilateral
+synostosis of the frontal and parietal bones. (_c_) Brachycephaly due to
+inferior medium synostosis. Simple brachycephaly is due to early
+synostosis of the nasal and sphenoid.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+
+To these should be added kyphocephaly (lump head), due to synostosis of
+the posterior part of the squamous portion of the temporal and the
+parietal bones with Wormian bones in the lambdoid fissure. Tapeisocephaly
+(low head) is due to synostosis of the great wings of the sphenoid with
+the frontal. Scaphocephaly (boat-shaped head. Fig. 17) was a term applied
+by Von Baer to skulls which are very narrow and compressed at the sides,
+and in which there is no trace of the sagittal suture, but its region is
+so elevated that the skull cap has the form of a keel boat bottom upward.
+Trigonocephaly (triangular head) is a variety of scaphocephaly in which
+depression occurs in place of the keel. Sir Walter Scott had a skull in
+which premature closure of the sagittal suture produced the appearance of
+scaphocephaly, but compensation for this elsewhere produced a decidedly
+different type. Scott presented neurotic phenomena during youth, albeit
+the brain disease from which he died had anything but a degenerate origin.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+
+Morton and Catlin claim that while the artificial distortions of the
+cranium may play a part in developing synostosis these have no effect upon
+the intellectual functions. It has been stated further that there are no
+mental data to show the effect of artificial malformation of the child's
+head during development. Frederick Peterson expresses the opinion that
+this practice only exists among the lower races of mankind. In this he is
+in decided error, since, as Barnard Davis pointed out many years ago, the
+practice is far more widespread than is usually suspected. It was common
+all over Europe, was practised by the Turanians, by the Slaves, by the
+Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. Less than half a century ago
+Foville[192] proved that the nurses in Normandy were still giving
+children's heads a sugar-loaf shape by bandages and a tight cap. In
+Britanny they preferred to press it round. In those districts Foville
+found that not only congenital cranial irregularities of all types, but
+epilepsy, idiocy, and insanity were exceedingly frequent. As customs like
+these survive in folklore long after the original superstition which gave
+them birth, it is exceedingly probable that such crop out in descendants
+of these races to the present day, to confront the anthropologist with
+some remarkable crania. Tylor[193] is of opinion that without respecting
+the repressive action of the Government, the Bretons and Normans secretly
+continue this practice. Despite the labours of Foville these people openly
+defied the Government for ten years.
+
+Certain conditions of the occiput have been described as associated with
+degeneracy. As Obici[194] and Dei Vecchio[195] have shown, the occipital
+condyle, in man normally convex, abnormally varies between two extremes,
+the flat and angular condyles. The flat condyle indicates a degenerative
+type. In the angular condyle the anterior face is derived from that
+portion of the basi-occipital nucleus that normally takes part in the
+formation of the anterior condyle region; the posterior face forms the
+embryonal germ of the occipital.
+
+The occipital of the adult is the final outcome of the fusion of an
+uncertain number of vertebrae. The occipital bone in man is practically
+made up of five bones, union between which does not occur completely until
+the fifth or sixth year. The deficiencies in the chondrocranium appear in
+the occipital bone, which requires a small portion of the dermal bone to
+complete it on each side.
+
+The variability of the occipital bone which, as just shown, is so
+frequently associated with all forms of degeneracy, is still better
+understood when we remember that it is of vertebral character. The
+investing mass of the head and of the notochord is the skeleton of the
+occipital bone. Between this skeleton and the pituitary body the important
+portion of the brain formed by the occipital lobes takes its origin. As
+these lobes are practically, as Spitzka has shown, the great centres of
+sense and other inter-associations it is not astonishing that their
+imperfect development should be accompanied by changes in the occipital
+bone. As Crochley Clapham, Mickle, and Spitzka have shown, a flat occiput
+is common in imbecility and moral insanity. It has been found quite
+frequently in "reasoning maniacs" by Campagne. The proper development of
+the occiput influences the proper development of association tracts which
+serve as a balance wheel to the individual. The proper development of the
+occipital bone is, moreover, connected with the proper development of the
+two last vertebrae, which like it are losing their vertebral
+characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE DEGENERATE FACE AND NOSE
+
+
+The development of the face depends, as I have already shown, upon the
+enlargement and fusion of the mouth and nose cavities, and upon the later
+partial separation of the nose and mouth and the nose cavities, leaving
+the posterior nose open. It depends further upon the growth and
+specialisation of the face region, of which the elongation is the most
+prominent indication, and finally upon the development of a prominent
+external nose. The relations of face to cranium in embryology have already
+been described. When the medullary tube of the notochord enlarges to form
+the brain the end of the head bends over to make room for that
+enlargement. The bending of the head carries the mouth plate, which is to
+be the mouth, over to the front of the head. The changes which develop the
+mouth cavity are the growth of the brain and the increase in size of the
+heart cavity, which expand to the front, leaving the mouth cavity between
+them. The mouth cavity represents two gill-slits united in the front line.
+The nose is formed from two olfactory plates situated just in front of the
+mouth and in contact with the fore-brain. These olfactory plates grow in
+size by the increase of tissue, and the resulting pits pass away from the
+brain. At first these pits, although widely separated by what is called
+the nasal process, communicate freely with the mouth. The nasal process
+includes the origin of the future nose and of the future intermaxillary
+region of the upper lip.
+
+The human face is modified backward from the vertebrate type. It is an
+additional illustration of the degeneracy of a series of related
+structures for the benefit of the organism as a whole. The progress of
+development of the face in the vertebrates is checked in man. First, as
+Minot remarks,[196] because the upright position renders it unnecessary to
+bend the head as in quadrupeds. Second, because the enormous cerebral
+development has rendered an enlargement of the brain cavity necessary.
+This has taken place by extending the cavity over the nose region as well
+as by enlarging the whole skull. Third, because the development of the
+face is arrested at an embryonic stage; the production of a long snout
+being really an advance of development which does not take place in man.
+From what has been said of the relations of the dermal bones to the nose
+and face in the chapter on the skull, it will be obvious that these must
+follow the same laws as to degeneracy as the skull itself. These checks
+from degeneracy in arrest of development are apt to affect most obviously
+the unilateral development of the face. From this results the exaggerated
+asymmetry so frequently observed.
+
+Jacob Baumler, the founder of the Zoar community of the United States, a
+religious fanatic, had a very marked asymmetry of the face and the mind
+of a degenerate. His orbits were unequal, one being exceedingly large and
+the other correspondingly small.
+
+The human face at birth is so near that of the monkeys that if only the
+heads of both were exposed to view at birth it would be difficult for a
+casual observer to distinguish one from the other. Cope[197] has made the
+following classification of the head and face for comparative study: The
+relative size of the cerebral to the facial regions, the prominence of the
+forehead, the prominence of the superciliary regions, the prominence of
+the alveolar borders of the jaws, the prominence and width of the chin,
+the relation of length to width of the skull, the prominence of the
+cheek-bones, the form of the nose, the relative size of the orbits and
+eyes, the size of the mouth and lips.
+
+At birth in the infant ape the facial region of the skull is smaller than
+in the adult, the forehead is more prominent, the superciliary ridges are
+more prominent, the edges of the jaws are more prominent, the chin is
+less, while the cheek-bones are more prominent, the nose is without a
+bridge and has short and flat cartilages, the face is flattened, the
+orbits and eyes are smaller and closer together, the mouth is small and
+the lips thin.
+
+In the typical infant child as he begins to develop the cerebral part of
+the skull predominates over the facial more than in the adult, the
+superciliary ridges are not developed, the alveolar borders are not
+prominent, the cheek-bones are not prominent, the nose is without a bridge
+and the cartilages are flat and generally short, the eyes are larger. In
+this last particular the human infant resembles the lemurs and thus
+retains an embryonic tendency. In some degenerates this tendency remains
+unchecked, and the result is unusually large orbits as in Fig. 18. In
+other instances the human foetus passes through this lemurian stage to
+reach and even exceed the anthropoid in smallness and closeness together.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+
+In determining a standard by which to measure the face two principles come
+into play: the general principle of evolution, and also that aesthetic
+principle governing profile, which has practically obtained supremacy,
+after long struggles for existence, from the Egyptian period of the first
+dynasty until its final acceptance by the Greeks, as shown, for instance,
+in the Apollo Belvedere. Indeed, so nearly does the modern standard
+approximate to the Greek, that Kingsley,[198] speaking of modern profiles,
+remarks that if he were to describe the American type he should be as much
+inclined to give that name to the form of features of the Apollo Belvedere
+as any other, since it is quite universal, distinctive, and possesses the
+same elements of beauty.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+
+Among Aryan-speaking races this type would be accepted as the ideal one.
+Since each nationality, and peoples of the same nationality, living in
+different countries do not possess exactly the same type of face, the
+general presumption of evolution as modifying notions of beauty must also
+be taken into consideration. In the determination of the extent to which
+the profile exists the facial angle plays a part. This angle was early
+pointed out by Camper as a means of distinguishing the relative
+development of the skull and face. "The basis on which a distinction of
+nationality is founded," said Camper, "may be displayed by two straight
+lines (Fig. 19), one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius
+to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of
+the forehead and falling thence on the most advancing portion of the upper
+jaw, the head being used in profile. In the angle produced in these two
+lines may be said to consist not only the distinctions between the skulls
+of different species of animals, but also those which are found to exist
+between different races. The angle which the facial line or characteristic
+line of the visage makes varies from 70 deg. to 80 deg. in the race. All who raise
+it higher disobey the rules of art (from imitation of the antique). All
+who bring it lower fall into the likeness of the monkeys. If I cause the
+facial line to fall in front I have the antique head. If I incline it
+backward I have the head of a negro. If I incline it still further I have
+the head of a monkey; inclined still more I have the head of a dog; and,
+lastly, that of a goose."
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. COLOURED CRIMINAL YOUTH.]
+
+
+This is excellently shown by the following illustrations. Fig. 20 is the
+head of Johanna, the female chimpanzee of Central Park, New York City.
+This head has (by Camper's method) an angle between 40 deg. and 50 deg. The brain
+of this animal occupies one-third of the skull, and the jaws two-thirds.
+The negro criminal (Fig. 21) has an angle of about 70 deg. Here the brain is
+encroaching, while the jaws are receding. The Caucasic race (Fig. 22) has
+an angle of 75 deg. to 80 deg. In many cases the frontal development of the
+brain and resultant recession of the jaws produce an angle of 90 deg., with a
+general result not unlike the Apollo.
+
+Although the general outlines of facial evolution as sighted by Camper are
+in accord with my own views, yet, as regards accuracy, this angle is not
+an ideal from whence to study face degeneracy, since the line does not
+fall low enough to include the chin, and also, as I have elsewhere shown,
+in the degenerate, the ear varies as much as one to one and one-half
+inches upon heads of different individuals. Frequently, in the degenerate
+classes, the ears of the same individual differ as much as one inch in
+height.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+
+An ideal line, from whence to study a degenerate face, should be drawn
+perpendicularly from the supra-orbital ridge intersecting the upper and
+lower jaw and chin. While the chin of the Apollo Belvedere falls slightly
+inside of this line, yet this is hardly perceptible. Having now fixed a
+standard from which to study the degenerate face, it should be remembered
+that jaws which protrude beyond this line are atavistic, and those which
+recede are even more degenerate.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+
+The angle between 80 deg. and 90 deg. may be accepted as an ideal by which to
+study degeneracy. This factor alone, however, can not be accepted: the
+evolution of the face itself must be also taken into consideration. It is
+obvious that in the struggle for existence and supremacy between the brain
+and the face (both expressions of vertebrate advance), stress may be
+concentrated on one particular part. Whence result certain factors which
+modify the conclusion to be drawn from the facial angle. The hollowed out
+condition of the face from the supra-orbital ridges down to and including
+the base of the nose (illustrated in Johanna) merits attention here. The
+same condition is observable in the negro, only it extends farther down
+and includes both jaws. One jaw, however, may alone be affected. Most of
+the Chinese, Japanese, Eskimo, Polynesians, Australians, Aryan Caucasic
+Africans, and some American Indians, possess this feature. As has been
+already remarked, the facial regions of man and the ape up to a certain
+point are similar. Not until the sense organs of man begin to develop are
+changes noticeable in facial expression. If, through heredity or
+constitutional defect, that part of the brain which presides over
+development of the facial bones lose its control, arrest of development of
+that particular tissue results at any period between birth and the
+twenty-fifth year, while other parts of the head and face continue to
+develop. With this understanding Camper's method can be safely applied to
+certain cases. If a line be dropped from the supra-orbital ridge to the
+upper lip in its most prominent part (Fig. 23), it will be found here that
+in place of the face presenting the full appearance illustrated in Fig. 19
+and Fig. 22, it has the hollow appearance observable in Johanna and in
+Fig. 25. This is due to arrest of development of the bones of the face and
+the upper jaw. The extent of depression depends upon the time of arrest,
+the frontal development of the skull, and the position of the upper jaw.
+The nose may present and retain the appearance of that of a child six
+months old, or any other shape up to normal development, but will not
+protrude from the face nor present a normal symmetrical appearance. It has
+the appearance of having been driven into the face. It has been claimed
+that the bridge of the nose is pushed out by the advancing brain and
+cranium. This may be true to a certain extent, but one is not necessarily
+dependent on the other, since an arrested nose is frequently found in a
+fully developed cranium (Fig. 24), which is not unlike Fig. 23 and a
+"throw-back" to Fig. 20. This is due to the fact that in the struggle for
+existence the bones of the face and skull base became arrested early in
+life, while the brain and cranium continued to advance. The lower jaw is
+usually normal since, while the tendency to arrest may be present in a
+slight degree, mobility of the jaw often causes such increased nutrition
+of the part that normal development in many cases thereby results.
+Overlooking this fact has often led to the assertion that a large lower
+jaw exists when, in reality, this appearance is due to an arrest of the
+face and upper jaw, the lower remaining normal. The expression of
+degeneracy is rather in the arrest of the upper jaw than in the normal
+lower (see Fig. 23).
+
+The criminals of the Elmira Reformatory, and those of the Pontiac
+Reformatory, present marked instances of this stigma, nearly 50 per cent.
+being so affected. Arrest of the lower jaw may occur alone, or may be
+associated with arrest of development of the face (Fig. 25). When this is
+the case a deep, broad groove extends from below the eyes downward and
+backward to the lower jaw, also showing a lateral arrest of development,
+producing a hatchet-shaped face. The upper part of the face may be normal,
+and the lower jaw arrested antero-posteriorly.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
+
+
+It has been broadly asserted that this is an atavism, but more probably it
+is an expression of that phase of evolution whereby both jaws are becoming
+subservient to the advance in evolution represented by the gains of the
+brain and cranium. When both jaws are arrested Camper's disobedience of
+the rules of art, whereby the facial angle is increased over 90 deg., occurs.
+This condition has been found in many degenerates. Almost invariably in
+connection with the arrest of development of the face occurs arrest of the
+bones of the nose. The diameter of the nasal cavities is much smaller
+than normal. Owing to the unstable condition of the nervous system there
+is also hypertrophy of the turbinate bone and mucous membrane of the nose
+and throat, tonsil hypertrophy, arrested development of the chest walls
+and lung tissue, and unstable mucous membranes throughout the lungs. Such
+a degenerate face, body, and unstable nervous system is a fruitful soil
+for the germs of tuberculosis. In these cases even a casual glance will
+show that the two halves of the face and head are not symmetrically
+developed. It looks as though the two halves were made separately and
+joined together, one half higher than the other. This condition is
+excellently illustrated in Fig. 26. In this case the left half is higher
+than the right. (Frequently the right side is the higher.) There is arrest
+of the upper and lower jaw. The left corner of the mouth is higher than
+the right. The left half of the lower jaw is higher than the right, the
+body of the lower jaw is longer, the ramus is shorter. The left eye and
+ear are higher. The left supra-orbital ridge is higher. The ears stand
+almost at right angles, while the malar processes are quite prominent.
+Viewing the face from a three-quarters' angle (which should always be done
+in making an examination, or photographing the degenerate face for study)
+it will be found that there is not only arrest of development of the bones
+of the face, but also of the lower jaw.
+
+As already stated in the chapter on the cranium, the nasal bones belong to
+the dermal category, their special function as nose bones being a later
+acquisition. In their acquirement of this function they have passed
+through many changes, especially as the human face in its nasal features
+has assumed an embryonic type. In consequence, like all late embryonic
+acquisitions, degeneracy is apt to involve the nose.
+
+When arrest of development of the face takes place stigmata of the nasal
+bones always result. Under such conditions narrowing or arrest of
+development of the entire nasal cavity ensues.
+
+Deformities of the nasal septum, deflection, hypertrophy and atrophy of
+the turbinate bones, deformities of the maxillary sinus, hypertrophy of
+the mucous membrane and polypi are common. Deflection of the external nose
+is a very common stigma of degeneracy. Not only is the septum involved,
+but also the outer plates of the nasal cavity. So unstable are the bones
+of the face in their development that it is not an uncommon thing for the
+nasal process of the upper jaw on one side to be much more developed than
+the other. Not only is the nasal septum involved, but also the bones of
+the face as well, producing a fulness on the long side of the face. This
+stigma is very common among criminal youth. In such cases the deflected
+septum is due to the development of the outer plate and not _vice versa_.
+Deflection of the septum to the left may entirely obliterate (as in Fig.
+27) the left nasal cavity. If one nostril of a rabbit be permanently
+closed, after the animal has attained its full growth, the nasal cavity of
+the affected side remains undeveloped and facial asymmetry results.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+
+Therefore two factors are common: first, the arrest of development of the
+bones of the nose, and second, the clogging of the cavity, both active
+agents in producing a closure, resulting in mouth-breathing.
+
+Coexisting with these is often (as in Fig. 27) smallness of the upper
+jaw. In the same connection grooved teeth occur, as in the same
+illustration.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+
+The turbinated (Fig. 28) bones are often hypertrophied, as is also the
+nasal septum (vomer or dividing bone) and the mucous membrane. This
+results from the general instability of the nervous system with its
+special expression in increased blood supply, whence occur overgrowth in
+and imperfect work by the mucous membrane, causing mouth-breathing and
+polypi, which again increase this defect. All these predispose to germ
+invasion.
+
+In the figure are also shown grooves upon the teeth. Sufficient symptoms
+are here evident to stamp this as a marked degenerate skull.
+
+Hypertrophy of the turbinate bones, septum, and mucous membrane, as it
+occurs among degenerates, appears in Fig. 29, and is due, first, to an
+unstable nervous system, and, second, a larger system of blood vessels
+which ramify through these parts. Stimulation, together with the stenosis
+(narrowing), tend to produce a closure. Still further, irritation and an
+unstable mucous membrane results, with polypi or adenoid vegetation
+following.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+
+Not only do deflection of septum and hypertrophy of the nasal bones occur,
+but the antrum (cavity behind the nose) may be almost entirely
+obliterated, while the upper jaw is arrested (Fig. 29). The antrum may be
+entirely wanting, as in Fig. 30; so unstable may these tissues develop
+that the nasal cavities may become almost entirely obliterated, as
+observed in this figure.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+
+These conditions are due to the unstable structure and large nerve and
+blood supply. Perhaps one of the most interesting points in connection
+with degeneracy of the nose is the fact that in most cases the structures
+are either arrested or excessively developed, to the extent of the entire
+absence of the inferior turbinate bone. This was the case in a girl
+thirteen years of age who died of tuberculosis. Her skull revealed many
+other forms of degeneracy as well. The deviation in the development of the
+two nasal cavities results from the excessive and arrested development of
+the turbinates, thus preventing inhalation and exhalation of air, the free
+side developing and the closed side remaining undeveloped. In such case
+the nose is deflected to the right or left, depending on which side is
+arrested. When both nostrils are closed the nose becomes thin and pointed
+and mouth-breathing results. In degenerate nasal cavities polypi (tumours)
+are apt to occur.
+
+Persons with long, thin noses, arrested nasal cavities, sunken faces (as a
+result mouth-breathers), and with contracted chest walls are the subjects
+for tuberculosis. In such cases, especially when the nervous system is
+unstable, the different forms of catarrh are present. This condition
+worries the youth under the strain of puberty. To the catarrh which is
+merely a result is ascribed his constitutional defects. These somatic
+signs are quite noticeable in most of these cases, and by early
+recognition proper treatment, with change of climate, frequently prolongs
+life for years.
+
+The so-called erectile tissue of the nose (containing blood whose flow is
+checked through spasm to increase sensation), that relic of a time when
+smell played a greater part among the senses, is apt to be affected by
+degeneracy either as to its excessive or imperfect development. From this
+comes the bleeding of the nose, so frequently an expression of nerve
+strain at puberty, which may take the place of menstruation. It is to be
+noted that while true haemophilia ("bleeder" tendency) occurs chiefly in
+boys, epistaxis shows itself very frequently in their sisters. A
+remarkable illustration of this was reported by Dr. Delia E. Howe,[199] of
+the Fort Wayne (Indiana) School for the Feeble-minded. In cases of
+so-called male menstruation[200] the symptom is apt to be epistaxis.
+
+The irregularity in blood supply predisposes the nose to attacks on its
+structure from pathogenic germs. Hay fever is an expression of nervous
+instability of these structures, and is especially apt to occur in
+neurasthenics, hysterics, and degenerates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+DEGENERACY OF THE LIP, PALATE, EYE, AND EAR
+
+
+Each part or sense organ may, independently of the face as a whole,
+exhibit signs of degeneracy. The palate, lip, nose, eye, and ear have
+their own expressions of degeneracy. The palate, so far as the joining of
+its two parts is concerned, resists degeneracy to a remarkable degree. The
+cleft, which results from non-union, is usually an expression of general
+degeneracy acted on by its nutritive expression, albeit cleft-palate may
+be associated with the graver degeneracies like idiocy.
+
+As the subjects of the deeper degeneracies associated with cleft-palate
+usually perish in early infancy, the nutritive degeneracies are most
+frequently found associated with cleft-palate in adult life. The mouth in
+the vertebrates does not agree in character with the invertebrate mouth.
+The mouth has grown in proportion to evolution in the lower vertebrates.
+It is larger, however, in proportion in the human embryo than in the
+adult. In this it agrees with the general lower type of the human face.
+The human chin is at first retreating, and does not become distinctly
+prominent until the fifth month of foetal life. The nose separates from
+the mouth toward the end of the second month. It is at first short and
+broad and resembles at three months the type of some of the lower negro
+races. When the nose is separated from the mouth a partition forms between
+the cavities of the nose and the mouth, later supplemented by the true
+palate, which divides the mouth into an upper respiratory passage and a
+lower digestive passage. This palate is partly composed of bone and partly
+of flesh. The fleshy part ends in what is called the uvula. This is very
+subject to abnormalities, as has been pointed out by C. L. Dana; it is a
+very frequent mark of degeneracy. Dickens noticed the uvular tone of voice
+in young thieves, due to deformity of the uvula.
+
+Cleft palates are comparatively rare in proportion to other forms of
+nutritive degeneracy. Palatal embryology casts light on the causation. At
+a very early period of foetal life a series of clefts appear on each side
+of the cephalic extremity, separated by rods of tissue called branchial
+arches. The clefts communicate with the alimentary canal. These various
+clefts have usually coalesced about the ninth and tenth week of foetal
+life, but occasionally this coalescence fails or is incomplete. This leads
+to various deformities, the chief of which are cleft palate and hare-lip.
+Cleft palate has been known to affect several members of the same family,
+and to occur in the offspring of the affected members. There are instances
+of the transmission of this deformity from an affected pug-bitch to her
+offspring. If it were possible to practise selective breeding in man as in
+dogs a race of men with hare-lips and cleft palates could probably be
+produced.[201]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+
+Cleft palate may be divided into two classes, congenital and acquired,
+acquired cleft palate being the result of disease either inherited or
+acquired, but only affecting the part after birth. Congenital cleft palate
+is divisible into two kinds, complete and partial; complete when the
+fissure extends the entire length, from the uvula to and including the
+anterior alveolar process and even the lips (Fig. 31), partial when only a
+small part of the structure is involved. Thus the cleft may extend through
+the anterior alveolar process, involving the incisive bone only, which is
+very rare; when present single or double hare-lip almost invariably
+coexists. I have observed in practice six cases where a small portion of
+the interior alveolar process was involved, with the jaw and one or two
+teeth. The hard palate only may be involved to the extent of a small
+fissure, or the whole palate may be wanting. The soft palate only may
+contain the cleft, or simply the uvula. Cases are on record in which the
+non-development of the intermaxillary bones produces fissures in the lip.
+_A priori_, cleft palate is an evident expression of hereditary defect.
+Langdon Down found a constant relation between brain deformity, cleft
+palate, and deformed vaults.
+
+In a case cited elsewhere,[202] three members of one family had cleft
+palate; one 17 years old, the other 30, and the third 35. The first and
+last are women, the other a married man with a family, who have no trace
+of the father's deformity. In these cases no instance of cleft palate
+could be found either among the ancestors or the collateral branches of
+the family.
+
+Another family has a remarkable history. G. H. C., born 1853, perfect; L.
+C., born 1855, single hare-lip and cleft palate; J. F. C., born 1856,
+perfect; F. W. C., born 1860, double hare-lip and cleft palate; H. E. C.,
+born 1868, perfect. The paternal grandmother also had cleft palate.
+
+Knecht found that 5 per cent. of 1,200 criminals examined had cleft
+palate. Fourteen per cent. of the prostitutes examined by Pauline
+Tarnowsky had cleft palates. Langdon Down, among congenital idiots, found
+only a half per cent. of cleft palates. Grenzer found only nine cases in
+14,466 children, or one in 1,607. I examined 1,977 feeble-minded children
+without finding a single case. In 207 blind only one case was observed. In
+1,235 deaf mutes two cases were found. The percentage among the defective
+classes, while not large, is, undoubtedly, much larger than among normal
+individuals.
+
+A keeper of the Zoological Gardens in Philadelphia observed cleft palate
+in the mouths of lion cubs born in the gardens. Cleft palates were also
+observed in a number of pups born in Buffalo. Dr. Ogle found that 99 per
+cent. of the lion cubs born in the London Zoological Gardens had cleft
+palates. He claims that this is due to the artificial diet, as the result
+of enforced captivity. Similar results observed in other gardens in Europe
+are charged to feeding the mothers with meat without bone, as feeding with
+the whole carcass of small animals greatly diminished these deformities.
+It would seem that if cleft palate is due to this cause other bony
+structures should also be involved, and, as a matter of fact, many of the
+lions born in captivity are rickety. Cleft palate has been observed among
+dogs, sheep, goats, &c. The question, therefore, whether domesticity here
+does not play the alleged part of civilisation in man can be solved only
+by a knowledge of the frequency of the condition among wild animals of the
+same genus. It is evident that, in dealing with the question of aetiology,
+the influence of shock on the mother's nervous system cannot be excluded
+in the cases charged to feeding.
+
+It should be remembered that cleft palate is a factor which predisposes to
+death by infectious diseases whose local manifestations are in the mouth
+and throat; hence the majority of the degenerates in whom cleft palate
+occurs are liable to die before the completion of their fifth year.
+Hare-lip (Fig. 32) is an exceedingly hereditary disorder, as Murray,
+Demarquay, Trelat, Hutchinson, Fere, Marsh, Lucas, Ireland, and others
+have shown. It occurs with great frequency in almost all forms of
+degeneracy. Kiernan, of Chicago, has found that 5 per cent. of the
+hereditary lunatics in that city and in New York City have hare-lip.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.]
+
+
+How far degeneracy may turn back the page of evolution is excellently
+illustrated in the cyclopian descendants of degenerate families elsewhere
+cited from Kiernan, of Chicago. While there is a seeming conflict as to
+the primitive eye type of vertebrates between morphologists represented by
+Howard Ayres[203] (who claims that the eyes were derived from the median
+eye of the ascidian lancelet) and Semper[204] (who is of the opinion that
+the existing vertebrate eyes represent the paired eyes of a hypothetical
+annelid precursor); still both opinions are fully reconcilable through the
+results of study of the ascidian and lancelet eye collated with cyclopian
+and triophthalmic (three-eyed) degeneracies in man, the human eye and the
+third eye of reptiles like the hatteria of New Zealand. The eye of the
+ascidian tadpole agrees fundamentally with the type of eye peculiar to the
+vertebrates in that the retina is derived from the wall of the brain. On
+this account it is called a myolonic eye. In the typical invertebrate eye,
+on the contrary, the retinal cells are differentiated from the external
+ectoderm.
+
+The ascidian eye, however, differs, as Osborn[205] remarks, essentially
+from the paired eyes of the craniate (skulled) vertebrates in that the
+lens as well as the retina is derived from the wall of the brain. The lens
+of the lateral eye of the vertebrates is derived by an invagination of the
+ectoderm, which meets and fits in the retinal cup at the end of the optic
+vesicle. The ascidian eye, however, agrees in respect to the origin of its
+lens with the parietal or pineal eye of the lizard, in which the lens is
+likewise derived from cells which form part of the wall of the cerebral
+outgrowth which gives rise to the pineal body.
+
+The pineal body is another of those remarkable rudimentary structures
+whose constant presence in all groups of vertebrates forms such an
+eminently characteristic median outgrowth from the dorsal wall of the
+brain (thalamencephalon), the distal extremity of which dilates into a
+vesicle and becomes separated from the proximal portion. The distal
+vesicle becomes entirely constricted off from the primary epiphysial
+(pineal) outgrowth of the brain, and the parietal nerve does not represent
+the primitive connection of the pineal eye with the roof of the brain, but
+arises quite independently of the proximal portion of the epiphysis.
+
+The remote ancestors of the vertebrates possessed a median, unpaired,
+myolonic eye, which was subsequently replaced in function by the evolution
+of the paired eyes. The cyclopic condition occurs very frequently among
+human monstrosities, much more frequently than among animals, Hannover
+claims,[206] but this is clearly due to the fact that human monstrosities
+are much more frequently recorded. Of the 120 cases I have been able to
+collect from literature, 56 presented other evidences of degeneracy than
+cyclopic conditions, and 60 had neuropathic or other taint in the
+ancestry. Dareste[207] has shown that the production of a single eye, the
+changes in the structure of the mouth, the atrophy and abnormal situation
+of the olfactory apparatus and of the vesicle of the hemispheres, all
+result from an arrest of development. The determining influence must be
+exerted very early in the life history of the embryo.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.]
+
+
+Hannover points out that there often is coincident hydrocephalus and
+harelip, imperfect genital development, and allied arrest of development.
+J. R. Folsom, of Cecil, Georgia, has reported a female, born alive to a
+negro multipara, who died two hours after birth. The eye was centrally
+located in the forehead, on a line with the nose. The brow was a complete
+arch, as was the upper eyelid. The lower lid had a mark midway, indicating
+an attempt at division. The nasal bones were wanting, but the soft part of
+the nose, destitute of the orifice, hung over the mouth, which was
+completely covered. The chin was recedent. C. Phisalix described a case in
+which the nose was wanting. Its place in the median was occupied by a
+single eye; on the horizontal diameter were two pupils separated by a
+narrow space. Landolt, discussing a case reported by Valude, points out
+that in cyclopic eyes all the parts may be double or united in every
+degree except that there is never a single lens or double vitreous. Bock
+and others, however, describe cases in which the eye has not been formed
+by the conglomeration of two separately developed eyes, but it is a single
+developed eye; the other being wanting entirely. Bruce reports a cyclop
+in which there was a single socket for the eye of a lozenge-shape,
+situated in the lower middle of the forehead. The socket was furnished
+with two pairs of eyelids, upper and lower. The eye was found to consist
+of two rudimentary eyes, with two rudimentary retinae, apparently springing
+from a single optic vesicle. The nose was represented by a short process
+attached to the forehead, above the median eye.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.]
+
+
+The cyclops illustrated (Figs. 33, 34) was born to a 17-year old
+neuropathic primipara, after a protracted labour. The child was living,
+but was killed by pressure on the funis. The mouth contained an ivory,
+tusk-like tooth at each corner. There was mane-like hair around the neck.
+
+Cyclopia is very frequently associated with the absence of both the
+internal and external ear, and with synotia (joined ears).
+
+In triophthalmic cases the three eyes are usually separate, two occupying
+the usual position, while the third is situated as illustrated in the case
+cited. Ninety families of degenerates, averaging eleven children each, had
+five cases of cyclops.
+
+Degeneracy, which affects so deeply the development of the eye, naturally
+tends to evince itself in other anomalous states in the organ. As
+excessive asymmetry of the body is one of the most noticeable of the
+stigmata of degeneracy, it is not astonishing to find that this asymmetry
+expresses itself both in the position as well as in the size and structure
+of the eye. As Kiernan[208] pointed out, twenty years ago, asymmetrical
+irides are exceedingly frequent in the types of insanity due to hereditary
+defect. This observation has since been confirmed by Fere,[209] not only
+as to the insane, but as to other classes of the degenerate. The
+conditions of the eye known as microphthalmia (small eye), macrophthalmia
+(big eyes) and anophthalmia (absence of eyes), are found quite frequent in
+degenerate families. Very frequently the pupil of the eye is asymmetrical.
+This was pointed out by Kiernan in the case of Guiteau. Corectopia
+(displacement of the pupil so that it is not in the centre of the iris)
+often exists. Coloboma (eye fissure) is also not infrequent among the
+degenerate. These vary greatly in situation and general results. The iris
+is sometimes completely absent on one or both sides. Beside the anomalies,
+diseased conditions like retinitis pigmentosa, congenital cataract and the
+macular degeneracy cited by C. P. Pinckard,[210] of Chicago, are far from
+infrequent expressions of degenerate taint in the eye; the organ in this
+particular obeying the general law that degeneracy may show itself in the
+minute change resulting in disturbance of function or in that producing
+disease, or, finally, in atavism. The defects of the eyes requiring
+glasses are exceedingly frequent in degenerates, and often aggravate their
+morbidity. Here, as in the case of the teeth, the chief factor is often
+ignored.
+
+The external ear is, of all organs, that most affected by degeneracy.[211]
+It is a cartilaginous organ extending from a bony base, without a bony
+framework for its support and with very deficient blood supply, on account
+of its distances from the great blood centres, so that any defect in the
+nerve centres which control the local blood supply is likely to affect its
+nutrition. As a cartilaginous organ it has no lymphatics, which of
+necessity affects its growth. The sensitiveness of the ear to vasomotor
+changes is evident by the results of the extremes in heat and cold,
+emotional blushing and fatigue. Galton reports a schoolmistress who judges
+the fatigue of her pupils by the condition of their ears. If the ears be
+white, flabby and pendant, she concludes that the children are much
+fatigued. If they be relaxed, but red, they are suffering, not from
+overwork, but from a struggle with the nervous system rarely under control
+in children. These states are very common among degenerates.
