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diff --git a/35685.txt b/35685.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4404db2 --- /dev/null +++ b/35685.txt @@ -0,0 +1,29698 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Man, Past and Present, by +Agustus Henry Keane and A. Hingston Quiggin and Alfred Court Haddon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Man, Past and Present + +Author: Agustus Henry Keane + A. Hingston Quiggin + Alfred Court Haddon + +Release Date: March 26, 2011 [EBook #35685] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN, PAST AND PRESENT *** + + + + +Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + + + + + MAN + PAST AND PRESENT + + + + + CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS + C. F. CLAY, MANAGER + + LONDON: FETTER LANE, E.C. 4 + NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS + BOMBAY } + CALCUTTA } MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. + MADRAS } + TORONTO: J. M. DENT AND SONS, LTD. + TOKYO: MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA + + ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + + + + + MAN + PAST AND PRESENT + + BY + A. H. KEANE + + REVISED, AND LARGELY RE-WRITTEN, BY + A. HINGSTON QUIGGIN + AND + A. C. HADDON + READER IN ETHNOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE + + CAMBRIDGE + AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS + 1920 + + + + +PREFACE TO NEW EDITION + + +Those who are familiar with the vast amount of ethnological literature +published since the close of last century will realize that to revise +and bring up to date a work whose range in space and time covers the +whole world from prehistoric ages down to the present day, is a task +impossible of accomplishment within the compass of a single volume. +Recent discoveries have revolutionized our conception of primeval man, +while still providing abundant material for controversy, and the rapidly +increasing pile of ethnographical matter, although a vast amount of +spade work remains to be done, is but one sign of the remarkable +interest in ethnology which is so conspicuous a feature of the present +decade. Even to keep abreast of the periodical literature devoted to his +subject provides ample occupation for the ethnologist and few are those +who can now lay claim to such an omniscient title. + +Under such circumstances the faults of omission and compression could +not be avoided in revising Professor Keane's work, but it is hoped that +the copious references which form a prominent feature of the present +edition will compensate in some measure for these obvious defects. The +main object of the revisers has been to retain as much as possible of +the original text wherever it fairly represents current opinion at the +present time, but so different is our outlook from that of 1899 that +certain sections have had to be entirely rewritten and in many places +pages have been suppressed to make room for more important information. +In every case where new matter has been inserted references are given +to the responsible authorities and the fullest use has been made of +direct quotation from the authors cited. + +Mrs Hingston Quiggin is responsible for the whole work of revision with +the exception of Chapter XI, revised by Miss Lilian Whitehouse, while +Dr A. C. Haddon has criticized, corrected and supervised the work +throughout. + + A. H. Q. + A. C. H. + 10 _October_, 1919. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAP. PAGE + I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1 + II. THE METAL AGES--HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES 20 + III. THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE 40 + IV. THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. BANTUS--NEGRILLOES--BUSHMEN-- + HOTTENTOTS 84 + V. THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS (PAPUANS AND + MELANESIANS)--NEGRITOES--TASMANIANS 132 + VI. THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS 163 + VII. THE OCEANIC MONGOLS 219 + VIII. THE NORTHERN MONGOLS 254 + IX. THE NORTHERN MONGOLS (_continued_) 300 + X. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES 332 + XI. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES (_continued_) 388 + XII. THE PRE-DRAVIDIANS: JUNGLE TRIBES OF THE DECCAN, + SAKAI, AUSTRALIANS 422 + XIII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES 438 + XIV. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (_continued_) 488 + XV. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (_continued_) 501 + APPENDIX 556 + INDEX 562 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +(at the end of the volume) + + + PLATE I. + 1. Hausa slave of Tunis (Western Sudanese Negro). + 2. Zulu girl, South Africa (Bantu Negroid). + 3, 4. Abraham Lucas, Age 32, South Africa (Koranna Hottentot). + 5, 6. Swaartbooi, Age 20, South Africa (Bushman). + + PLATE II. + 1. Andamanese (Negrito). + 2. Semang, Malay Peninsula (Negrito). + 3. Aeta, Philippines (Negrito). + 4. Central African Pygmy (Negrillo). + 5-7. Tapiro, Netherlands New Guinea (Negrito). + + PLATE III. + 1, 2. Jemmy, native of Hampshire Hills, Tasmania (Tasmanian). + 3, 4. Native of Oromosapua, Kiwai, British New Guinea (Papuan). + 5, 6. Native of Hula, British New Guinea (Papuo-Melanesian). + + PLATE IV. + 1. Chinese man (Mixed Southern Mongol). + 2. Chinese woman of Kulja (mixed Southern Mongol). + 3, 4. Kara-Kirghiz of Semirechinsk. + 5. Kara-Kirghiz woman of Semirechinsk. + 6. Solon of Kulja (Manchu-Tungus). + + PLATE V. + 1. Jelai, an Iban (Sea-Dayak) of the Rejang river, Sarawak, + Borneo (mixed Proto-Malay). + 2. Buginese, Celebes (Malayan). + 3. Bontoc Igorot, Luzon, Philippines (Malayan). + 4. Bagobo, Mindanao, Philippines (Malayan). + 5, 6. Kenyah girls, Sarawak, Borneo (mixed Proto-Malay). + + PLATE VI. + 1. Samoyed, Tavji. + 2. Tungus. + 3. Ostiak of the Yenesei (Palaeo-Siberian). + 4. Kalmuk woman (Western Mongol). + 5. Gold of Amur river (Tungus). + 6. Gilyak woman (N.E. Mongol). + + PLATE VII. + 1. Ainu woman, Yezo, Japan (Palaeo-Siberian). + 2. Ainu man, Yezo, Japan (Palaeo-Siberian). + 3, 4. Fine and coarse types of Japanese men (mixed Manchu-Korean and + Southern Mongol.) + 5. Korean (mixed Tungus-Eastern Mongoloid). + 6. Lapp (Finnish). + + PLATE VIII. + 1. Eskimo, Port Clarence, West Alaska. + 2. Indian of the north-west coast of North America. ?Kwakiutl + (Wakashan stock). + 3. Cocopa, Lower California (Yuman stock). + 4. Navaho, Arizona (Athapascan linguistic stock). + 5, 6. Buffalo Bull Ghost, Dakota of Crow Creek (Siouan stock). + + PLATE IX. + 1. Carib, British Guiana. + 2. Guatuso, Costa Rica. + 3. Native of Otovalo, Ecuador. + 4. Native of Zambisa, Ecuador. + 5. Tehuel-che man, Patagonia. + 6. Tehuel-che woman, Patagonia. + + PLATE X. + 1. Sita Wanniya, a Henebedda Vedda, Ceylon (Pre-Dravidian). + 2. Sakai, Perak, Malay Peninsula (Pre-Dravidian). + 3. Irula of Chingleput, Nilgiri Hills, South India + (Pre-Dravidian). + 4. Paniyan woman, Malabar, South India (Pre-Dravidian). + 5. Kaitish, Central Australia (Australian). + 6. Mulgrave woman (Australian). + + PLATE XI. + 1, 2. Dane (Nordic). + 3. Dane (mixed Alpine). + 4. Breton woman of Guingamp (mixed Alpine). + 5. Swiss woman (Nordic). + 6. Swiss woman (Alpine). + + PLATE XII. + 1. Catalan man, Spain (Iberian). + 2. Irishman, Co. Roscommon (Mediterranean). + 3, 4. Kababish, Egyptian Sudan (mixed Semite). + 5. Egyptian Bedouin (mixed Semite). + 6. Afghan of Zerafshan (Iranian). + + PLATE XIII. + 1, 2. Bisharin, Egyptian Sudan (Hamite). + 3. Beni Amer, Egyptian Sudan (Hamite). + 4. Masai, British East Africa (mixed Nilote and Hamite). + 5. Shilluk, Egyptian Sudan (Nilote, showing approach to Hamitic + type). + 6. Shilluk, Egyptian Sudan (Nilote). + + PLATE XIV. + 1, 2. Kurd, Nimrud-Dagh, lake Van, Kurdistan, Asia Minor (Nordic). + 3, 4. Armenian, Kessab, Djebel Akrah, Kurdistan (Armenoid Alpine). + 5. Tajik woman of E. Turkestan (Alpine). + 6. Tajik of Tashkend (mixed Alpine and Turki). + + PLATE XV. + 1, 2. Sinhalese, Ceylon (mixed "Aryan"). + 3. Hindu merchant, Western India (mixed "Aryan"). + 4. Kling woman, Eastern India (Dravidian). + 5. Linga Banajiga, South India (Dravidian). + 6. Vakkaliga, Canarese, South India (mixed Alpine). + + PLATE XVI. + 1, 2. Ruatoka and his wife, Raiatea (Polynesian). + 3. Tiawhiao, Maori, New Zealand (Polynesian). + 4. Maori woman, New Zealand (Polynesian). + 5, 6. Girls of the Caroline Islands (Micronesian). + +We offer our sincere thanks for the use of the following photographs: + + A. H. Keane, _Ethnology_ (1896), IV. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; IX. 3, 4; + XII. 6; XIV. 5, 6. + A. H. Keane, _Man, Past and Present_ (1899), I. 2; II. 3; V. 2; + VI. 4, 5, 6; VII. 5; IX. 1, 2; X. 4, 6; XII. 5. + A. R. Brown, II. 1. + Prof. R. B. Yapp, II. 2. + Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, II. 4; V. 4; VII. 1, 2; + VIII. 1, 2, 3, 4; IX. 5, 6; XV. 1, 2. + Dr Wollaston, cf. _Pygmies and Papuans_, p. 212; II. 5, 6, 7. + Dr G. Landtman, III. 3, 4. + Anthony Wilkin, III. 5, 6. + Prof. C. G. Seligman, V. 1; (_The Veddas_, pl. V) X. 1; XII. 3, 4; + XIII. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6. + L. F. Taylor, V. 3. + A. C. Haddon, I. 3, 4, 5, 6; III. 1, 2; IV. 1; V. 5, 6; VII. 6; + XI. 1, 2, 3; XII. 1, 2; XIII. 4; XVI. 1, 2, 3, 4. + Miss M. A. Czaplicka, VI. 1, 2, 3. + Dr W. Crooke (cf. _Northern India_, pl. III), XV. 3. + Baelz, VII. 3, 4. + Bureau of American Ethnology, VIII. 5, 6. + E. Thurston (_Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, II. p. 387), + X. 3; (ibid. IV. pp. 236, 240), XV. 5; XV. 6. + Sir Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen and Messrs Macmillan & Co. + (_Across Australia_, II. fig. 169), X. 5. + Prof. J. Kollmann, XI. 5, 6. + P. W. Luton, XII. 2. + Prof. F. von Luschan and the Council of the Royal Anthropological + Institute (_Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst._, XLI., pl. XXIV, 1, 2, + pl. XXX, 1, 2), XIV. 1, 2, 3, 4. + Dr W. H. Furness, XVI. 5, 6. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS + + The World peopled by Migration from one Centre by Pleistocene + Man--The Primary Groups evolved each in its special Habitat-- + Pleistocene Man: _Pithecanthropus erectus_; The Mauer jaw, _Homo + Heidelbergensis_; The Piltdown skull, _Eoanthropus Dawsoni_--General + View of Pleistocene Man--The first Migrations--Early Man and his + Works--Classification of Human Types: _H. primigenius_, Neandertal + or Mousterian Man; _H. recens_, Galley Hill or Aurignacian Man-- + Physical Types--Human Culture: Reutelian, Mafflian, Mesvinian, + Strepyan, Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrian, + Magdalenian, Azilian--Chronology--The early History of Man a + Geological Problem--The Human Varieties the Outcome of their several + Environments--Correspondence of Geographical with Racial and + Cultural Zones. + + +In order to a clear understanding of the many difficult questions +connected with the natural history of the human family, two cardinal +points have to be steadily borne in mind--the specific unity of all +existing varieties, and the dispersal of their generalised precursors +over the whole world in pleistocene times. As both points have elsewhere +been dealt with by me somewhat fully[1], it will here suffice to show +their direct bearing on the general evolution of the human species from +that remote epoch to the present day. + +It must be obvious that, if man is specifically one, though not +necessarily sprung of a single pair, he must have had, in homely +language, a single cradle-land, from which the peopling of the earth +was brought about by migration, not by independent developments from +different species in so many independent geographical areas. + +It follows further, and this point is all-important, that, since the +world was peopled by pleistocene man, it was peopled by a generalised +proto-human form, prior to all later racial differences. The existing +groups, according to this hypothesis, have developed in different areas +independently and divergently by continuous adaptation to their several +environments. If they still constitute mere varieties, and not distinct +species, the reason is because all come of like pleistocene ancestry, +while the divergences have been confined to relatively narrow limits, +that is, not wide enough to be regarded zoologically as specific +differences. + +The battle between monogenists and polygenists cannot be decided until +more facts are at our disposal, and much will doubtless be said on both +sides for some time to come[2]. Among the views of human origins brought +forward in recent years should be mentioned the daring theory of +Klaatsch[3]. Recognising two distinct human types, Neandertal and +Aurignac (see pp. 8, 9 below), and two distinct anthropoid types, +gorilla and orang-utan, he derives Neandertal man and African gorilla +from one common ancestor, and Aurignac man and Asiatic orang-utan from +another. Though anatomists, especially those conversant with anthropoid +structure[4], are not able to accept this view, they admit that many +difficulties may be solved by the recognition of more than one +primordial stock of human ancestors[5]. The questions of adaptation to +climate and environment[6], the possibilities of degeneracy, the varying +degrees of physiological activity, of successful mutations, the effects +of crossing and all the complicated problems of heredity are involved in +the discussion, and it must be acknowledged that our information +concerning all of these is entirely inadequate. + +Nevertheless all speculations on the subject are not based merely on +hypotheses, and three discoveries of late years have provided solid +facts for the working out of the problem. + +These discoveries were the remains of _Pithecanthropus erectus_[7] in +Java, in 1892, of the Mauer jaw[8], near Heidelberg, in 1907, and of the +Piltdown skull[9] in Sussex in 1912. Although the Mauer jaw was accepted +without hesitation, the controversy concerning the correct +interpretation of the Javan fossils has been raging for more than twenty +years and shows no sign of abating, while _Eoanthropus Dawsoni_ is too +recent an intruder into the arena to be fairly dealt with at present. +Certain facts however stand out clearly. In late pliocene or early +pleistocene times certain early ancestral forms were already in +existence which can scarcely be excluded from the _Hominidae_. In range +they were as widely distributed as Java in the east to Heidelberg and +Sussex in the west, and in spite of divergence in type a certain +correlation is not impossible, even if the Piltdown specimen should +finally be regarded as representing a distinct genus[10]. Each +contributes facts of the utmost importance for the tracing out of the +history of human evolution. _Pithecanthropus_ raises the vexed question +as to whether the erect attitude or brain development came first in the +story. The conjunction of pre-human braincase with human thighbone +appeared to favour the popular view that the erect attitude was the +earlier, but the evidence of embryology suggests a reverse order. And +although at first the thighbone was recognised as distinctly human it +seems that of late doubts have been cast on this interpretation[11], and +even the claim to the title _erectus_ is called in question. The +characters of straightness and slenderness on which much stress was laid +are found in exaggerated form in gibbons and lemurs. The intermediate +position in respect of mental endowment (in so far as brain can be +estimated by cranial capacity) is shown in the accompanying diagram in +which the cranial measurements of _Pithecanthropus_ are compared with +those of a chimpanzee and prehistoric man. The teeth strengthen the +evidence, for they are described as too large for a man and too small +for an ape. Thus _Pithecanthropus_ has been confidently assigned to a +place in a branch of the human family tree. + + [Illustration: POSITION OF P. ERECTUS. + (Manouvrier, _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 438.)] + +The Mauer jaw, the geological age of which is undisputed, also +represents intermediate characters. The extraordinary strength and +thickness of bone, the wide ascending ramus with shallow sigmoid notch +(distinctly simian features) and the total absence of chin[12] would +deny it a place among human jaws, but the teeth, which are all +fortunately preserved in their sockets, are not only definitely human, +but show in certain peculiarities less simian features than are to be +found in the dentition of modern man[13]. + + [Illustration: GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MAN'S ANCESTRY. + (A. Keith, _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915; fig. 187, p. 501.)] + +The cranial capacity of the Piltdown skull, though variously +estimated[14], is certainly greater than that of _Pithecanthropus_, the +general outlines with steeply rounded forehead resemble that of modern +man, and the bones are almost without exception typically human. The +jaw, however, though usually attributed to the same individual[15], +recalls the primitive features of the Mauer specimen in its thick +ascending portion and shallow notch, while in certain characters it +differs from any known jaw, ancient or modern[16]. The evidence afforded +by the teeth is even more striking. The teeth of _Pithecanthropus_ and +of _Homo Heidelbergensis_ were recognised as remarkably human, and +although primitive in type, are far more advanced in the line of human +evolution than the lowly features with which they are associated would +lead one to expect. The Piltdown teeth are more primitive in certain +characters than those of either the Javan or the Heidelberg remains. The +first molar has been compared to that of Taubach, the most ape-like of +human or pre-human teeth hitherto recorded, but the canine tooth (found +by P. Teilhard in the same stratum in 1913[17]) finds no parallel in any +known human jaw; it resembles the milk canine of the chimpanzee more +than that of the adult dentition. + +It cannot be said that any clear view of pleistocene man can be obtained +from these imperfect scraps of evidence, valuable though they are. +Rather may we agree with Keith that the problem grows more instead of +less complex. "In our first youthful burst of Darwinianism we pictured +our evolution as a simple procession of forms leading from ape to man. +Each age, as it passed, transformed the men of the time one stage nearer +to us--one more distant from the ape. The true picture is very +different. We have to conceive an ancient world in which the family of +mankind was broken up into narrow groups or genera, each genus again +divided into a number of species--much as we see in the monkey or ape +world of to-day. Then out of that great welter of forms one species +became the dominant form, and ultimately the sole surviving one--the +species represented by the modern races of mankind[18]." + +We may assume therefore that the earth was mainly peopled by the +generalised pleistocene precursors, who moved about, like the other +migrating faunas, unconsciously, everywhere following the lines of least +resistance, advancing or receding, and acting generally on blind impulse +rather than of any set purpose. + +That such must have been the nature of the first migratory movements +will appear evident when we consider that they were carried on by rude +hordes, all very much alike, and differing not greatly from other +zoological groups, and further that these migrations took place prior to +the development of all cultural appliances beyond the ability to wield a +broken branch or a sapling, or else chip or flake primitive stone +implements[19]. + +Herein lies the explanation of the curious phenomenon, which was a +stumbling-block to premature systematists, that all the works of early +man everywhere present the most startling resemblances, affording +absolutely no elements for classification, for instance, during the +times corresponding with the Chellean or first period of the Old Stone +Age. The implements of palaeolithic type so common in parts of South +India, South Africa, the Sudan, Egypt, etc., present a remarkable +resemblance to one another. This, while affording a _prima facies_ case +for, is not conclusive of, the migrations of a definite type of +humanity. + +After referring to the identity of certain objects from the Hastings +kitchen-middens and a barrow near Sevenoaks, W. J. L. Abbot proceeds: +"The first thing that would strike one in looking over a few trays of +these implements is the remarkable likeness which they bear to those of +Dordogne. Indeed many of the figures in the magnificent 'Reliquiae +Aquitanicae' might almost have been produced from these specimens[20]." +And Sir J. Evans, extending his glance over a wider horizon, discovers +implements in other distant lands "so identical in form and character +with British specimens that they might have been manufactured by the +same hands.... On the banks of the Nile, many hundreds of feet above its +present level, implements of the European types have been discovered, +while in Somaliland, in an ancient river valley, at a great elevation +above the sea, Seton-Karr has collected a large number of implements +formed of flint and quartzite, which, judging from their form and +character, might have been dug out of the drift-deposits of the Somme +and the Seine, the Thames or the ancient Solent[21]." + +It was formerly held that man himself showed a similar uniformity, and +all palaeolithic skulls were referred to one long-headed type, called, +from the most famous example, the Neandertal, which was regarded as +having close affinities with the present Australians. But this +resemblance is shown by Boule[22] and others to be purely superficial, +and recent archaeological finds indicate that more than one racial type +was in existence in the Palaeolithic Age. + +W. L. H. Duckworth on anatomical evidence constructs the following +table[23]. + + Group I. Early ancestral forms. + _Ex. gr. H. heidelbergensis._ + + Group II. _Subdivision A. H. primigenius._ + _Ex. gr. La Chapelle._ + _Subdivision B. H. recens_; with varieties + { _H. fossilis. Ex. gr. Galley Hill._ + { _H. sapiens._ + +H. Obermaier[24] argues as follows: _Homo primigenius_ is neither the +representative of an intermediate species between ape and man, nor a +lower or distinct type than _Homo sapiens_, but an older primitive +variety (race) of the latter, which survives in exceptional cases down +to the present day[25]. Clearly then, according to the rules of +zoological classification, we must term the two, _Homo sapiens var. +primigenius_, as compared with _Homo sapiens var. recens_. + +Whatever classification or nomenclature may be adopted the dual division +in palaeolithic times is now generally recognised. The more primitive +type is commonly called Neandertal man, from the famous cranium found +in the Neandertal cave in 1857, or Mousterian man, from the culture +associations. To this group belong the Gibraltar skull[26], and the +skeletons from Spy[27], and Krapina, Croatia[28], together with the +later discoveries (1908-11) at La Chapelle[29] (Correze), Le +Moustier[30], La Ferassie[31] (Dordogne) and many others. + +Palaeolithic examples of the modern human type have been found at Bruex +(Bohemia)[32], Bruenn (Moravia)[33] and Galley Hill in Kent[34], but the +most complete find was that at Combe Capelle in 1909[35]. The numerous +skeletons found at Cro-Magnon[36] and at the Grottes de Grimaldi at +Mentone[37] though showing certain skeletal differences may be included +in this group, the earliest examples of which are associated with +Aurignacian culture[38]. + +From the evidence contributed by these examples the main characteristics +of the two groups may be indicated, although, owing to the imperfection +of the records, any generalisations must necessarily be tentative and +subject to criticism. + +The La Chapelle skull recalls many of the primitive features of the +"ancestral types." The low receding forehead, the overhanging +brow-ridges, forming continuous horizontal bars of bone overshadowing +the orbits, the inflated circumnasal region, the enormous jaws, with +massive ascending ramus, shallow sigmoid notch, "negative" chin and +other "simian" characters seem reminiscent of _Pithecanthropus_ and +_Homo Heidelbergensis_. The cranial capacity however is estimated at +over 1600 c.c., thus exceeding that of the average modern European, and +this development, even though associated, as M. Boule has pointed out, +with a comparatively lowly brain, is of striking significance. The low +stature, probably about 1600 mm. (under 5-1/2 feet) makes the size of +the skull and cranial capacity all the more remarkable. "A survey of +the characters of Neanderthal man--as manifested by his skeleton, brain +cast, and teeth--have convinced anthropologists of two things: first, +that we are dealing with a form of man totally different from any form +now living; and secondly, that the kind of difference far exceeds that +which separates the most divergent of modern human races[39]." + +The earliest complete and authentic example of "Aurignacian man" was the +skeleton discovered near Combe Capelle (Dordogne) in 1909[40]. The +stature is low, not exceeding that of the Neandertal type, but the limb +bones are slighter and the build is altogether lighter and more slender. +The greatest contrast lies in the skull. The forehead is vertical +instead of receding, and the strongly projecting brow-ridges are +diminished, the jaw is less massive and less simian with regard to all +the features mentioned above. Especially is this difference noticeable +in the projection of the chin, which now for the first time shows the +modern human outline. In short there are no salient features which +cannot be matched among the living races of the present day. + +On the cultural side no less than on the physical, the thousands of +years which the lowest estimate attributes to the Early Stone Age were +marked by slow but continuous changes. + +The Reutelian (at the junction of the Pliocene and Pleistocene), +Mafflian and Mesvinian industries, recognised by M. Rutot in Belgium, +belong to the doubtful Eolithic Period, not yet generally accepted[41]. + +The lowest palaeolithic deposit is the Strepyan, so called from Strepy, +near Charleroi, typically represented at St Acheul, Amiens, and +recognised also in the Thames Valley[42]. The tools exhibit deliberate +flaking, and mark the transition between eolithic and palaeolithic +work. The associated fauna includes two species of elephant, +_E. meridionalis_ and _E. antiquus_, two species of rhinoceros, +_R. Etruscus_ and _R. Merckii_, and the hippopotamus. It is possible +that the Mauer jaw and the Piltdown skull belong to this stage. + +The Chellean industry[43], with the typical coarsely flaked +almond-shaped implements, occurs abundantly in the South of England and +in France, less commonly in Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary and +Russia, while examples have been recognised in Palestine, Egypt, +Somaliland, Cape Colony, Madras and other localities, though outside +Europe the date is not always ascertainable and the form is not an +absolute criterion[44]. + +Acheulean types succeed apparently in direct descent but the implements +are altogether lighter, sharper, more efficient, and are characterised +by finer workmanship and carefully retouched edges. A small finely +finished lanceolate implement is typical of the sub-industry or local +development at La Micoque (Dordogne). + +The Chellean industry is associated with a warm climate and the remains +of _Elephas antiquus_, _Rhinoceros Merckii_ and hippopotamus. Lower +Acheulean shows little variation, but with Upper Acheulean certain +animals indicating a colder climate make their appearance, including +the mammoth, _Elephas primigenius_, and the woolly rhinoceros, +_R. tichorhinus_, but no reindeer. + +The Mousterian industry is entirely distinct from its predecessors. The +warm fauna has disappeared, the reindeer first occurs together with the +musk ox, arctic fox, the marmot and other cold-loving animals. Man +appears to have sought refuge in the caves, and from complete skeletons +found in cave deposits of this stage we gain the first clear ideas +concerning the physical type of man of the early palaeolithic period. +Typical Mousterian implements consist of leaf-like or triangular points +made from flakes struck from the nodule instead of from the dressed +nodule itself, as in the earlier stages. The Levallois flakes, occurring +at the base of the Mousterian (sometimes included in the Acheulean +stage), initiate this new style of workmanship, but the Mousterian point +shows an improvement in shape and a greater mastery in technique, +producing a more efficient tool for piercing and cutting. Scrapers, +carefully retouched, with a curved edge are also characteristic, besides +many other forms. The complete skeletons from Le Moustier itself, La +Chapelle, La Ferassie, and Krapina all belong to this stage, which marks +the end of the lower palaeolithic period, the Age of the Mammoth. + +The upper palaeolithic or Reindeer Age is divided into Aurignacian, +Solutrian, and Magdalenian[45] culture stages, with the Azilian[46] +separating the Magdalenian from the neolithic period. Each stage is +distinguished by its implements and its art. The Aurignacian fauna, +though closely resembling the Mousterian, indicates an amelioration of +climate, the most abundant animals being the bison, horse, cave lion, +and cave hyena, and human settlements are again found in the open. Among +the typical implements are finely worked knife-like blades (Chatelperron +point, Gravette point), keeled scrapers (Tarte type), _burins_ or +gravers, and various tools and ornaments of bone. Art is represented by +engravings and wall paintings, and to this stage belong statuettes +representing nude female figures such as those of Brassempouy, Mentone, +Pont-a-Lesse (Belgium), Predmost and Willendorf, near Krems. The +Neandertal type appears to have died out and Aurignacian man belongs to +the modern type represented at Combe Capelle. If the evidence of the +figurines is to be accepted, a steatopygous race was at this time in +existence, which Sollas is inclined to connect with the Bushmen[47]. + +The Solutrian stage is characterised by the abundance of the horse, +replaced in the succeeding period by the reindeer. The Solutrians seem +to have been a warlike steppe people who came from the east into western +Europe. Their subsequent fate has not been elucidated. The culture +appears to have had a limited range, only a few stations being found +outside Dordogne and the neighbouring departments. The technique, as +shown in the laurel-leaf and willow-leaf points, exhibits a perfection +of workmanship unequalled in the Palaeolithic Age, and only excelled by +late prehistoric knives of Egypt. + +The rock shelter at La Madeleine has given its name to the closing epoch +of the Palaeolithic Age. The flint industry shows distinct decadence, +but the working in bone and horn was at its zenith; indeed, so marked is +the contrast between this and the preceding stage that Breuil is +convinced that "the first Magdalenians were not evolved from the +Solutrians; they were new-comers in our region[48]." The typical +implements are barbed harpoons in reindeer antler (later that of the +stag), often decorated with engravings. Sculpture and engravings of +animals in life-like attitudes are among the most remarkable records of +the age, and the polychrome pictures in the caves of Altamira, "the +Sistine chapel of Quaternary Art," are the admiration of the world[49]. + +In the cave of Mas-d'Azil, between the Magdalenian and Neolithic +deposits occurs a stratum, termed Azilian, which, to some extent, +bridges over the obscure transition between the Palaeolithic and +Neolithic Ages. The reindeer has disappeared, and its place is taken by +the stag. The realistic art of the Magdalenians is succeeded by a more +geometric style. In flint working a return is made to Aurignacian +methods, and a particular development of pygmy flints has received the +name _Tardenoisian_[50]. + +The characteristic implement is still the harpoon, but it differs in +shape from the Magdalenian implement, owing to the different structure +of the material. Painted pebbles, marked with red and black lines, in +some cases suggesting a script, have given rise to much controversy. +Their meaning at present remains obscure[51]. + +The question of prehistoric chronology is a difficult one, and the more +cautious authorities do not commit themselves to dates. Of late years, +however, such researches as those of A. Penck and E. Brueckner in the +Alps[52] and of Baron de Geer and W. C. Brogger in Sweden[53], have +provided a sound basis for calculations. Penck recognises four periods +of glaciation during the pleistocene period, which he has named after +typical areas, the Guenz, Mindel, Riss and Wuerm. He dates the Wuerm +maximum at between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago and estimates the +duration of the Riss-Wuerm interglacial period at about 100,000 years. +According to his calculations the Chellean industry occurs in the +Mindel-Riss, or even in the Guenz-Mindel interval, but it is more +commonly placed in the mild phase intervening before the last (Wuerm) +glaciation, this latter corresponding with the cold Mousterian stage. At +least four subsequent oscillations of climate have been recognised by +Penck, the Achen, Buehl, Gschnitz and Daun, and the correspondence of +these with palaeolithic culture stages may be seen in the following +table[54]. + + Penck and Brueckner Obermaier and others Rutot + + Post-glacial {Daun } Azilian Proto-Neolithic} + with {Gschnitz} Azilian } + oscillations {Buehl } Magdalenian } Neolithic + {Achen } Magdalenian Solutrian and } + } Aurignacian } + IV. Wuerm. 4th Glacial } Mousterian Lower + Lower Mousterian Magdalenian + and Acheulean + Riss-Wuerm. 3rd Solutrian and Chellean Upper + Interglacial Aurignacian Mousterian + Warm Mousterian + III. Riss. 3rd Glacial Cold Mousterian Lower + Acheulean + Chellean + Mindel-Riss. 2nd Acheulean Mauer jaw Strepyan + Interglacial Chellean Pre-Palaeolithic Mesvinian + Mafflian + II. Mindel. 2nd Glacial } } + } } + Guenz-Mindel. 1st } No artefacts } No artefacts + Interglacial } } + } } + I. Guenz. 1st Glacial } } + +James Geikie[55], under the heading, "Reliable and Unreliable estimates +of geological time," points out that the absolute duration of the +Pleistocene cannot be determined, but such investigations as those of +Penck "enable us to form some conception of the time involved." He +accepts as a rough approximation Penck's opinion that "the Glacial +period with all its climatic changes may have extended over half a +million years, and as the Chellean stage dates back to at least the +middle of the period, this would give somewhere between 250,000 and +500,000 years for the antiquity of man in Europe. But if, as recent +discoveries would seem to indicate, man was an occupant of our Continent +during the First Interglacial epoch, if not in still earlier times, we +may be compelled greatly to increase our estimate of his antiquity" +(p. 303). + +W. J. Sollas, on the other hand, is content with a far more contracted +measure. Basing his calculations mainly on the investigations of de +Geer, he concludes that the interval that separates our time from the +beginning of the end of the last glacial episode is 17,000 years. He +places the Azilian age at 5500 B.C., the middle of the Magdalenian age +somewhere about 8000 B.C., Mousterian 15,000 B.C., and the close of the +Chellean 25,000 B.C.[56] + +But when all the changes in climate are taken into consideration, the +periods of elevation and depression of the land, the transformations of +the animals, the evolution of man, the gradual stages of advance in +human culture, the development of the races of mankind, and their +distribution over the surface of the globe, this estimate is regarded by +many as insufficient. Allen Sturge claims "scores of thousands of years" +for the neolithic period alone[57], and Sir W. Turner points out the +very remote times to which the appearance of neolithic man must be +assigned in Scotland. After showing that there is undoubted evidence of +the presence of man in North Britain during the formation of the Carse +clays, this careful observer explains that the Carse cliffs, now in +places 45 to 50 feet above the present sea-level, formed the bed of an +estuary or arm of the sea, which in post-glacial times extended almost, +if not quite across the land from east to west, thus separating the +region south of the Forth from North Britain. He even suggests, after +the separation of Britain from the Continent in earlier times, another +land connection, a "Neolithic land-bridge" by which the men of the New +Stone Age may have reached Scotland when the upheaved 100-foot terrace +was still clothed with the great forest growths that have since +disappeared[58]. + +One begins to ask, Are even 100,000 years sufficient for such +oscillations of the surface, upheaval of marine beds, appearance of +great estuaries, renewed connection of Britain with the Continent by a +"Neolithic land-bridge"? In the Falkirk district neolithic +kitchen-middens occur on, or at the base of, the bluffs which overlook +the Carse lands, that is, the old sea-coast. In the Carse of Gowrie also +a dug-out canoe was found at the very base of the deposits, and +immediately above the buried forest-bed of the Tay Valley[59]. + +That the neolithic period was also of long duration even in Scandinavia +has been made evident by Carl Wibling, who calculates that the +geological changes on the south-east coast of Sweden (Province of +Bleking), since its first occupation by the men of the New Stone Age, +must have required a period of "at least 10,000 years[60]." + +Still more startling are the results of the protracted researches +carried on by J. Nueesch at the now famous station of Schweizersbild, +near Schaffhausen in Switzerland[61]. This station was apparently in the +continuous occupation of man during both Stone Ages, and here have been +collected as many as 14,000 objects belonging to the first, and over +6000 referred to the second period. Although the early settlement was +only post-glacial, a point about which there is no room for doubt, L. +Laloy[62] has estimated "the absolute duration of both epochs together +at from 24,000 to 29,000 years." We may, therefore, ask, If a +comparatively recent post-glacial station in Switzerland is about 29,000 +years old, how old may a pre- or inter-glacial station be in Gaul or +Britain? + +From all this we see how fully justified is J. W. Powell's remark that +the natural history of early man becomes more and more a geological, and +not merely an ethnological problem[63]. We also begin to understand how +it is that, after an existence of some five score millenniums, the first +specialised human varieties have diverged greatly from the original +types, which have thus become almost "ideal quantities," the subjects +rather of palaeontological than of strictly anthropological studies. + +And here another consideration of great moment presents itself. During +these long ages some of the groups--most African negroes south of the +equator, most Oceanic negroes (Negritoes and Papuans), and Australian +and American aborigines--have remained in their original habitats ever +since what may be called the first settlement of the earth by man. +Others again, the more restless or enterprising peoples, such as the +Mongols, Manchus, Turks, Ugro-Finns, Arabs, and most Europeans, have no +doubt moved about somewhat freely; but these later migrations, whether +hostile or peaceable, have for the most part been confined to regions +presenting the same or like physical and climatic conditions. Wherever +different climatic zones have been invaded, the intruders have failed to +secure a permanent footing, either perishing outright, or disappearing +by absorption or more or less complete assimilation to the aboriginal +elements. Such are some "black Arabs" in Egyptian Sudan, other Semites +and Hamites in Abyssinia and West Sudan (Himyarites, Fulahs and others), +Finns and Turks in Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula (Magyars, Bulgars, +Osmanli), Portuguese and Netherlanders in Malaysia, English in tropical +or sub-tropical lands, such as India, where Eurasian half-breeds alone +are capable of founding family groups. + +The human varieties are thus seen to be, like all other zoological +species, the outcome of their several environments. They are what +climate, soil, diet, pursuits and inherited characters have made them, +so that all sudden transitions are usually followed by disastrous +results[64]. "To urge the emigration of women and children, or of any +save those of the most robust health, to the tropics, may not be to +murder in the first degree, but it should be classed, to put it mildly, +as incitement to it[65]." Acclimatisation may not be impossible but in +all extreme cases it can be effected only at great sacrifice of life, +and by slow processes, the most effective of which is perhaps Natural +Selection. By this means we may indeed suppose the world to have been +first peopled. + +At the same time it should be remembered that we know little of the +climatic conditions at the time of the first migrations, though it has +been assumed that it was everywhere much milder than at present. +Consequently the different zones of temperature were less marked, and +the passage from one region to another more easily effected than in +later times. In a word the pleistocene precursors had far less +difficulty in adapting themselves to their new surroundings than modern +peoples have when they emigrate, for instance, from Southern Europe to +Brazil and Paraguay, or from the British Isles to Rhodesia and +Nyassaland. + +What is true of man must be no less true of his works; from which it +follows that racial and cultural zones correspond in the main with zones +of temperature, except so far as the latter may be modified by altitude, +marine influences, or other local conditions. A glance at past and +existing relations the world over will show that such harmonies have at +all times prevailed. No doubt the overflow of the leading European +peoples during the last 400 years has brought about divers dislocations, +blurrings, and in places even total effacements of the old landmarks. + +But, putting aside these disturbances, it will be found that in the +Eastern hemisphere the inter-tropical regions, hot, moist and more +favourable to vegetable than to animal vitality, are usually occupied by +savage, cultureless populations. Within the same sphere are also +comprised most of the extra-tropical southern lands, all tapering +towards the antarctic waters, isolated, and otherwise unsuitable for +areas of higher specialisation. + +Similarly the sub-tropical Asiatic peninsulas, the bleak Tibetan +tableland, the Pamir, and arid Mongolian steppes are found mainly in +possession of somewhat stationary communities, which present every stage +between sheer savagery and civilisation. + +In the same way the higher races and cultures are confined to the more +favoured north temperate zone, so that between the parallels of 24 deg. and +50 deg. (but owing to local conditions falling in the far East to 40 deg. and +under, and in the extreme West rising to 55 deg.) are situated nearly all +the great centres, past and present, of human activities--the Egyptian, +Babylonian, Minoan (Aegean), Hellenic, Etruscan, Roman, and modern +European. Almost the only exceptions are the early civilisations +(Himyaritic) of Yemen (Arabia Felix) and Abyssinia, where the low +latitude is neutralised by altitude and a copious rainfall. + +Thanks also to altitude, to marine influences, and the contraction of +the equatorial lands, the relations are almost completely reversed in +the New World. Here all the higher developments took place, not in the +temperate but in the tropical zone, within which lay the seats of the +Peruvian, Chimu, Chibcha and Maya-Quiche cultures; the Aztec sphere +alone ranged northwards a little beyond the Tropic of Cancer. + +Thus in both hemispheres the iso-cultural bands follow the isothermal +lines in all their deflections, and the human varieties everywhere +faithfully reflect the conditions of their several environments. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] _Ethnology_, Chaps. V. and VII. + +[2] See A. H. Keane, _Ethnology_, 1909, Chap. VII. + +[3] H. Klaatsch, "Die Aurignac-Rasse und ihre Stellung im Stammbaum des +Menschen," _Ztschr. f. Eth._ LII. 1910. See also _Praehistorische +Zeitschrift_, Vol. I. 1909. + +[4] Cf. A. Keith's criticisms in _Nature_, Vol. LXXXV. 1911, p. 508. + +[5] W. L. H. Duckworth, _Prehistoric Man_, 1912, p. 146. + +[6] W. Ridgeway, "The Influence of Environment on Man," _Journ. Roy. +Anthr. Inst._, Vol. XL. 1910, p. 10. + +[7] E. Dubois, "_Pithecanthropus erectus_, transitional form between Man +and the Apes," _Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc._ 1898. + +[8] O. Schoetensack, _Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis_, etc., +1908. + +[9] C. Dawson and A. Smith Woodward, "On the Discovery of a Palaeolithic +Skull and Mandible," etc., _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ 1913. + +[10] This was the view of A. Smith Woodward when the skull was first +exhibited (_loc. cit._), but in his paper, "Missing Links among Extinct +Animals," _Brit. Ass._ Birmingham, 1913, he is inclined to regard +"Piltdown man, or some close relative" as "on the direct line of descent +with ourselves." For A. Keith's criticism see _The Antiquity of Man_, +1915, p. 503. + +[11] W. L. H. Duckworth, _Prehistoric Man_, 1912, p. 8. + +[12] For the relation between chin formation and power of speech, see E. +Walkhoff, "Der Unterkiefer der Anthropomorphen und des Menschen in +seiner funktionellen Entwicklung und Gestalt," E. Selenka, +_Menschenaffen_, 1902; H. Obermaier, _Der Mensch der Vorzeit_, 1912, p. +362; and W. Wright, "The Mandible of Man from the Morphological and +Anthropological points of view," _Essays and Studies presented to W. +Ridgeway_, 1913. + +[13] Cf. W. L. H. Duckworth, _Prehistoric Man_, 1912, p. 10, and A. +Keith, _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915, p. 237. + +[14] A. Smith Woodward, 1070 c.c.; A. Keith, 1400 c.c. + +[15] G. G. MacCurdy, following G. S. Miller, _Smithsonian Misc. Colls._ +Vol. 65, No. 12 (1915), is convinced that "in place of _Eoanthropus +dawsoni_ we have two individuals belonging to different genera," a human +cranium and the jaw of a chimpanzee. _Science_, N.S. Vol. XLIII. 1916, +p. 231. See also Appendix A. + +[16] For a full description see _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ March, 1913. +Also A. Keith, _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915, p. 320, and pp. 430-452. + +[17] C. Dawson and A. Smith Woodward, "Supplementary Note on the +Discovery of a Palaeolithic Human Skull and Mandible at Piltdown +(Sussex)," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ April, 1914. + +[18] _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915, p. 209. + +[19] Thus Lucretius: + + "Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt, + Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami." + +[20] _Jour. Anthrop. Inst._ 1896, p. 133. + +[21] _Inaugural Address_, Brit. Ass. Meeting, Toronto, 1897. + +[22] M. Boule, "L'homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints," _Annales de +Paleontologie_, 1911 (1913). Cf. also H. Obermaier, _Der Mensch der +Vorzeit_, 1912, p. 364. + +[23] _Prehistoric Man_, 1912, p. 60. + +[24] _Der Mensch der Vorzeit_, 1912, p. 365. + +[25] This is not generally accepted. See A. Keith's diagram, p. 5 and +pp. 9-10. + +[26] W. J. Sollas, "On the Cranial and Facial Characters of the +Neandertal Race," _Phil. Trans._ 1907, CXCIV. + +[27] J. Fraipont and M. Lohest, "Recherches Ethnographiques sur les +Ossements Humains," etc., _Arch. de Biologie_, 1887. + +[28] Gorjanovi[vc]-Kramberger, _Der diluviale Mensch von Krapina in +Kroatia_, 1906. + +[29] M. Boule, "L'homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints," _L'Anthr._ +XIX. 1908, and _Annales de Paleontologie_, 1911 (1913). + +[30] H. Klaatsch, _Praehistorische Zeitschrift_, Vol. I. 1909. + +[31] Peyrony and Capitan, _Rev. de l'Ecole d'Anthrop._ 1909; _Bull. Soc. +d'Anthr. de Paris_, 1910. + +[32] G. Schwalbe, "Der Schaedel von Bruex," _Zeitschr. f. Morph. u. +Anthr._ 1906. + +[33] Makowsky, "Der diluviale Mensch in Loess von Bruenn," _Mitt. Anthrop. +Gesell. in Wien_, 1892. + +[34] See A. Keith, _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915, Chap. X. + +[35] H. Klaatsch, "Die Aurignac-Rasse," etc., _Zeitschr. f. Ethn._ LII. +1910. + +[36] L. Lartet, "Une sepulture des troglodytes du Perigord," and Broca, +"Sur les cranes et ossements des Eyzies," _Bull. Soc. d'Anthr._ de +Paris, 1868. + +[37] R. Verneau, _Les Grottes de Grimaldi_, 1906-11. + +[38] For a complete list with bibliographical references, see H. +Obermaier, "Les restes humains Quaternaires dans l'Europe centrale," +_Anthr._ 1905, p. 385, 1906, p. 55. + +[39] A. Keith, _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915, p. 158. See also W. J. +Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, p. 186 ff. + +[40] H. Klaatsch, "Die Aurignac-Rasse," _Zeitschr. f. Eth._ 1910, LII. +p. 513. + +[41] The Mesvinian implements are now accepted as artefacts and placed +by H. Obermaier immediately below the Chellean, though M. Commont +interprets them as Acheulean or even later. See W. J. Sollas, _Ancient +Hunters_, 1915, p. 132 ff. + +[42] R. Smith and H. Dewey, "Stratification at Swanscombe," +_Archaeologia_, LXIV. 1912. + +[43] So called from Chelles-sur-Marne, near Paris. + +[44] Cf. J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, I. 1908, +p. 89. + +[45] From Aurignac (Haute-Garonne), Solutre (Saone-et-Loire), and La +Madeleine (Dordogne). + +[46] Mas-d'Azil, Ariege. + +[47] W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, pp. 378-9. + +[48] "Les Subdivisions de paleolithique superieur," _Congres Internat. +d'Anth._ 1912, XIV. pp. 190-3. + +[49] H. Breuil and E. Cartailhac, _La Caverne d'Altamira_, 1906. For a +list of decorated caves, with the names of their discoverers, see J. +Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, I. 1908, p. 241. A +complete _Repertoire de l'Art Quaternaire_ is given by S. Reinach, 1913; +and for chronology see E. Piette, "Classifications des Sediments formes +dans les cavernes pendant l'Age du Renne," _Anthr._ 1904. + +[50] From La Fere-en-Tardenois, Aisne. + +[51] Cf. W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, pp. 95, 534 f. + +[52] _Die Alpen in Eiszeitalter_, 1901-9. See also "Alter des +Menschengeschlechts," _Zeit. f. Eth._ XL. 1908. + +[53] See W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, p. 561. + +[54] H. Obermaier, _Der Mensch der Vorzeit_, 1911-2, p. 332. + +[55] _The Antiquity of Man in Europe_, 1914, p. 301. + +[56] _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, p. 567. + +[57] _Proc. Prehist. Soc. E. Anglia_, 1. 1911, p. 60. + +[58] Discourse at the R. Institute, London, _Nature_, Jan. 6 and 13, +1898. + +[59] _Nature_, 1898, p. 235. + +[60] _Tiden foer Blekings foersta bebyggande_, Karlskrona, 1895, p. 5. + +[61] "Das Schweizersbild, eine Niederlassung aus palaeolithischer und +neolithischer Zeit," in _Nouveaux Memoires Soc. Helvetique des Sciences +Naturelles_, Vol. XXXV. Zurich, 1896. This is described by James Geikie, +_The Antiquity of Man in Europe_, 1914, pp. 85-99. + +[62] _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 350. + +[63] _Forum_, Feb. 1898. + +[64] The party of Eskimo men and women brought back by Lieut. Peary from +his Arctic expedition in 1897 were unable to endure our temperate +climate. Many died of pneumonia, and the survivors were so enfeebled +that all had to be restored to their icy homes to save their lives. Even +for the Algonquians of Labrador a journey to the coast is a journey to +the grave. + +[65] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 586. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE METAL AGES--HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES + + Progress of Archaeological Studies--Sequence of the Metal Ages--The + Copper Age--Egypt, Elam, Babylonia, Europe--The Bronze Age--Egypt + and Babylonia, Western Europe, the Aegean, Ireland--Chronology of + the Copper and Bronze Ages--The Iron Age--Hallstatt, La Tene--Man + and his Works in the Metal Ages--The Prehistoric Age in the West, + and in China--Historic Times--Evolution of Writing Systems-- + Hieroglyphs and Cuneiforms--The Alphabet--The Persian and other + Cuneiform Scripts--The Mas-d'Azil Markings--Alphabetiform Signs + on Neolithic Monuments--Character and Consequences of the + later historic Migrations--The Race merges in the People--The + distinguishing Characters of Peoples--Scheme of Classification. + + +If, as above seen, the study of human origins is largely a geological +problem, the investigation of the later developments, during the Metal +Ages and prehistoric times, belongs mainly to the field of Archaeology. +Hence it is that for the light which has in recent years been thrown +upon the obscure interval between the Stone Ages and the strictly +historic epoch, that is to say, the period when in his continuous upward +development man gradually exchanged stone for the more serviceable +metals, we are indebted chiefly to the pioneer labours of such men as +Worsaae, Steenstrup, Forchhammer, Schliemann, Sayce, Layard, Lepsius, +Mariette, Maspero, Montelius, Brugsch, Petrie, Peters, Haynes, Sir J. +Evans, Sir A. J. Evans and many others, all archaeologists first, and +anthropologists only in the second instance. + +From the researches of these investigators it is now clear that copper, +bronze, and iron were successively in use in Europe in the order named, +so that the current expressions, "Copper," "Bronze," and "Iron" Ages +remain still justified. But it also appears that overlappings, already +beginning in late Neolithic times, were everywhere so frequent that in +many localities it is quite impossible to draw any well-marked dividing +lines between the successive metal periods. + +That iron came last, a fact already known by vague tradition to the +ancients[66], is beyond doubt, and it is no less certain that bronze of +various types intervened between copper and iron. But much obscurity +still surrounds the question of copper, which occurs in so many graves +of Neolithic and Bronze times, that this metal has even been denied an +independent position in the sequence. + +But we shall not be surprised that confusion should prevail on this +point, if we reflect that the metals, unlike stone, came to remain. Once +introduced they were soon found to be indispensable to civilised man, so +that in a sense the "Metal Ages" still survive, and must last to the end +of time. Hence it was natural that copper should be found in prehistoric +graves associated, first with polished stone implements, and then with +bronze and iron, just as, since the arrival of the English in Australia, +spoons, clay pipes, penknives, pannikins, and the like, are now found +mingled with stone objects in the graves of the aborigines. + +But that there was a true Copper Age[67] prior to that of Bronze, though +possibly of not very long duration, except of course in the New +World[68], has been placed beyond reasonable doubt by recent +investigations. Considerable attention was devoted to the subject by J. +H. Gladstone, who finds that copper was worked by the Egyptians in the +Sinaitic Peninsula, that is, in the famous mines of the Wadi Maghara, +from the fourth to the eighteenth dynasty, perhaps from 3000 to 1580 +B.C.[69] During that epoch tools were made of pure copper in Egypt and +Syria, and by the Amorites in Palestine, often on the model of their +stone prototypes[70]. + +Elliot Smith[71] claims that "the full story of the coming of copper, +complete in every detail and circumstance, written in a simple and +convincing fashion that he who runs may read," has been displayed in +Egypt ever since the year 1894, though the full significance of the +evidence was not recognised until Reisner called attention to the record +of pre-dynastic graves in Upper Egypt when superintending the +excavations at Naga-ed-der in 1908[72]. These excavations revealed the +indigenous civilisation of the ancient Egyptians and, according to +Elliot Smith, dispose of the idea hitherto held by most archaeologists +that Egypt owed her knowledge of metals to Babylonia or some other +Asiatic source, where copper, and possibly also bronze, may be traced +back to the fourth millennium B.C. There was doubtless intercourse +between the civilisations of Egypt and Babylonia but "Reisner has +revealed the complete absence of any evidence to show or even to suggest +that the language, the mode of writing, the knowledge of copper ... were +imported" (p. 34). Elliot Smith justly claims (p. 6) that in no other +country has a similarly complete history of the discovery and the +evolution of the working of copper been revealed, but until equally +exhaustive excavations have been undertaken on contemporary or earlier +sites in Sumer and Elam, the question cannot be regarded as settled. + +The work of J. de Morgan at Susa[73] (1907-8) shows the extreme +antiquity of the Copper Age in ancient Elam, even if his estimate of +5000 B.C. is regarded as a millennium too early[74]. At the base of the +mound on the natural soil, beneath 24 meters of archaeological layers, +were the remains of a town and a necropolis consisting of about 1000 +tombs. Those of the men contained copper axes of primitive type; those +of the women, little vases of paint, together with discs of polished +copper to serve as mirrors. At Fara, excavations by Koldewey in 1902, +and by Andrae and Noeldeke in 1903 on the site of Shuruppak (the home of +the Babylonian Noah) in the valley of the Lower Euphrates, revealed +graves attributed to the prehistoric Sumerians, containing copper spear +heads, axes and drinking vessels[75]. + +In Europe, North Italy, Hungary and Ireland[76] may lay claim to a +Copper Age, but there is very little evidence of such a stage in +Britain. To this period also may be attributed the nest or _cache_ of +pure copper ingots found at Tourc'h, west of the Aven Valley, +Finisterre, described by M. de Villiers du Terrage, and comprising 23 +pieces, with a total weight of nearly 50 lbs.[77] These objects, which +belong to "the transitional period when copper was used at first +concurrently with polished stone, and then disappeared as bronze came +into more general use[78]," came probably from Hungary, at that time +apparently the chief source of this metal for most parts of Europe. Of +over 200 copper objects described by Mathaeus Much[79] nearly all were +of Hungarian or South German _provenance_, five only being accredited to +Britain and eight to France. + +The study of this subject has been greatly advanced by J. Hampel, who +holds on solid grounds that in some regions, especially Hungary, copper +played a dominant part for many centuries, and is undoubtedly the +characteristic metal of a distinct culture. His conclusions are based on +the study of about 500 copper objects found in Hungary and preserved in +the Buda Pesth collections. Reviewing all the facts attesting a Copper +Age in Central Europe, Egypt, Italy, Cyprus, Troy, Scandinavia, North +Asia, and other lands, he concludes that a Copper Age may have sprung up +independently wherever the ore was found, as in the Ural and Altai +Mountains, Italy, Spain, Britain, Cyprus, Sinai; such culture being +generally indigenous, and giving evidence of more or less characteristic +local features[80]. In fact we know for certain that such an independent +Copper Age was developed not only in the region of the Great Lakes of +North America, but also amongst the Bantu peoples of Katanga and other +parts of Central Africa. Copper is not an alloy like bronze, but a +soft, easily-worked metal occurring in large quantities and in a +tolerably pure state near the surface in many parts of the world. The +wonder is, not that it should have been found and worked at a somewhat +remote epoch in several different centres, but that its use should have +been so soon superseded in so many places by the bronze alloys. + +From copper to bronze, however, the passage was slow and progressive, +the proper proportion of tin, which was probably preceded in some places +by an alloy of antimony, having been apparently arrived at by repeated +experiments often carried out with no little skill by those prehistoric +metallurgists. + +As suggested by Bibra in 1869, the ores of different metals would appear +to have been at first smelted together empirically, and the process +continued until satisfactory results were obtained. Hence the +extraordinary number of metals, of which percentages are found in some +of the earlier specimens, such as those of the Elbing Museum, which on +analysis yielded tin, lead, silver, iron, antimony, arsenic, sulphur, +nickel, cobalt, and zinc in varying quantities[81]. + +Some bronzes from the pyramid of Medum analysed by J. H. Gladstone[82] +yielded the high percentage of 9.1 of tin, from which we must infer, not +only that bronze, but bronze of the finest quality, was already known to +the Egyptians of the fourth dynasty, _i.e._ 2840 B.C. The statuette of +Gudea of Lagash (2500 B.C.) claimed as the earliest example of bronze in +Babylonia is now known to be pure copper, and though objects from Tello +(Lagash) of earlier date contain a mixture of tin, zinc, arsenic and +other alloys, the proportion is insignificant. The question of priority +must, however, be left open until the relative chronology of Egypt and +Babylonia is finally settled, and this is still a much disputed +point[83]. Neither would all the difficulties with regard to the origin +of bronze be cleared up should Egypt or Babylonia establish her claim to +possess the earliest example of the metal, for neither country appears +to possess any tin. The nearest deposit known in ancient times would +seem to be that of Drangiana, mentioned by Strabo, identified with +modern Khorassan[84]. + +Strabo and other classical writers also mention the occurrence of tin in +the west, in Spain, Portugal and the Cassiterides or tin islands, whose +identity has given rise to so much speculation[85], but "though in after +times Egypt drew her tin from Europe it would be bold indeed to suppose +that she did so [in 3000 B.C.] and still bolder to maintain that she +learned from northern people how to make the alloy called bronze[86]." +Apart from the indigenous Egyptian origin maintained by Elliot Smith +(above) the hypothesis offering fewest difficulties is that the earliest +bronze is to be traced to the region of Elam, and that the knowledge +spread from S. Chaldaea (Elam-Sumer) to S. Egypt in the third millennium +B.C.[87] + +There seems to be little doubt that the Aegean was the centre of +dispersal for the new metals throughout the Mediterranean area, and +copper ingots have been found at various points of the Mediterranean, +marked with Cretan signs[88]. Bronze was known in Crete before 2000 B.C. +for a bronze dagger and spear head were found at Hagios Onuphrios, near +Phaistos, with seals resembling those of the sixth to eleventh +dynasties[89]. + +From the eastern Mediterranean the knowledge spread during the second +millennium along the ordinary trade routes which had long been in use. +The mineral ores of Spain were exploited in pre-Mycenean times and +probably contributed in no small measure to the industrial development +of southern Europe. From tribe to tribe, along the Atlantic coasts the +traffic in minerals reached the British Isles, where the rich ores were +discovered which, in their turn, supplied the markets of the north, the +west and the south. + +Even Ireland was not left untouched by Aegean influence, which reached +it, according to G. Coffey[90], by way of the Danube and the Elbe, and +thence by way of Scandinavia, though this is a matter on which there is +much difference of opinion. Ireland's richness in gold during the Bronze +Age made her "a kind of El Dorado of the western world," and the +discovery of a gold torc found by Schliemann in the royal treasury in +the second city of Troy raises the question as to whether the model of +the torc was imported into Ireland from the south[90], or whether (which +J. Dechelette[91] regards as less probable) there was already an +exportation of Irish gold to the eastern Mediterranean in pre-Mycenean +times. + +Of recent years great strides have been made towards the establishment +of a definite chronology linking the historic with the prehistoric +periods in the Aegean, in Egypt and in Babylonia, and as the estimates +of various authorities differ sometimes by a thousand years or so, the +subjoined table will be of use to indicate the chronological schemes +most commonly followed; the dates are in all cases merely approximate. + +It has often been pointed out that there is no reason why iron should +not have been the earliest metal to be used by man. Its ores are more +abundant and more easily reduced than any others, and are worked by +peoples in a low grade of culture at the present day[92]. Iron may have +been known in Egypt almost as early as bronze, for a piece in the +British Museum is attributed to the fourth dynasty, and some beads of +manufactured iron were found in a pre-dynastic grave at El Gerzeh[93]. +But these and other less well authenticated occurrences of iron are +rare, and the metal was not common in Egypt before the middle of the +second millennium. By the end of the second millennium the knowledge had +spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean[94], and towards 900 at +latest iron was in common use in Italy and Central Europe. + +CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. + + Egypt[95] Babylonia[96] Aegean[97] Greece[98] Bronze Age in + Europe[99] + + 3300 Dynasty I + 3200 + 3100 + 3000 Dynasty of Opis ?Early ?Pre-Mycenean + 2900 Dyn. of Kish Minoan I + 2800 Dyn. III, Dyn. of Erech + IV Dyn. of + Akkad[100] + 2700 + 2600 Dyn. V 2nd Dyn. of Erech + 2500 Dyn. VI Gutian Early Minoan II Period I. + Domination Eneolithic + 2400 Dyn. of Ur (implements + 2300 Dyn. IX of stone, + 2200 Dyn. of Isin Middle Minoan I copper and + 2100 Dyn. XI Mid. Minoan II bronze, poor + 2000 Dyn. XII 1st Dyn. Babylon Mycenean I in tin) + 1900 2nd Dyn. Mid. Minoan III Period II + 1800 + 1700 Dyn. XIII 3rd Dyn. Late Minoan I + 1600 Dyn. XV Period III + 1500 Dyn. XVIII Late Minoan Mycenean II + II + 1400 Late Minoan III + 1300 Dyn. XIX Period IV + 1200 Dyn. XX Homeric Age + 1100 4th Dyn. + 1000 Dyn. XXI 5th to 7th Dyn. Close of Bronze Age[101] + 900 Dyn. XXII 8th Dyn. Hallstatt + +The introduction of iron into Italy has often been attributed to the +Etruscans, who were thought to have brought the knowledge from Lydia. +But the most abundant remains of the Early Iron Age are found not in +Tuscany, but along the coasts of the Adriatic[102], showing that iron +followed the well-known route of the amber trade, thus reaching Central +Europe and _Hallstatt_ (which has given its name to the Early Iron Age), +where alone in Europe the gradual transition from the use of bronze to +that of iron has been clearly traced. W. Ridgeway[103] believes that the +use of iron was first discovered in the Hallstatt area and that thence +it spread to Switzerland, France, Spain, Italy, Greece, the Aegean area, +and Egypt rather than that the culture drift was in the opposite +direction. There is no difference of opinion however as to the +importance of this Central European area which contained the most famous +iron mines of antiquity. Hallstatt culture extended from the Iberian +peninsula in the west to Hungary in the east, but scarcely reached +Scandinavia, North Germany, Armorica or the British Isles where the +Bronze Age may be said to have lasted down to about 500 B.C. Over such a +vast domain the culture was not everywhere of a uniform type and +Hoernes[104] recognises four geographical divisions distinguished mainly +by pottery and fibulae, and provisionally classified as Illyrian in the +South West, or Adriatic region, in touch with Greece and Italy; Celtic +in the Central or Danubian area; with an off-shoot in Western Germany, +Northern Switzerland and Eastern France; and Germanic in parts of +Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Posen. + +The Hallstatt period ends, roughly, at 500 B.C., and the Later Iron Age +takes its name from the settlement of _La Tene_, in a bay of the Lake of +Neuchatel in Switzerland. This culture, while owing much to that of +Hallstatt, and much also to foreign sources, possesses a distinct +individuality, and though soon overpowered on the Continent by Roman +influence, attained a remarkable brilliance in the Late Celtic period in +the British Isles. + +That the peoples of the Metal Ages were physically well developed, and +in a great part of Europe and Asia already of Aryan speech, there can be +no reasonable doubt. A skull of the early Hallstatt period, from a grave +near Wildenroth, Upper Bavaria, is described by Virchow as long-headed, +with a cranial capacity of no less than 1585 c.c., strongly developed +occiput, very high and narrow face and nose, and in every respect a +superb specimen of the regular-featured, long-headed North +European[105]. But owing to the prevalence of cremation the evidence of +race is inadequate. The Hallstatt population was undoubtedly mixed, and +at Glasinatz in Bosnia, another site of Hallstatt civilisation, about a +quarter of the skulls examined were brachycephalic[106]. + +Their works, found in great abundance in the graves, especially of the +Bronze and Iron periods, but a detailed account of which belongs to the +province of archaeology, interest us in many ways. The painted +earthenware vases and incised metal-ware of all kinds enable the student +to follow the progress of the arts of design and ornamentation in their +upward development from the first tentative efforts of the prehistoric +artist at pleasing effects. Human and animal figures, though rarely +depicted, occasionally afford a curious insight into the customs and +fashions of the times. On a clay vessel, found in 1896 at Lahse in +Posen, is figured a regular hunting scene, where we see men mounted on +horseback, or else on foot, armed with bow and arrow, pursuing the +quarry (nobly-antlered stags), and returning to the penthouse after the +chase[107]. The drawing is extremely primitive, but on that account all +the more instructive, showing in connection with analogous +representations on contemporary objects, how in prehistoric art such +figures tend to become conventionalised and purely ornamental, as in +similar designs on the vases and textiles from the Ancon Necropolis, +Peru. "Most ornaments of primitive peoples, although to our eye they may +seem merely geometrical and freely-invented designs, are in reality +nothing more than degraded animal and human figures[108]." + +This may perhaps be the reason why so many of the drawings of the metal +period appear so inferior to those of the cave-dwellers and of the +present Bushmen. They are often mere conventionalised reductions of +pictorial prototypes, comparable, for instance, to the characters of our +alphabets, which are known to be degraded forms of earlier pictographs. + +Of the so-called "Prehistoric Age" it is obvious that no strict +definition can be given. It comprises in a general way that vague period +prior to all written records, dim memories of which--popular myths, +folklore, demi-gods[109], eponymous heroes[110], traditions of real +events[111]--lingered on far into historic times, and supplied ready to +hand the copious materials afterwards worked up by the early poets, +founders of new religions, and later legislators. + +That letters themselves, although not brought into general use, had +already been invented, is evident from the mere fact that all memory of +their introduction beyond the vaguest traditions had died out before the +dawn of history. The works of man, while in themselves necessarily +continuous, stretched back to such an inconceivably remote past, that +even the great landmarks in the evolution of human progress had long +been forgotten by later generations. + +And so it was everywhere, in the New World as in the Old, amongst +Eastern as amongst Western Peoples. In the Chinese records the "Age of +the Five Emperors"--five, though nine are named--answers somewhat to our +prehistoric epoch. It had its eponymous hero, Fu Hi, reputed founder of +the empire, who invented nets and snares for fishing and hunting, and +taught his people how to rear domestic animals. To him also is ascribed +the institution of marriage, and in his time Tsong Chi is supposed to +have invented the Chinese characters, symbols, not of sounds, but of +objects and ideas. + +Then came other benevolent rulers, who taught the people agriculture, +established markets for the sale of farm produce, discovered the +medicinal properties of plants, wrote treatises on diseases and their +remedies, studied astrology and astronomy, and appointed "the Five +Observers of the heavenly bodies." + +But this epoch had been preceded by the "Age of the Three [six] Rulers," +when people lived in caves, ate wild fruits and uncooked food, drank the +blood of animals and wore the skins of wild beasts (our Old Stone Age). +Later they grew less rude, learned to obtain fire by friction, and built +themselves habitations of wood or foliage (our Early Neolithic Age). +Thus is everywhere revealed the background of sheer savagery, which lies +behind all human culture, while the "Golden Age" of the poets fades with +the "Hesperides" and Plato's "Atlantis" into the region of the fabulous. + +Little need here be said of strictly historic times, the most +characteristic feature of which is perhaps the general use of letters. +By means of this most fruitful of human inventions, everything worth +preserving was perpetuated, and thus all useful knowledge tended to +become accumulative. It is no longer possible to say when or where the +miracle was wrought by which the apparently multifarious sounds of +fully-developed languages were exhaustively analysed and effectively +expressed by a score or so of arbitrary signs. But a comparative study +of the various writing-systems in use in different parts of the world +has revealed the process by which the transition was gradually brought +about from rude pictorial representations of objects to purely +phonetical symbols. + +As is clearly shown by the "winter counts" of the North American +aborigines, and by the prehistoric rock carvings in Upper Egypt, the +first step was a _pictograph_, the actual figure, say, of a man, +standing for a given man, and then for any man or human being. Then this +figure, more or less reduced or conventionalised, served to indicate not +only the term _man_, but the full sound _man_, as in the word +_manifest_, and in the modern rebus. At this stage it becomes a +_phonogram_, or _phonoglyph_, which, when further reduced beyond all +recognition of its original form, may stand for the syllable _ma_ as in +_ma-ny_, without any further reference either to the idea or the sound +man. The phonogram has now become the symbol of a monosyllable, which is +normally made up of two elements, a consonant and a vowel, as in the +Devanagari, and other syllabic systems. + +Lastly, by dropping the second or vowel element the same symbol, further +modified or not, becomes a _letter_ representing the sound _m_, that is, +one of the few ultimate elements of articulate speech. A more or less +complete set of such characters, thus worn down in form and meaning, +will then be available for indicating more or less completely all the +phonetic elements of any given language. It will be a true _alphabet_, +the wonderful nature of which may be inferred from the fact that only +two, or possibly three, such alphabetic systems are known with absolute +certainty to have ever been independently evolved by human +ingenuity[112]. From the above exposition we see how inevitably the +Phoenician parent of nearly all late alphabets expressed at first the +consonantal sounds only, so that the vowels or vowel marks are in all +cases later developments, as in Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, the +Italic group, and the Runes. + +In primitive systems, such as the Egyptian, Sumerian, Chinese, +Maya-Quiche and Mexican, one or more of the various transitional steps +may be developed and used simultaneously, with a constant tendency to +advance on the lines above indicated, by gradual substitution of the +later for the earlier stages. A comparison of the Sumerian cuneiform and +Egyptian hieroglyphic systems brings out some curious results. Thus at +an extremely remote epoch, some millenniums ago, the Sumerians had +already got rid of the pictorial, and to a great extent of the +ideographic, but had barely reached the alphabetic phase. Consequently +their cuneiform groups, although possessing phonetic value, mainly +express full syllables, scarcely ever letters, and rarely complete +words. Ideographs had given place first to phonograms and then to mere +syllables, "complex syllables in which several consonants may be +distinguished, or simple syllables composed of only one consonant and +one vowel or _vice versa_[113]." + +The Egyptians, on the other hand, carried the system right through the +whole gamut from pictures to letters, but retained all the intermediate +phases, the initial tending to fall away, the final to expand, while the +bulk of the hieroglyphs represented in various degrees the several +transitional states. In many cases they "had kept only one part of the +syllable, namely a mute consonant; they detached, for instance, the +final _u_ from _bu_ and _pu_, and gave only the values _b_ and _p_ to +the human leg [Hieroglyph Symbol] and to the mat [Hieroglyph Symbol]. +The peoples of the Euphrates stopped half way, and admitted actual +letters for the vowel sounds _a_, _i_ and _u_ only[114]." + +In the process of evolution, metaphor and analogy of course played a +large part, as in the evolution of language itself. Thus a lion might +stand both for the animal and for courage, and so on. The first essays +in phonetics took somewhat the form of a modern rebus, thus: [Hieroglyph +Symbol] = _khau_ = sieve, [Hieroglyph Symbol] = _pu_ = mat; [Hieroglyph +Symbol] = _ru_ = mouth, whence [Hieroglyph Symbol] = _kho-pi-ru_ = to +be, where the sounds and not the meaning of the several components are +alone attended to[115]. + +By analogous processes was formed a true alphabet, in which, however, +each of the phonetic elements was represented at first by several +different characters derived from several different words having the +same initial syllable. Here was, therefore, an _embarras de richesses_, +which could be got rid of only by a judicious process of elimination, +that is, by discarding all like-sounding symbols but one for the same +sound. When this final process of reduction was completed by the +scribes, in other words, when all the phonetic signs were rejected +except 23, _i.e._ one for each of the 23 phonetic elements, the +Phoenician alphabet as we now have it was completed. Such may be taken +as the real origin of this system, whether the scribes in question were +Babylonians, Egyptians, Minaeans, or Europeans, that is, whether the +Phoenician alphabet had a cuneiform, a hieroglyphic, a South Arabian, a +Cretan (Aegean), Ligurian or Iberian origin, for all these and perhaps +other peoples have been credited with the invention. The time is not +yet ripe for deciding between these rival claimants[116]. + +But whatever be the source of the Phoenician, that of the Persian system +current under the Achaemenides is clear enough. It is a true alphabet of +37 characters, derived by some selective process directly from the +Babylonian cuneiforms, without any attempt at a modification of their +shapes. Hence although simple compared with its prototype, it is clumsy +enough compared with the Phoenician script, several of the letters +requiring groups of as many as four or even five "wedges" for their +expression. None of the other cuneiform systems also derived from the +Sumerian (the Assyrian, Elamite, Vannic, Medic) appear to have reached +the pure alphabetic state, all being still encumbered with numerous +complex syllabic characters. The subjoined table, for which I have to +thank T. G. Pinches, will help to show the genesis of the cuneiform +combinations from the earliest known pictographs. These pictographs +themselves are already reduced to the merest outlines of the original +pictorial representations. But no earlier forms, showing the gradual +transition from the primitive picture writing to the degraded +pictographs here given, have yet come to light[117]. + +Here it may be asked, What is to be thought of the already-mentioned +pebble-markings from the Mas-d'Azil Cave at the close of the Old Stone +Age? If they are truly phonetic, then we must suppose that palaeolithic +man not only invented an alphabetic writing system, but did this right +off by intuition, as it were, without any previous knowledge of letters. +At least no one will suggest that the Dordogne cave-dwellers were +already in possession of pictographic or other crude systems, from which +the Mas-d'Azil "script" might have been slowly evolved. Yet E. Piette, +who groups these pebbles, painted with peroxide of iron, in the four +categories of numerals, symbols, pictographs, and alphabetical +characters, states, in reference to these last, that 13 out of 23 +Phoenician characters were equally Azilian graphic signs. He even +suggests that there may be an approach to an inscription in one group, +where, however, the mark indicating a stop implies a script running +Semitic-fashion from right to left, whereas the letters themselves seem +to face the other way[118]. G. G. MacCurdy[119], who accepts the +evidence for the existence of writing in Azilian, if not in Magdalenian +times, notes the close similarity between palaeolithic signs and +Phoenician, ancient Greek and Cypriote letters. But J. Dechelette[120], +reviewing (pp. 234, 236) the arguments against Piette's claims, points +out in conclusion (p. 320) the impossibility of admitting that the +population of Gaul could suddenly lose so beneficial a discovery as that +of writing. Yet thousands of years elapse before the earliest appearance +of epigraphic monuments. + + [Illustration: EVOLUTION OF THE SUMERIAN CUNEIFORMS.] + +A possible connection has been suggested by Sergi between the Mas-d'Azil +signs and the markings that have been discovered on the megalithic +monuments of North Africa, Brittany, and the British Isles. These are +all so rudimentary that resemblances are inevitable, and of themselves +afford little ground for necessary connections. Primitive man is but a +child, and all children bawl and scrawl much in the same way. +Nevertheless C. Letourneau[121] has taken the trouble to compare five +such scrawls from "Libyan inscriptions" now in the Bardo Museum, Tunis, +with similar or identical signs on Brittany and Irish dolmens. There is +the familiar circle plain and dotted [Symbol] [Symbol], the cross in its +simplest form [Symbol], the pothook and segmented square [Symbol], all +of which recur in the Phoenician, Keltiberian, Etruscan, Libyan or +Tuareg systems. Letourneau, however, who does not call them letters but +only "signes alphabetiformes," merely suggests that, if not phonetic +marks when first carved on the neolithic monuments, they may have become +so in later times. Against this it need only be urged that in later +times all these peoples were supplied with complete alphabetic systems +from the East as soon as they required them. By that time all the +peoples of the culture-zone were well-advanced into the historic period, +and had long forgotten the rude carvings of their neolithic forefathers. + +Armed with a nearly perfect writing system, and the correlated cultural +appliances, the higher races soon took a foremost place in the general +progress of mankind, and gradually acquired a marked ascendancy, not +only over the less cultured populations of the globe, but in large +measure over the forces of nature herself. With the development of +navigation and improved methods of locomotion, inland seas, barren +wastes, and mountain ranges ceased to be insurmountable obstacles to +their movements, which within certain limits have never been arrested +throughout all recorded time. + +Thus, during the long ages following the first peopling of the earth by +pleistocene man, fresh settlements and readjustments have been +continually in progress, although wholesale displacements must be +regarded as rare events. With few exceptions, the later migrations, +whether hostile or peaceful, were, for reasons already stated[122], +generally of a partial character, while certain insular regions, such as +America and Australia, remained little affected by such movements till +quite recent times. But for the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere +the results were none the less far-reaching. Continuous infiltrations +could not fail ultimately to bring about great modifications of early +types, while the ever-active principle of convergence tended to produce +a general uniformity amongst the new amalgams. Thus the great varietal +divisions, though undergoing slow changes from age to age, continued, +like all other zoological groups, to maintain a distinct regional +character. + +Flinders Petrie has acutely observed that the only meaning the term +"race" now can have is that of a group of human beings, whose type has +become unified by their rate of assimilation exceeding the rate of +change produced by foreign elements[123]. We are also reminded by +Gustavo Tosti that "in the actual state of science the word 'race' is a +vague formula, to which nothing definite may be found to correspond. On +the one hand, the original races can only be said to belong to +palaeontology, while the more limited groups, now called races, are +nothing but peoples, or societies of peoples, brethren by civilization +more than by blood. The race thus conceived ends by identifying itself +with nationality[124]." Hence it has been asked why, on the principle of +convergence, a fusion of various races, if isolated long enough in a +given area, may not eventually lead to a new racial type, without +leaving any trace of its manifold origin[125]. + +Such new racial types would be normal for the later varietal groups, +just as the old types were normal for the earlier groups, and a general +application might be given to Topinard's famous dictum that _les peuples +seuls sont des realites_[126], that is, peoples alone--groups occupying +definite geographical areas--have an objective existence. Thus, the +notion of race, as a zoological expression in the sense of a pure breed +or strain, falls still more into the background, and, as Virchow aptly +remarks, "this term, which always implied something vague, has in recent +times become in the highest degree uncertain[127]." + +Hence Ehrenreich treats the present populations of the earth rather as +zoological groups which have been developed in their several +geographical domains, and are to be distinguished not so much by their +bony structure as by their external characters, such as hair, colour, +and expression, and by their habitats and languages. None of these +factors can be overlooked, but it would seem that the character of the +hair forms the most satisfactory basis for a classification of mankind, +and this has therefore been adopted for the new edition of the present +work. It has the advantage of simplicity, without involving, or even +implying, any particular theory of racial or geographical origins. It +has stood the test of time, being proposed by Bory de Saint Vincent in +1827, and adopted by Huxley, Haeckel, Broca, Topinard and many others. + +The three main varieties of hair are the _straight_, the _wavy_ and the +so-called _woolly_, termed respectively _Leiotrichous_, _Cymotrichous_ +and _Ulotrichous_[128]. Straight hair usually falls straight down, +though it may curl at the ends, it is generally coarse and stiff, and is +circular in section. Wavy hair is undulating, forming long curves or +imperfect spirals, or closer rings or curls, and the section is more or +less elliptical. Woolly hair is characterised by numerous, close, often +interlocking spirals, 1-9 mm. in diameter, the section giving the form +of a lengthened ellipse. Straight hair is usually the longest, and +woolly hair the shortest, wavy hair occupying an intermediate position. + + +SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION. + + I. ULOTRICHI (Woolly-haired). + 1. The African Negroes, Negrilloes, Bushmen. + 2. The Oceanic Negroes: Papuans, Melanesians in part, Tasmanians, + Negritoes. + + II. LEIOTRICHI (Straight-haired). + 1. The Southern Mongols. + 2. The Oceanic Mongols, Polynesians in part. + 3. The Northern Mongols. + 4. The American Aborigines. + + III. CYMOTRICHI (Curly or Wavy-haired). + 1. The Pre-Dravidians: Vedda, Sakai, etc., Australians. + 2. The "Caucasic" peoples: + A. Southern Dolichocephals: Mediterraneans, Hamites, Semites, + Dravidians, Indonesians, Polynesians in part. + B. Northern Dolichocephals: Nordics, Kurds, Afghans, some + Hindus. + C. Brachycephals: Alpines, including the short Cevenoles + of Western and Central Europe, and tall Adriatics or + Dinarics of Eastern Europe and the Armenians of Western + Asia. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[66] Thus Lucretius: + + "Posterius ferri vis est aerisque reperta, + Sed prior aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus." + +[67] J. Dechelette points out that the term Copper "Age" is not +justified for the greater part of Europe, as it suggests a demarcation +which does not exist and also a more thorough chemical analysis of early +metals than we possess. He prefers the term aeneolithic (_aeneus_, +copper, [Greek: lithos], stone), coined by the Italians, to denote the +period of transition, dating, according to Montelius, from about 2500 +B.C. to 1900 B.C. _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1, _Age du +Bronze_, 1910, pp. 99-100, 105. + +[68] _Eth._, Chap. XIII. + +[69] See G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, pp. 97-8. + +[70] Paper on "The Transition from Pure Copper to Bronze," etc., read at +the Meeting of the Brit. Assoc. Liverpool, 1896. + +[71] _Loc. cit._ p. 3. But cf. H. R. Hall, _The Ancient History of the +Near East_, 1912, pp. 33 and 90 _n._ 2. + +[72] G. A. Reisner, _The Early Cemeteries of Naga-ed-der_ (University of +California Publications), 1908, and _Report of the Archaeological Survey +of Nubia_, 1907-8. + +[73] "Campagnes de 1907-8," _Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des +Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, 1908, p. 373. + +[74] Cf. J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1, +_Age du Bronze_, 1910, pp. 53-4. + +[75] Cf. L. W. King, _A History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 26. + +[76] G. Coffey, _The Bronze Age in Ireland_, 1913, p. 6. + +[77] _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 526 sq. This antiquary aptly remarks +that "l'expression age de cuivre a une signification bien precise comme +s'appliquant a la partie de la periode de la pierre polie ou les metaux +font leur apparition." + +[78] _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 526 sq. + +[79] In _Die Kupferzeit in Europa_, 1886. + +[80] "Neuere Studien ueber die Kupferzeit," in _Zeitschr. f. Eth._ 1896, +No. 2. + +[81] Otto Helm, "Chemische Untersuchungen vorgeschichtlicher Bronzen," +in _Zeitschr. f. Eth._ 1897, No. 2. This authority agrees with Hampel's +view that further research will confirm the suggestion that in +Transylvania (Hungary) "eine Kupfer-Antimonmischung vorangegangen, +welche zugleich die Bronzekultur vorbereitete" (_ib._ p. 128). + +[82] _Proc. Soc. Bib. Archaeol._ 1892, pp. 223-6. + +[83] For the chronology of the Copper and Bronze Ages see p. 27. + +[84] Copper and tin are found together in abundance in Southern China, +but this is archaeologically speaking an unknown land; "to search for +the birth-place of bronze in China is therefore barren of positive +results," _British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age_, +1904, p. 10. + +[85] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 483-498. + +[86] _British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age_, 1904, +p. 10. + +[87] J. de Morgan, _Les Premieres Civilisations_, 1909, pp. 169, 337 ff. + +[88] J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1, _Age du +Bronze_, 1910, pp. 98 and 397 ff. + +[89] J. Dechelette, _loc. cit._ p. 63 _n._ + +[90] G. Coffey, _The Bronze Age in Ireland_, 1913, pp. V, 78. + +[91] J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1, _Age du +Bronze_, 1910, p. 355 _n._ + +[92] _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age_ (British Museum), +1905, p. 2. + +[93] Wainwright, "Pre-dynastic iron beads in Egypt," _Man_, 1911, p. +177. See also H. R. Hall, "Note on the early use of iron in Egypt," +_Man_, 1903, p. 147. + +[94] W. Belck attributes the introduction of iron into Crete in 1500 +B.C. to the Phoenicians, whom he derives from the neighbourhood of the +Persian Gulf. He suggests that these traders were already acquainted +with the metal in S. Arabia in the fourth millennium, and that it was +through them that a piece found its way into Egypt in the fourth +dynasty. "Die Erfinder des Eisentechnik," _Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie_, +1910. See also F. Stuhlmann, _Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika_, +1910, p. 49 ff., who on cultural grounds derives the knowledge of iron +in Africa from an Asiatic source. + +[95] E. Meyer, "Aegyptische Chronologie," _Abh. Berl. Akad._ 1904, and +"Nachtraege," _ib._ 1907. This chronology has been adopted by the Berlin +school and others, but is unsatisfactory in allowing insufficient time +for Dynasties XII to XVIII, which are known to contain 100 to 200 +rulers. Flinders Petrie therefore adds another Sothic period (1461 +years, calculated from Sothis or Sirius), thus throwing the earlier +dynasties a millennium or two further back. Dynasty I, according to this +computation starts in 5546 B.C. and Dynasty XII at 3779. H. R. Hall, +_The Ancient History of the Near East_, 1912, p. 23. + +[96] L. W. King, _The History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, and +"Babylonia," Hutchinson's _History of the Nations_, 1914. + +[97] C. H. Hawes and H. Boyd Hawes, _Crete the Forerunner of Greece_, +1909. + +[98] J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1, _Age du +Bronze_, 1910, p. 61. + +[99] J. Dechelette, _loc. cit._ p. 105 ff. based on the work of O. +Montelius and P. Reinecke. + +[100] The Dynasty of Akkad is often dated a millennium earlier, relying +on the statement of Nabonidus (556-540 B.C.) that Naram-Sin (the +traditional son of Sargon of Akkad) reigned 3200 years before him; but +this statement is now known to be greatly exaggerated. See the section +on chronology in the Art. "Babylonia," in _Ency. Brit._ 1910. + +[101] _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age_ (British Museum), +1905, p. 1. + +[102] Cf. J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 2, +_Premier Age du Fer_, 1913, pp. 546, 562-3. + +[103] _The Early Age of Greece_, 1900, pp. 594-630. + +[104] "Die Hallstattperiode," _Ass. francaise p. l'av. des sciences_, +1905, p. 278, and _Kultur der Urzeit_, III. _Eisenzeit_, 1912, p. 54. + +[105] "Ein Schaedel aus der aelteren Hallstattzeit," in _Verhandl. Berlin. +Ges. f. Anthrop._ 1896, pp. 243-6. + +[106] _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age_ (British Museum), +1905, p. 8. + +[107] Hans Seger, "Figuerliche Darstellungen auf schlesischen +Graebgefaessen der Hallstattzeit," _Globus_, Nov. 20, 1897. + +[108] _Ibid._ p. 297. + +[109] Homer's [Greek: hemitheon genos andron], _Il._ XII. 23, if the +passage is genuine. + +[110] Such as the Greek _Andreas_, the "First Man," invented in +comparatively recent times, as shown by the intrusive _d_ in [Greek: +andres] for the earlier [Greek: aneres], "men." Andreas was of course a +Greek, sprung in fact from the river Peneus and the first inhabitant of +the Orchomenian plain (Pausanias, IX. 34, 5). + +[111] For instance, the flooding of the Thessalian plain, afterwards +drained by the Peneus and repeopled by the inhabitants of the +surrounding mountains (rocks, stones), whence the myth of Deucalion and +Pyrrha, who are told by the oracle to repeople the world by throwing +behind them the "bones of their grandmother," that is, the "stones" of +mother Earth. + +[112] Such instances as George Guest's Cherokee system, and the crude +attempt of a Vei (West Sudanese) Negro, if genuine, are not here in +question, as both had the English alphabet to work upon. A like remark +applies to the old Irish and Welsh Ogham, which are more curious than +instructive, the characters, mostly mere groups of straight strokes, +being obvious substitutes for the corresponding letters of the Roman +alphabet, hence comparable to the cryptographic systems of Wheatstone +and others. + +[113] Maspero, _The Dawn of Civilisation_, 1898, p. 728. + +[114] _Ibid._ + +[115] _Ibid._ p. 233. + +[116] See P. Giles, Art. "Alphabet," _Ency. Brit._ 1910. + +[117] See A. J. Booth, _The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual +Cuneiform Inscriptions_, 1902. + +[118] _L'Anthr_. XV. 1904, p. 164. + +[119] _Recent Discoveries bearing on the Antiquity of Man in Europe_ +(Smithsonian Report for 1909), 1910, p. 566 ff. + +[120] _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, I. 1908. + +[121] "Les signes libyques des dolmens," _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. +319. + +[122] _Eth._ Chap. XIII. + +[123] _Address_, Meeting British Assoc. Ipswich, 1895. + +[124] _Amer. J. of Sociology_, Jan. 1898, pp. 467-8. + +[125] A. Vierkandt, _Globus_, 72, p. 134. + +[126] _Elements d'Anthropologie Generale_, p. 207. + +[127] _Rassenbildung u. Erblichkeit_; _Bastian-Festschrift_, 1896, p. 1. + +[128] From Gk. [Greek: leios], smooth, [Greek: kuma], wave, [Greek: +oulos], fleecy, and [Greek: thrix], [Greek: trichos], hair. J. Deniker +(_The Races of Man_, 1900, p. 38) distinguishes four classes, the +Australians, Nubians etc. being grouped as _frizzy_. He gives the +corresponding terms in French and German:--straight, Fr. _droit_, +_lisse_, Germ. _straff_, _schlicht_; wavy, Fr. _onde_, Germ. _wellig_; +frizzy, Fr. _frise_, Germ. _lockig_; woolly, Fr. _crepu_, Germ. _kraus_. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE + + Conspectus--The Negro-Caucasic "Great Divide"--The Negro Domain-- + Negro Origins--Persistence of the Negro Type--Two Main Sections: + Sudanese and Bantus--Contrasts and Analogies--Sudanese and Bantu + Linguistic Areas--The "Drum Language"--West Sudanese Groups--_The + Wolofs_: Primitive Speech and Pottery; Religious Notions--_The + Mandingans_: Culture and Industries; History; the Guine and Mali + Empires--_The Felups_: Contrasts between the Inland and Coast + Peoples; Felup Type and Mental Characters--_Timni_--African + Freemasonry--_The Sierra Leonese_--Social Relations--_The + Liberians_--_The Krumen_--_The Upper Guinea Peoples_--Table of the + Gold Coast and Slave Coast Tribes--Ashanti Folklore--Fetishism; its + true inwardness--Ancestry Worship and the "Customs"--The Benin + Bronzes--_The Mossi_--African Agnostics--Central Sudanese--General + Ethnical and Social Relations--_The Songhai_--Domain--Origins-- + Egyptian Theories--Songhai Records--_The Hausas_--Dominant Social + Position--Speech and Mental Qualities--Origins--_Kanembu_; _Kanuri_; + _Baghirmi_; _Mosgu_--Ethnical and Political Relations in the Chad + Basin--The Aborigines--Islam and Heathendom--Slave-Hunting--Arboreal + Strongholds--Mosgu Types and Contrasts--The Cultured Peoples of + Central Sudan--Kanem-Bornu Records--Eastern Sudanese--Range of the + Negro in Eastern Sudan--_The Mabas_--Ethnical Relations in Wadai-- + _The Nubas_--The Nubian Problem--Nubian Origins and Affinities-- + The Negro Peoples of the Nile-Congo Watersheds--Political + Relations--Two Physical Types--_The Dinka_--Linguistic Groups-- + Mental Qualities--Cannibalism--The African Cannibal Zone--Arts and + Industries--High Appreciation of Pictorial Art--Sense of Humour. + + +CONSPECTUS OF SUDANESE NEGROES. + +#Present Range.# _Africa south of the Sahara, less Abyssinia, Galla, +Somali and Masai lands; Tripolitana, Mauritania and Egypt sporadically; +several of the southern United States; West Indies; Guiana; parts of +Brazil and Peru._ + +#Hair#, _always black, rather short, and crisp, frizzly or woolly, flat +in transverse section_; #skin-colour#, _very dark brown or chocolate and +blackish, never quite black_; #skull#, _generally dolichocephalous_ +(_index 72_); #jaws#, _prognathous_; #cheek-bone#, _rather small, +moderately retreating, rarely prominent_; #nose#, _very broad at base, +flat, small, platyrrhine_; #eyes#, _large, round, prominent, black with +yellowish cornea_; #stature#, _usually tall, 1.78 m. (5 ft. 10 in.)_; +#lips#, _often tumid and everted_; #arms#, _disproportionately long_; +#legs#, _slender with small calves_; #feet#, _broad, flat, with low +instep and larkspur heel_. + +#Temperament#, _sensuous, indolent, improvident_; _fitful, passionate +and cruel, though often affectionate and faithful_; _little sense of +dignity, and slight self-consciousness, hence easy acceptance of yoke of +slavery_; _musical_. + +#Speech#, _almost everywhere in the agglutinating state, generally with +suffixes_. + +#Religion#, _anthropomorphic_; _spirits endowed with human attributes, +mostly evil and more powerful than man_; _ancestry-worship, fetishism, +and witchcraft very prevalent_; _human sacrifices to the dead a common +feature_. + +#Culture#, _low_; _cannibalism formerly rife, perhaps universal, still +general in some regions_; _no science or letters_; _arts and industries +confined mainly to agriculture, pottery, wood-carving, weaving, and +metallurgy_; _no perceptible progress anywhere except under the +influence of higher races_. + + +Main[129] Divisions. + +#West Sudanese#: _Wolof_; _Mandingan_; _Felup_; _Timni_; _Kru_; _Sierra +Leonese_; _Liberian_; _Tshi, Ewe, and Yoruba_; _Ibo_; _Efik_; _Borgu_; +_Mossi_. + +#Central Sudanese#: _Songhai_; _Hausa_; _Mosgu_; _Kanembu_; _Kanuri_; +_Baghirmi_; _Yedina_. + +#East Sudanese#: _Maba_; _Fur_; _Nuba_; _Shilluk_; _Dinka_; _Bari_; +_Abaka_; _Bongo_; _Mangbattu_; _Zandeh_; _Momfu_; _Base_; _Barea_. + + * * * * * + +From the anthropological standpoint Africa falls into two distinct +sections, where the highest (Caucasic) and the lowest (Negro) divisions +of mankind have been conterminous throughout all known time. Mutual +encroachments and interpenetrations have probably been continuous, and +indeed are still going on. Yet so marked is the difference between the +two groups, and such is the tenacity with which each clings to its +proper domain, that, despite any very distinct geographical frontiers, +the ethnological parting line may still be detected. Obliterated at one +or two points, and at others set back always in favour of the higher +division, it may be followed from the Atlantic coast along the course of +the Senegal river east by north to the great bend of the Niger at +Timbuktu; then east by south to Lake Chad, beyond which it runs nearly +due east to Khartum, at the confluence of the White and Blue Niles. + +From this point the now isolated Negro groups (Base and Barea), on the +northern slope of the Abyssinian plateau, show that the original +boundary was at first continued still east to the Red Sea at or about +Massowa. But for many ages the line appears to have been deflected from +Khartum along the White Nile south to the Sobat confluence, then +continuously south-eastwards round by the Sobat Valley to the Albert +Nyanza, up the Somerset Nile to the Victoria Nyanza, and thence with a +considerable southern bend round Masailand eastwards to the Indian Ocean +at the equator. + +All the land north of this irregular line belongs to the Hamito-Semitic +section of the Caucasic division, all south of it to the western +(African) section of the Ulotrichous division. Throughout this +region--which comprises the whole of Sudan from the Atlantic to the +White Nile, and all south of Sudan except Abyssinia, Galla, Somali and +Masai lands--the African Negro, clearly, distinguished from the other +main groups by the above summarised physical[130] and mental qualities, +largely predominates everywhere and in many places exclusively. The +route by which he probably reached these intertropical lands, where he +may be regarded as practically indigenous, has been indicated in +_Ethnology_, Chs. X. and XI. + +As regards the date of this occupation, nothing can be clearly proved. +"The history of Africa reaches back but a short distance, except, of +course, as far as the lower Nile Valley and Roman Africa is concerned; +elsewhere no records exist, save tribal traditions, and these only +relate to very recent events. Even archaeology, which can often sketch +the main outlines of a people's history, is here practically powerless, +owing to the insufficiency of data. It is true that stone implements of +palaeolithic and neolithic types are found sporadically in the Nile +Valley[131], Somaliland, on the Zambesi, in Cape Colony and the northern +portions of the Congo Free State, as well as in Algeria and Tunisia; but +the localities are far too few and too widely separated to warrant the +inference that they are to be in any way connected. Moreover, where +stone implements are found they are, as a rule, very near, even actually +on, the surface of the earth," and they are rarely, if ever, found in +association with bones of extinct animals. "Nothing occurs resembling +the regular stratification of Europe, and consequently no argument based +on geological grounds is possible[132]." The exceptions are the lower +Nile and Zambesi where true palaeoliths have been found not only on the +surface (which in this case is not inconsistent with great antiquity) +but also in stratified gravel. Implements of palaeolithic _type_ are +doubtless common, and may be compared to Chellean, Mousterian and even +Solutrian specimens[133], but primitive culture is not necessarily +pleistocene. Ancient forms persisted in Egypt down to the historic +period, and even patination is no sure test of age, so until further +evidence is found the antiquity of man in Africa must remain +undecided[134]. + +Yet since some remote if undated epoch the specialised Negro type, as +depicted on the Egyptian monuments some thousands of years ago[135], has +everywhere been maintained with striking uniformity. "Within this wide +domain of the black Negro there is a remarkably general similarity of +type.... If you took a Negro from the Gold Coast of West Africa and +passed him off amongst a number of Nyasa natives, and if he were not +remarkably distinguished from them by dress or tribal marks, it would +not be easy to pick him out[136]." + +Nevertheless considerable differences are perceptible to the practised +eye, and the contrasts are sufficiently marked to justify ethnologists +in treating the _Sudanese_ and the _Bantu_ as two distinct subdivisions +of the family. In both groups the relatively full-blood natives are +everywhere very much alike, and the contrasts are presented chiefly +amongst the mixed or Negroid populations. In Sudan the disturbing +elements are both Hamitic (Berbers and Tuaregs) and Semitic (Arabs); +while in Bantuland they are mainly Hamitic (Galla) in all the central +and southern districts, and Arabs on the eastern seaboard from the +equator to Sofala beyond the Zambesi. To the varying proportions of +these several ingredients may perhaps be traced the often very marked +differences observable on the one hand between such Sudanese peoples as +the Wolof, Mandingans, Hausa, Nubians, Zandeh[137], and Mangbattu, and +on the other between all these and the Swahili, Baganda, Zulu-Xosa, +Be-Chuana, Ova-Herero and some other Negroid Bantu. + +But the distinction is based on social, linguistic, and cultural, as +well as on physical grounds, so that, as at present constituted, the +Sudanese and Bantu really constitute two tolerably well-defined branches +of the Negro family. Thanks to Muhammadan influences, the former have +attained a much higher level of culture. They cultivate not only the +alimentary but also the economic plants, such as cotton and indigo; they +build stone dwellings, walled towns, substantial mosques and minarets; +they have founded powerful states, such as those of the Hausa and +Songhai, of Ghana and Bornu, with written records going back a thousand +years, although these historical peoples are all without exception +half-breeds, often with more Semitic and Hamitic than Negro blood in +their veins. + +No such cultured peoples are anywhere to be found in Bantuland except on +the east coast, where the "Moors" founded great cities and flourishing +marts centuries before the appearance of the Portuguese in the eastern +seas. Among the results of the gold trade with these coastal settlements +may be classed the Zimbabwe monuments and other ruins explored by +Theodore Bent in the mining districts south of the Zambesi. But in all +the Negro lands free from foreign influences no true culture has ever +been developed, and here cannibalism, witchcraft, and sanguinary +"customs" are often still rife, or have been but recently suppressed by +the direct action of European administrations. + +Numberless authorities have described the Negro as unprogressive, or, if +left to himself, incapable of progress in his present physical +environment. Sir H. H. Johnston, who knows him well, goes much further, +and speaks of him as a fine animal, who, "in his wild state, exhibits a +stunted mind and a dull content with his surroundings, which induces +mental stagnation, cessation of all upward progress, and even +retrogression towards the brute. In some respects I think the tendency +of the Negro for several centuries past has been an actual retrograde +one[138]." + +There is one point in which the Bantu somewhat unaccountably compare +favourably with the Sudanese. In all other regions the spread of culture +has tended to bring about linguistic unity, as we see in the Hellenic +world, where all the old idioms were gradually absorbed in the "common +dialect" of the Byzantine empire, again in the Roman empire, where Latin +became the universal speech of the West, and lastly in the Muhammadan +countries, where most of the local tongues have nearly everywhere, +except in Sudan, disappeared before the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish +languages. + +But in Negroland the case is reversed, and here the less cultured Bantu +populations all, without any known exception, speak dialects of a single +mother-tongue, while the greatest linguistic confusion prevails amongst +the semi-civilised as well as the savage peoples of Sudan. + +Although the Bantu language may, as some suppose[139], have originated +in the north and spread southwards to the Congo, Zambesi, and Limpopo +basins, it cannot now be even remotely affiliated to any one of the +numerous distinct forms of speech current in the Sudanese domain. Hence +to allow time for its diffusion over half the continent, the initial +movement must be assigned to an extremely remote epoch, and a +corresponding period of great duration must be postulated for the +profound linguistic disintegration that is everywhere witnessed in the +region between the Atlantic and Abyssinia. Here agglutination, both with +prefixed and postfixed particles, is the prevailing morphological order, +as in the Mandingan, Fulah, Nubian, Dinkan, and Mangbattu groups. But +every shade of transition is also presented between true agglutination +and inflection of the Hamito-Semitic types, as in Hausa, Kanuri, Kanem, +Dasa or Southern and Teda or Northern Tibu[140]. + +Elsewhere, and especially in Upper Guinea, the originally agglutinating +tongues have developed on lines analogous to those followed by Tibetan, +Burmese, Chinese, and Otomi in other continents, with corresponding +results. Thus the Tshi, Ewe, and Yoruba, surviving members of a now +extinct stock-language, formerly diffused over the whole region between +Cape Palmas and the Niger Delta, have become so burdened with +monosyllabic homophones (like-sounding monosyllables), that to indicate +their different meanings several distinguishing tones have been evolved, +exactly as in the Indo-Chinese group. In Ewe (Slave Coast) the root +_do_, according as it is toned may mean to put, let go, tell, kick, be +sad, join, change, grow big, sleep, prick, or grind. So great are the +ravages of phonetic decay, that new expedients have been developed to +express quite simple ideas, as in Tshi (Gold Coast) _addanmu_, room +(_addan_ house, _mu_ interior); _akwancherifo_, a guide (_akwan_ road, +_cheri_ to show, _fo_ person); _ensahtsiabah_, finger (_ensah_ hand, +_tsia_ small, _abbah_ child = hand's-little-child); but middle-finger = +"hand's-little-chief" (_ensahtsiahin_, where _ehin_ chief takes the +place of _abbah_ child[141]). + +Common both to Sudanese and Bantus, especially about the western +borderlands (Upper Guinea, Cameruns, etc.) is the "drum-language," which +affords a striking illustration of the Negro's musical faculty. "Two or +three drums are usually used together, each producing a different note, +and they are played either with the fingers or with two sticks. The +lookers-on generally beat time by clapping the hands. To a European, +whose ear and mind are untrained for this special faculty, the rhythm +of a drum expresses nothing beyond a repetition of the same note at +different intervals of time; but to a native it expresses much more. To +him the drum can and does speak, the sounds produced from it forming +words, and the whole measure or rhythm a sentence. In this way, when +company drums are being played at an _ehsadu_ [palaver], they are made +to express and convey to the bystanders a variety of meanings. In one +measure they abuse the men of another company, stigmatising them as +fools and cowards; then the rhythm changes, and the gallant deeds of +their own company are extolled. All this, and much more, is conveyed by +the beating of drums, and the native ear and mind, trained to select and +interpret each beat, is never at fault. The language of drums is as well +understood as that which they use in their daily life. Each chief has +his own call or motto, sounded by a particular beat of his drums. Those +of Amankwa Tia, the Ashanti general who fought against us in the war of +1873-4, used to say _P[)i]r[)i]h[=u]h_, hasten. Similar mottoes are also +expressed by means of horns, and an entire stranger in the locality can +at once translate the rhythm into words[142]." + +Similar contrasts and analogies will receive due illustration in the +detailed account here following of the several more representative +Sudanese groups. + + +WEST SUDANESE. + +_Wolofs._ Throughout its middle and lower course the Senegal river, +which takes its name from the Zenaga Berbers, forms the ethnical +"divide" between the Hamites and the Sudanese Negroes. The latter are +here represented by the Wolofs, who with the kindred _Jolofs_ and +_Serers_ occupy an extensive territory between the Senegal and the +Gambia rivers. Whether the term "Wolof" means "Talkers," as if they +alone were gifted with the faculty of speech, or "Blacks" in contrast to +the neighbouring "Red" Fulahs, both interpretations are fully justified +by these Senegambians, at once the very blackest and amongst the most +garrulous tribes in the whole of Africa. The colour is called "ebony," +and they are commonly spoken of as "Blacks of the Black." They are also +very tall even for Negroes, and the Serers especially may claim to be +"the Patagonians of the Old World," men six feet six inches high and +proportionately muscular being far from rare in the coast districts +about St Louis and Dakar. + +Their language, which is widespread throughout Senegambia, may be taken +as a typical Sudanese form of speech, unlike any other in its peculiar +agglutinative structure, and unaffected even in its vocabulary by the +Hamitic which has been current for ages on the opposite bank of the +Senegal. A remarkable feature is the so-called "article," always +postfixed and subject to a two-fold series of modifications, first in +accordance with the initial consonant of the noun, for which there are +six possible consonantal changes (_w_, _m_, _b_, _d_, _s_, _g_), and +then according as the object is present, near, not near, and distant, +for which there are again four possible vowel changes (_i_, _u_, _o_, +_a_), or twenty-four altogether, a tremendous redundancy of useless +variants as compared with the single English form _the_. Thus this +Protean particle begins with _b_, _d_ or _w_ to agree with _baye_, +father, _digene_, woman, or _fos_, horse, and then becomes _bi_, _bu_, +_bo_, _ba_; _di_, _du_ etc.; _wi_, _wu_ etc. to express the presence and +the varying distances of these objects: _baye-bi_ = father-the-here; +_baye-bu_ = father-the-there; _baye-bo_ = father-the-yonder; _baye-ba_ = +father-the-away in the distance. + +All this is curious enough; but the important point is that it probably +gives us the clue to the enigmatic alliterative system of the Bantu +languages as explained in _Ethnology_, p. 273, the position of course +being reversed. Thus as in Zulu _in_- kose requires _en_- kulu, so in +Wolof _baye_ requires _bi_, _di_gene _di_, and so on. There are other +indications that the now perfected Bantu grew out of analogous but less +developed processes still prevalent in the Sudanese tongues. + +Equally undeveloped is the Wolof process of making earthenware, as +observed by M. F. Regnault amongst the natives brought to Paris for the +Exhibition of 1895. He noticed how one of the women utilised a somewhat +deep bowl resting on the ground in such a way as to be easily spun round +by the hand, thus illustrating the transition between hand-made and +turned pottery. Kneading a lump of clay, and thrusting it into the +bowl, after sprinkling the sides with some black dust to prevent +sticking, she made a hollow in the mass, enlarging and pressing it +against the bowl with the back of the fingers bent in, the hand being +all the time kept in a vertical position. At the same time the bowl was +spun round with the left palm, this movement combined with the pressure +exerted by the right hand causing the sides of the vessel to rise and +take shape. When high enough it was finished off by thickening the clay +to make a rim. This was held in the right hand and made fast to the +mouth of the vessel by the friction caused by again turning the bowl +with the left hand. This transitional process is frequently met with in +Africa[143]. + +Most of the Wolofs profess themselves Muhammadans, the rest Catholics, +while all alike are heathen at heart; only the former have charms with +texts from the Koran which they cannot read, and the latter medals and +scapulars of the "Seven Dolours" or of the Trinity, which they cannot +understand. Many old rites still flourish, the household gods are not +forgotten, and for the lizard, most popular of tutelar deities, the +customary milk-bowl is daily replenished. Glimpses are thus afforded of +the totemic system which still survives in a modified form amongst the +Be-Chuana, the Mandingans, and several other African peoples, but has +elsewhere mostly died out in Negroland. The infantile ideas associated +with plant and animal totem tokens have been left far behind, when a +people like the Serers have arrived at such a lofty conception as +Takhar, god of justice, or even the more materialistic Tiurakh, god of +wealth, although the latter may still be appealed to for success in +nefarious projects which he himself might scarcely be expected to +countenance. But the harmony between religious and ethical thought has +scarcely yet been reached even amongst some of the higher races. + +_Mandingans._ In the whole of Sudan there is scarcely a more numerous or +widespread people than the Mandingans, who--with their endless +ramifications, _Kassonke_, _Jallonke_, _Soninke_, _Bambara_, _Vei_ and +many others--occupy most of the region between the Atlantic and the +Joliba (Upper Niger) basin, as far south as about 9 deg. N. latitude. Within +these limits it is often difficult to say who are, or who are not +members of this great family, whose various branches present all the +transitional shades of physical type and culture grades between the true +pagan Negro and the Muhammadan Negroid Sudanese. + +Even linguistic unity exists only to a limited extent, as the numerous +dialects of the Mande stock-language have often diverged so greatly as +to constitute independent tongues quite unintelligible to the +neighbouring tribes. The typical Mandingans, however--Faidherbe's +Malinka-Soninke group--may be distinguished from the surrounding +populations by their more softened features, broader forehead, larger +nose, fuller beard, and lighter colour. They are also distinguished by +their industrious habits and generally higher culture, being rivalled by +few as skilled tillers of the soil, weavers, and workers in iron and +copper. They thus hold much the same social position in the west that +the Hausa do in the central region beyond the Niger, and the French +authorities think that "they are destined to take a position of ever +increasing importance in the pacified Sudan of the future[144]." + +Thus history brings about its revenges, for the Mandingans proper of the +Kong plateau may fairly claim, despite their late servitude to the Fulah +conquerors and their present ready acceptance of French rule, to be a +historical people with a not inglorious record of over 1000 years, as +founders of the two great empires of Melle and Guine, and of the more +recent states of Moasina, Bambara, Kaarta, Kong, and others about the +water-parting between the head-streams of the Niger, and the rivers +flowing south to the Gulf of Guinea. Here is the district of Manding, +which is the original home of the _Manding'ke_, _i.e._ "People of +Manding," as they are generally called, although _Mande_ appears to be +the form used by themselves[145]. Here also was the famous city of Mali +or Melle, from which the Upper Niger group take the name of _Mali'nke_, +in contradistinction to the _Soni'nke_ of the Senegal river, the +_Jalo'nke_ of Futa-Jallon, and the _Bamana_ of Bambara, these being the +more important historical and cultured groups. + +According to native tradition and the annals of Ahmed Baba, rescued from +oblivion by Barth[146], the first Mandingan state of Guine (Ghana, +Ghanata), a name still surviving in the vague geographical term +"Guinea," goes back to pre-Muhammadan times. Wakayamangha, its legendary +founder, is supposed to have flourished 300 years before the Hejira, at +which date twenty-two kings had already reigned. Sixty years after that +time the Moslem Arabs or Berbers are said to have already reached West +Sudan, where they had twelve mosques in Ghana, first capital of the +empire, and their chief stronghold till the foundation of Jinni on the +Upper Niger (1043 A.D.). + +Two centuries later (1235-60) the centre of the Mandingan rule was +transferred to Mali, which under the great king Mansa-Musa (1311-31) +became the most powerful Sudanese state of which there is any authentic +record. For a time it included nearly the whole of West Sudan, and a +great part of the western Sahara, beside the Songhai State with its +capital Gogo, and Timbuktu. Mansa-Musa, who, in the language of the +chronicler, "wielded a power without measure or limits," entered into +friendly relations with the emperor of Morocco, and made a famous +pilgrimage to Mecca, the splendours of which still linger in the memory +of the Mussulman populations through whose lands the interminable +procession wound its way. He headed 60,000 men of arms, says Ahmed Baba, +and wherever he passed he was preceded by 500 slaves, each bearing a +gold stick weighing 500 mitkals (14 lbs.), the whole representing a +money value of about L4,000,000 (?). The people of Cairo and Mecca were +dazzled by his wealth and munificence; but during the journey a great +part of his followers were seized by a painful malady called in their +language _tuat_, and this word still lives in the Oasis of Tuat, where +most of them perished. + +Even after the capture of Timbuktu by the Tuaregs (1433), Mali long +continued to be the chief state in West Nigritia, and carried on a +flourishing trade, especially in slaves and gold. But this gold was +still supposed to come from the earlier kingdom of Guine, which word +consequently still remains associated with the precious metal in the +popular belief. About the year 1500 Mali was captured by the Songhai +king, Omar Askia, after which the empire fell to pieces, and its memory +now survives only in the ethnical term _Mali'nke_. + +_Felups._ From the semi-civilised Muhammadan negroid Mandingans to the +utterly savage full-blood Negro Felups the transition is abrupt, but +instructive. In other regions the heterogeneous ethnical groups crowded +into upland valleys, as in the Caucasus, have been called the "sweepings +of the plains." But in West Sudan there are no great ranges towering +above the lowlands, and even the "Kong Mountains" of school geographies +have now been wiped out by L. G. Binger[147]. Hence the rude aborigines +of the inland plateau, retreating before the steady advance of Islam, +found no place of refuge till they reached the indented fjord-like +Atlantic seaboard, where many still hold their ground. This is the +explanation of the striking contrasts now witnessed between the interior +and so many parts of the West Coast; on the one hand powerful political +organisations with numerous, more or less homogeneous, and +semi-civilised negroid populations, on the other an infinite tangle of +ethnical and linguistic groups, all alike weltering in the sheerest +savagery, or in grades of barbarism even worse than the wild state. + +Even the _Felups_, whose territory now stretches from the Gambia to the +Cacheo, but formerly reached the Geba and the Bissagos Islands, do not +form a single group. Originally the name of an obscure coast-tribe, the +term Felup or Fulup has been extended by the Portuguese traders to all +the surrounding peoples--_Ayamats_, _Jolas_, _Jigushes_, _Vacas_, +_Joats_, _Karons_, _Banyuns_, _Banjars_, _Fuluns_, _Bayots_ and some +others who amid much local diversity, presented a sufficiently general +outward resemblance to be regarded as a single people by the first +European settlers. The Felups proper display the physical and mental +characters of the typical Negro even in an exaggerated form--black +colour, flat nose, wide nostrils, very thick and everted lips, red on +the inner surface, stout muscular frame, correlated with coarse animal +passions, crass ignorance, no arts, industry, or even tribal +organisation, so that every little family group is independent and +mostly in a state of constant feud with its neighbours. All go naked, +armed with bow and arrow, and live in log huts which, though strongly +built, are indescribably filthy[148]. + +Mother-right frequently prevails, rank and property being transmitted in +the female line. There is some notion of a superhuman being vaguely +identified with the sky, the rain, wind or thunderstorm. But all live in +extreme terror of the medicine-man, who is openly courted, but inwardly +detested, so that whenever it can be safely done the tables are turned, +the witch-doctor is seized and tortured to death. + +_Timni, Kru, Sierra-Leonese, Liberians._ Somewhat similar conditions +prevail all along the seaboard from Sierra Leone to, and beyond, Cape +Palmas, disturbed or modified by the Liberian intruders from the North +American plantations, and by the slaves rescued in the thirties and +forties by the British cruisers and brought to Sierra Leone, where their +descendants now live in settled communities under European influences. +These "coloured" citizens of Sierra Leone and Liberia, who are so often +the butt of cheap ridicule, and are themselves perhaps too apt to scorn +the kindred "niggers" of the bush, have to be carefully distinguished +from these true aborigines who have never been wrenched from their +natural environment. + +In Sierra Leone the chief aboriginal groups on the coastlands are the +_Timni_ of the Rokelle river, flanked north and south by two branches of +the _Bulams_, and still further south the _Gallinas_, _Veys_ and +_Golas_; in the interior the _Lokkos_, _Limbas_, _Konos_, and _Kussas_, +with _Kurankos_, _Mendis_, _Hubus_, and other Mandingans and Fulahs +everywhere in the Hinterland. + +Of all these the most powerful during the British occupation have always +been the Timni (Timani, Temne), who sold to the English the peninsula on +which now stands Freetown, but afterwards crying off the bargain, +repeatedly tried to drive the white and coloured intruders into the +sea. They are a robust people of softened Negro type, and more +industrious farmers than most of the other natives. Like the Wolofs they +believe in the virtue both of Christian and Moslem amulets, but have +hitherto lent a deaf ear to the preachers of both these religions. +Nevertheless the Protestant missionaries have carefully studied the +Timni language, which possesses an oral literature rich in legends, +proverbs, and folklore[149]. + +The Timni district is a chief centre of the so-called _porro_ +fraternity[150], a sort of secret society or freemasonry widely diffused +throughout the coastlands, and possessing its own symbols, skin +markings, passwords, and language. It presents curious points of analogy +with the brotherhoods of the Micronesian islanders, but appears to be +even more potent for good and evil, a veritable religious and political +state within the state. "When their mandates are issued all wars and +civil strife must cease, a general truce is established, and bloodshed +stopped, offending communities being punished by bands of armed men in +masks. Strangers cannot enter the country unless escorted by a member of +the guild, who is recognised by passwords, symbolic gestures, and the +like. Their secret rites are celebrated at night in the depths of the +forest, all intruders being put to death or sold as slaves[151]." + +In studying the social conditions prevalent amongst the Sierra Leonese +proper, it should be remembered that they are sprung, not only from +representatives of almost every tribe along the seaboard, and even in +the far interior, but also to a large extent from the freedmen and +runaways of Nova Scotia and London, besides many maroons of Jamaica, who +were settled here under the auspices of the Sierra Leone Company towards +the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. +Others also have in recent years been attracted to the settlements from +the Timni and other tribes of the neighbouring districts. The Sierra +Leonese are consequently not themselves a tribe, nor yet a people, but +rather a people in course of formation under the influence of a new +environment and of a higher culture. An immediate consequence of such a +sudden aggregation of discordant elements was the loss of all the native +tongues, and the substitution of English as the common medium of +intercourse. But English is the language of a people standing on the +very highest plane of culture, and could not therefore be properly +assimilated by the _disjecta membra_ of tribes at the lowest rung of the +social ladder. The resultant form of speech may be called ludicrous, so +ludicrous that the Sierra Leonese version of the New Testament had to be +withdrawn from circulation as verging almost on the blasphemous[152]. + +It has also to be considered that all the old tribal relations were +broken up, while an attempt was made to merge these waifs and strays in +a single community based on social conditions to which each and all were +utter strangers. It is not therefore surprising that the experiment has +not proved a complete success, and that the social relations in Sierra +Leone leave something to be desired. Although the freedmen and the +rescued captives received free gifts of land, their dislike for the +labours of the field induced many to abandon their holdings, and take to +huckstering and other more pleasant pursuits. Hence their descendants +almost monopolise the petty traffic and even the "professions" in +Freetown and the other colonial settlements. Although accused of +laziness and dishonesty, they have displayed a considerable degree of +industrial as well as commercial enterprise, and the Sierra Leone +craftsmen--smiths, mechanics, carpenters, builders--enjoy a good +reputation in all the coast towns. All are Christians of various +denominations, and even show a marked predilection for the "ministry." +Yet below the surface the old paganism still slumbers, and vodoo +practices, as in the West Indies and some of the Southern States, are +still heard of. + +Morality also is admittedly at a low ebb, and it is curious to note that +this has in part been attributed to the freedom enjoyed under the +British administration. "They have passed from the sphere of native law +to that of British law, which is brought to this young community like an +article of ready-made clothing. Is it a wonder that the clothes do not +fit? Is it a wonder that kings and chiefs around Sierra Leone, instead +of wishing their people to come and see how well we do things, dread for +them to come to this colony on account of the danger to their morals? In +passing into this colony, they pass into a liberty which to them is +license[153]." + +An experiment of a somewhat different order, but with much the same +negative results, has been tried by the well-meaning founders of the +Republic of Liberia. Here also the bulk of the "civilised aristocrats" +are descended of emancipated plantation slaves, a first consignment of +whom was brought over by a philanthropic American society in 1820-22. +The idea was to start them well in life under the fostering care of +their white guardians, and then leave them to work out their own +redemption in their own way. All control was accordingly withdrawn in +1848, and since then the settlement has constituted an absolutely +independent Negro state in the enjoyment of complete self-government. +Progress of a certain material kind was undoubtedly made. The original +"free citizens" increased from 8000 in 1850 to perhaps 20,000 in +1898[154], and the central administration, modelled on that of the +United States, maintained some degree of order among the surrounding +aborigines, estimated at some two million within the limits of the +Republic. + +But these aborigines have not benefited perceptibly by contact with +their "civilised" neighbours, who themselves stand at much the same +level intellectually and morally as their repatriated forefathers. +Instead of attending to the proper administration of the Republic, the +"Weegee," as they are called, have constituted themselves into two +factions, the "coloured" or half-breeds, and the full-blood Negroes who, +like the "Blancos" and "Neros" of some South American States, spend most +of their time in a perpetual struggle for office. All are of course +intensely patriotic, but their patriotism takes a wrong direction, being +chiefly manifested in their insolence towards the English and other +European traders on the coast, and in their supreme contempt for the +"stinking bush-niggers," as they call the surrounding aborigines. In +1909 internal and external difficulties led to the appointment of a +Commission by President Roosevelt with the result that the American +Government took charge of the finances, military organisation, +agriculture and boundary questions, besides arranging for a loan of +L400,000. The able administration of President Barclay, a pure blooded +Negro, though not of Liberian ancestry, is perhaps the happiest augury +for the future of the Republic[155]. + +The _Krus_ (Kroomen, Krooboys[156]), whose numerous hamlets are +scattered along the coast from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas, are +assuredly one of the most interesting people in the whole of Africa. +Originally from the interior, they have developed in their new homes a +most un-African love of the sea, hence are regularly engaged as crews by +the European skippers plying along those insalubrious coastlands. + +In this service, in which they are known by such nicknames as +"Bottle-of-Beer," "Mashed-Potatoes," "Bubble-and-Squeak," +"Pipe-of-Tobacco," and the like, their word may always be depended upon. +But it is to be feared that this loyalty, which with them is a strict +matter of business, has earned for them a reputation for other virtues +to which they have little claim. Despite the many years that they have +been in the closest contact with the missionaries and traders, they are +still at heart the same brutal savages as ever. After each voyage they +return to the native village to spend all their gains and pilferings in +drunken orgies, and relapse generally into sheer barbarism till the next +steamer rounds the neighbouring headland. "It is not a comfortable +reflection," writes Bishop Ingham, whose testimony will not be suspected +of bias, "as we look at this mob on our decks, that, if the ship chance +to strike on a sunken rock and become unmanageable, they would rise to a +man, and seize all they could lay hands on, cut the very rings off our +fingers if they could get them in no other way, and generally loot the +ship. Little has been done to Christianise these interesting, +hard-working, cheerful, but ignorant and greedy people, who have so long +hung on the skirts of civilisation[157]." + +It is only fair to the Kru to say that this unflattering picture of them +stands alone. "There is but one man of all of us who have visited West +Africa who has not paid a tribute to the Kruboy's sterling qualities," +says Miss Kingsley. Her opinion coincides with that of the old coasters +based on life-long experience, and she waxes indignant at the +ingratitude with which Kruboy loyalty is rewarded. "They have devoted +themselves to us English, and they have suffered, laboured, fought, been +massacred and so on with us generation after generation.... Kruboys are, +indeed, the backbone of white effort in West Africa[158]." + +But the very worst "sweepings of the Sudanese plateau" seem to have +gathered along the Upper Guinea Coast, occupied by the already mentioned +_Tshi_, _Ewe_, and _Yoruba_ groups[159]. They constitute three branches +of one linguistic, and probably also of one ethnical family, of which, +owing to their historic and ethnical importance, the reader may be glad +to have here subjoined a somewhat complete tabulated scheme. + +The _Ga_ of the Volta delta are here bracketed with the Tshi because A. +B. Ellis, our great authority on the Guinea peoples[160], considers the +two languages to be distantly connected. He also thinks there is a +foundation of fact in the native traditions, which bring the dominant +tribes--Ashanti, Fanti, Dahomi, Yoruba, Bini--from the interior to the +coast districts at no very remote period. Thus it is recorded of the +Ashanti and Fanti, now hereditary foes, that ages ago they formed one +people who were reduced to the utmost distress during a long war with +some inland power, perhaps the conquering Muhammadans of the Ghana or +Mali empire. They were saved, however, some by eating of the _shan_, +others of the _fan_ plant, and of these words, with the verb _di_, "to +eat," were made the tribal names _Shan-di_, _Fan-di_, now _Ashanti_, +_Fanti_. The _seppiriba_ plant, said to have been eaten by the Fanti, is +still called _fan_ when cooked. + + TRIBES OF TSHI TRIBES OF EWE TRIBES OF YORUBA + AND GA SPEECH SPEECH SPEECH + + _Gold Coast_ _Slave Coast West_ _Slave Coast East_ + _and Niger Delta_ + + Ashanti Dahomi Yoruba[161] + Safwhi Eweawo Ibadan + Denkera Agotine Ketu + Bekwai Anfueh Egba + Nkoranza Krepe Jebu + Adansi Avenor Remo + Assin Awuna Ode + Wassaw Agbosomi Ilorin + Ahanta Aflao Ijesa + Fanti Ataklu Ondo + Agona Krikor Mahin + Akwapim Geng Benin (Bini) + Akim Attakpami Kakanda + Akwamu Aja Wari + Kwao Ewemi Ibo[161] + Ga Appa Efik[161] + +Other traditions refer to a time when all were of one speech, and lived +in a far country beyond Salagha, open, flat, with little bush, and +plenty of cattle and sheep, a tolerably accurate description of the +inland Sudanese plateaux. But then came a red people, said to be the +Fulahs, Muhammadans, who oppressed the blacks and drove them to take +refuge in the forests. Here they thrived and multiplied, and after many +vicissitudes they came down, down, until at last they reached the coast, +with the waves rolling in, the white foam hissing and frothing on the +beach, and thought it was all boiling water until some one touched it +and found it was not hot, and so to this day they call the sea _Eh-huru +den o nni shew_, "Boiling water not hot," but far inland the sea is +still "Boiling water[162]." + +To A. B. Ellis we are indebted especially for the true explanation of +the much used and abused term _fetish_, as applied to the native +beliefs. It was of course already known to be not an African but a +Portuguese word[163], meaning a charm, amulet, or even witchcraft. But +Ellis shows how it came to be wrongly applied to all forms of animal and +nature worship, and how the confusion was increased by De Brosses' +theory of a primordial fetishism, and by his statement that it was +impossible to conceive a lower form of religion than fetishism, which +might therefore be assumed to be the beginning of all religion[164]. + +On the contrary it represents rather an advanced stage, as Ellis +discovered after four or five years of careful observation on the spot. +A fetish, he tells us, is something tangible and inanimate, which is +believed to possess power in itself, and is worshipped for itself alone. +Nor can such an object be picked up anywhere at random, as is commonly +asserted, and he adds that the belief "is arrived at only after +considerable progress has been made in religious ideas, when the older +form of religion becomes secondary and owes its existence to the +confusion of the tangible with the intangible, of the material with the +immaterial; to the belief in the indwelling god being gradually lost +sight of until the power originally believed to belong to the god, is +finally attributed to the tangible and inanimate object itself." + +But now comes a statement that may seem paradoxical to most students of +the evolution of religious ideas. We are assured that fetishism thus +understood is not specially or at all characteristic of the religion of +the Gold Coast natives, who are in fact "remarkably free from it" and +believe in invisible intangible deities. Some of them may dwell in a +tangible inanimate object, popularly called a "fetish"; but the idea of +the indwelling god is never lost sight of, nor is the object ever +worshipped for its own sake. True fetishism, the worship of such +material objects and images, prevails, on the contrary, far more +"amongst the Negroes of the West Indies, who have been christianised for +more than half-a-century, than amongst those of West Africa. Hence the +belief in Obeah, still prevalent in the West Indies, which formerly was +a belief in indwelling spirits which inhabited certain objects, has now +become a worship paid to tangible and inanimate objects, which of +themselves are believed to possess the power to injure. In Europe itself +we find evidence amongst the Roman Catholic populations of the South, +that fetishism is a corruption of a former _culte_, rather than a +primordial faith. The lower classes there have confused the intangible +with the tangible, and believe that the images of the saints can both +see, hear and feel. Thus we find the Italian peasants and fishermen beat +and ill-treat their images when their requests have not been complied +with.... These appear to be instances of true fetishism[165]." + +Another phase of religious belief in Upper Guinea is ancestry worship, +which has here been developed to a degree unknown elsewhere. As the +departed have to be maintained in the same social position beyond the +grave that they enjoyed in this world, they must be supplied with +slaves, wives, and attendants, each according to his rank. Hence the +institution of the so-called "customs," or anniversary feasts of the +dead, accompanied by the sacrifice of human victims, regulated at first +by the status and afterwards by the whim and caprice of chiefs and +kings. In the capitals of the more powerful states, Ashanti, Dahomey, +Benin, the scenes witnessed at these sanguinary rites rivalled in horror +those held in honour of the Aztec gods. Details may here be dispensed +with on a repulsive subject, ample accounts of which are accessible from +many sources to the general reader. In any case these atrocities teach +no lesson, except that most religions have waded through blood to better +things, unless arrested in mid-stream by the intervention of higher +powers, as happily in Upper Guinea, where the human shambles of Kumassi, +Abomeh, Benin and most other places have now been swept away. + +On the capture of Benin by the English in 1897 a rare and unexpected +prize fell into the hands of ethnologists. Here was found a large +assortment of carved ivories, woodwork, and especially a series of about +300 bronze and brass plates or panels with figures of natives and +Europeans, armed and in armour, in full relief, all cast by the _cire +perdue_ process[166], some barbaric, others, and especially a head in +the round of a young negress, showing high artistic skill. Many of these +remarkable objects are in the British Museum, where they have been +studied by C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton[167], who are evidently right in +assigning the better class to the sixteenth century, and to the aid, if +not the hand, of some Portuguese artificers in the service of the King +of Benin. They add that "casting of an inferior kind continues down to +the present time," and it may here be mentioned that armour has long +been and is still worn by the cavalry, and even their horses, in the +Muhammadan states of Central Sudan. "The chiefs (_Kashellawa_) who serve +as officers under the Sultan [of Bornu] and act as his bodyguard wear +jackets of chain armour and cuirasses of coats of mail[168]." It is +clear that metal casting in a large way has long been practised by the +semi-civilised peoples of Sudan. + +Within the great bend of the Niger the veil, first slightly raised by +Barth in the middle of the nineteenth century, has now been drawn aside +by L. G. Binger, F. D. Lugard and later explorers. Here the _Mossi_, +_Borgu_ and others have hitherto more or less successfully resisted the +Moslem advance, and are consequently for the most part little removed +from the savage state. Even the "Faithful" wear the cloak of Islam +somewhat loosely, and the level of their culture may be judged from the +case of the Imam of Diulasu, who pestered Binger for nostrums and charms +against ailments, war, and misfortunes. What he wanted chiefly to know +was the names of Abraham's two wives. "Tell me these," he would say, +"and my fortune is made, for I dreamt it the other night; you must tell +me; I really must have those names or I'm lost[169]." + +In some districts the ethnical confusion is considerable, and when +Binger arrived at the Court of the Mossi King, Baikary, he was addressed +successively in Mossi, Hausa, Songhai, and Fulah, until at last it was +discovered that Mandingan was the only native language he understood. +Waghadugu, capital of the chief Mossi state, comprises several distinct +quarters occupied respectively by Mandingans, Marengas (Songhai), +Zang-wer'os (Hausas), Chilmigos (Fulahs), Mussulman and heathen Mossis, +the whole population scarcely exceeding 5000. However, perfect harmony +prevails, the Mossi themselves being extremely tolerant despite the long +religious wars they have had to wage against the fanatical Fulahs and +other Muhammadan aggressors[170]. + +Religious indifference is indeed a marked characteristic of this people, +and the case is mentioned of a nominal Mussulman prince who could even +read and write, and say his prayers, but whose two sons "knew nothing at +all," or, as we should say, were "Agnostics." One of them, however, it +is fair to add, is claimed by both sides, the Moslems asserting that he +says his prayers in secret, the heathens that he drinks _dolo_ +(palm-wine), which of course no true believer is supposed ever to do. + + +CENTRAL SUDANESE. + +In Central Sudan, that is, the region stretching from the Niger to +Wadai, a tolerably clean sweep has been made of the aborigines, except +along the southern fringe and in parts of the Chad basin. For many +centuries Islam has here been firmly established, and in Negroland Islam +is synonymous with a greater or less degree of miscegenation. The native +tribes who resisted the fiery Arab or Tuareg or Tibu proselytisers were +for the most part either extirpated, or else driven to the southern +uplands about the Congo-Chad water-parting. All who accepted the Koran +became merged with the conquerors in a common negroid population, which +supplied the new material for the development of large social +communities and powerful political states. + +Under these conditions the old tribal organisations were in great +measure dissolved, and throughout its historic period of about a +millennium Central Sudan is found mainly occupied by peoples gathered +together in a small number of political systems, each with its own +language and special institutions, but all alike accepting Islam as the +State religion. Such are or were the Songhai empire, the Hausa States, +and the kingdoms of Bornu with Kanem and Baghirmi, and these jointly +cover the whole of Central Sudan as above defined. + +_Songhais_[171]. How completely the tribe[172] has merged in the +people[172] may be inferred from the mere statement that, although no +longer an independent nation[172], the negroid Songhais form a single +ethnical group of about two million souls, all of one speech and one +religion, and all distinguished by somewhat uniform physical and mental +characters. This territory lies mainly about the borderlands between +Sudan and the Sahara, stretching from Timbuktu east to the Asben oasis +and along both banks of the Niger from Lake Debo round to the Sokoto +confluence, and also at some points reaching as far as the Hombori hills +within the great bend of the Niger. + +Here they are found in the closest connection with the Ireghenaten +("mixed") Tuaregs, and elsewhere with other Tuaregs, and with Arabs, +Fulahs or Hausas[173], so that exclusively Songhai communities are now +somewhat rare. But the bulk of the race is still concentrated in Gurma +and in the district between Gobo and Timbuktu, the two chief cities of +the old Songhai empire. + +They are a distinctly negroid people, presenting various shades of +intermixture with the surrounding Hamites and Semites, but generally of +a very deep brown or blackish colour, with somewhat regular features and +that peculiar long, black, and ringletty hair, which is so +characteristic of Negro and Caucasic blends, as seen amongst the Trarsas +and Braknas of the Senegal, the Bejas, Danakils, and many Abyssinians of +the region between the Nile and the Red Sea. Barth, to whom we still owe +the best account of this historical people, describes them as of a dull, +morose temperament, the most unfriendly and churlish of all the peoples +visited by him in Negroland. + +This writer's suggestion that they may have formerly had relations with +the Egyptians[174] has been revived in an exaggerated form by M. Felix +Dubois, whose views have received currency in England through uncritical +notices of his _Timbouctou la Mysterieuse_ (Paris, 1897). But there is +no "mystery" in the matter. The Songhai are a Sudanese people, whose +exodus from Egypt is a myth, and whose Kissur language, as it is called, +has not the remotest connection with any form of speech known to have +been at any time current in the Nile Valley[175]. Nor has it any evident +affinities with any group of African tongues. H. H. Johnston regards the +Songhai as the result of the mixing of "the Libyan section of the +Hamitic peoples, reinforced by Berbers (Iberians) from Spain," with the +pre-existing Fulah type and the Negroids; as also from the far earlier +intercourse between the Fulah and the Negro[176]. + +The Songhai empire, like that of the rival Mandingans, claims a +respectable antiquity, its reputed founder Za-el-Yemeni having +flourished about 680 A.D. Za Kasi, fifteenth in succession from the +founder, was the first Muhammadan ruler (1009); but about 1326 the +country was reduced by the Mandingans, and remained throughout the +fourteenth and a great part of the fifteenth century virtually subject +to the Mali empire, although Ali Killun, founder of the new Sonni +dynasty, had acquired a measure of independence about 1335-6. But the +political supremacy of the Songhai people dates only from about 1464, +when Sonni Ali, sixteenth of the Sonni dynasty, known in history as "the +great tyrant and famous miscreant," threw off the Mandingan yoke, "and +changed the whole face of this part of Africa by prostrating the kingdom +of Melle[177]." Under his successor, Muhammad Askia[178], "perhaps the +greatest sovereign that ever ruled over Negroland[179]," the Songhai +Empire acquired its greatest expansion, extending from the heart of +Hausaland to the Atlantic seaboard, and from the Mossi country to the +Tuat oasis, south of Morocco. Although unfavourably spoken of by Leo +Africanus, Askia is described by Ahmed Baba as governing the subject +peoples "with justice and equity, causing well-being and comfort to +spring up everywhere within the borders of his extensive dominions, and +introducing such of the institutions of Muhammadan civilisation as he +considered might be useful to his subjects[180]." + +Askia also made the Mecca pilgrimage with a great show of splendour. But +after his reign (1492-1529) the Songhai power gradually declined, and +was at last overthrown by Mulay Hamed, Emperor of Morocco, in 1591-2. +Ahmed Baba, the native chronicler, was involved in the ruin of his +people[181], and since then the Songhai nation has been broken into +fragments, subject here to Hausas, there to Fulahs, elsewhere to +Tuaregs, and, since the French occupation of Timbuktu (1894), to the +hated Giaur. + +_Hausas._ In everything that constitutes the real greatness of a +nation, the Hausas may rightly claim preeminence amongst all the peoples +of Negroland. No doubt early in the nineteenth century the historical +Hausa States, occupying the whole region between the Niger and Bornu, +were overrun and reduced by the fanatical Fulah bands under Othman Dan +Fodye. But the Hausas, in a truer sense than the Greeks, "have captured +their rude conquerors[182]," for they have even largely assimilated them +physically to their own type, and the Hausa nationality is under British +auspices asserting its natural social, industrial and commercial +predominance throughout Central and even parts of Western Sudan. + +It could not well be otherwise, seeing that the Hausas form a compact +body of some five million peaceful and industrious Sudanese, living +partly in numerous farmsteads amid their well-tilled cotton, indigo, +pulse, and corn fields, partly in large walled cities and great trading +centres such as Kano[183], Katsena, Yacoba, whose intelligent and +law-abiding inhabitants are reckoned by many tens of thousands. Their +melodious tongue, with a vocabulary containing perhaps 10,000 +words[184], has long been the great medium of intercourse throughout +Sudan from Lake Chad to and beyond the Niger, and is daily acquiring +even greater preponderance amongst all the settled and trading +populations of these regions. + +But though showing a marked preference for peaceful pursuits, the Hausas +are by no means an effeminate people. Largely enlisted in the British +service, they have at all times shown fighting qualities of a high order +under their English officers, and a well-earned tribute has been paid to +their military prowess amongst others by Sir George Goldie and Lieut. +Vandeleur[185]. With the Hausas on her side England need assuredly fear +no rivals to her beneficent sway over the teeming populations of the +fertile plains and plateaux of Central Sudan, which is on the whole +perhaps the most favoured land in Africa north of the equator. + +According to the national traditions, which go back to no very remote +period[186], the seven historical Hausa States known as the "Hausa +bokoy" ("the seven Hausas") take their name from the eponymous heroes +_Biram_, _Daura_, _Gober_, _Kano_, _Rano_, _Katsena_ and _Zegzeg_, all +said to be sprung from the Deggaras, a Berber tribe settled to the north +of Munyo. From Biram, the original seat, the race and its language +spread to seven other provinces--_Zanfara_, _Kebbi_, _Nupe_ (_Nyffi_), +_Gwari_, _Yauri_, _Yariba_ and _Kororofa_, which in contempt are called +the "Banza bokoy" ("the seven Upstarts"). All form collectively the +Hausa domain in the widest sense. + +Authentic history is quite recent, and even Komayo, reputed founder of +Katsena, dates only from about the fourteenth century. Ibrahim Maji, who +was the first Moslem ruler, is assigned to the latter part of the +fifteenth century, and since then the chief events have been associated +with the Fulah wars, ending in the absorption of all the Hausa States in +the unstable Fulah empire of Sokoto at the beginning of the nineteenth +century. With the fall of Kano and Sokoto in 1903 British supremacy was +finally established throughout the Hausa States, now termed Northern +Nigeria[187]. + +_Kanembu_; _Kanuri_[188]; _Baghirmi_, _Mosgu_. Round about the shores of +Lake Chad are grouped three other historical Muhammadan nations, the +Kanembu ("People of Kanem") on the north, the Kanuri of Bornu on the +west, and the Baghirmi on the south side. The last named was conquered +by the Sultan of Wadai in 1871, and overrun by Rabah Zobeir, half Arab, +half Negro adventurer, in 1890. But in 1897 Emile Gentil[189], French +commissioner for the district, placed the country under French +protection, although French authority was not firmly established until +the death of Rabah and the rout of his sons in 1901. At the same time +Kanem was brought under French control, and shortly afterwards Bornu was +divided between Great Britain, France and Germany. + +In this region the ethnical relations are considerably more complex than +in the Hausa States. Here Islam has had greater obstacles to contend +with than on the more open western plateaux, and many of the pagan +aborigines have been able to hold their ground either in the +archipelagos of Lake Chad (_Yedinas, Kuri, Buduma_[190]), or in the +swampy tracts and uplands of the Logon-Shari basin (_Mosgu_, _Mandara_, +_Makari_, etc.). + +It was also the policy of the Muhammadans, whose system is based on +slavery, not to push their religious zeal too far, for, if all the +natives were converted, where could they procure a constant supply of +slaves, those who accept the teachings of the Prophet being _ipso facto_ +entitled to their freedom? Hence the pagan districts were, and still +are, regarded as convenient preserves, happy hunting-grounds to be +raided from time to time, but not utterly wasted; to be visited by +organised razzias just often enough to keep up the supply in the home +and foreign markets. This system, controlled by the local governments +themselves, has long prevailed about the borderlands between Islam and +heathendom, as we know from Barth, Nachtigal, and one or two other +travellers, who have had reluctantly to accompany the periodical +slave-hunting expeditions from Bornu and Baghirmi to the territories of +the pagan Mosgu people with their numerous branches (_Margi, Mandara, +Makari, Logon, Gamergu, Keribina_) and the other aborigines (_Bede, +Ngisem, So, Kerrikerri, Babir_) on the northern slopes of the Congo-Chad +water-parting. As usual on such occasions, there is a great waste of +life, many perishing in defence of their homes or even through sheer +wantonness, besides those carried away captives. "A large number of +slaves had been caught this day," writes Barth, "and in the evening a +great many more were brought in; altogether they were said to have taken +one thousand, and there were certainly not less than five hundred. To +our utmost horror, not less than 170 full-grown men were mercilessly +slaughtered in cold blood, the greater part of them being allowed to +bleed to death, a leg having been severed from the body[191]." There was +probably just then a glut in the market. + +A curious result of these relations is that in the wooded districts some +of the natives have reverted to arboreal habits, taking refuge during +the raids in the branches of huge bombax-trees converted into temporary +strongholds. Round the vertical stem of these forest giants is erected a +breast-high look-out, while the higher horizontal branches, less exposed +to the fire of the enemy, support strongly-built huts and store-houses, +where the families of the fugitives take refuge with their effects, +including, as Nachtigal assures us[192], their domestic animals, such as +goats, dogs, and poultry. During the siege of the aerial fortress, which +is often successfully defended, long light ladders of withies are let +down at night, when no attack need be feared, and the supply of water +and provisions is thus renewed from _caches_ or hiding-places round +about. In 1872 Nachtigal accompanied a predatory excursion to the pagan +districts south of Baghirmi, when an attack was made on one of these +tree-fortresses. Such citadels can be stormed only at a heavy loss, and +as the Gaberi (Baghirmi) warriors had no tools capable of felling the +great bombax-tree, they were fain to rest satisfied with picking off a +poor wretch now and then, and barbarously mutilating the bodies as they +fell from the overhanging branches. + +Some of these aborigines disfigure their faces by the disk-like +lip-ornament, which is also fashionable in Nyassaland, and even amongst +the South American Botocudos. The type often differs greatly, and while +some of the widespread Mosgu tribes are of a dirty black hue, with +disagreeable expression, wide open nostrils, thick lips, high +cheek-bones, coarse bushy hair, and disproportionate knock-kneed legs, +other members of the same family astonished Barth "by the beauty and +symmetry of their forms, and by the regularity of their features, which +in some had nothing of what is called the Negro type. But I was still +more astonished at their complexion, which was very different in +different individuals, being in some of a glossy black, and in others of +a light copper, or rather rhubarb colour, the intermediate shades being +almost entirely wanting. I observed in one house a really beautiful +female who, with her son, about eight or nine years of age, formed a +most charming group, well worthy of the hand of an accomplished artist. +The boy's form did not yield in any respect to the beautiful symmetry of +the most celebrated Grecian statues. His hair, indeed, was very short +and curled, but not woolly. He, as well as his mother and the whole +family, were of a pale or yellowish-red complexion, like rhubarb[193]." + +There is no suggestion of albinism, and the explanation of such strange +contrasts must await further exploration in the whole of this borderland +of Negroes and Bantus about the divide between the Chad and the Congo +basins. The country has until lately been traversed only at rare +intervals by pioneers, interested more in political than in +anthropological matters. + +Of the settled and more or less cultured peoples in the Chad basin, the +most important are the _Kanembu_[194], who introduce a fresh element of +confusion in this region, being more allied in type and speech to the +Hamitic Tibus than to the Negro stock, or at least taking a transitional +position between the two; the _Kanuri_, the ruling people in Bornu, of +somewhat coarse Negroid appearance[195]; and the southern _Baghirmi_, +also decidedly Negroid, originally supposed to have come from the Upper +Shari and White Nile districts[196]. Their civilisation, such as it is, +has been developed exclusively under Moslem influences, but it has never +penetrated much below the surface. The people are everywhere extremely +rude, and for the most part unlettered, although the meagre and not +altogether trustworthy Kanem-Bornu records date from the time of Sef, +reputed founder of the monarchy about 800 A.D. Duku, second in descent +from Sef, is doubtfully referred to about 850 A.D. Hame, founder of a +new dynasty, flourished towards the end of the eleventh century +(1086-97), and Dunama, one of his successors, is said to have extended +his sway over a great part of the Sahara, including the whole of Fezzan +(1221-59). Under Omar (1394-98) a divorce took place between Kanem and +Bornu, and henceforth the latter country has remained the chief centre +of political power in the Chad basin. + +A long series of civil wars was closed by Ali (1472-1504), who founded +the present capital, Birni, and whose grandson, Muhammad, brought the +empire of Bornu to the highest pitch of its greatness (1526-45). Under +Ahmed (1793-1810) began the wars with the Fulahs, who, after bringing +the empire to the verge of ruin, were at last overthrown by the aid of +the Kanem people, and since 1819 Bornu has been ruled by the present +Kanemiyin dynasty, which though temporarily conquered by Rabah in 1893, +was restored under British administration in 1902[197]. + + +EASTERN SUDANESE. + +As some confusion prevails regarding the expression "Eastern Sudan," I +may here explain that it bears a very different meaning, according as it +is used in a political or an ethnical sense. Politically it is +practically synonymous with Egyptian Sudan, that is the whole region +from Darfur to the Red Sea which was ruled or misruled by the Khedivial +Government before the revolt of the Mahdi (1883-4), and was restored to +Egypt by the British occupation of Khartum in 1898. Ethnically Eastern +Sudan comprises all the lands east of the Chad basin, where the Negro or +Negroid populations are predominant, that is to say, Wadai, Darfur, and +Kordofan in the West, the Nile Valley from the frontier of Egypt proper +south to Albert Nyanza, both slopes of the Nile-Congo divide (the +western tributaries of the White Nile and the Welle-Makua affluent of +the Congo), lastly the Sobat Valley with some Negro enclaves east of the +White Nile, and even south of the equator (Kavirondo, Semliki Valley). + +Throughout this region the fusion of the aborigines with Hamites and +Arabs, Tuareg, or Tibu Moslem intruders, wherever they have penetrated, +has been far less complete than in Central and Western Sudan. Thus in +Wadai the dominant Maba people, whence the country is often called +Dar-Maba ("Mabaland"), are rather Negro than Negroid, with but a slight +strain of foreign blood. In the northern districts the _Zoghawa_, +_Gura'an_, _Baele_ and _Bulala_ Tibus keep quite aloof from the blacks, +as do elsewhere; the _Aramkas_, as the Arabs are collectively called in +Wadai. Yet the _Mahamid_ and some other Bedouin tribes have here been +settled for over 500 years, and it was through their assistance that the +Mabas acquired the political supremacy they have enjoyed since the +seventeenth century, when they reduced or expelled the _Tynjurs_[198], +the former ruling race, said to be Nubians originally from Dongola. It +was Abd-el-Kerim, founder of the new Moslem Maba state, who gave the +country its present name in honour of his grandfather, _Wadai_. His +successor Kharub I removed the seat of government to Wara, where Vogel +was murdered in 1856. Abeshr, the present capital, dates only from the +year 1850. Except for Nachtigal, who crossed the frontier in 1873, +nothing was known of the land or its people until the French occupation +at the end of the last century (1899). Since that date it has been +prominent as the scene of the attack on a French column and the death of +its leader, Colonel Moll, in 1910, and the tragic murder of Lieutenant +Boyd Alexander earlier in the same year[199]. + +_Nubas._ As in Wadai, the intruding and native populations have been +either imperfectly or not at all assimilated in Darfur and Kordofan, +where the Muhammadan Semites still boast of their pure Arab +descent[200], and form powerful confederacies. Chief among these are the +_Baggara_ (Baqqara, "cow-herds"), cattle-keepers and agriculturalists, +of whom some are as dark as the blackest negroes, though many are +fine-looking, with regular, well-shaped features. Their form of Arabic +is notoriously corrupt. Their rivals, the _Jaalan_ (Jalin, Jahalin), are +mostly riverain "Arabs," a learned tribe, containing many scribes, and +their language is said to be closer to classical Arabic than the form +current in Egypt. These are the principal slave-hunters of the Sudan, +and the famous Zobeir belonged to their tribe. The _Yemanieh_ are +largely traders, and trace their origin from South Arabia. The +_Kababish_ are the wealthiest camel-owning tribe, perhaps less +contaminated by negro blood than any other Arab tribe in the Sudan[201]. +The _Nuba_ and the _Nubians_ have been a source of much confusion, but +recent investigations in the field such as those of C. G. Seligman[202] +and H. A. MacMichael[203], and the publications of the Archaeological +Survey of Nubia conducted by G. A. Reisner, help to elucidate the +problem. We have first of all to get rid of the "Nuba-Fulah" family, +which was introduced by Fr. Mueller and accepted by some English writers, +but has absolutely no existence. The two languages, although both of the +agglutinative Sudanese type, are radically distinct in all their +structural, lexical, and phonetic elements, and the two peoples are +equally distinct. The Fulahs are of North African origin, although many +have in recent times been largely assimilated to their black Sudanese +subjects. The Nuba on the contrary belong originally to the Negro stock, +with hair of the common negro type, and are among the darkest skinned +tribes in the Sudan, their colour varying from a dark chocolate brown to +the darkest shade of brown black. + +But rightly to understand the question we have carefully to avoid +confusion between the Nubians of the Nile Valley and the Negro _Nubas_, +who gave their name to the Nuba Mountains, Kordofan, where most of the +aborigines (_Kargo, Kulfan, Kolaji, Tumali, Lafofa, Eliri, Talodi_) +still belong to this connection[203]. Kordofan is probably itself a Nuba +word meaning "Land of the Kordo" (_fan_ = Arab, _dar_, land, country). +There is a certain amount of anthropological evidence to connect the +Nuba with the _Fur_ and the _Kara_ of Darfur to the west[204]. But it is +a different anthropological type that is represented in the three groups +of _Matokki_ (_Kenus_) between the First Cataract and Wadi-el-Arab, the +_Mahai_ (_Marisi_) between Korosko and Wadi-Halfa, at the Second +Cataract, and the _Dongolawi_, of the province of Dongola between +Wadi-Halfa and Jebel Deja near Meroe. + +These three groups, all now Muhammadans, but formerly Christians, +constitute collectively the so-called "Nubians" of European writers, but +call themselves _Barabra_, Plural of _Berberi_, _i.e._ people of Berber, +although they do not at present extend so far up the Nile as that +town[205]. Possibly these are Strabo's "Noubai, who dwell on the left +bank of the Nile in Libya [Africa], a great nation etc.