+
+To appreciate the degeneracy observed in the ear its embryology requires
+study. Before the end of the first month[212] there appears around the
+external opening of the first gill-cleft (Fig. 35) a series of six
+tubercles, two in front on the hind edge of the first visceral arch, one
+above the cleft and three behind it (Fig. 36). A little later a vertical
+furrow appears down the middle of the hyoid arch, in such a way as to mark
+off a little ridge which joins on to tubercle 3 and descends behind
+tubercles 4 and 5. The second stage is reached by the growth of all the
+parts; the fusion of tubercles 2 and 3 and the growth of the ridge down
+behind tubercle 5 to become continuous with 6. After these changes it is
+not difficult to identify the parts.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.]
+
+
+Tubercle No. 1 is the tragus; 2 and 3, together with the arching ridge,
+represent the helix; 4, the anti-helix; 5, the anti-tragus; and 6, the
+lobule; the pit between the tubercles the fossa angularis. During the
+latter part of the second month the ear changes in its proportion somewhat
+in the irregular development. The third stage begins at the third month.
+The upper and posterior part of the concha arises from the surface of the
+head, and gradually but rapidly bends forward so as to completely cover
+the anti-helix and the upper portion of the fossa angularis. During this
+stage in mammals the assumption of the pointed form of the ear commences.
+The fourth stage begins at the fourth month, when the tubercles, which are
+now joined together by cartilages, commence to unfold and are completed by
+the fifth month. Finally, the sixth tubercle develops to form the lobule.
+This unfolding or development of the tubercles to produce the different
+portions of the ear and make it complete is not unlike the development of
+a flower from the bud. By this process may be understood how if, by
+malnutrition in one tubercle or bud, or should there be a larger supply of
+nutriment in one than another, malformation of the ear would result. If
+arrest of development of all the tubercles should take place at any
+period, from the first to the fifth month of foetal life, the ear would
+resemble a semi-developed flower! (Fig. 37).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+
+As in other cases, it is necessary to fix an approximately normal standard
+for the ear from the standpoint of man's status in evolution. The ear
+grows more or less through life, but, like the skeleton, practically
+reaches its full development about the twenty-sixth year. That this is not
+always the case, however, is demonstrated by the results of the
+examination of 546 persons. In an examination of 63 children between 6 and
+18 months old the ears measured from 1.60 to 2.12, the average being 1.90
+inches; in width from .75 to 1, with an average of .96. In 127 children
+from 8 to 12 years old the ear measured from 1.95 to 2.32 inches, the
+average being 2.19; width .81 to 1.50, the average being 1.06. In 356
+persons between 12 and 50 years old the shortest ear was 2, the longest 3,
+the average 2.50; width, smallest 1, largest 1.50, the average being 1.22
+inches. The normal ear, or rather the ideal one (for few persons possess
+it in its entirety), should have a gracefully curved outline, be nowhere
+pointed or irregular, have a well-defined helix, separated from the
+anti-helix by a distinct scaphoid fossa extending down nearly to the level
+of the anti-tragus (Fig. 38). Its root should be lost in the concha before
+reaching the anti-helix. The anti-helix should not be unduly prominent,
+and should have a well-marked bifurcation at its superior extremity. The
+lobule should be shapely, not adherent, not too pendulous and free from
+grooves extending from the scaphoid fossa. The whole should be well
+shaped, and its proper proportion and size may be inferred from the table
+just given; in the adult it should not average over two and a half inches
+in length and one and a quarter in breadth.
+
+The aural deformities that fall under the head of stigmata, or have been
+classed as such, affect all portions of the external ear. The helix may be
+imperfect, it may be angular, from Darwin's tubercle it may lack its
+inward roll, it may be interrupted, the root of the helix may extend
+inward completely across the concha, and in very rare instances it may be
+bifurcated. The anti-helix may be unduly prominent or be insignificant;
+the scaphoid fossa may extend through the lobule or be triple.[213] The
+lobule may be adherent and sometimes almost absent, thus producing the
+jug-handle-shaped, or so-called Morel ear. It may be exaggerated in size;
+the whole ear may be misshapen, too large or too small. These deformities
+may exist in nearly every degree, only when pronounced can they be
+considered as stigmata. Others have been noted, but their importance as
+signs of degeneracy is not very significant unless they co-exist with
+several of those above mentioned.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+
+The ears of degenerates frequently grow in later life to an enormous size.
+On examination of 207 paupers over 50 years old the shortest ear was found
+to be 2.25 inches, the longest 3.36; the average on the right side was
+2.73, on the left 2.76; the narrowest ear was .88, the widest 1.50, the
+average 1.26. These results, compared with the results of the measurements
+of normal persons from 12 to 50 years, plainly demonstrate that the ears
+of degenerates grow after the twenty-sixth year, when the skeleton has
+completed its development. With such large ears other stigmata are
+generally associated. A few of the best types of stigmata of the ear
+illustrate better than any description the general characteristics. Fig.
+39 illustrates the ear _par excellence_ of degeneracy, the typical
+jug-handled ear first described by Morel and called by his name. This
+consists of a long, narrow ear attached its entire length, and tapering
+upward and outward from the lobe to the point where the Darwinian tubercle
+is located, and there it may take any shape--round, straight, or
+pointed--as illustrated in the drawing. The most singular deformity of the
+helix is the tubercle of Darwin, which is a little blunt point,
+projecting from the inwardly folded margin or helix. When present it is
+developed at birth and, according to Ludwig Meyer, more frequent in men
+than in women. Fig. 40 shows ear and tubercle taken from Darwin.[214]
+These points not only project in toward the centre of the ear, but open a
+little outwards (Fig. 41) from its plane, so as to be visible when the
+head is viewed from directly in front and behind. They are variable in
+size, number and somewhat in position (Fig. 42), standing either a little
+higher or lower, and they sometimes occur on one ear and not on the other.
+Another marked form of ear degeneracy is one in which the ear is developed
+backward at an angle of about 45 deg. (Fig. 43). The general outline of the
+ear is fairly good. The anti-helix is much larger than it should be.
+Degeneracy usually extends deeply into the organisation of those in whom
+this ear is present.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. EAR ALMOST HORIZONTAL AND AT RIGHT ANGLES WITH THE
+HEAD.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. EAR ALMOST ROUND WITH THREE DARWINIAN TUBERCLES AT
+INNER BORDER.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+
+Fig. 44 illustrates noticeable stigmata. The ear stands at right angles
+with the head. It is, however, almost as broad as it is long and differs
+in shape. The outer helix is excessively developed. The scaphoid fossa
+extends through the lobe, which is continuous with the body of the ear and
+is not distinct. The root of the helix is excessively developed. There are
+three Darwinian tubercles on its border. The anti-tragus is undeveloped.
+The tragus is very small and divided into two parts. The auricle-temporal
+angle, for functional purposes, should not exceed, according to Buchanan,
+30 deg., or be less than 15 deg. The difference in this respect is not clear,
+since free movement of head and body will readily adjust the auricle to
+receive sound. For functional purposes it would seem that the construction
+and shape of the ear, especially the anti-helix and concha, would be of
+greater importance than its position to the head, since it is necessary to
+collect the waves of sound for transmission. From a degeneracy
+standpoint, however, the position of the ear is important. Frigerio,[215]
+from the examination of several hundred subjects, concludes that the
+auricle-temporal angle undergoes a gradual progress from below 90 deg. in
+criminals and the insane to above 90 deg. in apes. He found the large angle
+very marked in homicides, less so in thieves. There is no question but
+that Frigerio is correct in regard to this point. In an examination of the
+ears of 465 boy criminals at Pontiac, it was found that 198 were close to
+the head, or from 10 to 15 deg.; 152 at an angle of 45 deg., and 115 at right
+angles or 90 deg. Of 1,041 criminals at Elmira 285 were close, 567 at an
+angle of 45 deg., and 187 at right angles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+
+Fig. 45 shows the ear which Hawthorne gives Donatello in the _Marble
+Faun_; it has been called the "Satanic" ear, because of the pointed
+extremities and its narrowness. The helix is rolled upon itself its entire
+length, giving the impression of great thickness. The anti-helix is
+excessively developed. Figs. 46, 47, 48 (ears of three illegitimate
+children at birth) show different stages of development as well as marked
+stigmata. Arrest of development occurs between the fourth and fifth month,
+owing to the trophic nerve centres being affected by the malnutrition of
+the mother. Fig. 49 exhibits the development of a congenital, elephantine
+ear in monstrosities. The resemblance to the large ear of the orang and
+chimpanzee is very marked.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE DEGENERATE TEETH AND JAWS
+
+
+Next to the ears, the jaws and teeth (as was to be expected from the
+variability of these organs in allied animals) are most affected by
+degeneracy. This is particularly true of the vertebrates, especially
+mammals, as might have been anticipated from their phylogeny. At the head
+of the vertebrates is man; at the foot is the lancelet (amphioxus), which
+is perhaps most akin to those semi-vertebrates the ascidians, who, in
+their larval phase, are higher than when adult, and whose life-history
+excellently illustrates that potent phase of evolution, degeneracy.
+
+The lancelet has a spinal cord enclosed in a half-gristly canal (the
+notochord). It is practically destitute of a brain. The cerebral vesicle
+which represents this is a plain cavity without true subdivision into
+ventricles. There is no cranium. The eye (central in position) is a mere
+pigment spot with which it is able to distinguish light from darkness. The
+nose (behind this) is a small pit, lined with cilia, for purposes of
+smell. Into this the cerebral vesicle of the larval lancelet opens. The
+mouth is well guarded against the intrusion of noxious substances which
+have to pass through a vestibule richly provided with sensitive cells,
+resembling the taste buds of the human mouth. There is no heart. In this,
+as in the case of the eye, the lancelet is lower than the ascidians, the
+insects, crustaceans, and many molluscs. It approximates those worms
+which, despite a very elaborate vascular system, are destitute of a heart,
+the function of which is performed by contractile blood-vessels. From an
+embryologic and morphologic standpoint the proximate ancestor of the
+vertebrates may have been a free swimming animal, intermediate between an
+ascidian tadpole and the lancelet, and the primordial ancestor, a
+worm-like animal organised on a level with the star-fish. The vertebrates
+embryologically develop from this stage to the lampreys; thence to the
+cartilaginous fish (shark); to the amphibia (frog, toad, axolotl); to the
+reptiles; and thence to the oviparous mammals (duck-bill and echidna or
+spiny ant-eater); to the lemurs, and through forms like the
+_Pithecanthropus erectus_ to man. Mammal teeth pass, in evolution, from
+the simple types found in that oviparous edentate, the spiny ant-eater of
+Australia, to those of the indeciduous ancestors of the sloths and
+armadilloes, and their descendants, inclusive of the dolphins and whales,
+whose teeth, both in the fetal Greenland and adult sperm whale, preserve
+this old type. (The whales have degenerated from the hoofed mammals to
+suit their environment.) While, as in the edentates, these teeth may be
+few, they may also, as in the insectivorous marsupials, approximate those
+of the reptilia in number (sixty or seventy on a side) and characteristic
+location.
+
+The evolution of this primitive tooth to the bicuspid and molar type has
+been explained by two theories: that of concrescence and that of
+differentiation.[216]
+
+A number of conical teeth, in line as they lie in the jaws of the sperm
+whale, represent the primitive dentition.[217] In time a number of these
+teeth, according to the concresent theory, cluster together so as to form
+the four cusps of a human molar, each one of the whale tooth points
+forming one of the cusps of the mammalian tooth. Vertically succeeding
+teeth might also be grouped. What evidence is there in favour of this
+theory? and what is there against it? All primitive reptiles from which
+the mammals have descended, and many of the existing mammals, have a large
+number of isolated teeth of a conical form. Further, by shortening of the
+jaws, the embryonic germ from which each of the numerous tooth-caps is
+budded off in course of development could have been brought together in
+such a manner that any cusps originally stretched out in a line would form
+groups of a variable number of cusps, according to the more or less
+complex pattern of the crown. Against the acceptance of this theory stands
+the fact that cusps quite similar in all respects to each of the cusps
+which form the angles of the human molar are even now being added to the
+teeth in certain animals, such as the elephant, whose molar teeth cusps
+are being thus complicated. In the mesozoic period certain animals with
+tricuspid teeth occur. According to the theory of concrescence these teeth
+ought not to show any increase of cusps in later geologic periods, but
+down through the ages to the present time successors of those animals
+continue to present a very much larger number of cusps. How is this
+increase of cusps to be accounted for? Has there been a reserve store of
+conical teeth to increase the number? Most obviously to every student of
+the fossil history of cusps there is no reserve store, but new cusps are
+constantly rising upon the original crown itself by cusp addition.
+
+In the Triassic occur the first mammalia with conical, round, reptilian
+teeth. There are also some aberrant types which possess complex or
+multitubercular teeth.
+
+These teeth begin to show the first trace of cusp addition.
+
+In Fig. 1, Plate A, the teeth of the dromatherium of the coal beds of
+North Carolina occur on the sides of the main cone, cusps or rudimentary
+cuspules. On either side of the main cone are two cuspules. In the same
+deposit occurred another animal represented by a single tooth (Fig. 3), in
+which these cusps are slightly larger. These cusps have obviously been
+added to the side of the teeth and are now growing. In teeth of the
+Jurassic period, found in large numbers both in America and in England,
+but still of very minute size, are observed the same three cusps. These
+cusps have now taken two different positions; in one case they have the
+arrangement presented in Plate B. The middle cusp is relatively lower, and
+the lateral cusps are relatively higher; in fact these cones are almost
+equal in size. These teeth are termed triconodont, as having three nearly
+equal cones. But associated with this is the spalacotherium, the teeth of
+which are represented in Plate A, Fig. 4. This tooth illustrates the
+transformation of a tooth (triconodont) with three cusps in line into a
+tooth with three cusps forming a triangle. Here the primitive cusp is
+the apex of a triangle of which the two lateral cusps are the base. This
+tooth, in this single genus, is the key of comparison of the teeth of all
+mammalia. By this can be determined that part of a human molar which
+corresponds with a conical reptilian tooth. This stage is the triangle
+stage; the next stage is the development of a heel or spur upon this
+triangle (see in the amphitherium, Fig. 5). The opossum still distinctly
+preserves the ancient triangle. Look at it in profile, inside or in top
+view, and see that the anterior part of the tooth is unmodified. This
+triangle is traceable through a number of intermediate types. In Miacia
+(Fig. 6), a primitive carnivore, is a high triangle and a heel; looked at
+from above (Fig. 6a), the heel is seen to have spread out broader so that
+it is as broad as the triangle. The three molars of this animal illustrate
+a most important principle, namely, that the anterior, triangular portion
+of the crown has been simply levelled down to the posterior portion.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.]
+
+
+These three teeth form a series of intermediate steps between a most
+ancient molar and the modern molar of the human type. The second tooth is
+halfway between the first and third. The second molar, seen from above,
+has exactly the same cusps as the first, so it is not difficult to
+recognise that each cusp has been directly derived from its fellow. The
+third tooth of the series (Fig. 7) has lost one of its cusps; it has lost
+a cusp of the triangle. It is now a tooth where only half the triangle is
+left on the anterior side and with a very long heel. That tooth has
+exactly the same pattern as the lower human molar tooth (Fig. 8), the only
+difference is that the heel is somewhat more prolonged. These teeth belong
+to one of the oldest fossil monkeys, anaptomorphus. Human lower molars,
+not very exceptionally, instead of four cusps, have five. The fifth cusp
+always appears in the middle of the heel, or between the posterior lingual
+and the posterior buccal. This occurs in monkeys and other animals, but no
+record exists of the ancient anterior lingual reappearing. The human lower
+molar, with its low, quadritubercular crown, has hence evolved by addition
+of cusps and by gradual modelling from a high-crowned, simple, pointed
+tooth.
+
+Human teeth are of excellent service in the initial determination of
+degeneracy in the child. For this purpose the teeth should be studied from
+the first evidence of their development until they are all in place, which
+occurs normally, in most cases, by the twenty-second year.
+
+Teeth-enamel is formed from the epiblast, and dentine, cementum, pulp
+(except as to nerve tissue) from the mesoblast. The enamel organs of the
+first set appear during the seventh week of foetal life; the dentine bulb
+during the ninth week. At this period the tooth obtains its periphery.
+This models the enamel cap which fits over the dentine like a glove. When
+imperfections in hand or fingers exist these deformities are distinctly
+observed upon the glove, and in precisely the same manner are observed the
+different shapes and sizes of the incisors, cuspids, and molars.
+Calcification of the teeth begins at the seventeenth week of foetal life.
+The illustration (Fig. 50) shows the progress of calcification and
+development of the temporary set of teeth. Examination will show that any
+defect in nutrition, from conception to birth (due to inherited states or
+maternal impressions), has been registered upon the teeth. The state of
+the constitution and the locality register the date of such defects. Thus
+if the tooth, as a whole, be larger or smaller than normal, or abnormally
+irregular, taint is undoubtedly inherited from one or both parents. If, on
+the other hand, there be defect at any part on the crowns of the teeth,
+and the contour be perfect, the date of malnutrition can be easily
+determined from this chart. More or less than the normal number of teeth,
+abnormally placed, demonstrates the existence of inherited defect, since
+the germs must have been deposited at the period mentioned. No absolute
+rule can be laid down as to date of the eruption of the teeth. The teeth
+of the temporary set erupt nearly as follows:
+
+                            _After Birth._         _Time of Eruption._
+  Lower Central Incisors     7 months                1 to 10 weeks.
+  Upper    "       "         9 months                4 to 6 weeks.
+  Upper and Lower Lateral   12 months                4 to 6 weeks.
+  First Molars              14 months                1 to 2 months.
+  Cuspids                   18 months                2 to 3 months.
+  Second Molars             26 months                3 to 5 months.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. SHOWS LINES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERMANENT
+TEETH.]
+
+
+The enamel organs and dentine bulb for the permanent teeth form just
+before birth (Fig. 51) in like manner with the temporary set. They form
+just above the temporary set on the upper and below on the lower jaw. The
+permanent molars begin to calcify at the twenty-fifth week of foetal life.
+The permanent incisors do not calcify until a year after birth. Any
+deviation in size or contour of the permanent teeth from the normal must
+hence be due to defect in nutrition in the dentine bulb, between the
+fifteenth and twenty-fifth week of foetal life. Any deviation in
+calcification (except the cusps of the first permanent molars) must occur
+after birth. At the third year twenty-four teeth are fairly well
+calcified. At the fifth year the second permanent molars, and at the
+eighth year the third molars or wisdom teeth, begin to calcify.
+
+The following table gives the age of eruption of permanent teeth:
+
+  First Permanent Molars               Circa         6 years.
+  Upper and Lower Central Incisors       "           7 years.
+  Upper and Lower Lateral    "           "           8 years.
+  First Bicuspids                        "           9 years.
+  Second Bicuspids                       "          10 years.
+  Cuspids                                "          11 years.
+  Second Permanent Molars                "          12 years.
+  Third Permanent Molars                 "    17 to 24 years.
+
+Man, at this present stage of evolution, has twenty teeth in his temporary
+and thirty-two in his permanent set. Any deviation in number is the result
+of embryonic change occurring between the sixth and fifteenth week, for
+the temporary teeth, and the fifteenth week and birth for the permanent.
+The germs of teeth which erupt late in life, and are called third sets, of
+necessity appear ere birth and are completely formed at the beginning of
+the second year, although they remain protected in the jaw until
+eruption.
+
+More than twenty teeth in the temporary set, or thirty-two in the
+permanent set, is hence an atavistic abnormality. From the maxillary and
+dental standpoint man reached his highest development when well-developed
+jaws held twenty temporary and thirty-two permanent teeth. Decrease in the
+numbers of teeth meant, from the dental standpoint, degeneracy, albeit it
+might mark advance in man's evolution as a complete being. In the New
+Mexican Lower Eocene occur monkeys like the lemurarius and limnotherium,
+each the type of a distinct family. The lemurarius, most nearly allied to
+the lemurs, is the most generalised monkey yet found. It had forty-four
+teeth in continuous series, above and below. The limnotherium, while
+related to the lemurs, had some affinities with the American marmosets.
+These solved the problem of the origin of the extra teeth (known as
+supernumeraries) that sometimes occur in man, and demonstrated that man,
+during his evolution from the lowest monkey, lost twelve teeth. These
+supernumerary teeth assume two forms; either they resemble the adjoining
+teeth or are cone-shaped. While they are rarely exactly counterparts,
+every tooth can be duplicated, as the following illustrations show.
+
+Fig. 52 illustrates fairly well-formed duplicate central incisors, the
+normal incisors being outside the dental arch. They are crowded laterally
+by the large roots of the supernumerary incisors.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+
+Fig. 53 shows an extra right lateral in a temporary set in the upper jaw.
+Fig. 54 an extra right lateral in the permanent set. Fig. 55 illustrates
+normally developed supernumerary cuspids which are all grouped together
+upon the right side, the bicuspid being also duplicated on each side;
+indeed, all but the molars are duplicate. Fig. 56 shows supernumerary
+third molars, easily demarcated from the normal molars. The teeth which
+fail to approximate their normal neighbours assume the cone shape of the
+primitive tooth.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+
+The fact that the cone-shaped tooth, as a rule perfect in construction, is
+found everywhere in the jaw, but especially in the anterior and posterior
+part of the mouth, is of much value in outlining tooth and jaw evolution,
+especially in the degeneracy phase. The upper jaw, being an integral part
+of the skull and fixed, is, of necessity, influenced by brain and skull
+growth; hence degeneracy is more detectable in it than in the lower.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+
+The evolution of the jaw is toward shortening in both directions. This
+shortening will continue so long as the jaw must be adjusted to a varying
+environment. The jaw of man having originally contained more teeth than at
+present, lack of adjustment to environment produces, from the shortening,
+degeneracy of the jaw and atavism of the teeth. While this may coincide
+with general advances of the individual, it indicates that he is not yet
+adjusted to his new environment. The shortening of the upper jaw causes
+supernumerary, cone-shaped teeth to erupt, in mass, at the extreme ends of
+the jaw, as shown in the following figures. Fig. 57 illustrates a
+cone-shaped tooth between the two central incisors, forcing them out of
+position. Fig. 58 shows three supernumerary teeth--a cone-shaped tooth
+between the central laterals, and the cuspids out of position. The left
+permanent lateral is at the median line; another cone-shaped tooth remains
+in the vault, while the supernumerary left lateral is in place. As many as
+eight are at times to be observed in the anterior vault. Posteriorly these
+teeth are most often noticed in connection with the third molars, usually
+on a line with other teeth posterior to the last molar. Fig. 59 shows two
+supernumerary teeth in the anterior and two in the posterior part of the
+left arch; the molars have been extracted. Supernumerary teeth are not
+confined to these localities, but may be observed at any point in the
+dental arch (Figs. 60 and 61). The primitive cone-shaped tooth is rarely
+observed in the lower jaw. In twenty-six years' practice I have not seen a
+case. The mobility of the lower jaw prevents that mal-adjustment to
+environment present in the upper. The continual shortening, in both
+directions, of the jaw causes the third molars frequently to wedge in
+between the angle of the jaw and the second molars, so that eruption, if
+possible, is difficult.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+
+The third molar is often absent in the English-speaking and Scandinavian
+races. In 46 per cent. of 670 patients it was missing. Frequently its
+development is abortive. This tooth, in the struggle for existence, seems
+destined to disappear. It is more often absent from the upper than the
+lower jaw. When absent, or badly developed, the jaw is smaller and
+frequently teeth irregularities, nasal stenosis, hypertrophy of nasal bone
+and mucous membrane, adenoids and eye disorders coexist. Fig. 62 shows
+absence of the left third molar with irregularities of that side of the
+arch. In Fig. 63 both third molars are seen to be missing. Anteriorly,
+the lateral incisors are most often wanting; 14 per cent. of the laterals
+were wanting in 670 patients. In the progress of evolution man has lost
+one lateral upon each side of the mouth and the second lateral seems also
+destined to disappear. In Fig. 64 the left lateral incisor has
+disappeared; and in Fig. 65 both lateral incisors are absent. Not
+infrequently does it occur that centrals, cuspids, bicuspids, and even
+molars are absent, even their germs not being detectable. Fig. 66 shows
+three supernumeraries in the anterior part of the mouth and but two
+molars. The absence of the teeth indicates lack of development of germs,
+due either to heredity or defective maternal nutrition at the time of
+conception or during early pregnancy.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+
+Crescent-shaped, bitubercular, and tribucular as well as deformed teeth,
+tend to be cone-shaped. The malformation of these teeth results from
+precongenital trophic change in dentine development, dwarfing and notching
+the cutting and grinding edges of the second set of teeth, of which a
+familiar example is the so-called Hutchinson's teeth, usually referred to
+a syphilitic causation. Hutchinson's position has, however, been more
+strongly stated than his words justify, since he admits that in at least
+one-tenth of the cases this cause could be excluded.
+
+Syphilis only plays the part of a diathetic state profoundly affecting the
+maternal constitution at the time of dentine development; while these
+teeth may be due to secondary results of syphilis, they do not
+demonstrate syphilitic heredity.
+
+In Fig. 67 are seen the teeth of an individual affected with
+constitutional disease (referring to Fig. 51 it becomes evident that the
+defective lines represent the respective ages, 2-1/2, 4, and 5 years). The
+degree of pitting will depend, as a rule, on the severity of the
+constitutional disorder. In the case just cited, however, although
+nutrition was but slightly disordered, each tooth shows a tendency to
+conate. Not infrequently cavities extend completely through the tooth. The
+cusps of the (permanent) first molars, calcifying at the first year, are
+usually attacked also, and arrested in development, producing the cone
+shape. These data, together with the dates of eruption of the temporary
+and permanent teeth, furnish an absolute basis for calculation as to
+malnutrition producing excessive or arrested development, not only of the
+teeth and jaws but all parts of the body.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 70, 71.]
+
+
+Fig. 68 shows a very degenerate jaw with cone-shaped, malformed
+bicuspids. The right lateral missing, the cuspids are erupting in the
+vault and the dental arch is assuming a V-shape. The jaw shows, as a
+whole, marked arrest in development. Fig. 69 shows Hutchinson's teeth.
+Were the first molars visible, they would present marked contraction of
+the outer surface with a malformed centre. Referring again to Fig. 51, it
+is observable that trophic changes affected the system at the age of
+birth. The outer surface exhibits a tendency to take the cone shape. Figs.
+70, 71, 72, 73, and the molars in Fig. 66, exhibit malformations that
+assume the cone shape and the centre frequently associated with this type
+of teeth. The coincidence in form between Hutchinson's and malformed teeth
+and those of the chameleon suggests that tropho-neurotic change produces
+atavistic teeth. Fig. 74 illustrates the tendency of human bicuspids (when
+there is no antagonism) to rotate one-fourth round, thus again indicating
+an atavistic tendency toward the teeth of the chameleon. Fig. 75 exhibits
+extreme atavism; all teeth anterior to the molars are cone-shaped. The
+third molars are missing and would, probably, never erupt. In Fig. 76
+appears more marked atavism. The upper and lower are both cone-shaped, and
+the superior first bicuspid exhibits tendency thereto. The right superior
+second bicuspid, second and third molars, the right inferior first and
+second bicuspids, with second and third molars are missing. The same
+condition, probably, exists on the left side. The space in the upper jaw
+is due to the insufficient width of the teeth. Alternation of teeth in the
+upper and lower jaw is a reptilian feature.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+
+Fig. 76 furnishes excellent illustration of the principles already stated.
+In degenerate jaws every tooth in the jaw, at one point or another, may
+display rudimentary cusps. On the incisors they are always to be found on
+the lingual surface.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+
+Fig. 77 illustrates the centrals with two rudimentary cusps, the laterals
+with one, and the cuspids with one also. Fig. 78 represents cusps upon the
+lingual surface of the molars. The cuspids are not unlike the lower
+cuspids with a rudimentary lingual cusp.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.]
+
+
+There is a gradation from central incisors toward the bicuspids, in
+evolution. This grading of form is not observed in passing from the cuspid
+to the bicuspid in man. But the cuspid often presents a cingulum on the
+lingual face that inclines it toward the bicuspid forms in lower mammals,
+like the mole, and the first premolar, or bicuspid, is then more
+caniniform, the inner tubercle being much more reduced. This inner
+tubercle is very variable and erratic as to its position. It appears as
+far front as the centrals and is often present on the lingual face of the
+laterals of man. The lingual tubercle is very constant on the first
+bicuspid of man and is as well developed as the buccal. But in some lower
+forms, as in the lemurs, it is quite deficient. It attains the highest
+development only in the anthropoids and man. Considering these stages of
+development, the grading from the cuspid to the bicuspid forms was more
+gradual in the earlier species than in the later, where the individual
+teeth have taken on special development.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.]
+
+
+The skull of a degenerate girl who died from tuberculosis, at thirteen
+years, presented, among other stigmata, a cusp on the external surface of
+a right inferior cuspid. In Fig. 79, where every tooth is present, a most
+remarkable display of cusps occurs. The cusps upon the cutting and
+grinding edges are not obliterated. Commencing with the left superior
+central incisors, three cusps are present with a rudimentary palatine
+cusp. The laterals also show three cusps, while the cuspid has two very
+distinct. The first and second bicuspids have tubercular cusps, they
+being in line. The buccal cusps upon the molars, two or three, and are
+still in position. The palatine cusps are worn away. The same is the case
+upon the opposite side, except that the cuspid has cusps that have fused
+together, leaving a small projection upon the mesial side and a
+rudimentary palatine cusp. The cusp upon the third molar is lost. In
+another case (Fig. 61) the primitive cone teeth are seen trying to shape
+themselves into incisors. The lateral incisors, cuspids and bicuspids are
+still cone-shaped. The first permanent molar is fairly formed while the
+second molars are still in a primitive condition.
+
+Degenerate teeth unite in twos, threes, fours, and fives. These single,
+cone-shaped teeth grow together and form bicuspids and molars. The germ of
+any two normal teeth may intermingle and unite; not only are the crowns
+found united with separate roots, but crowns and roots are united
+throughout.
+
+Figs. 80 and 81 show two superior, central and lateral incisors joined
+together throughout the entire length of crown and root. In Fig. 82 two
+lower incisors are united throughout. Fig. 83 shows a cuspid with two
+roots. George T. Carpenter, of Chicago, has a right superior, second
+bicuspid with three well formed roots. Fig. 84 illustrates two bicuspids
+united at the crowns. Fig. 85 shows two molars perfectly united. Fig. 86
+illustrates central and lateral incisors of the permanent set perfectly
+united. Fig. 87 shows two molars united. Fig. 88 a molar and supernumerary
+taking the cone-shape with deformed centre. Fig. 89 shows three malformed
+teeth, each coated and completely united. It is not uncommon to find three
+molars united together, as, for instance, the second, third, and
+supernumerary molars. C. V. Rosser, of Atlanta, Georgia, has two small
+molars and a supernumerary cuspid perfectly united, from crown to root,
+and these three further united to the roots of a well-formed molar.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.]
+
+
+That human jaws, like human ears, are degenerating is demonstrable by
+actual measurements. Mummery, who examined the skulls of 200 Briton and
+Roman soldiers, found the narrowest 2.12 inches, the highest 2.62, with an
+average of 2.50. The width of jaws of 402 British soldiers to-day is:
+narrowest, 1.88; widest, 2.63; average 2.28. The highest width was very
+rare; only eight measured 2.50. The jaws of the mound builders, compared
+with the existing cliff dwellers, show similar results. The average width
+is about 2.50 inches. This is also true of nearly pure negro races.
+Measurements of normal jaws of 855 Italians of Central Italy were:
+narrowest, 1.88; widest, 2.63; average 2.17. Measurements of normal jaws
+of 4,935 Americans gave the following results: narrowest, 1.75; widest,
+only one case, 2.56; average 2.13. If in the highest type of physical man
+the width of the upper jaw from the outer surface of the permanent molars
+near the gum margin was originally 2.50 inches in diameter, the jaw of
+people now living in the same locality is from 0.25 to 0.33 inches
+smaller. Although the jaw has thus been growing smaller, since there are
+no breaks or deformities in the contour of the dental arch this must be
+regarded simply as an adaptation to environment, and not degeneracy in the
+proper sense of the term. The degeneracy of the jaws, on which I would lay
+special stress, is that in which deformity has resulted from inability to
+adjust structure to a changing environment. When arrest of development so
+takes place that deformities of the dental arch result, the jaws vary from
+two inches to one inch in width. As a rule, the teeth are the same size
+to-day that they were thousands of years ago. This is due to the fact that
+they are ante-natal and not influenced by post-natal systemic changes. The
+jaws do not contract as a result of mouth breathing.[218] If the jaw be
+arrested and be smaller in circumference than the teeth, a break takes
+place in the dental arch and deformity results. Two types of deformity
+occur, the V-shaped arch and the saddle arch. All other types of
+deformity, not due to local causes, are modifications of these two. These
+deformities always occur with the second teeth only. In these cases the
+facial profile assumes the perpendicular line or arrested face, as
+illustrated in the chapter on Degeneracy of the Face. They are never seen
+before the sixth year, when the second set begin to erupt and are complete
+with development of the second molars at 12. They may become exaggerated
+later in life from want of room, the eruption of the third molar and want
+of harmony in relation of the two jaws when closed.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.]
+
+
+There are three characteristics of the normal arch. Independent of
+temperamental peculiarities, the line extending from one cuspid to the
+other should be an arc of a circle, not an angle or straight line; the
+lines from the cuspids to the third molar should be straight, curving
+neither in nor out, the sides not approximating parallel lines. Absolute
+bilateral uniformity is not implied in this, as the two sides of the
+human jaw are rarely, if ever, wholly alike. A uniform arch necessitates
+uniformity of development between the arch of the maxilla and the arch of
+the teeth and a correct position of the individual teeth in their relation
+to each other. When there is inharmonious development between the jaws and
+the teeth, as may happen when one parent has a small maxilla with
+correspondingly small teeth, and the other a large one, with
+correspondingly large teeth, if the child inherit the jaw of one and the
+teeth of the other, irregularities must follow. Such difference in
+diameter between the arch of the maxilla and that of the crowns of the
+teeth is a constitutional cause of irregularity. When there is a
+difference between these diameters the line formed by the teeth must
+either fall outside or within the arch of the maxilla and irregularities
+of arrangements result. The primary division of irregularities is the
+V-shaped and saddle-shaped arches. We have the V-shaped variety (Fig. 90,
+one of the typical forms), where the apex of a triangle is formed by the
+incisors, the base of the triangle being a line connecting the first two
+molars. If, because of premature or tardy extraction, the first molars
+move forward, or by coincidence of the arch of the maxilla and the arch of
+the crown of the teeth in trying to accommodate itself to the lesser arch
+of the maxilla, the arch becomes a broken line, forming an angle at the
+incisors. This angle results from two causes: the thinness of the process
+at this point and the diminution of resistance which must follow.