[206]"; and are +also to be identified with the _Nobatae_, who in Diocletian's time were +settled, some in the Kharga oasis, others in the Nile Valley about +Meroe, to guard the frontiers of the empire against the incursions of +the restless Blemmues. But after some time they appear to have entered +into peaceful relations with these Hamites, the present Bejas, even +making common cause with them against the Romans; but the confederacy +was crushed by Maximinus in 451, though perhaps not before crossings had +taken place between the Nobatae and the Caucasic Bejas. Then these Bejas +withdrew to their old homes, which they still occupy, between the Nile +and the Red Sea above Egypt, while the Nobatae, embracing Christianity, +as is said, in 545, established the powerful kingdom of Dongola which +lasted over 800 years, and was finally overthrown by the Arabs in the +fourteenth century, since which time the Nile Nubians have been +Muhammadans. + +There still remains the problem of language which, as shown by +Lepsius[207], differs but slightly from that now current amongst the +Kordofan Nubas. But this similarity only holds in the north, and is now +shown to be due to Berberine immigration into Kordofan[208]. Recent +investigations show that the Nuba and the Barabra, in spite of this +linguistic similarity which has misled certain authors[209], are not to +be regarded as belonging to the same race[210]. "The Nuba are a tall, +stoutly built muscular people, with a dark, almost black skin. They are +predominantly mesaticephalic, for although cephalic indices under 70 and +over 80 both occur, nearly 60 per cent. of the individuals measured are +mesaticephals, the remaining being dolichocephalic and brachycephalic in +about equal proportions." The hair is invariably woolly. The Barabra, on +the contrary, is of slight, or more commonly medium build, not +particularly muscular and in skin colour varies from a yellowish to a +chocolate brown. The hair is commonly curly or wavy and may be almost +straight, while the features are not uncommonly absolutely non-Negroid. +"Thus there can be no doubt that the two peoples are essentially +different in physical characters and the same holds good on the cultural +side" (p. 611). Barabra were identified by Lepsius with the Wawat, a +people frequently mentioned in Egyptian records, and recent excavations +by the members of the Archaeological Survey of Nubia show a close +connection with the predynastic Egyptians, a connection supported also +on physical grounds. It seems strange, therefore, to meet with repeated +reference on Egyptian monuments to Negroes in Nubia when, as proved by +excavations, the inhabitants were by no means Negroes or even frankly +Negroid. Seligman's solution of the difficulty is as follows (p. 619). +It seems that only one explanation is tenable, namely that for a period +subsequent to the Middle Kingdom the country in the neighbourhood of the +Second Cataract became essentially a Negro country and may have remained +in this condition for some little time. Then a movement in the opposite +direction set in; the Negroes, diminished by war, were in part driven +back by the great conquerors of the New Empire; those that were left +mixed with the Egyptian garrisons and traders and once more a hybrid +race arose which, however, preserved the language of its Negro +ancestors. Although Seligman regards the conclusion that this race gave +rise directly to the present-day inhabitants of Nubia as "premature," +and suggests further mixture with the Beja of the eastern deserts, +Elliot Smith recognises the essential similarity between the homogeneous +blend of Egyptian and Negro traits which characterise the Middle Nubian +people (contemporary with the Middle Empire, XII-XVII dynasties), a type +which "seems to have remained dominant in Nubia ever since then, for the +span of almost 4000 years[211]." + +Before the incursions of the Nubian-Arab traders and raiders, who began +to form settlements (_zeribas_, fenced stations) in the Upper Nile +regions above Khartum about the middle of the nineteenth century, most +of the Nile-Congo divide (White Nile tributaries and Welle-Makua basin) +belonged in the strictest sense to the Negro domain. Sudanese tribes, +and even great nations reckoned by millions, had been for ages in almost +undisturbed possession, not only of the main stream from the equatorial +lakes to and beyond the Sobat junction, but also of the Sobat Valley +itself, and of the numerous south-western head-waters of the White Nile +converging about Lake No above the Sobat junction. Nearly all the Nile +peoples--the _Shilluks_ and _Dinkas_ about the Sobat confluence, the +_Bari_ and _Nuers_ of the Bahr-el-Jebel, the _Bongos_ (_Dors_), _Rols_, +_Golos_, _Mittus_, _Madis_, _Makarakas_, _Abakas_, _Mundus_, and many +others about the western affluents, as well as the _Funj_ of Senaar--had +been brought under the Khedivial rule before the revolt of the Mahdi. + +The same fate had already overtaken or was threatening the formerly +powerful _Mombuttu_ (_Mangbattu_) and _Zandeh_[212] nations of the Welle +lands, as well as the _Krej_ and others about the low watersheds of the +Nile-Congo and Chad basins. Since then the Welle groups have been +subjected to the jurisdiction of the Congo Free State, while the +political destinies of the Nilotic tribes must henceforth be controlled +by the British masters of the Nile lands from the Great Lakes to the +Mediterranean. + +Although grouped as Negroes proper, very few of the Nilotic peoples +present the almost ideal type of the blacks, such as those of Upper +Guinea and the Atlantic coast of West Sudan. The complexion is in +general less black, the nose less broad at the base, the lips less +everted (Shilluks and one or two others excepted), the hair rather less +frizzly, the dolichocephaly and prognathism less marked. + +Apart from the more delicate shades of transition, due to diverse +interminglings with Hamites and Semites, two distinct types may be +plainly distinguished--one black, often very tall, with long thin legs, +and long-headed (_Shilluks, Dinkas, Bari, Nuers, Alur_), the other +reddish or ruddy brown, more thick-set, and short-headed (_Bongos_, +_Golos_, _Makarakas_, with the kindred _Zandehs_ of the Welle region). +No explanation has been offered of their brachycephaly, which is all the +more difficult to account for, inasmuch as it is characteristic neither +of the aboriginal Negro nor of the intruding Hamitic and Semitic +elements. Have we here an indication of the transition suspected by many +between the true long-headed Negro and the round-headed Negrillo, who is +also brownish, and formerly ranged as far north as the Nile +head-streams, as would appear from the early Egyptian records (Chap. +IV.)? Schweinfurth found that the Bongos were "hardly removed from the +lowest grade of brachycephaly[213]," and the same is largely true of the +Zandehs and their Makaraka cousins, as noticed by Junker: "The skull +also in many of these peoples approaches the round form, whereas the +typical Negro is assumed to be long-headed[214]." But so great is the +diversity of appearance throughout the whole of this region, including +even "a striking Semitic type," that this observer was driven to the +conclusion that "woolly hair, common to all, forms in fact the only sure +characteristic of the Negro[215]." + +Dinka is the name given to a congeries of independent tribes spread over +a vast area, stretching from 300 miles south of Khartum to within 100 +miles of Gondokoro, and reaching many miles to the west in the +Bahr-el-Ghazal Province. All these tribes according to C. G. +Seligman[216] call themselves _Jieng_ or _Jenge_, corrupted by the +Arabs into Dinka; but no Dinka nation has arisen, for the tribes have +never recognised a supreme chief, as do their neighbours, the Shilluk, +nor have they even been united under a military despot, as the Zulu were +united under Chaka. They differ in manners and customs and even in +physique and are often at war with one another. One of the most obvious +distinctions in habits is between the relatively powerful cattle-owning +Dinka and the small and comparatively poor tribes who have no cattle and +scarcely cultivate the ground, but live in the marshes in the +neighbourhood of the Sudd, and depend largely for their sustenance on +fishing and hippopotamus-hunting. Their villages, which are generally +dirty and evil-smelling, are built on ground which rises but little +above the reed-covered surface of the country. The Dinka community is +largely autonomous under leadership of a chief or headman (_bain_) who +is sometimes merely the local magician, but in one community in each +tribe he is the hereditary rain-maker whose wish is law. "Cattle form +the economic basis of Dinka society; ... they are the currency in which +bride-price and blood-fines are paid; and the desire to acquire a +neighbour's herds is the common cause of those inter-tribal raids which +constitute Dinka warfare." + +Some uniformity appears to prevail amongst the languages of the +Nile-Welle lands, and from the rather scanty materials collected by +Junker, Fr. Mueller was able to construct an "Equatorial Linguistic +Family," including the Mangbattu, Zandeh, Barmbo, Madi, Bangba, Krej, +Golo and others, on both sides of the water-parting. Leo Reinisch, +however, was not convinced, and in a letter addressed to the author +declared that "in the absence of sentences it is impossible to determine +the grammatical structure of Mangbattu and the other languages. At the +same time we may detect certain relations, not to the Nilotic, but the +Bantu tongues. It may therefore be inferred that Mangbattu and the +others have a tolerably close relationship to the Bantu, and may even be +remotely akin to it, judging from their tendency to prefix +formations[217]." Future research will show how far this conjecture is +justified. + +Although Islam has made considerable progress, throughout the greater +part of the Sudanese region, though not among the Nilotic tribes, the +bulk of the people are still practically pagan. Witchcraft continues to +flourish amongst the equatorial peoples, and important events are almost +everywhere attended by sanguinary rites. These are absent among the true +Nilotics. The Dinka are totemic, with ancestor-worship. The Shilluk have +a cult of divine kings. + +Cannibalism however, in some of its most repulsive forms, prevails +amongst the Zandehs, who barter in human fat as a universal staple of +trade, and amongst the Mangbattu, who cure for future use the bodies of +the slain in battle and "drive their prisoners before them, as butchers +drive sheep to the shambles, and these are only reserved to fall victims +on a later day to their horrible and sickly greediness[218]." + +In fact here we enter the true "cannibal zone," which, as I have +elsewhere shown, was in former ages diffused all over Central and South +Africa, or, it would be more correct to say, over the whole +continent[219], but has in recent times been mainly confined to "the +region stretching west and east from the Gulf of Guinea to the western +head-streams of the White Nile, and from below the equator northwards in +the direction of Adamawa, Dar-Banda and Dar-Fertit. Wherever explorers +have penetrated into this least-known region of the continent they have +found the practice fully established, not merely as a religious rite or +a privilege reserved for priests, but as a recognised social +institution[220]." + +Yet many of these cannibal peoples, especially the Mangbattus and +Zandehs, are skilled agriculturists, and cultivate some of the useful +industries, such as iron and copper smelting and casting, weaving, +pottery and wood-carving, with great success. The form and ornamental +designs of their utensils display real artistic taste, while the temper +of their iron implements is often superior to that of the imported +European hardware. Here again the observation has been made that the +tribes most addicted to cannibalism also excel in mental qualities and +physical energy. Nor are they strangers to the finer feelings of human +nature, and above all the surrounding peoples the Zandeh +anthropophagists are distinguished by their regard and devotion for +their women and children. + +In one respect all these peoples show a higher degree of intelligence +even than the Arabs and Hamites. "My later experiences," writes Junker, +"revealed the remarkable fact that certain negro peoples, such as the +Niam-Niams, the Mangbattus and the Bantus of Uganda and Unyoro, display +quite a surprising understanding of figured illustrations or pictures of +plastic objects, which is not as a rule exhibited by the Arabs and +Arabised Hamites of North-east Africa. Thus the Unyoro chief, Riongo, +placed photographs in their proper position, and was able to identify +the negro portraits as belonging to the Shuli, Lango, or other tribes, +of which he had a personal knowledge. This I have called a remarkable +fact, because it bespoke in the lower races a natural faculty for +observation, a power to recognise what for many Arabs or Egyptians of +high rank was a hopeless puzzle. An Egyptian pasha in Khartum could +never make out how a human face in profile showed only one eye and one +ear, and he took the portrait of a fashionable Parisian lady in +extremely low dress for that of the bearded sun-burnt American naval +officer who had shown him the photograph[221]." From this one is almost +tempted to infer that, amongst Moslem peoples, all sense of plastic, +figurative, or pictorial art has been deadened by the Koranic precept +forbidding the representation of the human form in any way. + +The Welle peoples show themselves true Negroes in the possession of +another and more precious quality, the sense of humour, although this is +probably a quality which comes late in the life of a race. Anyhow it is +a distinct Negro characteristic, which Junker was able to turn to good +account during the building of his famous _Lacrima_ station in Ndoruma's +country. "In all this I could again notice how like children the Negroes +are in many respects. Once at work they seemed animated by a sort of +childlike sense of honour. They delighted in praise, though even a frown +or a word of reproach could also excite their hilarity. Thus a loud +burst of laughter would, for instance, follow the contrast between a +piece of good and bad workmanship. Like children, they would point the +finger of scorn at each other[222]." + +One morning Ndoruma, hearing that they had again struck work, had the +great war-drum beaten, whereupon they rushed to arms and mustered in +great force from all quarters. But on finding that there was no enemy to +march against, and that they had only been summoned to resume operations +at the station, they enjoyed the joke hugely, and after a general +explosion of laughter at the way they had been taken in, laid aside +their weapons and returned cheerfully to work. Some English overseers +have already discovered that this characteristic may be utilised far +more effectively than the cruel kurbash. Ethnology has many such lessons +to teach. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[129] For a tentative classification of African tribes see T. A. Joyce, +Art. "Africa: Ethnology," _Ency. Brit._ 1910, p. 329. + +[130] Graphically summed up in the classical description of the Negress: + + "Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura, + Torta comam labroque tumens, et fusca colorem, + Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo, + Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta." + +[131] See H. R. Hall, papers and references in _Man_, 19, 1905. + +[132] T. A. Joyce, "Africa: Ethnology," _Ency. Brit._ 1910, I. 327. + +[133] J. P. Johnson, _The Prehistoric Period in South Africa_, 1912. + +[134] See H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913. + +[135] The skeleton found by Hans Reck at Oldoway in 1914 and claimed by +him to be of Pleistocene age exhibits all the typical Negro features, +including the filed teeth, characteristic of East African negroes at the +present day, but the geological evidence is imperfect. + +[136] H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_, 1897, p. 393. + +[137] Zandeh is the name usually given to the groups of tribes akin to +Nilotics, but probably with Fulah element, which includes the _Azandeh_ +or Niam Niam, _Makaraka_, _Mangbattu_ and many others. Cf. T. A. Joyce, +_loc. cit._ p. 329. + +[138] _British Central Africa_, p. 472. But see R. E. Dennett, _At the +Back of the Black Man's Mind_, 1906, and A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger +and its Tribes_, 1906, for African mentality. + +[139] For theories of Bantu migrations see H. H. Johnston, _George +Grenfell and the Congo_, 1908, and "A Survey of the Ethnography of +Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc._ XLIII. 1913, p. 391 ff. Also F. +Stuhlmann, _Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika_, 1910, p. 138, f. 147, +with map, Pl. 1. B. For the date see p. 92. + +[140] Even a tendency to polysynthesis occurs, as in Vei, and in Yoruba, +where the small-pox god _Shakpanna_ is made up of the three elements +_shan_ to plaster, _kpa_ to kill, and _enia_ a person = one who kills a +person by plastering him (with pustules). + +[141] The Nilotic languages are to a considerable extent tonic. + +[142] A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples_, etc., 1887, pp. 327-8. +Only one European, Herr R. Betz, long resident amongst the Dualas of the +Cameruns district, has yet succeeded in mastering the drum language; he +claims to understand nearly all that is drummed and is also able to drum +himself. (_Athenaeum_, May 7, 1898, p. 611.) + +[143] Cf. H. S. Harrison, _Handbook to the cases illustrating stages in +the evolution of the Domestic Arts_. Part II. Horniman Museum and +Library. Forest Hill, S.E. + +[144] E. T. Hamy, "Les Races Negres," in _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 257 +sq. + +[145] "Chaque fois que j'ai demande avec intention a un Mande, 'Es-tu +Peul, Mossi, Dafina?' il me repondait invariablement, '_Je suis Mande_.' +C'est pourquoi, dans le cours de ma relation, j'ai toujours designe ce +peuple par le nom de _Mande_, qui est son vrai nom." (L. G. Binger, _Du +Niger au Golfe de Guinee_, 1892, Vol. II. p. 373.) At p. 375 this +authority gives the following subdivisions of the Mande family, named +from their respective _tenne_ (idol, fetish, totem): + +1. _Bamba_, the crocodile: _Bammana_, not _Bambara_, which means kafir +or infidel, and is applied only to the non-Moslem Mande groups. + +2. _Mali_, the hippopotamus: _Mali'nke_, including the Kagoros and the +Tagwas. + +3. _Sama_, the elephant: _Sama'nke_. + +4. _Sa_, the snake: _Sa-mokho_. + +Of each there are several sub-groups, while the surrounding peoples call +them all collectively _Wakore_, _Wangara_, _Sakhersi_, and especially +_Diula_. Attention to this point will save the reader much confusion in +consulting Barth, Caillie, and other early books of travel. + +[146] _Travels_, Vol. IV. p. 579 sqq. + +[147] "La chaine des Montagnes de Kong n'a jamais existe que dans +l'imagination de quelques voyageurs mal renseignes," _Du Niger au Golfe +de Guinee_, 1892, I. p. 285. + +[148] Bertrand-Bocande, "Sur les Floups ou Feloups," in _Bul. Soc. de +Geogr_. 1849. + +[149] A full account of this literature will be found in the Rev. C. F. +Schlenker's valuable work, _A Collection of Temne Traditions, Fables and +Proverbs_, London, 1861. Here is given the curious explanation of the +tribal name, from _o-tem_, an old man, and _ne_, himself, because, as +they say, the Temne people will exist for ever. + +[150] There is also a sisterhood--the _bondo_--and the two societies +work so far in harmony that any person expelled from the one is also +excluded from the other. + +[151] Reclus, Keane's English ed., XII. p. 203. + +[152] "Da Njoe Testament, translated into the Negro-English Language by +the Missionaries of the Unitas Fratrum," Brit. and For. Bible Soc., +London, 1829. Here is a specimen quoted by Ellis from _The Artisan_ of +Sierra Leone, Aug. 4, 1886, "Those who live in ceiled houses love to +hear the pit-pat of the rain overhead; whilst those whose houses leak +are the subjects of restlessness and anxiety, not to mention the chances +of catching cold, _that is so frequent a source of leaky roofs_." + +[153] Right Rev. E. G. Ingham (Bishop of Sierra Leone), _Sierra Leone +after a Hundred Years_, London, 1894, p. 294. Cf. H. C. Lukach, _A +Bibliography of Sierra Leone_, 1911, and T. J. Alldridge, _A Transformed +Colony_, 1910. + +[154] This increase, however, appears to be due to a steady immigration +from the Southern States, but for which the Liberians proper would die +out, or become absorbed in the surrounding native populations. + +[155] H. H. Johnston, _Liberia_, 1906. + +[156] Possibly the English word "crew," but more probably an extension +of _Kraoh_, the name of a tribe near Settra-kru, to the whole group. + +[157] _Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years_, p. 280. + +[158] Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, 1899, pp. 54-5. + +[159] Since the establishment of British authority in Nigeria (1900 to +1907) much light has been thrown on ethnological problems. See among +other works C. Partridge, _The Cross River Natives_, 1905; A. G. +Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_, 1906; A. J. N. Tremearne, +_The Niger and the Western Sudan_, 1910, _The Tailed Head-Hunters of +Nigeria_, 1912; R. E. Dennett, _Nigerian Studies_, 1910; E. D. Morel, +_Nigeria, its People and its Problems_, 1911, besides the +_Anthropological Reports_ of N. W. Thomas, 1910, 1913, and papers by J. +Parkinson in _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVI. 1906, XXXVII. 1907. + +[160] The services rendered to African anthropology by this +distinguished officer call for the fullest recognition, all the more +that somewhat free and unacknowledged use has been made of the rich +materials brought together in his classical works on _The Tshi-speaking +Peoples_ (1887), _The Ewe-speaking Peoples_ (1890), and _The +Yoruba-speaking Peoples_ (1894). + +[161] N. W. Thomas classifies Yoruba, Edo, Ibo and Efik as four main +stocks in the Western Sudanic language group. "In the Edo and Ibo stocks +people only a few miles apart may not be able to communicate owing to +diversity of language" (p. 141). _Anthropological Report of the +Ibo-speaking Peoples of Nigeria_, Part 1. 1913. + +[162] _The Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 332 sq. + +[163] _Feitico_, whence also _feiticeira_, a witch, _feiticeria_, +sorcery, etc., all from _feitico_, artificial, handmade, from Lat. +_facio_ and _factitius_. + +[164] _Du Culte des Dieux Fetiches_, 1760. It is generally supposed that +the word was invented, or at least first introduced, by De Brosses; but +Ellis shows that this also is a mistake, as it had already been used by +Bosman in his _Description of Guinea_, London, 1705. + +[165] _The Tshi-speaking Peoples_, Ch. XII. p. 194 and _passim._ See +also R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, 1904. + +[166] That is, from a wax mould destroyed in the casting. After the +operation details were often filled in by chasing or executed in +_repousse_ work. + +[167] "Works of Art from Benin City," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ February, +1898, p. 362 sq. See H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin, its Customs_, etc., +1903. + +[168] A. Featherman, _Social History of Mankind_, The Nigritians, p. +281. See also Reclus, French ed., Vol. XII. p. 718: "Les cavaliers +portent encore la cuirasse comme au moyen age.... Les chevaux sont +recouverts de la meme maniere." In the mythical traditions of Buganda +also there is reference to the fierce Wakedi warriors clad in "iron +armour" (Ch. IV.). Cf. L. Frobenius, _The Voice of Africa_, II. 1913, +pl. p. 608. + +[169] _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee_, 1892, I. p. 377. + +[170] Early in the fourteenth century they were strong enough to carry +the war into the enemy's camp and make more than one successful +expedition against Timbuktu. At present the Mossi power is declining, +and their territory has been parcelled out between the British and +French Sudanese hinterlands. + +[171] Also _Sonrhay_, _gh_ and _rh_ being interchangeable throughout +North Africa; _Ghat_ and _Rhat_, _Ghadames_ and _Rhadames_, etc. In the +mouth of an Arab the sound is that of the guttural [Symbol], _ghain_, +which is pronounced by the Berbers and Negroes somewhat like the +Northumberland _burr_, hence usually transliterated by _rh_ in +non-Semitic words. + +[172] It should be noticed that these terms are throughout used as +strictly defined in _Eth._ Ch. I. + +[173] Barth's account of Wulu (IV. p. 299), "inhabited by Tawarek +slaves, who are _trilingues_, speaking Temashight as well as Songhay and +Fulfulde," is at present generally applicable, _mutatis mutandis_, to +most of the Songhai settlements. + +[174] As so much has been made of Barth's authority in this connection, +it may be well to quote his exact words: "It would seem as if they (the +Sonrhay) had received, in more ancient times, several institutions from +the Egyptians, with whom, I have no doubt, they maintained an +intercourse by means of the energetic inhabitants of Aujila from a +relatively ancient period" (IV. p. 426). Barth, therefore, does not +bring the people themselves, or their language, from Egypt, but only +some of their institutions, and that indirectly through the Aujila Oasis +in Cyrenaica, and it may be added that this intercourse with Aujila +appears to date only from about 1150 A.D. (IV. p. 585). + +[175] Hacquard et Dupuis, _Manuel de la langue Songay, parlee de +Tombouctou a Say, dans la boucle du Niger_, 1897, _passim._ + +[176] "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc._ +XLIII. 1913, p. 386. + +[177] Barth, IV. pp. 593-4. + +[178] The _Ischia_ of Leo Africanus, who tells us that in his time the +"linguaggio detto Sungai" was current even in the provinces of Walata +and Jinni (VI. ch. 2). This statement, however, like others made by Leo +at second hand, must be received with caution. In these districts +Songhai may have been spoken by the officials and some of the upper +classes, but scarcely by the people generally, who were of Mandingan +speech. + +[179] Barth, IV. p. 414. + +[180] _Ib._ p. 415. + +[181] Carried captive into Marakesh, although later restored to his +beloved Timbuktu to end his days in perpetuating the past glories of the +Songhai nation; the one Negroid man of letters, whose name holds a +worthy place beside those of Leo Africanus, Ibn Khaldun, El Tunsi, and +other Hamitic writers. + +[182] "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes + Intulit agresti Latio." Hor. _Epist._ II. 1, 156-7. + +The epithet _agrestis_ is peculiarly applicable to the rude Fulah +shepherds, who were almost barbarians compared with the settled, +industrious, and even cultured Hausa populations, and whose oppressive +rule has at last been relaxed by the intervention of England in the +Niger-Benue lands. + +[183] "One of their towns, Kano, has probably the largest market-place +in the world, with a daily attendance of from 25,000 to 30,000 people. +This same town possesses, what in central Africa is still more +surprising, some thirty or forty schools, in which the children are +taught to read and write" (Rev. C. H. Robinson, _Specimens of Hausa +Literature_, University Press, Cambridge, 1896, p. x). + +[184] See C. H. Robinson, _Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through +the Central Soudan_, 1896; _Specimens of Hausa Literature_, 1896; _Hausa +Grammar_, 1897; _Hausa Dictionary_, 1899. Authorities are undecided +whether to class Hausa with the Semitic or the Hamitic family, or in an +independent group by itself, and it must be admitted that some of its +features are extremely puzzling. While Sudanese Negro in phonology and +perhaps in most of its word roots, it is Hamitic in its grammatical +features and pronouns. But the Hamitic element is thought by experts to +be as much Kushite, or even Koptic, as Libyan. "On the whole, it seems +probable," says H. H. Johnston, "that the Hausa speech was shaped by a +double influence: from Egypt, and Hamiticized Nubia, as well as by +Libyan immigrants from across the Sahara." "A Survey of the Ethnography +of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc._ XLIII. 1913, p. 385. Cf. also +Julius Lippert, "Ueber die Stellung der Hausasprache," _Mitteilungen des +Seminaers fuer Orientalische Sprachen_, 1906. It is noteworthy that Hausa +is the only language in tropical Africa which has been reduced to +writing by the natives themselves. + +[185] _Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger_, by Lt Seymour +Vandeleur, with an Introduction by Sir George Goldie, 1898. "In camp," +writes Lt Vandeleur, "their conduct was exemplary, while pillaging and +ill-treatment of the natives were unknown. As to their fighting +qualities, it is enough to say that, little over 500 strong (on the Bida +expedition of 1897), they withstood for two days 25,000 or 30,000 of the +enemy; that, former slaves of the Fulahs, they defeated their dreaded +masters," etc. + +[186] The Kano Chronicle, translated by H. R. Palmer, _Journ. Roy. +Anthr. Inst._ XXXVIII. 1908, gives a list of Hausa kings (Sarkis) from +999 A.D. + +[187] For references to recent literature see note on p. 58. Also R. S. +Rattray, _Hausa Folk-lore_, 1913; A. J. N. Tremearne, _Hausa +Superstitions and Customs_, 1913, and _Hausa Folk-Tales_, 1914. + +[188] By a popular etymology these are _Ka-Nuri_, "People of Light." +But, as they are somewhat lukewarm Muhammadans, the zealous Fulahs say +it should be _Ka-Nari_, "People of Fire," _i.e._ foredoomed to Gehenna! + +[189] E. Gentil, _La Chute de l'Empire de Rabah_, 1902. + +[190] The Buduma, who derive their legendary origin from the Fulahs whom +they resemble in physique, worship the _Karraka_ tree (a kind of +acacia). P. A. Talbot, "The Buduma of Lake Chad," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLI. 1911. The anthropology of the region has lately been dealt +with in _Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho_ (1906-9), +_Republique Francaise, Ministere des Colonies_, Vol. III. 1914; R. +Gaillard and L. Poutrin, _Etude anthropologique des Populations des +Regions du Tchad et du Kanem_, 1914. + +[191] III. p. 194. + +[192] _Sahara and Sudan_, II. p. 628. + +[193] II. pp. 382-3. + +[194] That is "Kanem-men," the postfix _bu_, _be_, as in _Ti-bu_, +_Ful-be_, answering to the Bantu prefix _ba_, _wa_, as in _Ba-Suto_, +_Wa-Swahili_, etc. Here may possibly be discovered a link between the +Sudanese, Teda-Daza, and Bantu linguistic groups. The transposition of +the agglutinated particles would present no difficulty; cf. Umbrian and +Latin (_Eth._ p. 214). The Kanembu are described by Tilho, who explored +the Chad basin, 1906-9. His reports were published in 1914. _Republique +Francaise Ministere des Colonies, Documents Scientifiques de la Mission +Tilho_ (1906-9), Vol. III. 1914. + +[195] Barth draws a vivid picture of the contrasts, physical and mental, +between the Kanuri and the Hausa peoples; "Here we took leave of Hausa +with its fine and beautiful country, and its cheerful and industrious +population. It is remarkable what a difference there is between the +character of the ba-Haushe and the Kanuri--the former lively, spirited, +and cheerful, the latter melancholic, dejected, and brutal; and the same +difference is visible in their physiognomies--the former having in +general very pleasant and regular features, and more graceful forms, +while the Kanuri, with his broad face, his wide nostrils and his large +bones, makes a far less agreeable impression, especially the women, who +are very plain and certainly among the ugliest in all Negroland" (II. +pp. 163-4). + +[196] See Nachtigal, II. p. 690. + +[197] For recent literature see Lady Lugard's _A Tropical Dependency_, +1905, and the references, note 3, p. 58. + +[198] These are the same people as the _Tunjurs_ (_Tunzers_) of Darfur, +regarding whose ethnical position so much doubt still prevails. Strange +to say, they themselves claim to be Arabs, and the claim is allowed by +their neighbours, although they are not Muhammadans. Lejean thinks they +are Tibus from the north-west, while Nachtigal, who met some as far west +as Kanem, concluded from their appearance and speech that they were +really Arabs settled for hundreds of years in the country (_op. cit._ +II. p. 256). + +[199] A. H. Keane, "Wadai," _Travel and Exploration_, July, 1910; and H. +H. Johnston, on Lieut. Boyd Alexander, _Geog. Journ._ same date. + +[200] H. A. MacMichael has investigated the value of these racial claims +in the case of the Kababish and indicates the probable admixture of +Negro, Mediterranean, Hamite and other strains in the Sudanese Arabs. He +says, "Among the more settled tribes any important sheikh or faki can +produce a table of his ancestors (_i.e._ a _nisba_) in support of his +asseverations.... I asked a village sheikh if he could show me his +pedigree, as I did not know from which of the exalted sources his +particular tribe claimed descent. He replied that he did not know yet, +but that his village had subscribed 60 piastres the month before to hire +a faki to compose a _nisba_ for them, and that he would show me the +result when it was finished." "The Kababish: Some Remarks on the +Ethnology of a Sudan Arab Tribe," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, +p. 216. + +[201] See the Kababish types, Pl. XXXVII in C. G. Seligman's "Some +Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913, but cf. also p. 626 and n. 2. + +[202] "The Physical Characters of the Nuba of Kordofan," _Journ. Roy. +Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc., +_tom. cit._ XLIII. 1913. + +[203] See H. A. MacMichael, _The Tribes of Northern and Central +Kordofan_, 1912. + +[204] Cf. A. W. Tucker and C. S. Myers, "A Contribution to the +Anthropology of the Sudan," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, p. 149. + +[205] This term, however, has by some authorities been identified with +the _Barabara_, one of the 113 tribes recorded in the inscription on a +gateway of Thutmes, by whom they were reduced about 1700 B.C. In a later +inscription of Rameses II at Karnak (1400 B.C.) occurs the form +_Beraberata_, name of a southern people conquered by him. Hence Brugsch +(_Reisebericht aus AEgypten_, pp. 127 and 155) is inclined to regard the +modern _Barabra_ as a true ethnical name confused in classical times +with the Greek and Roman _Barbarus_, but revived in its proper sense +since the Moslem conquest. See also the editorial note on the term +_Berber_, in the new English ed. of Leo Africanus, Vol. 1. p. 199. + +[206] [Greek:'Ex aristeron de ruseos tou Neilou Noubai katoikousin en te +Libue, mega ethnos], etc. (Book XVII. p. 1117, Oxford ed. 1807). Sayce, +therefore, is quite wrong in stating that Strabo knew only of +"Ethiopians," and not Nubians, "as dwelling northward along the banks of +the Nile as far as Elephantine" (_Academy_, April 14, 1894). + +[207] _Nubische Grammatik_, 1881, _passim._ + +[208] B. Z. Seligman, "Note on the Languages of the Nubas of S. +Kordofan," _Zeitschr. f. Kol.-spr._ I. 1910-11; C. G. Seligman, "Some +Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc., _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. +1913, p. 621 ff. + +[209] See A. H. Keane, _Man, Past and Present_, 1900, p. 74. + +[210] C. G. Seligman, "The Physical Characters of the Nuba of Kordofan," +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, p. 512, and "Some Aspects of the +Hamitic Problem," etc., _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913, +_passim_. + +[211] _Archaeological Survey of India_, Bull. III. p. 25. + +[212] See note 1, p. 44. + +[213] _Op. cit._ I. p. 263. + +[214] _Travels in Africa_, Keane's English ed., Vol. III. p. 247. + +[215] _Ibid._ p. 246. + +[216] C. G. Seligman, Art. "Dinka," _Encyclopaedia of Religion and +Ethics._ See also the same author's "Cult of Nyakangano the Divine Kings +of the Shilluk," _Fourth Report Wellcome Research Lab. Khartoum_, Vol. +B, 1911, p. 216; S. L. Cummins, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIV. 1904, and +H. O'Sullivan, "Dinka Laws and Customs," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. +1910. Measurements of Dinka, Shilluk etc. are given by A. W. Tucker and +C. S. Myers, "A Contribution to the Anthropology of the Sudan," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910. G. A. S. Northcote, "The Nilotic +Kavirondo," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVI. 1907, describes an allied +people, the _Jaluo_. + +[217] _Travels in Africa_, Keane's Eng. ed., III. p. 279. Thus the Bantu +_Ba_, _Wa_, _Ama_, etc., correspond to the _A_ of the Welle lands, as in +_A-Zandeh_, _A-Barmbo_, _A-Madi_, _A-Bangba_, _i.e._ Zandeh people, +Barmbo people, etc. Cf. also Kanem_bu_, Ti_bu_, Ful_be_, etc., where the +personal particle (_bu, be_) is postfixed. It would almost seem as if we +had here a transition between the northern Sudanese and the southern +Bantu groups in the very region where such transitions might be looked +for. + +[218] Schweinfurth, _op. cit._ II. p. 93. + +[219] G. Elliot Smith denies that cannibalism occurred in Ancient Egypt, +_The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, p. 48. + +[220] _Africa_, 1895, Vol. II. p. 58. In a carefully prepared monograph +on "Endocannibalismus," Vienna, 1896, Dr Rudolf S. Steinmetz brings +together a great body of evidence tending to show "dass eine hohe +Wahrscheinlichkeit dafuer spricht den Endocannibalismus (indigenous +anthropophagy) als staendige Sitte der Urmenschen, sowie der niedrigen +Wilden anzunehmen" (pp. 59, 60). It is surprising to learn from the +ill-starred Bottego-Grixoni expedition of 1892-3 that anthropophagy is +still rife even in Gallaland, and amongst the white ("floridi") Cormoso +Gallas. Like the Fans, these prefer the meat "high," and it would appear +that all the dead are eaten. Hence in their country Bottego found no +graves, and one of his native guides explained that "questa gente +seppellisce i suoi cari nel ventre, invece che nella terra," _i.e._ +these people bury their dear ones in their stomach instead of in the +ground. Vittorio Bottego, _Viaggi di Scoperta_, etc. Rome, 1895. + +[221] I. p. 245. + +[222] II. p. 140. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. BANTUS--NEGRILLOES--BUSHMEN--HOTTENTOTS + + The Sudanese-Bantu Divide--Frontier Tribes--_The Bonjo Cannibals_-- + _The Baya Nation_--A "Red People"--The North-East Door to + Bantuland--Semitic Elements of the Bantu Amalgam--Malay Elements + in Madagascar only--Hamitic Element everywhere--_The Ba-Hima_-- + Pastoral and Agricultural Clans--The Bantus mainly a Negro-Hamitic + Cross--Date of Bantu Migration--The _Lacustrians_--Their + Traditions--The Kintu Legend--_The Ba-Ganda_, Past and Present-- + Political and Social Institutions--Totemic System--Bantu Peoples + between Lake Victoria and the Coast--_The Wa-Giryama_--Primitive + Ancestry-Worship--Mulungu--_The Wa-Swahili_--The Zang Empire--_The + Zulu-Xosas_--Former and Present Domain--Patriarchal Institutions-- + Genealogies--Physical Type--Social Organisation--"Common Law"-- + _Ma-Shonas_ and _Ma-Kalakas_--The mythical Monomotapa Empire--The + Zimbabwe Ruins--_The Be-Chuanas_--_The Ba-Rotse_ Empire--_The + Ma-Kololo_ Episode--Spread of Christianity amongst the Southern + Bantus--King Khama--_The Ova-Herero_--_Cattle and Hill Damaras_-- + _The Kongo People_--Old Kongo Empire--The Kongo Language--The + Kongo Aborigines--Perverted Christian Doctrines--_The Kabindas_ and + "_Black Jews_"--_The Ba-Shilange_ Bhang-smokers--_The Ba-Lolo_ "Men + of Iron"--The West Equatorial Bantus--_Ba-Kalai_--_The Cannibal + Fans_--Migrations, Type, Origin--_The Camerun Bantus_-- + Bantu-Sudanese Borderland--Early Bantu Migrations--Eastern + Ancestry and Western Nature-worshippers--Conclusion--_Vaalpens_-- + _Strandloopers_--_Negrilloes_--Negrilloes at the Courts of the + Pharaohs--Negrilloes and Pygmy Folklore--_The Dume_ and _Doko_ + reputed Dwarfs--_The Wandorobbo_ Hunters--_The Wochua_ Mimics-- + _The Bushmen and Hottentots_--Former and Present Range--_The + Wa-Sandawi_--Hottentot Geographical Names in Bantuland--Hottentots + disappearing--Bushman Folklore Literature--Bushman-Hottentot + Language and Clicks--Bushman Mental Characters--Bushman Race-Names. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# Bantu: _S. Africa from the Sudanese frontier to the +Cape_; Negrillo: _West Equatorial and Congo forest zones_; Bush.-Hot.: +_Namaqualands_; _Kalahari_; _Lake Ngami and Orange basins_. + +#Hair.# Bantu: _same as Sudanese, but often rather longer_; Negrillo: +_short, frizzly or crisp, rusty brown_; Bush.-Hot.: _much the same as +Sudanese, but tufty, simulating bald partings_. #Colour.# Bantu: _all +shades of dark brown, sometimes almost black_; Negrillo _and_ +Bush.-Hot.: _yellowish brown_. #Skull.# Bantu: _generally dolicho, but +variable_; Negrillo: _almost uniformly mesati_; Bush.-Hot.: _dolicho_. +#Jaws.# Bantu: _moderately prognathous and even orthognathous_; Negrillo +_and_ Bush.-Hot.: _highly prognathous_. #Cheek-bones.# Bantu: +_moderately or not at all prominent_; Negrillo _and_ Bush.-Hot.: _very +prominent, often extremely so, forming a triangular face with apex at +chin_. #Nose.# Bantu: _variable, ranging from platyrrhine to +leptorrhine_; Negrillo _and_ Bush.-Hot.: _short, broad at base, +depressed at root, always platyrrhine_. #Eyes.# Bantu: _generally large, +black, and prominent, but also of regular Hamitic type_; Negrillo _and_ +Bush.-Hot.: _rather small, deep brown and black_. #Stature.# Bantu: +tall, from 1.72 m. to 1.82 m. (5 ft. 8 in. to 6 ft.); Negrillo: _always +much under 1.52 m. (5 ft.), mean about 1.22 m. (4 ft.)_; Bushman: +_short, with rather wide range, from 1.42 m. to 1.57 m. (4 ft. 8 in. to +5 ft. 2 in.)_; Hot.: _undersized, mean 1.65 m. (5 ft. 5 in.)_. + +#Temperament.# Bantu: _mainly like the Negroid Sudanese, far more +intelligent than the true Negro, equally cruel, but less fitful and more +trustworthy_; Negrillo: _bright, active and quick-witted, but vindictive +and treacherous, apparently not cruel to each other, but rather gentle +and kindly_; Bushman: _in all these respects very like the Negrillo, but +more intelligent_; Hot.: _rather dull and sluggish, but the full-blood +(Nama) much less so than the half-caste (Griqua) tribes_. + +#Speech.# Bantu: _as absolutely uniform as the physical type is +variable, one stock language only, of the agglutinating order, with both +class prefixes, alliteration and postfixes_[223]; Negrillo: _unknown_; +Hot.: _agglutinating with postfixes only, with grammatical gender and +other remarkable features_; _of Hamitic origin_. + +#Religion.# Bantu: _ancestor-worship mainly in the east, spirit-worship +mainly in the west, intermingling in the centre, with witchcraft and +gross superstitions everywhere_; Negrillo: _little known_; Bush.-Hot.: +_animism, nature-worship, and reverence for ancestors_; _among +Hottentots belief in supreme powers of good and evil_. + +#Culture.# Bantu: _much lower than the Negroid Sudanese, but higher than +the true Negro_; _principally cattle rearers, practising simple +agriculture_; Negrillo and Bush.: _lowest grade, hunters_; Hot.: +_nomadic herdsmen_. + + +Main Divisions. + +#Bantus#[224]: _Bonjo_; _Baya_; _Ba-Ganda_; _Ba-Nyoro_; _Wa-Pokomo_; +_Wa-Giryama_; _Wa-Swahili_; _Zulu-Xosa_; _Ma-Shona_; _Be-Chuana_; +_Ova-Herero_; _Eshi-Kongo_; _Ba-Shilange_; _Ba-Lolo_; _Ma-Nyema_; +_Ba-Kalai_; _Fan_; _Mpongwe_; _Dwala_; _Ba-Tanga_. + +#Negrilloes#: _Akka_; _Wochua_; _Dume(?)_; _Wandorobbo(?)_; _Doko(?)_; +_Obongo_; _Wambutte (Ba-Mbute)_; _Ba-Twa_. + +#Bushmen#: _Family groups_; _no known tribal names_. + +#Hottentots#: _Wa-Sandawi (?)_; _Namaqua_; _Griqua_; _Gonaqua_; +_Koraqua_; _Hill Damaras_. + + * * * * * + +In ethnology the only intelligible definition of a Bantu is a full-blood +or a half-blood Negro of Bantu speech[225]; and from the physical +standpoint no very hard and fast line can be drawn between the northern +Sudanese and southern Bantu groups, considered as two ethnical units. + +Thanks to recent political developments in the interior, the linguistic +divide may now be traced with some accuracy right across the continent. +In the extreme west, Sir H. H. Johnston has shown that it coincides with +the lower course of the Rio del Rey, while farther east the French +expedition of 1891 under M. Dybowski found that it ran at about the same +parallel (5 deg. N.) along the elevated plateau which here forms the +water-parting between the Congo and the Chad basin. From this point the +line takes a south-easterly trend along the southern borders of the +Zandeh and Mangbattu territories to the Semliki Valley between Lakes +Albert Edward and Albert Nyanza, near the equator. Thence it pursues a +somewhat irregular course, first north by the east side of the Albert +Nyanza to the mouth of the Somerset Nile, then up that river to Mruli +and round the east side of Usoga and the Victoria Nyanza to Kavirondo +Bay, where it turns nearly east to the sources of the Tana, and down +that river to its mouth in the Indian Ocean. + +At some points the line traverses debatable territory, as in the Semliki +Valley, where there are Sudanese and Negrillo overlappings, and again +beyond Victoria Nyanza, where the frontiers are broken by the Hamitic +Masai nomads and their Wandorobbo allies. But, speaking generally, +everything south of the line here traced is Bantu, everything north of +it Sudanese Negro in the western and central regions, and Hamitic in the +eastern section between Victoria Nyanza and the Indian Ocean. + +In some districts the demarcation is not quite distinct, as in the Tana +basin, where some of the Galla and Somali Hamites from the north have +encroached on the territory of the Wa-Pokomo Bantus on the south side of +the river. But on the central plateau M. Dybowski passed abruptly from +the territory of the Bonjos, northernmost of the Bantu tribes, to that +of the Sudanese Bandziri, a branch of the widespread Zandeh people. In +this region, about the crest of the Congo-Chad water-parting, the +contrasts appear to be all in favour of the Sudanese and against the +Bantus, probably because here the former are Negroids, the latter +full-blood Negroes. Thus Dybowski[226] found the Bonjos to be a +distinctly Negro tribe with pronounced prognathism, and altogether a +rude, savage people, trading chiefly in slaves, who are fattened for the +meat market, and when in good condition will fetch about twelve +shillings. On the other hand the Bandziri, despite their Niam-Niam +connection, are not cannibals, but a peaceful, agricultural people, +friendly to travellers, and of a coppery-brown complexion, with regular +features, hence perhaps akin to the light-coloured people met by Barth +in the Mosgu country. + +Possibly the Bonjos may be a degraded branch of the _Bayas_ or +_Nderes_, a large nation, with many subdivisions widely diffused +throughout the Sangha basin, where they occupy the whole space between +the Kadei and the Mambere affluents of the main stream (3 deg. to 7 deg. 30' N.; +14 deg. to 17 deg. E.). They are described by M. F. J. Clozel[227] as of tall +stature, muscular, well-proportioned, with flat nose, slightly tumid +lips, and of black colour, but with a dash of copper-red in the upper +classes. Although cannibals, like the Bonjos, they are in other respects +an intelligent, friendly people, who, under the influence of the +Muhammadan Fulahs, have developed a complete political administration, +with a Royal Court, a Chancellor, Speaker, Interpreter, and other +officials, bearing sonorous titles taken chiefly from the Hausa +language. Their own Bantu tongue is widespread and spoken with slight +dialectic differences as far as the Nana affluents. + +M. Clozel, who regards them as mentally and morally superior to most of +the Middle and Lower Congo tribes, tells us that the Bayas, that is, the +"Red People," came at an unknown period from the east, "yielding to that +great movement of migration by which the African populations are +continually impelled westwards." The Yangere section were still on the +move some twelve years ago, but the general migration has since been +arrested by the Fulahs of Adamawa. Human flesh is now interdicted to the +women; they have domesticated the sheep, goat, and dog, and believe in a +supreme being called _So_, whose powers are manifested in the dense +woodlands, while minor deities preside over the village and the hut, +that is, the whole community and each separate family group. Thus both +their religious and political systems present a certain completeness, +which recalls those prevalent amongst the semi-civilised peoples of the +equatorial lake region, and is evidently due to the same cause--long +contact or association with a race of higher culture and intelligence. + +In order to understand all these relations, as well as the general +constitution of the Bantu populations, we have to consider that the +already-described Black Zone, running from the Atlantic seaboard +eastwards, has for countless generations been almost everywhere +arrested north of the equator by the White Nile. Probably since the +close of the Old Stone Age the whole of the region between the main +stream and the Red Sea, and from the equator north to the Mediterranean, +has formed an integral part of the Hamitic domain, encroached upon in +prehistoric times by Semites and others in Egypt and Abyssinia, and in +historic times chiefly by Semites (Arabs) in Egypt, Upper Nubia, Senaar, +and Somaliland. Between this region and Africa south of the equator +there are no serious physical obstructions of any kind, whereas farther +west the Hamitic Saharan nomads were everywhere barred access to the +south by the broad, thickly-peopled plateaux of the Sudanese Black Zone. +All encroachments on this side necessarily resulted in absorption in the +multitudinous Negro populations of Central Sudan, with the modifications +of the physical and mental characters which are now presented by the +Kanuri, Hausas, Songhai and other Negroid nations of that region, and +are at present actually in progress amongst the conquering Fulah Hamites +scattered in small dominant groups over a great part of Sudan from +Senegambia to Wadai. + +It follows that the leavening element, by which the southern Negro +populations have been diversely modified throughout the Bantu lands, +could have been drawn only from the Hamitic and Semitic peoples of the +north-east. But in this connection the Semites themselves must be +considered as almost _une quantite negligeable_, partly because of their +relatively later arrival from Asia, and partly because, as they arrived, +they became largely assimilated to the indigenous Hamitic inhabitants of +Egypt, Abyssinia, and Somaliland. Belief in the presence of a Semitic +people in the interior of S.E. Africa in early historic times was +supported by the groups of ruins (especially those of Zimbabwe), found +mainly in Southern Rhodesia, described in J. T. Bent's _Ruined Cities of +Mashonaland_. Exploration in 1905 dispelled the romance hitherto +connected with the "temples" and produced evidence to show that they +were not earlier in date than the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries and +were of native construction[228]. They probably served as distributing +centres for the gold traffic carried on with the Semitic traders of the +coast. For certainly in Muhammadan times Semites from Arabia formed +permanent settlements along the eastern seaboard as far south as Sofala, +and these intermingled more freely with the converted coast peoples +(_Wa-Swahili_, from _sahel_ = "coast"), but not with the _Kafirs_, or +"Unbelievers," farther south and in the interior. In our own days these +Swahili half-breeds, with a limited number of full-blood Arabs[229], +have penetrated beyond the Great Lakes to the Upper and Middle Congo +basin, but rather as slave-hunters and destroyers than as peaceful +settlers, and contracting few alliances, except perhaps amongst the +Wa-Yao and Ma-Gwangara tribes of Mozambique, and the cannibal Ma-Nyemas +farther inland. + +To this extent Semitism may be recognised as a factor in the constituent +elements of the Bantu populations. Malays have also been mentioned, and +some ethnologists have even brought the Fulahs of Western Sudan all the +way from Malaysia. Certainly if they reached and formed settlements in +Madagascar, there is no intrinsic reason why they should not have done +the same on the mainland. But I have failed to find any evidence of the +fact, and if they ever at any time established themselves on the east +coast they have long disappeared, without leaving any clear trace of +their presence either in the physical appearance, speech, usages or +industries of the aborigines, such as are everywhere conspicuous in +Madagascar. The small canoes with two booms and double outriggers which +occur at least from Mombasa to Mozambique are of Indonesian origin, as +are the fish traps that occur at Mombasa. + +There remain the north-eastern Hamites, and especially the Galla branch, +as the essential extraneous factor in this obscure Bantu problem. To the +stream of migration described by M. Clozel as setting east and west, +corresponds another and an older stream, which ages ago took a southerly +direction along the eastern seaboard to the extremity of the continent, +where are now settled the Zulu-Xosa nations, almost more Hamites than +Negroes. + +The impulse to two such divergent movements could have come only from +the north-east, where we still find the same tendencies in actual +operation. During his exploration of the east equatorial lands, Capt. +Speke had already observed that the rulers of the Bantu nations about +the Great Lakes (Karagwe, Ba-Ganda, Ba-Nyoro, etc.) all belonged to the +same race, known by the name of _Ba-Hima_, that is, "Northmen," a +pastoral people of fine appearance, who were evidently of Galla stock, +and had come originally from Gallaland. Since then Schuver found that +the Negroes of the Afilo country are governed by a Galla +aristocracy[230], and we now know that several Ba-hima communities +bearing different names live interspersed amongst the mixed Bantu +nations of the lacustrian plateaux as far south as Lake Tanganyika and +Unyamweziland[231]. Here the Wa-Tusi, Wa-Hha, and Wa-Ruanda are or were +all of the same Hamitic type, and M. Lionel Decle "was very much struck +by the extraordinary difference that is to be found between them and +their Bantu neighbours[232]." Then this observer adds: "Pure types are +not common, and are only to be found amongst the aristocracy, if I may +use such an expression for Africans. The mass of the people have lost +their original type through intermixture with neighbouring tribes." + +J. Roscoe[233] thus describes the inhabitants of Ankole. "The pastoral +people are commonly called Bahima, though they prefer to be called +Banyankole; they are a tall fine race though physically not very strong. +Many of them are over six feet in height, their young king being six +feet six inches and broad in proportion to his height.... It is not only +the men who are so tall, the women also being above the usual stature of +their sex among other tribes, though they do injustice to their height +by a fashionable stoop which makes them appear much shorter than they +really are. The features of these pastoral people are good: they have +straight noses with a bridge, thin lips, finely chiselled faces, heads +well set on fairly developed frames, and a good carriage; there is in +fact nothing but their colour and their short woolly hair to make you +think of them as negroids." + +The contrast and the relationship between the pastoral conquerors and +the agricultural tribes is clearly seen among the Ba-Nyoro. "The +pastoral people are a tall, well-built race of men and women with finely +cut features, many of them over six feet in height. The men are athletic +with little spare flesh, but the women are frequently very fat and +corpulent: indeed their ideal of beauty is obesity, and their milk diet +together with their careful avoidance of exercise tends to increase +their size. The agricultural clans, on the other hand, are short, +ill-favoured looking men and women with broad noses of the negro type, +lean and unkempt. Both classes are dark, varying in shade from a light +brown to deep black, with short woolly hair. The pastoral people +refrain, as far as possible, from all manual labour and expect the +agricultural clans to do their menial work for them, such as building +their houses, carrying firewood and water, and supplying them with grain +and beer for their households." "Careful observation and enquiry lead to +the opinion that the agricultural clans were the original inhabitants +and that they were conquered by the pastoral people who have reduced +them to their present servile condition[234]." + +From these indications and many others that might easily be adduced, it +may be concluded with some confidence that the great mass of the Bantu +populations are essentially Negroes, leavened in diverse proportions, +for the most part by conquering Galla or Hamitic elements percolating +for thousands of generations from the north-eastern section of the +Hamitic domain into the heart of Bantuland. + +The date of the Bantu migrations is much disputed. "As far as linguistic +evidence goes," says H. H. Johnston[235], "the ancestors of the Bantu +dwelt in some region like the Bahr-al-Ghazal, not far from the Mountain +Nile on the east, from Kordofan on the north, or the Benue and Chad +basins on the west. Their first great movement of expansion seems to +have been eastward, and to have established them (possibly with a +guiding aristocracy of Hamitic origin) in the region between Mount +Elgon, the Northern Victoria Nyanza, Tanganyika, and the Congo Forest. +At some such period as about 300 B.C. their far-reaching invasion of +Central and South Africa seems to have begun." The date is fixed by the +date of the introduction of the fowl from Nile-land, since the root word +for fowl is the same almost throughout Bantu Africa, "obviously related +to the Persian words for fowl, yet quite unrelated to the Semitic terms, +or to those used by the Kushites of Eastern Africa." F. Stuhlmann, on +the contrary, places the migrations practically in geological times. +After bringing the Sudan Negroes from South Asia at the end of the +Tertiary or beginning of the Pleistocene (_Pluvialperiod_), and the +Proto-Hamites from a region probably somewhat further to the north and +west of the former, he continues: From the mingling of the Negroes and +the Proto-Hamites were formed, probably in East Africa, the Bantu +languages and the Bantu peoples, who wandered thence south and west. The +wanderings began in the latter part of the Pleistocene period[236]. He +quotes Th. Arldt, who with greater precision places the occupation of +Africa by the Negroes in the Riss period (300,000 years ago) and that of +the Hamites in the Mousterian period (30,000 to 50,000 years ago)[237]. + +All these peoples resulting from the crossings of Negroes with Hamites +now speak various forms of the same organic Bantu mother-tongue. But +this linguistic uniformity is strictly analogous to that now prevailing +amongst the multifarious peoples of Aryan speech in Eurasia, and is due +to analogous causes--the diffusion in extremely remote times of a mixed +Hamito-Negro people of Bantu speech in Africa south of the equator. It +might perhaps be objected that the present Ba-Hima pastors are of +Hamitic speech, because we know from Stanley that the late king M'tesa +of Buganda was proud of his Galla ancestors, whose language he still +spoke as his mother-tongue. But he also spoke Luganda, and every echo +of Galla speech has already died out amongst most of the Ba-Hima +communities in the equatorial regions. So it was with what I may call +the "Proto-Ba-Himas," the first conquering Galla tribes, Schuver's and +Decle's "aristocracy," who were gradually blended with the aborigines in +a new and superior nationality of Bantu speech, because "there are many +mixed races, ... but there are no mixed languages[238]." + +These views are confirmed by the traditions and folklore still current +amongst the "Lacustrians," as the great nations may be called, who are +now grouped round about the shores of Lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanza. +At present, or rather before the recent extension of the British +administration to East Central Africa, these peoples were constituted in +a number of separate kingdoms, the most powerful of which were Buganda +(Uganda)[239], Bunyoro (Unyoro), and Karagwe. But they remember a time +when all these now scattered fragments formed parts of a mighty +monarchy, the vast Kitwara Empire, which comprised the whole of the +lake-studded plateau between the Ruwenzori range and Kavirondoland. + +The story is differently told in the different states, each nation being +eager to twist it to its own glorification; but all are agreed that the +founder of the empire was Kintu, "The Blameless," at once priest, +patriarch and ruler of the land, who came from the north hundreds of +years ago, with one wife, one cow, one goat, one sheep, one chicken, one +banana-root, and one sweet potato. At first all was waste, an +uninhabited wilderness, but it was soon miraculously peopled, stocked, +and planted with what he had brought with him, the potato being +apportioned to Bunyoro, the banana to Buganda, and these form the staple +food of those lands to this day. + +Then the people waxed wicked, and Kintu, weary of their evil ways and +daily bloodshed, took the original wife, cow, and other things, and went +away in the night and was seen no more. But nobody believed him dead, +and a long line of his mythical successors appear to have spent the time +they could spare from strife and war and evil deeds in looking for the +lost Kintu. Kimera, one of these, was a mighty giant of such strength +and weight that he left his footprints on the rocks where he trod, as +may still be seen on a cliff not far from Ulagalla, the old capital of +Buganda. There was also a magician, Kibaga, who could fly aloft and kill +the Ba-Nyoro people (this is the Buganda version) by hurling stones down +upon them, and for his services received in marriage a beautiful +Ba-Nyoro captive, who, another Delilah, found out his secret, and +betrayed him to her people. + +At last came King Ma'anda, who pretended to be a great hunter, but it +was only to roam the woodlands in search of Kintu, and thus have tidings +of him. One day a peasant, obeying the directions of a thrice-dreamt +dream, came to a place in the forest, where was an aged man on a throne +between two rows of armed warriors, seated on mats, his long beard white +with age, and all his men fair as white people and clothed in white +robes. Then Kintu, for it was he, bid the peasant hasten to summon +Ma'anda thither, but only with his mother and the messenger. At the +Court Ma'anda recognised the stranger whom he had that very night seen +in a dream, and so believed his words and at once set out with his +mother and the peasant. But the Katikiro, or Prime Minister, through +whom the message had been delivered to the king, fearing treachery, also +started on their track, keeping them just in view till the +trysting-place was reached. But Kintu, who knew everything, saw him all +the time, and when he came forward on finding himself discovered the +enraged Ma'anda pierced his faithful minister to the heart and he fell +dead with a shriek. Thereupon Kintu and his seated warriors instantly +vanished, and the king with the others wept and cried upon Kintu till +the deep woods echoed Kintu, Kintu-u, Kintu-u-u. But the blood-hating +Kintu was gone, and to this day has never again been seen or heard of by +any man in Buganda. The references to the north and to Kintu and his +ghostly warriors "fair as white people" need no comment[240]. It is +noteworthy that in some of the Nyassaland dialects _Kintu_ (_Caintu_) +alternates with _Mulungu_ as the name of the Supreme Being, the great +ancestor of the tribe[241]. + +Then follows more traditional or legendary matter, including an account +of the wars with the fierce Wakedi, who wore iron armour, until +authentic history is reached with the atrocious Suna II (1836-60), +father of the scarcely less atrocious M'tesa. After his death in 1884 +Buganda and the neighbouring states passed rapidly through a series of +astonishing political, religious, and social vicissitudes, resulting in +the present _pax Britannica_, and the conversion of large numbers, some +to Islam, others to one form or another of Christianity. At times it +might have been difficult to see much religion in the ferocity of the +contending factions; but since the establishment of harmony by the +secular arm, real progress has been made, and the Ba-Ganda especially +have displayed a remarkable capacity as well as eagerness to acquire a +knowledge of letters and of religious principles, both in the Protestant +and the Roman Catholic communities. Printing-presses, busily worked by +native hands, are needed to meet the steadily increasing demand for a +vernacular literature, in a region where blood had flowed continually +from the disappearance of "Kintu" till the British occupation. + +To the admixture of the Hamitic and Negro elements amongst the +Lacustrians may perhaps be attributed the curious blend of primitive and +higher institutions in these communities. At the head of the State was a +Kabaka, king or emperor, although the title was also borne by the +queen-mother and the queen-sister. This autocrat had his _Lukiko_, or +Council, of which the members were the _Katikiro_, Prime Minister and +Chief Justice, the _Kimbugwe_, who had charge of the King's umbilical +cord, and held rank next to the _Katikiro_, and ten District chiefs, for +the administration of the ten large districts into which the country was +divided, each rendering accounts to the _Katikiro_ and through him to +the King. Each District chief had to maintain in good order a road some +four yards wide, reaching from the capital to his country seat, a +distance possibly of nearly 100 miles. Each District chief had +sub-chiefs under him, independent of the chief in managing their own +portion of land. These were responsible for keeping in repair the road +between their own residence and that of the District chief. In each +district was a supreme court, and every sub-chief, even with only a +dozen followers, could hold a court and try cases among his own people. +The people, however, could take their cases from one court to another +until eventually they came before the _Katikiro_ or the King. + +Yet together with this highly advanced social and political development +a totemic exogamous clan system was in force throughout Uganda, all the +Ba-Ganda belonging to one of 29 _kika_ or clans, each possessing two +totems held sacred by the clan. Thus the Lion (_Mpologoma_) clan had the +Eagle (_Mpungu_) for its second totem; the Mushroom (_Butiko_) clan had +the Snail (_Nsonko_); the Buffalo (_Mbogo_) clan had a New Cooking Pot +(_Ntamu_). Each clan had its chief, or Father, who resided on the clan +estate which was also the clan burial-ground, and was responsible for +the conduct of the members of his branch. All the clans were +exogamous[242], and a man was expected to take a second wife from the +clan of his paternal grandmother[243]. + +No direct relations appear to exist between the Lacustrians and the +_Wa-Kikuyu_, _Wa-Kamba_, _Wa-Pokomo_, Wa-Gweno, _Wa-Chaga_, _Wa-Teita_, +_Wa-Taveita_, and others[244], who occupy the region east of Victoria +Nyanza, between the Tana, north-east frontier of Bantuland, and the +southern slopes of Kilimanjaro. Their affinities seem to be rather with +the _Wa-Nyika_, _Wa-Boni_, _Wa-Duruma_, _Wa-Giryama_, and the other +coast tribes between the Tana and Mombasa. All of these tribes have more +or less adopted the habits and customs of the Masai. + +We learn from Sir A. Harding[245] that in the British East African +Protectorate there are altogether as many as twenty-five distinct +tribes, generally at a low stage of culture, with a loose tribal +organisation, a fully-developed totemic system, and a universal faith in +magic; but there are no priests, idols or temples, or even distinctly +recognised hereditary chiefs or communal councils. The Gallas, who have +crossed the Tana and here encroached on Bantu territory, have +reminiscences of a higher civilisation and apparently of Christian +traditions and observances, derived no doubt from Abyssinia. They tell +you that they had once a sacred book, the observance of whose precepts +made them the first of nations. But it was left lying about, and so got +eaten by a cow, and since then when cows are killed their entrails are +carefully searched for the lost volume. + +Exceptional interest attaches to the Wa-Giryama, who are the chief +people between Mombasa and Melindi, the first trustworthy accounts of +whom were contributed by W. E. Taylor[246], and W. W. A. +Fitzgerald[247]. Here again Bantus and Gallas are found in close +contact, and we learn that the Wa-Giryama, who came originally from the +Mount Mangea district in the north-east, occupied their present homes +only about a century ago "upon the withdrawal of the Gallas." The +language, which is of a somewhat archaic type, appears to be the chief +member of a widespread Bantu group, embracing the Ki-nyika, and +Ki-pokomo in the extreme north, the Ki-swahili of the Zanzibar coast, +and perhaps the Ki-kamba, the Ki-teita, and others of the interior +between the coastlands and Victoria Nyanza. These inland tongues, +however, have greatly diverged from the primitive Ki-giryama[248], which +stands in somewhat the same relation to them and to the still more +degraded and Arabised Ki-swahili[249] that Latin stands to the Romance +languages. + +But the chief interest presented by the Wa-Giryama is centred in their +religious ideas, which are mainly connected with ancestry-worship, and +afford an unexpected insight into the origin and nature of that perhaps +most primitive of all forms of belief. There is, of course, a vague +entity called a "Supreme Being" in ethnographic writings, who, like the +Algonquian Manitu, crops up under various names (here _Mulungu_) all +over east Bantuland, but on analysis generally resolves itself into some +dim notion growing out of ancestry-worship, a great or aged person, +eponymous hero or the like, later deified in diverse ways as the +Preserver, the Disposer, and especially the Creator. These Wa-Giryama +suppose that from his union with the Earth all things have sprung, and +that human beings are Mulungu's hens and chickens. But there is also an +idea that he may be the manes of their fathers, and thus everything +becomes merged in a kind of apotheosis of the departed. They think "the +disembodied spirit is powerful for good and evil. Individuals worship +the shades of their immediate ancestors or elder relatives; and the +_k'omas_ [souls?] of the whole nation are worshipped on public +occasions." + +Although the European ghost or "revenant" is unknown, the spirits of +near ancestors may appear in dreams, and express their wishes to the +living. They ask for sacrifices at their graves to appease their hunger, +and such sacrifices are often made with a little flour and water poured +into a coconut shell let into the ground, the fowls and other victims +being so killed that the blood shall trickle into the grave. At the +offering the dead are called on by name to come and partake, and bring +their friends with them, who are also mentioned by name. But whereas +Christians pray to be remembered of heaven and the saints, the +Wa-Giryama pray rather that the new-born babe be forgotten of Mulungu, +and so live. "Well!" they will say on the news of a birth, "may Mulungu +forget him that he may become strong and well." This is an instructive +trait, a reminiscence of the time when Mulungu, now almost harmless or +indifferent to mundane things, was the embodiment of all evil, hence to +be feared and appeased in accordance with the old dictum _Timor fecit +deos_. + +At present no distinction is drawn between good and bad spirits, but all +are looked upon as, of course, often, though not always, more powerful +than the living, but still human beings subject to the same feelings, +passions, and fancies as they are. Some are even poor weaklings on whom +offerings are wasted. "The Shade of So-and-so's father is of no use at +all; it has finished up his property, and yet he is no better," was a +native's comment on the result of a series of sacrifices a man had +vainly made to his father's shade to regain his health. They may also be +duped and tricked, and when _pombe_ (beer) is a-brewing, some is poured +out on the graves of the dead, with the prayer that they may drink, and +when drunk fall asleep, and so not disturb the living with their brawls +and bickerings, just like the wrangling fairies in _A Midsummer Night's +Dream_[250]. + +Far removed from such crass anthropomorphism, but not morally much +improved, are the kindred Wa-Swahili, who by long contact and +interminglings have become largely Arabised in dress, religion, and +general culture. They are graphically described by Taylor as "a +seafaring, barter-loving race of slave-holders and slave-traders, strewn +in a thin line along a thousand miles of creeks and islands; inhabitants +of a coast that has witnessed incessant political changes, and a +succession of monarchical dynasties in various centres; receiving into +their midst for ages past a continuous stream of strange blood, +consisting not only of serviles from the interior, but of immigrants +from Persia, Arabia, and Western India; men that have come to live, and +often to die, as resident aliens, leaving in many cases a hybrid +progeny. Of one section of these immigrants--the Arabs--the religion has +become the master-religion of the land, overspreading, if not entirely +supplanting, the old Bantu ancestor-worship, and profoundly affecting +the whole family life." + +The Wa-Swahili are in a sense a historical people, for they formed the +chief constituent elements of the renowned Zang (Zeng) empire[251], +which in Edrisi's time (twelfth century) stretched along the seaboard +from Somaliland to and beyond the Zambesi. When the Portuguese burst +suddenly into the Indian Ocean it was a great and powerful state, +or rather a vast confederacy of states, with many flourishing +cities--Magdoshu, Brava, Mombasa, Melindi, Kilwa, Angosha, Sofala--and +widespread commercial relations extending across the eastern waters +to India and China, and up the Red Sea to Europe. How these great +centres of trade and eastern culture were one after the other +ruthlessly destroyed by the Portuguese corsairs _co' o ferro e fogo_ +("with sword and fire," Camoens) is told by Duarte Barbosa, who was +himself a Portuguese and an eyewitness of the havoc and the horrors +that not infrequently followed in the trail of his barbarous +fellow-countrymen[252]. + +Beyond Sofala we enter the domain of the _Ama-Zulu_, the _Ama-Xosa_, and +others whom I have collectively called _Zulu-Xosas_[253], and who are in +some respects the most remarkable ethnical group in all Bantuland. +Indeed they are by common consent regarded as Bantus in a preeminent +sense, and this conventional term _Bantu_ itself is taken from their +typical Bantu language[254]. There is clear evidence that they are +comparatively recent arrivals, necessarily from the north, in their +present territory, which was still occupied by Bushman and Hottentot +tribes probably within the last thousand years or so. Before the Kafir +wars with the English (1811-77) this territory extended much farther +round the coast than at present, and for many years the Great Kei River +has formed the frontier between the white settlements and the Xosas. + +But what they have lost in this direction the Zulu-Xosas, or at least +the Zulus, have recovered a hundredfold by their expansion northwards +during the nineteenth century. After the establishment of the Zulu +military power under Dingiswayo and his successor Chaka (1793-1828), +half the continent was overrun by organised Zulu hordes, who ranged as +far north as Victoria Nyanza, and in many places founded more or less +unstable kingdoms or chieftaincies on the model of the terrible +despotism set up in Zululand. Such were, beyond the Limpopo, the states +of Gazaland and Matabililand, the latter established about 1838 by +Umsilikatzi, father of Lobengula, who perished in a hopeless struggle +with the English in 1894. Gungunhana, last of the Swazi (Zulu) chiefs in +Gazaland, where the A-Ngoni had overrun the Ba-Thonga (Ba-Ronga)[255], +was similarly dispossessed by the Portuguese in 1896. + +North of Zambesi the Zulu bands--Ma-Situ, Ma-Viti, Ma-Ngoni (A-Ngoni), +and others--nowhere developed large political states except for a short +time under the ubiquitous Mirambo in Unyamweziland. But some, especially +the A-Ngoni[256], were long troublesome in the Nyasa district, and +others about the Lower Zambesi, where they are known to the Portuguese +as "Landins." The A-Ngoni power was finally broken by the English early +in 1898, and the reflux movement has now entirely subsided, and cannot +be revived, the disturbing elements having been extinguished at the +fountain-head by the absorption of Zululand itself in the British Colony +of Natal (1895). + +Nowhere have patriarchal institutions been more highly developed than +among the Zulu-Xosas, all of whom, except perhaps the Ama-Fingus and +some other broken groups, claim direct descent from some eponymous hero +or mythical founder of the tribe. Thus in the national traditions Chaka +was seventh in descent from a legendary chief Zulu, from whom they take +the name of _Abantu ba-Kwa-Zulu_, that is "People of Zulu's Land," +although the true mother-tribe appear to have been the now extinct +Ama-Ntombela. Once the supremacy and prestige of Chaka's tribe were +established, all the others, as they were successively reduced, claimed +also to be true Zulus, and as the same process went on in the far north, +the term Zulu has now in many cases come to imply political rather than +blood relationship. Here we have an object lesson, by which the ethnical +value of such names as "Aryan," "Kelt," "Briton," "Slav," etc. may be +gauged in other regions. + +So also most of the southern section claim as their founder and ancestor +a certain _Xosa_, sprung from Zuide, who may have flourished about 1500, +and whom the Ama-Tembus and Ama-Mpondos also regard as their progenitor. +Thus the whole section is connected, but not in the direct line, with +the Xosas, who trace their lineage from Galeka and Khakhabe, sons of +Palo, who is said to have died about 1780, and was himself tenth in +direct descent from Xosa. We thus get a genealogical table as under, +which gives his proper place in the Family Tree to nearly every +historical "Kafir" chief in Cape Colony, where ignorance of these +relations caused much bloodshed during the early Kafir wars: + + Zuide (1500?) + _______________________/\________________________ + / \ + Tembu Xosa (1530?) Mpondo + | | _______|_______ + Ama-Tembus Palo (1780?) / \ + (Tembookies) ________________|______________ Mpondumisi (Mpondos) + / \ + Galeka Khakhabe + | _________________|________________ + Klanta / \ + | Omlao Mbalu Ndhlambe + Hinza | | \______/ + | Gika (ob. 1828) Gwali | + Kreli | | Ama-Ndhlambes + \________/ | | (Tslambies) + | Macomo Velelo + Ama-Galekas | | + Sandili Baxa + \________/ \________/ + | | + Ama-Gaikas Ama-Mbalus + +But all, both northern Zulus and southern Xosas, are essentially one +people in speech, physique, usages and social institutions. The hair is +uniformly of a somewhat frizzly texture, the colour of a light or clear +brown amongst the