+
+When the permanent bicuspids erupt under a favourable condition, so that
+their greatest diameter is in a line with the greater diameter of both
+cuspids and first molar, they will be held firmly in place, since the
+greatest pressure is on this very line. On the other hand, when the
+bicuspids are erupted after their proper time, while the cuspids progress
+duly, and meeting no resistance fall into their proper places, but the
+bicuspids adapt themselves as best they can to the space left for them,
+and if the arch of the maxilla does not coincide with that of the crowns,
+they must fall within or without the arch. Now, if the first molar have
+moved forward, diminishing the space, the bicuspid must erupt either
+within or without the arch.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.]
+
+
+To understand why they are generally found within the arch, the shape of
+the molar and cuspids must be kept in mind. A transverse section of their
+crowns shows their proximal walls not to be parallel, but wedge-shaped,
+their diameter being greater on the buccal than on the palatal side. When
+the crowned bicuspid falls within the greatest diameter of these teeth,
+finding more room within the arch, they naturally slip in the direction of
+least resistance, _i.e._, toward the palate. A local cause for the same
+condition is found in the fact that the crown of the bicuspids, before
+their eruption, was held between the roots of the temporary molars, and,
+as these form an arch of a smaller circle than that of the permanent
+teeth, the bicuspids will be found generally inside the arch. From both
+causes occurs an inward curvature, which is termed the saddle-shaped arch
+(Fig. 91). It should be noted here that, since the V-shaped irregularity
+is found anterior to the cuspid, the upper incisors are always projecting
+beyond the lower; the saddle-shaped irregularity is invariably posterior
+to the cuspid from an inward curve. The incisors never project. Both forms
+contract the arch; the V-shaped anteriorly, the saddle-shaped posteriorly.
+In both forms the forward movement of the first molar is the local cause.
+
+Deformities of the dental arch are due, first, to arrest of development of
+the jaws, and, second, in the nature of the deformity, to the order of
+eruption of teeth, which rarely erupt twice alike. From an evolution
+standpoint these deformities are atavistic. The V-shaped reverts to the
+reptilian type; the saddle-shaped to the lower mammals. In the gorilla,
+the nearest to man in dentition, there is a very distinct approach to the
+saddle shape. In the chimpanzee it remains. The orang-outang exhibits less
+of this tendency. The arch of some of the cebidae very nearly approaches
+man. It all depends upon the extent of prognathism. When that is reduced
+the arch appears and rectangular arrangements of the teeth are lost. Most
+carnivors exhibit a distinct approach to the saddle shape. Some felines
+have a shortening of the jaw, partly obliterating the tendency, but in
+most canidae it is quite marked.
+
+These are facts which cannot be overlooked, since, from the very nature of
+development and eruption of the teeth, they cannot take any other form.
+The arrangement of the crowns of the cuspid (canine) in the jaw before
+eruption is such that, no matter what the local condition of the jaws or
+teeth may be the V-shaped or saddle-shaped dental arch must be produced.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.]
+
+
+In no symptoms is degeneracy so evident as in the stigmata resultant on
+hypertrophy of the alveolar process. This occurs at all ages, but more
+particularly at the period of development of the permanent set of teeth.
+The entire alveolar process may become involved (Fig. 92), or only a
+portion (Fig. 93).
+
+Hypertrophy of the alveolar process is the result of irritation incident
+upon eruption and the shedding of the temporary teeth, and eruption of the
+permanent teeth.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.]
+
+
+Laryngologists, rhinologists, and neurologists claim that certain vaults
+are deformities; in reality the alveolar process is hypertrophied. The
+jaws, as a whole, owing to an unstable and ill-balanced nervous system,
+are liable to become excessively developed, as well as arrested in
+development. Excessive development of the superior maxilla is evinced by a
+fulness of the upper lip. In these cases the upper maxilla is too large
+for the lower, and stands out beyond it. The lower may be quite normal.
+When there is simply a want of proportion between the two jaws, it is due
+to the diminutive or excessive size of one while the other is normal. The
+criterion in these cases must be the facial angle. The upper jaw is
+usually in harmony with the skeleton, while the lower jaw depends for its
+size largely upon function, its size being the result of accident rather
+than the result of general proportions.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.]
+
+
+When the upper jaw is normal, or smaller than the lower, the extent of the
+posterior portion is determined by the occlusion of the first permanent
+molar, which keeps the alveolar processes in permanent relation to each
+other at this point and allows freedom of development in front. If the
+occlusion be not normal, the upper jaw and alveolar process will develop
+laterally as well as anteriorly. The teeth of the anterior columns may
+either stand vertically, or they may be turned in toward the lower
+incisors. The latter defect is produced by the action of the lips. When
+the cuspids are in their normal position the upper incisors form a larger
+arch than the lower, and this permits of their being turned inward; but
+when the cuspids have moved so far forward that they are not normally
+interlocked with the lower teeth, the incisors are too crowded to permit
+this. While the jaws are growing smaller the teeth tend to cause reversion
+to the original form. Arrest of development of the superior maxilla is
+always associated with marked depression at the alae of the nose, producing
+the appearance of having been hollowed out from a point at the floor of
+the orbit to the grinding surface of the lower teeth (Fig. 94).
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.]
+
+
+Arrest of the lower jaw (Fig. 95) is common among degenerates. This
+consists of a shortening of the body of the jaw. Sometimes it is arrested
+to such an extent that there is apparently no chin. About 50 per cent. of
+criminals of Elmira, New York, have this deformity. The following table
+shows the number of deformities of the jaws and teeth which I have found
+among some of the degenerate classes.
+
+  -----------+------------------------------------------------------------
+  JAWS.      |Number examined.
+             |    +-------------------------------------------------------
+             |    |V-shaped.
+             |    |   +---------------------------------------------------
+             |    |   |Partial V.
+             |    |   |    +----------------------------------------------
+             |    |   |    | Semi-V.
+             |    |   |    |   +------------------------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |Saddle.
+             |    |   |    |   |   +--------------------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |Partial Saddle.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    +---------------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |Semi-Saddle.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   +-----------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |Normal.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    +------------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |Arrested Development.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   +--------------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |Excessive
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |Development.
+  -----------|    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   +----------------
+  TEETH.     |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |Irregular.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   +------------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |Tubercles
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |of teeth.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |Present.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  +---------
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |Tubercles
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |of teeth.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |Absent.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    +----
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |Reg-
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |ular.
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  -----------+----+---+----+---+---+----+---+----+---+---+---+--+----+---
+  Criminals  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at         |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Pontiac,   |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 465| 75|  71|  3| 66|  63| 16| 171|...|...|123|13| 452|342
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Criminals  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at         |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Elmira,    |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  N. Y.      |1041|381|  49|  1|157|  26|...| 422|...|...|220|26|1015|821
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Criminals  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at         |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Joliet,    |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 468| 13|  79| 19| 59|  92| 24| 163|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Prostitutes|    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  at Chicago,|    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Bridewell  |  30| 10|  17|  7| 27|  10| 10| ...|  1|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Insane at  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Dunning,   |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 700| 26|  47|...| 12| ...|...| 486|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Insane at  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Kankakee,  |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Ill.       | 613| 69| 107| 29| 89| 105| 61| 153|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Idiots,    |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  imbeciles  |1977|129| 236|...|207| ...|...|1095|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Deaf and   |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Dumb       |1935|169| 192|...|203| ...|...| 901|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Blind      | 207|  7|   9|...| 11| ...|...| 105|...|...|...|..|... |...
+             |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  Inebriates |    |   |    |   |   |    |   |    |   |   |   |  |    |
+  [219]      | 514|1.5|24.4|0.3|9.3|13.2|7.7|25.4|...|...|...|..|... |...
+  -----------+----+---+----+---+---+----+---+----+---+---+---+--+----+----
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+DEGENERACY OF THE BODY
+
+
+As degeneracy checks the natural course of embryonic development it
+necessarily finds expression in the body as well as in the skull. One most
+striking condition is that by which development of the bones enclosing the
+spinal cord is checked. The spinal cord is at first essentially a
+notochord as in the lowest types of vertebrates. The structures
+surrounding the cord are not divided into vertebrae. This condition is
+permanent in the lancelet. Around the notochord is later formed a species
+of membrane which protects it, called the perichord. This condition is the
+second stage of development of the cord and is the permanent condition in
+the lampreys. Later still the cartilaginous vertebrae develop, and then
+these ossify at the point in the perichord which is to form a vertebra,
+bows of dense tissue form which unite behind. In front similar bows form
+to constitute the bodies of the vertebrae. These bows remain ununited in
+some of the lower fish and at certain stages in the human embryo. As
+degeneracy checks the union of the bows of the vertebrae, imperfection, and
+even absence, of the union occur, which is called spina-bifida (Fig. 96).
+This condition when complete is rarely compatible with life. In a partial
+state it is often found among degenerates.[220] The seat of the trouble is
+frequently covered by an excessive development of hair (hypertrichosis),
+especially in the small of the back; this, which occurs very frequently in
+degenerates, resembles the tail which the ancients represented as that of
+the fauns.[221]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.]
+
+
+As the vertebrae unite irregularly, deviations or bends of the spine occur
+very frequently among degenerates. These may be of any of the types known
+to surgeons. In man the spinal column terminates in two bones. One of
+those (composed of five vertebrae) begins at eighteen years to unite slowly
+into a single bone called the sacrum. The bones of the sacral vertebrae
+form processes similar to those which are formed from the vertebrae of the
+chest region. These serve to cover the nerves of the sacral region. The
+bone immediately below the sacrum, called the coccyx, is essentially the
+representative of the tail in man. At a certain stage of human
+development, as in the tadpole, the tail disappears, the nine vertebrae
+forming the coccyx unite together and become a very diminutive bone which
+loses nearly all vertebral characteristics. Sometimes this bone retains
+its embryonic peculiarities to such an extent that it simulates in some
+degenerates a rudimentary tail. Of this many instances are on record. A
+greater degree of this condition has been found to occur, with comparative
+frequency, amongst the lowest negro races. In this respect these are below
+the anthropoid apes, where the tail, considered from the tail standpoint,
+has degenerated as in man for the benefit of the organism as a whole.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.]
+
+
+The ribs and breastbone develop from the processes of the vertebrae. It is
+probable that every vertebra originally had ribs. Traces of these exist in
+most vertebrae in the human embryo. In man, as a rule, there are but twelve
+vertebrae which develop true ribs. In degenerates, as in the gibbon, a
+thirteenth pair sometimes appears. Normally, the two lowest ribs are,
+however, very imperfectly developed as compared with the other ten, and
+one is sometimes absent. The rib develops from the ends of the vertebral
+bows, which, coming in contact with the muscle plates of their own segment
+of the body, are by the resulting bulging forced to expand, and later come
+together through the formation of the breastbone. Checking of these
+conditions produces various deformities of the chest which have been
+divided into "funnel-shaped" and "dropper" deformities.[222] Frequently
+the entire chest wall is arrested early in life (Fig. 97). The relation
+between the muscle plates and the course of development of the chest is
+illustrated by the fact that an arrest of development of important muscles
+often coexists with deformities of the chest. The human limbs are
+developments from the fin-folds as found in fishes and the human embryo.
+In one of these the fins are divided into four segments. The upper segment
+contains one long bone, the humerus (or arm bone), or the femur (or thigh
+bone). The second segment contains two long bones, the radius and ulna (or
+arm bones), or the tibia and fibula (or leg bones). The third segment
+consists of nine small bones, the carpals of the wrist or the tarsals of
+the ankle. The fourth segment consists of five separate digits. These
+limbs pass through three stages in embryonic development as to their
+position, which may be designated as amphibian, reptilian, and mammalian.
+Many of these bones fuse together (carpals and tarsals). The digits have
+long before the late fish stage been formed of more than one bone. At
+times this condition persists even after the completion of human embryonic
+development. Limb anomalies resulting from checks of development causing
+either excess or arrest of development are far from uncommon among
+degenerates, but are not so common as anomalies of form and proportion.
+Among such anomalies may be mentioned joined limbs (symelia), or the more
+or less complete absence of limbs (ectromelia), or the absence of a
+peripheric segment (hemimelia), or the complete or partial absence of a
+central segment (phocomelia). Among the other important degeneracies of
+the limbs are supernumerary digits. These Annadale[223] classifies as:
+First, a deficient digit loosely attached to the hand or foot or to
+another digit. Second, a more or less developed digit free at its
+extremity and articulating with other bones. Thirdly, a fully developed
+separate digit. Fourth, a digit united along its whole length with another
+digit. The first three types have been called polydactylia. The last has
+been called syndactylia. There is finally a condition in which union
+between the digits results in the disappearance of some of the fingers and
+toes (Fig. 98). This condition is called ectrodactylia. Supernumerary
+digits to the extent of six fingers and six toes are exceedingly common in
+the families of degenerates. The influence of heredity in this particular
+has been well demonstrated. The Kelleia family of Malta was one of the
+earliest reported. The condition may last for five generations,[224] but
+often disappears on marriage with normal persons outside the community or
+family. A family of the Arabian Hyabites, named Boldi, confined marriages
+to their own tribe. They all have twenty-four digits. Children born with a
+normal number are killed as being the offspring of adultery. The
+inhabitants of Cycaux, France, till the end of the eighteenth century, had
+nearly all supernumerary digits either on the hands or feet. Isolated in a
+mountainous region, they for years intermarried. On communication being
+opened, they emigrated or married strangers, and sexdigitism vanished.
+Maupertius reports the case of a German family whose members had
+twenty-four digits for many generations.[225] One of them refused to
+acknowledge a normal child. In one instance in the United States
+supernumerary digits lasted through five generations. A case reported[226]
+some years ago was the following: The first instance of the appearance of
+the deformity was in a man, born of a degenerate family in 1752, who had
+six toes on one foot. His son was born with six toes on one foot, but the
+daughter was normal. This daughter had five children; among them were a
+son and daughter, each of whom had six fingers on one hand. The
+granddaughter had eight children, including one son with six toes on one
+foot. Another son had two daughters, each having six fingers on each hand,
+and one daughter having twenty-four digits. This last girl had three
+children; the son was doubly deformed like his mother, while a second son
+had six fingers on each hand, the toes being normal. One of the two
+daughters of the fourth generation (with only the hands affected) had
+eight children, several of whom were normally developed, but the rest were
+deformed as follows: One daughter had an osseous thickening at the end of
+the digits, one son had twenty-four digits, another had twelve fingers,
+the toes being normal in number.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.]
+
+
+I have elsewhere cited an instance from Kiernan in which unilateral
+sexdigitism was found in four generations of Norwegian degenerates.
+
+Not unfrequently polydactylia is associated with the absence or union or
+decrease in size of bones of the limbs. It happens that the upper or
+lower extremities may be increased or diminished disproportionately
+through the body. This disproportion in size of the fingers and toes is
+exceedingly frequent. Big digits (macrodactylia, Fig. 99) are
+comparatively rare, and may only involve a supernumerary bone in the
+thumb. Short digits (microdactylia) are much more frequent. This state may
+be constituted by the absence of one bone or the union of two bones, or
+the shortening of metacarpal or metatarsal bones, or the shortness of
+several phalangeal bones. There may be increased disproportion between the
+different fingers. The method of determining this is by comparison with
+the middle finger. This disproportion may vary greatly. Fere is of opinion
+that shortening of all the fingers constitutes a grave mark of degeneracy.
+Relative shortness is exceedingly common.
+
+Under the conditions of development of the limbs from the fin-fold, it
+follows that these may be checked completely so that the condition
+approximates the earlier development from the fish. On the other hand the
+large bones of the arm and thigh may be checked while the digits and the
+two lower bones (radius and ulna, tibia and fibula) go on to full
+development as do the digits. Sometimes the arms develop completely while
+the lower extremity remains in the fin-fold state. On the other hand the
+arms may be checked and remain in the fin-fold state while the legs go on
+to full development. Sometimes the bones of the arm and forearm are
+checked while the digits go on to full development. The lower extremities
+are sometimes fused together. This condition, from its resemblance to the
+like state in the seal, is called phocomelia, or seal limbs. They are
+also called sirens, on account of the resemblance to the sirens of
+mythology.[227]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.]
+
+
+Other expressions of degeneracy, albeit sometimes secondary, are club-foot
+and club-hands (Fig. 100). In many instances these are retentions of
+positions assumed by the limbs of the foetus in the course of evolution,
+and are therefore, in the adult, expressions of degeneracy. Club-foot was
+an expression of degeneracy which appeared in Byron, the poet, as a
+consequence of the degeneracy present in both the Byrons and the Gordons,
+as Kiernan has shown.[228] Commenting on this condition as found in
+Byron, F. S. Coolidge, of Chicago, remarks: "Byron undoubtedly suffered
+from double congenital club-foot, the deformity being worse on the right."
+While in Coolidge's opinion congenital club-foot unquestionably arises
+from different causes, it is, however, so frequently an accompaniment of
+severe forms of mal-development and of congenital brain defects, that
+there can be no doubt but that imperfect constitutional development is one
+of its causes. That the deformity with the many limitations which it
+involves may tend to create morbidness is very likely to be an additional
+symptom of the degeneracy which, in certain cases, is the underlying cause
+for the deformity. Dareste, who has studied the club-foot and the
+club-hand from the standpoint of experimental teratology, finds that in no
+small number of cases club-foot and club-hand result from checked
+development. Absence of the kneecap or patella may, as H. N. Moyer has
+shown, be an expression of degeneracy.[229]
+
+The conditions resultant on checked development may appear in any of the
+bony or muscular structures. At times muscles checked in development pass
+on to conditions present in the lower apes.[230] Sometimes the checked
+development of bones results in artery courses which are present in some
+of the lower animals. Just above the bend of the elbow in the embryo is an
+opening through which an artery passes in many quadrupeds. In adult man,
+as a rule, this has disappeared, but not rarely in degenerates the opening
+persists with the artery through it.
+
+Hernias, of all varieties, are noticeably hereditary,[231] but what is
+hereditary is not the rupture, but the laxity of the orifice of the cavity
+of the abdomen. As descent of the testicles from the abdomen (where they
+are embryonically in man and normally in many animals) is often delayed
+and even does not occur in degenerates, hernia of the groin variety is
+particularly apt to occur in them. These hernias are often found united
+with defects of the testicles as well as deficiencies of the chest.
+Deformities of the nose are also especially apt to coexist with these.
+
+Degenerate women frequently have supernumerary milk glands arranged on the
+abdomen as in some lemurs, while males may have supernumerary breasts of
+either male or female type. These breasts may be represented by nipples
+alone. In either sex arrested development of the face, middle ear, and
+palate often coexists with these supernumerary breasts.
+
+The degeneracies of the body combine so frequently with those of the skull
+and the brain as to indicate a common origin. Polydactylia is found with
+almost all the degeneracies of the body. It occurs with all the
+degeneracies of the eye, from those which are purely atavistic like
+coloboma to those like retinitis pigmentosa and amauroses, which are
+atavistic in origin. Hare-lip, cleft palate, and deformities of the jaws
+and teeth are often found associated with all the bodily degeneracies and
+the nutritive, intellectual, and moral degeneracies as well. Phocomelia
+with brain deformity has been found associated with them. Anomalies of the
+genital organs are also quite frequently associated with these and with
+finger anomalies. In the subjects of juvenile obesity are frequently
+associated unstable mentality and will-power, and delayed or precocious
+sexual maturity. My own observations have shown this condition to be
+frequently associated with the jaw and teeth degeneracies.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.]
+
+
+Aside from their general significance as stigmata of degeneracy, anomalies
+of the external ear have been found frequently associated with
+mal-development of lungs, kidneys, liver, and intestines. Hidden
+spina-bifida is often associated with the same anomalies, and not rarely
+with irregular development of the genital organs of both sexes. Albinism
+or deficient pigment in the skin and hair is not only often associated
+with grave degeneracies, intellectual and moral, but appears combined with
+mal-development of the spleen, liver, and kidneys. The opposite state
+(melanoderma, or black skin) is often associated with similar deformities,
+especially with early precocity in development. It has also been found in
+connection with hairlessness and irregularities in development of the
+teeth and jaws.
+
+The deformities of the chest and their resulting interferences with
+respiration are not only associated with conditions like narrowing of the
+pulmonary artery, of the aorta, and with cardiac deformities, but also
+lead to diminution of the respiratory power and, in consequence, to
+conditions predisposing to pneumonia and consumption. They are also, as my
+own observation has shown, associated with deformities of the face, of the
+nose, of the mouth cavity, of the palate, and of the jaws. These
+conditions result in mouth breathing and in other conditions which
+predispose to the attacks of microbes. The deformities of the arterial
+system coexisting with checked development of the chest are apt to extend
+to the blood vessels of the kidneys, and therefore to retain these in the
+embryonic condition, thus predisposing them to disease. To a somewhat
+lesser degree this arterial condition coexisting with checked development
+of the chest or with the other arrested conditions of development
+associated with it, may extend to the liver in such a degree as to prevent
+it destroying the toxins of typhoid fever and allied diseases, thereby
+increasing the dangers from these disorders. The same influence may be
+exerted on the spleen and suprarenal capsules, thus interfering with the
+physiologic guards these organs furnish against disease and its results.
+Not infrequently do these last conditions tend to give an epileptic
+character to degeneracies which would otherwise be destitute of it. With
+the interference with the proper blood supply, due to checked conditions
+of the organs named, may occur gout, diabetes, and many forms of
+rheumatism with their secondary consequences.
+
+The imperfect and irregular action of the lungs associated with the
+arrests in development of the face, nose, palate, jaws, and chest may
+produce an irregular blood supply to the brain, which will exaggerate the
+mental instability of the degenerate.
+
+Among the conditions which are expressions of degeneracy of the body,
+combined with degeneracy of the head and face, are three conditions known
+as infantilism, masculinism, and feminism. Practically all three are
+arrests of development of the promise of the child type. Owing to the
+struggle for existence which occurs at puberty between the old type of the
+chondrocranium and its new type as supplemented by the dermal bones, the
+nervous system takes a distorted ply which arrests both the bodily,
+nervous, and mental development at certain points. In infantilism the
+arrest is of the future promise of the child, so that the body and face
+remain at the childish point, or the body and nervous system are checked,
+or finally the nervous system or certain organs alone are checked while
+the body goes on to full development. Not infrequently the face is
+arrested at any period from birth to puberty (Fig. 101). Hence the reason
+many persons retain their youthful appearance throughout life. These
+people are often vain and egotistic. The mental stamina is weak, and they
+are frequently unreliable, while the females are often prostitutes or
+prurient prudes, hysteric reformers or gossip mongers.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.]
+
+
+The female type, from the standpoint of bodily and nervous development,
+most nearly approximates the promise of the child type, and checks of
+development will result in masculinism and feminism. In the first the
+female has proceeded so far in development as to have female organs and
+their functions while retaining traces of a predominant character of the
+lower male type. In the second, the male has proceeded along the line of
+evolution toward the female type, but ere sex has been fixed, further
+development has been checked and the male type is finally assumed as the
+predominant one. Both sexes proceed embryologically from an indifferent
+type nearly resembling the hermaphroditic type found in the lower
+vertebrates. The arrest of development may therefore take place at any
+point in the embryonic evolution. The male may preserve only the female
+breasts[232] (Fig. 102), while normal in other respects; or, again (Fig.
+103), present cryptorchidism or sloping shoulders, and be otherwise
+masculine. On the other hand, his nervous system may have taken such a ply
+that at the period of puberty the sexual instincts may be female in type.
+In some instances, this may extend merely to an extreme modesty toward
+males, to an intense liking for female occupations and disgust for male
+occupations. In the female precisely analogous conditions may occur. In
+certain cases the sex side is entirely dormant until awakened at puberty.
+Education of these cases of arrested development may give the sex
+direction rather than any in-born tendency. In one case, a male who had
+undergone arrest of development in his evolution towards the female type
+was brought up as a girl, had unusually pleasing womanly qualities; as a
+result was married twice to intensely devoted husbands, and the real sex
+was never even suspected until post-mortem examination revealed that the
+supposed woman was a male. In other cases where the nervous system has
+taken one sexual ply, while the body has taken another, an exceedingly
+unfortunate class of beings results. This class of beings needs especially
+careful training during puberty and adolescence. In some instances in
+addition to the sexual distortion there exist in these beings conditions
+of mental defect and moral obliquity. In the last case they approximate
+the criminal type. In the first case residence in an insane hospital
+protects the community and these beings against themselves. In some
+instances no mental defect nor, in a strict sense, moral obliquity occurs.
+Here the patient requires very careful study from every standpoint.[233]
+There is in the higher and lower races a tendency in different directions
+as to the predominance of sex. The woman of the lower races more nearly
+resembles the male of the race. The male of the higher races more nearly
+resembles in structure the female of his race than does this female the
+females of the lower race. This is in part due, in the course of
+evolution, to the intrusion of the male on female occupations, since all
+occupations, other than war, hunting, and fishing, were created by
+women.[234] The male, however, in the higher races, while thus taking on
+the female intellectual and aesthetic qualities, retains the male sexual
+characteristics, mentally and physically, but in accordance with the law
+of evolution, these manifest themselves less explosively as in the case of
+the female. As the victim of masculinism or feminism is a degenerate the
+explosive manifestations are more marked. Every one of the stigmata of
+degeneracy already described may coexist with any one of the three
+conditions named: infantilism, masculinism, and feminism.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.]
+
+
+Among the most striking manifestations arising from arrest of development
+in certain directions with possible hypertrophy in others, are the
+conditions known as giantism and dwarfism (_see_ Frontispiece). Both these
+conditions may be expressions of atavism to no very remote ancestors and
+present little if any evidences of degeneracy. In other cases degeneracy
+may be well marked, and the condition be due to imperfect gland action,
+such as disorder of the pituitary body, which causes very frequently an
+enlargement of many of the bones of the body, and very often a uniform
+enlargement of all the bones. Indeed, as Marie has said, giantism is
+acromegaly occurring during the period of adolescence. In many instances
+the opposite condition, dwarfism, occurs during infancy from causes which
+check the further growth of the body, although the general functions
+remain unchanged. Dwarfism is very apt to be attended by preservation of
+the intellectual faculties without evidence of degeneracy, other than the
+egotism shown in extreme vanity. Moral defects are, however, more apt to
+occur in dwarfism than in giantism, in which last condition mental defect
+is apt to occur, varying from a simple good-humoured stupidity to
+feeble-mindedness. In proportion as the central nervous system has been
+affected will the stigmata of degeneracy appear in both conditions. As the
+line between disease and disordered function is not thinly drawn in these
+cases, disorders like rickets or local bony tendencies to extensive growth
+may coexist with both conditions. Infantilism is peculiarly apt to occur
+with giantism, and while less frequent in dwarfism it also occurs, but is
+then especially apt to be associated with rickets.
+
+Closely akin to these conditions are leontiasis ossium and acromegaly,
+both of which are characterised by similar trophoneurotic defects. The
+first of these conditions may occur precedent to puberty and cease in its
+completion. Kiernan has observed this in the case of an imbecile on Ward's
+Island, who lived until the age of 75, after spending more than sixty
+years in the charitable institutions of New York. His ancestry was of the
+criminal and defective classes. Acromegaly is characterised by abnormal
+growth, chiefly in the bones of the head, face, and extremities. As a
+rule, the disorder begins at the completion of puberty, although it
+occasionally occurs at the onset of the climacteric. The illustration
+given (Fig. 104) presents the characteristic features of the disease. In
+this case there are local evidences of congenital defect. The prevailing
+trend of opinion is that this condition is due to irregular action of the
+pituitary body which controls osseous development.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.]
+
+
+As already pointed out in the chapter on Heredity and Atavism, the arrests
+of development may affect one side of the body, while the other pursues
+the direct course of development. This may show itself in over-growth, as
+well as in under-growth, on the affected side. The person may appear, even
+from the centre of the forehead down, as if the halves of the bodies of
+two different persons had been joined in one. Conditions may vary from
+this extreme type to a state in which a lack of proper nerve and blood
+supply on the undeveloped side predisposes to attacks of disease, as
+already pointed out.
+
+Not rarely does it happen that acromegaly attacks the side most deficient
+in nerve supply. The same is true of allied disorders affecting the growth
+of the muscles.
+
+The conditions of development may be such that both sides are equally
+defective in nerve supply, so that when acromegaly occurs it may attack
+both sides equally. This is particularly apt to be the case with the lower
+extremities, and enlarged feet (Fig. 105) are not an uncommon result.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.]
+
+
+The feet, in addition to the condition already described as being common
+in both extremities, exhibit special stigmata of their own in consonance
+with the evolutionary advance which the foot has shown as compared with
+the hand in man's evolution. In the lower races the hollow of the foot
+does not exist, and the condition known as flat-foot occurs (Fig. 106).
+This is usually associated with low instep. It occurs among the stigmata
+of degeneracy, and is not rarely associated with grave moral defects and
+intellectual distortions. It and other feet degeneracies have been found
+frequently among paranoiacs, moral imbeciles, and prostitutes. This is
+particularly true of the prehensile power of the foot.[235]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+DEGENERACY IN REVERSIONAL TENDENCIES
+
+
+The hair of the head and body may never develop from the condition of down
+(lanugo) present in the new-born. The hair over the sexual organs may
+alone remain in this condition, not showing itself at puberty. In women
+the hair may be unusually developed on the face and chest. It may also
+cover the whole body, a condition which is normal in the Ainus of Japan.
+It may develop, as already shown, very markedly in the lumbar regions.
+
+Speech may be markedly disturbed, reverting to the condition of Haeckel's
+Homo-alalus in the shape of deaf-mutism, which is one of the extreme
+expressions of degeneracy. Not less than 93 per cent. of the cases of
+congenital deaf-mutism possess deformities of the head, face, jaws, and
+teeth. The mere fact of the exceedingly primitive structure of the
+internal auditory mechanism has abnormal or defective hearing power as a
+consequence. Many cases of congenital deaf-mutism owe their origin to
+this, inasmuch as the auditory mechanism is not in a condition to
+appreciate sound, even though the individual may not have been born deaf,
+and the whole auditory apparatus subsequently degenerates. A mental
+defect is sometimes superadded, thus aggravating the case. Upon general
+principles, since deformities of the head, face, jaws, nose, antra,
+vaults, &c., are common in neurotics and degenerates, stigmata of the
+ear-bones must occasionally take place. From the complicated structure of
+the ear, lesions must often result from such deformities. The deaf-mutism
+here considered is the result of congenital conditions not produced by
+disease. Dumbness may result from congenital defects of the tongue or
+deformities of the larynx of an atavistic or a degenerate type, but
+degeneracy rarely extends so deeply into the organism as in the case of
+deaf-mutism. No greater error is committed than the confusion of deaf
+mutism secondary to ear disease with the congenital type.
+
+The most prominent reversional tendencies occur in the genitals. One very
+common condition is retention of the testicles within the abdomen
+(_cryptorchidism_), which has been already pointed out, and may represent
+the last expiring trace of degeneracy. The testicles may, however, be
+perfectly normal in structure and function. In the female the uterus may
+present every type of mammalian uterus from the marsupial up. The female
+may also revert (as more rarely the male) to the condition of the reptiles
+and oviparous mammals in which the urinary organs and bowels empty into a
+single opening, the cloaca. This condition has been found in the female
+offspring of degenerate families, who are otherwise normal and who have
+produced children, despite the cloaca.
+
+Another reversion is the occurrence of breasts without nipples, resembling
+those found in the oviparous mammals. The breasts in degenerates, as
+already shown, are frequently multiple, sometimes because the law of
+individuation is reversed, but more often as a reversion to the
+many-breasted condition (_polymastia_) of the precursor of man.[236] The
+human kidney and liver may revert not merely in function alone to the
+sauropsida, but also in structure.
+
+The human heart may present in degenerates all types from the pulsating
+vessel found in the lancelet up to that of the mammal. The imperfect types
+of these sometimes perform their functions properly, except under strain.
+In other cases mixture of arterial and venous blood results, producing the
+so-called "blue babies."
+
+Under the teachings of the extreme disciples of Morel, it has been assumed
+that the family of the degenerate tends to irrevocable extinction. On the
+principle of individuation already outlined from Spencer, degeneracy,
+through its tendency to generalise rather than specialise function, causes
+too rapid development of cells which tend to extinguish each other, thus
+preventing proper ovulation; and, in the next place, the same condition
+prevents proper development of the ovum if formed and fecundated; and,
+finally, causes too numerous simultaneous developments of ova, which would
+tend to destroy each other. The same cause produces also premature
+extrusion of ova. At the same time, however, under given conditions, this
+principle also tends to produce reversions in type in the shape of too
+frequently repeated and abnormally multiple births. It has been noted that
+even the ancestors of those predisposed to phthisis have numerous families
+and many children at a birth albeit most of these die ere reaching the
+sixth year. Marandon de Monteyel[237] finds that multiple and frequently
+repeated pregnancies often occur among the families of hereditary
+lunatics. This has been corroborated by Kiernan[238] and Harriet C. B.
+Alexander,[239] of Chicago, in connection with the hereditary lunatics in
+Cook County. They found that 90 families of the hereditary insane averaged
+11 children each. Six families had 5 children, 4 had 7 children, 8 had 8,
+10 had 9, 14 had 10, 8 had 11, 4 had 12, 4 had 13, 4 had 14, 3 had 16, 3
+had 17, 4 had 18, 3 had 19, 5 had 20, and 1 had 21 children, each. Twins,
+triplets, and quadruplets were six times as frequent as among normal
+families. Manning has found similar conditions among the hereditary insane
+in Australia. Valenta, of Vienna,[240] has noted this also among
+epileptics. He reports the case of an epileptic mother who had 36
+children, including six twins, four times quadruplets, twice triplets. Her
+daughter, also an epileptic, bore 32 children before she was 40, including
+quadruplets twice, triplets four times, and twins once. Similar, though
+less striking, statistics occur with other classes of degenerates with
+proportionate frequency when the sterilising effect of certain diseases to
+which they are specially liable is taken into account. The general
+acceptance of the opinion as to large families being a test of advance in
+evolution seems strange when the extent and force of the action of the
+principle of individuation is taken into account, and when it is
+remembered how prolific are the lower vertebrates as compared with the
+higher.
+
+The origin of tumours on the principle now adopted depends essentially on
+that reverse of the principle of individuation, illustrated in plural
+births.