Ama-Tembus, but elsewhere very dark, the Swazis being +almost "blue-black"; the head decidedly long (72.5) and high (195.8); +nose variable, both Negroid and perfectly regular; height above the mean +1.75 m. to 1.8 m. (5 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 11 in.); figure shapely and +muscular, though Fritsch's measurements show that it is sometimes far +from the almost ideal standard of beauty with which some early observers +have credited them. + +Mentally the Zulu-Xosas stand much higher than the true Negro, as shown +especially in their political organisation, which, before the +development of Dingiswayo's military system under European influences, +was a kind of patriarchal monarchy controlled by a powerful aristocracy. +The nation was grouped in tribes connected by the ties of blood and +ruled by the hereditary _inkose_, or feudal chief, who was supreme, with +power of life and death, within his own jurisdiction. Against his +mandates, however, the nobles could protest in council, and it was in +fact their decisions that established precedents and the traditional +code of common law. "This common law is well adapted to a people in a +rude state of society. It holds everyone accused of crime guilty unless +he can prove himself innocent; it makes the head of the family +responsible for the conduct of all its branches, the village +collectively for all resident in it, and the clan for each of its +villages. For the administration of the law there are courts of various +grades, from any of which an appeal may be taken to the Supreme Council, +presided over by the paramount chief, who is not only the ruler but also +the father of the people[257]." + +In the interior, between the southern coast ranges and the Zambesi, the +Hottentot and Bushman aborigines were in prehistoric ages almost +everywhere displaced or reduced to servitude by other Bantu peoples such +as the Ma-Kalakas and Ma-Shonas, the Be-Chuanas and the kindred +Ba-Sutos. Of these the first arrivals (from the north) appear to have +been the Ma-Shonas and Ma-Kalakas, who were being slowly "eaten up" by +the Ma-Tabili when the process was arrested by the timely intervention +of the English in Rhodesia. + +Both nations are industrious tillers of the soil, skilled in metal-work +and in mining operations, being probably the direct descendants of the +natives, whose great chief _Monomotapa_, _i.e._ "Lord of the Mines," as +I interpret the word[258], ruled over the Manica and surrounding +auriferous districts when the Portuguese first reached Sofala early in +the sixteenth century. Apparently for political reasons[259] this +Monomotapa was later transformed by them from a monarch to a monarchy, +the vast empire of Monomotapaland, which was supposed to comprise pretty +well everything south of the Zambesi, but, having no existence, has for +the last two hundred years eluded the diligent search of historical +geographers. + +But some centuries before the arrival of the Portuguese the Ma-Kalakas +with the kindred Ba-Nyai, Ba-Senga and others, may well have been at +work in the mines of this auriferous region, in the service of the +builders of the Zimbabwe ruins explored and described by the late +Theodore Bent[260], and by him and many others attributed to some +ancient cultured people of South Arabia. This theory of prehistoric +Oriental origin was supported by a calculation of the orientation of the +Zimbabwe "temple," by reports of inscriptions and emblems suggesting +"Phoenician rites," and by the discovery, during excavation, of foreign +objects. Later investigation, however, showed that the orientation was +based on inexact measurements; no authentic inscriptions were found +either at Zimbabwe or elsewhere in connection with the ruins; none of +the objects discovered in the course of the excavations could be +recognised as more than a few centuries old, while those that were not +demonstrably foreign imports were of African type. In 1905 a scientific +exploration of the ruins placed these facts beyond dispute. The +medieval objects were found in such positions as to be necessarily +contemporaneous with the foundation of the buildings, all of which could +be attributed to the same period. Finally it was established that the +plan and construction of Zimbabwe instead of being unique, as was +formerly supposed, only differed from other Rhodesian ruins in +dimensions and extent. The explorers felt confident that the buildings +were not earlier than the fourteenth or fifteenth century A.D., and that +the builders were the Bantu people, remains of whose stone-faced kraals +are found at so many places between the Limpopo and the Zambesi. Their +conclusions, however, have not met with universal acceptance[261]. + +With the Be-Chuanas, whose territory extends from the Orange river to +Lake Ngami and includes Basutoland with a great part of the Transvaal, +we again meet a people at the totemic stage of culture. Here the +eponymous heroes of the Zulu-Xosas are replaced by baboons, fishes, +elephants, and other animals from which the various tribal groups claim +descent. The animal in question is called the _siboko_ of the tribe and +is held in especial reverence, members (as a rule) refraining from +killing or eating it. Many tribes take their name from their _siboko_, +thus the Ba-Tlapin, "they of the fish," Ba-Kuena, "they of the +crocodile." The _siboko_ of the Ba-Rolong, who as a tribe are +accomplished smiths, is not an animal, but the metal iron[262]. + +With a section of the great Be-Chuana family, the Ba-Suto, and the +Ba-Rotse is connected one of the most remarkable episodes in the +turbulent history of the South African peoples during the nineteenth +century. Many years ago an offshoot of the Ba-Rotse migrated to the +Middle Zambesi above the Victoria Falls, where they founded a powerful +state, the "Barotse (Marotse) Empire," which despite a temporary eclipse +still exists as a British protectorate. The eclipse was caused by +another migration northwards of a great body of Ma-Kololo, a branch of +the Ba-Suto, who under the renowned chief Sebituane reached the Zambesi +about 1835 and overthrew the Barotse dynasty, reducing the natives to a +state of servitude. + +But after the death of Sebituane's successor, Livingstone's Sekeletu, +the Ba-Rotse, taking advantage of their oppressors' dynastic rivalries, +suddenly revolted, and after exterminating the Ma-Kololo almost to the +last man, reconstituted the empire on a stronger footing than ever. It +now comprises an area of some 250,000 square miles between the Chobe and +the Kafukwe affluents[263], with a population vaguely estimated at over +1,000,000, including the savage Ba-Shukulumbwe tribes of the Kafukwe +basin reduced in 1891[264]. + +Yet, short as was the Ma-Kololo rule (1835-70), it was long enough to +impose their language on the vanquished Ba-Rotse[265]. Hence the curious +phenomenon now witnessed about the Middle Zambesi, where the Ma-Kololo +have disappeared, while their Sesuto speech remains the common medium of +intercourse throughout the Barotse empire. How often have analogous +shiftings and dislocations taken place in the course of ages in other +parts of the world! And in the light of such lessons how cautious +ethnographists should be in arguing from speech to race, and drawing +conclusions from these or similar surface relations! + +Referring to these stirring events, Mackenzie writes: "Thus perished the +Makololo from among the number of South African tribes. No one can put +his finger on the map of Africa and say, 'Here dwell the +Makololo[266].'" This will puzzle many who since the middle of the +nineteenth century have repeatedly heard of, and even been in +unpleasantly close contact with, Ma-Kololo so called, not indeed in +Barotseland, but lower down the Zambesi about its Shire affluent. + +The explanation of the seeming contradiction is given by another +incident, which is also not without ethnical significance. From +Livingstone's _Journals_ we learn that in 1859 he was accompanied to the +east coast by a small party of Ma-Kololo and others, sent by his friend +Sekeletu in quest of a cure for leprosy, from which the emperor was +suffering. These Ma-Kololo, hearing of the Ba-Rotse revolt, wisely +stopped on their return journey at the Shire confluence, and through the +prestige of their name have here succeeded in founding several so-called +"Makololo States," which still exist, and have from time to time given +considerable trouble to the administrators of British Central Africa. +But how true are Mackenzie's words, if the political be separated from +the ethnical relations, may be judged from the fact that of the original +founders of these petty Shire states only two were full-blood Ma-Kololo. +All the others were, I believe, Ba-Rotse, Ba-Toka, or Ba-Tonga, these +akin to the savage Ba-Shukulumbwe. + +Thus the Ma-Kololo live on, in their speech above the Victoria Falls, in +their name below the Victoria Falls, and it is only from history we know +that since about 1870 the whole nation has been completely wiped out +everywhere in the Zambesi valley. But even amongst cultured peoples +history goes back a very little way, 10,000 years at most anywhere. What +changes and shiftings may, therefore, have elsewhere also taken place +during prehistoric ages, all knowledge of which is now past +recovery[267]! + +Few Bantu peoples have lent a readier ear to the teachings of Christian +propagandists than the Xosa, Ba-Suto, and Be-Chuana natives. Several +stations in the heart of Kafirland--Blythswood, Somerville, Lovedale, +and others--have for some time been self-supporting, and prejudice alone +would deny that they have worked for good amongst the surrounding Gaika, +Galeka, and Fingo tribes. Sogo, a member of the Blythswood community, +has produced a translation of the _Pilgrim's Progress_, described by J. +Macdonald as "a marvel of accuracy and lucidity of expression[268]"; +numerous village schools are eagerly attended, and much land has been +brought under intelligent cultivation. + +The French and Swiss Protestant teachers have also achieved great things +in Basutoland, where they were welcomed by Moshesh, the founder of the +present Basuto nation. The tribal system has yielded to a higher social +organisation, and the Ba-Tau, Ba-Puti, and several other tribal groups +have been merged in industrious pastoral and agricultural communities +professing a somewhat strict form of Protestant Christianity, and +entirely forgetful of the former heathen practices associated with +witchcraft and ancestry-worship. Moshesh was one of the rare instances +among the Kafirs of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts which +placed him on a level with Europeans. He governed his people wisely and +well for nearly fifty years, and his life-work has left a permanent mark +on South African history[269]. + +In Bechuanaland one great personality dominates the social horizon. +Khama, king of the Ba-Mangwato nation, next to the Ba-Rotse the most +powerful section of the Be-Chuana, may be described as a true father of +his people, a Christian legislator in the better sense of the term, and +an enlightened reformer even from the secular point of view. + +When these triumphs, analogous to those witnessed amongst the +Lacustrians and in other parts of Bantuland, are contrasted with the +dull weight of resistance everywhere opposed by the full-blood Negro +populations to any progress beyond their present low level of culture, +we are the better able to recognise the marked intellectual superiority +of the negroid Bantu over the pure black element. + +West of Bechuanaland the continuity of the Bantu domain is arrested in +the south by the Hottentots, who still hold their ground in Namaqualand, +and farther north by the few wandering Bushman groups of the Kalahari +desert. Even in Damaraland, which is mainly Bantu territory, there are +interminglings of long standing that have given rise to much ethnical +confusion. The Ova-Herero, who were here dominant, and the kindred +Ova-Mpo of Ovampoland bordering on the Portuguese possessions, are +undoubted Bantus of somewhat fine physique, though intellectually not +specially distinguished. Owing to the character of the country, a +somewhat arid, level steppe between the hills and the coast, they are +often collectively called "Cattle Damaras," or "Damaras of the Plains," +in contradistinction to the "Hill Damaras" of the coast ranges. To this +popular nomenclature is due the prevalent confusion regarding these +aborigines. The term "Damara" is of Hottentot origin, and is not +recognised by the local tribes, who all call themselves Ova-Herero, that +is, "Merry People." But there is a marked difference between the +lowlanders and the highlanders, the latter, that is, the "Hill Damaras," +having a strong strain of Hottentot blood, and being now of Hottentot +speech. + +The whole region is a land of transition between the two races, where +the struggle for supremacy was scarcely arrested by the temporary +intervention of German administrators. Though annexed by Germany in +1884, fighting continued for ten years longer, and, breaking out again +in 1903, was not subdued until 1908, after the loss to Germany of 5000 +lives and L15,000,000, while 20,000 to 30,000 of the Herero are +estimated to have perished. Under the rule of the Union of South Africa +this maltreatment of the natives will never occur again. Clearness would +be gained by substituting for Hill Damaras the expression _Ova-Zorotu_, +or "Hillmen," as they are called by their neighbours of the plains, who +should of course be called Hereros to the absolute exclusion of the +expression "Cattle Damaras." These Hereros show a singular dislike for +salt; the peculiarity, however, can scarcely be racial, as it is shared +in also by their cattle, and may be due to the heavy vapours, perhaps +slightly charged with saline particles, which hang so frequently over +the coastlands. + +No very sharp ethnical line can be drawn between Portuguese West Africa +and the contiguous portion of the Belgian Congo south and west of the +main stream. In the coastlands between the Cunene and the Congo estuary +a few groups, such as the historical _Eshi-Kongo_[270] and the +_Kabindas_, have developed some marked characteristics under European +influences, just as have the cannibal _Ma-Nyema_ of the Upper Congo +through association with the Nubian-Arab slave-raiders. But with the +exception of the _Ba-Shilange_, the _Ba-Lolo_ and one or two others, +much the same physical and mental traits are everywhere presented by the +numerous Bantu populations within the great bend of the Congo. + +The people who give their name to this river present some points of +special interest. It is commonly supposed that the old "Kongo Empire" +was a creation of the Portuguese. But Mbanza, afterwards rechristened +"San Salvador," was already the capital of a powerful state when it was +first visited by the expedition of 1491, from which time date its +relations with Portugal. At first the Catholic missionaries had great +success, thousands were at least baptised, and for a moment it seemed as +if all the Congo lands were being swept into the fold. There were great +rejoicings on the conversion of the _Mfumu_ ("Emperor") himself, on whom +were lavished honours and Portuguese titles still borne by his present +degenerate descendant, the Portuguese state pensioner, "Dom Pedro V, +Catholic King of Kongo and its Dependencies." But Christianity never +struck very deep roots, and, except in the vicinity of the Imperial and +vassal Courts, heathenish practices of the worst description were +continued down to the middle of the nineteenth century. About 1870 fresh +efforts were made both by Protestant and Catholic missionaries to +re-convert the people, who had little to remind them of their former +faith except the ruins of the cathedral of San Salvador, crucifixes, +banners, and other religious emblems handed down as heirlooms and +regarded as potent fetishes by their owners. A like fate, it may be +incidentally mentioned, has overtaken the efforts of the Portuguese +missionaries to evangelise the natives of the east coast, where little +now survives of their teachings but snatches of unintelligible songs to +the Blessed Virgin, such as that still chanted by the Lower Zambesi +boatmen and recorded by Mrs Pringle:-- + + Sina mama, sina mamai, + Sina mama Maria, sina mamai ... + + Mary, I'm alone, mother I have none, + Mother I have none, she and father both are gone, etc.[271] + +It is probable that at some remote period the ruling race reached the +west coast from the north-east, and imposed their Bantu speech on the +rude aborigines, by whom it is still spoken over a wide tract of country +on both sides of the Lower Congo. It is an extremely pure and somewhat +archaic member of the Bantu family, and W. Holman Bentley, our best +authority on the subject, is enthusiastic in praise of its "richness, +flexibility, exactness, subtlety of idea, and nicety of expression," a +language superior to the people themselves, "illiterate folk with an +elaborate and regular grammatical system of speech of such subtlety and +exactness of idea that its daily use is in itself an education[272]." +Kishi-Kongo has the distinction of being the first Bantu tongue ever +reduced to written form, the oldest known work in the language being a +treatise on Christian Doctrine published in Lisbon in 1624. Since that +time the speech of the "Mociconghi," as Pigafetta calls them[273], has +undergone but slight phonetic or other change, which is all the more +surprising when we consider the rudeness of the present Mushi-Kongos and +others by whom it is still spoken with considerable uniformity. Some of +these believe themselves sprung from trees, as if they had still +reminiscences of the arboreal habits of a pithecoid ancestry. + +Amongst the neighbouring _Ba-Mba_, whose sobas were formerly _ex +officio_ Commanders-in-chief of the Empire, still dwells a potent being, +who is invisible to everybody, and although mortal never dies, or at +least after each dissolution springs again into life from his remains +gathered up by the priests. All the young men of the tribe undergo a +similar transformation, being thrown into a death-like trance by the +magic arts of the medicine-man, and then resuscitated after three days. +The power of causing the cataleptic sleep is said really to exist, and +these strange rites, unknown elsewhere, are probably to be connected +with the resurrection of Christ after three days and of everybody on the +last day as preached by the early Portuguese evangelists. A volume might +be written on the strange distortions of Christian doctrines amongst +savage peoples unable to grasp their true inwardness. + +In Angola the Portuguese distinguish between the _Pretos_, that is, the +"civilised," and the _Negros_, or unreclaimed natives. Yet both terms +mean the same thing, as also does _Ba-Fiot_[274], "Black People," which +is applied in an arbitrary way both to the Eshi-Kongos and their near +relations, the _Kabindas_ of the Portuguese enclave north of the Lower +Congo. These Kabindas, so named from the seaport of that name on the +Loango coast, are an extremely intelligent, energetic, and enterprising +people, daring seafarers, and active traders. But they complain of the +keen rivalry of another dark people, the _Judeos Pretos_, or "Black +Jews," who call themselves _Ma-Vambu_, and whose hooked nose combined +with other peculiarities has earned for them their Portuguese name. The +Kabindas say that these "Semitic Negroes" were specially created for the +punishment of other unscrupulous dealers by their ruinous competition in +trade. + +A great part of the vast region within the bend of the Congo is occupied +by the _Ba-Luba_ people, whose numerous branches--_Ba-Sange_ and +_Ba-Songe_ about the sources of the Sankuru, _Ba-Shilange_ +(_Tushilange_) about the Lulua-Kassai confluence, and many +others--extend all the way from the Kwango basin to Manyemaland. Most of +these are Bantus of the average type, fairly intelligent, industrious +and specially noted for their skill in iron and copper work. Iron ores +are widely diffused and the copper comes from the famous mines of the +Katanga district, of which King Mzidi and his Wa-Nyamwezi followers were +dispossessed by the Congo Free State in 1892[275]. + +Special attention is claimed by the _Ba-Shilange_ nation, for our +knowledge of whom we are indebted chiefly to C. S. Latrobe Bateman[276]. +These are the people whom Wissmann had already referred to as "a nation +of thinkers with the interrogative 'why' constantly on their lips." +Bateman also describes them as "thoroughly honest, brave to +foolhardiness, and faithful to each other. They are prejudiced in favour +of foreign customs and spontaneously copy the usages of civilisation. +They are the only African tribe among whom I have observed anything +like a becoming conjugal affection and regard. To say nothing of such +recommendations as their emancipation from fetishism, their ancient +abandonment of cannibalism, and their national unity under the sway of a +really princely prince (Kalemba), I believe them to be the most open to +the best influences of civilisation of any African tribe +whatsoever[277]." Their territory about the Lulua, affluent of the +Kassai, is the so-called Lubuka, or land of "Friendship," the theatre of +a remarkable social revolution, carried out independently of all +European influences, in fact before the arrival of any whites on the +scene. It was initiated by the secret brotherhood of the _Bena-Riamba_, +or "Sons of Hemp," established about 1870, when the nation became +divided into two parties over the question throwing the country open to +foreign trade. The king having sided with the "Progressives," the +"Conservatives" were worsted with much bloodshed, whereupon the barriers +of seclusion were swept away. Trading relations being at once +established with the outer world, the custom of _riamba_ (bhang) smoking +was unfortunately introduced through the Swahili traders from Zanzibar. +The practice itself soon became associated with mystic rites, and was +followed by a general deterioration of morals throughout Tushilangeland. + +North of the Ba-Luba follows the great _Ba-Lolo_ nation, whose domain +comprises nearly the whole of the region between the equator and the +left bank of the Congo, and whose Kilolo speech is still more widely +diffused, being spoken by perhaps 10,000,000 within the horseshoe bend. +These "Men of Iron" in the sense of Cromwell's "Ironsides," or "Workers +in Iron," as the name has been diversely interpreted (from _lolo_, +iron), may not be all that they have been depicted by the glowing pen of +Mrs H. Grattan Guinness[278]; but nobody will deny their claim to be +regarded as physically, if not mentally, one of the finest Bantu races. +But for the strain of Negro blood betrayed by the tumid under lip, +frizzly hair, and wide nostrils, many might pass for average Hamites +with high forehead, straight or aquiline nose, bright eye, and +intelligent expression. They appear to have migrated about a hundred +years ago from the east to their present homes, where they have cleared +the land both of its forests and the aborigines, brought extensive +tracts under cultivation, and laid out towns in the American chessboard +fashion, but with the houses so wide apart that it takes hours to +traverse them. They are skilled in many crafts, and understand the +division-of-labour principle, "farmers, gardeners, smiths, boatbuilders, +weavers, cabinet-makers, armourers, warriors, and speakers being already +differentiated amongst them[279]." + +From the east or north-east a great stream of migration has also for +many years been setting right across the cannibal zone to the west coast +between the Ogowai and Cameruns estuary. Some of these cannibal bands, +collectively known as _Fans_, _Pahuins_, _Mpangwes_[280], _Oshyebas_ and +by other names, have already swarmed into the Gabun and Lower Ogowai +districts, where they have caused a considerable dislocation of the +coast tribes. They are at present the dominant, or at least the most +powerful and dreaded, people in West Equatorial Africa, where nothing +but the intervention of the French administration has prevented them +from sweeping the _Mpongwes_, _Mbengas_, _Okandas_, _Ashangos_, +_Ishogos_, _Ba-Tekes_[281], and the other maritime populations into the +Atlantic. Even the great _Ba-Kalai_ nation, who are also immigrants, but +from the south-east, and who arrived some time before the Fans, have +been hard pressed and driven forward by those fierce anthropophagists. +They are still numerous, certainly over 100,000, but confined mainly to +the left bank of the Ogowai, where their copper and iron workers have +given up the hopeless struggle to compete with the imported European +wares, and have consequently turned to trade. The Ba-Kalai are now the +chief brokers and middlemen throughout the equatorial coastlands, and +their pure Bantu language is encroaching on the Mpongwe in the Ogowai +basin. + +When first heard of by Bowdich in 1819, the Paaemways, as he calls the +Fans, were an inland people presenting such marked Hamitic or Caucasic +features that he allied them with the West Sudanese Fulahs. Since then +there have been inevitable interminglings, by which the type has no +doubt been modified, though still presenting distinct non-Bantu or +non-Negro characters. Burton, Winwood Reade, Oscar Lenz and most other +observers separate them altogether from the Negro connection, describing +them as "well-built, tall and slim, with a light brown complexion, often +inclining to yellow, well-developed beard, and very prominent frontal +bone standing out in a semicircular protuberance above the superciliary +arches. Morally also, they differ greatly from the Negro, being +remarkably intelligent, truthful, and of a serious temperament, seldom +laughing or indulging in the wild orgies of the blacks[282]." + +M. H. Kingsley adds that "the average height in mountain districts is +five feet six to five feet eight (1.67 m. to 1.72 m.), the difference in +stature between men and women not being great. Their countenances are +very bright and expressive, and if once you have been among them, you +can never mistake a Fan. The Fan is full of fire, temper, intelligence +and go; very teachable, rather difficult to manage, quick to take +offence and utterly indifferent to human life." The cannibalism of the +Fans, though a prevalent habit, is not, according to Miss Kingsley, due +to sacrificial motives. "He does it in his common sense way. He will eat +his next door neighbour's relations and sell his own deceased to his +next door neighbour in return; but he does not buy slaves and fatten +them up for his table as some of the Middle Congo tribes do.... He has +no slaves, no prisoners of war, no cemeteries, so you must draw your own +conclusions[283]." The Fan language has been grouped by Sir H. H. +Johnston among Bantu tongues, but he describes it as so corrupt as to be +only just recognisable as Bantu. In linguistic, physical and mental +features they thus show a remarkable divergence from the pure Negro, +suggesting Hamitic probably Fulah elements. + +In the Camerun region, which still lies within Bantu territory, Sir H. +H. Johnston[284] divides the numerous local tribes into two groups, the +aborigines, such as the _Ba-Yong_, _Ba-Long_, _Ba-Sa_, _Abo_ and _Wuri_; +and the later intruders--_Ba-Kundu_, _Ba-Kwiri_, _Dwala_, "_Great +Batanga_" and _Ibea_--chiefly from the east and south-east. Best known +are the Dwalas of the Camerun estuary, physically typical Bantus with +almost European features, and well-developed calves, a character which +would alone suffice to separate them from the true Negro. Nor are these +traits due to contact with the white settlers on the coast, because the +Dwalas keep quite aloof, and are so proud of their "blue blood," that +till lately all half-breeds were "weeded-out," being regarded as +monsters who reflected discredit on the tribe[285]. + +Socially the Camerun natives stand at nearly the same low level of +culture as the neighbouring full-blood Negroes of the Calabar and Niger +delta. Indeed the transition in customs and institutions, as well as in +physical appearance, is scarcely perceptible between the peoples +dwelling north and south of the Rio del Rey, here the dividing line +between the Negro and Bantu lands. The _Ba-Kish_ of the Meme river, +almost last of the Bantus, differ little except in speech from the Negro +_Efiks_ of Old Calabar, while witchcraft and other gross superstitions +were till lately as rife amongst the Ba-Kwiri and Ba-Kundu tribes of the +western Camerun as anywhere in Negroland. It is not long since one of +the Ba-Kwiri, found guilty of having eaten a chicken at a missionary's +table, was himself eaten by his fellow clansmen. The law of blood for +blood was pitilessly enforced, and charges of witchcraft were so +frequent that whole villages were depopulated, or abandoned by their +terror-stricken inhabitants. The island of Ambas in the inlet of like +name remained thus for a time absolutely deserted, "most of the +inhabitants having poisoned each other off with their everlasting +ordeals, and the few survivors ending by dreading the very air they +breathed[286]." + +Having thus completed our survey of the Bantu populations from the +central dividing line about the Congo-Chad water-parting round by the +east, south, and west coastlands, and so back to the Sudanese zone, we +may pause to ask, What routes were followed by the Bantus themselves +during the long ages required to spread themselves over an area +estimated at nearly six million square miles? I have established, +apparently on solid grounds, a fixed point of initial dispersion in the +extreme north-east, and allusion has frequently been made to migratory +movements, some even now going on, generally from east to west, and, on +the east side of the continent, from north to south, with here an +important but still quite recent reflux from Zululand back nearly to +Victoria Nyanza. If a parallel current be postulated as setting on the +Atlantic side in prehistoric times from south to north, from Hereroland +to the Cameruns, or possibly the other way, we shall have nearly all the +factors needed to explain the general dispersion of the Bantu peoples +over their vast domain. + +Support is given to this view by the curious distribution of the two +chief Bantu names of the "Supreme Being," to which incidental reference +has already been made. As first pointed out I think by Dr Bleek, +_(M)unkulunkulu_ with its numerous variants prevails along the eastern +seaboard, _Nzambi_ along the western, and both in many parts of the +interior; while here and there the two meet, as if to indicate +prehistoric interminglings of two great primeval migratory movements. +From the subjoined table a clear idea may be had of the general +distribution: + + MUNKULUNKULU NZAMBI + + { Mpondo: Ukulukulu | Eshi-Kongo: Nzambi } + { Zulu: Unkulunkulu | Kabinda: Nzambi Pongo} + { Inhambane: Mulungulu | Lunda: Zambi } + { Sofala: Murungu | Ba-Teke: Nza[~m] } + { Be-Chuana: Mulungulu | Ba-Rotse: Nyampe } + { Lake Moero: Mulungu | Bihe: Nzambi } + { Lake Tanganyika: Mulungu | Loango: Zambi, Nyambi} + Eastern { Makua: Moloko | Bunda: Onzambi }Western + Seaboard{ Quillimane: Mlugu | Ba-Ngala: Nsambi }Seaboard + and { Lake Bangweolo: Mungu | Ba-Kele: Nshambi }and + Parts { Tete, Zambesi: Muungu | Rungu: Anyambi }Parts + of { Nyasaland: Murungu | Ashira: Aniembie }of + Interior{ Swahili: Muungu | Mpongwe: Njambi }Interior + { Giryama: Mulungu | Benga: Anyambi } + { Pokomo: Mungo | Dwala: Nyambi } + { Nyika: Mulungu | Yanzi: Nyambi } + { Kamba: Mulungu | Herero: Ndyambi } + { Yanzi: Molongo | + { Herero: Mukuru | + +Of _Munkulunkulu_ the primitive idea is clear enough from its best +preserved form, the Zulu _Unkulunkulu_, which is a repetitive of the +root _inkulu_, great, old, hence a deification of the great departed, a +direct outcome of the ancestry-worship so universal amongst Negro and +Bantu peoples[287]. Thus Unkulunkulu becomes the direct progenitor of +the Zulu-Xosas: _Unkulunkulu ukobu wetu_. But the fundamental meaning of +_Nzambi_ is unknown. The root does not occur in Kishi-Kongo, and Bentley +rightly rejects Kolbe's far-fetched explanation from the Herero, adding +that "the knowledge of God is most vague, scarcely more than nominal. +There is no worship paid to God[288]." + +More probable seems W. H. Tooke's suggestion that Nzambi is "a Nature +spirit like Zeus or Indra," and that, while the eastern Bantus are +ancestor-worshippers, "the western adherents of Nzambi are more or less +Nature-worshippers. In this respect they appear to approach the Negroes +of the Gold, Slave, and Oil Coasts[289]." No doubt the cult of the dead +prevails also in this region, but here it is combined with naturalistic +forms of belief, as on the Gold Coast, where _Bobowissi_, chief god of +all the southern tribes, is the "Blower of Clouds," the "Rain-maker," +and on the Slave Coast, where the Dahoman _Mawu_ and the Yoruba _Olorun_ +are the Sky or Rain, and the "Owner of the Sky" (the deified Firmament), +respectively[290]. + +It would therefore seem probable that the Munkulunkulu peoples from the +north-east gradually spread by the indicated routes over the whole of +Bantuland, everywhere imposing their speech, general culture, and +ancestor-worship on the pre-Bantu aborigines, except along the Atlantic +coastlands and in parts of the interior. Here the primitive +Nature-worship, embodied in Nzambi, held and still holds its ground, +both meeting on equal terms--as shown in the above table--amongst the +Ba-Yanzi, the Ova-Herero, and the Be-Chuanas (_Mulungulu_ generally, but +_Nyampe_ in Barotseland), and no doubt in other inland regions. But the +absolute supremacy of one on the east, and of the other on the west, +side of the continent, seems conclusive as to the general streams of +migration, while the amazing uniformity of nomenclature is but another +illustration of the almost incredible persistence of Bantu speech +amongst these multitudinous illiterate populations for an incalculable +period of time[291]. + + +THE VAALPENS AND THE STRANDLOOPERS. + +Among the ethnological problems of Africa may be reckoned the _Vaalpens_ +and the _Strandloopers_. Along the banks of the Limpopo between the +Transvaal and Southern Rhodesia there are scattered a few small groups +of an extremely primitive people who are generally confounded with the +Bushmen, but differ in some important respects from that race. They are +the "Earthmen" of some writers, but their real name is _Kattea_, though +called by their neighbours either _Ma Sarwa_ ("Bad People") or +_Vaalpens_ ("Grey Paunches") from the khaki colour acquired by their +bodies from creeping on all fours into their underground hovels. But the +true colour is almost a pitch black, and as they are only about four +feet high they are quite distinct both from the tall Bantus and the +yellowish Hottentot-Bushmen. For the Zulus they are mere "dogs" or +"vultures," and are certainly the most degraded of all the aborigines, +being undoubtedly cannibals, eating their own aged and infirm like some +of the Amazonian tribes. Their habitations are holes in the ground, +rock-shelters, or caves, or lately a few hovels of mud and foliage at +the foot of the hills. Of their speech nothing is known except that it +is absolutely distinct both from the Bantu and the Bushman. There are no +arts or industries of any kind, not even any weapons beyond those +procured in exchange for ostrich feathers, skins or ivory. But they can +make fire, and are thus able to cook the offal thrown to them by the +Boers in return for their help in skinning the captured game. Whether +they have any religious ideas it is impossible to say, all intercourse +with the surrounding peoples being restricted to barter carried on with +gesture language for nobody has ever yet mastered their tongue. A +"chief" is spoken of, but he is merely a headman who presides over the +little family groups of from thirty to fifty (there are no tribes +properly so called), and whose purely domestic functions are acquired, +not by heredity, but by personal worth, that is, physical strength. +Altogether the Kattea is perhaps the most perfect embodiment of the pure +savage still anywhere surviving[292]. + +When the Hottentots of South Africa were questioned by scientific men a +hundred years ago and more regarding their traditions, they were wont to +refer to their predecessors on the coast of South Africa as a savage +race living on the seashore and subsisting on shellfish and the bodies +of stranded whales. From their habits these were styled in Dutch the +Strandloopers or "Shore-runners[293]." According to F. C. Shrubsall the +Strandlooper of the Cape Colony caves preceded the Bushman in South +Africa. They were a race of short but not dwarfish men with a much +higher skull capacity than that of the average Bush race. The extreme of +cranial capacity in the Strandloopers was a maximum of over 1600 c.c., +while the extreme minimum among the Bush people descends as low as 955 +c.c. The frontal region of the skull is much better developed than in +the Bush race, and in that respect is more like the Negro. There is +little or no brow prominence and one at least of the skulls is as +orthognathous in facial angle as that of a European. L. Peringuey +remarks also that the type was less dolichocephalic than the Bushmen and +Hottentots, under 80 in cephalic index. "He was artistically gifted, +like the race which occupied and decorated the Altamira ... and other +caves of Spain and France. He painted; he possibly carved on rocks; he +used bone tools; he made pottery; he perforated stones for either +heading clubs or to be used as make-weights for digging tools; his +ornaments consisted of sea-shells; and the ostrich egg-shell discs which +he made may be said to be a typical product of his industry. And this +culture is retained in South Africa by a kindred race, but more +dolichocephalic--the Bushmen-Hottentots. Analogous are most of his tools +and his expressions of culture to those of Aurignacian man." + + +THE NEGRILLOES. + +The proper domain of the African Negrilloes is the intertropical +forest-land, although they appear to be at present confined to somewhat +narrow limits, between about six degrees of latitude north and south of +the equator, unless the Bushmen be included. But formerly they probably +ranged much farther north, and in historic times were certainly known in +Egypt some 4000 or 5000 years ago. This is evident from the frequent +references to them in the "Book of the Dead" as far back as the 6th +Dynasty. Like the dwarfs in medieval times, they were in high request at +the courts of the Pharaohs, who sent expeditions to fetch these _Danga_ +(_Tank_) from the "Island of the Double," that is, the fabulous region +of Shade Land beyond Punt, where they dwelt. The first of whom there is +authentic record was brought from this region, apparently the White +Nile, to King Assa (3300 B.C.) by his officer, Baurtet. Some 70 years +later Heru-Khuf, another officer, was sent by Pepi II "to bring back a +pygmy alive and in good health," from the land of great trees away to +the south[294]. That the Danga came from the south we know from a later +inscription at Karnak, and that the word meant dwarf is clear from the +accompanying determinative of a short person of stunted growth. + +It is curious to note in this connection that the limestone statue of +the dwarf Nem-hotep, found in his tomb at Sakkara and figured by Ernest +Grosse, has a thick elongated head suggesting artificial deformation, +unshapely mouth, dull expression, strong full chest, and small deformed +feet, on which he seems badly balanced. It will be remembered that +Schweinfurth's Akkas from Mangbattuland were also represented as +top-heavy, although the best observers, Junker and others, describe +those of the Welle and Congo forests as shapely and by no means +ill-proportioned. + +Kollmann also, who has examined the remains of the Neolithic pygmies +from the Schweizersbild Station, Switzerland, "is quite certain that the +dwarf-like proportions of the latter have nothing in common with +diseased conditions. This, from many points of view, is a highly +interesting discovery. It is possible, as Nueesch suggests, that the +widely-spread legend as to the former existence of little men, dwarfs +and gnomes, who were supposed to haunt caves and retired places in the +mountains, may be a reminiscence of these Neolithic pygmies[295]." + +This is what may be called the picturesque aspect of the Negrillo +question, which it seems almost a pity to spoil by too severe a +criticism. But "ethnologic truth" obliges us to say that the +identification of the African Negrillo with Kollmann's European dwarfs +still lacks scientific proof. Even craniology fails us here, and +although the Negrilloes are in great majority round-headed, R. Verneau +has shown that there may be exceptions[296], while the theory of the +general uniformity of the physical type has broken down at some other +points. Thus the _Dume_, south of Gallaland, discovered by Donaldson +Smith[297] in the district where the _Doko_ Negrilloes had long been +heard of, and even seen by Antoine d'Abbadie in 1843, were found to +average five feet, or more than one foot over the mean of the true +Negrillo. D'Abbadie in fact declared that his "Dokos" were not pygmies +at all[298], while Donaldson Smith now tells us that "doko" is only a +term of contempt applied by the local tribes to their "poor relations." +"Their chief characteristics were a black skin, round features, woolly +hair, small oval-shaped eyes, rather thick lips, high cheekbones, a +broad forehead, and very well formed bodies" (p. 273). + +The expression of the eye was canine, "sometimes timid and +suspicious-looking, sometimes very amiable and merry, and then again +changing suddenly to a look of intense anger." Pygmies, he adds, +"inhabited the whole of the country north of Lakes Stephanie and Rudolf +long before any of the tribes now to be found in the neighbourhood; but +they have been gradually killed off in war, and have lost their +characteristics by inter-marriage with people of large stature, so that +only this one little remnant, the Dume, remains to prove the existence +of a pygmy race. Formerly they lived principally by hunting, and they +still kill a great many elephants with their poisoned arrows" (pp. +274-5). + +Some of these remarks apply also to the _Wandorobbo_, another small +people who range nearly as far north as the Dume, but are found chiefly +farther south all over Masailand, and belong, I have little doubt, to +the same connection. They are the henchmen of the Masai, whom they +provide with big game in return for divers services. + +Those met by W. Astor Chanler were also "armed with bows and arrows, and +each carried an elephant-spear, which they called _bonati_. This spear +is six feet in length, thick at either end, and narrowed where grasped +by the hand. In one end is bored a hole, into which is fitted an arrow +two feet long, as thick as one's thumb, and with a head two inches +broad. Their method of killing elephants is to creep cautiously up to +the beast, and drive a spear into its loin. A quick twist separates the +spear from the arrow, and they make off as fast and silently as +possible. In all cases the arrows are poisoned; and if they are well +introduced into the animal's body, the elephant does not go far[299]." + +From some of the peculiarities of the Achua (Wochua) Negrilloes met by +Junker south of the Welle one can understand why these little people +were such favourites with the old Egyptian kings. These were +"distinguished by sharp powers of observation, amazing talent for +mimicry, and a good memory. A striking proof of this was afforded by an +Achua whom I had seen and measured four years previously in Rumbek, and +now again met at Gambari's. His comic ways and quick nimble movements +made this little fellow the clown of our society. He imitated with +marvellous fidelity the peculiarities of persons whom he had once seen; +for instance, the gestures and facial expressions of Jussuf Pasha +esh-Shelahis and of Haj Halil at their devotions, as well as the address +and movements of Emin Pasha, 'with the four eyes' (spectacles). His +imitation of Hawash Effendi in a towering rage, storming and abusing +everybody, was a great success; and now he took me off to the life, +rehearsing after four years, down to the minutest details, and with +surprising accuracy, my anthropometric performance when measuring his +body at Rumbek[300]." + +A somewhat similar account is given by Ludwig Wolf of the Ba-Twa pygmies +visited by him and Wissmann in the Kassai region. Here are whole +villages in the forest-glades inhabited by little people with an average +height of about 4 feet 3 inches. They are nomads, occupied exclusively +with hunting and the preparation of palm-wine, and are regarded by their +Ba-Kubu neighbours as benevolent little people, whose special mission is +to provide the surrounding tribes with game and palm-wine in exchange +for manioc, maize, and bananas[301]. + +Despite the above-mentioned deviations, occurring chiefly about the +borderlands, considerable uniformity both of physical and mental +characters is found to prevail amongst the typical Negrillo groups +scattered in small hunting communities all over the Welle, Semliki, +Congo, and Ogowai woodlands. Their main characters are thus described. +Their skin is of a reddish or yellowish brown in colour, sometimes very +dark. Their height varies from 1.37 m. to 1.45 m. (4 ft. 4-1/4 in. to 4 +ft. 9-1/4 in.[302]). Their hair is very short and woolly, usually of a +dark rusty brown colour; the face hair is variable, but the body is +usually covered with a light downy hair. The cephalic index is 79. The +nose is very broad and exceptionally flattened at the root; the lips are +usually thin, and the upper one long; the eyes are protuberant; the face +is sometimes prognathic. Steatopygia occurs. They are a markedly +intelligent people, innately musical, cunning, revengeful and suspicious +in disposition, but they never steal. + +They are nomadic hunters and collectors, never resorting to agriculture. +They have no domestic animals. Only meat is cooked. They wear no +clothing. They use bows and poisoned arrows. Their language is unknown. +They live in small communities which centre round a cunning fighter or +able hunter. Their dead are buried in the ground. They differ from +surrounding Negroes in having no veneration for the departed, no +amulets, no magicians or professional priests. They have charms for +ensuring luck in hunting, but it is uncertain whether these charms +derive their potency from the supreme being, though evidence of belief +in a high-god is reported from various pygmy peoples.[303] + + +THE BUSHMEN AND HOTTENTOTS. + +Towards the south the Negrillo domain was formerly conterminous with +that of the Bushmen, of whom traces were discovered by Sir H. H. +Johnston[304] as far north as Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, and who, it +has been conjectured, belong to the same primitive stock. The +differences mental and physical now separating the two sections of the +family may perhaps be explained by the different environments--hot, +moist and densely wooded in the north, and open steppes in the +south--but until more is known of the African pygmies their affinities +must remain undecided. + +The relationship between the Bushmen and the Hottentots is another +disputed question. Early authorities regarded the Hottentots as the +parent family, and the Bushmen as the offspring, but the researches of +Gustav Fritsch, E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall[305] and others show that the +Hottentots are a cross between the Bushmen--the primitive race--and the +Bantu, the Bushman element being seen in the leathery colour, prominent +cheek-bones, pointed chin, steatopygia and other special characters. + +In prehistoric times the Hottentots ranged over a vast area. Evidence +has now been produced of the presence of a belated Hottentot or +Hottentot-Bushman group as far north as the Kwa-Kokue district, between +Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza. The _Wa-Sandawi_ people here visited by +Oskar Neumann are not Bantus, and speak a language radically distinct +from that of the neighbouring Bantus, but full of clicks like that of +the Bushmen[306]. Two Sandawi skulls examined by Virchow[307] showed +distinct Hottentot characters, with a cranial capacity of 1250 and 1265 +c.c., projecting upper jaw and orthodolicho head[308]. The geographical +prefix _Kwa_, common in the district (Kwa-Kokue, Kwa-Mtoro, Kwa-Hindi), +is pure Hottentot, meaning "people," like the postfix _qua_ (_Kwa_) of +Kora-_qua_, Nama-_qua_, etc. in the present Hottentot domain. The +transposition of prefixes and postfixes is a common linguistic +phenomenon, as seen in the Sumero-Akkadian of Babylonia, in the +Neo-Sanskritic tongues of India, and the Latin, Oscan, and other members +of the Old Italic group. + +Farther south a widely-diffused Hottentot-Bushman geographical +terminology attests the former range of this primitive race all over +South Africa, as far north as the Zambesi. Lichtenstein had already +discovered such traces in the Zulu country[309], and Vater points out +that "for some districts the fact has been fully established; mountains +and rivers now occupied by the Koossa [Ama-Xosa] preserve in their +Hottentot names the certain proof that they at one time formed a +permanent possession of this people[310]." + +Thanks to the custom of raising heaps of stones or cairns over the +graves of renowned chiefs, the migrations of the Hottentots may be +followed in various directions to the very heart of South Zambesia. Here +the memory of their former presence is perpetuated in the names of such +water-courses as Nos-ob, Up, Mol-opo, Hyg-ap, Gar-ib, in which the +syllables _ob_, _up_, _ap_, _ib_ and others are variants of the +Hottentot word _ib_, _ip_, water, river, as in _Gar-ib_, the "Great +River," now better known as the Orange River. The same indications may +be traced right across the continent to the Atlantic, where nearly all +the coast streams--even in Hereroland, where the language has long been +extinct--have the same ending[311]. + +On the west side the Bushmen are still heard of as far north as the +Cunene, and in the interior beyond Lake Ngami nearly to the right bank +of the Zambesi. But the Hottentots are now confined mainly to Great and +Little Namaqualand. Elsewhere there appear to be no full-blood natives +of this race, the Koraquas, Gonaquas, Griquas, etc. being all +Hottentot-Boer or Hottentot-Bantu half-castes of Dutch speech. In Cape +Colony the tribal organisation ceased to exist in 1810, when the last +Hottentot chief was replaced by a European magistrate. Still the +Koraquas keep themselves somewhat distinct about the Upper Orange and +Vaal Rivers, and the Griquas in Griqualand East, while the Gonaquas, +that is, "Borderers," are being gradually merged in the Bantu +populations of the Eastern Provinces. There are at present scarcely +180,000 south of the Orange River, and of these the great majority are +half-breeds[312]. + +Despite their extremely low state of culture, or, one might say, the +almost total lack of culture, the Bushmen are distinguished by two +remarkable qualities, a fine sense of pictorial or graphic art[313], and +a rich imagination displayed in a copious oral folklore, much of which, +collected by Bleek, is preserved in manuscript form in Sir George Grey's +library at Cape Town[314]. The materials here stored for future use, +perhaps long after the race itself has vanished for ever, comprise no +less than 84 thick volumes of 3600 double-column pages, besides an +unfinished Bushman dictionary with 11,000 entries. There are two great +sections, (1) Myths, fables, legends and poetry, with tales about the +sun and moon, the stars, the _Mantis_ and other animals, legends of +peoples who dwelt in the land before the Bushmen, songs, charms, and +even prayers; (2) Histories, adventures of men and animals, customs, +superstitions, genealogies, and so on. + +In the tales and myths the sun, moon, and animals speak either with +their own proper clicks, or else use the ordinary clicks in some way +peculiar to themselves. Thus Bleek tells us that the tortoise changes +clicks in labials, the ichneumon in palatals, the jackal substitutes +linguo-palatals for labials, while the moon, hare, and ant-eater use +"a most unpronounceable click" of their own. How many there may be +altogether, not one of which can be properly uttered by Europeans, +nobody seems to know. But grammarians have enumerated nine, indicated +each by a graphic sign as under: + + Cerebral [Symbol] Palatal [Symbol] + Dental [Symbol] Lateral (Faucal) [Symbol] + Guttural [Symbol] Labial [Symbol] + Spiro-dental [Symbol] Linguo-palatal [Symbol] + Undefined [Symbol] + +From Bushman--a language in a state of flux, fragmentary as the small +tribal or rather family groups that speak it[315]--these strange +inarticulate sounds passed to the number of four into the remotely +related Hottentot, and thence to the number of three into the wholly +unconnected Zulu-Xosa. But they are heard nowhere else to my knowledge +except amongst the newly-discovered Wa-Sandawi people of South +Masailand. At the same time we know next to nothing of the Negrillo +tongues, and should clicks be discovered to form an element in their +phonetic system also[316], it would support the assumption of a common +origin of all these dwarfish races now somewhat discredited on +anatomical grounds. + +M. G. Bertin, to whom we are indebted for an excellent monograph on the +Bushman[317], rightly remarks that he is not, at least mentally, so +debased as he has been described by the early travellers and by the +neighbouring Bantus and Boers, by whom he has always been despised and +harried. "His greatest love is for freedom, he acknowledges no master, +and possesses no slaves. It is this love of independence which made him +prefer the wandering life of a hunter to that of a peaceful +agriculturist or shepherd, as the Hottentot. He rarely builds a hut, but +prefers for abode the natural caves he finds in the rocks. In other +localities he forms a kind of nest in the bush--hence his name of +Bushman--or digs with his nails subterranean caves, from which he has +received the name of 'Earthman.' His garments consist only of a small +skin. His weapons are still the spear, arrow and bow in their most +rudimentary form. The spear is a mere branch of a tree, to which is tied +a piece of bone or flint; the arrow is only a reed treated in the same +way. The arrow and spear-heads are always poisoned, to render mortal the +slight wounds they inflict. He gathers no flocks, which would impede his +movements, and only accepts the help of dogs as wild as himself. The +Bushmen have, however, one implement, a rounded stone perforated in the +middle, in which is inserted a piece of wood; with this instrument, +which carries us back to the first age of man, they dig up a few edible +roots growing wild in the desert. To produce fire, he still retains the +primitive system of rubbing two pieces of wood--another prehistoric +survival." + +Touching their name, it is obvious that these scattered groups, without +hereditary chiefs or social organisation of any kind, could have no +collective designation. The term _Khuai_, of uncertain meaning, but +probably to be equated with the Hottentot _Khoi_, "Men," is the name +only of a single group, though often applied to the whole race. _Saan_, +their Hottentot name, is the plural of Sa, a term also of uncertain +origin; _Ba-roa_, current amongst the Be-Chuanas, has not been +explained, while the Zulu _Abatwa_ would seem to connect them even by +name with Wolf's and Stanley's _Ba-Twa_ of the Congo forest region. +Other so-called tribal names (there are no "tribes" in the strict sense +of the word) are either nicknames imposed upon them by their +neighbours, or else terms taken from the localities, as amongst the +Fuegians. + +We may conclude with the words of W. J. Sollas: "The more we know of +these wonderful little people the more we learn to admire and like them. +To many solid virtues--untiring energy, boundless patience, and fertile +invention, steadfast courage, devoted loyalty, and family +affection--they added a native refinement of manners and a rare +aesthetic sense. We may learn from them how far the finer excellences of +life may be attained in the hunting stage. In their golden age, before +the coming of civilised man, they enjoyed their life to the full, glad +with the gladness of primeval creatures. The story of their later days, +their extermination and the cruel manner of it, is a tale of horror on +which we do not care to dwell. They haunt no more the sunlit veldt, +their hunting is over, their nation is destroyed; but they leave behind +an imperishable memory, they have immortalised themselves in their +art[318]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[223] C. Meinhof holds that Proto-Bantu arose through the mixture of a +Sudan language with one akin to Fulah. _An Introduction to the Study of +African Languages_, 1915, p. 151 sqq. + +[224] Bantu, properly Aba-ntu, "people." _Aba_ is one of the numerous +personal prefixes, each with its corresponding singular form, which are +the cause of so much confusion in Bantu nomenclature. To _aba_, _ab_, +_ba_ answers a sing. _umu_, _um_, _mu_, so that sing. _umu-ntu_, +_um-ntu_ or _mu-ntu_, a man, a person; plu. _aba-ntu_, _ab-ntu_, ba-ntu. +But in some groups mu is also plural, the chief dialectic variants +being, _Ama_, _Aba_, _Ma_, _Ba_, _Wa_, _Ova_, _Va_, _Vua_, _U_, _A_, +_O_, _Eshi_, as in Ama-Zulu, Mu-Sarongo, Ma-Yomba, Wa-Swahili, +Ova-Herero, Vua-Twa, Ba-Suto, Eshi-Kongo. For a tentative classification +of African tribes see T. A. Joyce, Art. "Africa: Ethnology," _Ency. +Brit._ 1910, p. 329. For the classification of Bantu tongues into 44 +groups consult H. H. Johnston, Art. "Bantu Languages," _loc. cit._ + +[225] _Eth._ Ch. XI. + +[226] _Le Naturaliste_, Jan. 1894. + +[227] _Tour de Monde_, 1896, I. p. 1 sq.; and _Les Bayas_; _Notes +Ethnographiques et Linguistiques_, Paris, 1896. + +[228] D. Randall-MacIver, _Mediaeval Rhodesia_, 1906. But R. N. Hall, +_Prehistoric Rhodesia_, 1909, strongly opposes this view. See below, p. +105. + +[229] Even Tipu Tib, their chief leader and "Prince of Slavers," was a +half-caste with distinctly Negroid features. + +[230] "Afilo wurde mir vom Lega-Koenig als ein Negerland bezeichnet, +welches von einer Galla-Aristokratie beherrscht wird" (_Petermann's +Mitt._ 1883, V. p. 194). + +[231] The Ba-Hima are herdsmen in Buganda, a sort of aristocracy in +Unyoro, a ruling caste in Toro, and the dominant race with dynasties in +Ankole. The name varies in different areas. + +[232] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1895, p. 424. For details of the Ba-Hima +type see _Eth._ p. 389. + +[233] J. Roscoe, _The Northern Bantu_, 1915, p. 103. Herein are also +described the _Bakene_, lake dwellers, the _Bagesu_, a cannibal tribe, +the _Basoga_ and the Nilotic tribes the _Bateso_ and _Kavirondo_. + +[234] J. Roscoe, _loc. cit._ pp. 4, 5. + +[235] "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLIII. 1913, p. 390. + +[236] _Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika_, 1910, p. 147. + +[237] "Die erste Ausbreitung des Menschengeschlechts." _Pol. Anthropol. +Revue_, 1909, p. 72. Cf. chronology on p. 14 above. + +[238] _Ethnology_, p. 199. + +[239] Uganda is the name now applied to the whole Protectorate, Buganda +is the small kingdom, Baganda, the people, Muganda, one person, Luganda, +the language. H. H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, 1902, and J. F. +Cunningham, _Uganda and its Peoples_, 1905, cover much of the elementary +anthropology of East Central Africa. + +[240] The legend is given with much detail by H. M. Stanley in _Through +the Dark Continent_, Vol. I. p. 344 sq. Another and less mythical +account of the migrations of "the people with a white skin from the far +north-east" is quoted from Emin Pasha by the Rev. R. P. Ashe in _Two +Kings of Uganda_, p. 336. Here the immigrant Ba-Hima are expressly +stated to have "adopted the language of the aborigines" (p. 337). + +[241] Sir H. H. Johnston, _op. cit._ p. 514. + +[242] Except the Lung-fish clan. + +[243] J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, 1911. + +[244] For the _Wa-Kikuyu_ see W. S. and K. Routledge, _With a +Prehistoric People_, 1910, and C. W. Hobley's papers in the _Journ. Roy. +Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, and XLI. 1911. The _Atharaka_ are described by +A. M. Champion, _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLII. 1912, p. 68. Consult +for this region C. Eliot, _The East Africa Protectorate_, 1905; K. +Weule, _Native Life in East Africa_, 1909; C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of +the A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_, 1910; M. Weiss, _Die +Voelkerstaemme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_, 1910; and A. Werner, "The +Bantu Coast Tribes of the East Africa Protectorate," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLV. 1915. + +[245] _Official Report on the East African Protectorate_, 1897. + +[246] _Vocabulary of the Giryama Language_, S.P.C.K. 1897. + +[247] _Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa_, London, 1898, +p. 103 sq. + +[248] A. Werner, "Girijama Texts," _Zeitschr. f. Kol.-spr._ Oct. 1914. + +[249] Having become the chief medium of intercourse throughout the +southern Bantu regions, Ki-swahili has been diligently cultivated, +especially by the English missionaries, who have wisely discarded the +Arab for the Roman characters. There is already an extensive literature, +including grammars, dictionaries, translations of the Bible and other +works, and even _A History of Rome_ issued by the S.P.C.K. in 1898. + +[250] W. E. H. Barrett, "Notes on the Customs and Beliefs of the +Wa-Giriama," etc., _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, gives further +details. For a full review of the religious beliefs of Bantu tribes see +E. S. Hartland, Art. "Bantu and S. Africa," _Ency. of Religion and +Ethics_, 1909. + +[251] The name still survives in _Zangue-bar_ ("Zang-land") and the +adjacent island of _Zanzibar_ (an Indian corruption). _Zang_ is "black," +and _bar_ is the same Arabic word, meaning dry land, that we have in +_Mala-bar_ on the opposite side of the Indian Ocean. Cf. also _barran wa +bahran_, "by land and by sea." + +[252] _Viage por Malabar y Costas de Africa_, 1512, translated by the +Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley, Hakluyt Society, 1868. + +[253] In preference to the more popular form _Zulu-Kafir_, where _Kafir_ +is merely the Arabic "Infidel" applied indiscriminately to any people +rejecting Islam; hence the _Siah Posh Kafirs_ ("Black-clad Infidels") of +Afghanistan; the _Kufra_ oasis in the Sahara, where _Kufra_, plural of +_Kafir_, refers to the pagan Tibus of that district; and the Kafirs +generally of the East African seaboard. But according to English usage +_Zulu_ is applied to the northern part of the territory, mainly Zululand +proper and Natal, while Kafirland or Kaffraria is restricted to the +southern section between Natal and the Great Kei River. The bulk of +these southern "Kafirs" belong to the Xosa connection; hence this term +takes the place of _Kafir_, in the compound expression _Zulu-Xosa_. +_Ama_ is explained on p. 86, and the _X_ of _Xosa_ represents an +unpronounceable combination of a guttural and a lateral click, this with +two other clicks (a dental and a palatal) having infected the speech of +these Bantus during their long prehistoric wars with the Hottentots or +Bushmen. See p. 129. + +[254] See p. 86 above. + +[255] See the admirable monograph on the Ba-Thonga, by H. A. Junod, _The +Life of a South African Tribe_, 1912. + +[256] Robert Codrington tells us that these A-Ngoni (Aba-Ngoni) spring +from a Zulu tribe which crossed the Zambesi about 1825, and established +themselves south-east of L. Tanganyika, but later migrated to the +uplands west of L. Nyasa, where they founded three petty states. Others +went east of the Livingstone range, and are here still known as +Magwangwara. But all became gradually assimilated to the surrounding +populations. Intermarrying with the women of the country they preserve +their speech, dress, and usages for the first generation in a slightly +modified form, although the language of daily intercourse is that of the +mothers. Then this class becomes the aristocracy of the whole nation, +which henceforth comprises a great part of the aborigines ruled by a +privileged caste of Zulu origin, "perpetuated almost entirely among +themselves" ("Central Angoniland," _Geograph. Jour._ May, 1898, p. 512). +See A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_, 1906. + +[257] Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, p. 194. Among recent works +on the Zulu-Xosa tribes may be mentioned Dudley Kidd, _The Essential +Kafir_, 1904, _Savage Childhood_, 1905; H. A. Junod, _The Life of a +South African Tribe_ (Ba-Thonga), 1912-3; G. W. Stow and G. M. Theal, +_The Native Races of South Africa_, 1905. + +[258] From _Mwana_, lord, master, and _tapa_, to dig, both common Bantu +words. + +[259] The point was that Portugal had made treaties with this mythical +State, in virtue of which she claimed in the "scramble for Africa" all +the hinterlands behind her possessions on the east and west coasts +(Mozambique and Angola), in fact all South Africa between the Orange and +Zambesi rivers. Further details on the "Monomotapa Question" will be +found in my monograph on "The Portuguese in South Africa" in Murray's +_South Africa, from Arab Domination to British Rule_, 1891, p. 11 sq. +Five years later Mr G. McCall Theal also discovered, no doubt +independently, the mythical character of Monomotapaland in his book on +_The Portuguese in South Africa_, 1896. + +[260] _Proc. R. Geogr. Soc._ May, 1892, and _The Ruined Cities of +Mashonaland_, 1892. + +[261] D. Randall-MacIver, _Mediaeval Rhodesia_, 1906. But R. N. Hall +strongly combats his views, _Great Zimbabwe_, 1905, _Prehistoric +Rhodesia_, 1909, and _South African Journal of Science_, May, 1912. H. +H. Johnston says, "I see nothing inherently improbable in the finding of +gold by proto-Arabs in the south-eastern part of Zambezia; nor in the +pre-Islamic Arab origin of Zimbabwe," p. 396, "A Survey of the +Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913. + +[262] G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_, 1905. + +[263] The British Protectorate was limited in 1905 to about 182,000 +square miles. + +[264] Cf. A. St H. Gibbons, _Africa South to North through Marotseland_, +1904, and C. W. Mackintosh, _Coillard of the Zambesi_, 1907, with a +bibliography. + +[265] The Ma-Kololo gave the Ba-Rotse their present name. They were +originally Aaelui, but the conquerors called them Ma-Rotse, people of the +plain. + +[266] _Ten Years North of the Orange River._ + +[267] Cf. G. M. Theal, _The History of South Africa_ 1908-9, and _The +Beginning of South African History_, 1902. + +[268] _Op. cit._ p. 47. + +[269] G. Lagden, _The Basutos_, 1909. + +[270] Variously termed _Ba-Kongo_, _Bashi-Kongo_ or _Ba-Fiot_. + +[271] _Towards the Mountains of the Moon_, 1884, p. 128. + +[272] _Dictionary and Grammar of the Kongo Language_, 1887, p. xxiii. F. +Starr has published a _Bibliography of the Congo Languages_, Bull. V., +Dept. of Anthropology, University of Chicago, 1908. + +[273] "Li Mociconghi cosi nomati nel suo proprio idioma gli abitanti del +reame di Congo" (_Relatione_, etc., Rome, 1591, p. 68). This form is +remarkable, being singular (_Moci = Mushi_) instead of plural (_Eshi_); +yet it is still currently applied to the rude "Mushi-Kongos" on the +south side of the estuary. Their real name however is Bashi-Kongo. See +_Brit. Mus. Ethnog. Handbook_, p. 219. + +[274] Often written _Ba-Fiort_ with an intrusive _r_. + +[275] Under Belgian administration much ethnological work has been +undertaken, and published in the _Annales du Musee du Congo_, notably +the magnificent monograph on the _Bushongo_ (_Bakuba_) by E. Torday and +T. A. Joyce, 1911. See also H. H. Johnston, _George Grenfell and the +Congo_, 1908; M. W. Hilton-Simpson, _Land and Peoples of the Kasai_, +1911; E. Torday, _Camp and Tramp in African Wilds_, 1913; J. H. Weeks, +_Among Congo Cannibals_, 1913, and _Among the Primitive Bakongo_, 1914; +and Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg, _From the Congo to the Niger +and the Nile_, 1913. + +[276] _The First Ascent of the Kassai_, 1889, p. 20 sq. See also my +communication to the _Academy_, April 6, 1889, and _Africa_ (Stanford's +Compendium), 1895, Vol. II. p. 117 sq. + +[277] _Op. cit._ p. 20. + +[278] _The New World of Central Africa_, 1890, p. 466 sq. + +[279] _Op. cit._ p. 471. + +[280] These _Mpangwe_ savages are constantly confused with the +_Mpongwes_ of the Gabun, a settled Bantu people who have been long in +close contact, and on friendly terms, with the white traders and +missionaries in this district. + +[281] The scanty information about the Ba-Teke is given, with +references, by E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Ethnography of +the Ba-Huana," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVI. 1906. + +[282] My _Africa_, II. p. 58. Oscar Lenz, who perhaps knew them best, +says: "Gut gebaut, schlank und kraeftig gewachsen, Hautfarbe viel +lichter, manchmal stark ins Gelbe spielend, Haar und Bartwuchs +auffallend stark, sehr grosse Kinnbaerte" (_Skizzen aus West-Afrika_, +1878, p. 73). + +[283] M. H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, 1897, pp. 331-2. + +[284] _Official Report_, 1886. + +[285] H. H. Johnston, _George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on +the Cameroons_, 1908. + +[286] Reclus, English ed., XII. p. 376. + +[287] So also in Minahassa, Celebes, _Empung_, "Grandfather," is the +generic name of the gods. "The fundamental ideas of primitive man are +the same all the world over. Just as the little black baby of the Negro, +the brown baby of the Malay, the yellow baby of the Chinaman are in face +and form, in gestures and habits, as well as in the first articulate +sounds they mutter, very much alike, so the mind of man, whether he be +Aryan or Malay, Mongolian or Negrito, has in the course of its evolution +passed through stages which are practically identical" (Sydney J. +Hickson, _A Naturalist in North Celebes_, 1889, p. 240). + +[288] _Op. cit._ p. 96. + +[289] "The God of the Ethiopians," in _Nature_, May 26, 1892. + +[290] A. B. Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 23; _Ewe_, p. 31; _Yoruba_, p. 36. + +[291] Cf. E. S. Hartland, Art. "Bantu and S. Africa," _Ency. of Religion +and Ethics_, 1909. + +[292] This account of the Vaalpens is taken from A. H. Keane, _The +World's Peoples_, 1908, p. 149. + +[293] This summary of our information about the Strandloopers, with +quotations from F. C. Shrubsall and L. Peringuey, is taken from H. H. +Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLIII. 1913, p. 377. + +[294] Schiaparelli, _Una Tomba Egiziana_, Rome, 1893. + +[295] James Geikie, _Scottish Geogr. Mag._ Sept. 1897. + +[296] Thus he finds (_L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 153) a presumably +Negrillo skull from the Babinga district, Middle Sangha river, to be +distinctly long-headed (73.2) with, for this race, the enormous cranial +capacity of about 1440 c.c. Cf. the Akka measured by Sir W. Flower (1372 +c.c.), and his Andamanese (1128), the highest hitherto known being 1200 +(Virchow). + +[297] _Through Unknown African Countries_, etc., 1897. + +[298] _Bul. Soc. Geogr._ XIX. p. 440. + +[299] _Through Jungle and Desert_, 1896, pp. 358-9. + +[300] _Travels_, III. p. 86. + +[301] _Im Innern Afrika's_, p. 259 sq. As stated in _Eth._ Ch. XI. Dr +Wolf connects all these Negrillo peoples with the Bushmen south of the +Zambesi. + +[302] One of the Mambute brought to England by Col. Harrison in 1906 +measured just over 3-1/2 feet. + +[303] See A. C. Haddon, Art. "Negrillos and Negritos," _Ency. of +Religion and Ethics_, 1917. + +[304] "It would seem as if the earliest known race of man inhabiting +what is now British Central Africa was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot +type of Negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the centre, similar to +those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for weighting their +digging-sticks, have been found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika. I +have heard that other examples of these 'Bushman' stones have been found +nearer to Lake Nyasa, etc." (_British Central Africa_, p. 52). + +[305] G. Fritsch, _Die Ein-geborenen Sud-Afrikas_, 1872, "Schilderungen +der Hottentotten," _Globus_, 1875, p. 374 ff.; E. T. Hamy, "Les Races +negres," _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 257 ff.; F. Shrubsall, "Crania of +African Bush Races," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1897. See also G. McCall +Theal, _The Yellow and Dark-skinned People South of the Zambesi_, 1910. + +[306] "I have not been able to trace much affinity in word roots between +this language and either Bushman or Hottentot, though it is noteworthy +that the word for four ... is almost identical with the word for four in +all the Hottentot dialects, while the phonology of the language is +reminiscent of Bushmen in its nasals and gutturals" (H. H. Johnston, +"Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. +1913, p. 380). + +[307] _Verhandl. Berliner Gesellsch. f. Anthrop._ 1895, p. 59. + +[308] Of another skull undoubtedly Hottentot, from a cave on the +Transvaal and Orange Free State frontier, Dr Mies remarks that "seine +Form ist orthodolichocephal wie bei den Wassandaui," although differing +in some other characters (_Centralbl. f. Anthr._ 1896, p. 50). + +[309] From which he adds that the Hottentots "schon lange vor der +Portugiesischen Umschiffung Afrika's von Kaffer-Staemmen wieder +zurueckgedraengt wurden" (_Reisen_, I. p. 400). + +[310] Adelung und Vater, Berlin, 1812, III. p. 290. + +[311] Such are, going north from below Walvisch Bay, Chuntop, Kuisip, +Swakop, Ugab, Huab, Uniab, Hoanib, Kaurasib, and Khomeb. + +[312] The returns for 1904 showed a "Hottentot" population of 85,892, +but very few were pure Hottentots. The official estimate of those in +which Hottentot blood was strongly marked was 56,000. + +[313] M. H. Tongue and E. D. Bleek, _Bushman Paintings_, 1909. Cf. W. J. +Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, p. 399, with bibliography. + +[314] W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd, _Bushman Folklore_, 1911. + +[315] See W. Planert, "Ueber die Sprache der Hottentotten und +Buschmaenner," _Mitt. d. Seminars f. Oriental. Sprachen z. Berlin_, VIII. +(1905), Abt. III. 104-176. + +[316] "In the Pygmies of the north-eastern corner of the Congo basin and +amongst the Bantu tribes of the Equatorial East African coast there is a +tendency to faucal gasps or explosive consonants which suggests the +vanishing influence of clicks." H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the +Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913. + +[317] "The Bushmen and their Language," in _Journ. R. Asiatic Soc._ +XVIII. Part 1. + +[318] _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, p. 425. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS (PAPUANS AND MELANESIANS)--NEGRITOES-- +TASMANIANS + + General Ethnical Relations in Oceania--The terms PAPUAN, MELANESIAN + and PAPUASIAN defined--The Papuasian Domain, Past and Present-- + Papuans and Melanesians--Physical Characters: Papuan, + Papuo-Melanesian, Melanesian--The _New Caledonians_--Physical + Characters--Food Question--General Survey of Melanesian + Ethnology--Cultural Problems--Kava-drinking and Betel-chewing--Stone + Monuments--The Dual People--Summary of Culture Strata--Melanesian + Culture--Dress--Houses--Weapons--Canoes, etc.--Social Life--Secret + Societies--Clubs--Religion--Western Papuasia--Ethnical Elements-- + Region of Transition by Displacements and Crossings--Papuan and + Malay Contrasts--Ethnical and Biological Divides--The Negritoes-- + The _Andamanese_--Stone Age--Personal Appearance--Social Life-- + Religion--Speech--Method of Counting--Grammatical Structure-- + The _Semangs_--Physical Appearance--Usages--Speech--Stone Age-- + The _Aetas_--Head-Hunters--_New Guinea Pygmies_--Negrito Culture-- + The _Tasmanians_--Tasmanian Culture--Fire Making--Tools and + Weapons--Diet--Dwellings--Extinction. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# Papuasian: _East Malaysia, New Guinea, Melanesia_; +Tasmanian: _extinct_; Negrito: _Andamans, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, +New Guinea_. + +#Hair.# Papuasian: _black, frizzly, mop-like, beard scanty or absent_; +Tasmanian: _black, shorter and less mop-like than Papuasian_; Negrito: +_short, woolly or frizzly, black, sometimes tinged with brown or red_. + +#Colour.# All: _very deep shades of chocolate brown, often verging on +black, a very constant character, lighter shades showing mixture_. + +#Skull.# Papuasian: _extremely dolichocephalic (68-73) and high, but +very variable in areas of mixture. (70-84)_; Tasmanian: _dolichocephalic +or mesaticephalic (75)_; Negrito: _brachycephalic (80-85)_. + +#Jaws.# Papuasian: _moderately or not at all prognathous_; Tasmanian +_and_ Negrito: _generally prognathous_. #Cheek-bones.# All: _slightly +prominent or even retreating_. #Nose.# Papuasian: _large, straight, +generally aquiline in true Papuans_; Tasmanian _and_ Negrito: _short, +flat, broad, wide nostrils (platyrrhine) with large thick cartilage_. +#Eyes.# All: _moderately large, round and black or very deep brown, with +dirty yellowish cornea, generally deep-set with strong overhanging +arches_. + +#Stature.# Papuasian _and_ Tasmanian: _above the average, but variable, +with rather wide range from 1.62 m. to 1.77 or 1.82 m. (5 ft. 4 in. to 5 +ft. 10 in. or 6 ft.)_; Negrito: _undersized, but taller than African +Negrillo, 1.37 m. to 1.52 m. (4. ft. 6 in. to 5 ft.)_. + +#Temperament.# Papuasian: _very excitable, voluble and laughter-loving, +fairly intelligent and imaginative_; Tasmanian: _distinctly less +excitable and intelligent, but also far less cruel, captives never +tortured_; Negrito: _active, quick-witted or cunning within narrow +limits, naturally kind and gentle_. + +#Speech.# Papuasian _and_ Tasmanian: _agglutinating with postfixes, many +stock languages in West Papuasia, apparently one only in East Papuasia +(Austronesian)_; Negrito: _scarcely known except in Andamans, where +agglutination both by class prefixes and by postfixes has acquired a +phenomenal development_. + +#Religion.# Papuasian: _reverence paid to ancestors, who may become +beneficent or malevolent ghosts_; _general belief in_ mana _or +supernatural power_; _no priests or idols_; Negrito: _exceedingly +primitive_; _belief in spirits, sometimes vague deities_. + +#Culture.# Papuasian: _slightly developed_; _agriculture somewhat +advanced (N. Guinea, N. Caledonia)_; _considerable artistic taste and +fancy shown in the wood-carving of houses, canoes, ceremonial objects, +etc._ All others: _at the lowest hunting stage, without arts or +industries, save the manufacture of weapons, ornaments, baskets, and +rarely (Andamanese) pottery_. + + +Main Divisions. + +#Papuasian#: 1. Western Papuasians (_true Papuans_): _nearly all the New +Guinea natives_; _Aru and other insular groups thence westwards to +Flores_; _Torres Straits and Louisiade Islands_. 2. Eastern Papuasians: +_nearly all the natives of Melanesia from Bismarck Archipelago to New +Caledonia, with most of Fiji, and part of New Guinea_. + +#Negritoes#: 1. Andamanese _Islanders_. 2. Semangs, _in the Malay +Peninsula_. 3. Aetas, _surviving in most of the Philippine Islands_. 