+
+One most striking expression of nutritive degeneracy is haemophilia or the
+diathesis of the "bleeders." This, as Potain has pointed out, is not met
+with except in families which are subject to nutritive or graver
+degeneracies. Dent has shown that definite mental peculiarities,
+especially an inability (stronger than unwillingness) to tell the truth,
+are especially common in bleeders.[241] Haemophilia was frequently
+encountered in the Valois[242] family, and has been met with in the
+descendants of Ernest the Pious of Hanover. The condition, as Osler,[243]
+of Baltimore, points out, is characterised by a tendency to uncontrollable
+bleeding, either spontaneous or from slight wounds. The hereditary
+transmission in this disorder is decided. In the Appleton-Swain family, of
+Reading, Mass., there have been cases for nearly two centuries. Instances
+have already occurred in the seventh generation. The usual mode of
+transmission is through the mother, who is not herself a bleeder, but the
+daughter of one. Atavism through the female is the rule. The daughters of
+a bleeder, though healthy and free from any tendency, are almost certain
+to transmit the disposition to the male offspring. The affection is much
+more common in males than in females, the proportion being estimated at 11
+to 1, or even 13 to 1. The tendency usually appears within the first two
+years of life. It is rare for manifestations to be delayed until the tenth
+or twelfth year. Families in all conditions of life are affected.
+Bleeders, like other degenerates, may have large families; the members
+usually have fine soft skin. In all probability, as the researches of Cohn
+show, this condition is due to incomplete inhibition, resultant in
+excessive activity of the blood-making organs. Such inhibition is, of
+course, cerebral, and hence, as a later acquirement, readily affected by
+degeneracy which may find its chief expression in this defect.
+
+Among the conditions that have been recognised as an expression of
+degeneracy is gout, which, as Fothergill long ago pointed out, is a
+reversion to the condition found in the sauropsidian liver and kidneys.
+Cullen had previously expressed the opinion that gout is a neurosis. Later
+researches tend to show that this neurosis is one controlling nutritive
+tissue change. The condition may occur early in childhood as well as at
+the periods of stress. The same is true of conditions like arthritis
+deformans, all of which may be the sole expression of degeneracy in an
+individual who exhibits many marked stigmata. Another expression of
+nutritive degeneracy is the senile atrophy of the skin described by
+Souques.[244] In a case of this kind under my care the patient, a
+twenty-six-year-old man, was born with club-foot. He has some musical
+talent. He is a marked degenerate. The skin is thick, coarse, and dry,
+giving him a very old appearance on account of its shrivelled condition.
+The ears are undeveloped, eyes small and sunken; excessive development of
+the cheek-bones; hair coarse and stiff; face arrested in development,
+possessing a partial V-shaped arch. The width outside first molar is 2;
+outside second bicuspid, 1.75; width of vault, 1.50; height of vault,
+.58. One of the prominent features of degeneracy noticed in this case was
+the lack of hair upon the face.
+
+Disorder of the thyroid produces both dwarfing cretinism, and a
+myxoedematous condition of the subcutaneous tissues, increasing the
+quantity of the jelly-like material in these, and therefore approximating
+some conditions found in the invertebrates. Ichthyosis (the skin disorder
+producing the "fish men" of shows) is frequently an expression of
+degeneracy, often associated with deficient limbs and monsters in the same
+family.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.]
+
+
+A condition due to heredity (involving an arterial change called
+arterio-capillary fibrosis) underlies many disorders like cirrhosis of the
+liver, kidneys, and other organs. It is usually an expression of
+premature senescence. Certain families for this reason exhibit a tendency
+to an early appearance of old age (Fig. 107), a tendency which, as Osler
+remarks, cannot be explained in any other way than that in the make-up of
+the machine bad material was used for tubing.
+
+Obesity or lipomatosis is a nutritive expression of degeneracy especially
+noticeable in the second dentition, at puberty, and sometimes at the
+climacteric. As Fere has shown, lipomatosis (first noticed by Cruveilhier)
+is an expression of stress at the period of evolution. Youthful obesity
+occurs in descendants of degenerates. In my experience it is attended by
+great liability to disease and systemic weakness when under morbid
+influence. These lipomatosic children are liable to rheumatism (more
+properly gout) and great hemorrhage from slight causes. Youthful obesity
+is sometimes, as Fere remarks, associated with precocious maturity and
+resultant early senescence, but more often with extended infantilism, as
+in the case of Dickens's "fat boy."
+
+In connection with this question of obesity I examined 267 corpulent
+school children and adults. Nearly all had marked stigmata of degeneracy;
+92 per cent. had deformed ears to a marked degree; 66 per cent. had
+arrested development as compared with their age, while 12 per cent.
+presented excessive development; 34 were too young to show the final form
+and size of the jaw. Of the 34, in about 33-1/3 per cent., the molars,
+incisors, cuspids and bicuspids were present; 96 per cent. of these had
+small teeth. Of the remaining 233, 87 per cent. had arrested development
+of the upper jaw, 22 per cent. of the lower jaw, 64 per cent. had V or
+saddle-shaped arches or their modifications and protruding teeth; 17 per
+cent. had hypertrophy of the alveolar process; 83 per cent. had small
+teeth; 27 per cent. had extra tubercles upon the molars; 82 per cent. had
+stenosis of the nasal cavity more or less marked; 36 per cent. had
+deflection of the nasal septum to the left, and 29 per cent. to the right;
+21 per cent. wore glasses for eye defects. In 58 per cent. there was
+enlargement of the thyroid gland, and in 7 per cent. arrest of development
+of the same.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.]
+
+
+Among the structures of reversionary type that have attracted most
+attention of late years is the appendix vermiformis. This, as elsewhere
+shown, is a rudimentary offshoot which is extremely variable. Man retains
+this structure as a relic of having been at one time a vegetable feeder.
+In the koala (Australian native bear), a vegetable-feeding marsupial, it
+is more than thrice the size of the body. In the carnivora it has entirely
+vanished. In man, where it is sometimes absent and sometimes is as largely
+developed as in the orang, it is commonly from four to five inches in
+length and about a third of an inch in diameter. The appendix is poorly
+supplied with blood, which predisposes it to attacks by microbes because
+of the absence of leucocytes to fight these, and also because being, so to
+speak, a blind ally of the intestine, microbes find in it a suitable
+culture medium for them. The secretions of the appendix are very apt to
+decompose: hence a culture medium. The extreme variability of this
+disappearing organ may be judged from the Figs. 108, 109, 110. As it is
+best developed in degenerates, it constitutes in them one source of
+predisposition to death from blood poisoning or from sudden shock. The
+location of this organ also tends to facilitate disease. In degenerates it
+may be situated at any point upon the end of the big bowel, varying from
+two to three inches. This little bowel is worse than useless in man, being
+a source of serious danger. It is an instance of checked development of
+the same kind which causes the human liver to take on sauropsidian
+peculiarities. Man in this particular as well as the orang is lower than
+the carnivora, who have lost this worse than useless organ. Its tendency
+to disappearance in man indicates once more the truth that degeneracy of
+an organ is often, through the law of economy of growth, for the benefit
+of the organism as a whole.
+
+I may conclude this outline of human reversionary tendencies by mentioning
+that merycism, or rumination, has been very frequently found among
+imbeciles, paranoiacs, hysterics, and epileptics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+DEGENERACY OF THE BRAIN
+
+
+One illustration, and a very striking one, of the influence of degeneracy
+on the brain is the durencephalous child which so often appears in
+degenerate families. Here the cerebral hemispheres and everything but the
+medulla and pons may be absent, while the rest of the body is in a
+comparatively normal state of development. Starting with such an extreme
+expression of degeneracy in the brain, a wide but closely linked range of
+deficiencies may be found in the brain of degenerates, involving even in
+some almost normal individuals more than simple deficiency. What was
+pointed out by Spitzka,[245] of New York, twenty years ago concerning the
+brain of hereditary lunatics, is equally true of the brains of the other
+degenerate branches of the same tree. The conventional notion associating
+idiocy and imbecility with quantitative deficiency of the forebrain only
+is, as Spitzka remarked, a very imperfect one. The researches of numerous
+observers have shown that qualitative defects (using the term qualitative
+in its wider sense to cover both morphologic and histologic aberrations)
+are as common, and are more characteristic features of the degenerate
+brain. These defects may be enumerated under the following heads: 1.
+Atypical asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres as regards bulk. 2.
+Atypical asymmetry in the gyral development. 3. Persistence of embryonic
+features in the gyral arrangement. 4. Defective development of the great
+interhemispherical commisure. 5. Irregular and defective development of
+the great ganglia and of the conducting tracts. 6. Anomalies in the
+development of the minute elements or neurons (as the cells and
+associating of fibres are now generally called) of the brain. 7. Abnormal
+arrangements of the cerebral vascular channels. All of these conditions,
+separately or in the combination of several of the features above
+mentioned, are occasionally found in the brain of paranoiacs, moral
+imbeciles, criminals, deaf-mutes and other degenerates. Of the first type
+the brain (Fig. 111), from the practice of Kiernan, is an excellent
+illustration. This brain came from a paranoiac criminal who died in the
+Chicago (Cook County) Insane Hospital. A very similar brain was observed
+by Kiernan in one of the paranoiacs dying in the New York City Insane
+Hospital. Similar brains have been observed in deaf-mutes[246] whose
+mental status passed muster because of the allowance made for mental
+deficiency due to deaf-muteness. A brain showing as great asymmetry was
+found in the case of a French physician of standing who was a member of a
+mutual autopsy society. He proved, however, to have had degenerates in his
+ancestry and had exhibited peculiarities which showed that much of the
+degeneracy due to this ancestry had been corrected by proper training. The
+defects enumerated under Spitzka's second head are also observable in the
+illustration given. The gyres are not only asymmetrical as to their number
+in the two hemispheres, but also as to their size. The contrast between
+this brain and the ideally normal one of the mathematician Gauss[247]
+(Fig. 112) could not well be greater. Both of these as regards complexity
+of gyres contrast very decidedly with both the foetal brain given by
+Bastian (Fig. 113) and the idiot brain (Fig. 114) of a patient of Kiernan.
+The persistency of embryonic features in the gyral arrangement is
+excellently illustrated in Fig. 115, which represents the brain of an
+imbecile examined by Spitzka. Here the convolutions in general were few,
+large, and well marked.[248] The occipital and parietal lobes
+preponderated in mass as compared with the temporal and frontal. The
+latter were greatly hollowed out on the orbital face, and the gyri here
+found were few, simple, and atypical. On the whole the convolutions of the
+right hemisphere were better marked and the secondary folds more numerous
+than those of the left hemisphere, and the type of the convolutions
+presented differences on the two sides. The most pronounced differences
+were exhibited in the island of Reil and in the occipital lobe. The island
+of Reil on the left side had fewer and flatter gyri than that of the right
+side, and resembled in its general aspect the first impression of the
+brain of an orang-outang. The right island had six folds better marked
+than those of the left side, but their type was more decidedly radiatory,
+which was in relation with the unusual shortening of the insular field.
+The external perpendicular occipital sulcus which Bischoff never found in
+the adult human brain (but which has been found persistent in a case of
+imbecility with moral perversion by Sander and in a sane neurotic
+individual by Meynert) was finely marked upon the right side of the brain
+under consideration. The fissure was very deep, its posterior wall was
+slightly bevelled, and covered several secondary gyri of its anterior
+walls. It differed in position from the similar fissures described by
+Meynert and Sander in that it did not, as in these cases, unite with the
+internal perpendicular occipital sulcus and thus simulate the arrangement
+found in the anthropoid apes. It was merely the unobliterated external
+occipital fissure of the embryo, and, as in the latter, its medial end if
+prolonged would have fallen behind the internal perpendicular occipital
+sulcus. The anomaly consisted therefore in the preservation of an
+embryonic feature. The arrest of development involved the generally better
+developed hemisphere. On the left side gyri and sulci were few and simple
+but typical, the external perpendicular occipital sulcus being interrupted
+by a broad crossing gyrus. On transverse vertical sections through the
+hemispheres the average vertical thickness is found to be the same on both
+sides and normal. The great ganglia were of relatively large dimension,
+and the white mass of the hemisphere, aside from the internal capsule and
+the other detachments mediating the connection of the cortex with lower
+centres, relatively reduced. The caudate nucleus appeared to be of bolder
+contour on the right side. The right lenticular nucleus presented a larger
+section area by about 25 per cent. than its fellow of the opposite side.
+It was much shorter, however, like the insular territory of the same side,
+and in corresponding sections the posterior end of the left lenticular
+nucleus was struck while the right was absent. The right nucleus was
+rounder, the left more triangular in contour in corresponding altitudes.
+The olivary bodies were asymmetrical, the right one being flatter and
+smoother than the left. On transverse sections no difference between the
+olivary nuclei beyond that which occurs in healthy persons could be found;
+the asymmetry was ascertainably one of prominence only. There was one
+morphologic appearance noticeable in the fourth layer of the paracentral
+cortex. This consisted of the presence of round bodies comparable to the
+nuclei of nerve cells within a thin or no mantle of protoplasm, and
+presenting every gradation from the free nuclei of the neurolgia, so
+called, to nerve cells with imperfect processes. These bodies in the human
+cortex represent imperfectly developed nerve cells and are normally found
+in the cortex of lower animals. The barren layer or ependyma of the cortex
+was in places twice as thick in this brain as in the brain of normal
+beings. This ependyma is the histologic factor of the enormous weight of
+macrocephalic brains. In a macrocephalic case coming under the observation
+of Kiernan, of Chicago, in which the brain weighed 68 ounces, the ependyma
+was five times the normal thickness. The conditions to which Spitzka
+refers are more or less constantly found in degeneracy. The readiness with
+which any form of the degenerate series may undergo a metamorphosis into
+another in the course of hereditary transmission is not, Spitzka remarks,
+interpretable in any other light than that of the transmission of
+structure defects either intensified or mitigated in the course of such
+transmission.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.]
+
+
+Transmission of many of these cerebral defects occurs at the moment of
+conception. The embryonic mechanism of these defects, and the influence
+which foetal and maternal impressions and injuries exert on the
+development of the nerve centres, furnish valuable argument by analogy in
+support of conclusions regarding the degeneracy group. Embryologists
+imitate known natural teratological states of the nerve centres by
+artificial methods. By wounding the embryonic and vascular areas of the
+chick's germ with a cataract needle malformations are induced, varying in
+intensity and character with the earliness of the injury and its precise
+extent. More delicate injuries produce less monstrous development. It is
+particularly the partial varnishing or irregular heating of the egg-shell
+that results in the production of anomalies comparable to microcephaly and
+cerebral asymmetry. The constancy of the injurious effect of so apparently
+slight an impression as the partial varnishing of a structure not directly
+connected with the embryo at all, suggests a most plausible explanation of
+maternal and other impressions acting on the germ. The delicate problems
+in this connection may be inferred from the observations of Dareste that
+eggs transported in railroad cars, and thus subject to the vibration and
+repeated shocks of a railroad journey, are checked in development for
+several days. A less coarse molecular transmission taking place during the
+maturation of the ovum or its fertilisation, or, finally, during the
+embryonic stages of the more complex and hence more readily disturbed and
+distorted human germ, would account for the disastrous effects of
+insanity, emotional explosions, and mental or physical shocks of either
+parent on the offspring.
+
+For the majority of cerebral deformities the causes of the deformity must
+exist in the germ prior to the appearance of the separate organs of the
+body. Artificial deformities produce analogous results because they
+imitate original germ defects either by mechanical removal or by some
+other interference with a special part of the germ. Early involvement of
+the germ is shown in the fact that the somatic malformation in degeneracy
+often involves other parts of the body than the nervous axis: defective
+development of the uro-genital system, deformities in the face, skull,
+irregularities of the teeth, misshapen ears and limbs.
+
+Those who seek for the source of the arrested or perverted brain
+development in the reaction of an abnormally growing and ossifying skull
+on the skull contents are in error. The premature ossification theory does
+not hold good even for the microcephali; it is to be doubted if it ever
+had any justification in view of the often open character of the sutures.
+Taking the well-studied cases of asymmetry, the variability of a single
+factor shows that caution is needed in referring cerebral anomalies to any
+single influence. In Muhr's case (cited by Spitzka) the atrophic
+cerebellar hemisphere was on the same side with the atrophic cerebral
+hemisphere. The internal carotid artery of that side was of lesser calibre
+and the entire skull half shortened. Here the lagging behind in growth of
+one half of the skull appears on first sight to explain the retarded
+development of the corresponding halves of the cerebrum and cerebellum. In
+view of the atypy of the gyri, however, an atypy not to be explained
+purely on mechanical grounds, it is more reasonable to believe that the
+imperfect development of certain vascular channels was either concomitant
+or secondary to a primitive anomaly of the cerebral hemisphere. The
+retarded skull growth would have to be looked upon as a tertiary
+occurrence and the cerebellar defect as a final ensuing result. Ordinarily
+with defective development of one cerebral hemisphere the cerebellar
+defect is on the opposite side, herein following the course of the
+anatomical connections of that development and of the secondary
+degenerations. The deviation from this rule in Muhr's case was due to the
+entering of the abnormal skull-shape, itself secondary to other defects,
+as an element influencing brain growth at a special period of development.
+An abnormal shape of the skull, generally associated with a cerebral
+defect, and hence valuable as a physical sign presumably indicating mental
+anomalies, may exert an important modifying influence at a late period on
+the contained brain, but the grosser defects in the cerebral architecture
+must antedate the period of skull growth and be deeply planted as an
+original intrinsic fault in the brain blastema itself. The researches of
+His have shown how important for the definitive shape of the body and its
+organs are the position of individual cells, the portion of the germ area,
+the convexity and length of germ curves and the relative rate of growth of
+different germ areas. And as the experiments of other embryologists have
+established the possibility of producing monstrosities analogous to
+cerebral defects by altering the conditions ever so slightly, the general
+conclusion follows that the fundamental error of development at the
+foundation of malformations associated with degeneracy is to be located at
+a very early period of embryonic, or possibly of ovuline life. Certain of
+these anomalies are due to a disturbance of the balance between the
+growth of the epiblast and mesoblast derivatives of the brain, others to a
+disharmony in the development of related associated brain segments; in the
+severer cases both elements are combined.
+
+It is not difficult to perceive the relation existing between a defective
+brain weight, paucity of the gyri, deficiency of properly developed
+cortical cells and such an elementary form of mental aberration as simple
+imbecility. The subject of the relation between structure and function
+gains in interest when we leave this domain of simple mental weakness to
+analyse the relation between structural defects and the positive symptoms
+of insanity and degeneracy--that is, moral perversion, mental obliquity,
+delusions, and morbid impulses. Such symptoms are not limited to the
+higher forms of the degenerate series; they occur, though less constantly
+and less markedly, in the lower forms.
+
+C. K. Mills,[249] of Philadelphia, on examination of imbecile, paranoiac,
+and criminal brains, found atypical asymmetry as to gyral and fissure
+development present. The features of this atypical asymmetry were the
+existence of a Sylvian fissure shorter on one side than the other, both
+absolutely and comparatively, and also a more vertical direction of the
+fissure on one side than on the other, greater exposure of the insula on
+one side with marked differences in the development of its fissures and
+gyri, confluence of the central fissure with the Sylvian on one side only,
+and great tortuosity or bridging of the former fissure in one hemisphere,
+unusual narrowness, straightness of complication of the precentral or
+postcentral gyrus on one side; marked difference in the simplicity of
+complexity of the frontal lobes, great simplicity of the orbital surface
+on one side, differences in the parietal fissure as to length and
+interruption, a smaller parietal or marginal or angular gyrus on one side,
+very great difference in the degrees of confluence and interruption of the
+fissures in general, exceeding great length vertically of the
+supertemporal or parallel fissure on one side, unusual differences in the
+size of the precuneus and cuneus.
+
+A. W. Wilmarth,[250] of Philadelphia, Pa., after a careful study of idiots
+and imbeciles ranging in intellectual power from the idiot, properly
+so-called, to the juvenile criminal, paranoiac, and "ne'er-do-well," finds
+that the brains of these vary greatly along the line pointed out by
+Spitzka and Mills. One type of brain in this class of children is very
+simple in its outward configuration. The convolutions are usually coarse,
+but little convoluted and comparatively free from secondary folds. The
+fissures tend to assume a confluent type. Another variety, found chiefly
+among the lowest grades, might well be termed "atypic." A brain without a
+corpus callosum is a marked example. In the frontal lobe of the right
+hemisphere the first frontal convolution is quite regular. Below this from
+the centre of the lobe seven fissures passed in different directions,
+cutting the tube into a number of radiating convolutions, entirely
+different from its usual appearance. The short fissure of Sylvius (about
+three inches in length) passed upward, turned sharply, and passed almost
+directly behind. Two parallel gyri curved around its posterior extremity.
+The arrangement of the convolutions of the temporal and parietal lobes
+were so exceedingly irregular and complex that it was impossible to
+classify them. In the occipital lobe, on the contrary, the gyri were
+complete in number and of regular arrangements. In the left hemisphere the
+arrangement of the frontal convolutions was more regular, but the temporal
+and parietal lobes presented the same complicated area of surface folding,
+bearing but little resemblance to the normal brain. The tendency of the
+convolutions to arrange themselves in parallel curves around the posterior
+extremity of the fissure of Sylvius was well shown in the brain of a boy
+of exceedingly low intellect. The frontal lobes in this brain are
+proportionately large; the convolutions straight, especially the third
+frontal, the fissures shallow. In the left temporal lobe they are nearly
+obliterated from pressure of fluid in the ventricles. The ascending
+frontal convolution on each side appears to be wanting. On the left side a
+large bridging convolution crosses the middle of the fissure of Rolando.
+Confluence of fissure is a decided feature of idiot brains. Even where
+confluence is not complete, the tendency of the principal fissure to cut
+through separating convolutions is very evident. Were the cases where
+confluence is nearly complete included, the number would be considerably
+augmented. The fissure of Sylvius passed into the fissure of Rolando in
+one case on both sides, in another on one side only. In two other cases
+they were connected by deep secondary fissures. The interparietalis has
+its origin in the fissure of Sylvius in four cases on both sides, in five
+cases on one side only. The calcarine fissure passed completely across
+the gyrus frontitatus on both sides in two cases, on one side in four
+cases. In one case the first occipital convolution sank nearly beneath the
+surface, the next occipital gyrus projecting over it, forming a parietal
+operculum. There also seems to be a strong tendency to form annectant gyri
+in the upper part of the parieto-occipital fissure. In no less than six
+hemispheres of 15 brains were these supplementary gyri found more or less
+complete. In one case on both sides, in five cases on one side, the
+parieto-occipital fissure cut through the first occipital convolution into
+the interparietal fissure. A tendency of the transverse occipital fissure
+to approach the parieto-occipital fissure is very apparent, though in no
+case do they coincide. The folds of the cerebral cortex, from a lack of
+the stimulus of healthy growth, sometimes revert to forms resembling those
+found in other groups of the animal kingdom.
+
+The fundamental factors of thought and action, as Spitzka terms them, are
+two: perceptions and motor innervation. These are, in other words, the
+units of thought and action. They can be properly referred to nerve cell
+groups as their anatomical seat, and, as far as intellect is in question,
+to the cell group represented in the more or less diffused and dovetailing
+areas of specialised function in the cortex cerebri (Fig. 116). But the
+largest hemisphere known, with the most crowded and most highly developed
+nerve cells, and the most extensive connections with the periphery, and
+the most perfect projection of that periphery in its intricately
+convoluted mass would, functionally speaking, represent nothing but a mass
+of pigeon-holed impressions stored away without method and without
+purpose, useless to the organism were it not for those arched fibres
+uniting the different cortical centres with each other.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.]
+
+
+These fibre constitute by far the greater part of the white centrum oval
+of the hemisphere. The total transverse section of the crus and the fibre
+masses from the thalamus and basilar ganglia, does not comprise more than
+one-third of the entire mass. In the lower animal this relation is
+different. The projecting fibres, such as those of crus and capsule and
+the great ganglia, are not as massive as in man, but they are nearly equal
+to, and in still lower forms exceed, those connecting the gyri with each
+other. Hence the chief point of contrast noted on examining a transverse
+frontal section through the cerebral hemisphere of a man and an ape
+consists in the mass of the centrum ovale of Vieussens. The whole
+substance in man actually appears hypertrophied when compared with that
+of lower animals. It is the associating fibres which mainly mediate that
+complex co-ordination of the separate units of thought and action which
+constitute the anatomical basis of the highest mental functions (Fig.
+117). The study of the human mind does not resolve itself merely into an
+analysis of individual faculties such as simple perceptions and motor
+innervations, but above all requires the establishment of their synthesis
+into the complex abstractions on which the ego depends.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.]
+
+
+Neither anatomic nor physiologic researches are calculated to demonstrate
+just what associating fasciculi or what groups of such fasciculi are
+subservient to any particular co-ordination. Where, for example, the
+cortical area for vision overlaps that of the centre for forearm and hand,
+the associating fasciculus underlying the debatable land is subservient to
+the co-ordinations employed in writing and drawing. In like manner a
+similar associating bond extending from the centre of auditory word
+symbols to that of the tongue and lip centres may be considered a chief
+factor mediating the speech co-ordinations. A child originally has no
+adequate notion of distance or perspective, but will, in the first week of
+life, grasp at objects fifty feet away. Its first ideas of space are
+gathered from its own skin sensations; it learns to distinguish between
+single impressions when touching foreign bodies, and associated double
+ones as when it touches a part of its own body. In great part this may
+even be accomplished by an active infant during the last months of
+utero-gestation; it has learned thus to separate the conception of its own
+body from the confused chaos which all impressions originally constitute
+to the infant; the next lesson is to learn that to reach certain objects
+it moves a certain distance, while others are immediately in reach. It
+then discovers, therefore, that the discrimination by the eye is possible,
+since intervening objects which it has learned to measure by its own body
+or bodily movements as a gauge permit an approximate judgment of distance,
+in aid of which comes experiment in the shape of time requirements, since
+to go so far requires such time, while to go further requires a much
+greater. The crude ideas of space at this time must involve areas in the
+cortex devoted to motion and to general sensation situated in the Rolandic
+region. Those devoted to visual impressions are largely situated in the
+occipital region, and those devoted to time may be located in the frontal
+lobes. Further analysis of the more elaborate sense of space possessed by
+adults, involving the play of equilibrium and the appreciation of movement
+and direction in foreign objects, shows that cortical areas situated in
+nearly every part of the hemispheres are subsidiary to it and connected by
+fibre tracts of different lengths and courses. It is evident, therefore,
+that the mal-connection of cortical centres is at the root of various
+tropho-neurotic, nervous, mental, moral and other perversions exhibited in
+degenerates. Deformity and deficiency of the corpus callosum in some
+degenerates is but an expression of general defect of associating tracts.
+Convolutional aberration in others is but an expression of imperfect
+development of end stations and fibre systems. All mental and moral
+disturbances are associated with perversions of the functions of the
+cerebral hemisphere, but the converse, that cerebral hemisphere lesions
+only are the essential accompaniments of mental symptoms evinced during
+life, is not true. Lesions of the pons, the crura, and thalami are
+accompanied by more or less complete obliteration of consciousness,
+blurring of the perception, confusion in the intellectual sphere, even
+where the lesion is not of such a character as to disturb the neighbouring
+ganglia by pressure. Two explanations are possible of this phenomenon.
+Either the vaso-motor centre for the cortical vessels is under the control
+of isthmus ganglia partially, and hence isthmus lesions by irritation or
+destruction of the centre excite or paralyse the vascular tubes of certain
+cortical districts, or pathologic interruption of the great nerve tracts
+involves functional disturbance of cortical end stations. The first
+explanation is applicable in cases where general and widespread
+disturbance, somnolence, excitement, or depression are found. The latter
+where the disturbance is partial in character. If all avenues of sensory
+perception be closed unconsciousness in the way of sleep speedily follows.
+Interruption of the perception tracts is followed by corresponding
+phenomena, though less extensive when occurring in the isthmus territory.
+That an irritative lesion in the line of the centripetal tracts can
+influence cortical life is shown by thalamus lesions in which
+hallucinations are sometimes present. Here the cause of the hallucinations
+is in the lower centre, but the entry of these into the intellectual
+sphere can take place only in the cortical termination of that tract,
+since at this point only through the connecting associating tracts can it
+become a part of the ego.
+
+Meynert traced an enormous division of the crus directly to the frontal
+lobe and the lenticular nucleus, and showed that this portion through the
+transverse fibres of the pons was of necessity connected with the
+cerebellum, and that far other functions are to be located in the cortex
+than merely muscular innervation, visual and auditory perceptions. The
+restiform columns derived from spinal fibres enter the cerebellum and
+terminate chiefly in its hemispheres. The cortex of these hemispheres is
+connected by radiatory fibres, with the dentated nucleus, which is a
+recipient of fibres of the auditory nerve. The cortex of the cerebellar
+hemisphere receives fibres both from the sensorial periphery of the body
+and the semicircular canals. From this reception area the transverse
+fibres of the pons originate and enter the crus. It is these which enter
+the frontal lobe and lenticular nucleus. In no respect does man so much
+differ from the ape as in the quantitative development of these
+fasciculi. Their development is intimately associated with the mass of the
+frontal lobe, and there is every reason for considering them the channel
+of information of the equilibrium and possibly of the senses of space and
+time, on which the scope of the mind is so closely dependent. Lesions in
+these tracts may disturb these sensations, and the entire mental
+architecture may totter with the withdrawal or weakening of so important
+pillars. The congenital asymmetry of the peduncular tracts observed in
+certain cases of mental and moral perversion are not without bearing on
+the symptoms of those cases. And this explanation would be adjunct to the
+principle of mal-development of the associating tracts here advanced in
+explanation of other symptoms of these same states. It is a logical truism
+that complex cerebral functions have a complex substratum. Nothing could
+be more unphilosophical, for example, than to speak of "intellectual
+cells" (Denkzellen) in the cerebral cortex. Simple elements can have but
+simple functions; complex functions require a union of numerous simpler
+elements in a complex structural combination.
+
+Such symptoms as epileptic explosions are admittedly connected with no
+demonstrable anatomical aberration, and yet when epileptic explosions of a
+certain type are found associated with a cortical lesion they are to be
+regarded as symptoms of that lesion. Morbid projects, delusions, and moral
+perversion are simply functional perversions of a properly built cerebral
+mechanism or the outcome of a visible structural defect. And when the
+latter is palpably attributable to an error in development and occurs
+with a certain constancy in similar cases, a fundamental relation must be
+assumed between the defect and the general tenor of the symptoms.
+
+There is a great difference clinically between the effect of congenital
+and acquired lesions. When porencephaly (a deformity originally studied by
+Heschl) dates from infantile or foetal life, imbecility is always present
+during life; but where it is developed in the matured brain imbecility
+does not necessarily result.
+
+Deficiencies in the cerebral vascular system underlie the pathological
+phenomena on the basis of infantile cerebral paralysis, and allied
+hereditary and congenital states. The degenerate conditions in the spinal
+cord are essentially those described by Spitzka as occurring in the brain.
+Vascular states, either as to irregularities in the number of vessels or
+in the vessels themselves, underlie, as in the case of the cerebral
+palsies, hereditary ataxias and other congenital and hereditary spinal
+cord disorders.[251]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DEGENERACY OF MENTALITY AND MORALITY
+
+
+In the mental and moral degeneracies there is a complete transition from
+the durencephalic monster through the microcephalus, the idiot, the
+imbecile, and the feeble-minded to the mentally normal individual. Between
+the feeble-minded and the normal individual occurs a group whose general
+characteristics is, as was pointed out by Magnan, a disharmony and lack of
+equilibrium, not only between the intellectual operations, properly
+so-called on the one hand, and the emotions and propensities on the other,
+but even between the intellectual faculties themselves. A degenerate may
+be a scientist, an able lawyer, a great artist, a poet, a mathematician, a
+politician, a skilled administrator, and present from a moral standpoint
+profound defects, strange peculiarities and surprising lapses of conduct.
+As the moral element--the emotions and propensities--is the base of
+determination, it follows that these brilliant faculties are at the
+service of a bad cause, of the instincts and appetites which, thanks to
+the defects of the will, lead to very extravagant or very dangerous acts.
+In other cases the opposite occurs. Degenerates of irreproachable
+character show strange defects in their intellect. They often have a
+feeble memory in certain directions. Sometimes they cannot understand
+figures, or music, or drawing. In a word, an otherwise normal individual's
+intelligence is lacking as regards certain faculties. The centres of
+perception are unequally impressionable, unequally apt to gather together
+impressions, only certain impressions are registered and leave durable
+images; certain relations, certain associations between different centres,
+are perverted or even entirely destroyed.
+
+The mental stigmata of degeneracy, therefore, may be divided into those
+involving the moral elements (in which case there is no very striking
+intellectual disorder) and those involving the intellectual elements, in
+which the conditions may be divided into states where intellectual
+disorder alternates with periods of complete lucidity or with neuroses
+(periodical insanity, neuroticism, hysteria, and epilepsy), and states in
+which the intellectual disorder is a permanent quantity (paranoia,
+one-sided genius, imbecility, and idiocy). Great as is the apparent gap
+between idiocy and one-sided genius, on the one hand, and between idiocy
+and crime, on the other, this gap is, as already stated, filled by
+numerous closely interlinked forms, dependent on the proportionate removal
+of checks (which the race has acquired during evolution) on the explosive
+expressions of egotism and mentality. The removal of these checks is
+dependent on the removal or weakening of the power of associating tracts,
+to which reference has been made in connection with the degenerate brain.
+The idiot, capable only of purely vegetative functions, who would perish
+were food not placed far back in his mouth, is one step lower than the
+normal infant, who is essentially, as has been remarked, an egotistic
+parasite. On slightly increased development this idiot, with the powers of
+a rather low animal, gains food and satisfies its instincts. These
+instincts at this stage may manifest themselves in the explosive manner
+characteristic of the undomesticated and non-social animals. With these
+instincts may appear others which man has long lost; thus an idiot girl
+(who was delivered of an infant when alone) gnawed through the umbilical
+cord in the manner of animals, thus effecting separation and preventing
+haemorrhage. At still a higher stage the imbecile may manifest destructive
+instincts, may steal without the signs of remorse displayed by a housebred
+dog, or may kill without recognising the results of killing. The intellect
+may be comparatively developed in certain imbeciles in comparison with the
+ethical defects. For lack of proper associating fibres, the imbecile may
+be unable to acquire those higher associations constituting the secondary
+ego, in the most elevated sense. To this class ultimately belong the
+instinctive homicides, torturers, sexual criminals and thieves, so
+frequently found among the juvenile offspring of degenerate stock. In them
+the primary ego is strong, and the restraints of the secondary ego, which
+perceives the rights of others, weakened or completely absent. This class
+forms the germ of the congenital criminal whom no discipline can tame, and
+who is incapable of being taught the dangers of his procedures under the
+law of the land. Between this class and the paranoiac there is at once a
+curious likeness and distinction. The lack of proper associating powers
+prevents the moral imbecile from recognising any rights of others. The
+same lack in the paranoiac prevents him from recognising the force and
+rights of other people in opinion. The moral imbecile has lost the
+greatest acquirement of the race in evolution, that acquirement which
+fully recognises the secondary ego in accordance with the sublime precept,
+"Do unto others as ye would that they should do unto you."