4. +_Pygmies in New Guinea._ + + * * * * * + +PAPUASIANS. + +From the data supplied in _Ethnology_, Chap. XI. a reconstruction may be +attempted of the obscure ethnical relations in Australasia on the +following broad lines. + +1. The two main sections of the Ulotrichous division of mankind, now +separated by the intervening waters of the Indian Ocean, are +fundamentally one. + +2. To the Sudanese and Bantu sub-sections in Africa correspond, _mutatis +mutandis_, the Papuan and Melanesian sub-sections in Oceania, the former +being distinguished by great linguistic diversity, the latter by +considerable linguistic uniformity, and both by a rather wide range of +physical variety within certain well-marked limits. + +3. In Africa the physical varieties are due mainly to Semitic and +Hamitic grafts on the Negro stock; in Oceania mainly to Mongoloid +(Malay) and Caucasian (Indonesian) grafts on the Papuan stock. + +4. The Negrillo element in Africa has its counterpart in an analogous +Negrito element in Oceania (Andamanese, Semangs, Aetas, etc.). + +5. In both regions the linguistic diversity apparently presents similar +features--a large number of languages differing profoundly in their +grammatical structure and vocabularies, but all belonging to the same +agglutinative order of speech, and also more or less to the same +phonetic system. + +6. In both regions the linguistic uniformity is generally confined to +one or two geographical areas, Bantuland in Africa and Melanesia in +Oceania. + +7. In Bantuland the linguistic system shows but faint if any +resemblances to any other known tongues, whereas the Melanesian group is +but one branch, though the most archaic, of the vast Austronesian +Family, diffused over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The Papuan +languages are entirely distinct from the Melanesian. They are in some +respects similar to the Australian, but their exact positions are not +yet proved[319]. + +8. Owing to their linguistic, geographical, and to some extent their +physical and social differences, it is desirable to treat the Papuans +and Melanesians as two distinct though closely related sub-groups, and +to restrict the use of the terms PAPUAN and MELANESIAN accordingly, +while both may be conveniently comprised under the general or collective +term PAPUASIAN[320]. + +9. Here, therefore, by _Papuans_ will be understood the true aborigines +of New Guinea with its eastern Louisiade dependency[321], and in the +west many of the Malaysian islands as far as Flores inclusive, where the +black element and non-Malay speech predominate; by _Melanesians_, the +natives of Melanesia as commonly understood, that is, the Admiralty +Isles, New Britain, New Ireland and Duke of York; the Solomon Islands; +Santa Cruz; the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Loyalty, and Fiji, where +the black element and Austronesian speech prevail almost exclusively. +PAPUASIA will thus comprise the insular world from Flores to New +Caledonia. + +Such appear to be the present limits of the Papuasian domain, which +formerly may have included Micronesia also (the Marianne, Pelew, and +Caroline groups), and some writers suggest that it possibly extended +over the whole of Polynesia as far as Easter Island. + +The variation in the inhabitants of New Guinea has often been recognised +and is well described by C. G. Seligman who remarks[322] that the +contrast between the relatively tall, dark-skinned, frizzly-haired +inhabitants of Torres Straits, the Fly River and the neighbouring parts +of New Guinea on the one hand, and the smaller lighter coloured peoples +to the east, is so striking that the two peoples must be recognised as +racially distinct. He restricts the name Papuan to the congeries of +frizzly-haired and often mop-headed peoples whose skin colour is some +shade of brownish black, and proposes the term Papuo-Melanesian for the +generally smaller, lighter coloured, frizzly-haired races of the eastern +peninsula and the islands beyond. Besides these conspicuous differences +"The Papuan is generally taller and is more consistently dolichocephalic +than the Papuo-Melanesian: he is always darker, his usual colour being a +dark chocolate or sooty brown; his head is high and his face, is, as a +rule, long with prominent brow-ridges, above which his rather flat +forehead commonly slopes backwards. The Papuo-Melanesian head is usually +less high and the brow ridges less prominent, while the forehead is +commonly rounded and not retreating. The skin colour runs through the +whole gamut of shades of _cafe-au-lait_, from a lightish yellow with +only a tinge of brown, to a tolerably dark bronze colour. The lightest +shades are everywhere uncommon, and in many localities appear to be +limited to the female sex. The Papuan nose is longer and stouter and is +often so arched as to present the outline known as 'Jewish.' The +character of its bridge varies, typically the nostrils are broad and the +tip of the nose is often hooked downwards. In the Papuo-Melanesian the +nose is generally smaller: both races have frizzly hair, but while this +is universal among Papuans, curly and even wavy hair is common among +both [Eastern and Western] divisions of Papuo-Melanesians[323]." + +The Melanesians are as variable as the natives of New Guinea; the hair +may be curly, or even wavy, showing evidence of racial mixture, and the +skin is chocolate or occasionally copper-coloured. The stature of the +men ranges from 1.50 m. to 1.78 m. (4 ft. 11 in. to 5 ft. 10 in.), with +an average between 1.56 m. and 1.6 m. (5 ft. 1-1/2 in. to 5 ft. 3 in.). +The skull is usually dolichocephalic, but ranges from 67 to 85 and in +certain parts brachycephaly is predominant; the nose shows great +diversity. This type ranges with local variations from the Admiralty +Islands and parts of New Guinea through the Bismarck Archipelago, +Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides and other island groups to Fiji +and New Caledonia. + +The "Kanakas," as the natives of New Caledonia and the Loyalty group are +wrongly[324] called by their present rulers, have been described by +various French investigators. Among the best accounts of them is that of +M. Augustin Bernard[325], based on the observations of de Rochas, +Bourgard, Vieillard, Bertillon, Meinicke, and others. Apart from several +sporadic Polynesian groups in the Loyalties[326], all are typical +Melanesians, long-headed with very broad face at least in the middle, +narrow boat-shaped skull (ceph. index 70)[327], large, massive lower +jaw, often with two supplementary molars[328], colour a dark chocolate, +often with a highly characteristic purple tinge; but de Rochas' +statement that for a few days after birth infants are of a light reddish +yellow hue lacks confirmation; hair less woolly but much longer than the +Negro; beard also longish and frizzly, the peppercorn tufts with +simulated bald spaces being an effect due to the assiduous use of the +comb; very prominent superciliary arches and thick eyebrows, whence +their somewhat furtive look; mean height 5 ft. 4 in.; speech Melanesian +with three marked varieties, that of the south-eastern districts being +considered the most rudimentary member of the whole Melanesian +group[329]. + +From the state of their industries, in some respects the rudest, in +others amongst the most advanced in Melanesia, it may be inferred that +after their arrival the New Caledonians, like the Tasmanians, the +Andamanese, and some other insular groups, remained for long ages almost +completely secluded from the rest of the world. Owing to the poverty of +the soil the struggle for food must always have been severe. Hence the +most jealously guarded privileges of the chiefs were associated with +questions of diet, while the paradise of the dead was a region where +they had abundance of food and could gorge on yams. + +The ethnological history of the whole of the Melanesian region is +obscure, but as the result of recent investigations certain broad +features may be recognised. The earliest inhabitants were probably a +black, woolly-haired race, now represented by the pygmies of New Guinea, +remnants of a formerly widely extended Negrito population also surviving +in the Andaman Islands, the Malay Peninsula (Semang) and the Philippines +(Aeta). A taller variety advanced into Tasmania and formed the Tasmanian +group, now extinct, others spread over New Guinea and the western +Pacific as "Papuans," and formed the basis of the Melanesian +populations[330]. The Proto-Polynesians in their migrations from the +East Indian Archipelago to Polynesia passed through this region and +imposed their speech on the population and otherwise modified it. In +later times other migrations have come from the west, and parts of +Melanesia have also been directly influenced by movements from +Polynesia. The result of these supposed influences has been to form the +Melanesian peoples as they exist to-day[331]. G. Friederici[332] has +accumulated a vast amount of evidence based chiefly on linguistics and +material culture, to support the theory of Melanesian cultural streams +from the west. He regards the Melanesians as having come from that part +of Indonesia which extends from the Southern Islands of the Philippine +group, through the Minahasa peninsula of Celebes, to the Moluccas in the +neighbourhood of Buru and Ceram. From the Moluccan region they passed +north of New Guinea to the region about Vitiaz and Dampier Straits, +which Friederici regards as the gateway of Melanesia. Here they +colonised the northern shores of New Britain, and part of the swarm +settled along the eastern and south-eastern shores of New Guinea. +Another stream passed to the Northern Louisiades, Southern Solomons, and +Northern New Hebrides. The Philippine or sub-Philippine stream took a +more northerly route, going by the Admiralty group to New Hanover, East +New Ireland and the Solomons. + +The first serious attempt to disentangle the complex character of +Melanesian ethnography was made by F. Graebner in 1905[333], followed by +G. Friederici, the references to whose work are given above. More +recently W. H. R. Rivers[334] has attacked the cultural problem by means +of the genealogical method and the results of his investigations are +here briefly summarised. He has discovered several remarkable forms of +marriage in Melanesia and has deduced others which have existed +previously. He argues that the anomalous forms of marriage imply a +former dual organisation (_i.e._ a division of the community into two +exogamous groups) with matrilineal descent, and he is driven to assume +that in early times there was a state of society in which the elders had +acquired so predominant a position that they were able to monopolise all +the young women. Some of the relationship systems are of great +antiquity, and it is evident that changes have taken place due to +cultural influences coming in from without. + +The distribution of kava-drinking and betel-chewing is of great +interest. The former occurs all over Polynesia (except Easter Island and +New Zealand) and throughout southern Melanesia, including certain Santa +Cruz Islands, where it is limited to religious ceremonial. Betel-chewing +begins at these islands and extends northwards through New Guinea and +Indonesia to India. Kava and betel were introduced into Melanesia by +different cultural migrations. + +The introduction of betel-chewing was relatively late and restricted and +may have taken place from Indonesia after the invasion by the Hindus. +With it were associated strongly established patrilineal institutions, +marriage with a wife of a father's brother, the special sanctity of the +skull and the plank-built canoe. The use of pile dwellings is a more +constant element of the betel-culture than of the kava-culture. The +religious ritual centres round the skulls of ancestors and relatives, +and the cult of the skull has taken a direction which gives the heads of +enemies an importance equal to that of relatives, hence head-hunting has +become the chief object of warfare. The skull of a relative is the +symbol--if not the actual abiding place--of the dead, to be honoured and +propitiated, while the skulls of enemies act as the means whereby this +honour and propitiation are effected. + +The influence of the kava-using peoples was more extensive in time and +space than that of the betel-chewing people. Rivers supposes that they +had neither clan organisation nor exogamy. Some of them preserved the +body after death and respect was paid to the head or skull. It is +possible that the custom of payment for a wife came into existence in +Melanesia as the result of the need of the immigrant men for women of +the indigenous people owing to their bringing few women with them, and +the great development of shell money may be due in part to those +payments. Contact with the earlier populations also resulted in the +development of secret societies. The immigrants introduced the cult of +the dead and the institutions of taboo, totemism and chieftainship. They +brought with them the form of outrigger canoe and the knowledge of +plank-building for canoes (which however was only partially adopted), +the rectangular house, and may have known the art of making pile +dwellings. They introduced various forms of currency made of shells, +teeth, feathers, mats, etc., the drill, the slit drum, or gong, the +conch trumpet, the fowl, pig, dog, and megalithic monuments. + +There may have been two immigrations of peoples who made monuments of +stone: 1. Those who erected the more dolmen-like structures, probably +had aquatic totems, and interred their dead in the extended position. + +2. A later movement of people whose stone structures tended to take the +form of pyramids, who had bird totems, practised a cult of the sun and +cremated their dead. + +When the kava-using people came into Melanesia they found it already +inhabited. The earliest form of social organisation of which we have +evidence was on the dual basis, associated with matrilineal descent, the +dominance of the old men (gerontocracy) and certain peculiar forms of +marriage. These people interred their dead in the contracted or sitting +position, which also was employed in most parts of Polynesia. Evidently +they feared the ghosts and removed their dead as completely as possible +from the living. These people--whom we may speak of as the +"dual-people"--were communistic in property and probably practised +sexual communism; the change towards the institution of individual +property and individual marriage were assisted by, if not entirely due +to, the influence of the kava-people. They practised circumcision. Magic +was an indigenous institution. Characteristic is the cult of _vui_, +unnamed local spirits with definite haunts or abiding places whose rites +are performed in definite localities. In the Northern New Hebrides the +offerings connected with _vui_ are not made to the _vui_ themselves but +to the man who owns the place connected with the _vui_. It would seem as +if ownership of a locality carried with it ownership of the _vui_ +connected with the locality. Thus _vui_ are local spirits belonging to +the indigenous owners of the soil, and there seems no reason to believe +that they were ever ghosts of dead men. As totemism occurs among the +dual-people of the Bismarck Archipelago (who live in parts of New +Britain and New Ireland and Duke of York Island) it is possible that the +kava-people were not the sole introducers of totemism into Melanesia. +The dual-people were probably acquainted with the bow, which they may +have called _busur_, and the dug-out canoe which was used either lashed +together in pairs or singly with an outrigger. + +The origin of a dual organisation is generally believed to be due to +fission, but it is more reasonable to regard it as due to fusion, as +hostility is so frequently manifest between the two groups despite the +fact that spouses are always obtained from the other moiety. In New +Ireland (and elsewhere) each moiety is associated with a hero; one acts +wisely but unscrupulously, the other is a fool who is always falling an +easy victim to the first. Each moiety has a totem bird: one is a fisher, +clever and capable, while the second obtains its food by stealing from +the other and does not go to sea. One represents the immigrants of +superior culture who came by sea, the other the first people, +aborigines, of lowly culture who were quite unable to cope with the +wiles and stratagems of the people who had settled among them. In the +Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain, the dual groups are associated with +light and dark coconuts; affiliated with the former are male objects and +the clever bird, which is universally called _taragau_, or a variant of +that term. The bird of the other moiety is named _malaba_ or +_manigulai_, and is associated with female objects. The dark coconuts, +the dark colour and flattened noses of the women who were produced by +their transformation, and the projecting eyebrows of the _malaba_ bird +and its human adherents seem to be records in the mythology of the +Bismarck Archipelago of the negroid (or, Rivers suggests, an Australoid) +character of the aboriginal population. The light coconut which was +changed into a light-coloured woman seems to have preserved a tradition +of the light colour of the immigrants. + +The autochthones of Melanesia were a dark-skinned and ulotrichous +people, who had neither a fear of the ghosts of their dead nor a manes +cult, but had a cult of local spirits. The Baining of the Gazelle +Peninsula of New Britain may be representatives of a stage of Melanesian +history earlier than the dual system; if so, they probably represent in +a modified form, the aboriginal element. They are said to be completely +devoid of any fear of the dead. + +The immigrants whose arrival caused the institution of the dual system +were a relatively fair people of superior culture who interred their +dead in a sitting position and feared their ghosts. They first +introduced the Austronesian language. + +All subsequent migrations were of Austronesian-speaking peoples from +Indonesia. First came the kava-peoples in various swarms, and more +recently the betel-people. + +Possibly New Caledonia shows the effects of relative isolation more than +other parts of Melanesia, but, except for Polynesian influence (most +directly recognisable in Fiji and southern Melanesia), Melanesia may be +regarded as possessing a general culture with certain characteristic +features which may be thus summarised[335]. The Melanesians are a noisy, +excitable, demonstrative, affectionate, cheery, passionate people. They +could not be hunters everywhere, as in most of the islands there is no +game, nor could they be pastors anywhere, as there are no cattle; the +only resources are fishing and agriculture. In the larger islands there +is usually a sharp distinction between the coast people, who are mainly +fishers, and the inlanders who are agriculturalists; the latter are +always by far the more primitive, and in many cases are subservient to +the former. Both sexes work in the plantations. In parts of New Guinea +and the Western Solomons the sago palm is of great importance; coconut +palms grow on the shores of most islands, and bananas, yams, +bread-fruit, taro and sweet potatoes supply abundant food. As for dress, +the men occasionally wear none, but usually have belts or bands, of +bark-cloth, plaits, or strings, and the women almost everywhere have +petticoats of finely shredded leaves. The skin is decorated with scars +in various patterns, and tattooing is occasionally seen, the former +being naturally characteristic of the darker skinned people, and the +latter of the lighter. Every portion of the body is decorated in +innumerable ways with shells, teeth, feathers, leaves, flowers, and +other objects, and plaited bands encircle the neck, body, and limbs. +Shell necklaces, which constitute a kind of currency, and artificially +deformed boars' tusks are especially characteristic, though each group +usually has its peculiar ornaments, distinguishing it from any other +group. There is a great variety of houses. The typical Melanesian house +has a gable roof, the ridge pole is supported by two main posts, side +walls are very low, and the ends are filled in with bamboo screens. Pile +dwellings are found in the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands and +New Guinea, and some New Guinea villages extend out into the sea. + +The weapons typical of Melanesia are the club and the spear (though the +latter is not found in the Banks Islands), each group and often each +island possessing its own distinctive pattern. Stone headed clubs are +found in New Guinea, New Britain and the New Hebrides. The spears of the +Solomon Islands are finely decorated and have bone barbs; those of New +Caledonia are pointed with a sting-ray spine; those of the Admiralty +Islands have obsidian heads; and those of New Britain have a human +armbone at the butt end. The bow, the chief weapon of the Papuans, +occurs over the greater part of Melanesia, though it is absent in S.E. +New Guinea, and is only used for hunting in the Admiralty Islands. + +The hollowed out tree trunk with or without a plank gunwale is general, +usually with a single outrigger, though plank-built canoes occur in the +Solomons, characteristically ornamented with shell inlay. Pottery is an +important industry in parts of New Guinea and in Fiji; it occurs also in +New Caledonia, Espiritu Santo (New Hebrides) and the Admiralty Islands. +Bark-cloth is made in most islands, but a loom for weaving leaf strips +is now found only in Santa Cruz. + +A division of the community into two exogamous groups is very widely +spread, no intermarriage being permitted within the group. Mother-right +is prevalent, descent and inheritance being counted on the mother's +side, while a man's property descends to his sister's children. At the +same time the mother is in no sense the head of the family; the house is +the father's, the garden may be his, the rule and government are his, +though the maternal uncle sometimes has more authority than the father. +The transition to father-right has definitely occurred in various +places, and is taking place elsewhere; thus, in some of the New +Hebrides, the father has to buy off the rights of his wife's relations +or his sister's children. + +Chiefs exist everywhere, being endowed with religious sanctity in Fiji, +where they are regarded as the direct descendants of the tribal +ancestors. More often, a chief holds his position solely owing to the +fact that he has inherited the cult of some powerful spirit, and his +influence is not very extensive. Probably everywhere public affairs are +regulated by discussion among the old or important men, and the more +primitive the society, the more power they possess. But the most +powerful institutions of all are the secret societies, occurring with +certain exceptions throughout Melanesia. These are accessible to men +only, and the candidates on initiation have to submit to treatment which +is often rough in the extreme. The members of the societies are believed +to be in close association with ghosts and spirits, and exhibit +themselves in masks and elaborate dresses in which disguise they are +believed by the uninitiated to be supernatural beings. These societies +do not practise any secret cult, in fact all that the initiate appears +to learn is that the "ghosts" are merely his fellows in disguise, and +that the mysterious noises which herald their approach are produced by +the bull-roarer and other artificial means. These organisations are most +powerful agents for the maintenance of social order and inflict +punishment for breaches of customary law, but they are often terrorising +and blackmailing institutions. Women are rigorously excluded. + +Other social factors of importance are the clubs, especially in the New +Hebrides and Banks Islands. These are a means of attaining social rank. +They are divided into different grades, the members of which eat +together at their particular fire-place in the club-house. Each rank has +its insignia, sometimes human effigies, usually, but wrongly, called +"idols." Promotion from one grade to another is chiefly a matter of +payment, and few reach the highest. Those who do so become personages of +very great influence, since no candidate can obtain promotion without +their permission. + +Totemism occurs in parts of New Guinea and elsewhere and has marked +socialising effects, as totemic solidarity takes precedence of all other +considerations, but it is becoming obsolete. The most important +religious factor throughout Melanesia is the belief in a supernatural +power or influence, generally called _mana_. This is what works to +effect everything which is beyond the ordinary power of man or outside +the common processes of nature; but this power, though in itself +impersonal, is always connected with some person who directs it; all +spirits have it, ghosts generally, and some men. A more or less +developed ancestor cult is also universally distributed. Human beings +may become beneficent or malevolent ghosts, but not every ghost becomes +an object of regard. The ghost who is worshipped is the spirit of a man +who in his lifetime had _mana_. Good and evil spirits independent of +ancestors are also abundant everywhere. There is no established +priesthood, except in Fiji, but as a rule, any man who knows the +particular ritual suitable to a definite spirit, acts as intermediary, +and a man in communication with a powerful spirit becomes a person of +great importance. Life after death is universally believed in, and the +soul is commonly pictured as undertaking a journey, beset with various +perils, to the abode of departed spirits, which is usually represented +as lying towards the west. As a rule only the souls of brave men, or +initiates, or men who have died in fight, win through to the most +desirable abode. Magical practices occur everywhere for the gaining of +benefits, plenteous crops, good fishing, fine weather, rain, children or +success in love. Harmful magic for producing sickness or death is +equally universal[336]. + +Returning to the Papuan lands proper, in the insular groups west of New +Guinea we enter one of the most entangled ethnical regions in the world. +Here are, no doubt, a few islands such as the Aru group, mainly +inhabited by full-blood Papuans, men who furnished Wallace with the +models on which he built up his true Papuan type, which has since been +vainly assailed by so many later observers. But in others--Ceram, Buru, +Timor, and so on to Flores--diverse ethnical and linguistic elements are +intermingled in almost hopeless confusion. Discarding the term "Alfuro" +as of no ethnical value[337], we find the whole area west to about 120 deg. +E. longitude[338] occupied in varying proportions by pure and mixed +representatives of three distinct stocks: Negro (Papuans), Mongoloid +(Malayans), and Caucasic (Indonesians). From the data supplied by +Crawfurd, Wallace, Forbes, Ten Kate and other trustworthy observers, I +have constructed the subjoined table, in which the east Malaysian +islands are disposed according to the constituent elements of their +inhabitants[339]: + +_Aru Group_--True Papuans dominant; Indonesians (Korongoei) in the +interior. + +_Kei Group_--Malayans; Indonesians; Papuan strain everywhere. + +_Timor; Wetta; Timor Laut_--Mixed Papuans, Malayans and Indonesians; no +pure type anywhere. + +_Serwatti Group_--Malayans with slight trace of black blood (Papuan or +Negrito). + +_Roti and Sumba_--Malayans. + +_Savu_--Indonesians. + +_Flores; Solor; Adonera; Lomblen; Pantar; Allor_--Papuans pure or mixed +dominant; Malayans in the coast towns. + +_Buru_--Malayans on coast; reputed Papuans, but more probably +Indonesians in interior. + +_Ceram_--Malayans on coast; mixed Malayo-Papuans inland. + +_Amboina; Banda_--Malayans; Dutch-Malay half-breeds ("Perkeniers"). + +_Goram_--Malayans with slight Papuan strain. + +_Matabello; Tior; Nuso Telo; Tionfoloka_--Papuans with Malayan +admixture. + +_Misol_--Malayo-Papuans on coast; Papuans inland. + +_Tidor; Ternate; Sulla; Makian_--Malayans. + +_Batjan_--Malayans; Indonesians. + +_Gilolo_--Mixed Papuans; Indonesians in the north. + +_Waigiu; Salwatti; Batanta_--Malayans on the coast; Papuans inland. + +From this apparently chaotic picture, which in some places, such as +Timor, presents every gradation from the full-blood Papuan to the +typical Malay, Crawfurd concluded that the eastern section of Malaysia +constituted a region of transition between the yellowish-brown +lank-haired and the dark-brown or black mop-headed stocks. In a sense +this is true, but not in the sense intended by Crawfurd, who by +"transition" meant the actual passage by some process of development +from type to type independently of interminglings. But such extreme +transitions have nowhere taken place spontaneously, so to say, and in +any case could never have been brought about in a small zoological area +presenting everywhere the same climatic conditions. Biological types may +be, and have been, modified in different environments, arctic, +temperate, or tropical zones, but not in the same zone, and if two such +marked types as the Mongol and the Negro are now found juxtaposed in the +Malaysian tropical zone, the fact must be explained by migrations and +displacements, while the intermediate forms are to be attributed to +secular intermingling of the extremes. Why should a man, passing from +one side to another of an island 10 or 20 miles long, be transformed +from a sleek-haired brown to a frizzly-haired black, or from a mercurial +laughter-loving Papuan to a Malayan "slow in movement and thoroughly +phlegmatic in disposition, rarely seen to laugh or become animated in +conversation, with expression generally of vague wonder or weary +sadness"[340]? + +Wallace's classical description of these western Papuans, who are here +in the very cradleland of the race, can never lose its charm, and its +accuracy has been fully confirmed by all later observers. "The typical +Papuan race," he writes, "is in many respects the very opposite of the +Malay. The colour of the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes +approaching, but never quite equalling, the jet-black of some negro +races. The hair is very peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, growing +in little tufts or curls, which in youth are very short and compact, but +afterwards grow out to a considerable length, forming the compact, +frizzled mop which is the Papuan's pride and glory.... The moral +characteristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate him as distinctly +from the Malay as do his form and features. He is impulsive and +demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions and passions express +themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells and frantic leapings.... The +Papuan has a greater feeling for art than the Malay. He decorates his +canoe, his house, and almost every domestic utensil with elaborate +carving, a habit which is rarely found among tribes of the Malay race. +In the affections and moral sentiments, on the other hand, the Papuans +seem very deficient. In the treatment of their children they are often +violent and cruel, whereas the Malays are almost invariably kind and +gentle." + +The ethnological parting-line between the Malayan and Papuasian races, +as first laid down by Wallace, nearly coincides with his division +between the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan floras and faunas, the chief +differences being the positions of Sumbawa and Celebes. Both of these +islands are excluded from the Papuasian realm, but included in the +Austro-Malayan zoological and botanical regions. + + +THE OCEANIC NEGRITOES. + +Recent discoveries and investigations of the pygmy populations on the +eastern border of the Indian Ocean tend to show that the problem is by +no means simple. Already two main stocks are recognised, differentiated +by wavy and curly hair and dolichocephaly in the Sakai, and so-called +woolly hair in the Andamanese Islanders, Semang (Malay Peninsula) and +Aeta (Philippines), combined with mesaticephaly or low brachycephaly. In +East Sumatra and Celebes a short, curly-haired dark-skinned people +occur, racially akin to the Sakai, and Moszkowski suggests that the same +element occupied Geelvink Bay (Netherlands New Guinea). These with the +Vedda of Ceylon, and some jungle tribes of the Deccan, represent +remnants of a once widely distributed pre-Dravidian race, which is also +supposed to form the chief element in the Australians[341]. + +The "Mincopies," as the Andamanese used to be called, nobody seems to +know why, were visited in 1893 by Louis Lapicque, who examined a large +kitchen-midden near Port Blair, but some distance from the present +coast, hence of great age[342]. Nevertheless he failed to find any +worked stone implements, although flint occurs in the island. Indeed, +chipped or flaked flints, now replaced by broken glass, were formerly +used for shaving and scarification. But, as the present natives use only +fishbones, shells, and wood, Lapicque somewhat hastily concluded that +these islanders, like some other primitive groups, have never passed +through a Stone Age at all. The shell-mounds have certainly yielded an +arrow-head and polished adze "indistinguishable from any of the European +or Indian celts of the so-called Neolithic period[343]." But there is no +reason to think that the archipelago was ever occupied by a people +different from its present inhabitants. Hence we may suppose that their +ancestors arrived in their Stone Age, but afterwards ceased to make +stone implements, as less handy for their purposes and more difficult to +make than the shell or bone-tipped weapons and the nets with which they +capture game and fish more readily "than the most skilful fisherman with +hook and line[344]." Similarly they would seem to have long lost the art +of making fire, having once obtained it from a still active volcano in +the neighbouring Barren Island[345]. + +The inhabitants of the Andaman Islands range in colour from bronze to +sooty black. Their hair is extremely frizzly, seeming to grow in spiral +tufts and is seldom more than 5 inches long when untwisted. The women +usually shave their heads. Their height is about 1.48 m. (4 ft. 10-1/2 +in.), with well-proportioned body and small hands. The cephalic index +averages 82. The face is broad at the cheek-bones, the eyes are +prominent, the nose is much sunken at the root but straight and small; +the lips are full but not thick, the chin is small but not retreating, +nor do the jaws project. The natives are characterised by honesty, +frankness, politeness, modesty, conjugal fidelity, respect for elders +and real affection between relatives and friends. The women are on an +equal footing with the men and do their full share of work. The food is +mainly fish (obtained by netting, spearing or shooting with bow and +arrow), wild yams, turtle, pig and honey. They do not till the soil or +keep domestic animals. Instead of clothing both sexes wear belts, +necklaces, leg-bands, arm-bands etc. made of bones, wood and shell, the +women wearing in addition a rudimentary leaf apron. When fully dressed +the men wear bunches of shredded Pandanus leaf at wrists and knees, and +a circlet of the same leaf folded on the head. They make canoes, some of +which have an outrigger, but never venture far from the shore. They +usually live in small encampments round an oval dancing ground, their +simple huts are open in front and at the sides, or in a large communal +hut in which each family has its own particular space, the bachelors and +spinsters having theirs. A family consists of a man and his wife and +such of their children, own and adopted, as have not passed the period +of the ceremonies of adolescence. Between that period and marriage the +boys and girls reside in the bachelors' and spinsters' quarters +respectively. A man is not regarded as an independent member of the +community till he is married and has a child. There is no organised +polity. Generally one man excels the rest in hunting, warfare, wisdom +and kindliness, and he is deferred to, and becomes, in a sense, chief. A +regular feature of Andamanese social life is the meeting at intervals +between two or more communities. A visit of a few days is paid and +presents are exchanged between hosts and guests, the time being spent in +hunting, feasting and dancing. + +No forms of worship have been noticed, but there is a belief in various +kinds of spirits, the most important of whom is Biliku, usually regarded +as female, who is identified with the north-east monsoon and is paired +with Tarai the south-west monsoon. Biliku and Tarai are the producers of +rain, storms, thunder and lightning. Fire was stolen from Biliku. There +is always great fluidity in native beliefs, so some tribes regard Puluga +(Biliku) as a male. Three things make Biliku angry and cause her to send +storms; melting or burning of bees-wax, interfering in any way with a +certain number of plants, and killing a cicada or making a noise during +the time the cicadae are singing. A. R. Brown[346] gives an interesting +explanation of this curious belief. Biliku is supposed to have a human +form but nobody ever sees her. Her origin is unknown. The idea of her +being a creator is local and is probably secondary, she does not concern +herself with human actions other than those noted above. + +E. H. Man has carefully studied and reduced to writing the Andamanese +language, of which there are at least nine distinct varieties, +corresponding to as many tribal groups. It has no clear affinities to +any other tongue[347], the supposed resemblances to Dravidian and +Australian being extremely slight, if not visionary. Its phonetic system +is astonishingly rich (no less than 24 vowels and 17 consonants, but no +sibilants), while the arithmetic stops at _two_. Nobody ever attempts to +count in any way beyond _ten_, which is reached by a singular process. +First the nose is tapped with the finger-tips of either hand, beginning +with the little finger, and saying _ubatul_ (one), then _ikpor_ (two) +with the next, after which each successive tap makes _anka_, "and this." +When the thumb of the second hand is reached, making _ten_, both hands +are brought together to indicate 5 + 5, and the sum is clenched with the +word _arduru_ = "all." But this feat is exceptional, and usually after +_two_ you get only words answering to several, many, numerous, +countless, which flight of imagination is reached at about 6 or 7. + +Yet with their infantile arithmetic these paradoxical islanders have +contrived to develop an astonishingly intricate form of speech +characterised by an absolutely bewildering superfluity of pronominal and +other elements. Thus the possessive pronouns have as many as sixteen +possible variants according to the class of noun (human objects, parts +of the body, degrees of kinship, etc.) with which they are in agreement. +For instance, _my_ is _dia_, _dot_, _dong_, _dig_, _dab_, _dar_, _daka_, +_doto_, _dai_, _dar_, _ad_, _ad-en_, _deb_, with _man_, _head_, _wrist_, +_mouth_, _father_, _son_, _step-son_, _wife_, etc. etc.; and so with +_thy_, _his_, _our_, _your_, _their_! This grouping of nouns in classes +is analogous to the Bantu system, and it is curious to note that the +number of classes is about the same. On the other hand there is a wealth +of postfixes attached as in normal agglutinating forms of speech, so +that "in adding their affixes they follow the principles of the ordinary +agglutinative tongues; in adding their prefixes they follow the +well-defined principles of the South African tongues. Hitherto, as far +as I know, the two principles in full play have never been found +together in any other language.... In Andamanese both are fully +developed, so much so as to interfere with each other's grammatical +functions[348]." The result often is certain _sesquipedalia verba_ +comparable in length to those of the American polysynthetic languages. A +savage people, who can hardly count beyond two, possessed of about the +most intricate language spoken by man, is a psychological puzzle which I +cannot profess to fathom. + +In the Malay Peninsula the indigenous element is certainly the Negrito, +who, known by many names--Semang, Udai, Pangan, Hami, Menik or +Mandi--forms a single ethnical group presenting some striking analogies +with the Andamanese. But, surrounded from time out of mind by Malay +peoples, some semi-civilised, some nearly as wild as themselves, but all +alike slowly crowding them out of the land, these aborigines have +developed defensive qualities unneeded by the more favoured insular +Negritoes, while their natural development has been arrested at perhaps +a somewhat lower plane of culture. In fact, doomed to extinction before +their time came, they never have had a chance in the race, as Hugh +Clifford sings in _The Song of the Last Semangs_: + + The paths are rough, the trails are blind + The Jungle People tread; + The yams are scarce and hard to find + With which our folk are fed. + + We suffer yet a little space + Until we pass away, + The relics of an ancient race + That ne'er has had its day. + +In physical features they in many respects resemble the Andamanese. +Their hair is short, universally woolly and black, the skin colour dark +chocolate brown approximating to glossy black[349], sometimes with a +reddish tinge[350]. There is very little evidence for the stature but +the 17 males measured by Annandale and Robinson[351] averaged 1.52 m. (5 +ft. 0-1/4 in.). The average cephalic index is about 78 to 79, extremes +ranging from 74 to 84. The face is round, the forehead rounded, narrow +and projecting, or as it were "swollen." The nose is short and +flattened, with remarkable breadth and distended nostrils. The nasal +index of five adult males was 101.2[352]. The cheekbones are broad and +the jaws often protrude slightly; the lips are as a rule thick. Martin +remarks that characteristic both of Semang and Sakai[353] is the great +thickening of the integumental part of the upper lip, the whole mouth +region projecting from the lower edge of the nose. This convexity occurs +in 79 per cent., and is well shown in his photographs[354]. + +Hugh Clifford, who has been intimately associated with the "Orang-utan" +(Wild-men) as the Malays often call them, describes those of the Plus +River valley as "like African Negroes seen through the reverse end of a +field-glass. They are sooty-black in colour; their hair is short and +woolly, clinging to the scalp in little crisp curls; their noses are +flat, their lips protrude, and their features are those of the pure +negroid type. They are sturdily built and well set upon their legs, but +in stature little better than dwarfs. They live by hunting, and have no +permanent dwellings, camping in little family groups wherever, for the +moment, game is most plentiful[355]." + +Their shelters--huts they cannot be called--are exactly like the +frailest of the Andamanese, mere lean-to's of matted palm-leaves crazily +propped on rough uprights; clothes they have next to none, and their +food is chiefly yams and other jungle roots, fish from the stream, and +sun-dried monkey, venison and other game, this term having an elastic +meaning. Salt, being rarely obtainable, is a great luxury, as amongst +almost all wild tribes. They are a nomadic people living by collecting +and hunting; the wilder ones will often not remain longer than three +days in one place. Very few have taken to agriculture. They make use of +bamboo rafts for drifting down stream but have no canoes. All men are on +an equal footing, but each tribe has a head, who exercises authority. +Division of labour is fairly even between men and women. The men hunt, +and the women build the shelters and cook the food. They are strictly +monogamous and faithful. + +All the faculties are sharpened mainly in the quest of food and of means +to elude the enemy now closing round their farthest retreats in the +upland forests. When hard pressed and escape seems impossible, they will +climb trees and stretch rattan ropes from branch to branch where these +are too wide apart to be reached at a bound, and along such frail aerial +bridges women and all will pass with their cooking-pots and other +effects, with their babies also at the breast, and the little ones +clinging to their mother's heels. For like the Andamanese they love +their women-folk and children, and in this way rescue them from the +Malay raiders and slavers. But unless the British raj soon intervenes +their fate is sealed. They may slip from the Malays, but not from their +own traitorous kinsmen, who often lead the hunt, and squat all night +long on the tree tops, calling one to another and signalling from these +look-outs when the leaves rustle and the rattans are heaved across, so +that nothing can be done, and another family group is swept away into +bondage. + +From their physical resemblance, undoubted common descent, and +geographical proximity, one might also expect to find some affinity in +the speech of the Andaman and Malay Negritoes. But H. Clifford, who made +a special study of the dialects on the mainland, discovered no points of +contact between them and any other linguistic group[356]. This, however, +need cause no surprise, being in no discordance with recognised +principles. As in the Andamans, stone implements have been found in the +Peninsula, and specimens are now in the Pitt-Rivers collection at +Oxford[357]. But the present aborigines do not make or use such tools, +and there is good reason for thinking that they were the work of their +ancestors, arriving, as in the Andamans, in the remote past. Hence the +two groups have been separated for many thousands of years, and their +speech has diverged too widely to be now traced back to a common +source. + +With the Negritoes of the Philippines we enter a region of almost +hopeless ethnical complications[358], amid which, however, the dark +dwarfish _Aeta_ peoples crop out almost everywhere as the indigenous +element. The Aeta live in the mountainous districts of the larger +islands, and in some of the smaller islands of the Philippines, and the +name is conveniently extended to the various groups of Philippine +Negritoes, many of whom show the results of mixture with other peoples. +Their hair is universally woolly, usually of a dirty black colour, often +sun-burnt on the top to a reddish brown. The skin is dark chocolate +brown rather than black, sometimes with a yellowish tinge. The average +stature of 48 men was 1.46 m. (4 ft. 9 in.), but showed considerable +range. The typical nose is broad, flat, and bridgeless, with prominent +arched nostrils, the average nasal index for males being 102, and for +females 105[359]. The lips are thick, but not protruding, sometimes +showing a pronounced convexity between the upper lip and the nose. + +John Foreman[360] noted the curious fact that the Aeta were recognised +as the owners of the soil long after the arrival of the Malayan +intruders. + +"For a long time they were the sole masters of Luzon Island, where they +exercised seignorial rights over the Tagalogs and other immigrants, +until these arrived in such numbers, that the Negritoes were forced to +the highlands. + +"The taxes imposed upon the primitive Malay settlers by the Negritoes +were levied in kind, and, when payment was refused, they swooped down in +a posse, and carried off the head of the defaulter. Since the arrival of +the Spaniards terror of the white man has made them take definitely to +the mountains, where they appear to be very gradually decreasing[361]." + +At first sight it may seem unaccountable that a race of such extremely +low intellect should be able to assert their supremacy in this way over +the intruding Malayans, assumed to be so much their superiors in +physical and mental qualities. But it has to be considered that the +invasions took place in very remote times, ages before the appearance on +the scene of the semi-civilised Muhammadan Malays of history. Whether of +Indonesian or of what is called "Malay" stock, the intruders were rude +Oceanic peoples, who in the prehistoric period, prior to the spread of +civilising Hindu or Moslem influences in Malaysia, had scarcely advanced +in general culture much beyond the indigenous Papuan and Negrito +populations of that region. Even at present the Gaddanes, Itaves, +Igorrotes, and others of Luzon are mere savages, at the head-hunting +stage, quite as wild as, and perhaps even more ferocious than any of the +Aetas. Indeed we are told that in some districts the Negrito and +Igorrote tribes keep a regular Debtor and Creditor account of heads. +Wherever the vendetta still prevails, all alike live in a chronic state +of tribal warfare; periodical head-hunting expeditions are organised by +the young men, to present the bride's father with as many grim trophies +as possible in proof of their prowess, the victims being usually taken +by surprise and stricken down with barbarous weapons, such as a long +spear with tridented tips, or darts and arrows carrying at the point two +rows of teeth made of flint or sea-shells. To avoid these attacks some, +like the Central Sudanese Negroes, live in cabins on high posts or trees +60 to 70 feet from the ground, and defend themselves by showering stones +on the marauders. + +A physical peculiarity of the full-blood Negritoes, noticed by J. +Montano[362], is the large, clumsy foot, turned slightly inwards, a +trait characteristic also of the African Negrilloes; but in the Aeta the +effect is exaggerated by the abnormal divergence of the great toe, as +amongst the Annamese. + +The presence of a pygmy element in the population of New Guinea had long +been suspected, but the actual existence of a pygmy people was first +discovered by the British Ornithologists' Union Expedition, 1910, at the +source of the Mimika river in the Nassau range[363]. + +The description of these people, the Tapiro, is as follows. Their +stature averages 1.449 m. (4 ft. 9 in.) ranging from 1.326 m. (4 ft. +4-1/2 in.) to 1.529 (5 ft. 0-1/4 in.). The skull is very variable giving +indices from 66.9 to 85.1. The skin colour is lighter than that of the +neighbouring Papuans, some individuals being almost yellow. The nose is +straight, and though described as "very wide at the nostrils," the mean +of the indices is only 83, the extremes being 65.5 and 94. The eyes are +noticeably larger and rounder than those of Papuans, and the upper lip +of many of the men is long and curiously convex. A Negrito element has +also been recognised in the Mafulu people investigated by R. W. +Williamson in the Mekeo District[364], here mixed with Papuan and +Papuo-Melanesian. Their stature ranges from 1.47 m. (4 ft. 10 in.) to +1.63 m. (5 ft. 4 in.). The average cephalic index is 80 ranging from +74.7 to 86.8. The skin colour is dark sooty brown and the hair, though +usually brown or black, is often very much lighter, "not what we in +Europe should call dark." The average nasal index is 84 with extremes of +71.4 and 100. Also partly of Negrito origin are the P[)e]s[)e]g[)e]m of +the upper waters of the Lorentz river[365]. + +All these Negrito peoples, as has been pointed out, show considerable +diversity in physical characters, none of the existing groups, with the +exception of the Andamanese, appearing to be homogeneous as regards +cephalic or nasal index, while the stature, though always low, shows +considerable range. They have certain cultural features in common[366], +and these as a rule differentiate them from their neighbours. They +seldom practise any deformation of the person, such as tattooing or +scarification, though the Tapiro and Mafulu wear a nose-stick. They are +invariably collectors and hunters, never, unless modified by contact +with other peoples, undertaking any cultivation of the soil. Their huts +are simple, the pile dwellings of the Tapiro being evidently copied from +their neighbours. All possess the bow and arrow, though only the Semang +and Aeta use poison. The Andamanese appear to be one of the very few +peoples who possess fire but do not know how to make it afresh. There +seems a certain amount of evidence that the Negrito method of making +fire was that of splitting a dry stick, keeping the ends open by a piece +of wood or stone placed in the cleft, stuffing some tinder into the +narrow part of the slit and then drawing a strip of rattan to and fro +across the spot until a spark sets fire to the tinder[367]. The social +structure is everywhere very simple. The social unit appears to be the +family and the power of the headman is very limited. Strict monogamy +seems to prevail even where, as among the Aeta, polygyny is not +prohibited. The dead are buried, but the bodies of those whom it is +wished to honour are placed on platforms or on trees. + +Related in certain physical characters to the pygmy Negritoes, although +not of pygmy proportions[368], were the aborigines of Tasmania, but +their racial affinities are much disputed. Huxley thought they showed +some resemblance to the inhabitants of New Caledonia and the Andaman +Islands, but Flower was disposed to bring them into closer connection +with the Papuans or Melanesians. The leading anthropologists in France +do not accept either of these views. Topinard states that there is no +close alliance between the New Caledonians and the Tasmanians, while +Quatrefages and Hamy remark that "from whatever point of view we look at +it, the Tasmanian race presents special characters, so that it is quite +impossible to discover any well-defined affinities with any other +existing race." Sollas, reviewing these conflicting opinions, concludes +that "this probably represents the prevailing opinion of the present +day[369]." + +The Tasmanians were of medium height, the average for the men being +1.661 m. (5 ft. 5-1/2 in.) with a range from 1.548 m. to 1.732 m. (5 ft. +1 in. to 5 ft. 8 in.); the average height for women being 1.503 m. (4 +ft. 11 in.) with a range from 1.295 m. to 1.630 m. (4 ft. 3 in. to 5 ft. +4-1/4 in.). The skin colour was almost black with a brown tinge. The +eyes were small and deep set beneath prominent overhanging brow-ridges. +The nose was short and broad, with a deep notch at the root and widely +distended nostrils. The skull was dolichocephalic or low mesaticephalic, +with an average index of 75, of peculiar outline when viewed from above. +Other peculiarities were the possession of the largest teeth, especially +noticeable in comparison with the small jaw, and the smallest known +cranial capacity (averaging 1199 c.c. for both sexes, falling in the +women to 1093 c.c.). + +The aboriginal Tasmanians stood even at a lower level of culture than +the Australians. At the occupation the scattered bands, with no +hereditary chiefs or social organisation, numbered altogether 2000 souls +at most, speaking several distinct dialects, whether of one or more +stock languages is uncertain. In the absence of sibilants and some other +features they resembled the Australian, but were of ruder or less +developed structure, and so imperfect that according to Joseph Milligan, +our best authority on the subject, "they observed no settled order or +arrangement of words in the construction of their sentences, but +conveyed in a supplementary fashion by tone, manner, and gesture those +modifications of meaning which we express by mood, tense, number, +etc.[370]" Abstract terms were rare, and for every variety of gum-tree +or wattle-tree there was a name, but no word for "tree" in general, or +for qualities, such as hard, soft, warm, cold, long, short, round, etc. +Anything hard was "like a stone," round "like the moon," and so on, +"usually suiting the action to the word, and confirming by some sign the +meaning to be understood." + +They made fire by the stick and groove method, but their acquaintance +with the fire-drill is uncertain[371]. The stone implements are the +subject of much discussion. A great number are so rude and uncouth that, +taken alone, we should have little reason to suspect that they had been +chipped by man: some, on the other hand, show signs of skilful working. +They were formerly classed as "eoliths" and compared to the plateau +implements of Kent and Sussex, but the comparison cannot be +sustained[372]. Sollas illustrates an implement "delusively similar to +the head of an axe" and notes its resemblance to a Levallois flake +(Acheulean). J. P. Johnson[373] points out the general likeness to +pre-Aurignacian forms and there is a remarkable similarity of certain +examples to Mousterian types. Weapons were of wood, and consisted of +spears pointed and hardened in the fire, and a club or waddy, about two +feet long, sometimes knobbed at one end; the range is said to have been +about 40 yards. + +In the native diet were included "snakes, lizards, grubs and worms," +besides the opossum, wombat, kangaroo, birds and fishes, roots, seeds +and fruits, but not human flesh, at least normally. Like the Bushmen, +they were gross feeders, consuming enormous quantities of food when they +could get it, and the case is mentioned of a woman who was seen to eat +from 50 to 60 eggs of the sooty petrel (larger than a duck's), besides a +double allowance of bread, at the station on Flinders Island. They had +frail bundles of bark made fast with thongs or rushes, half float, half +boat, to serve as canoes, but no permanent abodes or huts, beyond +branches of trees lashed together, supported by stakes, and disposed +crescent-shape with the convex side to windward. On the uplands and +along the sea-shore they took refuge in caves, rock-shelters and natural +hollows. Usually the men went naked, the women wore a loose covering of +skins, and personal ornamentation was limited to cosmetics of red ochre, +plumbago, and powdered charcoal, with occasionally a necklace of shells +strung on a fibrous twine. + +Being merely hunters and collectors, with the arrival of English +colonists their doom was sealed. "Only in rare instances can a race of +hunters contrive to co-exist with an agricultural people. When the +hunting ground of a tribe is restricted owing to its partial occupation +by the new arrivals, the tribe affected is compelled to infringe on the +boundaries of its neighbours: this is to break the most sacred 'law of +the Jungle,' and inevitably leads to war: the pressure on one boundary +is propagated to the next, the ancient state of equilibrium is +profoundly disturbed, and inter-tribal feuds become increasingly +frequent. A bitter feeling is naturally aroused against the original +offenders, the alien colonists; misunderstandings of all kinds +inevitably arise, leading too often to bloodshed, and ending in a +general conflict between natives and colonists, in which the former, +already weakened by disagreements among themselves, must soon succumb. +So it was in Tasmania." After the war of 1825 to 1831 the few wretched +survivors, numbering about 200, were gathered together into a +settlement, and from 1834 onwards every effort was made for their +welfare, "but 'the white man's civilisation proved scarcely less fatal +than the white man's bullet,' and in 1877, with the death of Truganini, +the last survivor, the race became extinct[374]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[319] Cf. S. H. Ray, _Reports Camb. Anthrop. Exp. Torres Sts._ Vol. III. +1907, pp. 287, 528. For Melanesian linguistic affinities see also W. +Schmidt, _Die Mon-Khmer Voelker_, 1906. + +[320] C. G. Seligman limits the use of the term _Papuasian_ to the +inhabitants of New Guinea and its islands, and following a suggestion of +A. C. Haddon's (_Geograph. Journ._ XVI. 1900, pp. 265, 414), recognises +therein three great divisions, the _Papuans_, the _Western +Papuo-Melanesians_, and the _Eastern Papuo-Melanesians_, or _Massim_. +Cf. C. G. Seligman, "A Classification of the Natives of British New +Guinea," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ Vol. XXXIX. 1902, and _The +Melanesians of British New Guinea_, 1910. + +[321] That is, the indigenous Papuans, who appear to form the great bulk +of the New Guinea populations, in contradistinction to the immigrant +Melanesians (Motu and others), who are numerous especially along the +south-east coast of the mainland and in the neighbouring Louisiade and +D'Entrecasteaux Archipelagoes (_Eth._ Ch. XI.). + +[322] _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, 1910, pp. 2, 27. + +[323] The curly or wavy hair appears more commonly among women than +among men. + +[324] _Kanaka_ is a Polynesian word meaning "man," and should therefore +be restricted to the brown Indonesian group, but it is indiscriminately +applied by French writers to all South Sea Islanders, whether black or +brown. This misuse of the term has found its way into some English books +of travel even in the corrupt French form "canaque." + +[325] _L'Archipel de la Nouvelle Caledonie_, Paris, 1895. + +[326] Lifu, Mare, Uvea, and Isle of Pines. These Polynesians appear to +have all come originally from Tonga, first to Uvea Island (Wallis), and +thence in the eighteenth century to Uvea in the Loyalties, cradle of all +the New Caledonian Polynesian settlements. Cf. C. M. Woodford, "On some +Little-known Polynesian Settlements in the Neighbourhood of the Solomon +Islands," _Geog. Journ._ XLVIII. 1916. + +[327] This low index is characteristic of most Papuasians, and reaches +the extreme of dolichocephaly in the extinct Kai-Colos of Fiji (65 deg.), +and amongst some coast Papuans of New Guinea measured by +Miklukho-Maclay. But this observer found the characters so variable in +New Guinea that he was unable to use it as a racial test. In the New +Hebrides, Louisiades, and Bismarck group also he found many of the +natives to be broad-headed, with indices as high as 80 and 85; and even +in the Solomon Islands Guppy records cephalic indices ranging from 69 to +86, but dolichocephaly predominates (_The Solomon Islands_, 1887, pp. +112, 114). Thus this feature is no more constant amongst the Oceanic +than it is amongst the African Negroes. (See also M.-Maclay's paper in +_Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales_, 1882, p. 171 sq.) + +[328] _Eth._ Ch. VIII. + +[329] Bernard, p. 262. + +[330] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 33. + +[331] A. C. Haddon, _The Races of Man_, 1909, p. 21. + +[332] _Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse einer amtlichen Forschungsreise nach +dem Bismarck-Archipel im Jahre 1908_; _Untersuchungen ueber eine +Melanesische Wanderstrasse, 1913_; and _Mitt. aus den deutschen +Schutzgebieten, Ergaenzungsheft_, Nr 5, 1912, Nr 7, 1913. See also S. H. +Ray, _Nature_, CLXXII. 1913, and _Man_, XIV. 34, 1914. + +[333] _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._ XXXVII. p. 26, 1905. His later writings +should also be consulted, _Anthropos_, IV. 1909, pp. 726, 998; +_Ethnologie_, 1914, p. 13. + +[334] _The History of Melanesian Society_, 1914. + +[335] A. C. Haddon, _The Races of Man_, 1909, pp. 24-8, and _Handbook to +the Ethnographical Collections British Museum_, 1910, pp. 119-139. + +[336] Besides the earlier works of H. H. Romilly, _The Western Pacific +and New Guinea_, 1886, _From My Verandah in New Guinea_, 1889; J. +Chalmers, _Work and Adventure in New Guinea_, 1885; O. Finsch, +_Samoafahrten: Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch Neu-Guinea_, +1888; C. M. Woodford, _A Naturalist Among the Head-hunters_, 1890; J. P. +Thompson, _British New Guinea_, 1892; and R. H. Codrington, _The +Melanesians_, 1891, the following more recent works may be +consulted:--A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_, 1901, +and _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres +Straits_, 1901- ; R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Suedsee_, 1907; G. +A. J. van der Sande, _Nova Guinea_, 1907; B. Thompson, _The Fijians_, +1908; G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, 1910; F. Speiser, _Suedsee +Urwald Kannibalen_, 1913. + +[337] _Eth._ Ch. XII. + +[338] But excluding Celebes, where no trace of Papuan elements has been +discovered. + +[339] For details see F. H. H. Guillemard, _Australasia_, Vol. II. and +Reclus, Vol. XIV. + +[340] S. J. Hickson, _A Naturalist in North Celebes_, 1889, p. 203. + +[341] A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. +Wollaston's _Pygmies and Papuans_, 1912, p. 304. + +[342] "A la Recherche des Negritos," etc., in _Tour du Monde_, New +Series, Livr. 35-8. The midden was 150 ft. round, and over 12 ft. high. + +[343] E. H. Man, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ Vol. XI. 1881, p. 271, and XII. +1883, p. 71. + +[344] _Ib._ p. 272. + +[345] Close to Barren is the extinct crater of _Narcondam_, i.e. +_Narak-andam_ (_Narak_ = Hell), from which the _Andaman_ group may have +taken its name (Sir H. Yule, _Marco Polo_). Man notes, however, that the +Andamanese were not aware of the existence of Barren Island until taken +past in the settlement steamer (p. 368). + +[346] _Folk-Lore_, 1909, p. 257. See also the criticisms of W. Schmidt, +"Puluga, the Supreme Being of the Andamanese," _Man_, 2, 1910, and A. +Lang, "Puluga," _Man_, 30, 1910; A. R. Brown, _The Andaman Islands_ (in +the Press). + +[347] "The Andaman languages are one group; they have no affinities by +which we might infer their connection with any other known group" (R. C. +Temple, quoted by Man, _Anthrop. Jour._ 1882, p. 123). + +[348] R. C. Temple, quoted by Man, _Anthrop. Jour._ 1882, p. 123. + +[349] W. W. Skeat and C. D. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay +Peninsula_, 1906. + +[350] R. Martin, _Die Inlandstaemme der Malayischen Halbinsel_, 1905. + +[351] N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, "Fasciculi Malayensis," +_Anthropology_, 1903. + +[352] W. W. Skeat and C. D. Blagden, _loc. cit._ + +[353] The Sakai have often been classed among Negritoes, but, although +undoubtedly a mixed people, their affinities appear to be pre-Dravidian. + +[354] Cf. A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. +Wollaston's _Pygmies and Papuans_, 1912, p. 306. + +[355] _In Court and Kampong_, 1897, p. 172. + +[356] Senoi grammar and glossary in _Jour. Straits Branch R. Asiat. +Soc._ 1892, No. 24. + +[357] See L. Wray's paper "On the Cave Dwellers of Perak," in _Jour. +Anthrop. Inst._ 1897, p. 36 sq. This observer thinks "the earliest cave +dwellers were most likely the Negritoes" (p. 47), and the great age of +the deposits is shown by the fact that "in some of the caves at least 12 +feet of a mixture of shells, bones, and earth has been accumulated and +subsequently removed again in the floors of the caves. In places two or +three layers of solid stalagmite have been formed and removed, some of +these layers having been five feet in thickness" (p. 45). + +[358] See on this point Prof. Blumentritt's paper on the Manguians of +Mindoro in _Globus_, LX. No. 14. + +[359] One Aeta woman of Zambales had a nasal index of 140.7. W. Allen +Reed, "Negritoes of Zambales," _Department of the Interior: Ethnological +Survey Publications_, II. 1904, p. 35. For details of physical features +see the following:--D. Folkmar, _Album of Philippine Types_, 1904; Dean +C. Worcester, "The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," _The +Philippine Journal of Science_, I. 1906; and A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy +Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston's _Pygmies and Papuans_, +1912. + +[360] _The Philippine Islands_, etc., London and Hongkong, 1890. + +[361] _Op. cit._ p. 210. + +[362] _Voyage aux Philippines_, etc., Paris, 1886. + +[363] A. F. R. Wollaston, _Pygmies and Papuans_, 1912; C. G. Rawling, +_The Land of the New Guinea Pygmies_, 1913. + +[364] _The Mafulu Mountain People of British New Guinea_, 1912. + +[365] _Nova Guinea_, VII. 1913, 1915. + +[366] A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. +Wollaston's _Pygmies and Papuans_, 1912, pp. 314-9. + +[367] It is not certain however that this method is known to the Semang, +and it occurs among peoples who are not Negrito, such as the Kayan of +Sarawak, and in other places where a Negrito element has not yet been +recorded. + +[368] The term pygmy is usually applied to a people whose stature does +not exceed 1.5 m. (4 ft. 11 in.). + +[369] W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, and W. Turner, "The +Aborigines of Australia," _Trans. R. Soc. Edin._ 1908, XLVI. 2, and +1910, XLVII. 3. + +[370] Paper in Brough Smyth's work, II. p. 413. + +[371] H. Ling Roth, _The Aborigines of Australia_ (2nd ed.), 1899, +Appendix LXXXVIII., and "Tasmanian Firesticks," _Nature_, LIX. 1899, p. +606. + +[372] W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, pp. 90, 106 ff. + +[373] _Nature_, XCII. 1913, p. 320. + +[374] W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, 1915, pp. 104-5. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS + + South Mongol Domain--Tibet, the Mongol Cradle-land--Stone Age in + Tibet--The Primitive Mongol Type--The Balti and Ladakhi--Balti Type + and Origins--The Tibetans Proper--Type--The Bhotiyas--Prehistoric + Expansion of the Tibetan Race--Sub-Himalayan Groups: the + Gurkhas--Mental Qualities of the Tibetans--Lamaism--The Horsoks-- + The Tanguts--Polyandry--The Bonbo Religion--Buddhist and Christian + Ritualism--The Prayer-Wheel--Language and Letters--Diverse + Linguistic Types--Lepcha--Angami-Naga and Kuki-Lushai Speech--Naga + Tribes--General Ethnic Relations in Indo-China--Aboriginal and + Cultured Peoples--The Talaings--The Manipuri--Religion--The Game + of Polo--The Khel System--The Chins--Mental and Physical + Qualities--Gods, Nats, and the After-Life--The Kakhyens--Caucasic + Elements--The Karens--Type--Temperament--Christian Missions--The + Burmese--Type--Character--Buddhism--Position of Woman--Tattooing-- + The Tai-Shan Peoples--The Ahom, Khamti and Chinese Shans--Shan + Cradle-land and Origins--Caucasic Contacts--Tai-Shan Toned + Speech--Shan, Lolo, and Mosso Writing Systems--Mosso Origins-- + Aborigines of South China and Annam--Man-tse Origins and + Affinities--Caucasic Aborigines in South-East Asia--The Siamese + Shans--Origins and Early Records--Social System--Buddhism--The + Annamese--Origins--Physical and Mental Characters--Language and + Letters--Social Institutions--Religious Systems--The Chinese-- + Origins--The Babylonian Theory--Persistence of Chinese Culture + and Social System--Letters and Early Records--Traditions of the + Stone and Metal Ages--Chinese Cradle and Early Migrations-- + Absorption of the Aborigines--Survivals: Hok-lo, Hakka, + Pun-ti--Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism--Fung-shui and Ancestry + Worship--Islam and Christianity--The Mandarin Class. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# _Tibet; S. Himalayan slopes; Indo-China to the Isthmus +of Kra; China; Formosa; Parts of Malaysia._ + +#Hair#, _uniformly black, lank, round in transverse section_; _sparse or +no beard, moustache common_. #Colour#, _generally a dirty yellowish +brown, shading off to olive and coppery brown in the south, and to lemon +or whitish in N. China_. #Skull#, _normally brachy (80 to 84), but in +parts of China sub-dolicho (77) and high_. #Jaws#, _slightly +prognathous_. #Cheek-bones#, _very high and prominent laterally_. +#Nose#, _very small, and concave, with widish nostrils (mesorrhine), +but often large and straight amongst the upper classes_. #Eyes#, _small, +black, and oblique (outer angle slightly elevated), vertical fold of +skin over inner canthus_. #Stature#, _below the average, 1.62 m. (5 ft. +4 in.), but in N. China often tall, 1.77 m. to 1.82 m. (5 ft. 10 in. to +6 ft.)_. #Lips#, _rather thin, sometimes slightly protruding_. #Arms#, +#legs#, _and_ #feet#, _of normal proportions, calves rather small_. + +#Temperament.# _Somewhat sluggish, with little initiative, but great +endurance; cunning rather than intelligent; generally thrifty and +industrious, but mostly indolent in Siam and Burma; moral standard low, +with slight sense of right and wrong._ + +#Speech.# _Mainly isolating and monosyllabic, due to phonetic decay; +loss of formative elements compensated by tone; some (south Chinese, +Annamese) highly tonic, but others (in Himalayas and North Burma) highly +agglutinating and consequently toneless._ + +#Religion.# _Ancestry and spirit-worship, underlying various kinds of +Buddhism; religious sentiment weak in Annam, strong in Tibet; thinly +diffused in China._ + +#Culture.# _Ranges from sheer savagery (Indo-Chinese aborigines) to a +low phase of civilisation; some mechanical arts (ceramics, metallurgy, +weaving), and agriculture well developed; painting, sculpture, and +architecture mostly in the barbaric stage; letters widespread, but true +literature and science slightly developed; stagnation very general._ + + +Main Divisions. + +#Bod-pa.# _Tibetan; Tangut; Horsok; Si-fan; Balti; Ladakhi; Gurkha; +Bhotiya; Miri; Mishmi; Abor._ + +#Burmese.# _Naga; Kuki-Lushai; Chin; Kakhyen; Manipuri; Karen; Talaing; +Arakanese; Burmese proper._ + +#Tai-Shan.# _Ahom; Khamti; Ngiou; Lao; Siamese._ + +#Giao-Shi.# _Annamese; Cochin-Chinese._ + +#Chinese.# _Chinese proper; Hakka; Hok-lo; Pun-ti._ + + * * * * * + +The Mongolian stock may be divided into two main branches[375]: the +_Mongolo-Tatar_, of the western area, and the _Tibeto-Indo-Chinese_ of +the eastern area, the latter extending into a secondary branch, _Oceanic +Mongols_. These two, that is, the main and secondary branch, which +jointly occupy the greater part of south-east Asia with most of +Malaysia, Madagascar, the Philippines and Formosa, will form the subject +of the present and following chapters. Allowing for encroachments and +overlappings, especially in Manchuria and North Tibet, the northern +"divide" towards the Mongolo-Tatar domain is roughly indicated by the +Great Wall and the Kuen-lun range westwards to the Hindu-Kush, and +towards the south-west by the Himalayas from the Hindu-Kush eastwards to +Assam. The Continental section thus comprises the whole of China proper +and Indo-China, together with a great part of Tibet with Little Tibet +(Baltistan and Ladakh), and the Himalayan uplands including their +southern slopes. This section is again separated from the Oceanic +section by the Isthmus of Kra--the Malay Peninsula belonging ethnically +to the insular Malay world. "I believe," writes Warington Smyth, "that +the Malay never really extended further south than the Kra +isthmus[376]." + +From the considerations advanced in _Ethnology_, Chap. XII., it seems a +reasonable assumption that the lacustrine Tibetan tableland with its +Himalayan escarpments, all standing in pleistocene times at a +considerably lower level than at present, was the cradle of the Mongol +division of mankind. Here were found all the natural conditions +favourable to the development of a new variety of the species moving +from the tropics northwards--ample space such as all areas of marked +specialisation seem to require; a different and cooler climate than that +of the equatorial region, though, thanks to its then lower elevation, +warmer than that of the bleak and now barely inhabitable Tibetan +plateau; extensive plains, nowhere perhaps too densely wooded, +intersected by ridges of moderate height, and diversified by a +lacustrine system far more extensive than that revealed by the +exploration of modern travellers[377]. + +Under these circumstances, which are not matter of mere speculation, but +to be directly inferred from the observations of intelligent explorers +and of trained Anglo-Indian surveyors, it would seem not only probable +but inevitable that the pleistocene Indo-Malayan should become modified +and improved in his new and more favourable Central Asiatic environment. + +Later, with the gradual upheaval of the land to a mean altitude of some +14,000 feet above sea-level, the climate deteriorated, and the present +somewhat rude and rugged inhabitants of Tibet are to be regarded as the +outcome of slow adaptation to their slowly changing surroundings since +the occupation of the country by the Indo-Malayan pleistocene precursor. +To this precursor Tibet was accessible either from India or from +Indo-China, and although few of his implements have yet been reported +from the plateau, it is certain that Tibet has passed through the Stone +as well as the Metal Ages. In Bogle's time "thunder-stones" were still +used for tonsuring the lamas, and even now stone cooking-pots are found +amongst the shepherds of the uplands, although they are acquainted both +with copper and iron. In India also and Indo-China palaeoliths of rude +type occur at various points--Arcot, the Narbada gravels, Mirzapur[378], +the Irawadi valley and the Shan territory--as if to indicate the routes +followed by early man in his migrations from Indo-Malaysia northwards. + +Thus, where man is silent the stones speak, and so old are these links +of past and present that amongst the Shans, as in ancient Greece, their +origin being entirely forgotten, they are often mounted as jewellery and +worn as charms against mishaps. + +Usually the Mongols proper, that is, the steppe nomads who have more +than once overrun half the eastern hemisphere, are taken as the typical +and original stem of the Mongolian stock. But if Ch. de Ujfalvy's views +can be accepted this honour will now have to be transferred to the +Tibetans, who still occupy the supposed cradle of the race. This veteran +student of the Central Asiatic peoples describes two Mongol types, a +northern round-headed and a southern long-headed, and thinks that the +latter, which includes "the Ladakhi, the Champas and Tibetans proper," +was "the primitive Mongol type[379]." + +Owing to the political seclusion of Tibet, the race has hitherto been +studied chiefly in outlying provinces beyond the frontiers, such as +Ladakh, Baltistan, and Sikkim[380], that is, in districts where mixture +with other races may be suspected. Indeed de Ujfalvy, who has made a +careful survey of Baltistan and Ladakh, assures us that, while the +Ladakhi represent two varieties of Asiatic man with ceph. index 77, the +Balti are not Tibetans or Mongols at all, but descendants of the +historical Sacae, although now of Tibetan speech and Moslem faith[381]. +They are of the mean height or slightly above it, with rather low brow, +very prominent superciliary arches, deep depression at nasal root, thick +curved eyebrows, long, straight or arched nose, thick lips, oval chin, +small cheek-bones, small flat ears, straight eyes, very black and +abundant ringletty (_boucle_) hair, full beard, usually black and silky, +robust hairy body, small hands and feet, and long head (index 72). In +such characters it is impossible to recognise the Mongol, and the +contrast is most striking with the neighbouring Ladakhi, true Mongols, +as shown by their slightly raised superciliary arches, square and +scarcely curved eyebrows, slant eyes, large prominent cheek-bones, lank +and coarse hair, yellowish and nearly hairless body. + +Doubtless there has been a considerable intermingling of Balti and +Ladakhi, and in recent times still more of Balti and Dards (Hindu-Kush +"Aryans"), whence Leitner's view that the Balti are Dards at a remote +period conquered by the Bhots (Tibetans), losing their speech with their +independence. But of all these peoples the Balti were in former times +the most civilised, as shown by the remarkable rock-carvings still found +in the country, and attributed by the present inhabitants to a long +vanished race. Some of these carvings represent warriors mounted and on +foot, the resemblance being often very striking between them and the +persons figured on the coins of the Sacae kings both in their physical +appearance, attitudes, arms, and accoutrements. The Balti are still +famous horsemen, and with them is said to have originated the game of +polo, which has thence spread to the surrounding peoples as far as +Chitral and Irania. + +From all these considerations it is inferred that the Balti are the +direct descendants of the Sacae, who invaded India about 90 B.C., not +from the west (the Kabul valley) as generally stated, but from the north +over the Karakorum Passes leading directly to Baltistan[382]. Thus lives +again a name renowned in antiquity, and another of those links is +established between the past and the present, which it is the province +of the historical ethnologist to rescue from oblivion. + +In Tibet proper the ethnical relations have been confused by the loose +way tribal and even national names are referred to by Prjevalsky and +some other modern explorers. It should therefore be explained that three +somewhat distinct branches of the race have to be carefully +distinguished: 1. The _Bod-pa_[383], "Bodmen," the settled and more or +less civilised section, who occupy most of the southern and more fertile +provinces of which Lhasa is the capital, who till the land, live in +towns, and have passed from the tribal to the civic state. 2. The +_Dru-pa_[384], peaceful though semi-nomadic pastoral tribes, who live in +tents on the northern plateaux, over 15,000 feet above sea-level. 