+
+For practical purposes the division of criminals given by Tyndall is
+sufficient. Crime is essentially an anti-social factor, and violations of
+law can be regarded as crimes only in proportion as they are anti-social.
+The essential character of crime is its parasitic nature. Parasites, in a
+general way, may be divided into those which live on their host, without
+any tendency to injure his well-being (like the dermodex in the skin
+follicules); those which live more or less at his expense, but do not tend
+to destroy him; and, finally, those which are destructive of the
+well-being of man and lack proper recognition of individual rights which
+constitutes the essential foundation of society. The first type is
+impurely represented by the idiots, imbeciles, lunatics, paupers by
+deprivation, blind, crippled, senile, insane, and deaf mutes. Society,
+either indirectly or directly, has been the source of the parasitic state
+of many of these, and hence, as also in the case of law-made criminals,
+such parasitism really takes nothing from society. The second class is
+represented by prostitutes, sexual degenerates, paupers, and inebriates.
+Some of these, however, could be put into the third class, among those
+moral lunatics and criminals who fail to recognise that individual rights
+constitute social order. Prostitutes, paupers, and inebriates have this in
+common, that crime in them has taken the line of least resistance. The
+great ethical defect in the prostitute is not lack of checks on explosive
+sexual propensities so much as the use of these last as a method of living
+by her wits. In essence prostitution is the expression of the criminal
+tendency manifested by the confidence operator. The researches of
+sociologists like Chaplain Merrick,[252] of the Millbank Prison, London,
+show that at least one-half of the prostitutes leave their homes
+voluntarily to take up a "life of pleasure." Pauline Tarnowsky[253] finds
+that in Russia prostitution is crime in women taking the line of least
+resistance. The prostitutes, like the other criminals, are divisible into
+criminals on occasion (vice, monetary reasons, &c.), accidental criminals,
+law-made criminals, weak-willed criminals, and insane criminals. The
+proportion of the law-made and accidental criminals among the prostitutes
+is much less than among other criminals, as Merrick has shown. Seduction
+stands very low in the list of causes. The proportion of the occasional
+criminal type is very large. Pauline Tarnowsky concludes from her
+researches, which my own tend to verify, that the prostitute, as a rule,
+is a degenerate being, the subject of an arrest of development, tainted
+with a morbid heredity, and presenting stigmata of physical and mental
+degeneracy fully in consonance with her imperfect evolution. C. Andronico,
+of Messina, Italy, arrived some time previously[254] at the same
+conclusions as those of Tarnowsky. Tarnowsky found that 44-1/3 per cent.
+of the prostitutes had skull deformities, 42-2/8 face deformities, 42 ear
+deformities, and 54 teeth deformities. Andronico found among 230
+prostitutes the following anomalies: Flat nose, 20; handle-shaped ear,
+35; vicious implantation of teeth, 10; convergent strabismus, 2; facial
+asymmetry, 4; prognathism, 7; receding forehead, 35. Grimaldi, in a study
+of 26 prostitutes, had similar results to those of Tarnowsky. Lombroso, in
+an examination of 50 prostitutes, found exaggerated jaws, 27 times;
+plagiocephaly, 23 times; nasal asymmetry, 8 times; exaggerated zygomae, 40
+times. Tarnowsky found that in 150 prostitutes, taken at random from those
+answering to the necessary conditions (uniformity of race, ability to give
+their family history and years of residence in licensed houses), there
+were present signs of physical degeneracy in 87. Among the abnormalities
+were oxycephaly, platycephaly, stenocephaly, plagiocephaly, and heads with
+marked depression either at the bregma or the lambda. The majority had a
+marked development of the external occipital protuberance; in an equal
+number of virtuous women it was present but four times. These and other
+anomalies were thus distributed among the 150 prostitutes: Malformation of
+the head (oxycephaly, plagiocephaly, &c.), noticed in 62; development of
+the occipital protruberance, 62; very receding foreheads, 18;
+hydrocephalic, 15; various anomalies of the face (prognathism, asymmetry),
+64; ogival palatine vault, 38; congenital division of palate, 14; vicious
+implantation of teeth, 62; Hutchinson's and Parrot's teeth, 19; absence of
+lateral incisors, 10; Morel ears, 16; defective ears (detached from head,
+deformed, &c.), 47; anomalies of the extremities, 8.
+
+In my researches in the same class, with the assistance of Harriet C. B.
+Alexander and J. G. Kiernan, the subjects chosen were those committed to
+the Chicago House of Correction. They are the least intelligent of
+Chicago's professional prostitutes. The number examined was 30. As regards
+the race they included 13 Celtic-Irish, 5 Irish-American, 3 Scandinavian,
+1 German, 1 German-American, 2 American, 1 English-American, 1
+Latin-Swiss, 2 Negro.
+
+It should here be remembered that the "fine" system of Chicago places only
+the "obtuse" class in the Bridewell. One was seventeen years old, two
+eighteen years, one nineteen years, five between twenty and twenty-five
+years, three between twenty-five and thirty, six between thirty and
+thirty-five, five between thirty-five and forty-five, one was forty-six
+years old, two were fifty-five, three sixty-one, and one sixty-five. There
+were eighteen blondes, ten brunettes, and two negroes. Four were
+demonstrably insane and one was an epileptic.
+
+In sixteen cases the zygomatic processes were unequal and very prominent.
+There were fourteen other asymmetries of the face. Three heads were
+Mongoloid (one Irish-Celt, one Swiss, and one Scandinavian). There are
+Mongoloid race types in the regions where all three come from. Sixteen
+were epignathic and eleven prognathic. In one there was arrested
+development of the lower jaw, and in four arrested development of the face
+bones. The nose was abnormal in six. There were sixteen brachycephalic and
+thirteen mesaticephalic skulls. There were no dolichocephalic skulls.
+There were three with oxycephalic skulls, of whom one was a Celt, one a
+German, and one a Scandinavian. There were eighteen dome-type skulls, of
+whom seven were Irish-Celts, five Celtic-American, one English
+Anglo-Saxon, one American Anglo-Saxon, and one German-American. There were
+four tectocephalic skulls, of whom one was an Irish-Celt, one an
+Anglo-Saxon American, and one a Scandinavian. There were three
+platycephalic skulls, of whom two were Celts and one a Scandinavian. There
+was a plagiocephalic German and a stenocephalic Celt. One skull had a
+protuberance at the bregma. Twelve occiputs were flattened, and in four of
+these there was no tubercle; eighteen had an enormously developed
+occipital protuberance. The percentage of deformities of the jaws was
+large. Twenty-nine had defective ears. Normal ears were present only in a
+member of a family which had furnished one mother and two sisters to the
+institution.
+
+The direct hereditary history of prostitutes is excellently illustrated in
+Marie Duplessis, idealised by Alexandre Dumas in _La Dame aux Camelias_.
+Her paternal grandmother, who was half prostitute, half beggar, gave birth
+to a son by a country priest. This son was a country Don Juan, a peddler
+by trade. The maternal great-grandmother was a nymphomaniac, whose son
+married a woman of loose morals, by whom a daughter was born. This
+daughter married a peddler, and their child was Marie. She had the
+confidence-operator tendencies of many of her class. She died childless,
+early in life, from consumption.[255] With their ancestry, habits,
+perverse instincts, prostitutes cannot be cured or reformed by the
+enforcement of municipal ordinances. Though those of criminal and
+congenital type be taken from their surroundings and placed where they can
+earn an honest livelihood, they soon go back, voluntarily, to their old
+mode of life.
+
+An allied class, belonging to a still blacker phase of biology, are the
+sexual perverts. The congenital form associated with the stigmata of
+degeneracy, as already shown, is an expression of the defective line
+whence the victim has sprung. The congenital types are, like the similar
+types of the prostitute, victims of inherited defects. The sexual pervert
+may be divided into precisely the same classes as other criminals. The
+congenital type often links degenerate lunatics, epileptics, &c., with a
+born criminal class.
+
+Between the criminal and the insane is a debatable line occupied by moral
+imbeciles, reasoning maniacs, &c. There are many insane persons in whom
+the principal deviation from the normal consists in disorder of the moral
+faculties. In most closer inspection generally reveals signs of
+degeneracy. The seeming immorality is the striking factor of the case and
+superficially the mind otherwise appears clear and rational by contrast.
+As Krafft-Ebing has shown in these cases, the most striking features are
+moral insensibility, lack of moral judgment and ethical ideas, the place
+of which is usurped by a narrow sense of loss or profit, logically
+apprehended only. Such persons may mechanically know the laws of morality,
+but if such laws enter their conscience these persons do not experience by
+any real appreciation, still less regard, for them. These laws to them are
+cold, lifeless statements. The morally defective know not how to draw from
+them motive for omission or commission. To this "moral colour-blindness"
+the whole moral and governmental order appears as a mere hindrance to
+egotistic ambition and feeling, which necessarily leads to negation of
+the rights of others and to violation of the same.
+
+These defective individuals are without interest for aught good or
+beautiful, albeit capable of a sentimentality which is shallow cant. Such
+persons are repellent by their lack of love for children or relatives, and
+of all social inclinations, and by cold-hearted indifference to the weal
+or woe of those nearest to them. They are without other than egotistic
+care for questions of social life or sensibility to either the respect or
+the scorn of others, without control of conscience and without sense or
+remorse for evil. Morality they do not understand. Law is nothing more
+than police regulation. The greatest crimes are regarded as mere
+transgressions of some arbitrary order. If such persons come in conflict
+with individuals, then, hatred, envy, and revenge take the place of
+coldness and negation, and their brutality and indifference to others know
+no bounds.
+
+These ethically defective persons, when incapable of holding a place in
+society, are often converted into candidates for the workhouse or the
+insane hospital, one or the other of which places they reach after they
+have been, as children, the terror of parents and teachers, through their
+untruthfulness, laziness, and general meanness, and in youth the shame of
+the family and the torment of the community and the officers of the law,
+by thefts, vagabondage, profligacy, and excesses. Finally, they are the
+despair of the insane hospital, the "incorrigibles" of the prisons, and
+(Krafft-Ebing might have added) the veritable burdens of the poor-house.
+If intellectual insanity or crime do not claim them, pauperism or
+criminality is likely to be their destiny. The moral imbecile may,
+however, keep within the law, and as in the instance of the "Napoleon of
+Finance," cited elsewhere from Kiernan, may achieve business success. His
+descendants often, however, evince degeneracy in an aggravated form. Many
+of the supposed reformers of various alleged social evils are often of
+this class. Their morbid egotism takes the direction of cant and
+sentimentality, so common at certain states in evolution, as points of
+least resistance. Like Guiteau, the assassin of President Garfield, they
+aim at doing a "big thing for humanity and myself," the humanity being
+concentrated in "my" ideas. The moral lunatic needs but a slight twist
+intellectually to become the paranoiac in whom there is, as Spitzka has
+pointed out,[256] a permanent undercurrent of perverted mental action
+peculiar to the individual, running like an unbroken thread through his
+whole mental life, obscured, it may be, for these patients are often able
+to correct and conceal their insane symptoms, but it nevertheless exists,
+and only requires friction to bring it to the surface. The general
+intellectual status of these patients, though rarely of a very high order,
+is moderately fair, and often the mental powers are sufficient to keep the
+delusion under check for practical purposes of life. While many are what
+is termed crochety, irritable, and depressed, yet the sole symptoms of the
+typical cases of this disorder consist of the fixed delusions. Since the
+subject matter of the delusion is of such a character that these patients
+consider themselves either the victim of a plot or as unjustly deprived of
+certain rights and position, or as narrowly observed by others, delusions
+of persecution are added to the fixed ideas, and the patient becomes sad,
+thoughtful, or depressed in consequence. The patient is depressed
+logically, as far as his train of idea is concerned and his sadness and
+thoughtfulness have causes, which he can explain, and which are intimately
+allied with that peculiar, faulty grouping of ideas which constitutes the
+rendezvous, as it were, of all the mental conceptions of the patient. Nay,
+the process may be reversed, and the patient, beginning with a
+hypochondriac or hysteric state, imagines himself watched with no
+favourable eye. Because he is watched and made the subject of audible
+comments (hallucinatory or delusional), he concludes that he must be a
+person of some importance. Some great political movement takes place; he
+throws himself into it, either in a fixed character that he has already
+constructed for himself, or with the vague idea that he is an influential
+personage. He seeks interviews, holds actual conversation with the big men
+of the day, accepts the common courtesy shown him by those in office as a
+tribute to his value, is rejected, however, and then judges himself to be
+the victim of jealousy or of rival cabals, makes intemperate and querulous
+complaints to higher officials, perhaps makes violent attacks upon them,
+and being incarcerated in jail or asylum, looks upon this as the end of a
+long series of persecutions which have broken the power of a skilled
+diplomatist, a capable military commander, a prince of the blood, an agent
+of a camarilla, a paramour of some exalted personage, or finally the
+Messiah Himself. All through this train of ideas there runs a chain of
+logic and inference in which there is no gap. If the inferences of the
+patient were based on correctly observed facts and properly correlated
+with his actual surroundings, his conclusions would be perfectly correct.
+For years and years many such patients exhibit a single delusive idea as
+the only prominent symptom. There is hereditary taint in most of these
+subjects, who are strange in disposition from infancy. As children they
+frequently shun society and indulge in day-dreams. Their bodily growth is
+normal, but even trifling disease takes on a cerebral tinge. They may show
+talent in special directions, but their intelligence rarely passes out of
+the puerile stage. They often brood over a feminine ideal, a girl who has
+never encouraged them, and whom they persecute with absurd plans of
+marriage.
+
+Connecting the paranoiac with the moral imbecile are the so-called
+"reasoning maniacs." Here the intellectual power is less than either that
+of the moral imbecile or of the paranoiac, twisted though the intellect of
+the latter be. Loquacious or unusually taciturn, heedless or morbidly
+cautious, dreamers, wearisome to all brought in contact with them,
+capricious and unmitigated liars, their qualities are often, in a certain
+manner, brilliant, but are entirely without solidity or depth. Sharpness
+and cunning are not often wanting, especially for little things and
+insignificant intrigues. Ever armed with a lively imagination and quick
+comprehension, they readily appropriate the ideas of others, developing or
+transforming them and giving them the stamp of their own individuality.
+But the creative force is not there, and they rarely possess enough mental
+vigour to get their own living. Passing without the slightest transition
+from one extreme to the other, they felicitate themselves to-day on an
+event which they sneered at the night before. In the course of a single
+second they change their opinions of persons and things, novelty
+captivates and wearies them almost in the same instant. They sell for
+insignificant sums things they have just bought, in order to buy others
+which, in their turn, will be subjected to like treatment; and, strange to
+say, before possessing these objects, they covet them with a degree of
+ardour only equalled by the eagerness they exhibit to get rid of them as
+soon as they become their own. To see, to desire, and to become
+indifferent are three stages which follow each other with astonishing
+rapidity.
+
+The intense egotism of these persons makes them, as W. A. Hammond remarks,
+utterly regardless of the feelings and rights of others. Everybody and
+everything must give way to them. Their comfort and convenience are to be
+secured though every one else is made uncomfortable or unhappy; and
+sometimes they display positive cruelty in their treatment of persons who
+come in contact with them. This tendency is especially seen in their
+relations with the lower animals.
+
+Another manifestation of their intense egotism is their entire lack of
+appreciation of kindness done them or benefits of which they have been the
+recipients. They look upon these as so many rights to which they are
+justly entitled, and which in the bestowal are more serviceable to the
+giver than to the receiver. They are hence ungrateful and abusive to those
+who have served them, insolent, arrogant, and shamelessly hardened in
+their conduct toward them. At the same time, if advantages are yet to be
+gained, they are sycophantic to nauseousness in their deportment towards
+those from whom the favours are to come.
+
+The egotism of these people is unmarked by the least trace of modesty in
+obtruding themselves and their assumed good qualities upon the public at
+every opportunity. They boast of their genius, their righteousness, their
+goodness of heart, their high sense of honour, their learning and other
+qualities and acquirements, and this, when they are perfectly aware that
+they are commonplace, irreligious, cruel, and vindictive, utterly devoid
+of every chivalrous feeling, and saturated with ignorance. They know that
+in their ratings they are attempting to impose upon those whom they
+address and will even subsequently brag of their success.
+
+It is no uncommon thing for the reasoning maniac, still influenced by his
+supreme egotism and desire for notoriety, to attempt the part of reformer.
+Generally he selects a practice or custom in which there really is no
+abuse. His energy and the logical manner in which he presents his views,
+based as they often are on cases and statistics, impose on many people,
+who eagerly adopt him as a genuine overthrower of a vicious or degrading
+measure. Even when his hypocrisy and falsehood are exposed he continues
+his attempts at imposition, and when the strong arm of the law is laid
+upon him, he prates of the ingratitude of those he has been endeavouring
+to assist, and of the distinctiveness and purity of his own motives.
+
+Closely akin to that instability of inter-association resulting in loss of
+proper checks on action in the types just described, is the sentimentalism
+which often covers real hardness, but which charms and allures the mass.
+
+This has essentially the same psychological basis as the suspicional
+tendencies and pessimism with which it is so often associated. Suspicional
+tendencies arise from states of anxiety resultant on instability of
+association, dependent on lack of associating fibres. Pessimism (so
+frequently present in the otherwise healthy degenerate) is often, as
+Magalhaes has shown, nervous instability with alternations of irritability
+and prostration. The subject is supersensitive; impressions call forth
+intense and prolonged reactions followed by exhaustion. The state is
+characterised by a general hyperaesthesia, which naturally results in an
+excess of suffering. From instability and hyperaesthesia results discord
+between the feelings themselves, between the feelings and the
+intelligence, between the feelings, the ideas and volitions. Discord
+between the feelings shows itself in a great variety of paradoxes,
+contradictions, and inconsistencies. To the pessimist possession of a
+desired object does not atone for former privation. Pain or unsatisfied
+desire is replaced by the pain of _ennui_. With inability to enjoy what he
+has are coupled extravagant expectations regarding that which he does not
+have. He is extremely susceptible both to kindness and to contempt. He
+passes suddenly from violent irritability to languor, from self-confidence
+and vanity to extreme self abasement. His intense sensitiveness results in
+intellectual disorders. For this involves a great vivacity of the
+intuitive imagination, which favours the setting up of extravagant ideals,
+lacking in solid representative elements. Hence a gap opens between his
+ideal and the actual. He can never realise the ideal he pursues and so his
+feelings are of a sombre hue. From this excessive realism results a state
+of doubt, a certain distrust of all this rational objective knowledge. It
+assumes another form in extreme subjectivism. The pessimist is haunted by
+images of the tiniest religious scruples, suspicions, fears, and
+anxieties, resulting in alienation from friends, seclusion, misanthropy.
+The pessimist is further characterised by an incapacity for prolonged
+attention, a refractory attention and a feeble will. These result in
+inaction, quietism, reverie, self-abnegation, abolition of the
+personality, annihilation of the will, amounting sometimes even to poetic
+or religious ecstasy. Pessimism is frequently associated with a morbid
+fear of death. The tramp is one phase of the degenerate in whom the
+restless wandering tendencies of the neurasthenic and paranoiac are added
+to the parasitic tendencies of the pauper, and the suspicional egotism of
+the "reasoning maniac."
+
+The one-sided genius is a link between the neurotic, the epileptic, the
+paranoiac, the hysteric, and the imbecile. Cases crop up in which all
+these elements are so mingled as to create a puzzle where they shall be
+placed. In some cases, in accordance with the general law that physiologic
+atrophy is accompanied by hypertrophy in other directions, the
+intellectual powers other than along certain lines may be remarkably
+deficient. Moreover, the intellectual power due to healthy atavism is
+increased by the degeneracy in certain directions. Without going into the
+question, raised by Lombroso,[257] as to genius being an epileptoid
+neurosis, sufficient evidence exists to show that ill-balanced genius
+often coexists with defects in a large number of directions. The
+coexistence of genius with imbecility and even idiocy has been well
+illustrated by Langdon Down, who cites numerous instances thereof.[258]
+Defect in genius, whether of the imbecile stamp or otherwise, accompanied
+by deficiency, is not expressed in the genius, but in its deficient
+accompaniment. Even the mental instability of the highest type of
+defective genius is closely akin to that of the neurotic.
+
+The hysterics, as has been shown by Des Champs,[259] are neurotic women in
+whom an aggravated sensibility exists. Neurotic women are divisible into
+three categories according to the predominance of one of three
+centres--cerebral, genital, and neuropathic. These types may be pure or
+intermixed. The general characteristics are an absolute want of
+equilibrium in sensibility and will power. There exists mobility of humour
+in direct relation with facile impressionability to external influences or
+to internal states. The nerves vibrate to all sentiments coming from
+within or without, and all are registered without proper relation. One
+fact chased by another is forgotten. Another produces a momentary
+hyperexcitation, which takes place of the truth, whence it is that
+falsehood is instinctive, but the patient protests her good faith if
+accused of the same. This lack of equilibrium leads to a decided
+modification of the mental faculties. Intellectual activity is over
+excited, but in diverse degrees and variable ways, according to the
+particular tendencies adopted. Absorbed by a preoccupation or controlled
+by an idea, they become indifferent to all else. Their ideas are abundant,
+and they rapidly pass from the idea to the act. Their vivid imagination,
+coupled with a bright intelligence, gives them a seducing aspect, but
+their judgment is singularly limited, attenuated, or false. They judge
+from a non-personal standpoint excellently. They are quick at discovering
+the faults of even their own relatives, but faults rightly attributed to
+themselves are repudiated. Their memory is capricious. They forget their
+faults and their acts under impulse, albeit these may be consciously done.
+The cerebral type is led by the intelligence. She has little or no
+coquetry; what coquetry there may be is the result of intention and
+temporary. There is an ethical sense, frankness and nobility in her ideas,
+disinterestedness and tact in her acts, and she is capable of friendship.
+Her tastes carry her to male pursuit, in which she succeeds. She becomes
+often what is called a "superior woman," and too often what is called an
+"incomprehensible woman." She has but little guile. To the sensual type
+voluptuousness is the aim of life and the centre of her acts and thoughts.
+She is well endowed with guile and extremely diplomatic. She is full of
+finesse, but not very delicate. Her lack of scruple often spoils her tact.
+She is ruseful, dissimulating, and unconsciously mendacious. She despises
+friendship and needs watching. If circumstances permit she loses all
+delicacy, reserve and modesty. She is destitute of scruples. Her crimes
+are coolly remorseless. The neuropathic type is one to which the
+grasshopper is a burden. Her nerves are always on edge. She is a heroic
+invalid who displays the air of a martyr about trivialities.
+
+The character of the neurotic, as Kiernan remarks, recalls the observation
+of Milne-Edwards concerning the monkey character. Levity is one of its
+salient features, and its mobility is extreme. One can get it to shift in
+an instant from one mood or train of ideas to another. It is now plunged
+into black melancholy and in a moment may be vastly amused at some object
+presented to its attention.
+
+Neuroticism in man differs in no respect from that in woman except that
+anaesthesia, paralysis of emotional origin, and conscious convulsions are
+less common. The male neurotic could be subdivided precisely as Des Champs
+has the hysteric. Neurotics are often long-lived, peculiarly resistant to
+certain acute and fatal disease, and are frequently retentive of their
+youthful appearance, which is to a certain extent an evidence of their
+resistance to the wear and tear of life and advancing old age, and due to
+emotional anaesthesia. Recognition of the neurotic tendency often induces
+the individual to take better care of himself. The youthful appearance may
+be due largely to arrest of facial development at an early age, the face
+thus retaining the child character throughout life. Considering,
+therefore, this class of neurotics, which does not include those afflicted
+with the more serious nervous disorders such as epilepsy, they may be
+looked upon as the victims of evolutionary processes that are constantly
+going on in the race and under civilised conditions.
+
+Neurotics are not met with to any extent among barbarous races, but are
+numerous in civilised communities, where the weak are preserved from early
+death and then subjected to the struggle for existence. Neurotics are
+individuals naturally imperfect in some directions, but by the law of
+economy of growth they are often superior in others. Their disordered
+nervous functions and hyperaesthesia are not, necessarily, indicative of
+inferiority of general organisation compared to their ancestry. They may
+simply imply a more rapid advance in some one direction in the development
+of the nervous system than can be kept up with by the remainder. These
+defects may in some cases be the advance guards in the progress of the
+development of the race.
+
+As the nervous system controls nutrition in all departments of the
+organism, anomalies occur with erratic nervous functions in such
+individuals. In these neurotics are often found defective development
+involving the bony and other structures. They have fine and delicate
+features, small jaws and defective teeth. These are the results of general
+systemic modifications connected with the neurotic state. The arthritic
+diathesis occurs also; it is one of the underlying conditions of many
+neurotic manifestations, often responsible for acquired bony deformities,
+not infrequently involving the jaws to some extent.
+
+Neurotic degenerate symptoms from a mental standpoint are noticeable long
+before deformities of the osseous system are developed. They show
+themselves in mental weakness, extreme stupidity, and precocity. Under the
+first class the child is obstinate, quarrelsome, malignant, even immorally
+inclined, and is often spoken of as being wicked or vicious. Harriet C. B.
+Alexander[260] says the ruling instinct in the child of three or four is
+self-gratification. It destroys what it dislikes. Among the earliest
+manifestations of morbid mental activity in childhood are hallucinations,
+which depend on already registered perceptions.
+
+In many instances even moral agencies produce sudden explosions of mental
+disorders. The inherited tendencies of childhood predispose to these
+attacks. As Clouston has shown, neuroses and psychoses not requiring
+hospital treatment are by no means uncommon in the too sensitive child
+with hereditary taint. Children of this class have crying fits and
+miserable periods on slight or no provocation. As Clouston has also shown,
+precocity, over-sensitiveness, unhealthy strictness in morals and religion
+for a child, or too vivid imagination, want of courage, thinness and
+craving for animal food, are common characters. These children are
+over-sensitive, over-imaginative, are too fearful to be physiologic, and
+tend, as a general thing, to be unhealthily religious, precociously
+intellectual, and at first hyperaesthetically conscientious.
+
+The other class of children, as a rule, are very handsome babies and
+children. The brightness is noted by parents at a very early age, and they
+extol their many clever qualities and sayings. The tendency is for the
+parents to cultivate these precocious qualities and believe it to be the
+proper thing to encourage them; while in early life this class may possess
+the peculiarities of the other class and also show those of degeneracy.
+These children are the best scholars in the schoolroom and learn their
+lessons with apparently little or no study. They are usually thin, frail
+children, and very nervous. Very little food is taken and much of that is
+not assimilated. Especially is this true of the lime salts, which form
+bone and tooth structure. These lime salts are excreted through the
+kidneys and salivary glands. This is easily demonstrated by an examination
+of urine, mouth, and teeth. Large collections of tartar are always found
+in these cases. Children of both classes are sure to show stigmata of
+degeneracy. This period of degeneracy commences at the sixth year, or at
+about the time the first period of brain development ceases. The bulk of
+the brain has obtained its growth. In some the child commences to improve
+mentally very fast. In others mental development is slow. In still others
+it ceases altogether. From the time the second set of teeth begins to
+develop until the twelfth year, neuroses of development and stigmata of
+degeneracy are stamped upon the head, face, nose, jaws and teeth, and
+later any of the conditions mentioned under the heads of nutritive
+degeneracy and local perversion tendencies may appear.
+
+Closely akin to these states are expressions of degeneracy manifesting
+themselves with some approach to regularity in periods, as in epilepsy and
+the periodical insanities. The periodical insanities may be simply
+emotional states of exaltation (as in mania), of extreme depression (as in
+melancholia), of stupor, or of mental confusion. They may show themselves
+in periodical acts, as in dipsomania. This condition differs from the
+condition called inebriety in the fact that it is a periodical expression
+of degeneracy whose form has been accidently determined, but which would
+exist even were its form changed. The differences are excellently outlined
+by Dana,[261] who divides intemperate drinkers into four classes:
+Periodical inebriates or dipsomaniacs, pseudo-inebriates, common drunkards
+and victims of delirium inebriosum. The disease in the first class is a
+periodical insanity. In the pseudo-inebriates the desire for drink is
+only one of many manifestations of a weakened constitution or inherently
+unstable nervous system. The third type are those which approximate the
+occasional criminals. Another periodical insanity is kleptomania, in which
+insane stealing occurs at intervals of greater or lesser regularity.
+Nymphomania or satyrasis is a periodical insanity in which there is an
+insane impulse for sexual intercourse. Pyromania is a periodical tendency
+to commit arson. All of these periodical conditions may occur alone or in
+combination with other degeneracies.
+
+Closely related to the periodical insanities are the epileptic states
+which play so large a part in many of the phenomena presented by the
+degenerates. In the epileptic the mental rather than the gross nervous
+expression merits attention. From what has already been said about
+epilepsy, it and the periodical insanities are in no small degree the
+effect of mal-development of the fore brain as compared with the centres
+of organic life. The great convulsive centre is, according to
+Spitzka,[262] the reticular grey matter of the brain isthmus, particularly
+of the pons and medulla. All characteristic features of the full epileptic
+onset can be produced in animals deprived of the related cerebral cortex.
+It needs but a slight puncture with a thin needle to produce typical
+convulsions in the rabbit, and some of the convulsive movements reported
+by Nothnagel have not only shown the true epileptic character but also
+that peculiar automatism noted in aberrant attacks. It is in this segment
+of the nervous system that all the great nerve strands conveying motor
+impulses, both of a voluntary and automatic and some of a reflex
+character, are found united in a relatively small area, and just here a
+relatively slight irritation might produce functional disturbances
+involving the entire bodily periphery.
+
+The experiments of physiologists have shown that if a sensory irritation
+of a given spinal nucleus be kept up, after having produced a reflex
+movement in the same segment, any reaction beyond the plain of that
+segment is not in the next or succeeding planes but in the medulla
+oblongata. The motor reaction then manifests itself in laughing, crying,
+or deglutitory spasms, and, if the irritation be of the severest kind,
+epileptic or tetanic spasms in addition. Now the occurrence of laughing,
+crying, or deglutitory spasms could be easily understood if the molecular
+oscillation induced by the irritation were to travel along the associating
+tracts from the given spinal segment to the nuclei of the medulla
+oblongata. For in the medulla are found the nerve nuclei which preside
+over the facial, laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles. It is not easy at first
+to understand how tetanus and epilepsy, that is, spasms consisting in
+movements whose direct projection is not in the medulla oblongata but in
+the cord, can be produced by irritation of the former.
+
+There are scattered groups of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata which
+have either no demonstrable connection with the nerve nuclei, or are
+positively known to be connected with the longitudinal associating
+strands. These cells hence can safely be regarded as representing a
+presiding centre over the entire spinal system. No spinal centre exerts
+any influence even remotely as pronounced as that of the entire cord.
+This applies to man and other mammals. That the elaboration of the
+medullary centre was as gradual a process as that of other higher
+differentiations is illustrated by the case of the frog, whose medulla has
+acquired the faculty of reproducing general spasms while the spinal cord
+itself retains this property also; hence here the predominance of the
+medulla is not so marked as in mammals.
+
+The reticular ganglion of the oblongata is not in the adult a part of the
+central tubular grey matter, but has, through originally developing from
+it in the embryo, become ultimately isolated from its mother bed. It
+constitutes a second ganglionic category, and the association fibres
+bringing it in functional union with the spinal grey (first category) in
+lower animals and shown to have assumed the position of projection fibres
+in the higher, constitute a second projection tract; both together are a
+second projection system. The scattered grey matter of the medulla has
+great importance. Anatomically it is (though its cells be scattered
+diffusely as a rule) a large ganglion with numerous multipolar cells of
+all sizes, many of them gigantic, sometimes exceeding the so-called motor
+cells (which they simulate in shape) of the lumbar enlargement in size.
+Scattered in the "reticular substance" of the medulla from the upper end
+of the fourth ventricle to the pyramidal decussation, they merit the
+collective designation of reticular ganglia.
+
+The cells of the reticular formation are known to be connected with the
+nerve nuclei, on the one hand, and with longitudinal fasciculi, which,
+since they run into the cord, terminate either in the grey matter or the
+nerve roots directly, for nerve fibres do not terminate with, as it were,
+blind ends. Now in the mammalian brain the reticular ganglion lies
+scattered among fibres which come from the higher centres, and the
+interpellation might be made whether, after all, the reticular ganglion be
+not a mere intercalar station for fibres derived from a higher source.
+Originally the ganglion was an independent station. In reptiles this body
+of cells is too considerable to account for a termination in them of the
+few cerebral fibres possessed by these animals. And, on the other hand,
+the vertical strands are notably increased in their passage through the
+field of the medulla oblongata.
+
+The medulla oblongata with its reticular ganglion seems to be the great
+rhythmic centre. In fish the movements of the operculum and mouth, in
+sharks those of the spiraculum, in perenni-branchiate amphibians the
+branchial tree, in the infant the suctorial muscles, in all vertebrates
+the movements of deglutition, of the heart and respiratory muscles, all
+movements presenting a more or less regular rhythm, are under the control
+of the medulla oblongata. The early differentiation of this part of the
+cerebro-spinal axis is related to the manifestations of rhythmic movements
+in the embryo and their predominant importance in lower animals. The
+possibility should not be excluded that a rhythmic movement may be spinal,
+nay even controlled by peripheral ganglia (heart of embryo). A higher
+development, however, implies the concentration of rhythmic innervations
+at some point where that anatomical association may be effected which is
+the expression of the mutual influence these movements exercise among
+themselves.
+
+Two sets of phenomena must be borne in mind in studying the physiological
+pathology of the epileptic attack. First, the condition of the epileptic
+in the interval. Second, the explosion itself. Too much attention is paid
+to the last, too little attention to the first. The constitutional
+epileptic is characterised by a general deficiency of tone associated with
+exaggerated reaction and irritability. Thus the pupils are at once widely
+dilated and unusually mobile. The muscular system, though generally
+relaxed, manifests exaggerated reflex excitability. The mental state is
+characterised at once by great indifference and undue irascibility. In the
+same way the vascular system is depressed in tone in the interval with
+rapid marked changes under excitation. The state of the nervous system as
+a whole Spitzka forcibly compares to that of an elastic band which, being
+on the stretch continually, is apt to rebound violently when one end is
+let go. Under normal circumstances the band is less stretched and hence
+not as liable to fly so far when the check is removed.
+
+An irritation which, in health, produces restlessness of the muscular
+system, accelerated respiration and pulsation and various mental phenomena
+within the normal limits, in the epileptic results in more intense
+phenomena in the same direction. The nervous irritability of the epileptic
+manifests itself in one direction especially. An important vaso-motor
+centre for the brain vessels exists, possibly diffused through an area
+somewhere between the thalamus and subthalamic region above the pyramidal
+decussation below. The irritability of this centre results in sudden
+arterial spasm in the carotid distribution (so characteristic a feature of
+the fit onset); simultaneously with the contraction of the vessel the
+pupil undergoes an initial contraction, and relaxation instantly results
+in both cases. The sudden interference with the brain circulation produces
+unconsciousness, and destroys the checking influence of the higher centres
+on the reflexes in a manner analogous to any shock affecting the nerve
+centres. In the meantime, while there has been a sudden deprivation of
+arterial blood and a sinking of intracranial pressure so far as the great
+cerebral masses are concerned, there has been as sudden an influx of blood
+to the unaffected district of the vertebral arteries whose irrigation
+territory is now the seat of an arterial hyperaemia. The result of this is
+that the great convulsion centre, the medulla, being over-nourished,
+functional excess, that is, convulsion, occurs unchecked by the cerebral
+hemispheres, which are disabled by their nutritive shock. The
+unconsciousness and coma of epilepsy more resemble shock than they do
+cerebral anaemia or syncope. The impeded return circulation of venous blood
+now comes into play. The contraction of the neck muscles explains this
+obstruction and especially the accumulation of venous blood in the
+cerebral capillaries of the medulla.
+
+True epilepsy presents an enormous number of sub-groups, exhibiting every
+variety of deviation from the ideal convulsive form, and the existence of
+these forms tends to demonstrate the views just expressed. In ordinary
+petit mal the initial arterial spasm has but to be confined to the surface
+of the hemispheres, leaving the thalamus ganglia undisturbed, and it can
+readily be understood how the momentary unconsciousness or abolition of
+cortical function can occur without the patient falling, his automatic
+ganglia still carrying on their functions. At the same time with the
+lesser spasm there would be a less extensive sinking of intracranial
+pressure with less consecutive collateral hyperaemia of the lower centres
+and therefore no convulsion.
+
+In certain cases the arterial spasm fails to affect the entire cortical
+surface simultaneously; some one trunk may be more pervious, and as afflux
+of blood may occur in its special field where certain impressions and
+motor innervations are stored, the result will then be that the function
+of the relatively well-nourished territory will be exalted. If it be a
+visual perception territory, sights, colours or luminous spectra will be
+seen; if it be an olfactory territory, odours will be smelt; if a tactile
+centre, crawling, tingling and cold sensation are felt; if a speech
+centre, cries, phrases, and songs may be observed. This explains the
+manifold epileptic aura, which is simply an isolated, exaggerated, and
+limited cortical function. The recurrence of the aura is readily
+explicable on the ground of the well-known physiological law that any
+nervous process, morbid or normal, having run through certain paths, those
+paths will be the paths of least resistance for that process to follow in
+the future.
+
+These conditions will be greatly exaggerated in proportion to the
+deficiencies in the associating tracts and will often, in turn, pervert
+these. The sexo-religious and other mental states of epilepsy often
+closely mimic normal mentation and serve to disguise the intense depth of
+degeneracy which epilepsy implies.
+
+In their explosive, unchecked character the morbid restlessness of the
+neurotic, hysteric, and criminal depend upon like brain disorder to that
+of the epileptic, except that consciousness is not involved, and with
+conscious acts are intermingled those preceding from the lower automatic
+processes described. Consciousness, however, is sometimes lost in part,
+whence frequently the defects so often noticed in the thoughts of the
+degenerates.
+
+The two following cases which have come to my notice illustrate the
+obliteration of the function of limited areas of the brain. A young lady,
+aged 22, of refinement and highly accomplished, was engaged to be married.
+One evening her _fiance_ called; she failed to recognise him and he
+remained ever after a stranger to her. In every other respect her mind was
+seemingly normal. She died of tuberculosis. In another case a young lady,
+an expert stenographer, while riding her wheel, fell striking her head
+against a stone. She remained unconscious for some days, and was quite ill
+for three or four months. After her recovery she was much surprised to
+find that she knew nothing about her former employment, although her brain
+was perfectly normal in other respects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+Since, as Weismann[263] admits, interference with the nutrition of the
+germ plasm will result in the production of variations, the fact is
+evident that even according to the Weismannian principle the nutrition of
+the parents will determine the power of the embryo to pass through the
+various embryonic stages up to the developed child. Impairment of
+nutrition may check this development at any standpoint, and may thus
+produce any or all of the defects due to degeneracy. Weismann has no doubt
+about the inheritance of a "tuberculous habit whose peculiarities are
+certainly transmissible." Practically, therefore, even according to
+Weismann, that most emphatic critic of the transmission of hereditary
+defect, a condition of nervous exhaustion is produced in the parents which
+may be transmitted as a whole to the offspring, or may simply so affect
+the ovum as to produce various arrests in development with hypertrophies
+elsewhere. The influence of nervous prostration in the father may be
+overcome by conditions in the mother tending to help development. As her
+share in the germ plasm is most emphatic, not only at the time of the
+formation, but also during the entire development of the embryo,
+production of degeneracy will largely depend on her nutrition. The
+influence of healthy atavism is much more emphatically exerted through the
+female, albeit even in the male it may overcome the nervous exhaustion of
+the ancestor so far as reproduction of it is concerned.
+
+While many are called, few, owing to healthy atavism, are therefore chosen
+for complete degeneracy. Although heredity plays a large part in the
+degeneracy of the individual, still environment in many cases exerts a
+greater influence in determining, according as it strengthens or weakens
+healthy atavism, the depth of degeneracy. Treatment, therefore, both of
+the individual and of the family is largely a question of prophylaxis or
+prevention.
+
+In prophylaxis of the family the first indication is to stop the
+production of degenerates. Two measures have attracted considerable
+attention, and from their seeming simplicity have met with much favour.
+The first is regulation of marriage. This, as a means of preventing
+degeneracy, has been much over-estimated. Laws claiming to regulate
+marriage have ignored two factors. In the first place the graver
+degeneracies only are taken into account. From what has been shown as
+regards the tendency of the degenerate to intermarry, and from the fact
+that restraints on marriage inevitably result in illicit relationships of
+permanent character (equally productive of degenerates whose defects have
+been increased by the condition in which they are born), the only
+procedure likely to be of value in this relation is to regard marriage
+simply as a contract designed for certain ends and permit its annulment
+for fraud, for concealment of defects (intentionally or otherwise)
+incompatible with the procreation of healthy children. In its essence this
+is the English common law theory. Its principle is recognised by the
+divorce codes of various continental European countries. Furthermore, it
+is on this principle that the Pope not infrequently annuls marriages,
+divorce not being recognised by the Church of which he is the head. It is
+certainly best for the stability of the family that unhealthy unions
+should have the least permanency possible.
+
+Another element in prophylaxis, castration, ignores completely the rights
+of individuals under the English common law (and, so far as the United
+States is concerned, a provision of its constitution). Although
+sacrificing these important guards against that degeneracy in the body
+politic which inevitably reflects itself in degeneracy in the individual,
+this procedure fails to accomplish its end, since it ignores completely
+the principle of transformation in heredity. The distance between the
+criminals (whom it is proposed to castrate) and the hysteric offspring of
+good family is not so great that the progeny of one will not be as
+degenerate as the progeny of the other. Whatever may be said of the value
+of this procedure as a deterrent, its use as a prophylactic is
+comparatively small.
+
+Much better results are obtainable by guarding women from the factors of
+degeneracy during puberty and during matronhood. Many nations whose laws
+ostentatiously regulate marriage in a manner most oppressive to individual
+liberty entail by their customs over-work in a spasmodic manner during
+puberty and during matronhood. Nations whose customs permit women and
+dogs to be harnessed together as beasts of burden, to carry the hod and to
+dig trenches for sewers, gas, and waterpipes, cry out very loudly against
+the dangerous license of the English-speaking nations in permitting women
+to intrude on male occupations. There is no doubt but that women (and it
+may be said a large majority of men) are now through evolution unsuited to
+occupations involving spasmodic expenditure of force, and well suited to
+those implying continuity. As Bachhofen, Reclus, and Otis T. Mason have
+shown, two-thirds of the occupations of this last type have been created
+by women. Man, as Havelock Ellis demonstrates, in accordance with the law
+of evolutionary advance, is adjusting himself to these occupations.
+Attempts to regulate employment of women in unhealthy trades are a step in
+the right direction so far as prevention of a factor of degeneracy is
+concerned, since it can be carried out without that disregard of personal
+liberty which is more dangerous in such attempts at regulation than the
+defect to be regulated.
+
+The periods of menstruation and pregnancy in degenerate women require
+(from what has been said on maternal impressions) special attention suited
+to the individual, and not prescribed indiscriminately for all classes. An
+excellent illustration of the dangers of Procrustean prescription is the
+instance where the vegetarianism of the mother during pregnancy was
+followed by the production of ill-nourished offspring. Diet during
+pregnancy undoubtedly can exercise a great influence for good, but this
+diet must ignore the "longings" of pregnant women, which are simply the
+bulimia, or abnormal appetite for food, produced by irritation of the
+medulla.
+
+In dealing with the toxic factors the question of legal regulation of the
+opium and alcohol habits requires attention. There is very little doubt
+but that the routine prescription of alcohol and opium (in the shape of
+paregoric and soothing syrup) by the laity for painful menses, teething,
+toothache, &c., underlies many cases of degeneracy in the offspring. This
+prescription is the more dangerous because it is recommended in the hidden
+guise of nostrums by hysterics with blatant alcoholophobia. One of the
+most energetic female advocates of the legal prohibition of alcohol
+beverages endorsed very emphatically the nostrum of one of her hysteric
+supporters which contained 50 per cent. alcohol and 1 per cent. each of
+cocaine and morphine. As the persons largely under the influence of such
+endorsement were hysterics whose zeal for reform was largely an expression
+for desire for notoriety, the dangers of its use during menstruation
+cannot well be over-estimated. To reach this serious source of degeneracy
+from alcohol and the narcotics, statement on each bottle of the exact
+composition of nostrums should be exacted by law.
+
+Government could exercise a potent influence for good on alcohol abuse by
+improvement of sanitary conditions in the tenement or apartment house
+districts. Experience in New York and elsewhere has shown that improvement
+in tenement houses produces decided decrease in the number of dram shops
+in tenement-house neighbourhoods. The earlier tenement-houses in New York,
+as elsewhere, were originally dwellings intended for one family. As these
+were replaced by houses specially built for tenements, with proper
+sanitary arrangements and improved ventilation, not only did a tremendous
+decrease occur in the infantile death-rate, but a decrease also in the
+patronage of dram shops. In many instances it was apparent that alcoholic
+abuse had grown out of poverty. Foul air and crowded quarters had begotten
+not only a desire for stimulants but a desire for social intercourse. The
+dram shop met social needs as a club. It is along this line that
+Government can make best use of its police powers.
+
+The Government, in exercise of its police powers directed to sanitary
+ends, could enable the trade unions to secure improved sanitation in shops
+in which occupations unhealthy by themselves or because of environment,
+are carried on. In this way improved sanitation of unhealthy occupations
+could be best secured.
+
+The prophylaxis of degeneracy in the mother and father may be summed up as
+simply the prevention of a state of neurasthenia, or nervous exhaustion,
+whether this condition (involving the functions of growth, motion and
+sensation, which, as Marinesco has shown, exist in every neuron and its
+processes) exhibit itself in the general nervous system or in the organs
+connected with alimentation, elaboration, and excretion. Every factor of
+acquired degeneracy produces what is practically this condition of
+neurasthenia ere exerting any influence in the production of degeneracy.
+In other words, the neurasthenia of the ancestor becomes the neurosis of
+the descendant. Therefore the neurasthenia requires in its treatment in
+the ancestor the removal of the exciting cause and the treatment of the
+effect by physiologic rest in the truest sense of the word. In a general
+way, therefore, the ordinary principles of hygiene applied to each
+individual case will suffice to prevent development of this neurasthenia.
+The part of Government in this is very small. It is true here that, as
+remarked by Johnson--
+
+  "How small of all that human hearts endure,
+  That part which kings or laws can cure!"
+
+Training of the individual rather than governmental regulation must be the
+factor to prevent degeneracy in the ancestor. Indeed governmental
+regulation by injuring self-reliance (that factor so easily destroyed and
+so hardly regained) may itself be a potent factor in degeneracy.
+
+Prophylaxis of degeneracy in the individual should commence with the birth
+of the child. Whatever may be said of hypothetical ante-natal training,
+there is no doubt that considerable benefit can be accomplished during the
+first months of life. As the great aim of training is to secure
+self-control, it must be obvious that to accustom an infant to expect
+attention at every moment it cries, whether the cry be the expression of
+need or not, is to weaken, not to strengthen, its self-control.
+Furthermore, regularity in bodily functions is a great source of strength.
+The child can be trained during the first months of life by careful
+attention to its wants on the one hand, and as careful inattention to its
+caprice on the other, so that all its functions become equably regular and
+automatic. With this regularity many of the factors underlying caprice,
+peevishness, and anger can be prevented in the earliest months of life.
+Unless there be enormous deficiency in the associating fibres a good start
+can then be made toward the creation of a secondary ego. It is at this
+period and during that of the first dentition that training is too often
+neglected or perverted in such a way as to strengthen the primary ego at
+the expense of the secondary. At this period the extent of training needed
+may be judged by the amount of stigmata, few though they be, present in
+the child. With the period of the first dentition certain mental and
+nervous stigmata manifest themselves. If the child be liable to
+convulsions on the slightest causes, if it manifest screaming fits without
+apparent reason, if it be frequently assailed by night terrors, serious
+attention is needed, and this attention should be directed not only to its
+mental and nervous condition, but also to its functions of assimilation,
+elaboration, and excretion. Here dangerous degeneracy may show itself
+which is not apparent elsewhere. The training of the child should be
+conducted along the lines recommended during the first months of life. The
+essential principles governing this have been excellently outlined by
+Jules Morel.[264] The treatment of all degenerates, and consequently their
+preservation from the evils that threaten them, ought to begin in their
+earliest infancy. First avoid exaggerating hereditary predisposition when
+serious neurosis has occurred in the parental line. Too often such a
+conclusion is adopted, and hope of recovery in the descendants is
+abandoned because one of the parents or the grandparents was affected with
+insanity by reason of organic disease of the brain. Preliminary
+examination of the neurotic needs to be made before one is enabled to
+judge as to the effects of heredity. Only after a careful examination can
+the extent of heredity be determined. The proof will be beyond doubt when
+in parents and in their children stigmata of anatomic and physical
+degeneration are abundantly found.
+
+In dealing with the question of the education of the child, the signs of
+fatigue expressed in the ears and face should receive attention. Attempts
+are being made in the schools of Chicago and elsewhere to determine these.
+The following schedule prepared by Colin A. Scott for the Chicago Public
+Schools is an excellent means towards this end:--
+
+    _Eye_:--Each eye should be examined separately and in a good light.
+    Hold a card over one eye while the other is being examined. In using
+    the optometer, find the place where vision of the dots is the easiest
+    and most distinct. In using Snellen's test card, place the pupil at
+    the distance marked upon the card. Have him begin at the top and read
+    down as far as he can, first with one eye and then with the other. He
+    should be able to read a majority of the test type. Test with
+    optometer, and in reporting use the number on the stem preceded by F
+    for far-sightedness, and N for near-sightedness.
+
+    Place the card for astigmatism at the distance marked upon it. Cover
+    one eye and ask pupil to indicate, without moving nearer, the circles
+    which appear blacker or lighter than the others. Bring the card nearer
+    and find at how many feet distant he still sees any of the circles
+    darker or lighter than the others. At a sufficient distance every one
+    betrays some degree of astigmatism, which is of consequence as a
+    defect only when capable of detection within the distance indicated
+    upon the card. Outside of this point astigmatism may be reckoned as
+    absent and marked 0 in the report. Note if the pupil suffers
+    habitually from inflamed eyelids, and inquire if he complains of tired
+    and painful eyes or headaches after reading, studying, or using his
+    eyes in other similar ways. Note any other defect of formation or
+    position of either eye. Test the movement of the eyes by moving a coin
+    to about eighteen inches of the eyes.
+
+    Test each ear with the same watch in the same place and position.
+    Establish the normal degree of hearing for your room under these
+    conditions. Describe each ear in the report as--(1) normal; (2)
+    slightly hard of hearing; (3) hard of hearing; (4) considerably deaf;
+    or (5) deaf. As a further test, place the pupil at a distance and ask
+    him to repeat a number of words or letters. In all of these tests care
+    must be taken to avoid the possibility of suggestion in asking
+    questions or by other means. Note if the child is a mouth-breather, or
+    gives other signs of adenoids or enlarged tonsils. Notice circulation
+    in each ear.
+
+    _Signs of Fatigue, &c._:--In no case should it be said in the presence
+    of a young child that he is nervous or defective in development or
+    nutrition.
+
+    Note the position and balance of the body in standing and sitting, and
+    whether the movements are--(1) habitually restless and fidgety; (2)
+    note especially the balance of the head; and (3) position and
+    occupation of the hands, showing nervousness or not; (4) note any
+    twitching or marked lack of motor control in any part of the body; (5)
+    note whether the pupil flushes periodically or frequently; is the
+    pupil (6) easily excited or (7) fatigued by task in school or at home?
+    Inquire if the pupil has frequent "morning tire" (number of days per
+    month) or headaches not connected with serious defects of the eyes.
+    (8) Is he unduly irritable or irascible? Are there any other signs of
+    lack of emotional control--for example, (9) being too easily
+    impressed; or (10) with an undue tendency to tears, or uncontrollable
+    laughter?
+
+    Note the general condition of bodily nutrition (this by no means
+    depends directly upon food), and the number of signs of failure in
+    physical development (height, weight, &c.)
+
+Researches along this line in Germany and England have shown that the
+fatigue produced by studies varies, and that it is possible by arranging
+sequence of studies to remove fatigue produced by one study through the
+rest furnished by another. It has been found that biology exhausts least
+and mathematics and grammar most. While there is undoubtedly a spirit of
+emulation stirred by these last two studies which is injurious, the
+limited associations affected by them are further a source of fatigue as
+well. The numerous associations of biology afford points of rest on the
+one hand while not tending to emulation on the other. It is this spirit of
+emulation, with its attendant alternation of worry and hope, that causes
+so many of the acquired nervous disorders of the adult, and which hence is
+obviously much more potent for evil in the child.
+
+Physical and mental training in the special asylums for imbeciles and
+idiots gives such splendid results that it is surprising that parents, and
+especially those charged with bad heredity, are not encouraged and advised
+by their physicians and friends to try from the first year of the child's
+life special measures for their preservation. If a persevering physical
+and psychic management of the weak-minded gives such admirable results in
+asylums, it would be still better if the child could be trained from the
+earliest period of its life. This subject is ignored by the public, and in
+every case not sufficiently appreciated. First of all try to preserve
+patients of a nervous or of a weak constitution. They should know in what
+state of health they are living, they must be informed of the great danger
+of matrimonial union with a person of the same tendencies, and especially
+when consanguinity exists between them. The greatest care is to be given
+to children of this class. Experience has already led to the conclusion
+that mental and physical overwork increases this defect: hence young
+brains must not be over-excited with worry or emotionalism. The will of
+children ought to be cultivated and strengthened. Their minds should be
+methodically educated. The bodily functions should never be artificially
+stimulated in any way, to increase unduly the assimilation of the food.
+Development of the intelligence, the sensibility and the physical
+training, should be looked after in the same way. Once a plan of living is
+laid down it should be followed. Success depends on this. The great
+influence of hygienic conditions (air, light, food, dress, habitation,
+sleep, muscular exercise, &c.) should not be forgotten, for without them
+efforts made for mental training are useless. By putting these methods
+into execution an increase of the congenital taint is prevented, and such
+methods perceptibly amend the psychopathic depreciation which in the usual
+way of living would certainly become worse. The object very often thus
+secured is double; aggravation has been prevented, amelioration has been
+obtained.
+
+In dealing with nervous exhaustion produced by the infectious diseases,
+the dangers of the convalescent period are not sufficiently taken into
+account. Parents are but too apt from mistaken motives of economy to
+dismiss the physician at the onset of convalescence. It is precisely at
+this period that the system hovers between permanent systemic defect and
+recovery. Proper diet and proper training at this time will often prevent
+the checking of puberty development, and hence a breakdown under the
+stress of that period. The same is true of the convalescent period from
+such diseases in adults. Many a mother has thus injured her constitution
+and given birth to degenerate children in marked contrast with the
+normality of the children born before.
+
+Frequently efforts are unsuccessful either because the family physician
+and the educator have no time to superintend treatment, or because they
+are unable, for many reasons, to individualise treatment properly. Hence
+the high value of well-organised special boarding schools for the
+degenerate.
+
+The special aim, says Koch, is to teach the patient to govern himself, to
+repose confidence in himself. To reach this end a great deal is required
+of him who undertakes the treatment. He has to exercise himself with
+patience. He must know how to divide the time for work and the time for
+rest. For many of these ill-balanced subjects variety is wanted as well in
+physical work as mental training.
+
+Those charged with these remedies, exercising good judgment, are soon able
+to distinguish the more favourable cases from the more difficult. They can
+soon say that a favourable remedy for the one may be noxious for another,
+and _vice versa_. Tonics, spirits, cold baths, &c., and even hypnotism may
+be tried, but great caution is to be exercised, and these remedies should
+never be employed except by prescription of physicians.
+
+Even subjects of congenital mental instability suffering from obsession
+(imperative ideas) without delusions are not inaccessible to treatment. In
+these cases naturally the most important part belongs to the medical
+treatment as in most mental cases. The more serious cases, dating from the
+first youth and aggravated in proportion to the age, are not to be
+completely cured. The progressive evolution can be stopped and patients
+ameliorated in such a way that improvement makes their life bearable.
+
+The same results can be obtained with less degenerate subjects. Success
+occurs often when patients are enabled to understand the nature of their
+sufferings, to discern that their disease does not belong to insanity,
+that it is unlikely to lead to mental disease. This understanding is one
+of the best of all anodynes. Donders, of Utrecht, said to one of his
+patients suffering from optic hyperaesthesia of neurasthenic origin: "What
+medicine cannot do, time and oftentime hygiene realise." The intelligent
+patient having thus received assurance of his sight, good hygiene and
+mental rest soon after produced a cure. Acquired mental depreciation may
+exist from the first years of the child's life. These depreciations in
+proportion to their intensity are characterised by fatigue and even
+nervous exhaustion accompanied with physical weakness and functional
+trouble in one or more organs of sense, by pathological debility of the
+intelligence and impaired memory especially for recent facts, difficulty
+of comprehension and of associating ideas and judgment, as well as
+worries, fears, despairs, especially in cases of intoxications by
+morphine, cocaine, bromides, coffee, &c. These are increased by
+irritability and excitability when the troubles arise from onanism,
+puberty, or other periods of transformation in the sexual life.
+
+Fight from the first the symptoms of predisposing and occasional causes,
+because if aggravation be prevented recovery is possible. Especially in
+these depreciations must the physician utilise all his knowledge and prove
+that only mental science is sufficient to cure such patients. Not only has
+he to guide the intellectual life, and life of sensibility and will, but
+he has also to remedy the morbid physical conditions, to superintend the
+general regime, times of work and rest, air, light, dressing, preservation
+from alcoholic and other excesses.
+
+One great element of possible danger of the first importance is training
+in the sexual sphere. To avoid and at the same time to enlighten is the
+problem presented. In dealing with this problem the great requirement,
+balance, not repression, must be kept in mind. Masturbation is very
+frequently an expression not of mental or moral deficiency, but of purely
+local (first in at least most cases) physical conditions. Irritation (from
+the presence of worms in the rectum or vagina, an intensely acid state of
+the urine, or constipation) to male foreskin and female clitoris has
+produced a local itching, the attempt to relieve which has led to
+masturbation. Granting all that has been said about the deteriorating
+effects, especially in degenerates, the source should first be sought
+here. Attention to these physical states will often prevent the
+development of this practice and its resultant moral deterioration.
+
+In dealing with the sexual appetite the fact should be remembered that
+encouragement of healthy modesty is a duty in both sexes, and
+pre-eminently so in the male. Too much of what is called "sexual purity"
+is very often an expression of sexual perversity. While great stress has
+been laid on the evil effects of association between boys, too little
+stress has been laid on the danger of the training of boys by women. The
+sexual history of boys often demonstrates that their initiation into the
+sexual life was first at the instance of women older than themselves,
+often servants, but not rarely sexual "purists" or persons whose
+ostentatious religiosity covered a sexual perversity. In the healthy
+association of the sexes there is very little danger, but in such morbid
+association there is great danger, the more that the morbid conceals
+itself under religiosity and the allied phases of sexual perversion. Great
+stress has been laid on the dangers of co-education, but the growing
+opinion is that education limited to one sex is the source of even greater
+dangers to both boy and girl. It is a matter of common observation among
+genito-urinary specialists, alienists and gynecologists, that much of the
+alleged "purity" so ostentatiously displayed by graduates of colleges
+limited to one sex, is often the offspring of a sexual perversion which,
+whether congenital or not, has been fostered by the environment of one sex
+without the modifying, healthy influence of the other.
+
+In dealing with these cases the stigmata first likely to attract the
+physician's attention are in the milder cases those of the jaws, teeth,
+nose, throat, ear, and eye. Rapid decay of the teeth often leads to the
+discovery not merely of constitutional degeneracy, but also of the effects
+of certain strains which aggravated this. Dentists, mouth, throat, ear,
+and to a lesser degree eye specialists, are hence in a position to detect
+degeneracy at its outset. If they do not put the cart before the horse,
+and refer the constitutional symptoms to the local disturbances, they are
+in a position to be of eminent service to the race.
+
+What Jules Morel has said of the more evident degenerates is equally true
+of the others. Education should be conducted along the lines which Froebel
+indicated when he pointed out that play is the child's work, and that a
+development of this work is the natural problem for education. Extension
+of the general training of the whole body, from the properly conducted
+kindergarten to the school, is the principle on which all education should
+be conducted. This is recognised by advanced educators, as previously it
+had been recognised by the physician confronted with the effects of school
+strain resulting from the opposite theory. Manual training is a principle
+long adopted by idiot schools, where training of certain muscles through
+both mental and physical methods precedes intellectual training alone.