3. The +_Tanguts_[385], restless, predatory tribes, who hover about the +north-eastern borderland between Koko-nor and Kansu. + +All these are true Tibetans, speak the Tibetan language, and profess one +or other of the two national religions, _Bonbo_ and Lamaism (the Tibetan +form of Buddhism). But the original type is best preserved, not amongst +the cultured Bod-pa, who in many places betray a considerable admixture +both of Chinese and Hindu elements, but amongst the Dru-pa, who on their +bleak upland steppes have for ages had little contact with the +surrounding Mongolo-Turki populations. They are described by W. W. +Rockhill from personal observation as about five feet five inches high, +and round-headed, with wavy hair, clear-brown and even hazel eye, +cheek-bone less high than the Mongol, thick nose, depressed at the root, +but also prominent and even aquiline and narrow but with broad nostrils, +large-lobed ears standing out to a less degree than the Mongol, broad +mouth, long black hair, thin beard, generally hairless body, broad +shoulders, very small calves, large foot, coarse hand, skin coarse and +greasy and of light brown colour, though "frequently nearly white, but +when exposed to the weather a dark brown, nearly the colour of our +American Indians. Rosy cheeks are quite common amongst the younger +women[386]." + +Some of these characters--wavy hair, aquiline nose, hazel eye, rosy +cheeks--are not Mongolic, and despite W. W. Rockhill's certificate of +racial purity, one is led to suspect a Caucasic strain, perhaps through +the neighbouring Salars. These are no doubt sometimes called +Kara-Tangutans, "Black Tangutans," from the colour of their tents, but +we learn from Potanin, who visited them in 1885[387], that they are +Muhammadans of Turki stock and speech, and we already know[388] that +from a remote period the Turki people were in close contact with +Caucasians. The Salars pitch their tents on the banks of the Khitai and +other Yang-tse-Kiang headstreams. + +That the national name Bod-pa must be of considerable antiquity is +evident from the Sanskrit expression _Bhotiya_, derived from it, and +long applied by the Hindus collectively to all southern Tibetans, but +especially to those of the Himalayan slopes, such as the Rongs (Lepchas) +of Sikkim and the _Lho-pa_ dominant in Bhutan, properly _Bhot-ant_, that +is, "Land's End"--the extremity of Tibet. Eastwards also the Tibetan +race stretches far beyond the political frontiers into the Koko-nor +region (Tanguts), and the Chinese province of Se-chuan, where they are +grouped with all the other Si-fan aborigines. Towards the south-east are +the kindred _Tawangs_, _Mishmi_, _Miri_, _Abor_[389], _Daflas_, and many +others about the Assam borderlands, all of whom may be regarded as true +Bhotiyas in the wild state. + +Through these the primitive Tibetan race extends into Burma, where +however it has become greatly modified and again civilised under +different climatic and cultural influences. Thus we see how, in the +course of ages, the Bod-pa have widened their domain, radiating in all +directions from the central cradle-land about the Upper Brahmaputra +(San-po) valley westwards into Kashmir, eastwards into China, southwards +down the Himalayan slopes to the Gangetic plains, south-eastwards to +Indo-China. In some places they have come into contact with other races +and disappeared either by total extinction or by absorption (India, +Hindu-Kush), or else preserved their type while accepting the speech, +religion, and culture of later intruders. Such are the _Garhwali_, and +many groups in Nepal, especially the dominant _Gurkhas_ (_Khas_[390]), +of whom there are twelve branches, all Aryanised and since the twelfth +century speaking the _Parbattia Bhasha_, a Prakrit or vulgar Sanskrit +tongue current amongst an extremely mixed population of about 2,000,000. + +In other directions the migrations took place in remote prehistoric +times, the primitive proto-Tibetan groups becoming more and more +specialised as they receded farther and farther from the cradle-land +into Mongolia, Siberia, China, Farther India, and Malaysia. This is at +least how I understand the peopling of a great part of the eastern +hemisphere by an original nucleus of Mongolic type first differentiated +from a pleistocene precursor on the Tibetan tableland. + +Strangely contradictory estimates have been formed of the temperament +and mental characters of the Bod-pa, some, such as that of Turner[391], +no doubt too favourable, while others err perhaps in the opposite +direction. Thus Desgodins, who nevertheless knew them well, describes +the cultured Tibetan of the south as "a slave towards the great, a +despot towards the weak, knavish or treacherous according to +circumstances, always on the look-out to defraud, and lying impudently +to attain his end," and much more to the same effect[392]. + +W. W. Rockhill, who is less severe, thinks that "the Tibetan's character +is not as black as Horace della Penna and Desgodins have painted it. +Intercourse with these people extending over six years leads me to +believe that the Tibetan is kindhearted, affectionate, and +law-abiding[393]." He concludes, however, with a not very flattering +native estimate deduced from the curious national legend that "the +earliest inhabitants of Tibet descended from a king of monkeys and a +female hobgoblin, and the character of the race perhaps from those of +its first parents. From the king of monkeys [he was an incarnate god] +they have religious faith and kindheartedness, intelligence and +application, devotion to religion and to religious debate; from the +hobgoblin they get cruelty, fondness for trade and money-making, great +bodily strength, lustfulness, fondness for gossip, and carnivorous +instinct[394]." + +While they are cheerful under a depressing priestly regime, all allow +that they are vindictive, superstitious, and cringing in the presence of +the lamas, who are at heart more dreaded than revered. In fact the whole +religious world is one vast organised system of hypocrisy, and above the +old pagan beliefs common to all primitive peoples there is merely a +veneer of Buddhism, above which follows another and most pernicious +veneer of lamaism (priestcraft), under the yoke of which the natural +development of the people has been almost completely arrested for +several centuries. The burden is borne with surprising endurance, and +would be intolerable but for the relief found in secret and occasionally +even open revolt against the more oppressive ordinances of the +ecclesiastical rule. Thus, despite the prescriptions regarding a strict +vegetarian diet expressed in the formula "eat animal flesh eat thy +brother," not only laymen but most of the lamas themselves supplement +their frugal diet of milk, butter, barley-meal, and fruits with game, +yak, and mutton--this last pronounced by Turner the best in the world. +The public conscience, however, is saved by a few extra turns of the +prayer-wheel at such repasts, and by the general contempt in which is +held the hereditary caste of butchers, who like the Jews in medieval +times are still confined to a "ghetto" of their own in all the large +towns. + +These remarks apply more particularly to the settled southern +communities living in districts where a little agriculture is possible. +Elsewhere the religious cloak is worn very loosely, and the nomad +_Horsoks_ of the northern steppes, although all nominal Buddhists, pay +but scant respect to the decrees supposed to emanate from the Dalai Lama +enshrined in Lhasa. Horsok is an almost unique ethnical term[395], being +a curious compound of the two names applied by the Tibetans to the +_Hor-pa_ and the _Sok-pa_ who divide the steppe between them. The +Hor-pa, who occupy the western parts, are of Turki stock, and are the +only group of that race known to me who profess Buddhism[396], all the +rest being Muhammadans with some Shamanists (Yakuts) in the Lena basin. +The Sok-pa, who roam the eastern plains and valleys, although commonly +called Mongols, are true Tibetans or more strictly speaking Tanguts, of +whom there are here two branches, the _Goliki_ and the _Yegrai_, all, +like the Hor-pa, of Tibetan speech. The Yegrai, as described by +Prjevalsky, closely resemble the other North Tibetan tribes, with their +long, matted locks falling on their shoulders, their scanty whiskers +and beard, angular head, dark complexion and dirty garb[397]. + +Besides stock-breeding and predatory warfare, all these groups follow +the hunt, armed with darts, bows, and matchlock guns; the musk-deer is +ensnared, and the only animal spared is the stag, "Buddha's horse." The +taste of these rude nomads for liquid blood is insatiable, and the +surveyor, Nain Singh, often saw them fall prone on the ground to lick up +the blood flowing from a wounded beast. As soon as weaned, the very +children and even the horses are fed on a diet of cheese, butter, and +blood, kneaded together in a horrible mess, which is greedily devoured +when the taste is acquired. On the other hand alcoholic drinks are +little consumed, the national beverage being coarse Chinese tea imported +in the form of bricks and prepared with _tsampa_ (barley-meal) and +butter, and thus becoming a food as well as a drink. The lamas have a +monopoly of this tea-trade, which could not stand the competition of the +Indian growers; hence arises the chief objection to removing the +barriers of seclusion. + +Tibet is one of the few regions where polyandrous customs, intimately +associated with the matriarchal state, still persist almost in their +pristine vigour. The husbands are usually but not necessarily all +brothers, and the bride is always obtained by purchase. Unless otherwise +arranged, the oldest husband is the putative "father," all the others +being considered as "uncles." An inevitable result of the institution is +to give woman a dominant position in society; hence the "queens" of +certain tribes, referred to with so much astonishment by the early +Chinese chroniclers. Survivors of this "petticoat government" have been +noticed by travellers amongst the Lolos, Mossos, and other indigenous +communities about the Indo-Chinese frontiers. But it does not follow +that polyandry and a matriarchal state always and necessarily preceded +polygyny and a patriarchal state. On the contrary, it would appear that +polyandry never could have been universal; possibly it arose from +special conditions in particular regions, where the struggle for +existence is severe, and the necessity of imposing limits to the +increase of population more urgent than elsewhere[398]. Hence to me it +seems as great a mistake to assume a matriarchate as it is to assume +promiscuity as the universal antecedent of all later family relations. +In Tibet itself polygyny exists side by side with polyandry amongst the +wealthy classes, while monogamy is the rule amongst the poor pastoral +nomads of the northern steppe. + +Great ethnical importance has been attached by some distinguished +anthropologists to the treatment of the dead. But, as in the New Stone +and Metal Ages in Europe cremation and burial were practised side by +side[399], so in Tibet the dead are now simultaneously disposed of in +diverse ways. It is a question not so much of race as of caste or social +classes, or of the lama's pleasure, who, when the head has been shaved +to facilitate the transmigration of the soul, may order the body to be +burnt, buried, cast into the river, or even thrown to carrion birds or +beasts of prey. Strange to say, the last method, carried out with +certain formalities, is one of the most honourable, although the lamas +are generally buried in a seated posture, and high officials burnt, and +(in Ladakh) the ashes, mixed with a little clay, kneaded into much +venerated effigies--doubtless a survival of ancestry worship. + +Reference was above made to the primitive Shamanistic ideas which still +survive beneath the Buddhist and the later lamaistic systems. In the +central and eastern provinces of Ui and Tsang this pre-Buddhist religion +has again struggled to the surface, or rather persisted under the name +of _Bonbo_ (_Boa-ho_) side by side with the national creed, from which +it has even borrowed many of its present rites. From the colour of the +robes usually worn by its priests, it is known as the sect of the +"Blacks," in contradistinction to the orthodox "Yellow" and dissenting +"Red" lamaists, and as now constituted, its origin is attributed to +Shen-rab (Gsen-rabs), who flourished about the fifth century before the +new era, and is venerated as the equal of Buddha himself. His followers, +who were powerful enough to drive Buddhism from Tibet in the tenth +century, worship 18 chief deities, the best known being the red and +black demons, the snake devil, and especially the fiery tiger-god, +father of all the secondary members of this truly "diabolical pantheon." +It is curious to note that the sacred symbol of the Bonbo sect is the +ubiquitous svastika, only with the hooks of the cross reversed, [Symbol] +instead of [Symbol]. This change, which appears to have escaped the +diligent research of Thomas Wilson[400], was caused by the practice of +turning the prayer-wheel from right to left as the red lamas do, instead +of from left to right as is the orthodox way. The common Buddhist +formula of six syllables--_om-ma-ni-pad-me-hum_--is also replaced by one +of seven syllables--_ma-tri-mon-tre-sa-ta-dzun_[401]. + +Buddhism itself, introduced by Hindu missionaries, is more recent than +is commonly supposed. Few conversions were made before the fifth century +of our era, and the first temple dates only from the year 698. Reference +is often made to the points of contact or "coincidences" which have been +observed between this system and that of the Oriental and Latin +Christian Churches. There is no question of a common dogma, and the +numerous resemblances are concerned only with ritualistic details, such +as the cross, the mitre, dalmatica, and other distinctive vestments, +choir singing, exorcisms, the thurible, benedictions with outstretched +hand, celibacy, the rosary, fasts, processions, litanies, spiritual +retreats, holy water, scapulars or other charms, prayer addressed to the +saints, relics, pilgrimages, music and bells at the service, +monasticism; this last being developed to a far greater extent in Tibet +than at any time in any Christian land, Egypt not excepted. The lamas, +representing the regular clergy of the Roman Church, hold a monopoly of +all "science," letters, and arts. The block printing-presses are all +kept in the huge monasteries which cover the land, and from them are +consequently issued only orthodox works and treatises on magic. Religion +itself is little better than a system of magic, and the sole aim of all +worship, reduced to a mere mechanical system of routine, is to baffle +the machinations of the demons who at every turn beset the path of the +wayfarer through this "vale of tears." + +For this purpose the prayer-wheels--an ingenious contrivance by which +innumerable supplications, not less efficacious because vicarious, may +be offered up night and day to the powers of darkness--are incessantly +kept going all over the land, some being so cleverly arranged that the +sacred formula may be repeated as many as 40,000 times at each +revolution of the cylinder. These machines, which have also been +introduced into Korea and Japan, have been at work for several centuries +without any appreciable results, although fitted up in all the houses, +by the river banks or on the hill-side, and kept in motion by the hand, +wind, and water; while others of huge size, 30 to 40 feet high and 15 to +20 in diameter, stand in the temples, and at each turn repeat the +contents of whole volumes of liturgical essays stowed away in their +capacious receptacles. But despite all these everlasting revolutions, +stagnation reigns supreme throughout the most priest-ridden land under +the sun. + +With its religion Tibet imported also its letters from India by the +route of Nepal or Kashmir in the seventh century. Since then the +language has undergone great changes, always, like other members of the +Indo-Chinese family, in the direction from agglutination towards +monosyllabism[402]. But the orthography, apart from a few feeble efforts +at reform, has remained stationary, so that words are still written as +they were pronounced 1200 years ago. The result is a far greater +discrepancy between the spoken and written tongue than in any other +language, English not excepted. Thus the province of Ui has been +identified by Sir A. Cunningham with Ptolemy's _Debasae_ through its +written form _Dbus_, though now always pronounced _U_[403]. This bears +out de Lacouperie's view that all words were really uttered as +originally spelt, although often beginning with as many as three +consonants. Thus _spra_ (monkey) is now pronounced _deu_ in the Lhasa +dialect, but still _streu-go_ in that of the province of Kham. The +phonetic disintegration is still going on, so that, barring reform, the +time must come when there will be no correspondence at all between sound +and its graphic expression. + +On the other hand it is a mistake to suppose that all languages in the +Indo-Chinese linguistic zone have undergone this enormous extent of +phonetic decay. The indefatigable B. H. Hodgson has made us acquainted +with several, especially in Nepal, which are of a highly conservative +character. Farther east the _Lepcha_ (properly _Rong_) of Sikkim +presents the remarkable peculiarity of distinct agglutination of the +Mongolo-Turki, or perhaps I should say of the Kuki-Lushai type, combined +with numerous homophones and a total absence of tone. Thus _pano-sa_, of +a king, _pano-sang_, kings, and _pano-sang-sa_, of kings, shows pure +agglutination, while _mat_ yields no less than twenty-three distinct +meanings[404], which should necessitate a series of discriminating +tones, as in Chinese or Siamese. Their absence, however, is readily +explained by the persistence of the agglutinative principle, which +renders them unnecessary. + +A somewhat similar feature is presented by the Angami Naga, the chief +language of the Naga Hills, of which R. B. McCabe writes that it is +"still in a very primitive stage of the agglutinating class," and +"peculiarly rich in intonation," although "for one Naga who clearly +marks these tonal distinctions twenty fail to do so[405]." It follows +that it is mainly spoken without tones, and although said to be +"distinctly monosyllabic" it really abounds in polysyllables, such as +_merenama_, orphan, _kehutsaporimo_, nowhere, _dukriwache_, to kill, +etc. There are also numerous verbal formative elements given by McCabe +himself, so that Angami must clearly be included in the agglutinating +order. To this order also belongs beyond all doubt the _Kuki-Lushai_ of +the neighbouring North Kachar Hills and parts of Nagaland itself, the +common speech in fact of the _Rangkhols_, _Jansens_, _Lushai_, _Roeys_ +and other hill peoples, collectively called _Kuki_ by the lowlanders, +and _Dzo_ by themselves[406]. The highly agglutinating character of this +language is evident from the numerous conjugations given by +Soppitt[407], for some of which he has no names, but which may be called +_Acceleratives_, _Retardatives_, _Complementatives_, and so on. Thus +with the root, _ahong_, come, and infix _jam_, slow, is formed the +retardative _nang ahongjamrangmoh_, "will-you-come-slowly?" (_rang_, +future, _moh_, interrogative particle)[408]. + +The Kuki, the Naga and the Manipuri, none of which claim to be the +original occupants of the country, have a tradition of a common +ancestor, who had three sons who became the progenitors of the tribes. +The Kuki are found almost everywhere throughout Manipur. "We are like +the birds of the air," said a Kuki to T. C. Hodson, "we make our nests +here this year, and who knows where we shall build next year[409]?" The +following description is given of the Naga tribes, _Tangkhuls_, _Mao_ +and _Maram Nagas_ (_Angami Nagas_), _Kolya_, or _Mayang Khong_ group, +_Kabuis_, _Quoirengs_, _Chirus_ and _Marrings_. "Differences of stature, +dress, coiffure and weapons make it easy to distinguish between the +members of these tribes. In colour they are all brown with but little +variety, though some of the Tangkhuls who earn their living by salt +making seem to be darker. Among them all, as among the Manipuris, there +are persons who have a tinge of colour in their cheeks when still young. +The nose also varies, for there are cases where it is almost straight, +while in the majority of individuals it is flattened at the nostril. +Here and there one may see noses which in profile are almost Roman. The +eyes are usually brown, though black eyes are sometimes found to occur. +The jaw is generally clean, not heavy, and the hair is of some variety, +as there are many persons whose hair is decidedly curly, and in most +there is a wave. Beards are very uncommon, and hair on the face is very +rare, so much so that the few who possess a moustache are known as +_khoi-hao-bas_ (Meithei words, meaning moustache grower). I am informed +that the ladies do not like hirsute men, and that the men therefore pull +out any stray hairs. The cheekbones are often prominent and the slope of +the eye is not very marked[410]." The stature is moderate varying from +the slender lightly built Marrings to the tall sturdy finely +proportioned Maos. The women are all much shorter than the men, but +strongly built with a muscular development of which the men would not be +ashamed. The land is thickly peopled with local deities and at Maram the +case is recorded of a Rain Deity who was once a man of the village +specially cunning in rain making. Among the points of special interest +in this region are the stone monuments still erected in honour of the +dead, and the custom of head-hunting, connected with simple blood feud, +with agrarian rites, with funerary rites and eschatological belief, and +in some cases no more than a social duty[411]. + +Through these Naga and Kuki aborigines we pass without any break of +continuity from the Bhotiya populations of the Himalayan slopes to those +of Indo-China. Here also, as indeed in nearly all semi-civilised lands, +peoples at various grades of culture are found dwelling for ages side by +side--rude and savage groups on the uplands or in the more dense wooded +tracts, settled communities with a large measure of political unity (in +fact nations and peoples in the strict sense of those terms) on the +lowlands, and especially along the rich alluvial riverine plains of this +well watered region. The common theory is that the wild tribes represent +the true aborigines driven to the hills and woodlands by civilised +invaders from India and other lands, who are now represented by the +settled communities. + +Whether such movements and dislocations have elsewhere taken place we +need not here stop to inquire; indeed their probability, and in some +instances their certainty may be frankly admitted. But I cannot think +that the theory expresses the true relations in most parts of Farther +India. Here the civilised peoples, and _ex hypothesi_ the intruders, are +the Manipuri, Burmese, Arakanese, and the nearly extinct or absorbed +Talaings or Mons in the west; the Siamese, Shans or Laos, and Khamti in +the centre; the Annamese (Tonkinese and Cochin-Chinese), Cambojans, and +the almost extinct Champas in the east. Nearly all of these I hold to be +quite as indigenous as the hillmen, the only difference being that, +thanks to their more favourable environment, they emerged at an early +date from the savage state and thus became more receptive to foreign +civilising influences, mostly Hindu, but also Chinese (in Annam). All +are either partly or mainly of Mongolic or Indonesian type, and all +speak toned Indo-Chinese languages, except the Cambojans and Champas, +whose linguistic relations are with the Oceanic peoples, who are not +here in question. The cultivated languages are no doubt full of Sanskrit +or Prakrit terms in the west and centre, and of Chinese in the east, and +all, except Annamese, which uses a Chinese ideographic system, are +written with alphabets derived through the square Pali characters from +the Devanagari. It is also true that the vast monuments of Burma, Siam, +and Camboja all betray Hindu influences, many of the temples being +covered with Brahmanical or Buddhist sculptures and inscriptions. But +precisely analogous phenomena are reproduced in Java, Sumatra, and other +Malaysian lands, as well as in Japan and partly in China itself. Are we +then to conclude that there have been Hindu invasions and settlements in +all these regions, the most populous on the globe? + +During the historic period a few Hinduized Dravidians, especially +Telingas (Telugus) of the Coromandel coast, have from time to time +emigrated to Indo-China (Pegu), where the name survives amongst the +"Talaings," that is, the Mons, by whom they were absorbed, just as the +Mons themselves are now being absorbed by the Burmese. Others of the +same connection have gained a footing here and there in Malaysia, +especially the Malacca coastlands, where they are called "Klings[412]," +_i.e._ Telings, Telingas. + +But beyond these partial movements, without any kind of influence on the +general ethnical relations, I know of no Hindu (some have even used the +term "Aryan," and have brought Aryans to Camboja) invasions except those +of a moral order--the invasions of the zealous Hindu missionaries, both +Brahman and Buddhist, which, however, amply suffice to account for all +the above indicated points of contact between the Indian, the +Indo-Chinese, and the Malayan populations. + +That the civilised lowlanders and rude highlanders are generally of the +same aboriginal stocks is well seen in the Manipur district with its +fertile alluvial plains and encircling Naga and Lushai Hills on the +north and south. The Hinduized Manipuri of the plains, that is, the +politically dominant _Meithis_, as they call themselves, are considered +by George Watt to be "a mixed race between the Kukies and the +Nagas[413]." The Meithis are described as possessing in general the +facial characteristics of Mongolian type, but with great diversity of +feature. "It is not uncommon to meet with girls with brownish-black +hair, brown eyes, fair complexions, straight noses and rosy +cheeks[414]." In spite of the veneer of civilisation acquired by the +Meithis, the old order of things has by no means passed away. "The +_maiba_, the doctor and priest of the animistic system, still finds a +livelihood despite the competition on the one hand of the Brahmin, and +on the other of the hospital Assistant. Nevertheless the _maibas_ +frequently adapt their methods to the altered circumstances in which +they now find themselves, and realize that the combination of croton oil +and a charm is more efficacious than the charm alone[415]." + +"It is possible to discover at least four definite orders of spiritual +beings who have crystallized out from the amorphous mass of animistic +Deities. There are the _Lam Lai_, gods of the country-side who shade off +into Nature Gods controlling the rain, the primal necessity of an +agricultural community; the _Umang Lai_ or Deities of the Forest Jungle; +the _Imung Lai_, the Household Deities, Lords of the lives, the births +and the deaths of individuals, and there are Tribal Ancestors, the +ritual of whose worship is a strange compound of magic and +Nature-worship. Beyond these Divine beings, who possess in some sort a +majesty of orderly decent behaviour, there are spirits of the mountain +passes, spirits of the lakes and rivers, vampires and all the horrid +legion of witchcraft.... It is difficult to estimate the precise effect +of Hinduism on the civilisation of the people, for to the outward +observer they seem to have adopted only the festivals, the outward +ritual, the caste marks and the exclusiveness of Hinduism, while all +unmindful of its spirit and inward essentials. Colonel McCulloch +remarked nearly fifty years ago that 'In fact their observances are only +for appearance sake, not the promptings of the heart[416].'" + +It is noteworthy that the Manipuri are also devoted to the game of polo, +which R. C. Temple tells us they play much in the same way as do the +Balti and Ladakhi at the opposite extremity of the Himalayas. Another +remarkable link with the "Far West" is the term _Khel_, which has +travelled all the way from Persia or Parthia through Afghanistan to +Nagaland, where it retains the same meaning of clan or section of a +village, and produces the same disintegrating effects as amongst the +Afghans. In Angamiland each village is split into two or more Khels, and +"it is no unusual state of affairs to find Khel A of one village at war +with Khel B of another, while not at war with Khel B of its own village. +The Khels are often completely separated by great walls, the people on +either side living within a few yards of each other, yet having no +dealings whatever. Each Khel has its own headman, but little respect is +paid to the chief: each Khel maybe described as a small republic[417]." +There appears to be no trace even of a _jirga_, or council of elders, by +which some measure of cohesion is imparted to the Afghan Khel system. + +From the Kuki-Nagas the transition is unbroken to the large group of +_Chins_ of the Chindwin valley, named from them, and thence northwards +to the rude _Kakhyens_ (_Kachins_) about the Irawadi headstreams and +southwards to the numerous _Karen_ tribes, who occupy the ethnical +parting-line between Burma and Siam all the way down to Tenasserim. + +For the first detailed account of the Chins we are indebted to S. Carey +and H. N. Tuck[418], who accept B. Houghton's theory that these tribes, +as well as the Kuki-Lushai, "originally lived in what we now know as +Tibet, and are of one and the same stock; their form of government, +method of cultivation, manners and customs, beliefs and traditions, all +point to one origin." The term Chin, said to be a Burmese form of the +Chinese _jin_, "men," is unknown to these aborigines, who call +themselves _Yo_ in the north and _Lai_ in the south, while in Lower +Burma they are _Shu_. + +In truth there is no recognised collective name, and _Shendu_ (_Sindhu_) +often so applied is proper only to the once formidable Chittagong and +Arakan frontier tribes, _Klangklangs_ and _Hakas_, who with the _Sokte_, +_Tashons_, _Siyirs_, and others are now reduced and administered from +Falam. Each little group has its own tribal name, and often one or two +others, descriptive, abusive and so on, given them by their neighbours. +Thus the _Nwengals_ (_Nun_, river, _ngal_, across) are only that section +of the Soktes now settled on the farther or right bank of the Manipur, +while the Soktes themselves (_Sok_, to go down, _te_, men) are so called +because they migrated from Chin Nwe (9 miles from Tiddim), cradle of the +Chin race, down to Molbem, their earliest settlement, which is the +Mobingyi of the Burmese. So with Siyin, the Burmese form of _Sheyante_ +(_she_, alkali, _yan_, side, _te_, men), the group who settled by the +alkali springs east of Chin Nwe, who are the _Taute_ ("stout" or +"sturdy" people) of the Lushai and southern Chins. Let these few +specimens suffice as a slight object-lesson in the involved tribal +nomenclature which prevails, not only amongst the Chins, but everywhere +in the Tibeto-Indo-Chinese domain, from the north-western Himalayas to +Cape St James at the south-eastern extremity of Farther India. I have +myself collected nearly a thousand such names of clans, septs, and +fragmentary groups within this domain, and am well aware that the list +neither is, nor ever can be, complete, the groups themselves often being +unstable quantities in a constant state of fluctuation. + +Most of the Chin groups have popular legends to explain either their +origin or their present reduced state. Thus the Tawyans, a branch of the +Tashons, claim to be Torrs, that is, the people of the Rawvan district, +who were formerly very powerful, but were ruined by their insane +efforts to capture the sun. Building a sort of Jacob's ladder, they +mounted higher and higher; but growing tired, quarrelled among +themselves, and one day, while half of them were clambering up the pole, +the other half below cut it down just as they were about to seize the +sun. So the Whenohs, another Tashon group, said to be Lushais left +behind in a district now forming part of Chinland, tell a different +tale. They say they came out of the rocks at Sepi, which they think was +their original home. They share, however, this legend of their +underground origin with the Soktes and several other Chin tribes. + +Amid much diversity of speech and physique the Chins present some common +mental qualities, such as "slow speech, serious manner, respect for +birth and knowledge of pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for a +treacherous method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of +hospitality, the clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state +of the body, mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of +power of combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, +speedy discouragement and panic in defeat[419]." + +Physically they are a fine race, taller and stouter than the surrounding +lowlanders, men 5 feet 10 or 11 inches being common enough among the +independent southerners. There are some "perfectly proportioned giants +with a magnificent development of muscle." Yet dwarfs are met with in +some districts, and in others "the inhabitants are a wretched lot, much +afflicted with goitre, amongst whom may be seen cretins who crawl about +on all fours with the pigs in the gutter. At Dimlo, in the Sokte tract, +leprosy has a firm hold on the inhabitants." + +Although often described as devil-worshippers, the Chins really worship +neither god nor devil. The northerners believe there is no Supreme +Being, and although the southerners admit a "Kozin" or head god, to whom +they sacrifice, they do not worship him, and never look to him for any +grace or mercy, except that of withholding the plagues and misfortunes +which he is capable of working on any in this world who offend him. +Besides Kozin, there are _nats_ or spirits of the house, family, clan, +fields; and others who dwell in particular places in the air, the +streams, the jungle, and the hills. Kindly _nats_ are ignored; all +others can and will do harm unless propitiated[420]. + +The departed go to _Mithikwa_, "Dead Man's Village," which is divided +into _Pwethikwa_, the pleasant abode, and _Sathikwa_, the wretched abode +of the _unavenged_. Good or bad deeds do not affect the future of man, +who must go to Pwethikwa if he dies a natural or accidental death, and +to Sathikwa if killed, and there bide till avenged by blood. Thus the +vendetta receives a sort of religious sanction, strengthened by the +belief that the slain becomes the slave of the slayer in the next world. +"Should the slayer himself be slain, then the first slain is the slave +of the second slain, who in turn is the slave of the man who killed +him." + +Whether a man has been honest or dishonest in this world is of no +consequence in the next existence; but, if he has killed many people in +this world, he has many slaves to serve him in his future existence; if +he has killed many wild animals, then he will start well-supplied with +food, for all that he kills on earth are his in the future existence. In +the next existence hunting and drinking will certainly be practised, but +whether fighting and raiding will be indulged in is unknown. + +Cholera and small-pox are spirits, and when cholera broke out among the +Chins who visited Rangoon in 1895 they carried their _dahs_ (knives) +drawn to scare off the _nat_, and spent the day hiding under bushes, so +that the spirit should not find them. Some even wanted to sacrifice a +slave boy, but were talked over to substitute some pariah dogs. They +firmly believe in the evil eye, and the Hakas think the Sujins and +others are all wizards, whose single glance can bewitch them, and may +cause lizards to enter the body and devour the entrails. A Chin once +complained to Surgeon-Major Newland that a _nat_ had entered his stomach +at the glance of a Yahow, and he went to hospital quite prepared to die. +But an emetic brought him round, and he went off happy in the belief +that he had vomited the _nat_. + +Ethnically connected with the Kuki-Naga groups are the _Kakhyens_ of the +Irawadi headstreams, and the _Karens_, who form numerous village +communities about the Burma-Siamese borderland. The Kakhyens, so called +abusively by the Burmese, are the _Cacobees_ of the early writers[421], +whose proper name is _Singpho_ (_Chingpaw_), i.e. "Men[422]," and whose +curious semi-agglutinating speech, spoken in an ascending tone, each +sentence ending in a long-drawn _i_ in a higher key (Bigandet), shows +affinities rather with the Mishmi and other North Assamese tongues than +with the cultured Burmese. They form a very widespread family, +stretching from the Eastern Himalayas right into Yunnan, and presenting +two somewhat marked physical types: (1) the true Chingpaws, with short +round head, low forehead, prominent cheek-bones, slant eye, broad nose, +thick protruding lips, very dark brown hair and eyes, dirty buff colour, +mean height (about 5 ft. 5 or 6 in.) with disproportionately short legs; +(2) a much finer race, with regular Caucasic features, long oval face, +pointed chin, aquiline nose. One Kakhyen belle met with at Bhamo, "with +large lustrous eyes and fair skin, might almost have passed for a +European[423]." + +It is important to note this Caucasic element, which we first meet here +going eastwards from the Himalayas, but which is found either separate +or interspersed amongst the Mongoloid populations all over the +south-east Asiatic uplands from Tibet to Cochin-China, and passing +thence into Oceanica[424]. + +The kinship of the Kakhyens with the still more numerous Karens is now +generally accepted, and it is no longer found necessary to bring the +latter all the way from Turkestan. They form a large section, perhaps +one-sixth, of the whole population of Burma, and overflow into the west +Siamese borderlands. Their subdivisions are endless, though all may be +reduced to three main branches, _Sgaws_, _Pwos_ and _Bwais_, these last +including the somewhat distinct group of _Karenni_, or "Red Karens." +Although D. M. Smeaton calls the language "monosyllabic," it is +evidently agglutinating, of the normal sub-Himalayan type[425]. + +The Karens are a short, sturdy race, with straight black and also +brownish hair, black, and even hazel eyes, and light or yellowish brown +complexion, so that here also a Caucasic strain may be suspected. + +Despite the favourable pictures of the missionaries, whose propaganda +has been singularly successful amongst these aborigines, the Karens are +not an amiable or particularly friendly people, but rather shy, reticent +and even surly, though trustworthy and loyal to those chiefs and guides +who have once gained their confidence. In warfare they are treacherous +rather than brave, and strangely cruel even to little children. Their +belief in a divine Creator who has deserted them resembles that of the +Kuki people, and to the _nats_ of the Kuki correspond the _la_ of the +Karens, who are even more numerous, every mountain, stream, rapid, +crest, peak or other conspicuous object having its proper indwelling +_la_. There are also seven specially baneful spirits, who have to be +appeased by family offerings. "On the whole their belief in a personal +god, their tradition as to the former possession of a 'law,' and their +expectation of a prophet have made them susceptible to Christianity to a +degree that is almost unique. Of this splendid opportunity the American +mission has taken full advantage, educating, civilising, welding +together, and making a people out of the downtrodden Karen tribes, while +Christianizing them[426]." + +In the Burmese division proper are comprised several groups, presenting +all grades of culture, from the sheer savagery of the Mros, Kheongs, and +others of the Arakan Yoma range, and the agricultural Mugs of the Arakan +plains, to the dominant historical Burmese nation of the Irawadi valley. +Here also the terminology is perplexing, and it may be well to explain +that _Yoma_, applied by Logan collectively to all the Arakan Hill +tribes, has no ethnic value at all, simply meaning a mountain range in +Burmese[427]. _Toung-gnu_, one of Mason's divisions of the Burmese +family, was merely a petty state founded by a younger branch of the +Royal House, and "has no more claim to rank as a separate tribe than any +other Burman town[428]. "_Tavoyers_ are merely the people of the Tavoy +district, Tenasserim, originally from Arakan, and now speaking a Burmese +dialect largely affected by Siamese elements; _Tungthas_, like Yoma, +means "Highlander," and is even of wider application; the Tipperahs, +Mrungs, Kumi, Mros, Khemis, and Khyengs are all Tungthas of Burmese +stock, and speak rude Burmese dialects. + +The correlative of Tungthas is _Khyungthas_, "River People," that is, +the Arakan Lowlanders comprising the more civilised peoples about the +middle and lower course of the rivers, who are improperly called _Mugs_ +(_Maghs_) by the Bengali, and whose real name is _Rakhaingtha_, _i.e._ +people of Rakhaing (Arakan). They are undoubtedly of the same stock as +the cultured Burmese, whose traditions point to Arakan as the cradle of +the race, and in whose chronicles the Rakhaingtha are called +_M'ranmakrih_, "Great M'ranmas," or "Elder Burmese." Both branches call +themselves _M'ranma, M'rama_ (the correct form of _Barma, Burma_, but +now usually pronounced Myamma), probably from a root _mro, myo_, "man," +though connected by Burnouf with Brahma, the Brahmanical having preceded +the Buddhist religion in this region. In any case the M'rama may claim a +respectable antiquity, being already mentioned in the national records +so early as the first century of the new era, when the land "was said to +be overrun with fabulous monsters and other terrors, which are called to +this day by the superstitious natives, the five enemies. These were a +fierce tiger, an enormous boar, a flying dragon, a prodigious man-eating +bird, and a huge creeping pumpkin, which threatened to entangle the +whole country[429]." + +The Burmese type has been not incorrectly described as intermediate +between the Chinese and the Malay, more refined, or at least softer than +either, of yellowish brown or olive complexion, often showing very dark +shades, full black and lank hair, no beard, small but straight nose, +weak extremities, pliant figure, and a mean height[430]. + +Most Europeans speak well of the Burmese people, whose bright genial +temperament and extreme friendliness towards strangers more than +outweigh a natural indolence which hurts nobody but themselves, and a +little arrogance or vanity inspired by the still remembered glories of a +nation that once ruled over a great part of Indo-China. Perhaps the most +remarkable feature of Burmese society is the almost democratic +independence and equality of all classes developed under an +exceptionally severe Asiatic autocracy. "They are perfectly republican +in the freedom with which all ranks mingle together and talk with one +another, without any marked distinction in regard to difference of rank +or wealth[431]." Scott attributes this trait, I think rightly, to the +great leveller, Buddhism, the true spirit of which has perhaps been +better preserved in Burma than in any other land. + +The priesthood has not become the privileged and oppressive class that +has usurped all spiritual and temporal functions in Tibet, for in Burma +everybody is or has been a priest for some period of his life. All enter +the monasteries--which are the national schools--not only for general +instruction, but actually as members of the sacerdotal order. They +submit to the tonsure, take "minor orders," so to say, and wear the +yellow robe, if only for a few months or weeks or days. But for the time +being they must renounce "the world, the flesh and the devil," and must +play the mendicant, make the round of the village at least once with the +begging-bowl hung round their neck in company with the regular members +of the community. They thus become initiated, and it becomes no longer +possible for the confraternity to impose either on the rulers or on the +ruled. "Teaching is all that the brethren of the order do for the +people. They have no spiritual powers whatever. They simply become +members of a holy society that they may observe the precepts of the +Master more perfectly, and all they do for the alms lavished on them by +the pious laity is to instruct the children in reading, writing, and the +rudiments of religion[432]." + +R. Grant Brown denies the common report which "has appeared in almost +every work in which religion in Burma is dealt with" that Burman +Buddhism is superficial. "The Burman Buddhist is at least as much +influenced by his religion as the average Christian. The monks are +probably as strict in their religious observances as any large religious +body in the world.... Most laymen, too, obey the prohibitions against +alcohol and the taking of life, though these run counter both to strong +human instincts and to animistic practice[433]." + +Nor is the personal freedom here spoken of confined to the men. In no +other part of the world do the women enjoy a larger measure of +independent action than in Burma, with the result that they are +acknowledged to be far more virtuous, thrifty, and intelligent than +those of all the surrounding lands. Their capacity for business and +petty dealings is rivalled only by their Gallic sisters; and H. S. +Hallett tells us that in every town and village "you will see damsels +squatted on the floor of the verandah with diminutive, or sometimes +large, stalls in front of them, covered with vegetables, fruit, +betel-nut, cigars and other articles. However numerous they may be, the +price of everything is known to them; and such is their idea of probity, +that pilfering is quite unknown amongst them. They are entirely trusted +by their parents from their earliest years; even when they blossom into +young women, _chaperons_ are never a necessity; yet immorality is far +less customary amongst them, I am led to believe, than in any country in +Europe[434]." + +This observer quotes Bishop Bigandet, a forty years' resident amongst +the natives, to the effect that "in Burmah and Siam the doctrines of +Buddhism have produced a striking, and to the lover of true civilization +a most interesting result--the almost complete equality of the condition +of the women with that of the men. In these countries women are seen +circulating freely in the streets; they preside at the _comptoir_, and +hold an almost exclusive possession of the bazaars. Their social +position is more elevated, in every respect, than in the regions where +Buddhism is not the predominating creed. They may be said to be men's +companions, and not their slaves." + +Burma is one of those regions where tattooing has acquired the rank of a +fine art. Indeed the intricate designs and general pictorial effect +produced by the Burmese artists on the living body are rivalled only by +those of Japan, New Zealand, and some other Polynesian groups. Hallett, +who states that "the Burmese, the Shans, and certain Burmanized tribes +are the only peoples in the south of Asia who are known to tattoo their +body," tells us that the elaborate operation is performed only on the +male sex, the whole person from waist to knees, and amongst some Shan +tribes from neck to foot, being covered with heraldic figures of +animals, with intervening traceries, so that at a little distance the +effect is that of a pair of dark-blue breeches[435]. The pigments are +lamp-black or vermilion, and the pattern is usually first traced with a +fine hair pencil and then worked in by a series of punctures made by a +long pointed brass style[436]. + +East of Burma we enter the country of the _Shans_, one of the most +numerous and widespread peoples of Asia, who call themselves _Tai_ +(_T'hai_), "Noble" or "Free," although slavery in various forms has from +time immemorial been a social institution amongst all the southern +groups. Here again tribal and national terminology is somewhat +bewildering; but it will help to notice that _Shan_, said to be of +Chinese origin[437], is the collective Burmese name, and therefore +corresponds to _Lao_, the collective Siamese name. These two terms are +therefore rather political than ethnical, Shan denoting all the Tai +peoples formerly subject to Burma and now mostly British subjects, Lao +all the Tai peoples formerly subject to Siam, and now (since 1896) +mostly French subjects[438]. The Siamese group them all in two +divisions, the _Lau-pang-dun_, "Black-paunch Lao," so called because +they clothe themselves as it were in a dark skin-tight garb by the +tattooing process; and the _Lau-pang-kah_, "White-paunch Lao," who do +not tattoo. The Burmese groups call themselves collectively +_Ngiou_[439], while the most general Chinese name is _Pai_ (_Pa-y_). +Prince Henri d'Orleans, who is careful to point out that Pai is only +another name for Lao[440], constantly met Pai groups all along the route +from Tonking to Assam, and the bulk of the lowland population in Assam +itself belongs originally[441] to the same family, though now mostly +assimilated to the Hindus in speech, religion, and general culture. +Assam in fact takes its name from the _Ahoms_, the "peerless," the title +first adopted by the Mau Shan chief, Chukupha, who invaded the country +from north-east Burma, and in 1228 A.D. founded the Ahom dynasty, which +was overthrown in 1810 by the Burmese, who were ejected in 1827 by the +English[442]. + +These Ahoms came from the Khamti (Kampti) district about the sources of +the Irawadi, where Prince Henri was surprised to find a civilised and +lettered Buddhist people of Pai (Shan) speech still enjoying political +autonomy in the dangerous proximity of _le leopard britannique_. They +call themselves _Padao_, and it is curious to note that both _Padam_ and +_Assami_ are also tribal names amongst the neighbouring Abor Hillmen. +The French traveller was told that the Padao, who claimed to be _T'hais_ +(Tai) like the Laotians[443], were indigenous, and he describes the type +as also Laotian--straight eyes rather wide apart, nose broad at base, +forehead arched, superciliary arches prominent, thick lips, pointed +chin, olive colour, slightly bronzed and darker than in the Lao country; +the men ill-favoured, the young women with pleasant features, and some +with very beautiful eyes. + +Passing into China we are still in the midst of Shan peoples, whose +range appears formerly to have extended up to the right bank of the +Yang-tse-Kiang, and whose cradle has been traced by de Lacouperie to +"the Kiu-lung mountains north of Sechuen and south of Shensi in China +proper[444]." This authority holds that they constitute a chief element +in the Chinese race itself, which, as it spread southwards beyond the +Yang-tse-Kiang, amalgamated with the Shan aborigines, and thus became +profoundly modified both in type and speech, the present Chinese +language comprising over thirty per cent. of Shan ingredients. Colquhoun +also, during his explorations in the southern provinces, found that +"most of the aborigines, although known to the Chinese by various +nicknames, were Shans; and that their propinquity to the Chinese was +slowly changing their habits, manners, and dress, and gradually +incorporating them with that people[445]." + +This process of fusion has been in progress for ages, not only between +the southern Chinese and the Shans, but also between the Shans and the +Caucasic aborigines, whom we first met amongst the Kakhyens, but who are +found scattered mostly in small groups over all the uplands between +Tibet and the Cochin-Chinese coast range. The result is that the Shans +are generally of finer physique than either the kindred Siamese and +Malays in the south, or the more remotely connected Chinese in the +north. The colour, says Bock, "is much lighter than that of the +Siamese," and "in facial expression the Laotians are better-looking than +the Malays, having good high foreheads, and the men particularly having +regular well-shaped noses, with nostrils not so wide as those of their +neighbours[446]." Still more emphatic is the testimony of Kreitner of +the Szechenyi expedition, who tells us that the Burmese Shans have "a +nobler head than the Chinese; the dark eyes are about horizontal, the +nose is straight, the whole expression approaches that of the Caucasic +race[447]." + +Notwithstanding their wide diffusion, interminglings with other races, +varied grades of culture, and lack of political cohesion, the Tai-Shan +groups acquire a certain ethnical and even national unity from their +generally uniform type, social usages, Buddhist religion, and common +Indo-Chinese speech. Amidst a chaos of radically distinct idioms current +amongst the surrounding indigenous populations, they have everywhere +preserved a remarkable degree of linguistic uniformity, all speaking +various more or less divergent dialects of the same mother-tongue. +Excluding a large percentage of Sanskrit terms introduced into the +literary language by their Hindu educators, this radical mother-tongue +comprises about 1860 distinct words or rather sounds, which have been +reduced by phonetic decay to so many monosyllables, each uttered with +five tones, the natural tone, two higher tones, and two lower[448]. Each +term thus acquires five distinct meanings, and in fact represents five +different words, which were phonetically distinct dissyllables, or even +polysyllables in the primitive language. + +The same process of disintegration has been at work throughout the whole +of the Indo-Chinese linguistic area, where all the leading +tongues--Chinese, Annamese, Tai-Shan, Burmese--belong to the same +isolating form of speech, which, as explained in _Ethnology_, Chap. IX., +is not a primitive condition, but a later development, the outcome of +profound phonetic corruption. + +The remarkable uniformity of the Tai-Shan member of this order of speech +may be in part due to the conservative effects of the literary standard. +Probably over 2000 years ago most of the Shan groups were brought under +Hindu influences by the Brahman, and later by the Buddhist missionaries, +who reduced their rude speech to written form, while introducing a large +number of Sanskrit terms inseparable from the new religious ideas. The +writing systems, all based on the square Pali form of the Devanagari +syllabic characters, were adapted to the phonetic requirements of the +various dialects, with the result that the Tai-Shan linguistic family is +encumbered with four different scripts. "The Western Shans use one very +like the Burmese; the Siamese have a character of their own, which is +very like Pali; the Shans called Lue have another character of their own; +and to the north of Siam the Lao Shans have another[449]." + +These Shan alphabets of Hindu origin are supposed by de Lacouperie to be +connected with the writing systems which have been credited to the +Mossos, Lolos, and some other hill peoples about the Chinese and +Indo-Chinese borderlands. At Lan-Chu in the Lolo country Prince Henri +found that MSS. were very numerous, and he was shown some very fine +specimens "enlumines." Here, he tells us, the script is still in use, +being employed jointly with Chinese in drawing up legal documents +connected with property. He was informed that this Lolo script comprised +300 characters, read from top to bottom and from left to right[450], +although other authorities say from right to left. + +Of the Lolo he gives no specimens[451], but reproduces two or three +pages of a Mosso book with transliteration and translation. Other +specimens, but without explanation, were already known through Gill and +Desgodins, and their decipherment had exercised the ingenuity of several +Chinese scholars. Their failure to interpret them is now accounted for +by Prince Henri, who declares that, "strictly speaking the Mossos have +no writing system. The magicians keep and still make copy-books full of +hieroglyphics; each page is divided into little sections (_cahiers_) +following horizontally from left to right, in which are inscribed one or +more somewhat rough figures, heads of animals, men, houses, conventional +signs representing the sky or lightning, and so on." Some of the +magicians expounded two of the books, which contained invocations, +beginning with the creation of the world, and winding up with a +catalogue of all the evils threatening mortals, but to be averted by +being pious, that is, by making gifts to the magicians. The same ideas +are always expressed by the same signs; yet the magicians declared that +there was no alphabet, the hieroglyphs being handed down bodily from one +expert to another. Nevertheless Prince Henri looks on this as one of the +first steps in the history of writing; "originally many of the Chinese +characters were simply pictorial, and if the Mossos, instead of being +hemmed in, had acquired a large expansion, their sacred books might also +perhaps have given birth to true characters[452]." + +Although now "hemmed in," the Mossos are a historical and somewhat +cultured people, belonging to the same group as the _Iungs_ (_Njungs_), +who came from the regions north-east of Tibet, and appeared on the +Chinese frontiers about 600 B.C. They are referred to in the Chinese +records of 796 A.D., when they were reduced by the king of Nanchao. +After various vicissitudes they recognised the Chinese suzerainty in the +fourteenth century, and were finally subdued in the eighteenth. De +Lacouperie[453] thinks they are probably of the same origin as the +Lolos, the two languages having much in common, and the names of both +being Chinese, while the Lolos and the Mossos call themselves +respectively _Nossu_ (_Nesu_) and _Nashi_ (_Nashri_). + +Everywhere amongst these border tribes are met groups of aborigines, who +present more or less regular features which are described by various +travellers as "Caucasic" or "European." Thus the _Kiu-tse_, who are the +_Khanungs_ of the English maps, and are akin to the large _Lu-tse_ +family (_Melam_, _Anu_, _Diasu_, etc.), reminded Prince Henri of some +Europeans of his acquaintance[454], and he speaks of the light colour, +straight nose and eyes, and generally fine type of the Yayo (Yao), as +the Chinese call them, but whose real name is _Lin-tin-yu_. + +The same Caucasic element reappears in a pronounced form amongst the +indigenous populations of Tonking, to whom A. Billet has devoted an +instructive monograph[455]. This observer, who declares that these +aborigines are quite distinct both from the Chinese and the Annamese, +groups them in three main divisions--_Tho_, _Nong_, and _Man_[456]--all +collectively called _Moi_, _Muong_, and _Myong_ by the Annamese. The +Thos, who are the most numerous, are agriculturists, holding all the +upland valleys and thinning off towards the wooded heights. They are +tall compared to the Mongols (5 ft. 6 or 7 in.), lighter than the +Annamese, round-headed, with oval face, deep-set straight eyes, low +cheek-bones, straight and even slightly aquiline nose not depressed at +root, and muscular frames. They are a patient, industrious, and frugal +people, now mainly subject to Chinese and Annamese influences in their +social usages and religion. Very peculiar nevertheless are some of their +surviving customs, such as the feast of youth, the pastime of swinging, +and especially chess played with living pieces, whose movements are +directed by two players. The language appears to be a Shan dialect, and +to this family the writer affiliates both the Thos and the Nongs. The +latter are a much more mixed people, now largely assimilated to the +Chinese, although the primitive type still persists, especially amongst +the women, as is so often the case. A. Billet tells us that he often met +Nong women "with light and sometimes even red hair[457]." + +It is extremely interesting to learn that the Mans came traditionally +"from a far-off western land where their forefathers were said to have +lived in contact with peoples of white blood thousands of years ago." +This tradition, which would identify them with the above-mentioned +Man-tse, is supported by their physical appearance--long head, oval +face, small cheek-bones, eyes without the Mongol fold, skin not +yellowish but rather "browned by the sun," regular features--in nothing +recalling the traits of the yellow races. + +Let us now turn to M. R. Verneau's comments on the rich materials +brought together by A. Billet, in whom, "being not only a medical man, +but also a graduate in the natural sciences, absolute confidence may be +placed[458]." + +"The Mans-Tien, the Mans-Coc, the Mans-Meo (Miao, Miao-tse, or Mieu) +present a pretty complete identity with the Pan-y and the Pan-yao of +South Kwang-si; they are the debris of a very ancient race, which with +T. de Lacouperie may be called pre-Chinese. This early race, which bore +the name of _Pan-hu_ or _Ngao_, occupied Central China before the +arrival of the Chinese. According to M. d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, the +mountains and valleys of Kwei-chau where these Miao-tse still survive +were the cradle of the Pan-hu. In any case it seems certain that the +T'hai and the Man race came from Central Asia, and that, from the +anthropological standpoint, they differ altogether from the Mongol group +represented by the Chinese and the Annamese. The Man especially presents +striking affinities with the Aryan type." + +Thus is again confirmed by the latest investigations, and by the +conclusions of some of the leading members of the French school of +anthropology, the view first advanced by me in 1879, that peoples of the +Caucasic (here called "Aryan") division had already spread to the utmost +confines of south-east Asia in remote prehistoric times, and had in +this region even preceded the first waves of Mongolic migration +radiating from their cradle-land on the Tibetan plateau[459]. + +Reference was above made to the singular lack of political cohesion at +all times betrayed by the Tai-Shan peoples. The only noteworthy +exception is the Siamese branch, which forms the bulk of the population +in the Menam basin. In this highly favoured region of vast +hill-encircled alluvial plains of inexhaustible fertility, traversed by +numerous streams navigable for light craft, and giving direct access to +the inland waters of Malaysia, the Southern Shans were able at an early +date to merge the primitive tribal groups in a great nationality, and +found a powerful empire, which at one time dominated most of Indo-China +and the Malay Peninsula. + +Siam, alone of all the Shan states, even still maintains a precarious +independence, although now again reduced by European aggression to +little more than the natural limits of the fluvial valley, which is +usually regarded by the Southern Shans as the home of their race. Yet +they appear to have been here preceded by the Caucasic Khmers +(Cambojans), whose advent is referred in the national chronicles to the +year 543 B.C. and who, according to the Hindu records, were expelled +about 443 A.D. It was through these Khmers, and not directly from India, +that the "Sayamas" received their Hindu culture, and the Siamese annals, +mingling fact with fiction, refer to the miraculous birth of the +national hero, Phra-Ruang, who threw off the foreign yoke, declared the +people henceforth T'hai, "Freemen," invented the present Siamese +alphabet, and ordered the Khom (Cambojan) to be reserved in future for +copying the sacred writings. + +The introduction of Buddhism is assigned to the year 638 A.D., one of +the first authentic dates in the native records. The ancient city of +Labong had already been founded (575), and other settlements now +followed rapidly, always in the direction of the south, according as the +Shan race steadily advanced towards the seaboard, driving before them or +mingling with Khmers, Lawas, Karens, and other aborigines, some now +extinct, some still surviving on the wooded uplands and plateaux +encircling the Menam valley. Ayuthia, the great centre of national life +in later times, dates only from the year 1350, when the empire had +received its greatest expansion, comprising the whole of Camboja, Pegu, +Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula, and extending its conquering arms +across the inland waters as far as Java[460]. Then followed the +disastrous wars with Burma, which twice captured and finally destroyed +Ayuthia (1767), now a picturesque elephant-park visited by tourists from +the present capital, Bangkok, founded in 1772 a little lower down the +Menam. + +But the elements of decay existed from the first in the institution of +slavery or serfdom, which was not restricted to a particular class, as +in other lands, but, before the modern reforms, extended in principle to +all the kings' subjects in mockery declared "Freemen" by the founders of +the monarchy. This, however, may be regarded as perhaps little more than +a legal fiction, for at all times class distinctions were really +recognised, comprising the members of the royal family--a somewhat +numerous group--the nobles named by the king, the _leks_ or vassals, and +the people, these latter being again subdivided into three sections, +those liable to taxation, those subject to forced labour, and the slaves +proper. But so little developed was the sentiment of personal dignity +and freedom, that anybody from the highest noble to the humblest citizen +might at any moment lapse into the lowest category. Like most Mongoloid +peoples, the Siamese are incurable gamblers, and formerly it was an +everyday occurrence for a freeman to stake all his goods and chattels, +wives, children, and self, on the hazard of the die. + +Yet the women, like their Burmese sisters, have always held a somewhat +honourable social position, being free to walk abroad, go shopping, +visit their friends, see the sights, and take part in the frequent +public feastings without restriction. Those, however, who brought no +dower and had to be purchased, might again be sold at any time, and +many thus constantly fell from the dignity of matrons to the position of +the merest drudges without rights or privileges of any kind. These +strange relations were endurable, thanks to the genial nature of the +national temperament, by which the hard lot of the thralls was softened, +and a little light allowed to penetrate into the darkest corners[461] of +the social system. The open slave-markets, which in the vassal Lao +states fostered systematic raiding-expeditions amongst the unreduced +aborigines, were abolished in 1873, and since 1890 all born in slavery +are free on reaching their 21st year. + +Siamese Buddhism is a slightly modified form of that prevailing in +Ceylon, although strictly practised but by few. There are two classes or +"sects," the reformers who attach more importance to the observance of +the canon law than to meditation, and the old believers, some devoted to +a contemplative life, others to the study of the sunless wilderness of +Buddhist writings. But, beneath it all, spirit or devil-worship is still +rife, and in many districts pure animism is practically the only +religion. Even temples and shrines have been raised to the countless +gods of land and water, woods, mountains, villages and households. To +these gods are credited all sorts of calamities, and to prevent them +from getting into the bodies of the dead the latter are brought out, not +through door or window, but through a breach in the wall, which is +afterwards carefully built up. Similar ideas prevail amongst many other +peoples, both at higher and lower levels of culture, for nothing is more +ineradicable than such popular beliefs associated with the relations +presumed to exist between the present and the after life. + +Incredible sums are yearly lavished in offerings to the spirits, which +give rise to an endless round of feasts and revels, and also in support +of the numerous Buddhist temples, convents, and their inmates. The +treasures accumulated in the "royal cloisters" and other shrines +represent a great part of the national savings--investments for the +other world, among which are said to be numerous gold statues glittering +with rubies, sapphires, and other priceless gems. But in these matters +the taste of the _talapoins_[462], as the priests were formerly called, +is somewhat catholic, including pictures of reviews and battle-scenes +from the European illustrated papers, and sometimes even statues of +Napoleon set up by the side of Buddha. + +So numerous, absurd, and exacting are the rules of the monastic +communities that, but for the aid of the temple servants and novices, +existence would be impossible. A list of such puerilities occupies +several pages in A. R. Colquhoun's work _Amongst the Shans_ (219-231), +and from these we learn that the monks must not dig the ground, so that +they can neither plant nor sow; must not boil rice, as it would kill the +germ; eat corn for the same reason; climb trees lest a branch get +broken; kindle a flame, as it destroys the fuel; put out a flame, as +that also would extinguish life; forge iron, as sparks would fly out and +perish; swing their arms in walking; wink in speaking; buy or sell; +stretch the legs when sitting; breed poultry, pigs, or other animals; +mount an elephant or palanquin; wear red, black, green, or white +garments; mourn for the dead, etc., etc. In a word all might be summed +up by a general injunction neither to do anything, nor not to do +anything, and then despair of attaining _Nirvana_; for it would be +impossible to conceive of any more pessimistic system in theory[463]. +Practically it is otherwise, and in point of fact the utmost religious +indifference prevails amongst all classes. + +Within the Mongolic division it would be difficult to imagine any more +striking contrast than that presented by the gentle, kindly, and on the +whole not ill-favoured Siamese, and their hard-featured, hard-hearted, +and grasping Annamese neighbours. Let anyone, who may fancy there is +little or nothing in blood, pass rapidly from the bright, genial--if +somewhat listless and corrupt--social life of Bangkok to the dry, +uncongenial moral atmosphere of Ha-noi or Saigon, and he will be apt to +modify his views on that point. Few observers have a good word to say +for the Tonkingese, the Cochin-Chinese, or any other branch of the +Annamese family, and some even of the least prejudiced are so outspoken +that we must needs infer there is good ground for their severe +strictures on these strange, uncouth materialists. Buddhists of course +they are nominally; but of the moral sense they have little, unless it +be (amongst the lettered classes) a pale reflection of the pale Chinese +ethical code. The whole region in fact is a sort of attenuated China, to +which it owes its arts and industries, its letters, moral systems, +general culture, and even a large part of its inhabitants. _Giao-shi_ +(_Kiao-shi_), the name of the aborigines, said to mean "Bifurcated," or +"Cross-toes[464]," in reference to the wide space between the great toe +and the next, occurs in the legendary Chinese records so far back as +2285 B.C., since which period the two countries are supposed to have +maintained almost uninterrupted relations, whether friendly or hostile, +down to the present day. At first the Giao-shi were confined to the +northern parts of Lu-kiang, the present Tonking, all the rest of the +coastlands being held by the powerful Champa (Tsiampa) people, whose +affinities are with the Oceanic populations. But in 218 B.C., Lu-kiang +having been reduced and incorporated with China proper, a large number +of Chinese emigrants settled in the country, and gradually merged with +the Giao-shi in a single nationality, whose twofold descent is still +reflected in the Annamese physical and mental characters. + +This term Annam[465], however, did not come into use till the seventh +century, when it was officially applied to the frontier river between +China and Tonking, and afterwards extended to the whole of Tonking and +Cochin-China. Tonking itself, meaning the "Eastern Court[466]," was +originally the name only of the city of Ha-noi when it was a royal +residence, but was later extended to the whole of the northern kingdom, +whose true name is _Yueeh-nan_. To this corresponded the southern +Kwe-Chen-Ching, "Kingdom of Chen-Ching," which was so named in the ninth +century from its capital Chen-Ching, and of which our Cochin-China +appears to be a corrupt form. + +But, amid all this troublesome political nomenclature, the dominant +Annamese nation has faithfully preserved its homogeneous character, +spreading, like the Siamese Shans, steadily southwards, and gradually +absorbing the whole of the Champa domain to the southern extremity of +the peninsula, as well as a large part of the ancient kingdom of Camboja +about the Mekhong delta. They thus form at present the almost exclusive +ethnical element throughout all the lowland and cultivated parts of +Tonking, upper and lower Cochin-China and south Camboja, with a total +population in 1898 of about twenty millions. + +The Annamese are described in a semi-official report[467] as +characterised by a high broad forehead, high cheek-bones, small crushed +nose, rather thick lips, black hair, scant beard, mean height, coppery +complexion, deceitful (_rusee_) expression, and rude or insolent +bearing. The head is round (index 83 to 84) and the features are in +general flat and coarse, while to an ungainly exterior corresponds a +harsh unsympathetic temperament. The Abbe Gagelin, who lived years in +their midst, frankly declares that they are at once arrogant and +dishonest, and dead to all the finer feelings of human nature, so that +after years of absence the nearest akin will meet without any outward +sign of pleasure or affection. Others go further, and J. G. Scott summed +it all up by declaring that "the fewer Annamese there are, the less +taint there is on the human race." No doubt Lord Curzon gives a more +favourable picture, but this traveller spent only a short time in the +country, and even he allows that they are "tricky and deceitful, +disposed to thieve when they get the chance, mendacious, and incurable +gamblers[468]." + +Yet they have one redeeming quality, an intense love of personal +freedom, strangely contrasting with the almost abject slavish spirit of +the Siamese. The feeling extends to all classes, so that servitude is +held in abhorrence, and, as in Burma, a democratic sense of equality +permeates the social system[469]. Hence, although the State has always +been an absolute monarchy, each separate commune constitutes a veritable +little oligarchic commonwealth. This has come as a great surprise to the +present French administrators of the country, who frankly declare that +they cannot hope to improve the social or political position of the +people by substituting European for native laws and usages. The Annamese +have in fact little to learn from western social institutions. + +Their language, spoken everywhere with remarkable uniformity, is of the +normal Indo-Chinese isolating type, possessing six tones, three high, +and three low, and written in ideographic characters based on the +Chinese, but with numerous modifications and additions. But, although +these are ill-suited for the purpose, the attempt made by the early +Portuguese missionaries to substitute the so-called _quoc-ngu_, or Roman +phonetic system, has been defeated by the conservative spirit of the +people. Primary instruction has long been widely diffused, and almost +everybody can read and write as many of the numerous hieroglyphs as are +needed for the ordinary purpose of daily intercourse. Every village has +its free school, and a higher range of studies is encouraged by the +public examinations to which, as in China, all candidates for government +appointments are subjected. Under such a scheme surprising results might +be achieved, were the course of studies not based exclusively on the +empty formulas of Chinese classical literature. The subjects taught are +for the most part puerile, and true science is replaced by the dry moral +precepts of Confucius. One result amongst the educated classes is a +scoffing, sceptical spirit, free from all religious prejudice, and +unhampered by theological creeds or dogmas, combined with a lofty moral +tone, not always however in harmony with daily conduct. + +Even more than in China, the family is the true base of the social +system, the head of the household being not only the high-priest of the +ancestral cult, but also a kind of patriarch enjoying almost absolute +control over his children. In this respect the relations are somewhat +one-sided, the father having no recognised obligations towards his +offspring, while these are expected to show him perfect obedience in +life and veneration after death. Besides this worship of ancestry and +the Confucian ethical philosophy, a national form of Buddhism is +prevalent. Some even profess all three of these so-called "religions," +beneath which there still survive many of the primitive superstitions +associated with a not yet extinct belief in spirits and the supernatural +power of magicians. While the Buddhist temples are neglected and the few +bonzes[470] despised, offerings are still made to the genii of +agriculture, of the waters, the tiger, the dolphin, peace, war, +diseases, and so forth, whose rude statues in the form of dragons or +other fabulous monsters are even set up in the pagodas. Since the early +part of the seventeenth century Roman Catholic missionaries have +laboured with considerable success in this unpromising field, where the +congregations were estimated in 1898 at about 900,000. + +From Annam the ethnical transition is easy to China[471] and its teeming +multitudes, regarding whose origins, racial and cultural, two opposite +views at present hold the field. What may be called the old, but by no +means the obsolete school, regards the Chinese populations as the direct +descendants of the aborigines who during the Stone Ages entered the +Hoang-ho valley probably from the Tibetan plateau, there developed their +peculiar culture independently of foreign influences, and thence spread +gradually southwards to the whole of China proper, extirpating, +absorbing, or driving to the encircling western and southern uplands the +ruder aborigines of the Yang-tse-Kiang and Si-Kiang basins. + +In direct opposition to this view the new school, championed especially +by T. de Lacouperie[472], holds that the present inhabitants of China +are late intruders from south-western Asia, and that they arrived not as +rude aborigines, but as a cultured people with a considerable knowledge +of letters, science, and the arts, all of which they acquired either +directly or indirectly from the civilised Akkado-Sumerian inhabitants of +Babylonia. + +Not merely analogies and resemblances, but what are called actual +identities, are pointed out between the two cultures, and even between +the two languages, sufficient to establish a common origin of both, +Mesopotamia being the fountain-head, whence the stream flowed by +channels not clearly defined to the Hoang-ho valley. Thus the Chin. +_yu_, originally _go_, is equated with Akkad _gu_, to speak; _ye_ with +_ge_, night, and so on. Then the astronomic and chronologic systems are +compared, Berossus and the cuneiform tablets dividing the prehistoric +Akkad epoch into 10 periods of 10 kings, lasting 120 Sari, or 432,000 +years, while the corresponding Chinese astronomic myth also comprises 10 +kings (or dynasties) covering the same period of 432,000 years. The +astronomic system credited to the emperor Yao (2000 B.C.) similarly +corresponds with the Akkadian, both having the same five planets with +names of like meaning, and a year of 12 months and 30 days, with the +same cycle of intercalated days, while several of the now obsolete names +of the Chinese months answer to those of the Babylonians. Even the name +of the first Chinese emperor who built an observatory, Nai-Kwang-ti, +somewhat resembles that of the Elamite king, Kuder-na-hangti, who +conquered Chaldaea about 2280 B.C. + +All this can hardly be explained away as a mere series of coincidences; +nevertheless neither Sinologues nor Akkadists are quite convinced, and +it is obvious that many of the resemblances may be due to trade or +intercourse both by the old overland caravan routes, and by the seaborne +traffic from Eridu at the head of the Persian Gulf, which was a +flourishing emporium 4000 or 5000 years ago. + +But, despite some verbal analogies, an almost insurmountable difficulty +is presented by the Akkadian and Chinese languages, which no +philological ingenuity can bring into such relation as is required by +the hypothesis. T. G. Pinches has shown that at a very early period, say +some 5000 years ago, Akkadian already consisted, "for the greater part, +of words of one syllable," and was "greatly affected by phonetic decay, +the result being that an enormous number of homophones were developed +out of roots originally quite distinct[473]." This Akkadian scholar +sends me a number of instances, such as _tu_ for _tura_, to enter; _ti_ +for _tila_, to live; _du_ for _dumu_, son; _du_ for _dugu_, good, as in +_Eridu_, for _Gurudugu_, "the good city," adding that "the list could be +extended indefinitely[474]." But de Lacouperie's Bak tribes, that is, +the first immigrants from south-west Asia, are not supposed to have +reached North China till about 2500 or 3000 B.C., at which time the +Chinese language was still in the untoned agglutinating state, with but +few monosyllabic homophones, and consequently quite distinct from the +Akkadian, as known to us from the Assyrian syllabaries, bilingual lists, +and earlier tablets from Nippur or Lagash. + +Hence the linguistic argument seems to fail completely, while the +Babylonian origin of the Chinese writing system, or rather, the +derivation of Chinese and Sumerian from some common parent in Central +Asia, awaits further evidence. Many of the Chinese and Akkadian "line +forms" collated by C. J. Ball[475] are so simple and, one might say, +obvious, that they seem to prove nothing. They may be compared with such +infantile utterances as _pa_, _ma_, _da_, _ta_, occurring in half the +languages of the world, without proving a connection or affinity between +any of them. But even were the common origin of the two scripts +established, it would prove nothing as to the common origin of the two +peoples, but only show cultural influences, which need not be denied. + +But if Chinese origins cannot be clearly traced back to Babylonia, +Chinese culture may still, in a sense, claim to be the oldest in the +world, inasmuch as it has persisted with little change from its rise +some 4500 years ago down to present times. All other early +civilisations--Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, +Hellenic--have perished, or live only in their monuments, traditions, +oral or written records. But the Chinese, despite repeated political and +social convulsions, is still as deeply rooted in the past as ever, +showing no break of continuity from the dim echoes of remote prehistoric +ages down to the last revolution, and the establishment of the Republic. +These things touch the surface only of the great ocean of Chinese +humanity, which is held together, not by any general spirit of national +sentiment (all sentiment is alien from the Chinese temperament), nor by +any community of speech, for many of the provincial dialects differ +profoundly from each other, but by a prodigious power of inertia, which +has hitherto resisted all attempts at change either by pressure from +without, or by spontaneous impulse from within. + +What they were thousands of years ago, the Chinese still are, a frugal, +peace-loving, hard-working people, occupied mainly with tillage and +trade, cultivating few arts beyond weaving, porcelain and metal work, +but with a widely diffused knowledge of letters, and a writing system +which still remains at the cumbrous ideographic stage, needing as many +different symbols as there are distinct concepts to be expressed. Yet +the system has one advantage, enabling those who speak mutually +unintelligible idioms to converse together, using the pencil instead of +the tongue. For this very reason the attempts made centuries ago by the +government to substitute a phonetic script had to be abandoned. It was +found that imperial edicts and other documents so written could not be +understood by the populations speaking dialects different from the +literary standard, whereas the hieroglyphs, like our ciphers 1, 2, +3 ..., could be read by all educated persons of whatever allied form of +speech. + +Originally the Chinese system, whether developed on the spot or derived +from Akkadian or any other foreign source, was of course pictographic or +ideographic, and it is commonly supposed to have remained at that stage +ever since, the only material changes being of a graphic nature. The +pictographs were conventionalised and reduced to their present form, but +still remained ideograms supplemented by a limited number of phonetic +determinants. But de Lacouperie has shown that this view is a mistake, +and that the evolution from the pictograph to the phonetic symbol had +been practically completed in China many centuries before the new era. +The _Ku-wen_ style current before the ninth century B.C. "was really +the phonetic expression of speech[476]." But for the reason stated it +had to be discontinued, and a return made to the earlier ideographic +style. The change was effected about 820 B.C. by She Choeu, minister of +the Emperor Sueen Wang, who introduced the _Ta-chuen_ style in which "he +tried to speak to the eye and no longer to the ear," that is, he +reverted to the earlier ideographic process, which has since prevailed. +It was simplified about 227 B.C. (_Siao Chuen_ style), and after some +other modifications the present caligraphic form (_Kiai Shu_) was +introduced by Wang Hi in 350 A.D. Thus one consequence of the "Expansion +of China" was a reversion to barbarism, in respect at least of the +national graphic system, by which Chinese thought and literature have +been hampered for nearly 3000 years. + +Written records, though at first mainly of a mythical character, date +from about 3000 B.C.