+Manual training may, however, be the source of equal dangers with the
+excessive abuse of intellectual training which preceded it. In the
+education of the degenerate, as in the education of the other members of
+the race, the true source of success is to avoid "the falsehood of
+extremes."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF AUTHORS
+
+
+  Agassiz, 43
+
+  Aitken, Sir W., 86
+
+  Alexander, Harriet C. B., 57, 151, 285, 320, 335
+
+  Amabile, 61, 109
+
+  Amadei, 20
+
+  Annandale, 263
+
+  Andronico, 319
+
+  Anstie, 83
+
+  Aquinas, St. Thomas, 6
+
+  Aristotle, 5, 6, 10, 11, 66
+
+  Attmyer, 12
+
+  Aubry, 77
+
+  Augustine, St., 6
+
+  Awl, 144
+
+  Ayres, Howard, 201
+
+
+  Bacon, Francis, 3
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 6
+
+  Bachhofen, 349
+
+  Baer, Von, 13, 70, 172
+
+  Bannister, H. M., 87
+
+  Bastian, 297
+
+  Bauer, S., 47
+
+  Beach, Fletcher, 25
+
+  Bemiss, S. M., 81, 86
+
+  Benedikt, 22
+
+  Berwig, Elise, 60
+
+  Billod, 143
+
+  Bischoff, 298
+
+  Bjornstrom, 20
+
+  Bock, 204
+
+  Boethius, 4
+
+  Bourgeois, 86
+
+  Bremer, L., 117
+
+  Brigham, 8, 18, 21, 144
+
+  Broca, 18
+
+  Brown-Sequard, 48
+
+  Bruce, 204
+
+  Buchanan, 214
+
+  Buffon, 5, 67
+
+  Bullard, 115, 116
+
+  Bulwer, 122
+
+  Bureau, 109
+
+  Burnett, 45
+
+  Burton, 3
+
+  Byron, Lord, 78
+
+
+  Calkins, 109
+
+  Campagne, 18, 176
+
+  Camper, 12, 181, 183, 185, 187
+
+  Carpenter, G. T., 245
+
+  Carson, 61
+
+  Catlin, 173
+
+  Charrin, 65, 71, 72, 122
+
+  Chiarrurgi, 8
+
+  Christopher, W. S., 145, 150, 156
+
+  Clapham, Crochley, 176
+
+  Clark, C. K., 142
+
+  Clouston, 25, 336
+
+  Cohen, M. A., 47, 48
+
+  Cohn, 287
+
+  Conger, 88, 89
+
+  Coolidge, F. S., 71, 122, 268
+
+  Cope, E. D., 52, 179
+
+  Cowles, 21
+
+  Cullen, 287
+
+  Cunningham, 31
+
+
+  Dally, 12
+
+  Dana, C. L., 24, 197, 337
+
+  Dareste, 67, 70, 203, 268, 301
+
+  Darier, 90
+
+  Davis, Barnard, 174
+
+  Davis, Chas., 81
+
+  Darwin, Chas., 9, 131, 212, 213, 214
+
+  Darwin, Erasmus, 7, 12
+
+  Darwin, G. H., 82, 83
+
+  Defoe, 92
+
+  Demarquay, 200
+
+  Dent, 286
+
+  Des Champs, 332, 334
+
+  Despine, 18
+
+  Dewees, W. P., 125
+
+  Dickens, Chas., 289
+
+  Dixon, 102
+
+  Dohrn, 5, 15, 32
+
+  Donders, 359
+
+  Down, Langdon, 25, 82, 91, 105, 199, 331
+
+  Double, Le, 64
+
+  Doutrebente, 75
+
+  Dryden, 10
+
+  Duncan, J. M., 91
+
+  Du Puy, 50, 51, 52, 71
+
+  Dumas, Alexander, 322
+
+  Dyer, Thistleton, 2
+
+
+  Earle, F. B., 61, 109
+
+  Eimer, 49
+
+  Ellis, Havelock, 34, 103, 133, 349
+
+  Erlenmeyer, 61, 109
+
+  Esquirol, 9, 24
+
+  Etienne, 115
+
+  Ewald, 159
+
+  Eykman, 137
+
+
+  Farnham, Eliza, 2
+
+  Fere, 45, 56, 66, 69, 159, 200, 289
+
+  Felken, 138, 139
+
+  Fernelius, 3
+
+  Fisher, 21
+
+  Fletcher, 142
+
+  Folsom, 21, 154, 203
+
+  Fothergill, 31, 287
+
+  Foville, 20, 175, 362
+
+  Fowler, G. B., 157
+
+  Frigerio, 217, 218
+
+
+  Galen, 5
+
+  Galt, 18, 21
+
+  Galton, 54, 207
+
+  Geddes, 40
+
+  Gibney, V. P., 55
+
+  Gihon, 135
+
+  Giovanni, De, 73, 126
+
+  Gley, 65, 71, 72, 122
+
+  Godding, W. W., 21, 22
+
+  Goethe, 6
+
+  Gomme, 95
+
+  Gordon, B. O., 47, 48
+
+  Gray, J. P., 22, 24, 62
+
+  Grenzer, 199
+
+  Griesinger, 24
+
+  Grille, 20
+
+  Grimaldi, 320
+
+  Grohmann, 12, 17
+
+
+  Haeckel, 282
+
+  Hamilton, A. McL., 24
+
+  Hammond, W. A., 328
+
+  Hannover, 203
+
+  Harris, Elisha, 18
+
+  Harvey, William, 1
+
+  Hawthorne, N., 218
+
+  Heschl, 314
+
+  Heuse, 64
+
+  Heusinger, 10
+
+  Hilaire, G. St., 6
+
+  Hippocrates, 6, 138
+
+  His, 303
+
+  Hogden, 119
+
+  Howard, H., 24
+
+  Howe, Delia E., 194
+
+  Hoyt, C. S., 20
+
+  Hubbard, F. H., 20, 61, 109
+
+  Hughes, C. H., 21, 61, 109
+
+  Huss, 105
+
+  Huss, Magnus, 107
+
+  Hutchinson, 200, 238, 240
+
+  Huth, A. H., 82, 83
+
+
+  Ireland, 25, 201
+
+  Irving, Washington, 43
+
+  Itard, 25
+
+
+  Jacobi, 9, 25
+
+  James, Alex., 73
+
+  Johnson, 105
+
+  Johnston, Sir H. H., 101, 117, 118
+
+  Julien, 281
+
+
+  Kant, 162
+
+  Kasparek, 64
+
+  Keane, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99
+
+  Kerlin, 20, 21, 24, 25
+
+  Key, Axel, 20
+
+  Kiernan, J. G., 1, 8, 10, 22, 24, 30, 53, 59, 62, 63, 71, 73, 87, 88,
+  90, 94, 95, 96, 97, 105, 106, 109, 119, 139, 144, 152, 166, 201, 206,
+  265, 267, 278, 285, 296, 297, 300, 320, 325, 333
+
+  Kingsley, 181
+
+  Knecht, 199
+
+  Kowalevsky, 14, 19
+
+  Krafft-Ebing, 20, 66, 105, 323, 324
+
+  Koch, 368
+
+
+  Lagorio, A., 59
+
+  Lamarck, 7
+
+  Landolt, 204
+
+  Lankester, Ray, 14, 31
+
+  Laing, 96
+
+  Lauvergne, 12
+
+  Le Double, 64
+
+  Lelut, 12
+
+  Levenstein, 61
+
+  Lind, Jas., 138
+
+  Lockwood, 48
+
+  Lombroso, 13, 21, 60, 320, 331
+
+  Lucas, Prosper, 12, 200
+
+  Luys, 78
+
+
+  Macaulay, 5
+
+  Macdonald, Jas., 21
+
+  Magalhaes, 330
+
+  Magnan, 20
+
+  Manning, 87
+
+  Marestang, 137
+
+  Marie, 278
+
+  Marro, 89
+
+  Marsh, 200
+
+  Marshall, 17
+
+  Mason, O. P., 349
+
+  Maudsley, 17, 24, 25, 66
+
+  Maupas, 41, 44, 80
+
+  Maupertius, 263
+
+  Mattison, 61, 109
+
+  McFarland, A., 21
+
+  McBride, J. H., 21
+
+  Meige, 274
+
+  Menatta, 102, 103
+
+  Mendel, 117
+
+  Mercier, 66
+
+  Merrick, 319
+
+  Merrill, 64
+
+  Meynert, 15, 20, 66, 298, 299, 312
+
+  Mickle, 176
+
+  Mills, C. K., 25, 304, 305
+
+  Milne-Edwards, 333
+
+  Minot, 35, 161, 178
+
+  Mitchell, A., 82, 91
+
+  Mitchell, Weir, 159
+
+  Monteyel, De, 87, 285
+
+  Moor, 71
+
+  Moquia-Tandea, 43
+
+  Moreau (de Tours), 10, 12, 16, 66, 72
+
+  Morel, A. B., 9, 10, 13, 24, 27, 63, 66, 67, 142, 213
+
+  Morel, Jules, 253, 362
+
+  Morton, 173
+
+  Moyer, H. N., 268
+
+  Muhr, 303
+
+  Mummery, 247
+
+  Munson, 141
+
+  Murray, 200
+
+  Murrell, 61, 109
+
+  Myer, Ludwig, 214
+
+
+  Nichols, C. H., 21
+
+  Nicolson, 20, 25
+
+  Niepce, 7
+
+  Nothnagel, 338
+
+
+  Obersteiner, 50
+
+  Obici, 175
+
+  Ogle, 200
+
+  Osborn, 5, 202
+
+  Osler, 25, 286, 289
+
+
+  Paddock, C. E., 73, 129
+
+  Parkman, 8, 12, 153
+
+  Patterson, 21, 144
+
+  Petrie, Flinders, 96
+
+  Petersen, F., 173
+
+  Phisalix, C., 204
+
+  Pinckard, C. P., 206
+
+  Pinel, 8
+
+  Planches, Tanquerel des, 119
+
+  Plato, 11
+
+  Potain, 286
+
+  Prichard, 8, 18
+
+  Proctor, 53
+
+  Pruner-Bey, 132
+
+
+  Raleigh, Sir Walter, 111
+
+  Ray, I., 8, 24, 81
+
+  Reclus, 349
+
+  Remondino, P. C., 47
+
+  Rennert, 62, 119
+
+  Ribot, 45
+
+  Ricochon, 73
+
+  Rilliet, 80
+
+  Ringer, 109
+
+  Roller, 87
+
+  Rolph, 106
+
+  Roof, 106
+
+  Rosser, C. V., 246
+
+  Royce, 18
+
+  Rush, Benjamin, 7, 18, 21, 66, 109
+
+
+  Sachs, B., 165
+
+  Sampson, 12
+
+  Sander, 16, 298, 299
+
+  Saulle, Legrande du, 59
+
+  Schuele, 20
+
+  Scott, Sir Walter, 95
+
+  Scott, Colin A., 156, 254
+
+  Semper, 202
+
+  Shakespeare, 1
+
+  Shuttleworth, 25
+
+  Siebold, 43
+
+  Souques, 287
+
+  Spencer, 28, 70
+
+  Spitzka, 20, 21, 24, 42, 43, 45, 59, 66, 67, 91, 105, 176, 294, 296,
+  297, 300, 302, 305, 325, 338
+
+  Stearns, H. M., 24
+
+  Stedman, 8
+
+  Stokvis, 136, 137, 138
+
+  Strahan, 76, 77, 83, 86
+
+  Saurez, 6
+
+  Sue, Eugene, 12
+
+  Suetonius, 6
+
+  Sully, 150
+
+  Sutton, Bland, 27, 28
+
+  Sylvius, 5
+
+
+  Tamassia, 20
+
+  Tamburini, 20
+
+  Tarnowsky, Pauline, 199, 319, 320
+
+  Taylor, 94, 96
+
+  Tennyson, Lord, 62
+
+  Tessier, 9
+
+  Thiebault, 86, 87
+
+  Thomson, Bruce, 8, 25
+
+  Tissot, 8
+
+  Tonnini, 20
+
+  Topinard, 96
+
+  Trelat, 200
+
+  Tuke, D. H., 80
+
+  Tyler, 174
+
+  Tyndall, 25, 318
+
+
+  Valenta, 285
+
+  Valude, 204
+
+  Verga, 20
+
+  Vecchio, Dei, 175
+
+  Vesalius, 5
+
+  Viault, 139
+
+  Vidocq, 12
+
+  Virchow, 50
+
+  Voisin, 12
+
+  Vogt, 17, 95, 132, 133
+
+
+  Warner, Francis, 155
+
+  Weigenberg, 42
+
+  Weismann, 46, 47, 51, 52, 125, 130, 131, 346
+
+  Westphal, 1, 20, 49, 50
+
+  Wharton, 268
+
+  Wilbur, 21
+
+  Wiley, 14
+
+  Wilson, D., 100
+
+  Wilson, G., 19
+
+  Wilson, 13
+
+  Wilmarth, A. W., 305
+
+  Wolf, William, 47
+
+  Wood, Jas., 115
+
+  Workman, J., 25, 88
+
+
+  Ziegler, 296
+
+  Zola, 77
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+  Achondroplasia, 267
+
+  Acrocephaly, 171
+
+  Acromegaly, 37, 278, 279, 280
+
+  Alcohol, 350
+
+  Alcohol and Degeneracy, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108
+
+  Ambidexterity, 55
+
+  Animals and Defectives, 1
+
+  Anthropology, Morel on Morbid, 13
+
+  Anthropoid Apes, 34
+
+  Appendix Vermiformis, 30, 290, 291, 292, 293
+
+  Arch of Jaw, Deformed, 249, 250, 251, 252
+
+  Arch of Jaw, Normal, 248, 249
+
+  Arrest of Development, 30
+
+  Artero-capillary fibrosis, 288
+
+  Atavism, 40, 307, 311, 347
+
+
+  "Bleeders," 286, 287
+
+  Blue Babies, 284
+
+  Bowel Disorders from School Strain, 157, 158
+
+  Brachycephaly, 170, 171, 172
+
+  Brain, Criminal, 22, 295, 304
+    " Degeneracy of, 294, 295
+    " Degeneracy, Types of, 295, 296, 297, 298
+    " Imbecile, 297, 304, 305
+    " Weight of, and Intellect, 166, 300
+
+  Breasts, Degeneracy of, 274
+
+
+  Cancer, Degenerate nature of, 28
+    " Fecundity in, 74, 75, 76, 77
+
+  Castration, 3, 4, 348
+
+  Cell and Heredity, 40, 41, 42, 43, 51
+
+  Chaemacephaly, 171
+
+  Chest, Deformities of, 261, 262
+    " Degenerate, 261, 271
+
+  Child and Degeneracy, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156
+    " and nutrition, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+    Fatigue in, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357
+    Neurotic, 335, 336, 337
+
+  Chondrocranium, 163, 164
+
+  Circumcision, 47, 48
+
+  Cleft-Palate, 197, 198, 200
+
+  Climate and Degeneracy, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,
+        139, 140
+
+  Cloaca, 283
+
+  Club-foot, 267, 268
+
+  Club-hand, 267, 268
+
+  Coca and Degeneracy, 117, 118
+
+  Coccyx, 259, 260
+
+  Coffee and Degeneracy, 116
+
+  Collateral Heredity, 46
+
+  Concrescence Theory, 221, 222, 223
+
+  Conjugation and Nutrition, 42
+
+  Contagion and Degeneracy, 121, 122, 123, 124
+
+  Convalescence, Hygiene of, 350, 351
+
+  Cranium, Degenerate, 165
+    " Embryology of, 161, 162
+
+  Crime, 318, 319
+
+  Criminal, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25
+    " Brain, 22, 295, 304
+    " Stigmata, 18
+
+  Criminology, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25
+
+  Cryptorchidism, 274, 283
+
+  Cuvier, Brain of, 166
+
+  Cyclopic Eye, 33, 202, 203, 204, 205
+
+
+  Darwin's Tubercle, 212, 213, 214, 215
+
+  Deaf-mutism, 283
+
+  Degeneracy, 2, 15, 19
+    " Alcoholic, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108
+    " Childhood and, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156
+    " Child Nutrition and, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+    " Climate and, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140
+    " Coca, 117, 118
+    " Coffee, 116
+    " Contagion and, 121, 123, 124
+    " Disease and, 28
+    " Ethical, 37
+    " Folklore of, 1
+    " Fungi and, 143, 144
+    " Infection, 121, 123, 124
+    " Intellectual, 37
+    " Isolation, 144
+    " Local, 38
+    " Maize, 143
+    " Mental, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326,
+            327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338,
+            339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345
+    " Metallic Poisoning, 119, 120
+    " Moral, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326,
+            327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338,
+            339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345
+    " Neurasthenia, 39
+    " Nutritive, 38
+    " Opium, 109, 110
+    " Parental Age and, 89
+    " Potato, 144
+    " Prophylaxis of, 351, 352, 353
+    " Race Intermixture and, 92, 93, 97, 99
+    " Reversional, 38
+    " Savages and, 1, 2
+    " School Strain and, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157
+    " Sensory, 37
+    " Soil and, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140,
+            141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+    " Spinal, 38
+    " Stigmata of, 37
+    " Syphilis and, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128
+    " Tea, 115, 116
+    " Tobacco, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115
+    " Toxic Agents and, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
+            114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120
+    " Tuberculosis and, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128
+
+  Development, Arrested, 68, 69, 70
+    " Excessive, 68, 69, 70
+
+  Diabetes, Fecundity in, 73, 74
+
+  Dipsomania, 337, 338
+
+  Direct Heredity, 45
+
+  Dolichocephaly, 169, 170
+
+  Durencephaly, 315
+
+  Dwarfism, 277, 278
+
+
+  Ear, Evolution of, 207
+    " Jug-handled, 213, 214
+    " Morel, 213, 214
+    " Satanic, 218
+
+  Ectrodactylia, 263
+
+  Ectromelia, 262
+
+  Embryology, Morbid, 71, 72, 73
+    " Vertebrate, 70
+
+  Environment, 350, 351
+
+  Epilepsy, 6, 313, 338, 339, 343
+
+  Epistaxis in Degenerates, 194
+
+  Evolution and Disease, 28
+    " in Fertilisation, 41
+
+  Eye Degeneracy, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207
+    " Evolution of, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207
+
+
+  Face and Brain, 34, 35, 36, 37
+    " Degenerate, 177, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188
+    " Embryology of, 35, 36, 37, 38, 181, 182, 183
+    " Evolution of, 35, 36, 37, 38, 181, 182, 183
+    " Ideal, 181
+    " in Man, 34, 35, 36, 37
+    " in the Vertebrates, 34, 35, 36, 37
+
+  Facial Angle, 181, 182
+
+  Fatigue at Puberty, 154, 155
+
+  Fecundity and Mortality, 30
+
+  Feminism, 273, 274, 275, 276
+
+  Fertilisation, Evolution in, 41
+
+  Fetichism and Defectives, 1
+
+  Fingers, Degenerate, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Folklore of Degeneracy, 1
+
+  Foot, Flat, 280, 281
+    " Prehensile, 281
+
+  Fungi and Degeneracy, 143, 144
+
+
+  Genius, 11
+    " and the Child Type, 35
+
+  Giantism, 277, 278
+
+  Goitre, 141
+
+  Golden Age Myth, 2
+
+  Gout, 289
+
+
+  Hare-lip, 200, 201
+
+  Haemophilia, 286
+
+  Heredity, 2, 3, 19, 40
+    " of Acquired Characters, 48
+    " and Ambidexterity, 55
+
+  Heredity and Atavism, 70
+    " of Circumcision, 47, 48
+    " and Face Deformity, 55
+    " and Germ Plasm, 46, 346
+    " and Hairy Deformity, 53
+    " and Healthy Atavism, 63, 64, 65
+    " and Hernia, 268, 269
+    " Indirect, 45
+    " Morbid Manifestations of, 69
+    " Motor Disturbance and, 56
+    " Mutilation and, 48, 49, 50
+    " and Onychophagia, 55
+    " Reversional, 52, 53, 54
+    " Sexes in, 44, 45, 46, 47
+    " Skin Deformity and, 53
+    " Transformation of, 75, 76
+    " Types of, 45, 46
+
+  Hermaphrodism, 41, 42, 60
+
+  Heterophagy, 42
+
+  Hutchinson's Teeth, 238, 240
+
+  Hydrocephaly, 166
+
+
+  Idiot, 17, 25
+    " Biology of, 17, 25
+    " Brain of, 17, 25
+    " Epileptic Change in, 25
+
+  Ichthyosis, 288
+
+  Individuation, 28, 29
+
+  Inebriety, 337, 338
+
+  Infantilism, 272, 276, 278
+
+  Infection and Degeneracy, 121, 122, 123, 124
+
+  Intermarriage, 81
+    " Consanguinous, 83
+    " Neurotic, 87
+
+  Instinct, 317
+
+  Intermaxillary Bones, 5
+
+  Iris, 206
+
+  Isophagy, 42
+
+  Isolation and Degeneracy, 144
+
+
+  Jaws--
+    " Blind, 257
+    " Criminal, 258
+    " Deaf-mutes, 257
+    " Degenerate, 239, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 255, 256
+    " Evolution, 232
+    " Idiot, 257
+    " Inebriate, 257
+    " Insane, 257
+    " Prostitutes, 257
+    " Stigmata of, 253, 254, 255
+
+
+  Kephalones, 167
+
+  Kleptomania, 338
+
+  Klinocephaly, 170
+
+  Kidney Disorders from School Strain, 158
+
+
+  Law of Economy of Growth, 67
+
+  Leontiasis, 278, 279
+
+  Leptocephaly, 170
+
+  Limbs, Degenerate, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Lipomatosis, 289
+
+
+  Macrocephaly, 166
+
+  Macrodactylia, 266
+
+  Macrophthalmia, 206
+
+  Maize and Degeneracy, 143
+
+  Marriage, Regulation of, 81, 83, 87, 347, 348
+
+  Masculinism, 273, 274, 275, 276
+
+  Maternal Diet and the Foetus, 60
+    " Emotional Stress and Foetal Defect, 59, 60, 61
+    " Impressions in Bird, 57, 58
+    " Impressions in Man, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62
+    " Lead Poisoning and the Foetus, 62
+    " Opium Habit and the Foetus, 61, 62
+    " Sensory Disturbance and the Foetus, 56
+    " Stigmatisation and the Foetus, 57
+
+  Merycism, 293
+
+  Mesocephaly, 169
+
+  Metallic Poisoning and Degeneracy, 119, 120
+
+  Microcephaly, 167, 168
+
+  Microdactylia, 266
+
+  Microphthalmia, 206
+
+  Monstrosity artificially Produced, 67, 68
+
+  Moral Insanity, 4, 25
+
+  Mouth-breathing, 248
+
+  Muscle Degeneracy, 268
+
+  Myxoedema, 288
+
+
+  Nanocephaly, 168
+
+  Nervous Heredity, 16
+
+  Nervous Prostration, 351, 352, 357
+
+  Neurotics, 333, 334
+
+  Nose Degeneracy, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193
+    " Degeneracy and Tuberculosis, 193
+    " Development of, 193, 194
+    " Erectile Tissue of, 194
+    " in Bleeders, 194, 195
+
+  Night Terrors, 152
+
+  Nutrition and Conjugation, 41, 42
+
+  Nymphomania, 338
+
+
+  Obesity--
+    " Fecundity in, 72, 73
+    " Juvenile, 159, 289
+
+  Occiput Degeneracy, 175
+
+  Onychophagia, 55
+
+  Opium and Degeneracy, 109
+
+  Opium Habit, 350
+
+  Organs as Parasites, 30
+
+
+  Pachycephaly, 171
+
+  Paranoia, 325
+
+  Paranucleus, Hermaphrodism of, 41
+
+  Parasitism, 30
+
+  Palate Degeneracy, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200
+
+  Parental Age and Degeneracy, 89
+
+  Parthenogenesis, 44
+
+  Patella Degeneracy, 268
+
+  Paupers, 19
+
+  Periods of Stress in Man, 33
+
+  Perversion, Sexual, 319, 320, 321
+
+  Pessimist, 331
+
+  Phocomelia, 262
+
+  Phthisis, Degeneracy Stigmata of, 78
+    " Fecundity in, 71, 72, 73
+    " Nervous States of, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75
+
+  Physical Effects of School Strain, 152, 153
+
+  Pineal Body, 202
+
+  Plagiocephaly, 172
+
+  Platycephaly, 171
+
+  Plural Births, 285, 286
+
+  Polydactylia, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Polydactylism, 263, 264, 265, 266
+
+  Polymastia, 284
+
+  Porencephaly, 314
+
+  Potato and Degeneracy, 144
+
+  Predisposition, Unilateral, 64
+
+  Prostitution, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322
+
+  Puberty, Anomalies of, 154
+    " in Anthropoid Apes, 34, 35
+    " in Europeans, 35, 36
+    " and Maturity Development, 36, 37
+    " in Negro, 35
+    " Promise and Maturity Fulfilment, 35, 36, 37
+
+  Pyromania, 338
+
+
+  Race Intermixture, 93
+
+  Reasoning Maniacs, 327
+
+  Reproduction Cell, 28
+    " Destroyed Tissue and, 40
+    " Unicellular, 42
+    " Unisexual, 29
+    " Virgin, 44
+
+  Rheumatism and Gout, Fecundity in, 72, 73
+
+  Ribs, Degenerate, 260
+
+
+  Sacrum, 259, 260
+
+  Satyriasis, 333, 338
+
+  Scaphocephaly, 174
+
+  School Strain and Degeneracy, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 354, 355,
+      356, 357
+
+  School Strain and Puberty Anomalies, 154
+
+  School Overstrain, 354, 355, 356, 357
+
+  Sea Squirt, 14
+
+  Sexdigitism, 263
+
+  Sexual Appetite, Training of, 361
+    " "Purity," 361
+    " Perversion, 319, 320, 321
+
+  Skin, Senile, 287, 288, 289
+
+  Skull, Flattened, 171
+
+  Soil and Degeneracy, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,
+      140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149
+
+  Spenocephaly, 169
+
+  Spina-bifida, 258, 259
+
+  Spine, Development of 258, 259, 260
+
+  Sterility, Race Intermixture and, 98
+
+  Stigmata, 1, 27
+
+  Stigmata, Union of, 263
+
+  Stomach Disorders from School Strain, 158
+
+  Studies, Alternation of, 358
+
+  Sub-microcephaly and Intellect, 167
+
+  Suture Closing and Brain Defect, 162, 163, 164, 165
+
+  Symelia, 262
+
+  Syndactylia, 263
+
+  Syphilis and Degeneracy, 128
+
+
+  Tail in Degenerates, 260
+
+  Tapeisocephaly, 172
+
+  Teeth--
+    " Atavistic, 232, 233, 234, 240, 241, 242, 244, 246, 247
+    " Degenerate, 219, 226, 231, 234, 235, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245,
+            246, 247, 248
+    " Evolution of, 220, 221
+    " Supernumerary, 230, 232, 233
+    " and Hair Deformity 53, 54
+
+  Tobacco and Degeneracy, 111, 112, 113
+
+  Tramps, 331
+
+  Trigonocephaly, 173
+
+  Trochocephaly, 172
+
+  Tuberculosis and Degeneracy, 124, 125, 126, 127
+
+  Tumours, 285, 286
+
+
+  Unhealthy Trades, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353
+
+  Unilateral Predisposition, 63, 64
+
+  Uvula Degeneracy, 198
+
+
+  Women--
+    " Neurotic, 332
+    " Occupations of, 349, 350, 351
+    " Status in Evolution, 274
+
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1895.
+
+[2] _Folklore of Shakespeare._
+
+[3] _Anatomy of Melancholy_, sixth edition, 1652, part i., sec. ii., mem.
+i., sub. sec. vi.
+
+[4] _From the Greeks to Darwin_, p. 25.
+
+[5] _Works_, Sydenham Society Edition.
+
+[6] _Histoire Naturelle_, edition 1761.
+
+[7] _Zoonomia_, "Generation," vol. i.
+
+[8] _Diseases of the Mind_, p. 46.
+
+[9] _Traite des Degenerescences Physiques, Intellectuelles et Morales de
+l'Espece Humaine_, 1857, p. 3.
+
+[10] _Traite de Pathologie Comparee._
+
+[11] _La Psychologie Morbide dans ses Rapports avec la Philosophie de
+l'Histoire._
+
+[12] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January 1892.
+
+[13] _Traite Physiologique et Philosophique de l'Heredite Naturelle_,
+1847.
+
+[14] _Les Forcats._
+
+[15] _The Mysteries of Paris._
+
+[16] _Les Vrais Mysteres de Paris._
+
+[17] _Annales Judiciares_, 1840.
+
+[18] _American Journal of Insanity_, April, 1846.
+
+[19] _Criminal Jurisprudence and Cerebral Development_, 1841.
+
+[20] _De la Formation de Type dans les Varietes Degeneres_, 1864.
+
+[21] _Chapters on Evolution_, p. 349.
+
+[22] Wiley, _Origin of the Vertebrates_.
+
+[23] _Degeneration._
+
+[24] _Die Ursprung der Wirbelthier_, 1875.
+
+[25] _Psychiatrie_, 1859.
+
+[26] _Psychologie Morbide_, 1889.
+
+[27] _Archiv f. Psychiatrie_, 1868.
+
+[28] Cited by Griesinger, edition 1845, p. 252.
+
+[29] _Recherches sur les Idiots_, 1860.
+
+[30] Cited by Havelock Ellis, _The Criminal_, p. 29.
+
+[31] _Gulstonian Lectures_, 1870.
+
+[32] See, for instance, Art. "Microcephaly," _Dict. of Psych. Medicine_,
+and, especially, Mingazzini's study of the morphology of cerebral
+hemispheres, _Il Cervello_, 1895.
+
+[33] _Psychologie Naturelle._
+
+[34] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1870.
+
+[35] _American Prison Association Report_, 1866.
+
+[36] _Deterioration and Race Education_, 1876.
+
+[37] _Report of the New York Board of Charities_, 1876.
+
+[38] _W. S. Tuke Prize Essay on the Somatic AEtiology of Insanity_, 1877.
+
+[39] _Allgemeine Zeitschrift f. Psychiatrie_, 1869-78.
+
+[40] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1873.
+
+[41] _L'Uomo Delinquente_, 1876.
+
+[42] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, January, 1878.
+
+[43] _Studien au Verbrecker-Gehirnen._
+
+[44] _Chicago Medical Review_, July 1, 1881, p. 310.
+
+[45] _Two Hard Cases_, 1882.
+
+[46] _Trial of Charles J. Guiteau_, vol. ii.
+
+[47] Every Asylum Report of the Gray School gave statistics of hereditary
+transmission.
+
+[48] _Medical Jurisprudence._
+
+[49] _Mental Disease._
+
+[50] _American Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry_, vol. ii.
+
+[51] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1882.
+
+[52] _Canada Medical and Surgical Journal_, Feb., 1882.
+
+[53] _Medical Times_, May 20, 1882.
+
+[54] _Transactions of Pennsylvania Medical Society_, 1882.
+
+[55] _Selection dans les Aristocracies._
+
+[56] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1879.
+
+[57] _Canada Medical and Surgical Journal_, Feb., 1882.
+
+[58] _Journal of Mental Science_, April, 1878.
+
+[59] _Evolution and Disease._
+
+[60] _Medicine_, 1897.
+
+[61] _Brain_, 1894.
+
+[62] Ray Lankester, _Degeneration_.
+
+[63] _Man and Woman_, pp. 23, 390.
+
+[64] _Human Embryology_, p. 567.
+
+[65] E. S. Talbot, _Etiology of the Osseous Deformities of the Head, Face,
+Jaws, and Teeth_.
+
+[66] _Evolution of Sex_, p. 129.
+
+[67] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, 1878-81.
+
+[68] _Germ Plasm_, pp. 431, 565.
+
+[69] _American Medico-Surgical Bulletin_, August 15, 1893.
+
+[70] _Circumcision_, p. 204.
+
+[71] _Medicine_, July, 1898.
+
+[72] _Medical Record_, vol. xlii.
+
+[73] _Organic Evolution_, p. 178.
+
+[74] _Comptes rendus_, 1882, xciv., p. 697.
+
+[75] _Transactions of the American Neurological Association_, 1877.
+
+[76] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1877, p. 544.
+
+[77] _Factors of Organic Evolution._
+
+[78] _Hereditary Traits._
+
+[79] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1877, page 548.
+
+[80] _Sensation et Mouvement_, chap. xiv.
+
+[81] Harriet C. B. Alexander, _Transactions Chicago Academy of Medicine_,
+January, 1895.
+
+[82] _Medical Classics_, July and August, 1888.
+
+[83] _Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner_, 1883-4, p. 426.
+
+[84] _Somatic AEtiology of Insanity_, p. 41.
+
+[85] _Medicine_, September, 1898.
+
+[86] _Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease_, March, 1891.
+
+[87] _American Journal of Obstetrics_, October, 1882.
+
+[88] _American Medico-Surgical Bulletin_, July 15, 1896.
+
+[89] _American Journal of the Medical Sciences_, October, 1856.
+
+[90] _La Famille Nevropathique_, 2nd ed., 1898.
+
+[91] _Transactions American Neurological Association_, 1877.
+
+[92] _Transactions de l'Institut Pasteur_, 1896.
+
+[93] _La Psychologie Morbide._
+
+[94] _On the Mind_, 1805.
+
+[95] _Pathology of the Mind._
+
+[96] _Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie._
+
+[97] _La Famille Nevropathique._
+
+[98] _Degenerescence de l'Espece Humaine._
+
+[99] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, 1878-81.
+
+[100] _Neurological Review_, vol. i., 1886.
+
+[101] _La Famille Nevropathique._
+
+[102] _Medicine_, June, 1898.
+
+[103] _Bulletin Medical_, 1887.
+
+[104] _Medicine_, September, 1897.
+
+[105] _Annales Medico-Psychologique_, March and April, 1869.
+
+[106] _Marriage and Disease_, pp. 186-7.
+
+[107] _Annalles Medico-Psychologiques_, S. 7, t. xvi.
+
+[108] _Maladies Mentales_, p. 215.
+
+[109]
+
+  "The darkness of her Oriental eye
+    Accorded with her Moorish origin
+  (Her blood was not all Spanish, by the by;
+    In Spain, you know, this is a sort of sin).
+  When proud Grenada fell, and, forced to fly,
+    Boabdil wept; of Donna Julia's kin
+  Some went to Africa, some stayed in Spain,
+  Her great-great-grandmamma chose to remain.
+
+  "She married (I forget the pedigree)
+    With an Hidalgo who transmitted down
+  His blood less noble than such blood should be;
+    At such alliances his sires would frown,
+  In that point so precise in each degree
+    That they bred in and in, as might be shown,
+  Marrying their cousins--nay, their aunts and nieces,
+  Which always spoils the breed, if it increases.
+
+  "This heathenish cross restored the breed again,
+    Ruined its blood, but much improved its flesh;
+  For, from a root, the ugliest in Old Spain,
+    Sprung up a branch as beautiful as fresh,
+  The sons no more were short, the daughters plain."
+
+[110] The origins of the prohibition of incest have lately been fully
+discussed by Durkheim, _L'Annee Sociologique_, 1898.
+
+[111] _Psychological Dictionary_, "Consanguinity."
+
+[112] _Bulletin de L'Academie de Medecine_, t. xxi. p. 746.
+
+[113] _American Medical Bi-Weekly_, vol. xii., No. 13.
+
+[114] _Mental Hygiene_, p. 25.
+
+[115] _Intermarriage of Relations_, p. 40.
+
+[116] _Edinburgh Medical Journal_, October, 1865.
+
+[117] _Marriage of Near Kin_, p. 218.
+
+[118] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1869-70.
+
+[119] _Marriage and Disease_, p. 266.
+
+[120] Cited by Ribot, _Heredity_, p. 292.
+
+[121] Cited by Huth.
+
+[122] _Allgemeine Zeitschrifft fuer Psychiatrie_, B. xxvii.
+
+[123] _L'Encephale_, October, 1882.
+
+[124] _Detroit Lancet_, September, 1882.
+
+[125] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1883.
+
+[126] _Australian Medical Gazette_, 1886.
+
+[127] _Il Manicomio_, May, 1886.
+
+[128] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1887.
+
+[129] _La Puberta_, 1898, pp. 242-60.
+
+[130] _Archives d'Ophthalmologie_, 1887.
+
+[131] _Transactions International Medical Congress_, 1887, p. 264, vol. v.
+
+[132] _Lancet_, January to March, 1883.
+
+[133]
+
+  "For Englishmen to boast of generation
+  Cancels their knowledge, and lampoons the nation.
+  A true-born Englishman's a contradiction,
+  In speech an irony, in fact a fiction.
+
+  And here begins the ancient pedigree
+  That so exalts our poor nobility.
+  'Tis that from some French trooper they derive,
+  Who with the Norman bastard did arrive.
+  The trophies of the families appear.
+  Some show the sword, the bow, and some the spear,
+  Which their great ancestor, forsooth, did wear.
+  These in the herald's register remain
+  Their noble mean extraction to explain;
+  Yet who the hero was no man can tell,
+  Whether a drummer or a colonel;
+  The silent record blushes to reveal
+  Their undescended, dark original.
+
+  These are the heroes that despise the Dutch
+  And rail at new-come foreigners so much,
+  Forgetting that themselves are all derived
+  From the most scoundrel race that ever lived;
+  A horrid crowd of rambling thieves and drones,
+  Who ransacked kingdoms and dispeopled towns;
+  The Pict and painted Briton, treacherous Scot,
+  By hunger, theft, and rapine hither brought,
+  Norwegian pirates, buccaneering Danes,
+  Whose red-haired offspring everywhere remains,
+  Who, joined with Norman-French, compound the breed
+  From whence your true-born Englishmen proceed.
+
+  And, lest by length of time, it be pretended
+  The climate may this modern breed have mended,
+  Wise Providence, to keep us where we are,
+  Mixes us daily with exceeding care.
+  We have been Europe's sink, the jakes where she
+  Voids all her offal outcast progeny.
+  For ages, fugitives from neighbouring lands
+  Have here a certain sanctuary found;
+  The eternal refuge of the vagabond,
+  Wherein but half a common age of time,
+  Borrowing new blood and manners from the clime,
+  Proudly they learn all mankind to contemn,
+  And all their race are true-born Englishmen."
+
+[134] _Ethnology_, p. 201.
+
+[135] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1892, 1895, 1896.
+
+[136] _Origin of the Aryans._
+
+[137] _Ethnology in Folklore._
+
+[138] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1886.
+
+[139] _Origin of the Aryans._
+
+[140] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1892.
+
+[141] Cited by S. Laing, _Human Origins_, pp. 38-41.
+
+[142] _Anthropology._
+
+[143] _Alienist and Neurologist_, October, 1896.
+
+[144] _Origin of the Aryans._
+
+[145] Talbot, _Osseous Deformities_.
+
+[146] _Osseous Deformities of the Jaw_, p. 30.
+
+[147] _Hybridity and Heredity_, p. 307.
+
+[148] Cited by Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 265. See also Johnston, _British
+Central Africa_, 1897.
+
+[149] _Journal Am. Medical Ass._, vol. xx., 1893.
+
+[150] _La Razza Negra_, p. 20, 1864.
+
+[151] _Man and Woman_, pp. 25, 390.
+
+[152] Johnson, _Chemistry of Common Life_, vol. i. p. 239.
+
+[153] _Detroit Lancet_, September, 1882.
+
+[154] _Observations on the Brain and Mind_, p. 10, 1798.
+
+[155] _The Opium Habit._
+
+[156] _Review of Insanity and Nervous Disease_, 1890.
+
+[157] _Annual Universal Medical Sciences_, 1895.
+
+[158] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892; and (for Summary
+of Etienne's Report on the offspring of the young married women in the
+Nancy factories), _British Medical Journal_, April 23, 1898.
+
+[159] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1889.
+
+[160] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1895.
+
+[161] _Lancet_, November 30, 1891.
+
+[162] _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, 1887.
+
+[163] _Chemistry of Common Life_, vol. ii.
+
+[164] _Lead Diseases_, American edition, 1848.
+
+[165] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases_, 1881.
+
+[166] _American Journal of Obstetrics_, October, 1882.
+
+[167] _Birmingham Medical Review_, January, 1887.
+
+[168] C. E. Paddock, of Chicago, cites very analogous cases.
+
+[169] _Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication_, vol. i. p.
+37.
+
+[170] Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 203.
+
+[171] _Lectures on Man_, 1868.
+
+[172] _Man and Woman_, chap. iv.
+
+[173] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892, K. 18, vol. v.
+
+[174] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892.
+
+[175] Boies, _Pauper and Prisoner_.
+
+[176] _New York Medical Journal_, vol. lxii.
+
+[177] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1887.
+
+[178] _La Pellagra._
+
+[179] _Journal of the American Medical Association_, vol. xxii.
+
+[180] _Psychology of Childhood._
+
+[181] _Journal American Medical Association_, vol. xxii.
+
+[182] _Alienist and Neurologist_, 1897.
+
+[183] _Illustrations of Insanity_, 1817.
+
+[184] _Pepper's System of Medicine_, vol. i.
+
+[185] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1886-87.
+
+[186] _Nervous Diseases of Children._
+
+[187] _Diseases of the Stomach._
+
+[188] _Embryology_, p. 465.
+
+[189] Virchow, _Gesam. Abhandlg., Wis. Med._, 1856.
+
+[190] _Report New York City Asylum for the Insane_, 1875.
+
+[191] Kiernan, _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1891.
+
+[192] _Annales Medico-Psychologiques_, 1849.
+
+[193] _Anthropology._
+
+[194] _American Journal of Insanity_, July, 1895.
+
+[195] _Revista Sperimentale_, xxii.
+
+[196] _Human Embryology_, p. 468.
+
+[197] _American Naturalist_, 1883.
+
+[198] _Oral Deformities_, p. 480.
+
+[199] _Medicine_, September, 1897.
+
+[200] For cases see, _e.g._, Gould's _Anomalies_.
+
+[201] Bland Sutton, _Evolution and Disease_, p. 193.
+
+[202] _Osseous Deformities_, p. 398.
+
+[203] _Journal of Morphology_, vol. v.
+
+[204] _Arb. Zoolog. Institut_, Wurzburg, iii.
+
+[205] _The Amphioxus._
+
+[206] _Sajous' Annual_, 1889.
+
+[207] _Sajous' Annual_, vol. iv., 1892.
+
+[208] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases_, 1878.
+
+[209] _La Famille Nevropathique_, p. 156.
+
+[210] _Medicine_, May, 1898.
+
+[211] For further particulars, see "The Degenerate Ear," by Eugene S.
+Talbot, _Journal of The American Medical Association_, January 11, 1896.
+
+[212] Minot, _Embryology_.
+
+[213] Minot's _Embryology_.
+
+[214] _The Descent of Man_, p. 15.
+
+[215] Frigerio's measurements of the auriculo-temporal angle were taken
+with a specially devised instrument from the pinna to the mastoid.
+Buchanan's were apparently taken from the anterior edge of the mastoid to
+the helix, giving the angle of the external face of the whole ear.
+
+[216] See "Degenerate Jaws and Death," by Talbot, _Journal Am. Medical
+Association_, vol. xxvii. p. 134.
+
+[217] Osborn.
+
+[218] Talbot, "Mouth breathing not the cause of contracted jaws and high
+vaults" (_Dental Cosmos_, 1891).
+
+[219] Per cent.
+
+[220] Fere, _La Famille Nevropathique_, p. 158.
+
+[221] Ibid., _Nouv. Icon. de la Salpetriere_, 1890.
+
+[222] _Jour. de l'Anat. et de la Phys._, 1893, p. 564.
+
+[223] Cited by Gould in _Anomalies_.
+
+[224] Gould, _op. cit._
+
+[225] Gould, _Anomalies_, p. 272.
+
+[226] _Revue Internat. des Sciences Med._, November 1886.
+
+[227] Achondroplasia, or imperfect development of cartilage with resulting
+imperfections in the extremities, has come under my observation. The first
+case, a man of 38, had a face arrested in development and the appearance
+of a ten-year-old boy. His jaws were small with a protrusion of the lower.
+His arms were absent. The hands were full sized and attached to the
+shoulder. Another case was that of a member of the Spanish nobility in
+whom degeneracy was stamped on the entire body. He was short in body and
+had an enormous head. The jaws were undeveloped with a V-shaped arch. His
+left hand was located near the shoulder.
+
+[228] _Alienist and Neurologist_, January, 1898.
+
+[229] _Medicine_, January, 1898.
+
+[230] Wharton, _Proc. Royal Society of Ireland_, 1863.
+
+[231] _British Medical Journal_, January 25, 1897.
+
+[232] Meige, _L'Anthropologie_, T. 6, Nos. 3, 4, 5.
+
+[233] Havelock Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, vol. i. "Sexual Inversion."
+
+[234] Otis T. Mason, _Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge_, 1888.
+
+[235] Julien, _Monatschrift fuer Prakt. Dermatologie_, March, 1898.
+
+[236] _Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences_, 1892.
+
+[237] _L'Encephale_, 1883.
+
+[238] _Neurological Review_, 1886.
+
+[239] _Malthusianism and Crime._
+
+[240] _Wiener Med. Wochenschrift_, February 13, 1897.
+
+[241] _British Medical Journal_, April 23, 1898.
+
+[242] "Stigmata of Degeneracy in Royal Families," _Jour. Am. Med. Assoc._,
+vol. xxvii. 1894.
+
+[243] _Practice of Medicine._
+
+[244] _Progres Medical_, July 15, 1888.
+
+[245] _Somatic Etiology of Insanity_, 1877.
+
+[246] Ziegler, _Pathologic Anatomy_.
+
+[247] Vogt, _Lectures on Man_. The lettering refer to the text of that
+work.
+
+[248] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, vol. viii. p. 66.
+
+[249] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1886, p. 54.
+
+[250] _Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, 1886.
+
+[251] In the foregoing, and to some extent in the following, chapters it
+has been necessary to touch on many complicated questions of brain
+function, more or less outside the main topic of this book. The aspect of
+such questions is, however, constantly changing in the light of new
+investigations, and our knowledge is still far from certain in many most
+important respects. For excellent statements of the prevailing views of
+brain localisation, brought up to date, the reader may be referred to the
+special sections of the latest editions of Foster's _Physiology_, or of
+Waller's _Physiology_; Donaldson's _Growth of the Brain_ may also be
+consulted.
+
+[252] _Work among the Fallen_, summarised in _Journal of Mental Science_,
+1892.
+
+[253] _Etudes Anthropometriques sur les Prostituees._
+
+[254] _Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1882.
+
+[255] And see the biography of Marie Duplessis by Georges Soreau in _Revue
+de France_, 1898.
+
+[256] _St. Louis Clinical Record_, 1879-80.
+
+[257] _The Man of Genius._
+
+[258] _Journal of Mental Science_, 1886.
+
+[259] _Review of Insanity and Nervous Diseases_, 1891.
+
+[260] _Alienist and Neurologist_, July, 1893.
+
+[261] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1893-4.
+
+[262] _New England Medical Monthly_, 1881.
+
+[263] _Germ Plasm._
+
+[264] _American Journal of Insanity_, 1893-4.
+
+
+
+
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+
+_Crown Quarto, in specially designed Cover, Cloth, Price 6s._
+
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+
+_An Entirely New Edition. Revised Throughout._
+
+With Twelve Full-Page Portraits of Celebrated Musicians.
+
+DEDICATED TO PADEREWSKI.
+
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+
+A MUSICIANS' BIRTHDAY BOOK.
+
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+
+
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+C. Hubert Parry. Merely as a volume of poetry about music, this book makes
+a charming anthology, the selections of verse extending from a period
+anterior to Chaucer to the present day.
+
+_Among the additional writers represented in the new edition are Alfred
+Austin, Arthur Christopher Benson, John Davidson, Norman Gale, Richard Le
+Gallienne, Nora Hopper, Jean Ingelow, George Meredith, Alice Meynell,
+Coventry Patmore, Mary Robinson, Francis Thompson, Dr. Todhunter,
+Katharine Tynan, William Watson, and W. B. Yeats. The new edition is
+illustrated with portraits of Handel, Beethoven, Bach, Gluck, Chopin,
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+
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+  THE PHYSIOLOGY OF WAR.
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+IMPRESSIONS OF RUSSIA. By Dr. GEORG BRANDES.
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+  Post 4to, Cloth, Price 1s.
+  PATRIOTISM AND CHRISTIANITY.
+  To which is appended a Reply to Criticisms of the Work.
+  By COUNT TOLSTOY.
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+
+1/- Booklets by Count Tolstoy.
+
+Bound in White Grained Boards, with Gilt Lettering.
+
+  WHERE LOVE IS, THERE GOD IS ALSO.
+  THE TWO PILGRIMS.
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+  THE GODSON.
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+  WHAT SHALL IT PROFIT A MAN?
+
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+2/- Booklets by Count Tolstoy.
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+NEW EDITIONS, REVISED.
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+  Small 12mo, Cloth, with Embossed Design on Cover, each containing
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+
+  Volume I. contains--
+    WHERE LOVE IS, THERE GOD IS ALSO.
+    THE GODSON.
+
+  Volume II. contains--
+    WHAT MEN LIVE BY.
+    WHAT SHALL IT PROFIT A MAN?
+
+  Volume III. contains--
+    THE TWO PILGRIMS.
+    IF YOU NEGLECT THE FIRE, YOU DON'T PUT IT OUT.
+
+  Volume IV. contains--
+    MASTER AND MAN.
+
+  Volume V. contains--
+    TOLSTOY'S PARABLES.
+
+
+COUNT TOLSTOY'S LONGEST AND MOST MAGNIFICENT WORK.
+
+_Issue in TWO Double Volumes, Price 7s. per Set._
+
+War and Peace.
+
+BY COUNT TOLSTOY.
+
+(_Contains 1600 pages. Printed in very clear type._)
+
+
+This is not only one of the finest, but probably one of the longest novels
+ever written, occupying, as it does in this edition, 1600 large and
+closely printed pages. Notwithstanding its vast length, its multitude of
+figures, the number of events it deals with, the interest of _War and
+Peace_ is not only intense, but unbroken throughout the immense march of
+the story, so that no reader, great though the undertaking is, will fail
+to read to the end once he has started on the book. The eminent French
+critic, Vicomte E. M. de Voguee, writing on _War and Peace_, says:
+
+    "As you advance in the book, curiosity changes into astonishment, and
+    astonishment into admiration, before this impassive judge, who calls
+    before his tribunal all human actions, and makes the soul render to
+    itself an account of all its secrets. You feel yourself swept away on
+    the current of a tranquil river, the depth of which you cannot fathom;
+    it is life itself which is passing, agitating the hearts of men, which
+    are suddenly made bare in the truth and complexity of their
+    movements."
+
+At the end of the second volume, a complete Synopsis of the story is
+given, also a list of the principal characters (of which there are about
+one hundred).
+
+
+COMMEMORATION VOLUME.
+
+Crown 8vo, Cloth Elegant (the Cover specially designed), price 2s. 6d.
+
+With 35 Full-page Illustrations.
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+_"DIAMOND" JUBILEE EDITION._
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+Our Queen:
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+_The Life and Times of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland,
+Empress of India, etc._
+
+BY THE AUTHORS OF "GENERAL GORDON," "GRACE DARLING," ETC.
+
+This important work provides an exhaustive history of the life of the
+Queen, from her infancy to the present year in which she commemorates the
+sixtieth year of her reign. Any account of the life of the Queen would be
+imperfect that did not take into account the immense march of
+progress--political, industrial, and scientific--and the many memorable
+events which her reign has witnessed. In the course of its narrative this
+volume deals with these events in an impartial and enlightened spirit; it
+provides, in fact, a complete and authentic history of our own times in
+their religious, social, literary, artistic, and scientific aspects,
+together with biographical records of the many men and women of eminence
+of the Victorian era. Perhaps in no respect have such great strides been
+made as in the extent of the territory over which our Queen rules. When
+she ascended the throne, her sway extended over 1,387,000 square miles
+(including colonies and dependencies); now the empire has an area of
+11,130,000 square miles, it being thus eight times as large as at the
+beginning of the reign. The vast interest of the subject of the work need
+not be commented on, an interest which will be both intensified and
+universally felt during the present year, and which it is the object of
+this attractively and earnestly written book to worthily and adequately
+satisfy. The many portraits which it will contain will add effectively to
+the value of the work.
+
+_An Edition of this Work on large paper (Demy 8vo) with Coloured
+Illustrations, price 5s., is also published._
+
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+BOOKS OF FAIRY TALES.
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+ENGLISH FAIRY AND OTHER FOLK TALES.
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+_With Twelve Full-Page Illustrations by_ CHARLES E. BROCK.
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+SCOTTISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.
+
+Selected and Edited, with an Introduction,
+
+BY SIR GEORGE DOUGLAS, BART.
+
+_With Twelve Full-Page Illustrations by_ JAMES TORRANCE.
+
+
+IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.
+
+Selected and Edited, with an Introduction,
+
+BY W. B. YEATS.
+
+_With Twelve Full-Page Illustrations by_ JAMES TORRANCE.
+
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+THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES.
+
+_NEW VOLUME_
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+Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 6s.
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+
+Hallucinations and Illusions:
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+A STUDY OF THE FALLACIES OF PERCEPTION.
+
+BY EDMUND PARISH.
+
+This work deals not only with the pathology of the subject, but with the
+occurrence of the phenomena among normal persons, bringing together the
+international statistics of the matter. It discusses fully the causation
+of hallucinations and the various theories that have been put forward; and
+further, it examines and adversely criticises the evidence which has been
+brought forward in favour of telepathy.
+
+
+_NEW EDITIONS._
+
+Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 6s. With Numerous Illustrations.
+
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+Man and Woman:
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+A STUDY OF HUMAN SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS.
+
+BY HAVELOCK ELLIS. SECOND EDITION.
+
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+and anthropological point of view of a subject which is certainly of
+primary interest."--_Athenaeum._
+
+
+Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 3s. 6d.
+
+FOURTH EDITION, COMPLETELY REVISED.
+
+Hypnotism.
+
+BY DR. ALBERT MOLL.
+
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+physiological and psychological problems which have not yet received much
+attention in the scientific world of England."--_Nature._
+
+
+Great Writers
+
+A NEW SERIES OF CRITICAL BIOGRAPHIES.
+
+EDITED BY ERIC ROBERTSON AND FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+
+A Complete Bibliography to each Volume, by J. P. ANDERSON, British Museum,
+London.
+
+_Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top. Price 1s. 6d._
+
+_VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED._
+
+  LIFE OF LONGFELLOW. By Professor ERIC S. ROBERTSON.
+  LIFE OF COLERIDGE. By HALL CAINE.
+  LIFE OF DICKENS. By FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+  LIFE OF DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. By J. KNIGHT.
+  LIFE OF SAMUEL JOHNSON. By Colonel F. GRANT.
+  LIFE OF DARWIN. By G. T. BETTANY.
+  LIFE OF CHARLOTTE BRONTE. By A. BIRRELL.
+  LIFE OF THOMAS CARLYLE. By R. GARNETT, LL.D.
+  LIFE OF ADAM SMITH. By R. B. HALDANE, M.P.
+  LIFE OF KEATS. By W. M. ROSSETTI.
+  LIFE OF SHELLEY. By WILLIAM SHARP.
+  LIFE OF SMOLLETT. By DAVID HANNAY.
+  LIFE OF GOLDSMITH. By AUSTIN DOBSON.
+  LIFE OF SCOTT. By Professor YONGE.
+  LIFE OF BURNS. By Professor BLACKIE.
+  LIFE OF VICTOR HUGO. By FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+  LIFE OF EMERSON. By RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
+  LIFE OF GOETHE. By JAMES SIME.
+  LIFE OF CONGREVE. By EDMUND GOSSE.
+  LIFE OF BUNYAN. By Canon VENABLES.
+  LIFE OF CRABBE. By T. E. KEBBEL.
+  LIFE OF HEINE. By WILLIAM SHARP.
+  LIFE OF MILL. By W. L. COURTNEY.
+  LIFE OF SCHILLER. By HENRY W. NEVINSON.
+  LIFE OF CAPTAIN MARRYAT. By DAVID HANNAY.
+  LIFE OF LESSING. By T. W. ROLLESTON.
+  LIFE OF MILTON. By R. GARNETT, LL.D.
+  LIFE OF BALZAC. By FREDERICK WEDMORE.
+  LIFE OF GEORGE ELIOT. By OSCAR BROWNING.
+  LIFE OF JANE AUSTEN. By GOLDWIN SMITH.
+  LIFE OF BROWNING. By WILLIAM SHARP.
+  LIFE OF BYRON. By Hon. RODEN NOEL.
+  LIFE OF HAWTHORNE. By MONCURE D. CONWAY.
+  LIFE OF SCHOPENHAUER. By Professor WALLACE.
+  LIFE OF SHERIDAN. By LLOYD SANDERS.
+  LIFE OF THACKERAY. By HERMAN MERIVALE and FRANK T. MARZIALS.
+  LIFE OF CERVANTES. By H. E. WATTS.
+  LIFE OF VOLTAIRE. By FRANCIS ESPINASSE.
+  LIFE OF LEIGH HUNT. By COSMO MONKHOUSE.
+  LIFE OF WHITTIER. By W. J. LINTON.
+  LIFE OF RENAN. By FRANCIS ESPINASSE.
+  LIFE OF THOREAU. By H. S. SALT.
+
+LIBRARY EDITION OF 'GREAT WRITERS,' Demy 8vo, 2s. 6d.
+
+
+Ibsen's Prose Dramas
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM ARCHER
+
+_Complete in Five Vols. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price 3s. 6d. each._
+
+_Set of Five Vols., in Case, 17s. 6d.; in Half Morocco, in Case, 32s. 6d._
+
+'_We seem at last to be shown men and women as they are; and at first it
+is more than we can endure.... All Ibsen's characters speak and act as if
+they were hypnotised, and under their creator's imperious demand to reveal
+themselves. There never was such a mirror held up to nature before; it is
+too terrible.... Yet we must return to Ibsen, with his remorseless
+surgery, his remorseless electric-light, until we, too, have grown strong
+and learned to face the naked--if necessary, the flayed and
+bleeding--reality._'--SPEAKER (London).
+
+
+VOL. I. 'A DOLL'S HOUSE,' 'THE LEAGUE OF YOUTH', and 'THE PILLARS OF
+SOCIETY.' With Portrait of the Author, and Biographical Introduction by
+WILLIAM ARCHER.
+
+VOL. II. 'GHOSTS,' 'AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE,' and 'THE WILD DUCK.' With an
+Introductory Note.
+
+VOL. III. 'LADY INGER OF OeSTRAT,' 'THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND,' 'THE
+PRETENDERS.' With an Introductory Note and Portrait of Ibsen.
+
+VOL. IV. 'EMPEROR AND GALILEAN.' With an Introductory Note by WILLIAM
+ARCHER.
+
+VOL. V. 'ROSMERSHOLM,' 'THE LADY FROM THE SEA,' 'HEDDA GABLER.' Translated
+by WILLIAM ARCHER. With an Introductory Note.
+
+The sequence of the plays _in each volume_ is chronological; the complete
+set of volumes comprising the dramas presents them in chronological
+order.
+
+
+Library of Humour
+
+_Cloth Elegant, Large Crown 8vo, Price 3s. 6d. per Vol._
+
+'_The books are delightful in every way, and are notable for the high
+standard of taste and the excellent judgment that characterise their
+editing, as well as for the brilliancy of the literature that they
+contain._'--BOSTON (U.S.A.) GAZETTE.
+
+
+_VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED._
+
+THE HUMOUR OF FRANCE. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by
+ELIZABETH LEE. With numerous Illustrations by PAUL FRENZENY.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF GERMANY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by HANS
+MUeLLER-CASENOV. With numerous Illustrations by C. E. BROCK.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF ITALY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by A.
+WERNER. With 50 Illustrations and a Frontispiece by ARTURO FALDI.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF AMERICA. Selected with a copious Biographical Index of
+American Humorists, by JAMES BARR.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF HOLLAND. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by A.
+WERNER. With numerous Illustrations by DUDLEY HARDY.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF IRELAND. Selected by D. J. O'DONOGHUE. With numerous
+Illustrations by OLIVER PAQUE.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF SPAIN. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by
+SUSETTE M. TAYLOR. With numerous Illustrations by H. R. MILLAR.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF RUSSIA. Translated, with Notes, by E. L. BOOLE, and an
+Introduction by STEPNIAK. With 50 Illustrations by PAUL FRENZENY.
+
+THE HUMOUR OF JAPAN. Translated, with an Introduction by A. M. With
+Illustrations by GEORGE BIGOT (from drawings made in Japan). [_In
+preparation._
+
+
+_COMPACT AND PRACTICAL._
+
+_In Limp Cloth; for the Pocket. Price One Shilling._
+
+THE EUROPEAN CONVERSATION BOOKS.
+
+  FRENCH
+  SPANISH
+  ITALIAN
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+CONTENTS.
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+Railway Station--Custom House Enquiries--In a Train--At a Buffet and
+Restaurant--At an Hotel--Paying an Hotel Bill--Enquiries in a Town--On
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+as to Diligences--Enquiries as to Boats--Engaging Apartments--Washing List
+and Days of Week--Restaurant Vocabulary--Telegrams and Letters, etc.,
+etc._
+
+The contents of these little handbooks are so arranged as to permit direct
+and immediate reference. All dialogues or enquiries not considered
+absolutely essential have been purposely excluded, nothing being
+introduced which might confuse the traveller rather than assist him. A few
+hints are given in the introduction which will be found valuable to those
+unaccustomed to foreign travel.
+
+
+  EVERY-DAY HELP SERIES
+  OF USEFUL HAND-BOOKS. Price 6d. each,
+  OR IN ROAN BINDING, PRICE 1s.
+
+Contributors--J. LANGDON DOWN, M.D., F.R.C.P.; HENRY POWER, M.B.,
+F.R.C.S.; J. MORTIMER-GRANVILLE, M.D.; J. CRICHTON BROWNE, M.D., LL.D.;
+ROBERT FARQUHARSON, M.D. Edin.; W. S. GREENFIELD, M.D., F.R.C.P.; and
+others.
+
+  The Secret of a Clear Head.
+  Common Mind Troubles.
+  The Secret of a Good Memory.
+  The Heart and its Function.
+  Personal Appearances in Health and Disease.
+  The House and its Surroundings.
+  Alcohol: Its Use and Abuse.
+  Exercise and Training.
+  Baths and Bathing.
+  Health in Schools.
+  The Skin and its Troubles.
+  How to make the Best of Life.
+  Nerves and Nerve-Troubles.
+  The Sight, and How to Preserve it.
+  Premature Death: Its Promotion and Prevention.
+  Change, as a Mental Restorative.
+  Youth: Its Care and Culture.
+  The Gentle Art of Nursing the Sick.
+  The Care of Infants and Young Children.
+  Invalid Feeding, with Hints on Diet.
+  Every-day Ailments, and How to Treat Them.
+  Thrifty Housekeeping.
+  Home Cooking.
+  How to do Business. A Guide to Success in Life.
+  How to Behave. Manual of Etiquette and Personal Habits.
+  How to Write. A Manual of Composition and Letter Writing.
+  How to Debate. With Hints on Public Speaking.
+  Don't: Directions for avoiding Common Errors of Speech.
+  The Parental Don't: Warnings to Parents.
+  Why Smoke and Drink. By James Parton.
+  Elocution. By T. R. W. Pearson, M.A., of St. Catharine's College,
+    Cambridge, and F. W. Waithman, Lecturers on Elocution.
+
+
+THE SCOTT LIBRARY.
+
+Cloth, Uncut Edges, Gilt Top. Price 1s. 6d. per Volume.
+
+VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED--
+
+  1 ROMANCE OF KING ARTHUR.
+  2 THOREAU'S WALDEN.
+  3 THOREAU'S "WEEK."
+  4 THOREAU'S ESSAYS.
+  5 ENGLISH OPIUM-EATER.
+  6 LANDOR'S CONVERSATIONS.
+  7 PLUTARCH'S LIVES.
+  8 RELIGIO MEDICI, &c.
+  9 SHELLEY'S LETTERS.
+  10 PROSE WRITINGS OF SWIFT.
+  11 MY STUDY WINDOWS.
+  12 THE ENGLISH POETS.
+  13 THE BIGLOW PAPERS.
+  14 GREAT ENGLISH PAINTERS.
+  15 LORD BYRON'S LETTERS.
+  16 ESSAYS BY LEIGH HUNT.
+  17 LONGFELLOW'S PROSE.
+  18 GREAT MUSICAL COMPOSERS.
+  19 MARCUS AURELIUS.
+  20 TEACHING OF EPICTETUS.
+  21 SENECA'S MORALS.
+  22 SPECIMEN DAYS IN AMERICA.
+  23 DEMOCRATIC VISTAS.
+  24 WHITE'S SELBORNE.
+  25 DEFOE'S SINGLETON.
+  26 MAZZINI'S ESSAYS.
+  27 PROSE WRITINGS OF HEINE.
+  28 REYNOLDS' DISCOURSES.
+  29 PAPERS OF STEELE AND ADDISON.
+  30 BURNS'S LETTERS.
+  31 VOLSUNGA SAGA.
+  32 SARTOR RESARTUS.
+  33 WRITINGS OF EMERSON.
+  34 LIFE OF LORD HERBERT.
+  35 ENGLISH PROSE.
+  36 IBSEN'S PILLARS OF SOCIETY.
+  37 IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.
+  38 ESSAYS OF DR. JOHNSON.
+  39 ESSAYS OF WILLIAM HAZLITT.
+  40 LANDOR'S PENTAMERON, &c.
+  41 POE'S TALES AND ESSAYS.
+  42 VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.
+  43 POLITICAL ORATIONS.
+  44 AUTOCRAT OF THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.
+  45 POET AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.
+  46 PROFESSOR AT THE BREAKFAST-TABLE.
+  47 CHESTERFIELD'S LETTERS.
+  48 STORIES FROM CARLETON.
+  49 JANE EYRE.
+  50 ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND.
+  51 WRITINGS OF THOMAS DAVIS.
+  52 SPENCE'S ANECDOTES.
+  53 MORE'S UTOPIA.
+  54 SADI'S GULISTAN.
+  55 ENGLISH FAIRY TALES.
+  56 NORTHERN STUDIES.
+  57 FAMOUS REVIEWS.
+  58 ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS.
+  59 PERICLES AND ASPASIA.
+  60 ANNALS OF TACITUS.
+  61 ESSAYS OF ELIA.
+  62 BALZAC.
+  63 DE MUSSET'S COMEDIES.
+  64 CORAL REEFS.
+  65 SHERIDAN'S PLAYS.
+  66 OUR VILLAGE.
+  67 MASTER HUMPHREY'S CLOCK.
+  68 TALES FROM WONDERLAND.
+  69 JERROLD'S ESSAYS.
+  70 THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN.
+  71 "THE ATHENIAN ORACLE."
+  72 ESSAYS OF SAINTE-BEUVE.
+  73 SELECTIONS FROM PLATO.
+  74 HEINE'S TRAVEL SKETCHES.
+  75 MAID OF ORLEANS.
+  76 SYDNEY SMITH.
+  77 THE NEW SPIRIT.
+  78 MALORY'S BOOK OF MARVELLOUS ADVENTURES.
+  79 HELPS' ESSAYS & APHORISMS.
+  80 ESSAYS OF MONTAIGNE.
+  81 THACKERAY'S BARRY LYNDON.
+  82 SCHILLER'S WILLIAM TELL.
+  83 CARLYLE'S GERMAN ESSAYS.
+  84 LAMB'S ESSAYS.
+  85 WORDSWORTH'S PROSE.
+  86 LEOPARDI'S DIALOGUES.
+  87 THE INSPECTOR-GENERAL.
+  88 BACON'S ESSAYS.
+  89 PROSE OF MILTON.
+  90 PLATO'S REPUBLIC.
+  91 PASSAGES FROM FROISSART.
+  92 PROSE OF COLERIDGE.
+  93 HEINE IN ART AND LETTERS.
+  94 ESSAYS OF DE QUINCEY.
+  95 VASARI'S LIVES OF ITALIAN PAINTERS.
+  96 LESSING'S LAOCOON.
+  97 PLAYS OF MAETERLINCK.
+  98 WALTON'S COMPLETE ANGLER.
+  99 LESSING'S NATHAN THE WISE.
+  100 STUDIES BY RENAN.
+  101 MAXIMS OF GOETHE.
+  102 SCHOPENHAUER.
+  103 RENAN'S LIFE OF JESUS.
+  104 CONFESSIONS of St. AUGUSTINE.
+  105 PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESS IN LITERATURE.
+
+May be had in the following Bindings:--Cloth, uncut edges, gilt top, 1s.
+6d.; Half-Morocco, gilt top, antique; Red Roan, gilt edges, etc.
+
+
+THE TWO CYCLING BOOKS OF THE SEASON.
+
+Foolscap 8vo, Cloth Gilt, Elegant, Price 2s. 6d. Paper Cover, 1s.
+
+Lady Cycling.
+
+BY MISS F. J. ERSKINE.
+
+"Her (Miss Erskine's) remarks and suggestions are lucid, direct,
+thoroughly sensible, and invariably worthy of serious
+consideration."--_Daily Mail._
+
+
+Foolscap 8vo, Cloth Gilt, Elegant, Price 2s. 6d. Paper Cover, 1s.
+
+All-Round Cycling.
+
+By Sir B. W. Richardson, G. Lacy Hillier, Evelyn Everett Green, J. Rivers
+Vine, John Watson, F.L.S., and P. A. Thomas, B.A.
+
+"A little book that cyclists will know how to value, of whatever
+description they may be."--_National Observer._
+
+"A useful and entertaining volume."--_Daily Mail._
+
+"The chapter on 'Cycle and Camera' is particularly fascinating, and that
+on 'Health' especially valuable."--_Liverpool Mercury._
+
+"Bound to interest all cyclists."--_Black and White._
+
+
+UNIFORM WITH PREVIOUS YEARS' ISSUES.
+
+Crown 8vo, Half Antique, Paper Boards, Price 3s. 6d.
+
+The Theatrical 'World' of 1897.
+
+BY WILLIAM ARCHER.
+
+With an Introduction by SYDNEY GRUNDY, an Epilogue by WILLIAM ARCHER, and
+a Synopsis of Playbills of the Year by HENRY GEORGE HIBBERT.
+
+_May still be had uniform with the above_--
+
+THE THEATRICAL 'WORLD' OF 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1896.
+
+_Each of the above vols. contains Complete Indices of the Plays, Authors,
+Actors, Actresses, Managers, Critics, etc., referred to._
+
+The above volumes are also supplied in a uniform Cloth Binding, Price 3s.
+6d. per vol.
+
+
+THE CANTERBURY POETS.
+
+EDITED BY WILLIAM SHARP. Cloth, Cut and Uncut Edges, 1s.; Red Roan, Gilt
+Edges, 2s. 6d.; Pad. Morocco, Gilt Edges, 5s.
+
+_A Superior Edition Bound in Art Linen, with Photogravure Frontispiece,
+2s._
+
+  1 CHRISTIAN YEAR
+  2 COLERIDGE
+  3 LONGFELLOW
+  4 CAMPBELL
+  5 SHELLEY
+  6 WORDSWORTH
+  7 BLAKE
+  8 WHITTIER
+  9 POE
+  10 CHATTERTON
+  11 BURNS. Songs
+  12 BURNS. Poems
+  13 MARLOWE
+  14 KEATS
+  15 HERBERT
+  16 HUGO
+  17 COWPER
+  18 SHAKESPEARE'S POEMS, etc.
+  19 EMERSON
+  20 SONNETS OF THIS CENTURY
+  21 WHITMAN
+  22 SCOTT. Lady of the Lake, etc.
+  23 SCOTT. Marmion, etc.
+  24 PRAED
+  25 HOGG
+  26 GOLDSMITH
+  27 LOVE LETTERS, etc.
+  28 SPENSER
+  29 CHILDREN OF THE POETS
+  30 JONSON
+  31 BYRON. Miscellaneous.
+  32 BYRON. Don Juan.
+  33 THE SONNETS OF EUROPE
+  34 RAMSAY
+  35 DOBELL
+  36 POPE
+  37 HEINE
+  38 BEAUMONT & FLETCHER
+  39 BOWLES, LAMB, etc.
+  40 SEA MUSIC
+  41 EARLY ENGLISH POETRY
+  42 HERRICK
+  43 BALLADES AND RONDEAUS
+  44 IRISH MINSTRELSY
+  45 MILTON'S PARADISE LOST
+  46 JACOBITE BALLADS
+  47 DAYS OF THE YEAR
+  48 AUSTRALIAN BALLADS
+  49 MOORE
+  50 BORDER BALLADS
+  51 SONG-TIDE
+  52 ODES OF HORACE
+  53 OSSIAN
+  54 FAIRY MUSIC
+  55 SOUTHEY
+  56 CHAUCER
+  57 GOLDEN TREASURY
+  58 POEMS OF WILD LIFE
+  59 PARADISE REGAINED
+  60 CRABBE
+  61 DORA GREENWELL
+  62 FAUST
+  63 AMERICAN SONNETS
+  64 LANDOR'S POEMS
+  65 GREEK ANTHOLOGY
+  66 HUNT AND HOOD
+  67 HUMOROUS POEMS
+  68 LYTTON'S PLAYS
+  69 GREAT ODES
+  70 MEREDITH'S POEMS
+  71 IMITATION OF CHRIST
+  72 UNCLE TOBY BIRTHDAY BK
+  73 PAINTER-POETS
+  74 WOMEN POETS
+  75 LOVE LYRICS
+  76 AMERICAN HUMOROUS VERSE
+  77 MINOR SCOTCH LYRICS
+  78 CAVALIER LYRISTS
+  79 GERMAN BALLADS
+  80 SONGS OF BERANGER
+  81 RODEN NOEL'S POEMS
+  82 SONGS OF FREEDOM
+  83 CANADIAN POEMS
+  84 CONTEMPORARY SCOTTISH VERSE
+  85 POEMS OF NATURE
+  86 CRADLE SONGS
+  87 BALLADS OF SPORT
+  88 MATTHEW ARNOLD
+  89 CLOUGH'S BOTHIE
+  90 BROWNING'S POEMS Pippa Passes, etc. Vol. 1
+  91 BROWNING'S POEMS A Blot in the 'Scutcheon, etc. Vol. 2
+  92 BROWNING'S POEMS Dramatic Lyrics. Vol. 3
+  93 MACKAY'S LOVER'S MISSAL
+  94 HENRY KIRKE WHITE
+  95 LYRA NICOTIANA
+
+
+The Canterbury Poets.
+
+_IMPORTANT ADDITIONS._
+
+WORKS BY ROBERT BROWNING.
+
+
+VOL. I.
+
+    Pippa Passes, and other Poetic Dramas, by Robert Browning. With an
+    Introductory Note by Frank Rinder.
+
+VOL. II.
+
+    A Blot in the 'Scutcheon, and other Poetic Dramas, by Robert Browning.
+    With an Introductory Note by Frank Rinder.
+
+VOL. III.
+
+    Dramatic Romances and Lyrics; and Sordello, by Robert Browning. To
+    which is prefixed an Appreciation of Browning by Miss E. DIXON.
+
+
+BINDINGS.
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+great part of Browning's best-known and most admired work, and (being each
+of about 400 pages) are among the largest yet issued in the CANTERBURY
+POETS. The Frontispiece of Vol. I. consists of a reproduction of one of
+Browning's last portraits; Mr. RUDOLF LEHMANN has kindly given permission
+for his portrait of Browning to be reproduced as a Frontispiece of Vol.
+II.; while a reproduction of a drawing of a View of Asolo forms the
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+Illustrations by T. EYRE MACKLIN, a Photogravure Frontispiece Portrait of
+the Author, and over 600 pages of letterpress, printed from large clear
+type.
+
+TWENTY YEARS AFTER. By ALEXANDRE DUMAS. With Sixteen Full-page
+Illustrations by FRANK T. MERRILL, and 800 pages of letterpress, set from
+new type.
+
+LES MISERABLES. By VICTOR HUGO. With Eleven Full-page Illustrations, and
+1384 pages of letterpress.
+
+NOTRE DAME. By VICTOR HUGO. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+JANE EYRE. By CHARLOTTE BRONTE. With Sixteen Full-page Illustrations, and
+Thirty-two Illustrations in the Text, by EDMUND H. GARRETT, and
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+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+Punctuation has been corrected without note.
+
+The following misprints have been corrected:
+  "hemipheres" corrected to "hemispheres" (page 36)
+  "Louisana" corrected to "Louisiana" (page 99)
+  "somtimes" corrected to "sometimes" (page 112)
+  "manifestions" corrected to "manifestations" (page 148)
+  "two" corrected to "too" (page 212)
+  "centrals" corrected to "central" (page 234)
+  "from" corrected to "form" (page 258)
+  "looses" corrected to "loses" (page 260)
+  "mathemacian" corrected to "mathematician" (page 297)
+  "cortes" corrected to "cortex" (page 313)
+  "Nevropathique" corrected to Nevropathique (footnote 209)
+
+Other than the corrections listed above, inconsistencies in spelling and
+hyphenation have been retained from the original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Degeneracy, by Eugene S. Talbot
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