[477] Reference is made in the early documents to +the rude and savage times, which in China as elsewhere certainly +preceded the historic period. Three different prehistoric ages are even +discriminated, and tradition relates how Fu-hi introduced wooden, +Thin-ming stone, and Shi-yu metal implements[478]. Later, when their +origin and use were forgotten, the jade axes, like those from Yunnan, +were looked on as bolts hurled to the earth by the god of thunder, while +the arrow-heads, supposed to be also of divine origin, were endowed in +the popular fancy with special virtues and even regarded as emblems of +sovereignty. Thus may perhaps be explained the curious fact that in +early times, before the twelfth century B.C., tribute in flint weapons +was paid to the imperial government by some of the reduced wild tribes +of the western uplands. + +These men of the Stone and Metal Ages are no doubt still largely +represented, not only amongst the rude hill tribes of the southern and +western borderlands, but also amongst the settled and cultured +lowlanders of the great fluvial valleys. The "Hundred Families," as the +first immigrants called themselves, came traditionally from the +north-western regions beyond the Hoang-ho. According to the Yu-kung +their original home lay in the south-western part of Eastern Turkestan, +whence they first migrated east to the oases north of the Nan-Shan +range, and then, in the fourth millennium before the new era, to the +fertile valleys of the Hoang-ho and its Hoei-ho tributary. Thence they +spread slowly along the other great river valleys, partly expelling, +partly intermingling with the aborigines, but so late as the seventh +century B.C. were still mainly confined to the region between the Pei-ho +and the lower Yang-tse-Kiang. Even here several indigenous groups, such +as the Hoei, whose name survives in that of the Hoei river, and the Lai +of the Shantong Peninsula, long held their ground, but all were +ultimately absorbed or assimilated throughout the northern lands as far +south as the left bank of the Yang-tse-Kiang. + +Beyond this river many were also merged in the dominant people +continually advancing southwards; but others, collectively or vaguely +known as Si-fans, Mans, Miao-tse, Pai, Tho, Y-jen[479], Lolo, etc., were +driven to the south-western highlands which they still occupy. Even some +of the populations in the settled districts, such as the _Hok-los_[480], +and _Hakkas_[481], of Kwang-tung, and the _Pun-ti_[482] of the Canton +district, are scarcely yet thoroughly assimilated. They differ greatly +in temperament, usages, appearance, and speech from the typical Chinese +of the Central and Northern provinces, whom in fact they look upon as +"foreigners," and with whom they hold intercourse through "Pidgin +English[483]," the _lingua franca_ of the Chinese seaboard[484]. + +Nevertheless a general homogeneous character is imparted to the whole +people by their common political, social, and religious institutions, +and by that principle of convergence in virtue of which different +ethnical groups, thrown together in the same area and brought under a +single administration, tend to merge in a uniform new national type. +This general uniformity is conspicuous especially in the religious ideas +which, except in the sceptical lettered circles, everywhere underlie the +three recognised national religions, or "State Churches," as they might +almost be called: _ju-kiao_, Confucianism; _tao-kiao_, Taoism; and +_fo-kiao_, Buddhism (Fo = Buddha). The first, confined mainly to the +educated upper classes, is not so much a religion as a philosophic +system, a frigid ethical code based on the moral and matter-of-fact +teachings of Confucius[485]. Confucius was essentially a social and +political reformer, who taught by example and precept; the main +inducement to virtue being, not rewards or penalties in the after-life, +but well- or ill-being in the present. His system is summed up in the +expression "worldly wisdom," as embodied in such popular sayings as: A +friend is hardly made in a year, but unmade in a moment; When safe +remember danger, in peace forget not war; Filial father, filial son, +unfilial father, unfilial son; In washing up, plates and dishes may get +broken; Don't do what you would not have known; Thatch your roof before +the rain, dig the well before you thirst; The gambler's success is his +ruin; Money goes to the gambling den as the criminal to execution (never +returns); Money hides many faults; Stop the hand, stop the mouth (stop +work and starve); To open a shop is easy, to keep it open hard; Win your +lawsuit and lose your money. + +Although he instituted no religious system, Confucius nevertheless +enjoined the observance of the already existing forms of worship, and +after death became himself the object of a widespread cult, which still +persists. "In every city there is a temple, built at the public expense, +containing either a statue of the philosopher, or a tablet inscribed +with his titles. Every spring and autumn worship is paid to him in these +temples by the chief official personages of the city. In the schools +also, on the first and fifteenth of each month, his title being written +on red paper and affixed to a tablet, worship is performed in a special +room by burning incense and candles, and by prostrations[486]." + +Taoism, a sort of pantheistic mysticism, called by its founder, Lao-tse +(600 B.C.), the _Tao_, or "way of salvation," was embodied in the +formula "matter and the visible world are merely manifestations of a +sublime, eternal, incomprehensible principle." It taught, in +anticipation of Sakya-Muni, that by controlling his passions man may +escape or cut short an endless series of transmigrations, and thus +arrive by the Tao at everlasting bliss--sleep? unconscious rest or +absorption in the eternal essence? Nirvana? It is impossible to tell +from the lofty but absolutely unintelligible language in which the +master's teachings are wrapped. + +But it matters little, because his disciples have long forgotten the +principles they never understood, and Taoism has almost everywhere been +transformed to a system of magic associated with the never-dying +primeval superstitions. Originally there was no hierarchy of priests, +the only specially religious class being the Ascetics, who passed their +lives absorbed in the contemplation of the eternal verities. But out of +this class, drawn together by their common interests, was developed a +kind of monasticism, with an organised brotherhood of astrologers, +magicians, Shamanists, somnambulists, "mediums," "thought-readers," +charlatans and impostors of all sorts, sheltered under a threadbare garb +of religion. + +Buddhism also, although of foreign origin, has completely conformed to +the national spirit, and is now a curious blend of Hindu metaphysics +with the primitive Chinese belief in spirits and a deified ancestry. In +every district are practised diverse forms of worship between which no +clear dividing line can be drawn, and, as in Annam, the same persons may +be at once followers of Confucius, Lao-tse, and Buddha. In fact such was +the position of the Emperor, who belonged _ex officio_ to all three of +these State religions, and scrupulously took part in their various +observances. There is even some truth in the Chinese view that "all +three make but one religion," the first appealing to man's moral nature, +the second to the instinct of self-preservation, the third to the higher +sphere of thought and contemplation. + +But behind, one might say above it all, the old animism still prevails, +manifested in a multitude of superstitious practices, whose purport is +to appease the evil and secure the favour of the good spirits, the +_Feng-shui_ or _Fung-shui_, "air and water" genii, who have to be +reckoned with in all the weightiest as well as the most trivial +occurrences of daily life. These with the ghosts of their ancestors, by +whom the whole land is haunted, are the bane of the Chinaman's +existence. Everything depends on maintaining a perfect balance between +the Fung-shui, that is, the two principles represented by the "White +Tiger" and the "Azure Dragon," who guard the approaches of every +dwelling, and whose opposing influences have to be nicely adjusted by +the well-paid professors of the magic arts. At the death of the emperor +Tung Chih (1875) a great difficulty was raised by the State astrologers, +who found that the realm would be endangered if he were buried, +according to rule, in the imperial cemetery 100 miles west of Pekin, as +his father reposed in the other imperial cemetery situated the same +distance east of the capital. For some subtle reason the balance would +have been disturbed between Tiger and Dragon, and it took nine months to +settle the point, during which, as reported by the American Legation, +the whole empire was stirred, councils of State agitated, and L50,000 +expended to decide where the remains of a worthless and vicious young +man should be interred. + +Owing to the necessary disturbance of the ancestral burial places, much +trouble has been anticipated in the construction of the railways, for +which concessions have now been granted to European syndicates. But an +Englishman long resident in the country has declared that there will be +no resistance on the part of the people. "The dead can be removed with +due regard to Fung Shui; a few dollars will make that all right." This +is fully in accordance with the thrifty character of the Chinese, which +overrides all other considerations, as expressed in the popular saying: +"With money you may move the gods; without it you cannot move men." But +the gods may even be moved without money, or at least with spurious +paper money, for it is a fixed belief of their votaries that, like +mortals, they may be outwitted by such devices. When rallied for burning +flash notes at a popular shrine, since no spirit-bank would cash them, a +Chinaman retorted: "Why me burn good note? Joss no can savvy." In a +similar spirit the god of war is hoodwinked by wooden boards hung on the +ramparts of Pekin and painted to look like heavy ordnance. + +In fact appearance, outward show, observance of the "eleventh +commandment," in a word "face" as it is called, is everything in China. +"To understand, however imperfectly, what is meant by 'face,' we must +take account of the fact that as a race the Chinese have a strong +dramatic instinct. Upon very slight provocation any Chinese regards +himself in the light of an actor in a drama. A Chinese thinks in +theatrical terms. If his troubles are adjusted he speaks of himself as +having 'got off the stage' with credit, and if they are not adjusted he +finds no way to 'retire from the stage.' The question is never of facts, +but always of form. Once rightly apprehended, 'face' will be found to be +in itself a key to the combination-lock of many of the most important +characteristics of the Chinese[487]." + +Of foreign religions Islam, next to Buddhism, has made most progress. +Introduced by the early Arab and Persian traders, and zealously preached +throughout the Jagatai empire in the twelfth century, it has secured a +firm footing especially in Kan-su, Shen-si, and Yunnan, and is of course +dominant in Eastern (Chinese) Turkestan. Despite the wholesale +butcheries that followed the repeated insurrections between 1855 and +1877, the _Hoei-Hoei_, _Panthays_, or _Dungans_, as the Muhammadans are +variously called, were still estimated, in 1898, at about 22,000,000 in +the whole empire. + +Islam was preceded by Christianity, which, as attested by the authentic +inscription of Si-ngan-fu, penetrated into the western provinces under +the form of Nestorianism about the seventh century. The famous Roman +Catholic missions with headquarters at Pekin date from the close of the +sixteenth century, and despite internal dissensions have had a fair +measure of success, the congregations comprising altogether over one +million members. Protestant missions date from 1807 (London Missionary +Society) and in 1910 claimed over 200,000 church members and baptized +Christians, the total having more than doubled since 1900[488]. + +The above-mentioned dissensions arose out of the practices associated +with ancestry worship, offerings of flowers, fruits and so forth, which +the Jesuits regarded merely as proofs of filial devotion, but were +denounced by the Dominicans as acts of idolatry. After many years of +idle controversy, the question was at last decided against the Jesuits +by Clement XI in the famous Bull, _Ex illa die_ (1715), and since then, +neophytes having to renounce the national cult of their forefathers, +conversions have mainly been confined to the lower classes, too humble +to boast of any family tree, or too poor to commemorate the dead by +ever-recurring costly sepulchral rites. + +In China there are no hereditary nobles, indeed no nobles at all, unless +it be the rather numerous descendants of Confucius who dwell together +and enjoy certain social privileges, in this somewhat resembling the +_Shorfa_ (descendants of the Prophet) in Muhammadan lands. If any titles +have to be awarded for great deeds they fall, not on the hero, but on +his forefathers, and thus at a stroke of the vermilion pencil are +ennobled countless past generations, while the last of the line remains +unhonoured until he goes over to the majority. Between the Emperor, +"patriarch of his people," and the people themselves, however, there +stood an aristocracy of talent, or at least of Chinese scholarship, the +governing Mandarin[489] class, which was open to the highest and the +lowest alike. All nominations to office were conferred exclusively on +the successful competitors at the public examinations, so that, like the +French conscript with the hypothetical Marshal's baton in his knapsack, +every Chinese citizen carried the buttoned cap of official rank in his +capacious sleeve. Of these there are nine grades, indicated respectively +in descending order by the ruby, red coral, sapphire, opaque blue, +crystal, white shell, gold (two), and silver button, or rather little +globe, on the cap of office, with which correspond the nine +birds--manchu crane, golden pheasant, peacock, wild goose, silver +pheasant, egret, mandarin duck, quail, and jay--embroidered on the +breast and back of the State robe. + +Theoretically the system is admirable, and at all events is better than +appointments by Court favour. But in practice it was vitiated, first by +the narrow, antiquated course of studies in the dry Chinese classics, +calculated to produce pedants rather than statesmen, and secondly by the +monopoly of preference which it conferred on a lettered caste to the +exclusion of men of action, vigour, and enterprise. Moreover, +appointments being made for life, barring crime or blunder, the +Mandarins, as long as they approved themselves zealous supporters of the +reigning dynasty, enjoyed a free hand in amassing wealth by plunder, and +the wealth thus acquired was used to purchase further promotion and +advancement, rather than to improve the welfare of the people. + +They have the reputation of being a courteous people, as punctilious as +the Malays themselves; and they are so amongst each other. But their +attitude towards strangers is the embodiment of aggressive +self-righteousness, a complacent feeling of superiority which nothing +can disturb. Even the upper classes, with all their efforts to be at +least polite, often betray the feeling in a subdued arrogance which is +not always to be distinguished from vulgar insolence. "After the +courteous, kindly Japanese, the Chinese seem indifferent, rough, and +disagreeable, except the well-to-do merchants in the shops, who are +bland, complacent, and courteous. Their rude stare, and the way they +hustle you in the streets and shout their 'pidjun' English at you is not +attractive[490]." But the stare, the hustling and the shouting may not +be due to incivility. No doubt the Chinaman regards the foreigner as a +"devil" but he has reason, and he never ceases to be astonished at +foreign manners and customs "extremely ferocious and almost entirely +uncivilised[491]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[375] _Ethnology_, p. 300. + +[376] _Geogr. Journ._, May, 1898, p. 491. This statement must of course +be taken as having reference only to the historical Malays and their +comparatively late migrations. + +[377] For the desiccation of Asia see P. Kropotkin, _Geogr. Journ._ +XXIII. 1904; E. Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_, 1907. + +[378] See J. Cockburn's paper "On Palaeolithic Implements," etc., in +_Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1887, p. 57 sq. + +[379] "Le type. primitif des Mongols est pour nous dolichocephale" (_Les +Aryens au Nord et au Sud de l'Hindou-Kouch_, 1896, p. 50). + +[380] Thus Risley's Tibetan measurements were all of subjects from +Sikkim and Nepal (_Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, Calcutta, 1896, +_passim_). In the East, however, Desgodins and other French missionaries +have had better opportunities of studying true Tibetans amongst the +Si-fan ("Western Strangers"), as the frontier populations are called by +the Chinese. + +[381] _Op. cit._ p. 319. + +[382] _Op. cit._ p. 327. Here we are reminded that, though the Sacae are +called "Scythians" by Herodotus and other ancient writers, under this +vague expression were comprised a multitude of heterogeneous peoples, +amongst whom were types corresponding to all the main varieties of +Mongolian, western Asiatic, and eastern European peoples. "Aujourd'hui +l'ancien type sace, adouci parmi les melanges, reparait et constitue le +type si caracteristique, si complexe et si different de ses voisins que +nous appelons le type balti" (p. 328). + +[383] W. W. Rockhill, our best living authority, accepts none of the +current explanations of the widely diffused term _bod_ (_bhot, bhot_), +which appears to form the second element in the word _Tibet_ +(_Stod-Bod_, pronounced _Teu-Beu_, "Upper Bod," _i.e._ the central and +western parts in contradistinction to _Maen-Bod_, "Lower Bod," the +eastern provinces). _Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet_, Washington, 1895, +p. 669. This writer finds the first mention of Tibet in the form +_Tobbat_ (there are many variants) in the Arab Istakhri's works, about +590 A.H., while T. de Lacouperie would connect it with the Tatar kingdom +of _Tu-bat_ (397-475 A.D.). This name might easily have been extended by +the Chinese from the Tatars of Kansu to the neighbouring Tanguts, and +thus to all Tibetans. + +[384] _Hbrog-pa_, _Drok-pa_, pronounced _Dru-pa_. + +[385] The Mongols apply the name _Tangut_ to Tibet and call all Tibetans +_Tangutu_, "which should be discarded as useless and misleading, as the +people inhabiting this section of the country are pure Tibetans" +(Rockhill, p. 670). It is curious to note that the Mongol Tangutu is +balanced by the Tibetan _Sok-pa_, often applied to all Mongolians. + +[386] _Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet_, 1895, p. 675; see also S. +Chandra Das, _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_, 1904; F. Grenard, +_Tibet: the Country and its Inhabitants_, 1904; G. Sandberg, _Tibet and +the Tibetans_, 1906; and L. A. Waddell, _Lhasa and its Mysteries, with a +record of the Expedition of 1903-1904_, 1905. + +[387] _Isvestia_, XXI. 3. + +[388] _Ethnology_, p. 305. + +[389] _Abor_, _i.e._ "independent," is the name applied by the Assamese +to the East Himalayan hill tribes, the _Minyong_, _Padam_ and _Hrasso_, +who are the _Slo_ of the Tibetans. These are all affiliated by Desgodins +to the Lho-pa of Bhutan (_Bul. Soc. Geogr._, October, 1877, p. 431), and +are to be distinguished from the _Bori_ (_i.e._ "dependent") tribes of +the plains, all more or less Hinduized Bhotiyas (Dalton, _Ethnology of +Bengal_, p. 22 sq.). See A. Hamilton, _In Abor Jungles_, 1912. + +[390] Not to be confused with the _Khas_, as the wild tribes of the Lao +country (Siam) are collectively called. Capt. Eden Vansittart thinks in +Nepal the term is an abbreviation of Kshatriya, or else means "fallen." +This authority tells us that, although the Khas are true Gurkhas, it is +not the Khas who enlist in our Gurkha regiments, but chiefly the Magars +and Gurungs, who are of purer Bhotiya race and less completely Hinduized +("The Tribes, Clans, and Castes of Nepal," in _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_; +LXIII. I, No. 4). + +[391] _Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama_, p. 350 sq. + +[392] "Voila, je crois, le vrai Tibetain des pays cultives du sud, qui +se regarde comme bien plus civilise que les pasteurs ou bergers du nord" +(_Le Thibet_, p. 253). + +[393] _Notes on the Ethnology_, etc., p. 677. It may here be remarked +that the unfriendliness of which travellers often complain appears +mainly inspired by the Buddhist theocracy, who rule the land and are +jealous of all "interlopers." + +[394] _Ibid._ p. 678. + +[395] With it may be compared the Chinese province of _Kan-su_, so named +from its two chief towns _Kan_-chau and _Su_-chau (Yule's _Marco Polo_, +I. p. 222). + +[396] "Buddhist Turks," says Sir H. H. Howorth (_Geogr. Journ._ 1887, p. +230). + +[397] E. Delmar Morgan, _Geogr. Journ._ 1887, p. 226. + +[398] "Whatever may have been the origin of polyandry, there can be no +doubt that poverty, a desire to keep down population, and to keep +property undivided in families, supply sufficient reason to justify its +continuance. The same motives explain its existence among the lower +castes of Malabar, among the Jat (Sikhs) of the Panjab, among the Todas, +and probably in most other countries in which this custom prevails" +(Rockhill, p. 726). + +[399] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 110 and 465-6. + +[400] At least no reference is made to the Bonbo practice in his almost +exhaustive monograph on _The Swastika_, Washington, 1896. The reversed +form, however, mentioned by Max Mueller and Burnouf, is figured at p. 767 +and elsewhere. + +[401] Sarat Chandra Das, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, 1881-2. + +[402] This point, so important in the history of linguistic evolution, +has I think been fairly established by T. de Lacouperie in a series of +papers in the _Oriental and Babylonian Record_, 1888-90. See G. A. +Grierson's _Linguistic Survey of India_, III. Tibeto-Burman Family, +1906, by Sten Konow. + +[403] _Ladak_, London, 1854. + +[404] G. B. Mainwaring, _A Grammar of the Rong (Lepcha) Language_, etc., +Calcutta, 1876, pp. 128-9. + +[405] _Outline Grammar of the Angami-Naga Language_, Calcutta, 1887, pp. +4, 5. For an indication of the astonishing number of distinct languages +in the whole of this region see Gertrude M. Godden's paper "On the Naga +and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India," in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ +1897, p. 165. Under the heading Tibeto-Burman Languages Sten Konow +recognises _Tibetan_, _Himalayan_, _North Assam_, _Bodo_, _Naga_, +_Kuki-Chin_, _Meitei_ and _Kachin_. The Naga group comprises dialects of +very different kinds; some approach Tibetan and the North Assam group, +others lead over to the Bodo, others connect with Tibeto-Burman. Meitei +lies midway between Kuki-Chin and Kachin, and these merge finally in +Burmese. Grierson's _Linguistic Survey of India_, Vol. III. 1903-6. + +[406] Almost hopeless confusion continues to prevail in the tribal +nomenclature of these multitudinous hill peoples. The official sanction +given to the terms _Kuki_ and _Lushai_ as collective names may be +regretted, but seems now past remedy. _Kuki_ is unknown to the people +themselves, while _Lushai_ is only the name of a single group proud of +their head-hunting proclivities, hence they call themselves, or perhaps +are called _Lu-Shai_, "Head-Cutters," from _lu_ head, _sha_ to cut (G. +H. Damant). Other explanations suggested by C. A. Soppitt (_Kuki-Lushai +Tribes, with an Outline Grammar of the Rangkhol-Lushai Language_, +Shillong, 1887) cannot be accepted. + +[407] _Op. cit._ + +[408] See G. A. Grierson and Sten Konow in Grierson's _Linguistic Survey +of India_, Vol. III. Part II. Bodo, N[=a]g[=a] and Kachin, 1903, Part +III. Kuki-Chin and Burma, 1904. + +[409] _The N[=a]ga Tribes of Manipur_, 1911, p. 2. Cf. J. Shakespear, +"The Kuki-Lushai Clans," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIX. 1909. + +[410] _Op. cit. p. 5._ + +[411] _Op. cit._ p. 122. A custom of human sacrifice among the Naga is +described in the _Journal of the Burma Research Society_, 1911, "Human +Sacrifices near the Upper Chindwin." + +[412] It is a curious phonetic phenomenon that the combinations _kl_ and +_tl_ are indistinguishable in utterance, so that it is immaterial +whether this term be written _Kling_ or _Tling_, though the latter form +would be preferable, as showing its origin from _Telinga_. + +[413] "The Aboriginal Tribes of Manipur," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1887, p. +350. + +[414] R. Brown, _Statistical Account of Manipur_, 1874. + +[415] T. C. Hodson, _The Meitheis_, 1908, p. 96. + +[416] T. C. Hodson, _The Meitheis_, 1908, pp. 96-7. + +[417] G. Watt, _loc. cit._ p. 362. + +[418] _The Chin Hills_, etc., Vol. I., Rangoon, 1896. + +[419] _Op. cit._ p. 165. + +[420] R. C. Temple, Art. "Burma," Hastings, _Ency. Religion and Ethics_, +1910. + +[421] Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 9. + +[422] Prince Henri d'Orleans writes "que les Singphos et les Katchins +[Kakhyens] ne font qu'un, que le premier mot est _thai_ et le second +birman." _Du Tonkin aux Indes_, 1898, p. 311. This is how the ethnical +confusion in these borderlands gets perpetuated. _Singpho_ is not +_Thai_, i.e. Shan or Siamese, but a native word as here explained. + +[423] John Anderson, _Mandalay to Momein_, 1876, p. 131. + +[424] Three skulls discovered by M. Mansuy in a cave at Pho-Binh-Gia +(Indo-China) associated with Neolithic culture were markedly +dolichocephalic, resembling in some respects the Cro-Magnon race of the +Reindeer period. Cf. R. Verneau, _L'Anthropologie_, XX. 1909. + +[425] _The Loyal Karens of Burma_, 1887. + +[426] R. C. Temple, _Academy_, Jan. 29, 1887, p. 72. + +[427] Forbes, _Languages of Further India_, p. 61. + +[428] _Ibid._ p. 55. + +[429] G. W. Bird, _Wanderings in Burma_, 1897, p. 335. + +[430] The Burmese is the most mixed race in the province. "Originally +Dravidians of some sort, they seem to have received blood from various +sources--Hindu, Musalm[=a]n, Chinese, Sh[=a]n, Talaing, European and +others." W. Crooke, "The Stability of Caste and Tribal Groups in India," +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc._ XLIV. 1914, p. 279, quoting the _Ethnographic +Survey of India_, 1906. + +[431] J. G. Scott, _Burma_, etc., 1886, p. 115. + +[432] _Op. cit._ p. 118. + +[433] "The Taungbyon Festival, Burma," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc._ XLV. +1915, p. 355. + +[434] _Amongst the Shans_, etc., 1885, p. 233. + +[435] Cf. the Shans of Yunnan, who are nearly all "tatoues, depuis la +ceinture jusqu'au genou, de dessins bleus si serres qu'ils paraissent +former une vraie culotte," Pr. Henri d'Orleans, _Du Tonkin aux Indes_, +1898, p. 83. + +[436] For recent literature on Burma and the Burmese consult besides the +_Ethnographic Survey of India_, 1906, and the _Census Report_ of 1911, +J. G. Scott, _The Burman_, 1896, and _Burma_, 1906; A. Ireland, _The +Province of Burma_, 1907; H. Fielding Hall, _The Soul of a People_, +1898, and _A People at School_, 1906. + +[437] Probably for _Shan-ts[)e], Shan-yen_, "highlanders" (_Shan_, +mountain), _Shan_ itself being the same word as _Siam_, a form which +comes to us through the Portuguese _Siao_. + +[438] For the Laos see L. de Reinach, _Le Laos_, 1902, with +bibliography. + +[439] Carl Bock, MS. note. This observer notes that many of the Ngiou +have been largely assimilated in type to the Burmese and in one place +goes so far as to assert that "the Ngiou are decidedly of the same race +as the Burmese. I have had opportunities of seeing hundreds of both +countries, and of closely watching their features and build. The Ngiou +wear the hair in a topknot in the same way as the Burmese, but they are +easily distinguished by their tattooing, which is much more elaborate" +(_Temples and Elephants_, 1884, p. 297). Of course all spring from one +primeval stock, but they now constitute distinct ethnical groups, and, +except about the borderlands, where blends may be suspected, both the +physical and mental characters differ considerably. Bock's _Ngiou_ is no +doubt the same name as _Ngnio_, which H. S. Hallett applies in one place +to the Mosse Shans north of Zimme, and elsewhere to the Burmese Shans +collectively (_A Thousand Miles on an Elephant_, 1890, pp. 158 and 358). + +[440] "Les Pai ne sont autres que des Laotiens" (Prince Henri, p. 42). + +[441] One Shan group, the Deodhaings, still persist, and occupy a few +villages near Sibsagar (S. E. Peal, _Nature_, June 19, 1884, p. 169). +Dalton also mentions the _Kamjangs_, a Khamti (Tai) tribe in the Sadiya +district, Assam (_Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 6). + +[442] Much unexpected light has been thrown upon the early history of +these Ahoms by E. Gait, who has discovered and described in the _Journ. +As. Soc. Bengal_, 1894, a large number of _puthis_, or MSS. (28 in the +Sibsagar district alone), in the now almost extinct Ahom language, some +of which give a continuous history of the Ahom rajas from 568 to 1795 +A.D. Most of the others appear to be treatises on religious mysticism or +divination, such as "a book on the calculation of future events by +examining the leg of a fowl" (_ib._). + +[443] _Op. cit._ p. 309. + +[444] A. R. Colquhoun, _Amongst the Shans_, 1885, Introduction, p. lv. + +[445] _Op. cit._ p. 328. + +[446] _Temples and Elephants_, p. 320. + +[447] "Der Gesichtsausdruck ueberhaupt naehert sich der kaukasischen Race" +(_Im fernen Osten_, p. 959). + +[448] Low's _Siamese Grammar_, p. 14. + +[449] R. G. Woodthorpe, "The Shans and Hill Tribes of the Mekong," in +_Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1897, p. 16. + +[450] _Op. cit._ p. 55. + +[451] This omission, however, is partly supplied by T. de Lacouperie, +who gives us an account of a wonderful Lolo MS. on satin, red on one +side, blue on the other, containing nearly 5750 words written in black, +"apparently with the Chinese brush." The MS. was obtained by E. Colborne +Baber from a Lolo chief, forwarded to Europe in 1881, and described by +de Lacouperie, _Journ. R. As. Soc._ Vol. XIV. Part I. "The writing runs +in lines from top to bottom and from left to right, as in Chinese" (p. +1), and this authority regards it as the link that was wanting to +connect the various members of a widely diffused family radiating from +India (Harapa seal, Indo-Pali, Vatteluttu) to Malaysia (Batta, Rejang, +Lampong, Bugis, Makassar, Tagal), to Indo-China (Lao, Siamese, Lolo), +Korea and Japan, and also including the Siao-chuen Chinese system "in +use a few centuries B.C." (p. 5). It would be premature to say that all +these connections are established. + +[452] _Op. cit._ p. 193. + +[453] _Beginnings of Writing in Central and Eastern Asia, passim._ For +the Lolos see A. F. Legendre, "Les Lolos. Etude ethnologique et +anthropologique," _T'oung Pao II._ Vol. X. 1909. + +[454] "Quelques-uns de ces Kiou-tses me rappellent des Europeens que je +connais." (_Op. cit._ p. 252). + +[455] _Deux Ans dans le Haut-Tonkin_, etc., Paris, 1896. + +[456] With regard to _Man_ (_Man-tse_) it should be explained that in +Chinese it means "untameable worms," that is, _wild_ or _barbarous_, and +we are warned by Desgodins that "il ne faut pas prendre ces mots comme +des noms propres de tribus" (_Bul. Soc. Geogr._ XII. p. 410). In 1877 +Capt. W. Gill visited a large nation of _Man-tse_ with 18 tribal +divisions, reaching from West Yunnan to the extreme north of Sechuen, a +sort of federacy recognising a king, with Chinese habits and dress, but +speaking a language resembling Sanskrit (?). These were the _Sumu_, or +"White Man-tse," apparently the same as those visited in 1896 by Mrs +Bishop, and by her described as semi-independent, ruled by their own +chiefs, and in appearance "quite Caucasian, both men and women being +very handsome," strict Buddhists, friendly and hospitable, and living in +large stone houses (Letter to _Times_, Aug. 18, 1896). + +[457] "Des paysannes nongs dont les cheveux etaient blonds, quelquefois +meme roux." _Op. cit._ + +[458] _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 602 sq. + +[459] "On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanic Races and +Languages." Paper read at the Meeting of the Brit. Association, +Sheffield, 1879, and printed in the _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, February, +1880. + +[460] In the Javanese annals the invaders are called "Cambojans," but at +this time (about 1340) Camboja had already been reduced, and the Siamese +conquerors had brought back from its renowned capital, Angkor Wat, over +90,000 captives. These were largely employed in the wars of the period, +which were thus attributed to Camboja instead of to Siam by foreign +peoples ignorant of the changed relations in Indo-China. + +[461] How very dark some of these corners can be may be seen from the +sad picture of maladministration, vice, and corruption still prevalent +so late as 1890, given by Hallett in _A Thousand Miles on an Elephant_, +Ch. xxxv.; and even still later by H. Warington Smyth in _Five Years in +Siam, from 1891 to 1896_ (1898). This observer credits the Siamese with +an undeveloped sense of right and wrong, so that they are good only by +accident. "To do a thing because it is right is beyond them; to abstain +from a thing because it is against their good name, or involves serious +consequences, is possibly within the power of a few; the question of +right and wrong does not enter the calculation." But he thinks they may +possess a high degree of intelligence, and mentions the case of a +peasant, who from an atlas had taught himself geography and politics. P. +A. Thompson, _Lotus Land_, 1906, gives an account of the country and +people of Southern Siam. + +[462] Probably a corruption of _talapat_, the name of the palm-tree +which yields the fan-leaf constantly used by the monks. + +[463] "In conversation with the monks M'Gilvary was told that it would +most likely be countless ages before they would attain the much wished +for state of Nirvana, and that one transgression at any time might +relegate them to the lowest hell to begin again their melancholy +pilgrimage" (Hallett, _A Thousand Miles on an Elephant_, p. 337). + +[464] "Le gros orteil est tres developpe et ecarte des autres doigts du +pied. A ce caractere distinctif, que l'on retrouve encore aujourd'hui +chez les indigenes de race pure, on peut reconnaitre facilement que les +Giao-chi sont les ancetres des Annamites" (_La Cochinchine francaise en +1878_, p. 231). See also a note on the subject by C. F. Tremlett in +_Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1879, p. 460. + +[465] Properly _An-nan_, a modified form of _ngan-nan_, "Southern +Peace." + +[466] Cf. _Nan-king_, _Pe-king_, "Southern" and "Northern" Courts +(Capitals). + +[467] _La Gazette Geographique_, March 12, 1885. + +[468] _Geogr. Journ._, Sept. 1893, p. 194. + +[469] "Parmi les citoyens regne la plus parfaite egalite. Point +d'esclavage, la servitude est en horreur. Aussi tout homme peut-il +aspirer aux emplois, se plaindre aux memes tribunaux que son adversaire" +(_op. cit._ p. 6). + +[470] From _bonzo_, a Portuguese corruption of the Japanese _busso_, a +devout person, applied first to the Buddhist priests of Japan, and then +extended to those of China and neighbouring lands. + +[471] This name, probably the Chinese _jin_, men, people, already occurs +in Sanskrit writings in its present form: [Sanskrit symbol], _China_, +whence the Hindi [Arabic symbol], _Chin_, and the Arabo-Persian [Arabic +symbol], _Sin_, which gives the classical _Sinae_. The most common +national name is Chung-kue, "middle kingdom" (presumably the centre of +the universe), whence Chung-kue-Jin, the Chinese people. Some have +referred _China_ to the _Chin_ (_Tsin_) dynasty (909 B.C.), while Marco +Polo's _Kataia_ (Russian _Kitai_) is the _Khata_ (North China) of the +Mongol period, from the Manchu _K'i-tan_, founders of the Liao dynasty, +which was overthrown 1115 A.D. by the Nue-Ch[)a]n Tatars. Ptolemy's +_Thinae_ is rightly regarded by Edkins as the same word as _Sinae_, the +substitution of t for s being normal in Annam, whence this form may have +reached the west through the southern seaport of Kattigara. + +[472] _Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization, from 2300 B.C. +to 200 A.D., or Chapters on the Elements Derived from the Old +Civilizations of West Asia in the Formation of the Ancient Chinese +Culture_, London, 1894. + +[473] "Observations upon the Languages of the Early Inhabitants of +Mesopotamia," in _Journ. R. As. Soc._ XVI. Part 2. + +[474] MS. note, May 7, 1896. + +[475] C. J. Ball, _Chinese and Sumerian_, 1913. + +[476] _History of the Archaic Chinese Writing and Texts_, 1882, p. 5. + +[477] The first actual date given is that of Tai Hao (Fu-hi), 2953 B.C., +but this ruler belongs to the fabulous period, and is stated to have +reigned 115 years. The first certain date would appear to be that of +Yau, first of the Chinese sages and reformer of the calendar (2357 +B.C.). The date 2254 B.C. for Confucius's model king Shun seems also +established. But of course all this is modern history compared with the +now determined Babylonian and Egyptian records. + +[478] Amongst the metals reference is made to iron so early as the time +of the Emperor Ta Yue (2200 B.C.), when it is mentioned as an article of +tribute in the _Shu-King_. F. Hirth, who states this fact, adds that +during the same period, if not even earlier, iron was already a +flourishing industry in the Liang district (Paper on the "History of +Chinese Culture," Munich Anthropological Society, April, 1898). At the +discussion which followed the reading of this paper Montelius argued +that iron was unknown in Western Asia and Egypt before 1500 B.C., +although the point was contested by Hommel, who quoted a word for iron +in the earliest Egyptian texts. Montelius, however, explained that terms +originally meaning "ore" or "metal" were afterwards used for "iron." +Such was certainly the case with the Gk. [Greek: chalkos], at first +"copper," then metal in general, and used still later for [Greek: +sideros], "iron"; hence [Greek: chalkeus] = coppersmith, blacksmith, and +even goldsmith. So also with the Lat. _aes_ (Sanskrit _ayas_, akin to +_aurora_, with simple idea of brightness), used first especially for +copper (_aes cyprium, cuprum_), and then for _bronze_ (Lewis and Short). +For Hirth's later views see his _Ancient History of China_, 1908 (from +the fabulous ages to 221 B.C.). + +[479] This term _Y-jen_ (_Yi-jen_), meaning much the same as _Man_, +_Man-tse_, savage, rude, untameable, has acquired a sort of diplomatic +distinction. In the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) it was stipulated that it +should no longer, as heretofore, be applied in official documents to the +English or to any subjects of the Queen. + +[480] See J. Edkins, _China's Place in Philology_, p. 117. The Hok-los +were originally from Fo-kien, whence their alternative name, _Fo-lo_. +The _lo_ appears to be the same word as in the reduplicated _Lo-lo_, +meaning something like the Greek and Latin _Bar-bar_, stammerers, rude, +uncultured. + +[481] The _Hakkas_, _i.e._ "strangers," speak a well-marked dialect +current on the uplands between Kwang-tung, Kiang-si, and Fo-kien. J. +Dyer Ball, _Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect_, 1884. + +[482] Numerous in the western parts of Kwang-tung and in the Canton +district. J. Dyer Ball, _Cantonese Made Easy_, Hongkong, 1884. + +[483] In this expression "Pidgin" appears to be a corruption of the word +_business_ taken in a very wide sense, as in such terms as +_talkee-pidgin_ = a conversation, discussion; _singsong pidgin_ = a +concert, etc. It is no unusual occurrence for persons from widely +separated Chinese provinces meeting in England to be obliged to use this +common jargon in conversation. + +[484] For the aboriginal peoples, with bibliography, see M. Kennelly's +translation of L. Richard's _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese +Empire and its Dependencies_, 1908, pp. 371-3. + +[485] _Kung-tse_, "Teacher Kung," or more fully _Kung-fu-tse_, "the +eminent teacher Kung," which gives the Latinised form _Confucius_. + +[486] _Kwong Ki Chiu_, 1881, p. 875. Confucius was born in 550 and died +in 477 B.C., and to him are at present dedicated as many as 1560 +temples, in which are observed real sacrificial rites. For these +sacrifices the State yearly supplies 26,606 sheep, pigs, rabbits and +other animals, besides 27,000 pieces of silk, most of which things, +however, become the "perquisites" of the attendants in the sanctuaries. + +[487] Arthur H. Smith, _Chinese Characteristics_, New York, 1895. The +good, or at least the useful, qualities of the Chinese are stated by +this shrewd observer to be a love of industry, peace, and social order, +a matchless patience and forbearance under wrongs and evils beyond cure, +a happy temperament, no nerves, and "a digestion like that of an +ostrich." See also H. A. Giles, _China and the_ _Chinese_, 1902; E. H. +Parker, _John Chinaman and a Few Others_, 1901; J. Dyer Ball, _Things +Chinese_, 1903; and M. Kennelly in Richard's _Comprehensive Geography of +the Chinese Empire and its Dependencies_, 1908. + +[488] See _Contemporary Review_, Feb. 1908, "Report on Christian +Missions in China," by Mr F. W. Fox, Professor Macalister and Sir +Alexander Simpson. + +[489] A happy Portuguese coinage from the Malay _mantri_, a state +minister, which is the Sanskrit _mantrin_, a counsellor, from _mantra_, +a sacred text, a counsel, from Aryan root _man_, to think, know, whence +also the English _mind_. + +[490] Miss Bird (Mrs Bishop), _The Golden Chersonese_, 1883, p. 37. + +[491] H. A. Giles, _The Civilisation of China_, 1911, p. 237. See +especially Chap. XI., "Chinese and Foreigners," for the etiquette of +street regulations and the habit of shouting conversation. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE OCEANIC MONGOLS + + Range of the Oceanic Mongols--The terra "Malay"--The Historical + Malays--Malay Cradle--Migrations and Present Range--The + Malayans--The Javanese--Balinese and Sassaks--Hindu Legends in + Bali--The Malayan Seafarers and Rovers--Malaysia and Pelasgia: a + Historical Parallel--Malayan Folklore--Borneo--Punan--Klemantan-- + Bahau-Kenyah-Kayan--Iban (Sea Dayak)--Summary--Religion--Early + Man and his Works in Sumatra--The Mentawi Islanders--Javanese + and Hindu Influences--The Malaysian Alphabets--The Battas: Cultured + Cannibals--Hindu and Primitive Survivals--The Achinese--Early + Records--Islam and Hindu Reminiscences--Ethnical Relations in + Madagascar--Prehistoric Peoples--Oceanic Immigrants--Negroid + Element--Arab Element--Uniformity of Language--Malagasy + Gothamites--Partial Fusion of Races--Hova Type--Black Element + from Africa--Mental Qualities of the Malagasy--Spread of + Christianity--Culture--Malagasy Folklore--The Philippine + Natives--Effects of a Christian Theocratic Government on the + National Character--Social Groups: the Indios, the Infielos, + and the Moros--Malayans and Indonesians in Formosa--The Chinese + Settlers--Racial and Linguistic Affinities--Formosa a Connecting + Link between the Continental and Oceanic Populations--The + Nicobarese. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# _Indonesia, Philippines, Formosa, Nicobar Is., +Madagascar._ + +#Hair#, _same as Southern Mongols, scant or no beard_. #Colour#, +_yellowish or olive brown, yellow tint sometimes very faint or absent, +light leathery hue common in Madagascar_. + +#Skull#, _brachy or sub-brachycephalic (78 to 85)_. #Jaws#, _slightly +projecting_. #Cheek-bones#, _prominent, but less so than true Mongol_. +#Nose#, _rather small, often straight with widish nostrils +(mesorrhine)_. #Eyes#, _black, medium size, horizontal or slightly +oblique, often with Mongol fold_. #Stature#, _undersized, from 1.52 m. +to 1.65 m. (5 ft. to 5 ft. 5 in.)_. #Lips#, _thickish, slightly +protruding, and kept a little apart in repose_. #Arms# _and_ #legs#, +_rather small, slender and delicate_; #feet#, _small_. + +#Temperament.# _Normally quiet, reserved and taciturn, but under +excitement subject to fits of blind fury_; _fairly intelligent, polite +and ceremonious, but uncertain, untrustworthy, and even treacherous_; +_daring, adventurous and reckless_; _musical_; _not distinctly cruel, +though indifferent to physical suffering in others_. + +#Speech#, _various branches of a single stock language_--_the_ +#Austronesian# (#Oceanic# _or_ #Malayo-Polynesian#), _at different +stages of agglutination_. + +#Religion#, _of the primitive Malayans somewhat undeveloped--a vague +dread of ghosts and other spirits, but rites and ceremonies mainly +absent although human sacrifices to the departed occurred in Borneo_; +_the cultured Malayans formerly Hindus (Brahman and Buddhist), now +mostly Moslem, but in the Philippines and Madagascar Christian_; _belief +in witchcraft, charms, and spells everywhere prevalent_. + +#Culture#, _of the primitive Malayans very low--head-hunting, +mutilation, common in Borneo_; _hunting, fishing; no agriculture; simple +arts and industries_; _the Moslem and Christian Malayans +semi-civilised_; _the industrial arts--weaving, dyeing, pottery, +metal-work, also trade, navigation, house and boat-building--well +developed_; _architecture formerly flourishing in Java under Hindu +influences_; _letters widespread even amongst some of the rude Malayans, +but literature and science rudimentary_; _rich oral folklore_. + +#Malayans (Proto-Malays)#: _Lampongs, Rejangs, Battas, Achinese, and +Palembangs in Sumatra_; _Sundanese, Javanese proper, and Madurese in +Java_; _Dayaks in Borneo_; _Balinese_; _Sassaks (Lombok)_; _Bugis and +Mangkassaras in Celebes_; _Tagalogs, Visayas, Bicols, Ilocanos and +Pangasinanes in Philippines_; _Aborigines of Formosa_; _Nicobar +Islanders_; _Hovas, Betsimisarakas, and Sakalavas in Madagascar_. + +#Malays Proper# (_Historical Malays_): _Menangkabau (Sumatra)_; _Malay +Peninsula_; _Pinang, Singapore, Lingga, Bangka_; _Borneo Coastlands_; +_Tidor, Ternate_; _Amboina_; _Parts of the Sulu Archipelago_. + + * * * * * + +In the Oceanic domain, which for ethnical purposes begins at the neck of +the Malay Peninsula, the Mongol peoples range from Madagascar eastwards +to Formosa and Micronesia, but are found in compact masses chiefly on +the mainland, in the Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, +Borneo, Celebes) and in the Philippines. Even here they have mingled in +many places with other populations, forming fresh ethnical groups, in +which the Mongol element is not always conspicuous. Such fusions have +taken place with the Negrito aborigines in the Malay Peninsula and the +Philippines; with Papuans in Micronesia, Flores, and other islands east +of Lombok; with dolichocephalic Indonesians in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, +Halmahera (Jilolo), parts of the Philippines[492], and perhaps also +Timor and Ceram; and with African negroes (Bantu) in Madagascar. To +unravel some of these racial entanglements is one of the most difficult +tasks in anthropology, and in the absence of detailed information cannot +yet be everywhere attempted with any prospect of success. + +The problem has been greatly, though perhaps inevitably complicated by +the indiscriminate extension of the term "Malay" to all these and even +to other mixed Oceanic populations farther east, as, for instance, in +the expression "Malayo-Polynesian," applied by many writers not only in +a linguistic, but also in an ethnical sense, to most of the insular +peoples from Madagascar to Easter Island, and from Hawaii to New +Zealand. It is now of course too late to hope to remedy this misuse of +terms by proposing a fresh nomenclature. But much of the consequent +confusion will be avoided by restricting _Malayo-Polynesian_[493] +altogether to linguistic matters, and carefully distinguishing between +_Indonesian_, the pre-Malay dolichocephalic element in Oceania[494], +_Malayan_ or _Proto-Malayan_, collective name of all the Oceanic +Mongols, who are brachycephals, and _Malay_, a particular branch of the +Malayan family, as fully explained in _Ethnology_, pp. 326-30[495]. + +The essential point to remember is that the true Malays--who call +themselves _Orang-Malayu_, speak the standard but quite modern Malay +language, and are all Muhammadans--are a historical people who appear on +the scene in relatively recent times, ages after the insular world had +been occupied by the Mongol peoples to whom their name has been +extended, but who never call themselves Malays. The Orang-Malayu, who +have acquired such an astonishing predominance in the Eastern +Archipelago, were originally an obscure tribe who rose to power in the +Menangkabau district, Sumatra, not before the twelfth century, and whose +migrations date only from about the year 1160 A.D. At this time, +according to the native records[496], was founded the first foreign +settlement, Singapore, a pure Sanskrit name meaning the "Lion City," +from which it might be inferred that these first settlers were not +Muhammadans, as is commonly assumed, but Brahmans or Buddhists, both +these forms of Hinduism having been propagated throughout Sumatra and +the other Sunda Islands centuries before this time. It is also +noteworthy that the early settlers on the mainland are stated to have +been pagans, or to have professed some corrupt form of Hindu idolatry, +till their conversion to Islam by the renowned Sultan Mahmud Shah about +the middle of the thirteenth century. It is therefore probable enough +that the earlier movements were carried out under Hindu influences, and +may have begun long before the historical date 1160. Menangkabau, +however, was the first Mussulman State that acquired political supremacy +in Sumatra, and this district thus became the chief centre for the later +diffusion of the cultured Malays, their language, usages, and religion, +throughout the Peninsula and the Archipelago. Here they are now found in +compact masses chiefly in south Sumatra (Menangkabau, Palembang, the +Lampongs); in all the insular groups between Sumatra and Borneo; in the +Malay Peninsula as far north as the Kra Isthmus, here intermingling +with the Siamese as "Sam-Sams," partly Buddhists, partly Muhammadans; +round the coast of Borneo and about the estuaries of that island; in +Tidor, Ternate, and the adjacent coast of Jilolo; in the Banda, Sula, +and Sulu groups; in Batavia, Singapore, and all the other large seaports +of the Archipelago. In all these lands beyond Sumatra the Orang-Malayu +are thus seen to be comparatively recent arrivals[497], and in fact +intruders on the other Malayan populations, with whom they collectively +constitute the Oceanic branch of the Mongol division. Their diffusion +was everywhere brought about much in the same way as in Ternate, where +A. R. Wallace tells us that the ruling people "are an intrusive Malay +race somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who settled in the country +at a very early epoch, drove out the indigenes, who were no doubt the +same as those of the adjacent island of Gilolo, and established a +monarchy. They perhaps obtained many of their wives from the natives, +which will account for the extraordinary language they speak--in some +respects closely allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it +contains much that points to a Malayan [Malay] origin. To most of these +people the Malay language is quite unintelligible[498]." + +The Malayan populations, as distinguished from the Malays proper, form +socially two very distinct classes--the _Orang Benua_, "Men of the +Soil," rude aborigines, numerous especially in the interior of the Malay +Peninsula, Borneo, Celebes, Jilolo, Timor, Ceram, the Philippines, +Formosa, and Madagascar; and the cultured peoples, formerly Hindus but +now mostly Muhammadans, who have long been constituted in large +communities and nationalities with historical records, and flourishing +arts and industries. They speak cultivated languages of the Austronesian +family, generally much better preserved and of richer grammatical +structure than the simplified modern speech of the Orang-Malayu. Such +are the Achinese, Rejangs, and Passumahs of Sumatra; the Bugis, +Mangkassaras and some Minahasans of Celebes[499]; the Tagalogs and +Visayas of the Philippines; the Sassaks and Balinese of Lombok and Bali +(most of these still Hindus); the Madurese and Javanese proper of Java; +and the Hovas of Madagascar. To call any of these "Malays[500]," is like +calling the Italians "French," or the Germans "English," because of +their respective Romance and Teutonic connections. + +Preeminent in many respects amongst all the Malayan peoples are the +_Javanese_--_Sundanese_ in the west, _Javanese proper_ in the centre, +_Madurese_ in the east--who were a highly civilised nation while the +Sumatran Malays were still savages, perhaps head-hunters and cannibals +like the neighbouring Battas. Although now almost exclusively +Muhammadans, they had already adopted some form of Hinduism probably +over 2000 years ago, and under the guidance of their Indian teachers had +rapidly developed a very advanced state of culture. "Under a completely +organised although despotic government, the arts of peace and war were +brought to considerable perfection, and the natives of Java became +famous throughout the East as accomplished musicians and workers in +gold, iron and copper, none of which metals were found in the island +itself. They possessed a regular calendar with astronomical eras, and a +metrical literature, in which, however, history was inextricably blended +with romance. Bronze and stone inscriptions in the Kavi, or old Javanese +language, still survive from the eleventh or twelfth century, and to the +same dates may be referred the vast ruins of Brambanam and the +stupendous temple of Boro-budor in the centre of the island. There are +few statues of Hindu divinities in this temple, but many are found in +its immediate vicinity, and from the various archaeological objects +collected in the district it is evident that both the Buddhist and +Brahmanical forms of Hinduism were introduced at an early date. + +"But all came to an end by the overthrow of the chief Hindu power in +1478, after which event Islam spread rapidly over the whole of Java and +Madura. Brahmanism, however, still holds its ground in Bali and Lombok, +the last strongholds of Hinduism in the Eastern Archipelago[501]." + +On the obscure religious and social relations in these Lesser Sundanese +Islands much light has been thrown by Capt. W. Cool, an English +translation of whose work _With the Dutch in the East_ was issued by E. +J. Taylor in 1897. Here it is shown how Hinduism, formerly dominant +throughout a great part of Malaysia, gradually yielded in some places to +a revival of the never extinct primitive nature-worship, in others to +the spread of Islam, which in Bali alone failed to gain a footing. In +this island a curious mingling of Buddhist and Brahmanical forms with +the primordial heathendom not only persisted, but was strong enough to +acquire the political ascendancy over the Mussulman Sassaks of the +neighbouring island of Lombok. Thus while Islam reigns exclusively in +Java--formerly the chief domain of Hinduism in the Archipelago--Bali, +Lombok, and even Sumbawa, present the strange spectacle of large +communities professing every form of belief, from the grossest +heathendom to pure monotheism. + +As I have elsewhere pointed out[502], it is the same with the cultures +and general social conditions, which show an almost unbroken transition +from the savagery of Sumbawa to the relative degrees of refinement +reached by the natives of Lombok and especially of Bali. Here, however, +owing to the unfavourable political relations, a retrograde movement is +perceptible in the crumbling temples, grass-grown highways, and +neglected homesteads. But it is everywhere evident enough that "just as +Hinduism has only touched the outer surface of their religion, it has +failed to penetrate into their social institutions, which, like their +gods, originate from the time when Polynesian heathendom was all +powerful[503]." + +A striking illustration of the vitality of the early beliefs is +presented by the local traditions, which relate how these foreign gods +installed themselves in the Lesser Sundanese Islands after their +expulsion from Java by the Muhammadans in the fifteenth century. Being +greatly incensed at the introduction of the Koran, and also anxious to +avoid contact with the "foreign devils," the Hindu deities moved +eastwards with the intention of setting up their throne in Bali. But +Bali already possessed its own gods, the wicked Rakshasas, who fiercely +resented the intrusion, but in the struggle that ensued were +annihilated, all but the still reigning Mraya Dewana. Then the new +thrones had to be erected on heights, as in Java; but at that time there +were no mountains in Bali, which was a very flat country. So the +difficulty was overcome by bodily transferring the four hills at the +eastern extremity of Java to the neighbouring island. Gunong Agong, +highest of the four, was set down in the east, and became the Olympus of +Bali, while the other three were planted in the west, south, and north, +and assigned to the different gods according to their respective ranks. +Thus were at once explained the local theogony and the present physical +features of the island. + +Despite their generally quiet, taciturn demeanour, all these Sundanese +peoples are just as liable as the Orang-Malayu himself, to those sudden +outbursts of demoniacal frenzy and homicidal mania called by them +_m[)e]ng-amok_, and by us "running amok." Indeed A. R. Wallace tells us +that such wild outbreaks occur more frequently (about one or two every +month) amongst the civilised Mangkassaras and Bugis of south Celebes +than elsewhere in the Archipelago. "It is the national and therefore the +honourable mode of committing suicide among the natives of Celebes, and +is the fashionable way of escaping from their difficulties. A Roman fell +upon his sword, a Japanese rips up his stomach, and an Englishman blows +out his brains with a pistol. The Bugis mode has many advantages to one +suicidically inclined. A man thinks himself wronged by society--he is in +debt and cannot pay--he is taken for a slave or has gambled away his +wife or child into slavery--he sees no way of recovering what he has +lost, and becomes desperate. He will not put up with such cruel wrongs, +but will be revenged on mankind and die like a hero. He grasps his +kris-handle, and the next moment draws out the weapon and stabs a man to +the heart. He runs on, with bloody kris in his hand, stabbing at +everyone he meets. 'Amok! Amok!' then resounds through the streets. +Spears, krisses, knives and guns are brought out against him. He rushes +madly forward, kills all he can--men, women, and children--and dies +overwhelmed by numbers amid all the excitement of a battle[504]." + +Possibly connected with this blind impulse may be the strange nervous +affection called _latah_, which is also prevalent amongst the Malayans, +and which was first clearly described by the distinguished Malay +scholar, Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham[505]. No attempt has yet been +made thoroughly to diagnose this uncanny disorder[506], which would seem +so much more characteristic of the high-strung or shattered nervous +system of ultra-refined European society, than of that artless +unsophisticated child of nature, the Orang-Malayu. Its effects on the +mental state are such as to disturb all normal cerebration, and +Swettenham mentions two latah-struck Malays, who would make admirable +"subjects" at a seance of theosophic psychists. Any simple device served +to attract their attention, when by merely looking them hard in the face +they fell helplessly in the hands of the operator, instantly lost all +self-control, and went passively through any performance either verbally +imposed or even merely suggested by a sign. + +A peculiar feminine strain has often been imputed to the Malay +temperament, yet this same Oceanic people displays in many respects a +curiously kindred spirit with the ordinary Englishman, as, for instance, +in his love of gambling, boxing, cock-fighting, field sports[507], and +adventure. No more fearless explorers of the high seas, formerly rovers +and corsairs, at all times enterprising traders, are anywhere to be +found than the Menangkabau Malays and their near kinsmen, the renowned +Bugis "Merchant Adventurers" of south Celebes. Their clumsy but +seaworthy praus are met in every seaport from Sumatra to the Aru +Islands, and they have established permanent trading stations and even +settlements in Borneo, the Philippines, Timor, and as far east as New +Guinea. On one occasion Wallace sailed from Dobbo in company with +fifteen large Makassar praus, each with a cargo worth about L1000, and +as many of the Bugis settle amongst the rude aborigines of the eastern +isles, they thus cooperate with the Sumatran Malays in extending the +area of civilising influences throughout Papuasia. + +Formerly they combined piracy with legitimate trade, and long after the +suppression of the North Bornean corsairs by Keppel and Brooke, the +inland waters continued to be infested especially by the _Bajau_ rovers +of Celebes, and by the _Balagnini_ of the Sulu Archipelago, most dreaded +of all the _Orang-Laut_, "Men of the Sea," the "Sea Gypsies" of the +English. These were the "Cellates" (_Orang-Selat_, "Men of the Straits") +of the early Portuguese writers, who described them as from time +immemorial engaged in fishing and plundering on the high seas[508]. + +In those days, and even in comparatively late times, the relations in +the Eastern Archipelago greatly resembled those prevailing in the Aegean +Sea at the dawn of Greek history, while the restless seafaring +populations were still in a state of flux, passing from island to island +in quest of booty or barter before permanently settling down in +favourable sites[509]. With the Greek historian's philosophic +disquisition on these Pelasgian and proto-Hellenic relations may be +compared A. R. Wallace's account of the Batjan coastlands when visited +by him in the late fifties. "Opposite us, and all along this coast of +Batchian, stretches a row of fine islands completely uninhabited. +Whenever I asked the reason why no one goes to live in them, the answer +always was 'For fear of the Magindano pirates[510].' Every year these +scourges of the Archipelago wander in one direction or another, making +their rendezvous on some uninhabited island, and carrying devastation to +all the small settlements around; robbing, destroying, killing, or +taking captive all they meet with. Their long, well-manned praus escape +from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by pulling away right in the +wind's eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer generally enables them to +hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or forest-covered inlet, till +the danger is passed[511]." Thus, like geographical surroundings, with +corresponding social conditions, produce like results in all times +amongst all peoples. + +This fundamental truth receives further illustration from the ideas +prevalent amongst the Malayans regarding witchcraft, the magic arts, +charms and spells, and especially the belief in the power of certain +malevolent human beings to transform themselves into wild beasts and +prey upon their fellow-creatures. Such superstitions girdle the globe, +taking their local colouring from the fauna of the different regions, so +that the were-wolf of medieval Europe finds its counterpart in the human +jaguar of South America, the human lion or leopard of Africa[512], and +the human tiger of the Malay Peninsula. Hugh Clifford, who relates an +occurrence known to himself in connection with a "were-tiger" story of +the Perak district, aptly remarks that "the white man and the brown, the +yellow and the black, independently, and without receiving the idea from +one another, have all found the same explanation for the like phenomena, +all apparently recognising the truth of the Malay proverb, that we are +like unto the _taman_ fish that preys upon its own kind[513]." The story +in question turns upon a young bride, whose husband comes home late +three nights following, and the third time, being watched, is discovered +by her in the form of a full-grown tiger stretched on the ladder, which, +as in all Malay houses, leads from the ground to the threshold of the +door. "Patimah gazed at the tiger from a distance of only a foot or two, +for she was too paralysed with fear to move or cry out, and as she +looked a gradual transformation took place in the creature at her feet. +Slowly, as one sees a ripple of wind pass over the surface of still +water, the tiger's features palpitated and were changed, until the +horrified girl saw the face of her husband come up through that of the +beast, much as the face of a diver comes up to the surface of a pool. In +another moment Patimah saw that it was Haji Ali who was ascending the +ladder of his house, and the spell that had hitherto bound her was +snapped." + +These same Malays of Perak, H. H. Rajah Dris tells us, are still +specially noted for many strange customs and superstitions "utterly +opposed to Muhammadan teaching, and savouring strongly of devil-worship. +This enormous belief in the supernatural is possibly a relic of the +pre-Islam State[514]." + +We do not know who were the primitive inhabitants of Borneo. One would +expect to find Negritoes in the interior, but despite the assertion of +A. de Quatrefages[515] it is impossible to overlook the conclusions of +A. B. Meyer[516] that no authoritative evidence of their occurrence is +forthcoming, and A. C. Haddon[517] confidently states that there are +none in Sarawak. It might be supposed that the Pre-Dravidian element +found in Sumatra and Celebes might occur also in Borneo, but the only +indication of such influence is the "black skin" noticed among certain +Ulu Ayar of the Upper Kapuas in Western Dutch Borneo[518]. With the +exception of certain peoples such as Europeans, Indians, Chinese, and +Orang-Malayu, whose foreign origin is obvious, the population as a whole +may be regarded as being composed of two main races, the Indonesian and +Proto-Malay. Probably all tribes are of mixed origin, but some, such as +the _Murut_, _Dusun_, _Kalabit_, and _Land Dayak_ are more Indonesian +while the _Iban_ (_Sea Dayak_) are distinctly Proto-Malay. The _Land +Dayak_ have doubtless been crossed with Indo-Javans. + +Scattered over a considerable part of the jungle live the nomad _Punan_ +and _Ukit_. They are a slender pale people with a slightly broad head. +They are grouped in small communities and inhabit the dense jungle at +the head waters of the principal rivers of Borneo. They live on +whatever they can find in the jungle, and do not cultivate the soil, nor +live in permanent houses. Their few wants are supplied by barter from +friendly settled peoples, or in return for iron implements, calico, +beads, tobacco, etc., they offer jungle produce, mainly gutta, +indiarubber, camphor, dammar and ratans. They are very mild savages, not +head-hunters, they are generous to one another, moderately truthful, +kind to the women and very fond of their children. + +Hose and Haddon have introduced the term _Klemantan_ (_Kalamantan_) for +the weak agricultural tribes such as the _Murut_, _Kalabit_, _Land +Dayak_, _Sebop_, _Barawan_, _Milanau_, etc.[519] Brook Low[520], who +knew the Land Dayak well, gives a very favourable account of the people +and this opinion has been confirmed by other travellers. They are +described as amiable, honest, grateful, moral and hospitable. Crimes of +violence, other than head-hunting, are unknown. The circular _panga_ is +a "house set apart for the residence of young unmarried men, in which +the trophy-heads are kept, and here also all ceremonial receptions take +place[521]." The _baloi_ of the Ot Danom of the Kahajan river is very +similar[522]. The very energetic and dominating _Bahau-Kenyah-Kayan_ +group are rather short in stature, with slightly broad heads. They +occupy the best tracts of land which lie in the undulating hills at the +upper reaches of the rivers, between the swampy low country and the +mountains. The Kayan more especially have almost exterminated some of +the smaller tribes. The Klemantan and Kenyah-Kayan tribes are +agriculturalists. They clear the jungle off the low hills that flank the +tributaries of the larger rivers, but always leave a few scattered trees +standing; irrigation is attempted by the Kalabits only, as _padi_ rice +is grown like any other cereals on dry ground; swamp _padi_ is also +grown on the low land. In their gardens they grow yams, pumpkins, sugar +cane, bananas, and sometimes coconuts and other produce. They hunt all +land animals that serve as food, and fish, usually with nets, in the +rivers, or spear those fish that have been stupefied with _tuba_; river +prawns are also a favourite article of diet. + +They all live in long communal houses which are situated on the banks of +the rivers. Among the Klemantan tribes the headman has not much +influence, unless he is a man of exceptional power and energy, but among +the larger tribes and especially among the Kayan and Kenyah the headmen +are the real chiefs and exercise undisputed sway. The Kenyah are perhaps +the most advanced in social evolution, holding their own by superior +solidarity and intelligence against the turbulent Kayan. + +All the agricultural tribes are artistic, but in varying degrees; they +are also musical and sing delightful chorus songs. In some tribes the +ends of the beams of the houses are carved to represent various animals, +in some the verandah is decorated with boldly carved planks, or with +painted boards and doors. The bamboo receptacles carved in low relief, +the bone handles of their swords and the minor articles of daily life, +are decorated in a way that reveals the true artistic spirit. Both +Kenyah and Kayan smelt iron and make spear heads and sword blades, the +former being especially noted for their good steel. The forge with two +bellows is the form widely spread in Malaysia. + +The truculent _Iban_ (_Sea Dayak_) have spread from a restricted area in +Sarawak[523]. They are short and have broader heads than the other +tribes; the colour is on the whole darker than among the cinnamon +coloured inland tribes. They have the same long, slightly wavy, black +hair showing a reddish tinge in certain lights, that is characteristic +of the Borneans generally. Most of the Iban inhabit low lying land; they +prefer to live on the low hills, but as this is not always practicable +they plant swamp _padi_; all those who settle at the heads of rivers +plant _padi_ on the hills in the same manner as the up-river natives. +They also cultivate maize, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, gourds, pumpkins, +cucumbers, melons, mustard, ginger and other vegetables. Generally +groups of relations work together in the fields. Although essentially +agricultural, they are warlike and passionately devoted to head-hunting. +The Iban of the Batang Lupar and Saribas in the olden days joined the +Malays in their large war praus on piratical raids along the coast and +up certain rivers and they owe their name of Sea Dayaks to this +practice. The raids were organised by Malays who went for plunder but +they could always ensure the aid of Iban by the bribe of the heads of +the slain as their share. The Iban women weave beautiful cotton cloths +on a very simple loom. Intricate patterns are made by tying several warp +strands with leaves at varying intervals, then dipping the whole into +the dye which does not penetrate the tied portions. This process is +repeated if a three-colour design is desired. The pattern is produced +solely in the warp, the woof threads are self-coloured and are not +visible in the fabric, which is therefore a cotton rep. Little tattooing +is seen among the Iban women though the men have adopted the custom from +the Kayan. + +It is probable that the Iban belong to the same stock as the original +Malay and if so, their migration may be regarded as the first wave of +the movement that culminated in the Malay Empire. The Malays must have +come to Borneo not later than the early part of the fifteenth century as +Brunei was a large and wealthy town in 1521. Probably the Malays came +directly from the Malay Peninsula, but they must have mixed largely with +the _Kadayan_, _Milanau_ and other coastal people. The Sarawak and +Brunei Malays are probably mainly coastal Borneans with some Malay +blood, but they have absorbed the Malay culture, spirit and religion. + +From the sociological point of view the Punan, living by the chase and +on exploitation of jungle produce, represent the lowest grade of culture +in Borneo. Without social organisation they are alike incapable of real +endemic improvement or of seriously affecting other peoples. The purely +agricultural tribes that cultivate _padi_ on the low hills or in the +swamps form the next social stratum. These indigenous tillers of the +soil have been hard pressed by various swarms of foreigners. + +The Kenyah-Kayan migration was that of a people of a slightly higher +grade of culture. They were agriculturalists, but the social +organisation was firmer and they were probably superior in physique. If +they introduced iron weapons, this would give them an enormous +advantage. These immigrant agricultural artisans, directed by powerful +chiefs, had no difficulty in taking possession of the most desirable +land. + +From an opposite point of the compass in early times came another +agricultural people who strangely enough have strong individualistic +tendencies, the usually peaceable habits of tillers of the soil having +been complicated by a lust for heads and other warlike propensities. But +the Iban do not appear to have gained much against the Kenyah and Kayan. +Conquest implies a strong leader, obedience to authority and concerted +action. The Iban appear to be formidable only when led and organised by +Europeans. + +The Malay was of a yet higher social type. His political organisation +was well established, and he had the advantage of religious enthusiasm, +for Islam has no small share in the expansion of the Malay. He is a +trader, and still more an exploiter, having a sporting element in his +character not altogether compatible with steady trade. Then appeared on +the scene the Anglo-Saxon overlord. The quality of firmness combined +with justice made itself felt. At times the lower social types hurled +themselves, but in vain, against the instrument that had been forged and +tempered in a similar turmoil of Iberian, Celt, Angle and Viking in +Northern Europe. Now they acknowledge that safety of life and property +and almost complete liberty are fully worth the very small price that +they have to pay for them[524]. + +The cult of omen animals, most frequently birds, is indigenous to +Borneo. These are possessed with the spirit of certain invisible beings +above, and bear their names, and are invoked to secure good crops, +freedom from accident, victory in war, profit in exchange, skill in +discourse and cleverness in all native craft. The Iban have a belief in +_Ngarong_ or spirit-helpers, somewhat resembling that of the _Manitu_ of +North America. The _Ngarong_ is the spirit of a dead relative who visits +a dreamer, who afterwards searches for the outward and visible sign of +his spiritual protector, and finds it in some form, perhaps a natural +object, or some one animal, henceforth held in special respect[525]. + +In Sumatra there occur some remains of Hindu temples[526], as well as +other mysterious monuments in the Passumah lands inland from Benkulen, +relics of a former culture, which goes back to prehistoric times. They +take the form of huge monoliths, which are roughly shaped to the +likeness of human figures, with strange features very different from the +Malay or Hindu types. The present Sarawi natives of the district, who +would be quite incapable of executing such works, know nothing of their +origin, and attribute them to certain legendary beings who formerly +wandered over the land, turning all their enemies into stone. Further +research may possibly discover some connection between these relics of a +forgotten past and the numerous prehistoric monuments of Easter Island +and other places in the Pacific Ocean. Of all the Indonesian peoples +still surviving in Malaysia, none present so many points of contact with +the Eastern Polynesians, as do the natives of the Mentawi Islands which +skirt the south-west coast of Sumatra. "On a closer inspection of the +inhabitants the attentive observer at once perceives that the Mentawi +natives have but little in common with the peoples and tribes of the +neighbouring islands, and that as regards physical appearance, speech, +customs, and usages they stand almost entirely apart. They bear such a +decided stamp of a Polynesian tribe that one feels far more inclined to +compare them with the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands[527]." + +The survival of an Indonesian group on the western verge of Malaysia is +all the more remarkable since the _Nias_ islanders, a little farther +north, are of Mongol stock, like most if not all of the inhabitants of +the Sumatran mainland. Here the typical Malays of the central districts +(Menangkabau, Korinchi, and Siak) merge southwards in the mixed +Malayo-Javanese peoples of the _Rejang_, _Palembang_, and _Lampong_ +districts. Although Muhammadans probably since the thirteenth century, +all these peoples had been early brought under Hindu influences by +missionaries and even settlers from Java, and these influences are still +apparent in many of the customs, popular traditions, languages, and +letters of the South Sumatran settled communities. Thus the Lampongs, +despite their profession of Islam, employ, not the Arabic characters, +like the Malays proper, but a script derived from the peculiar Javanese +writing system. This system itself, originally introduced from India +probably over 2000 years ago, is based on some early forms of the +Devanagari, such as those occurring in the rock inscriptions of the +famous Buddhist king As'oka (third century B.C.)[528]. From Java, which +is now shown beyond doubt to be the true centre of dispersion[529], the +parent alphabet was under Hindu influences diffused in pre-Muhammadan +times throughout Malaysia, from Sumatra to the Philippines. + +But the thinly-spread Indo-Javanese culture, in few places penetrating +much below the surface, received a rude shock from the Muhammadan +irruption, its natural development being almost everywhere arrested, or +else either effaced or displaced by Islam. No trace can any longer be +detected of graphic signs in Borneo, where the aborigines have retained +the savage state even in those southern districts where Buddhism or +Brahmanism had certainly been propagated long before the arrival of the +Muhammadan Malays. But elsewhere the Javanese stock alphabet has shown +extraordinary vitality, persisting under diverse forms down to the +present day, not only amongst the semi-civilised Mussulman peoples, such +as the Sumatran Rejangs[530], Korinchi, and Lampongs, the Bugis and +Mangkassaras of Celebes, and the (now Christian) Tagalogs and Visayas +of the Philippines, but even amongst the somewhat rude and pagan Palawan +natives, the wild Manguianes of Mindoro, and the cannibal Battas[531] of +North Sumatra. + +These Battas, however, despite their undoubted cannibalism[532], cannot +be called savages, at least without some reserve. They are skilful +stock-breeders and agriculturists, raising fine crops of maize and rice; +they dwell together in large, settled communities with an organised +government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a written civil +and penal code. There is even an effective postal system, which utilises +for letter-boxes the hollow tree-trunks at all the cross-roads, and is +largely patronised by the young men and women, all of whom read and +write, and carry on an animated correspondence in their degraded +Devanagari script, which is written on palm-leaves in vertical lines +running upwards and from right to left. The Battas also excel in several +industries, such as pottery, weaving, jewellery, iron work, and +house-building, their picturesque dwellings, which resemble Swiss +chalets, rising to two stories above the ground-floor reserved for the +live stock. For these arts they are no doubt largely indebted to their +Hindu teachers, from whom also they have inherited some of their +religious ideas, such as the triune deity--Creator, Preserver, and +Destroyer--besides other inferior divinities collectively called +_diebata_, a modified form of the Indian _devate_[533]. + +In the strangest contrast to these survivals of a foreign culture which +had probably never struck very deep roots, stand the savage survivals +from still more ancient times. Conspicuous amongst these are the +cannibal practices, which if not now universal still take some +peculiarly revolting forms. Thus captives and criminals are, under +certain circumstances, condemned to be eaten alive, and the same fate is +or was reserved for those incapacitated for work by age or infirmities. +When the time came, we are told by the early European observers and by +the reports of the Arabs, the "grandfathers" voluntarily suspended +themselves by their arms from an overhanging branch, while friends and +neighbours danced round and round, shouting, "when the fruit is ripe it +falls." And when it did fall, that is, as soon as it could hold on no +longer, the company fell upon it with their krisses, hacking it to +pieces, and devouring the remains seasoned with lime-juice, for such +feasts were generally held when the limes were ripe[534]. + +Grouped chiefly round about Lake Toba, the Battas occupy a very wide +domain, stretching south to about the parallel of Mount Ophir, and +bordering northwards on the territory of the Achin people. These valiant +natives, who have till recently stoutly maintained their political +independence against the Dutch, were also at one time Hinduized, as is +evident from many of their traditions, their Malayan language largely +charged with Sanskrit terms, and even their physical appearance, +suggesting a considerable admixture of Hindu as well as of Arab blood. +With the Arab traders and settlers came the Koran, and the Achinese +people have been not over-zealous followers of the Prophet since the +close of the twelfth century. The Muhammadan State, founded in 1205, +acquired a dominant position in the Archipelago early in the sixteenth +century, when it ruled over about half of Sumatra, exacted tribute from +many vassal princes, maintained powerful armaments by land and sea, and +entered into political and commercial relations with Egypt, Japan, and +several European States. + +There are two somewhat distinct ethnical groups, the _Orang-Tunong_ of +the uplands, a comparatively homogeneous Malayan people, and the mixed +_Orang-Baruh_ of the lowlands, who are described by A. Lubbers[535] as +taller than the average Malay (5 feet 5 or 6 in.), also less +round-headed (index 80.5), with prominent nose, rather regular features, +and muscular frames; but the complexion is darker than that of the +Orang-Malayu, a trait which has been attributed to a larger infusion of +Dravidian blood (Klings and Tamuls) from southern India. The charge of +cruelty and treachery brought against them by the Dutch may be received +with some reserve, such terms as "patriot" and "rebel" being +interchangeable according to the standpoints from which they are +considered. In any case no one denies them the virtues of valour and +love of freedom, with which are associated industrious habits and a +remarkable aptitude for such handicrafts as metal work, jewellery, +weaving, and ship-building. The Achinese do not appear to be very strict +Muhammadans; polygamy is little practised, their women are free to go +abroad unveiled, nor are they condemned to the seclusion of the harem, +and a pleasing survival from Buddhist times is the _Kanduri_, a solemn +feast, in which the poor are permitted to share. Another reminiscence of +Hindu philosophy may perhaps have been an outburst of religious fervour, +which took the form of a pantheistic creed, and was so zealously +preached, that it had to be stamped out with fire and sword by the +dominant Moslem monotheists[536]. + +Since the French occupation of Madagascar, the Malagasy problem has +naturally been revived. But it may be regretted that so much time and +talent have been spent on a somewhat thrashed-out question by a number +of writers, who did not first take the trouble to read up the literature +of the subject. + +By what race Madagascar was first peopled it is no longer possible to +say. The local reports or traditions of primitive peoples, either +extinct or still surviving in the interior, belong rather to the sphere +of Malagasy folklore than to that of ethnological research. In these +reports mention is frequently made of the _Kimos_, said to be now or +formerly living in the Bara country, and of the _Vazimbas_, who are by +some supposed to have been Gallas (_Ba-Simba_)--though they had no +knowledge of iron--whose graves are supposed to be certain monolithic +monuments which take the form of menhirs disposed in circles, and are +believed by the present inhabitants of the land to be still haunted by +evil spirits, that is, the ghosts of the long extinct Vazimbas. + +Much of the confusion prevalent regarding the present ethnical relations +may be avoided if certain points (ably summarised by T. A. Joyce[537]) +are borne in mind. The greater part of the population is negroid; the +language spoken over the whole of the island and many institutions and +customs are Malayo-Polynesian. A small section (Antimerina commonly +called Hovas)--forming the dominant people in the nineteenth century--is +of fairly pure Malay (or Javanese) blood, but is composed of +sixteenth-century immigrants, whereas the language belongs to a very +early branch of the Malayo-Polynesian (Austronesian) family. It would be +natural to suppose that the negroid element was African[538], for in +later times large numbers of Africans have been brought over by Arabs +and other slavers; but there are several objections to this view. In the +first place, the natives of the neighbouring coast are not seamen, and +the voyage to Madagascar offers peculiar difficulties owing to the +strong currents. In the second place, it seems impossible that the first +inhabitants, supposing them to be African, should have abandoned their +own language in favour of one introduced by a small minority of +immigrants; the few Bantu words found in Madagascar may well have been +adopted from the slaves. In the third place, the culture exhibits no +distinctively African features, but is far more akin to that of +south-east Asia. There is much to be said, therefore, for the view that +the earliest and negroid inhabitants of Madagascar were Oceanic +negroids, who have always been known as expert seamen. + +Since the coming of the negroid population, which probably arrived in +very early days, various small bands of immigrants or castaways have +landed on the shores of Madagascar and imposed themselves as reigning +dynasties on the surrounding villages, each thus forming the nucleus of +what now appears as a tribe. Among these were immigrants from Arabia, +and J. T. Last, who identifies Madagascar with the island of +_Menuthias_ described by Arrian in the third century A.D.[539], suggests +the "possibility that Madagascar may have been reached by Arabs before +the Christian era." This "possibility" is converted almost into a +certainty by the analysis of the Arabo-Malagasy terms made by Dahle, who +clearly shows that such terms "are comparatively very few," and also +"very ancient," in fact that, as already suggested by Fleischer of +Leipzig, many, perhaps the majority of them, "may be traced back to +Himyaritic influence[540]," that is, not merely to pre-Muhammadan, but +to pre-Christian times, just like the Sanskritic elements in the Oceanic +tongues. + +The evidence that Malagasy is itself one of these Oceanic tongues, and +not an offshoot of the comparatively recent standard Malay is +overwhelming, and need not here detain us[541]. The diffusion of this +Austronesian language over the whole island--even amongst distinctly +Negroid Bantu populations, such as the Betsileos and Tanalas--to the +absolute exclusion of all other forms of speech, is an extraordinary +linguistic phenomenon more easily proved than explained. There are, of +course, provincialisms and even what may be called local dialects, such +as that of the Antankarana people at the northern extremity of the +island who, although commonly included in the large division of the +western Sakalavas, really form a separate ethnical group, speaking a +somewhat marked variety of Malagasy. But even this differs much less +from the normal form than might be supposed by comparing, for instance, +such a term as _maso-mahamay_, sun, with the Hova _maso-andro_, where +_maso_ in both means "eye," _mahamay_ in both = "burning," and _andro_ +in both = "day." Thus the only difference is that one calls the sun +"burning eye," while the Hovas call it the "day's eye," as do so many +peoples in Malaysia[542]. + +So also the fish-eating _Anorohoro_ people, a branch of the _Sihanakas_ +in the Alaotra valley, are said to have "quite a different dialect from +them[543]." But the statement need not be taken too seriously, because +these rustic fisherfolk, who may be called the Gothamites of Madagascar, +are supposed, by their scornful neighbours, to do everything +"contrariwise." Of them it is told that once when cooking eggs they +boiled them for hours to make them soft, and then finding they got +harder and harder threw them away as unfit for food. Others having only +one slave, who could not paddle the canoe properly, cut him in two, +putting one half at the prow, the other at the stern, and were surprised +at the result. It was not to be expected that such simpletons should +speak Malagasy properly, which nevertheless is spoken with surprising +uniformity by all the Malayan and Negro or Negroid peoples alike. + +In Madagascar, however, the fusion of the two races is far less complete +than is commonly supposed. Various shades of transition between the two +extremes are no doubt presented by the _Sakalavas_ of the west, and the +_Betsimisarakas_, _Sitanakas_, and others of the east coast. But, +strange to say, on the central tableland the two seem to stand almost +completely apart, so that here the politically dominant Hovas still +present all the essential characteristics of the Oceanic Mongol, while +their southern neighbours, the _Betsileos_, as well as the _Tanalas_ and +_Ibaras_, are described as "African pure and simple, allied to the +south-eastern tribes of that continent[544]." + +Specially remarkable is the account given by a careful observer, G. A. +Shaw, of the Betsileos, whose "average height is not less than six feet +for the men, and a few inches less for the women. They are large-boned +and muscular, and their colour is several degrees darker than that of +the Hovas, approaching very close to a black. The forehead is low and +broad, the nose flatter, and the lips thicker than those of their +conquerors, whilst their hair is _invariably_ crisp and woolly. No pure +Betsileo is to be met with having the smooth long hair of the Hovas. In +this, as in other points, there is a very clear departure from the +Malayan type, and a close approximation to the Negro races of the +adjacent continent[545]." + +Now compare these brawny negroid giants with the wiry undersized Malayan +Hovas. As described by A. Vouchereau[546], their type closely resembles +that of the Javanese--short stature, yellowish or light leather +complexion, long, black, smooth and rather coarse hair, round head +(85.25), flat and straight forehead, flat face, prominent cheek-bones, +small straight nose, tolerably wide nostrils, small black and slightly +oblique eyes, rather thick lips, slim lithesome figure, small +extremities, dull restless expression, cranial capacity 1516 c.c., +superior to both Negro and Sakalava[547]. + +Except in respect of this high cranial capacity, the measurements of +three Malagasy skulls in the Cambridge University Anatomical Museum, +studied by W. L. H. Duckworth[548], correspond fairly well with these +descriptions. Thus the cephalic index of the reputed Betsimisaraka +(Negroid) and that of the Betsileo (Negro) are respectively 71 and 72.4, +while that of the Hova is 82.1; the first two, therefore, are +long-headed, the third round-headed, as we should expect. But the cubic +capacity of the Hova (presumably Mongoloid) is only 1315 as compared +with 1450 and 1480 of two others, presumably African Negroes. Duckworth +discusses the question whether the black element in Madagascar is of +African or Oceanic (Melanesian-Papuan) origin, about which much +diversity of opinion still prevails, and on the evidence of the few +cranial specimens available he decides in favour of the African. + +Despite the low cubic capacity of Duckworth's Hova, the mental powers of +these, and indeed of the Malagasy generally, are far from despicable. +Before the French occupation the London Missionary Society had succeeded +in disseminating Christian principles and even some degree of culture +among considerable numbers both in the Hova capital and surrounding +districts. The local press had been kept going by native compositors who +had issued quite an extensive literature both in Malagasy and English. +Agricultural and industrial methods had been improved, some engineering +works attempted, and the Hova craftsmen had learnt to build but not to +complete houses in the European style, because, although they could +master European processes, they could not, Christians though they were, +get the better of the old superstitions, one of which is that the owner +of a house always dies within a year of its completion. Longevity is +therefore ensured by not completing it, with the curious result that the +whole city looks unfinished or dilapidated. In the house where Mrs +Colvile stayed, "one window was framed and glazed, the other nailed up +with rough boards; part of the stair-banister had no top-rail; outside +only a portion of the roof had been tiled; and so on throughout[549]." + +The culture has been thus summarised by T. A. Joyce[550]. Clothing is +entirely vegetable, and the Malay _sarong_ is found throughout the east; +bark-cloth in the south-east and west. Hairdressing varies considerably, +and among the Bara and Sakalava is often elaborate. Silver ornaments are +found amongst the Antimerina and some other eastern tribes, made chiefly +from European coins dating from the sixteenth century. Circumcision is +universal. In the east the tribes are chiefly agricultural; in the +north, west and south, pastoral. Fishing is important among those tribes +situated on coast, lake or river. Houses are all rectangular and +pile-dwellings are found locally. Rice is the staple crop and the cattle +are of the humped variety. The Antimerina excel the rest in all crafts. +Weaving, basket-work (woven variety) and iron-working are all good; the +use of iron is said to have been unknown to the Bara and Vazimba until +comparatively recent times. Pottery is poor. Carvings in the round (men +and animals) are found amongst the Sakalava and Bara, in relief +(arabesques, etc.) among the Betsileo and others. Before the +introduction of firearms, the spear was the universal weapon; bows are +rare and possibly of late introduction; slings and the blowgun are also +found. Shields are circular, made of wood covered with hide. The early +system of government was patriarchal, and villages were independent; the +later immigrants introduced a system of feudal monarchy with themselves +as a ruling caste. Thus the Antimerina have three main castes; +_Andriana_ or nobles (_i.e._ pure-blooded descendants of the +conquerors), _Hova_, or freemen (descendants of the incorporated Vazimba +more or less mixed with the conquerors), and _Andevo_ or slaves. The +king was regarded almost as a god. An institution thoroughly suggestive +of Malayo-Polynesian sociology is that of _fadi_ or tabu, which enters +into every sphere of human activity. An indefinite creator-god was +recognized, but more important were a number of spirits and fetishes, +the latter with definite functions. Signs of tree worship and of belief +in transmigration are sporadic. At the present time, half the population +of the island is, at least nominally, Christian. + +A good deal of fancy is displayed in the oral literature, comprising +histories, or at least legends, fables, songs, riddles, and a great mass +of folklore, much of which has already been rescued from oblivion by the +"Malagasy Folklore Society." Some of the stories present the usual +analogies to others in widely separated lands, stories which seem to be +perennial, and to crop up wherever the surface is a little disturbed by +investigators. One of those in Dahle's extensive collection, entitled +the "History of Andrianarisainaboniamasoboniamanoro" might be described +as a variant of our "Beauty and the Beast." Besides this prince with the +long name, called _Bonia_ "for short," there is a princess "Golden +Beauty," both being of miraculous birth, but the latter a cripple and +deformed, until found and wedded by Bonia. Then she is so transfigured +that the "Beast" is captivated and contrives to carry her off. Thereupon +follows an extraordinary series of adventures, resulting of course in +the rescue of Golden Beauty by Bonia, when everything ends happily, not +only for the two lovers, but for all other people whose wives had also +been abducted. These are now restored to their husbands by the hero, who +vanquishes and slays the monster in a fierce fight, just as in our +nursery tales of knights and dragons. + +In the Philippines, where the ethnical confusion is probably greater +than in any other part of Malaysia, the great bulk of the inhabitants +appear to be of Indonesian and proto-Malayan stocks. Except in the +southern island of Mindanao, which is still mainly Muhammadan or +heathen, most of the settled populations have long been nominal Roman +Catholics under a curious theocratic administration, in which the true +rulers are not the civil functionaries, but the priests, and especially +the regular clergy[551]. One result has been over three centuries of +unstable political and social relations, ending in the occupation of the +archipelago by the United States (1898). Another, with which we are here +more concerned, has been such a transformation of the subtle Malayan +character that those who have lived longest amongst the natives +pronounce their temperament unfathomable. Having to comply outwardly +with the numerous Christian observances, they seek relief in two ways, +first by making the most of the Catholic ceremonial and turning the many +feast-days of the calendar into occasions of revelry and dissipation, +connived at if not even shared in by the padres[552]; secondly by +secretly cherishing the old beliefs and disguising their true feelings, +until the opportunity is presented of throwing off the mask and +declaring themselves in their true colours. A Franciscan friar, who had +spent half his life amongst them, left on record that "the native is an +incomprehensible phenomenon, the mainspring of whose line of thought and +the guiding motive of whose actions have never yet been, and perhaps +never will be, discovered. A native will serve a master satisfactorily +for years, and then suddenly abscond, or commit some such hideous crime +as conniving with a brigand band to murder the family and pillage the +house[553]." + +In fact nobody can ever tell what a Tagal, and especially a Visaya, will +do at any moment. His character is a succession of surprises; "the +experience of each year brings one to form fresh conclusions, and the +most exact definition of such a kaleidoscopic creature is, after all, +hypothetical." + +After centuries of misrule, it was perhaps not surprising that no kind +of sympathy was developed between the natives and the whites. Foreman +fells us that everywhere in the archipelago he found mothers teaching +their little ones to look on their white rulers as demoniacal beings, +evil spirits, or at least something to be dreaded. "If a child cries, it +is hushed by the exclamation, _Castila!_ (Spaniard); if a white man +approaches a native dwelling, the watchword always is _Castila!_ and the +children hasten to retreat from the dreadful object." + +For administrative purposes the natives were classed in three social +divisions--_Indios_, _Infieles_, and _Moros_--which, as aptly remarked +by F. H. H. Guillemard, is "an ecclesiastical rather than a scientific +classification[554]." The _Indios_ were the Christianized and more or +less cultured populations of all the towns and of the settled +agricultural districts, speaking a distinct Malayo-Polynesian language +of much more archaic type than the standard Malay. According to the +census of 1903 the total population of the islands was 7,635,428, of +whom nearly 7,000,000 were classed as civilised, and the rest as wild, +including 23,000 Negritoes (_Aeta_, see p. 156). At the time of the +Spanish occupation in the sixteenth century the _Visayas_ of the central +islands and part of Mindanao were the most advanced among the native +tribes, but this distinction is now claimed for the _Tagalogs_, who form +the bulk of the population in Manila and other parts of Luzon, and also +in Mindanao, and whose language is gradually displacing other dialects +throughout the archipelago. Other civilised tribes are the _Ilocano_, +_Bicol_, _Pangasinan_, _Pampangan_ and _Cagayan_, all of Luzon. Less +civilised tribes are the _Manobo_, _Mandaya_, _Subano_ and _Bagobo_ of +Mindanao, the _Bukidnon_ of Mindanao and the central islands, the +_Tagbanua_ and _Batak_ of Palawan, and the _Igorots_ of Luzon, some of +whom are industrious farmers, while among others, head-hunting is still +prevalent. These have been described by A. E. Jenks in a monograph[555]. +The head form is very variable. Of 32 men measured by Jenks the +extremes of cephalic index were 91.48 and 67.48. The stature is always +low, averaging 1.62 m. (5 ft. 4 in.) but with an appearance of greater +height. The hair is black, straight, lank, coarse and abundant but "I +doubt whether to-day an entire tribe of perfectly straight-haired +primitive Malayan people exists in the archipelago[556]." + +Under _Moros_ ("Moors") are comprised the Muhammadans exclusively, some +of whom are Malayans (chiefly in Mindanao, Basilan, and Palawan), some +true Malays (chiefly in the Sulu archipelago). Many of these are still +independent, and not a few, if not actually wild, are certainly but +little removed from the savage state. Yet, like the Sumatran Battas, +they possess a knowledge of letters, the Sulu people using the Arabic +script, as do all the Orang-Malayu, while the Palawan natives employ a +variant of the Devanagari prototype derived directly from the Javanese, +as above explained. They number nearly 280,000, of whom more than one +half are in Mindanao, and they form the bulk of the population in some +of the islands of the Sulu archipelago. + +Some of these Sulu people, till lately fierce sea-rovers, get baptized +now and then; but, says Foreman, "they appeared to be as much Christian +as I was Mussulman[557]." They keep their harems all the same, and when +asked how many gods there are, answer "four," presumably Allah plus the +Athanasian Trinity. So the Ba-Fiots of Angola add crucifying to their +"penal code," and so in King M'tesa's time the Baganda scrupulously kept +two weekly holidays, the Mussulman Friday, and the Christian Sunday. +Lofty creeds superimposed too rapidly on primitive beliefs are apt to +get "mixed"; they need time to become assimilated. + +That in the aborigines of Formosa are represented both Mongol +(proto-Malayan) and Indonesian elements may now probably be accepted as +an established fact. The long-standing reports of Negritoes also, like +the Philippine Aeta, have never been confirmed, and may be dismissed +from the present consideration. Probably five-sixths of the whole +population are Chinese immigrants, amongst whom are a large number of +Hakkas and Hok-los from the provinces of Fo-Kien and Kwang-tung[558]. +They occupy all the cultivated western lowlands, which from the +ethnological standpoint may be regarded as a seaward outpost of the +Chinese mainland. The rest of the island, that is, the central highlands +and precipitous eastern slopes, may similarly be looked on as a +north-eastern outpost of Malaysia, being almost exclusively held by +Indonesian and Malayan aborigines from Malaysia (especially the +Philippines), with possibly some early intruders both from Polynesia and +from the north (Japan). All are classed by the Chinese settlers after +their usual fashion in three social divisions:-- + +1. The _Pepohwans_ of the plains, who although called "Barbarians," are +sedentary agriculturists and quite as civilised as their Chinese +neighbours themselves, with whom they are gradually merging in a single +ethnical group. The Pepohwans are described by P. Ibis as a fine race, +very tall, and "fetishists," though the mysterious rites are left to the +women. Their national feasts, dances, and other usages forcibly recall +those of the Micronesians and Polynesians. They may therefore, perhaps, +be regarded as early immigrants from the South Sea Islands, distinct in +every respect from the true aborigines. + +2. The _Sekhwans_, "Tame Savages[559]," who are also settled +agriculturists, subject to the Chinese (since 1895 to the Japanese) +administration, but physically distinct from all the other +Formosans--light complexion, large mouth, thick lips, remarkably long +and prominent teeth, weak constitution. P. Ibis suspects a strain of +Dutch blood dating from the seventeenth century. This is confirmed by +the old books and other curious documents found amongst them, which have +given rise to so much speculation, and, it may be added, some +mystification, regarding a peculiar writing system and a literature +formerly current amongst the Formosan aborigines[560]. + +3. The _Chinhwans_, "Green Barbarians"--that is, utter savages--the true +independent aborigines, of whom there are an unknown number of tribes, +but regarding whom the Chinese possess but little definite information. +Not so their Japanese successors, one of whom, Kisak Tamai[561], tells +us that the Chinhwans show a close resemblance to the Malays of the +Malay Peninsula and also to those of the Philippines, and in some +respects to the Japanese themselves. When dressed like Japanese and +mingling with Japanese women, they can hardly be distinguished from +them. The vendetta is still rife amongst many of the ruder tribes, and +such is their traditional hatred of the Chinese intruders that no one +can either be tattooed or permitted to wear a bracelet until he has +carried off a Celestial head or two. In every household there is a frame +or bracket on which these heads are mounted, and some of their warriors +can proudly point to over seventy of such trophies. It is a relief to +hear that with their new Japanese masters they have sworn friendship, +these new rulers of the land being their "brothers and sisters." The +oath of eternal alliance is taken by digging a hole in the ground, +putting a stone in it, throwing earth at each other, then covering the +stone with the earth, all of which means that "as the stone in the +ground keeps sound, so do we keep our word unbroken." + +It is interesting to note that this Japanese ethnologist's remarks on +the physical resemblances of the aborigines are fully in accord with +those of European observers. Thus to Hamy "they recalled the Igorrotes +of North Luzon, as well as the Malays of Singapore[562]." G. Taylor +also, who has visited several of the wildest groups in the southern and +eastern districts[563] (_Tipuns_, _Paiwans_, _Diaramocks_, _Nickas_, +_Amias_ and many others), traces some "probably" to Japan (Tipuns); +others to Malaysia (the cruel, predatory Paiwan head-hunters); and +others to the Liu-Kiu archipelago (the Pepohwans now of Chinese speech). +He describes the Diaramocks as the most dreaded of all the southern +groups, but doubts whether the charge of cannibalism brought against +them by their neighbours is quite justified. + +Whether the historical Malays from Singapore or elsewhere, as above +suggested, are really represented in Formosa may be doubted, since no +survivals either of Hindu or Muhammadan rites appear to have been +detected amongst the aborigines. It is of course possible that they may +have reached the island at some remote time, and since relapsed into +savagery, from which the Orang-laut were never very far removed. But in +the absence of proof, it will be safer to regard all the wild tribes as +partly of Indonesian, partly of proto-Malayan origin. + +This view is also in conformity with the character of the numerous +Formosan dialects, whose affinities are either with the Gyarung and +others of the Asiatic Indonesian tongues, or else with the Austronesian +organic speech generally, but not specially with any particular member +of that family, least of all with the comparatively recent standard +Malay. Thus Arnold Schetelig points out that only about a sixth part of +the Formosan vocabulary taken generally corresponds with modern +Malay[564]. The analogies of all the rest must be sought in the various +branches of the Oceanic stock language, and in the Gyarung and the +non-Chinese tongues of Eastern China[565]. Formosa thus presents a +curious ethnical and linguistic connecting link between the Continental +and Oceanic populations. + +In the Nicobar archipelago are distinguished two ethnical groups, the +coast people, _i.e._ the _Nicobarese_[566] proper, and the _Shom Pen_, +aborigines of the less accessible inland districts in Great Nicobar. But +the distinction appears to be rather social than racial, and we may now +conclude with E. H. Man that all the islanders belong essentially to the +Mongolic division, the inlanders representing the pure type, the others +being "descended from a mongrel Malay stock, the crosses being probably +in the majority of cases with Burmese and occasionally with natives of +the opposite coast of Siam, and perchance also in remote times with such +of the Shom Pen as may have settled in their midst[567]." + +Among the numerous usages which point to an Indo-Chinese and Oceanic +connection are pile-dwellings; the chewing of betel, which appears to be +here mixed with some earthy substance causing a dental incrustation so +thick as even to prevent the closing of the lips; distention of the +ear-lobe by wooden cylinders; aversion from the use of milk; and the +_couvade_, as amongst some Bornean Dayaks. The language, which has an +extraordinarily rich phonetic system (as many as 25 consonantal and 35 +vowel sounds), is polysyllabic and untoned, like the Austronesian, and +the type also seems to resemble the Oceanic more than the Continental +Mongol subdivision. Mean height 5 ft. 3 in. (Shom Pen one inch less); +nose wide and flat; eyes rather obliquely set; cheekbones prominent; +features flat, though less so than in the normal Malayan; complexion +mostly a yellowish or reddish brown (Shom Pen dull brown); hair a dark +rusty brown, rarely quite black, straight, though not seldom wavy and +even ringletty, but Shom Pen generally quite straight. + +On the other hand they approach nearer to the Burmese in their mental +characters; in their frank, independent spirit, inquisitiveness, and +kindness towards their women, who enjoy complete social equality, as in +Burma; and lastly in their universal belief in spirits called _iwi_ or +_siya_, who, like the _nats_ of Indo-China, cause sickness and death +unless scared away or appeased by offerings. Like the Burmese, also, +they place a piece of money in the mouth or against the cheek of a +corpse before burial, to help in the other world. + +One of the few industries is the manufacture of a peculiar kind of rough +painted pottery, which is absolutely confined to the islet of Chowra, 5 +miles north of Teressa. The reason of this restriction is explained by a +popular legend, according to which in remote ages the Great Unknown +decreed that, on pain of sudden death, an earthquake, or some such +calamity, the making of earthenware was to be carried on only in Chowra, +and all the work of preparing the clay, moulding and firing the pots, +was to devolve on the women. Once, a long time ago, one of these women, +when on a visit in another island, began, heedless of the divine +injunction, to make a vessel, and fell dead on the spot. Thus was +confirmed the tradition, and no attempt has since been made to infringe +the "Chowra monopoly[568]." + +All things considered, it may be inferred that the archipelago was +originally occupied by primitive peoples of Malayan stock now +represented by the Shom Pen of Great Nicobar, and was afterwards +re-settled on the coastlands by Indo-Chinese and Malayan intruders, who +intermingled, and either extirpated or absorbed, or else drove to the +interior the first occupants. Nicobar thus resembles Formosa in its +intermediate position between the continental and Oceanic Mongol +populations. Another point of analogy is the absence of Negritoes from +both of these insular areas, where anthropologists had confidently +anticipated the presence of a dark element like that of the Andamanese +and Philippine Aeta. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[492] Here E. T. Hamy finds connecting links between the true Malays and +the Indonesians in the Bicols of Albay and the Bisayas of Panay ("Les +Races Malaiques et Americaines," in _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 136). +Used in this extended sense, Hamy's _Malaique_ corresponds generally to +our _Malayan_ as defined presently. + +[493] Ethnically Malayo-Polynesian is an impossible expression, because +it links together the Malays, who belong to the Mongol, and the +Polynesians, who belong to the Caucasic division. But as both +undoubtedly speak languages of the same linguistic stock the expression +is permitted in philology, although, as P. W. Schmidt points out, +"Malay" and "Polynesian" are not of equal rank: and the combination is +as unbalanced as "Indo-Bavarian" for "Indo-Germanic"; it is best +therefore to adopt Schmidt's term _Austronesian_ for this family of +languages (_Die Mon-Khmer Voelker_, 1906, p. 69). + +[494] Indonesian type: undulating black hair, often tinged with red; +tawny skin, often rather light; low stature, 1.54 m.-1.57 m. (5 ft. +0-1/2 in.-5 ft. 1-3/4 in.); mesaticephalic head (76-78) probably +originally dolichocephalic; cheek-bones sometimes projecting; nose often +flattened, sometimes concave. It is difficult to isolate this type as it +has almost everywhere been mixed with a brachycephalic Proto-Malay +stock, but the Muruts of Borneo (cranial index 73) are probably typical +(A. C. Haddon, _The Races of Man_, 1909, p. 14). + +[495] Recent literature on this area includes F. A. Swettenham, _The +Real Malay_, 1900, _British Malaya_, 1906; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, +1900; N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, _Fasciculi Malayenses_, 1903; W. +W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_, 1903. + +[496] J. Leyden, _Malay Annals_, 1821, p. 44. + +[497] In some places quite recent, as in Rembau, Malay Peninsula, whose +inhabitants are mainly immigrants from Sumatra in the seventeenth +century; and in the neighbouring group of petty Negri Sembilan States, +where the very tribal names, such as _Anak Acheh_, and _Sri Lemak +Menangkabau_, betray their late arrival from the Sumatran districts of +Achin and Menangkabau. + +[498] _The Malay Archipelago_, p. 310. + +[499] For Celebes see Von Paul und Fritz Sarasin, _Reisen in Celebes +ausgefuehrt in den Jahren 1893-6 und 1902-3_, 1905, and _Versuch einer +Anthropologie der Insel Celebes_, 1905. + +[500] In 1898 a troop of Javanese minstrels visited London, and one of +them, whom I addressed in a few broken Malay sentences, resented in his +sleepy way the imputation that he was an Orang-Malayu, explaining that +he was _Orang Java_, a Javanese, and (when further questioned) _Orang +Solo_, a native of the Solo district, East Java. It was interesting to +notice the very marked Mongolic features of these natives, vividly +recalling the remark of A. R. Wallace, on the difficulty of +distinguishing between a Javanese and a Chinaman when both are dressed +alike. The resemblance may to a small extent be due to "mixture with +Chinese blood" (B. Hagen, _Jour. Anthrop. Soc._ Vienna, 1889); but +occurs over such a wide area that it must mainly be attributed to the +common origin of the Chinese and Javanese peoples. + +[501] A. H. Keane, _Eastern Geography_, 2nd ed. 1892, p. 121. + +[502] _Academy_, May 1, 1897, p. 469. + +[503] Cool, p. 139. + +[504] _The Malay Archipelago_, p. 175. + +[505] In _Malay Sketches_, 1895. + +[506] Cf. M. A. Czaplicka on Arctic Hysteria in _Aboriginal Siberia_, +1914, p. 307. + +[507] On these national pastimes see Sir Hugh Clifford, _In Court and +Kampong_, 1897, p. 46 sq. + +[508] _Cujo officio he rubar e pescar_, "whose business it is to rob and +fish" (Barros). Many of the Bajaus lived entirely afloat, passing their +lives in boats from the cradle to the grave, and praying Allah that they +might die at sea. + +[509] Thucydides, _Pel. War_, I. 1-16. + +[510] These are the noted _Illanuns_, who occupy the south side of the +large Philippine island of Mindanao, but many of whom, like the Bajaus +of Celebes and the Sulu Islanders, have formed settlements on the +north-east coast of Borneo. "Long ago their warfare against the +Spaniards degenerated into general piracy. Their usual practice was not +to take captives, but to murder all on board any boat they took. Those +with us [British North Borneo] have all settled down to a more orderly +way of life" (W. B. Pryer, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1886, p. 231). + +[511] _The Malay Archipelago_, p. 341. + +[512] In Central Africa "the belief in 'were' animals, that is to say in +human beings who have changed themselves into lions or leopards or some +such harmful beasts, is nearly universal. Moreover there are individuals +who imagine they possess this power of assuming the form of an animal +and killing human beings in that shape." Sir H. H. Johnston, _British +Central Africa_, p. 439. + +[513] _In Court and Kampong_, p. 63. + +[514] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1886, p. 227. The Rajah gives the leading +features of the character of his countrymen as "pride of race and birth, +extraordinary observance of punctilio, and a bigoted adherence to +ancient custom and tradition." + +[515] _The Pygmies_ (Translation), 1895, p. 26, fig. 15. + +[516] _The Distribution of the Negritos_, 1899, p. 50. + +[517] In the Appendix to C. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of +Borneo_, 1912, p. 311. + +[518] J. H. Kohlbrugge, _L'Anthropologie_, IX. 1898. + +[519] A. C. Haddon, "A Sketch of the Ethnography of Sarawak," _Archivio +per l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia_, XXXI. 1901; C. Hose and W. McDougall, +_The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_, 1912, Appendix, p. 314. + +[520] H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, +1896. + +[521] O. Beccari, _Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo_, 1904, p. +54. + +[522] Schwaner, in H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak_, etc., 1896. + +[523] A. C. Haddon, _Head-Hunters, Black, White and Brown_, 1901, p. +324. + +[524] A. C. Haddon, _Head-Hunters, Black, White and Brown_, 1901, pp. +327-8. + +[525] For further literature on Borneo see W. H. Furness, _The Home-life +of the Borneo Head-Hunters_, 1902; A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch +Borneo_, 1904; E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea-Dyaks of +Borneo_, 1911; C. Hose and W. McDougall, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, XXXI. +1901, and _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_, 1912. + +[526] Not only in the southern districts for centuries subject to +Javanese influences, but also in Battaland, where they were first +discovered by H. von Rosenberg in 1853, and figured and described in +_Der Malayische Archipel_, Leipzig, 1878, Vol. I. p. 27 sq. "Nach ihrer +Form und ihren Bildwerken zu urtheilen, waren die Gebaeude Tempel, worin +der Buddha-Kultus gefeiert wurde" (p. 28). These are all the more +interesting since Hindu ruins are otherwise rare in Sumatra, where there +is nothing comparable to the stupendous monuments of Central and East +Java. + +[527] Von Rosenberg, _op. cit._ Vol. I. p. 189. Amongst the points of +close resemblance may be mentioned the outriggers, for which Mentawi has +the same word (_abak_) as the Samoan (_va'r_ = _vaka_); the funeral +rites; taboo; the facial expression; and the language, in which the +numerical systems are identical; cf. Ment. _limongapula_ with Sam. +_limagafulu_, the Malay being _limapulah_ (fifty), where the Sam. infix +_ga_ (absent in Malay) is pronounced _gna_, exactly as in Ment. + +[528] See Fr. Mueller, _Ueber den Ursprung der Schrift der Malaiischen +Voelker_, Vienna, 1865; and my Appendix to Stanford's _Australasia_, +First Series, 1879, p. 624. + +[529] _Die Mangianenschrift von Mindoro, herausgegeben von A. B. Meyer +u. A. Schadenberg_, speciell bearbeitet von W. Foy, Dresden, 1895; see +also my remarks in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1896, p. 277 sq. + +[530] The Rejang, which certainly belongs to the same Indo-Javanese +system as all the other Malaysian alphabets, has been regarded by Sayce +and Renan as "pure Phoenician," while Neubauer has compared it with that +current in the fourth and fifth centuries B.C. The suggestion that it +may have been introduced by the Phoenician crews of Alexander's admiral, +Nearchus (_Archaeol. Oxon._ 1895, No. 6), could not have been made by +anyone aware of its close connection with the Lampong of South, and the +Batta of North Sumatra (see also Prof. Kern, _Globus_, 70, p. 116). + +[531] Sing. _Batta_, pl. _Battak_, hence the current form _Battaks_ is a +solecism, and we should write either _Battas_ or _Battak_. Lassen +derives the word from the Sanskrit _b'hata_, "savage." + +[532] Again confirmed by Volz and H. von Autenrieth, who explored +Battaland early in 1898, and penetrated to the territory of the +"Cannibal Pakpaks" (_Geogr. Journ._, June, 1898, p. 672); not however +"for the first time," as here stated. The Pakpaks had already been +visited in 1853 by Von Rosenberg, who found cannibalism so prevalent +that "Niemand Anstand nimmt das essen von Menschenfleisch einzugestehen" +(_op. cit._ 1. p. 56). + +[533] It is interesting to note that by the aid of the Lampong alphabet, +South Sumatra, John Mathew reads the word _Daibattah_ in the legend on +the head-dress of a gigantic figure seen by Sir George Grey on the roof +of a cave on the Glenelg river, North-west Australia ("The Cave +Paintings of Australia," etc., in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1894, p. 44 +sq.). He quotes from Coleman's _Mythology of the Hindus_ the statement +that "the Battas of Sumatra believe in the existence of one supreme +being, whom they name _Debati Hasi Asi_. Since completing the work of +creation they suppose him to have remained perfectly quiescent, having +wholly committed the government to his three sons, who do not govern in +person, but by vakeels or proxies." Here is possibly another +confirmation of the view that early Malayan migrations or expeditions, +some even to Australia, took place in pre-Muhammadan times, long before +the rise and diffusion of the Orang-Malayu in the Archipelago. + +[534] _Memoir of the Life etc. of Sir T. S. Raffles_, by his widow, +1830. + +[535] "Anthropologie des Atjehs," in _Rev. Med._, Batavia, XXX. 6, 1890. + +[536] See C. Snouck Hurgronje, _The Achenese_, 1906. + +[537] _Handbook to the Ethnographical Collections, British Museum_, +1910, p. 245. + +[538] This opinion is still held by many competent authorities. Cf. J. +Deniker, _The Races of Man_, 1900, p. 469 ff. + +[539] "His remarks would scarcely apply to any other island off the East +African coast, his descriptions of the rivers, crocodiles, +land-tortoises, canoes, sea-turtles, and wicker-work weirs for catching +fish, apply exactly to Madagascar of the present day, but to none of the +other islands" (_Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1896, p. 47). + +[540] _Loc. cit._ p. 77. Thus, to take the days of the week, we +have:--Malagasy _alahady_, _alatsinainy_; old Arab. (Himyar.) +_al-ahadu_, _al-itsnani_; modern Arab. _el-ahad_, _el-etnen_ (Sunday, +Monday), where the Mal. forms are obviously derived not from the +present, but from the ancient Arabic. From all this it seems reasonable +to infer that the early Semitic influences in Madagascar may be due to +the same Sabaean or Minaean peoples of South Arabia, to whom the +Zimbabwe monuments in the auriferous region south of the Zambesi were +accredited by Theodore Bent. + +[541] Those who may still doubt should consult M. Aristide Marre, _Les +Affinites de la Langue Malgache_, Leyden, 1884; Last's above quoted +Paper in the _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ and R. H. Codrington's _Melanesian +Languages_, Oxford, 1885. + +[542] Malay _mata-ari_; Bajau _mata-lon_; Menado _mata-ro[=u]_; Salayer +_mato-allo_, all meaning literally "day's eye" (_mata_, _mato_ = +Malagasy _maso_ = eye; _ari_, _allo_, etc. = day, with normal +interchange of _r_ and _l_). + +[543] J. Sibree, _Antananarivo Annual_, 1877, p. 62. + +[544] W. D. Cowan, _The Bara Land_, Antananarivo, 1881, p. 67. + +[545] "The Betsileo, Country and People," in _Antananarivo Annual_, +1877, p. 79. + +[546] "Note sur l'Anthropologie de Madagascar," etc., in +_L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 149 sq. + +[547] The contrast between the two elements is drawn in a few bold +strokes by Mrs Z. Colvile, who found that in the east coast districts +the natives (Betsimisarakas chiefly) were black "with short, curly hair +and negro type of feature, and showed every sign of being of African +origin. The Hovas, on the contrary, had complexions little darker than +those of the peasantry of Southern Europe, straight black hair, rather +sharp features, slim figures, and were unmistakably of the Asiatic type" +(_Round the Black Man's Garden_, 1893, p. 143). But even amongst the +Hovas a strain of black blood is betrayed in the generally rather thick +lips, and among the lower classes in the wavy hair and dark skin. + +[548] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1897, p. 285 sq. + +[549] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1897, p. 153. + +[550] _Handbook to the Ethnological Collection, British Museum_, 1910, +pp. 246-7. + +[551] Augustinians, Dominicans, Recollects (Friars Minor of the Strict +Observance), and Jesuits. + +[552] In fact there is no great parade of morality on either side, nor +is it any reflection on a woman to have children by the priest. + +[553] J. Foreman, _The Philippine Islands_, 1899, p. 181. + +[554] _Australasia_, 1894, II. p. 49. + +[555] _The Bontoc Igorot_, Eth. Survey Pub. Vol. I. 1904. Further +information concerning the Philippines is published in the _Census +Report in 1903_, 1905; _Ethnological Survey Publications_, 1904- ; C. A. +Koeze, _Crania Ethnica Philippinica, ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der +Philippinen_, 1901- ; Henry Gannett, _People of the Philippines_, 1904; +R. B. Bean, _The Racial Anatomy of the Philippine Islanders_, 1910; +Fay-Cooper Cole, _Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao_, 1913. + +[556] A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_, 1904, p. 41. + +[557] _Op. cit._ p. 247. + +[558] Girard de Rialle, _Rev. d'Anthrop._, Jan. and April, 1885. These +studies are based largely on the data supplied by M. Paul Ibis and +earlier travellers in the island. Nothing better has since appeared +except G. Taylor's valuable contributions to the _China Review_ (see +below). The census of 1904 gave 2,860,574 Chinese, 51,770 Japanese and +104,334 aborigines. + +[559] Lit. "ripe barbarians" (_barbares murs_, Ibis). + +[560] See facsimiles of bilingual and other MSS. from Formosa in T. de +Lacouperie's _Formosa Notes on MSS., Languages, and Races_, Hertford, +1887. The whole question is here fully discussed, though the author +seems unable to arrive at any definite conclusion even as to the _bona_ +or _mala fides_ of the noted impostor George Psalmanazar. + +[561] _Globus_, 70, p. 93 sq. + +[562] "Les Races Malaiques," etc., in _L'Anthropologie_, 1896. + +[563] "The Aborigines of Formosa," in _China Review_, XIV. p. 198 sq., +also xvi. No. 3 ("A Ramble through Southern Formosa"). The services +rendered by this intelligent observer to Formosan ethnology deserve more +general recognition than they have hitherto received. See also the +_Report on the control of the Aborigines of Formosa_, Bureau of +Aboriginal Affairs, Formosa, 1911. + +[564] "Sprachen der Ureinwohner Formosa's," in _Zeitschr. f. +Voelkerpsychologie_, etc., v. p. 437 sq. This anthropologist found to his +great surprise that the Polynesian and Maori skulls in the London +College of Surgeons presented striking analogies with those collected by +himself in Formosa. Here at least is a remarkable harmony between speech +and physical characters. + +[565] De Lacouperie, _op. cit._ p. 73. + +[566] The natives of course know nothing of this word, and speak of +their island homes as _Mattai_, a vague term applied equally to land, +country, village, and even the whole world. + +[567] "The Nicobar Islanders," in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1889, p. 354 sq. +Cf. C. B. Kloss, _In the Andamans and Nicobars_, 1903. + +[568] E. H. Man, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1894, p. 21. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE NORTHERN MONGOLS + + Domain of the Mongolo-Turki Section--Early Contact with Caucasic + Peoples--Primitive Man in Siberia--and Mongolia--Early Man in Korea + and Japan--in Finland and East Europe--Early Man in Babylonia--The + Sumerians--The Akkadians--Babylonian Chronology--Elamite + Origins--Historical Records--Babylonian Religion--Social + System--General Culture--The Mongols Proper--Physical Type--Ethnical + and Administrative Divisions--Buddhism--The Tunguses--Cradle and + Type--Mental Characters--Shamanism--The Manchus--Origins and Early + Records--Type--The Dauri--Mongolo-Turki Speech--Language and Racial + Characters--Mongol and Manchu Script--The Yukaghirs--A Primitive + Writing System--Chukchis and Koryaks--Chukchi and Eskimo + Relations--Type and Social State--Koryaks and Kamchadales--The + Gilyaks--The Koreans--Ethnical Elements--Korean Origins and + Records--Religion--The Korean Script--The Japanese--Origins-- + Constituent Elements--The Japanese Type--Japanese and Liu-Kiu + Islanders--Their Languages and Religions--Cult of the Dead-- + Shintoism and Buddhism. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# _The Northern Hemisphere from Japan to Lapland, and +from the Arctic Ocean to the Great Wall and Tibet_; _Aralo-Caspian +Basin_; _Parts of Irania_; _Asia Minor_; _Parts of East Russia, Balkan +Peninsula, and Lower Danube_. + +#Hair#, _generally the same as South Mongol, but in Mongolo-Caucasic +transitional groups brown, chestnut, and even towy or light flaxen, also +wavy and ringletty_; _beard mostly absent except amongst the Western +Turks and some Koreans_. + +#Colour#, _light or dirty yellowish amongst all true Mongols and +Siberians_; _very variable (white, sallow, swarthy) in the transitional +groups (Finns, Lapps, Magyars, Bulgars, Western Turks), and many Manchus +and Koreans_; _in Japan the unexposed parts of the body also white_. + +#Skull#, _highly brachycephalic in the true Mongol(80 to 85)_; _variable +(sub-brachy and sub-dolicho) in most transitional groups and even some +Siberians (Ostyaks and Voguls 77)_. #Jaws#, #cheek-bones#, #nose#, _and_ +#eyes# _much the same as in South Mongols_; _but nose often large and +straight, and eyes straight, greyish, or even blue in Finns, Manchus, +Koreans, and some other Mongolo-Caucasians_. + +#Stature#, _usually short (below 1.68 m., 5 ft. 6 in.), but many Manchus +and Koreans tall, 1.728 m. to 1.778 m. (5 ft. 8 or 10 in.)_. #Lips#, +#arms#, #legs#, _and_ #feet#, _usually the same as South Mongols_; _but +Japanese legs disproportionately short_. + +#Temperament#, _of all true Mongols and many Mongoloids, dull, reserved, +somewhat sullen and apathetic_; _but in some groups (Finns, Japanese) +active and energetic_; _nearly all brave, warlike, even fierce, and +capable of great atrocities, though not normally cruel_; _within the +historic period the character has almost everywhere undergone a marked +change from a rude and ferocious to a milder and more humane +disposition_; _ethical tone higher than South Mongol, with more +developed sense of right and wrong_. + +#Speech#, _very uniform_; _apparently only one stock language_ +(#Finno-Tatar# _or_ #Ural-Altaic Family#), _a highly typical +agglutinating form with no prefixes, but numerous postfixes attached +loosely to an unchangeable root, by which their vowels are modified in +accordance with subtle laws of vocalic harmony_; _the chief members of +the family (Finnish, Magyar, Turkish, Mongol, and especially Korean and +Japanese) diverge greatly from the common prototype_. + +#Religion#, _originally spirit-worship through a mediator_ (Shaman), +_perhaps everywhere, and still exclusively prevalent amongst Siberian +and all other uncivilised groups_; _all Mongols proper, Manchus, and +Koreans nominal Buddhists_; _all Turki peoples Moslem_; _Japanese +Buddhists and Shintoists_; _Finns, Lapps, Bulgars, Magyars, and some +Siberians real or nominal Christians_. + +#Culture#, _rude and barbaric rather than savage amongst the Siberian +aborigines, who are nearly all nomadic hunters and fishers with +half-wild reindeer herds but scarcely any industries_; _the Mongols +proper, Kirghiz, Uzbegs and Turkomans semi-nomadic pastors_; _the +Anatolian and Balkan Turks, Manchus, and Koreans settled agriculturists, +with scarcely any arts or letters and no science_; _Japanese, Finns, +Bulgars and Magyars civilised up to, and in some respects beyond the +European average (Magyar and Finnish literature, Japanese art)_. + +#Mongol Proper.# _Sharra (Eastern), Kalmak (Western), Buryat (Siberian) +Mongol._ + +#Tungus.# _Tungus proper, Manchu, Gold, Oroch, Lamut._ + +#Korean#; #Japanese# _and_ #Liu-Kiu#. + +#Turki.# _Yakut; Kirghiz; Uzbeg; Taranchi; Kara-Kalpak; Nogai; Turkoman; +Anatolian; Osmanli._ + +#Finno-Ugrian.# _Baltic Finn; Lapp; Samoyed; Cheremiss; Votyak; Vogul; +Ostyak; Bulgar; Magyar._ + +#East Siberian.# _Yukaghir; Chukchi; Koryak; Kamchadale; Gilyak._ + + * * * * * + +By "Northern Mongols" are here to be understood all those branches of +the Mongol Division of mankind which are usually comprised under the +collective geographical expression _Ural-Altaic_, to which corresponds +the ethnical designation _Mongolo-Tatar_, or more properly +_Mongolo-Turki_[569]. Their domain is roughly separated from that of the +Southern Mongols (Chap. VI.) by the Great Wall and the Kuen-lun range, +beyond which it spreads out westwards over most of Western Asia, and a +considerable part of North Europe, with many scattered groups in Central +and South Russia, the Balkan Peninsula, and the Middle Danube basin. In +the extreme north their territory stretches from the shores of the +Pacific with Japan and parts of Sakhalin continually westwards across +Korea, Siberia, Central and North Russia to Finland and Lapland. But its +southern limits can be indicated only approximately by a line drawn from +the Kuen-lun range westwards along the northern escarpments of the +Iranian plateau, and round the southern shores of the Caspian to the +Mediterranean. This line, however, must be drawn in such a way as to +include Afghan Turkestan, much of the North Persian and Caucasian +steppes, and nearly the whole of Asia Minor, while excluding Armenia, +Kurdestan, and Syria. + +Nor is it to be supposed that even within these limits the North Mongol +territory is everywhere continuous. In East Europe especially, where +they are for the most part comparatively recent intruders, the Mongols +are found only in isolated and vanishing groups in the Lower and Middle +Volga basin, the Crimea, and the North Caucasian steppe, and in more +compact bodies in Rumelia, Bulgaria, and Hungary. Throughout all these +districts, however, the process of absorption or assimilation to the +normal European physical type is so far completed that many of the Nogai +and other Russian "Tartars," as they are called, the Volga and Baltic +Finns, the Magyars, and Osmanli Turks, would scarcely be recognised as +members of the North Mongol family but for their common Finno-Turki +speech, and the historic evidence by which their original connection +with this division is established beyond all question. + +In Central Asia also (North Irania, the Aralo-Caspian and Tarim basins) +the Mongols have been in close contact with Caucasic peoples probably +since the New Stone Age, and here intermediate types have been +developed, by which an almost unbroken transition has been brought about +between the yellow and the white races. + +During recent years much light has been shed on the physiographical +conditions of Central Asia in early times. Stein's[570] explorations in +1900-1 and 1906-8 in Chinese Turkestan, the Pumpelly Expeditions[571] in +1903 and 1904 in Russian Turkestan, the travels of Sven Hedin[572] in +1899-1902, and 1906-8, of Carruthers[573] in N.W. Mongolia, and the +researches of Ellsworth Huntington[574] (a member of the first Pumpelly +Expedition) in 1905-7 all bear testimony to the variation in climate +which the districts of Central Asia have undergone since glacial times. +There has been a general trend towards arid conditions, alternating with +periods of greater humidity, when tracts, now deserted, were capable of +maintaining a dense population. Abundant evidence of man's occupation +has been found in delta oases formed by snow-fed mountain streams, or on +the banks of vanished rivers, where now-a-days all is desolation, +though, as T. Peisker[575] points out, climate was not the sole or even +the main factor in many areas. In some places, as at Merv, the earliest +occupation was only a few centuries before the Christian era, but at +Anau near Askhabad some 300 miles east of the Caspian, explored by the +Pumpelly Expedition, the earliest strata contained remains of Stone Age +culture. The North Kurgan or tumulus, rising some 40 or 50 feet above +the plain, showed a definite stratification of structures in sun-dried +bricks, raised by successive generations of occupants. H. Schmidt, who +was in charge of the excavations, was able to collect a valuable series +of potsherds, showing a gradual evolution in form, technique and +ornamentation, from the earliest to the latest periods. One point of +great significance for establishing cultural if not physical +relationships in this obscure region is the resemblance between the +geometrical designs on pots of the early period and similar pottery +found by MM. Gautier and Lampre[576] at Mussian, and by M. J. de +Morgan[576] at Susa, while clay figurines from the South Kurgan (copper +culture) are clearly of Babylonian type, the influence of which is seen +much later in terra-cotta figurines discovered by Stein[577] at Yotkan. + +With the progress of archaeological research, it becomes daily more +evident that the whole of the North Mongol domain, from Finland to +Japan, has passed through the Stone and Metal Ages, like most other +habitable parts of the globe. During his wanderings in Siberia and +Mongolia in the early nineties, Hans Leder[578] came upon countless +prehistoric stations, kurgans (barrows), stone circles, and many +megalithic monuments of various types. In West Siberia the barrows, +which consist solely of earth without any stone-work, are by the present +inhabitants called _Chudskiye Kurgani_, "Chudish Graves," and, as in +North Russia, this term "Chude" is ascribed to a now vanished unknown +race which formerly inhabited the land. To them, as to the "Toltecs" in +Central America, all ancient monuments are credited, and while some +regard them as prehistoric Finns, others identify them with the historic +Scythians, the Scythians of Herodotus. + +There are reasons, however, for thinking that the Chudes may represent +an earlier race, the men of the Stone Age, who, migrating from north +Europe eastwards, had reached the Tom valley (which drains to the Obi) +before the extinction of the mammoth, and later spread over the whole of +northern Asia, leaving everywhere evidence of their presence in the +megalithic monuments now being daily brought to light in East Siberia, +Mongolia, Korea, and Japan. This view receives support from the +characters of two skulls found in 1895 by A. P. Mostitz in one of the +five prehistoric stations on the left bank of the Sava affluent of the +Selenga river, near Ust-Kiakta in Trans-Baikalia. They differ markedly +from the normal Buryat (Siberian Mongol) type, recalling rather the +long-shaped skulls of the South Russian kurgans, with cephalic indices +73.2 and 73.5, as measured by M. J. D. Talko-Hryncewicz[579]. Thus, in +the very heart of the Mongol domain, the characteristically round-headed +race would appear to have been preceded, as in Europe, by a long-headed +type. + +In East Siberia, and especially in the Lake Baikal region, Leder found +extensive tracts strewn with kurgans, many of which have already been +explored, and their contents deposited in the Irkutsk museum. Amongst +these are great numbers of stone implements, and objects made of bone +and mammoth tusks, besides carefully worked copper ware, betraying +technical skill and some artistic taste in the designs. In +Trans-Baikalia, still farther east, with the kurgans are associated the +so-called _Kameni Babi_, "Stone Women," monoliths rough-hewn in the form +of human figures. Many of these monoliths bear inscriptions, which, +however, appear to be of recent date (mostly Buddhist prayers and +formularies), and are not to be confounded with the much older rock +inscriptions deciphered by W. Thomsen through the Turki language. + +Continuing his investigations in Mongolia proper, Leder here also +discovered earthen kurgans, which, however, differed from those of +Siberia by being for the most part surmounted either with circular or +rectangular stone structures, or else with monoliths. They are called +_Kueruektsur_ by the present inhabitants, who hold them in great awe, and +never venture to touch them. Unfortunately strangers also are unable to +examine their contents, all disturbance of the ground with spade or +shovel being forbidden under pain of death by the Chinese officials, for +fear of awakening the evil spirits, now slumbering peacefully below the +surface. The Siberian burial mounds have yielded no bronze, a fact which +indicates considerable antiquity, although no date can be set for its +introduction into these regions. Better evidence of antiquity is found +in the climatic changes resulting in recent desiccation, which must +have taken place here as elsewhere, for the burials bear witness to the +existence of a denser population than could be supported at the present +time[580]. + +Such an antiquity is indeed required to explain the spread of neolithic +remains to the Pacific seaboard, and especially to Korea and Japan. In +Korea W. Gowland examined a dolmen 30 miles from Seul, which he +describes and figures[581], and which is remarkable especially for the +disproportionate size of the capstone, a huge undressed megalith 14-1/2 +by over 13 feet. He refers to four or five others, all in the northern +part of the peninsula, and regards them as "intermediate in form between +a cist and a dolmen." But he thinks it probable that they were never +covered by mounds, but always stood as monuments above ground, in this +respect differing from the Japanese, the majority of which are all +buried in tumuli. In some of their features these present a curious +resemblance to the Brittany structures, but no stone implements appear +to have been found in any of the burial mounds, and the Japanese +chambered tombs, according to Hamada, Professor of Archaeology in Kyoto +University, are usually attributed to the Iron Age (fifth to seventh +centuries A.D.[582]). + +In many districts Japan contains memorials of a remote past--shell +mounds, cave-dwellings, and in Yezo certain pits, which are not occupied +by the present Ainu population, but are by them attributed to the +_Koro-pok-guru_, "People of the Hollows," who occupied the land before +their arrival, and lived in huts built over these pits. Similar remains +on an islet near Nemuro on the north-east coast of Yezo are said by the +Japanese to have belonged to the _Kobito_, a dwarfish race exterminated +by the Ainu, hence apparently identical with the Koro-pok-guru. They are +associated by John Milne with some primitive peoples of the Kurile +Islands, Sakhalin, and Kamchatka, who, like the Eskimo of the American +coast, had extended formerly much farther south than at present. + +In a kitchen-midden, 330 by 200 feet, near Shiidzuka in the province of +Ibaraki, the Japanese antiquaries S. Yagi and M. Shinomura[583] have +found numerous objects belonging to the Stone Age of Japan. Amongst them +were flint implements, worked bones, ashes, pottery, and a whole series +of clay figures of human beings. The finders suggest that these remains +may have belonged to a homogeneous race of the Stone Period, who, +however, were not the ancestors of the Ainu--hitherto generally regarded +as the first inhabitants of Japan. In the national records vague +reference is made to other aborigines, such as the "Long Legs," and the +"Eight Wild Tribes," described as the enemies of the first Japanese +settlers in Kiu-shiu, and reduced by Jimmu Tenno, the semi-mythical +founder of the present dynasty; the _Ebisu_, who are probably to be +identified with the Ainu; and the _Seki-Manzi_, "Stone-Men," also +located in the southern island of Kiu-shiu. The last-mentioned, of whom, +however, little further is known, seem to have some claim to be +associated with the above described remains of early man in Japan[584]. + +In the extreme west the present Mongol peoples, being quite recent +intruders, can in no way be connected with the abundant prehistoric +relics daily brought to light in that region (South Russia, the Balkan +Peninsula, Hungary). The same remark applies even to Finland itself, +which was at one time supposed to be the cradle of the Finnish people, +but is now shown to have been first occupied by Germanic tribes. From an +exhaustive study of the bronze-yielding tumuli A. Hackman[585] concludes +that the population of the Bronze Period was Teutonic, and in this he +agrees both with Montelius and with W. Thomsen. The latter holds on +linguistic grounds that at the beginning of the new era the Finns still +dwelt east of the Gulf of Finland, whence they moved west in later +times. + +It is unfortunate that, owing probably to the character of the country, +remains of the Stone Age in Babylonia are wanting so that no comparison +can yet be made with the neolithic cultures of Egypt and the Aegean. The +constant floods to which Babylonia was ever subject swept away all +traces of early occupations until the advent of the Sumerians, who built +their cities on artificial mounds. The question of Akkado-Sumerian[586] +origins is by no means clear, for many important cities are unexplored +and even unidentified, but the general trend of recent opinion may be +noted. The linguistic problem is peculiarly complicated by the fact that +almost all the Sumerian texts show evidence of Semitic influence, and +consist to a great extent of religious hymns and incantations which +often appear to be merely translations of Semitic ideas turned by +Semitic priests into the formal religious Sumerian language. J. Halevy, +indeed, followed by others, regarded Sumerian as no true language, but +merely a priestly system of cryptography[587], based on Semitic. As +regards linguistic affinities, K. A. Hermann[588] endeavoured to +establish a connection between the early texts and Ural-Altaic, more +especially with Ugro-Finnish. A more recent suggestion that the language +is of Indo-European origin and structure rests on equally slight +resemblances. The comparison with Chinese has already been noticed. J. +D. Prince[589] utters a word of caution against comparing ancient texts +with idioms of more recent peoples of Western Asia, in spite of many +tempting resemblances, and claims that until further light has been shed +on the problem Sumerian should be regarded as standing quite alone, "a +prehistoric philological remnant." + +E. Meyer[590] claims for the Sumerians not only linguistic but also +physical isolation. The Sumerian type as represented on the monuments +shows a narrow pointed nose, with straight bridge and small nostrils, +cheeks and lips not fleshy, like the Semites, with prominent +cheek-bones, small mouth, narrow lips finely curved, the lower jaw very +short, with angular sharply projecting chin, oblique Mongolian eyes, low +forehead, usually sloping away directly from the root of the nose. In +fact the nose has almost the appearance of a bird's beak, projecting far +in advance of mouth and chin, while the forehead almost disappears. The +hair and beard are closely shaven. The Sumerians were undoubtedly a +warlike people, fighting not like the Semites in loosely extended battle +array, but in close phalanx, their large shields protecting their bodies +from neck to feet, forming a rampart beyond which projected the inclined +spears of the foremost rank. Battle axe and javelin were also used. +Helmets protected head and neck. Besides lance or spear the royal +leaders carried a curved throwing weapon, formed of three strands bound +together at intervals with thongs of leather or bands of metal; this +seems to have developed later into a sign of authority and hence into a +sceptre. The bow, the typical weapon of the Semites and the mountainous +people to the east, was unrepresented. The gods carried clubs with stone +heads. It is important to notice that, in direct contrast to the +Sumerians themselves, their gods had abundant hair on their heads, +carefully curled and dressed, and a long curly beard on the chin, though +cheeks and lips were closely shaven; these fashions recall those of the +Semites. Thus, although the general view is to regard the Sumerians as +the autochthones and the Semites as the later intruders in Babylonia, +the Semitic character of the Sumerian gods points to an opposite +conclusion. But the time has not yet come for any definite conclusion to +be reached. All that can be said is that according to our present +knowledge the assumption that the earliest population was Sumerian and +that the Semites were the conquering intruders is only slightly more +probable than the reverse[591]. + +Recent archaeological discoveries make Sumerian origins a little +clearer. Explorations in Central Asia (as mentioned above p. 257) show +that districts once well watered, and capable of supporting a large +population, have been subject to periods of excessive drought, and this +no doubt is the prime cause of the racial unrest which has ever been +characteristic of the dwellers in these regions. A cycle of drought may +well have prompted the Sumerian migration of the fourth millennium B.C., +as it is shown to have prompted the later invasions of the last two +thousand years[592]. Although there is no evidence to connect the +original home of the Sumerians with any of the oases yet excavated in +Central Asia, yet signs of cultural contact are not wanting, and it may +safely be inferred that their civilisation was evolved in some region to +the east of the Euphrates valley before their entrance into +Babylonia[593]. + +Since Semitic influence was first felt in the north of Babylonia, at +Akkad, it is assumed that the immigration was from the north-west from +Arabia by way of the Syrian coastlands, and in this case also the +impulse may have been the occurrence of an arid period in the centre of +the Arabian continent. The Semites are found not as barbarian invaders, +but as a highly cultivated people. They absorbed several cultural +elements of the Sumerians, notably their script, and were profoundly +influenced by Sumerian religion. The Akkadians are represented with +elaborately curled hair and beard, and hence, in contradistinction to +the shaven Sumerians, are referred to as "the black-headed ones." Their +chief weapon was the bow, but they had also lances and battle axes. As +among the Sumerians the sign of kingship was a boomerang-like +sceptre[594]. Except for Babylon and Sippar, which throw little light on +the early periods, no systematic excavation has been undertaken in +northern Babylonia, and the site of Akkad is still unidentified. + +The chronology of this early age of Babylonia is much disputed. The very +high dates of 5000 or 6000 B.C. formerly assigned by many writers to the +earliest remains of the Sumerians and the Babylonian Semites, depended +to a great extent on the statement of Nabonidus (556 B.C.) that 3200 +years separated his own age from that of Naram-Sin, the son of Sargon of +Agade; for to Sargon, on this statement alone, a date of 3800 has +usually been assigned[595]. This date presents many difficulties, +leaving many centuries unrepresented by any royal names or records. Even +the suggested emendation of the text reducing the estimate by a thousand +years is not generally acceptable. Most authorities hesitate to date any +Babylonian records before 3000 B.C.[596] and agree that the time has not +arrived for fixing any definite dates for the early period. + +Despite the legendary matter associated with his memory, +Shar-Gani-sharri, commonly called Sargon of Akkad, about 2500 B.C. +(Meyer), 2650 B.C. (King), was beyond question a historical person +though it seems that there has been some confusion with Sharru-gi, or +Sharrukin, also called Sargon, earliest king of Kish[597]. Tradition +records how his mother, a royal princess, concealed his birth by placing +him in a rush basket closed with bitumen and sending him adrift on the +stream, from which he was rescued by Akki the water-carrier, who brought +him up as his own child. The incident, about which there is nothing +miraculous, presents a curious parallel to, if it be not the source of, +similar tales related of Moses, Cyrus, and other ancient leaders of men. +Sargon also tells us that he ruled from his capital, Agade, for 45 years +over Upper and Lower Mesopotamia, governed the black-headed ones, as the +Akkads are constantly called, rode in bronze chariots over rugged lands, +and made expeditions thrice to the sea-coast. The expeditions are +confirmed by inscriptions from Syria, though the cylinder of his son, +Naram-Sin, found by Cesnola in Cyprus, is now regarded as of later +date[598]. As they also penetrated to Sinai their influence appears to +have extended over the whole of Syria and North Arabia. They erected +great structures at Nippur, which was at that time so ancient that +Naram-Sin's huge brick platform stood on a mass 30 feet thick of the +accumulated debris of earlier buildings. Among the most interesting of +recent discoveries at Nippur are pre-Semitic tablets containing accounts +similar to those recorded in the book of Genesis, from which in some +cases the latter have clearly been derived. The "Deluge Fragment" +published in 1910 relates the warning given by the god Ea to +Utnapishtim, the Babylonian Noah, and the directions for building a ship +by means of which he and his family may escape, together with the beasts +of the field and the birds of heaven[599]. A still later discovery +agrees more closely with the Bible version, giving the name of the one +pious man as Tagtog, Semitic Nuhu, and assigning nine months as the +period of the duration of the flood. The same tablet also contains an +account of the Fall of Man; but it is Noah, not Adam, who is tempted +and falls, and the forbidden fruit is cassia[600]. + +Sennacherib's grandson, Ashurbanipal, who belongs to the late Assyrian +empire when the centre of power had been shifted from Babylonia to +Nineveh, has left recorded on his brick tablets how he overran Elam and +destroyed its capital, Susa (645 B.C.). He states that from this place +he brought back the effigy of the goddess, Nana, which had been carried +away from her temple at Erech by an Elamite king by whom Akkad had been +conquered 1635 years before, _i.e._ 2280 B.C. Over Akkad Elam ruled 300 +years, and it was a king of this dynasty, Khudur-Lagamar, who has been +identified by T. G. Pinches with the "Chedorlaomer, king of Elam" routed +by Abraham (Gen. xiv. 14-17)[601]. Thus is explained the presence of +Elamites at this time so far west as Syria, their own seat being amid +the Kurdish mountains in the Upper Tigris basin. + +The Elamites do not appear to have been of the same stock as the +Sumerians. They are described as peaceful, industrious, and skilful +husbandmen, with a surprising knowledge of irrigating processes. The +non-Semitic language shows possible connections with Mitanni[602]. Yet +the type would appear to be on the whole rather Semitic, judging at +least from the large arched nose and thick beard of the Susian god, +Ramman, brought by Ashurbanipal out of Elam, and figured in Layard's +_Monuments of Nineveh_, 1st Series, Plate 65. This, however, may be +explained by the fact that the Elamites were subdued at an early date by +intruding Semites, although they afterwards shook off the yoke and +became strong enough to conquer Mesopotamia and extend their expeditions +to Syria and the Jordan. The capital of Elam was the renowned city of +Susa (Shushan, whence Susiana, the modern Khuzistan). Recent +excavations show that the settlement dates from neolithic times[603]. + +Even after the capture of Susa by Ashurbanipal, Elam again rose to great +power under Cyrus the Great, who, however, was no Persian adventurer, as +stated by Herodotus, but the legitimate Elamite ruler, as inscribed on +his cylinder and tablet now in the British Museum:--"Cyrus, the great +king, the king of Babylon, the king of Sumir and Akkad, the king of the +four zones, the son of Kambyses, the great king, the king of Elam, the +grandson of Cyrus the great king," who by the favour of Merodach has +overcome the black-headed people (_i.e._ the Akkads) and at last entered +Babylon in peace. On an earlier cylinder Nabonidus, last king of +Babylon, tells us how this same Cyrus subdued the Medes--here called +_Mandas_, "Barbarians"--and captured their king Astyages and his capital +Ekbatana. But although Cyrus, hitherto supposed to be a Persian and a +Zoroastrian monotheist, here appears as an Elamite and a polytheist, "it +is pretty certain that although descended from Elamite kings, these were +[at that time] kings of Persian race, who, after the destruction of the +old [Elamite] monarchy by Ashurbanipal, had established a new dynasty at +the city of Susa. Cyrus always traces his descent from Achaemenes, the +chief of the leading Persian clan of Pasargadae[604]." Hence although +wrong in speaking of Cyrus as an adventurer, Herodotus rightly calls him +a Persian, and at this late date Elam itself may well have been already +Aryanised in speech[605], while still retaining its old Sumerian +religion. The Babylonian pantheon survived, in fact, till the time of +Darius Hystaspes, who introduced Zoroastrianism with its supreme gods, +Ahura-Mazda, creator of all good, and Ahriman, author of all evil. + +It is now possible to gain some idea of the gradual growth of the city +states of Babylonia. Beginning with a mere collection of rude reed huts, +these were succeeded by structures of sun-dried bricks, built in a group +for mutual protection, probably around a centre of a local god, and +surrounded by a wall. The land around the settlement was irrigated by +canals, and here the corn and vegetables were grown and the flocks and +herds were tended for the maintenance of the population. The central +figure was always the god, who occasionally gave his name to the site, +and who was the owner of all the land, the inhabitants being merely his +tenants who owed him rent for their estates. It was the god who waged +wars with the neighbours, and with whom treaties were made. The treaty +between Lagash and Umma fixing the limitations of their boundaries, a +constant matter of dispute, was made by Ningirsu, god of Lagash, and the +city god of Umma, under the arbitration of Enlil, the chief of the gods, +whose central shrine was at Nippur. + +With the growth of the cities disputes of territory were sure to arise, +and either by conquest or amalgamation, cities became absorbed into +states. The problem then was the adjustment of the various city gods, +each reigning supreme in his own city, but taking a higher or lower +place in the Babylonian pantheon. When one city gained a supremacy over +all its neighbours, its governor might assume the title of king. But the +king was merely the _patesi_, the steward of the city god. Even when the +supremacy was sufficiently permanent for the establishment of a dynasty, +this was a dynasty of the city rather than of a family, for the +successive kings were not necessarily of the same family[606]. + +Among the city gods who developed into powerful deities were Anu of Uruk +(Erech), Enlil of Nippur and Ea of Eridu (originally a sea-port). These +became the supreme triad, Anu ruling over the heavens, enthroned on the +northern pole, as king and father of the gods; Enlil, the Semitic Bel, +god of earth, lord of the lands, formerly chief of all the gods; and Ea, +god of the water-depths, whose son was ultimately to eclipse his father +as Marduk of Babylon. A second triad is composed of the local deities +who developed into Sin, the moon-god of Ur, Shamash the sun-god of +Larsa, and the famous Ishtar, the great mother, goddess of love and +queen of heaven. The realm of the dead was a dark place under the earth, +where the dead lived as shadows, eating the dust of the earth. Their lot +depended partly on their earlier lives, and partly on the devotion of +their surviving relatives. Although their dead kings were deified there +seems to be no evidence for a belief in a general resurrection or in the +transmigration of souls. The hymns and prayers to the gods however show +a very high religious level in spite of the important part played by +soothsaying and exorcism, relics of earlier culture. The permanence of +these may be partly ascribed to the essentially theocratic character of +Babylonian government. The king was merely the agent of the god, whose +desires were interpreted by the priestly soothsayers and exorcists, and +no action could be undertaken in worldly or in religious concerns +without their superintendence. The kings occasionally attempted to free +themselves from the power of the priests, but the attempt was always +vain. The power of the priests had often a sound economic basis, for the +temples of the great cities were centres of vast wealth and of +far-reaching trade, as is proved by the discovery of the commercial +contracts stored in the temple archives[607]. + +How the family expands through the clan and tribe into the nation, is +clearly seen in the Babylonian social system, in which the inhabitants +of each city were still "divided into clans, all of whose members +claimed to be descended from a common ancestor who had flourished at a +more or less remote period. The members of each clan were by no means +all in the same social position, some having gone down in the world, +others having raised themselves; and amongst them we find many different +callings--from agricultural labourers to scribes, and from merchants to +artisans. No natural tie existed among the majority of these members +except the remembrance of their common origin, perhaps also a common +religion, and eventual rights of succession or claims upon what belonged +to each one individually[608]." The god or goddess, it is suggested, who +watched over each man, and of whom each was the son, was originally the +god or goddess of the clan (its totem). So also in Egypt, the members of +the community were all supposed to come of the same stock (_pait_), and +to belong to the same family (_paitu_), whose chiefs (_ropaitu_) were +the guardians of the family, several groups of such families being under +a _ropaitu-ha_, or head chief[609]. + +Amongst the local institutions, it is startling to find a fully +developed ground-landlord system, though not quite so bad as that still +patiently endured in England, already flourishing ages ago in Babylonia. +"The cost of repairs fell usually on the lessee, who was also allowed to +build on the land he had leased, in which case it was declared free of +all charges for a period of about ten years; but the house and, as a +rule, all he had built, then reverted to the landlord[610]." + +In many other respects great progress had been made, and it is the +belief of von Ihring[611], Hommel[612] and others that from Babylonia +was first diffused a knowledge of letters, astronomy, agriculture, +navigation, architecture, and other arts, to the Nile valley, and mainly +through Egypt to the Western World, and through Irania to China and +India. In this generalisation there is probably a large measure of +truth, although it will be seen farther on that the Asiatic origin of +Egyptian culture is still far from being proved[613]. + +One element the two peoples certainly had in common--a highly developed +agricultural system, which formed the foundation of their greatness, and +was maintained in a rainless climate by a stupendous system of +irrigation works. Such works were carried out on a prodigious scale by +the ancient Babylonians six or eight thousand years ago. The plains of +the Lower Euphrates and Tigris, since rendered desolate under Turkish +misrule, are intersected by the remains of an intricate network of +canalisation covering all the space between the two rivers, and are +strewn with the ruins of many great cities, whose inhabitants, numbering +scores of thousands, were supported by the produce of a highly +cultivated region, which is now an arid waste varied only by crumbling +mounds, stagnant waters, and the camping-grounds of a few Arab +tent-dwellers. + + * * * * * + +Those who attach weight to distinctive racial qualities have always +found a difficulty in attributing this wonderful civilisation to the +same Mongolic people, who in their own homes have scarcely anywhere +advanced beyond the hunting, fishing, or pastoral states. But it has +always to be remembered that man, like all other zoological forms, +necessarily reflects the character of his environment. The Mongols might +in time become agriculturalists in the alluvial Mesopotamian lands, +though the kindred people who give their name to the whole ethnical +division and present its physical characters in an exaggerated form, +ever remain tented nomads on the dry Central Asiatic steppe, which +yields little but herbage, and is suitable for tillage only in a few +more favoured districts. Here the typical Mongols, cut off from the +arable lands of South Siberia by the Tian-shan and Altai ranges, and to +some extent denied access to the rich fluvial valleys of the Middle +Kingdom by the barrier of the Great Wall, have for ages led a pastoral +life in the inhabitable tracts and oases of the Gobi wilderness and the +Ordos region within the great bend of the Hoang-ho. During the historic +period these natural and artificial ramparts have been several times +surmounted by fierce Mongol hordes, pouring like irresistible +flood-waters over the whole of China and many parts of Siberia, and +extending their predatory or conquering expeditions across the more open +northern plains westwards nearly to the shores of the Atlantic. But such +devastating torrents, which at intervals convulsed and caused +dislocations amongst half the settled populations of the globe, had +little effect on the tribal groups that remained behind. These continued +and continue to occupy the original camping-grounds, as changeless and +uniform in their physical appearance, mental characters, and social +usages as the Arab bedouins and all other inhabitants of monotonous +undiversified steppe lands. + +De Ujfalvy's suggestion that the typical Mongols of the plains, with +whom we are now dealing, were originally a long-headed race, can +scarcely be taken seriously. At present and, in fact, throughout +historic times, all true Mongol peoples are and have been distinguished +by a high degree of brachycephaly, with cephalic index generally from 87 +upwards, and it may be remembered that the highest known index of any +undeformed skull was that of Huxley's Mongol (98.21). But, as already +noticed, those recovered from prehistoric, or neolithic kurgans, are +found to be dolichocephalous like those of palaeolithic and early +neolithic man in Europe. + +Taken in connection with the numerous prehistoric remains above recorded +from all parts of Central Asia and Siberia, this fact may perhaps help +to bring de Ujfalvy's view into harmony with the actual conditions. +Everything will be explained by assuming that the proto-Mongolic tribes, +spreading from the Tibetan plateau over the plains now bearing their +name, found that region already occupied by the long-headed Caucasic +peoples of the Stone Ages, whom they either exterminated or drove north +to the Altai uplands, and east to Manchuria and Korea, where a strong +Caucasic strain still persists. De Ujfalvy's long-heads would thus be, +not the proto-Mongols who were always round-headed, but the long-headed +neolithic pre-Mongol race expelled by them from Mongolia who may +provisionally be termed proto-Nordics. + +That this region has been their true home since the first migrations +from the south there can be no doubt. Here land and people stand in the +closest relation one to the other; here every conspicuous physical +feature recalls some popular memory; every rugged crest is associated +with the name of some national hero, every lake or stream is still +worshipped or held in awe as a local deity, or else the abode of the +ancestral shades. Here also the Mongols proper form two main divisions, +_Sharra_ in the east and _Kalmuk_ in the west, while a third group, the +somewhat mixed _Buryats_, have long been settled in the Siberian +provinces of Irkutsk and Trans-Baikalia. Under the Chinese semi-military +administration all except the Buryats, who are Russian subjects, are +constituted since the seventeenth century in 41 _Aimaks_ (large tribal +groups or principalities with hereditary khans) and 226 _Koshungs_, +"Banners," that is, smaller groups whose chiefs are dependent on the +khans of their respective Aimaks, who are themselves directly +responsible to the imperial government. Subjoined is a table of these +administrative divisions, which present a curious but effective +combination of the tribal and political systems, analogous to the +arrangement in Pondoland and some other districts in Cape Colony, where +the hereditary tribal chief assumes the functions of a responsible +British magistrate. + + Tribal or Territorial Aimaks Koshungs + Divisions (Principalities) (Banners) + + Khalkas 4 86 + Inner Mongolia with Ordos 25 51 + Chakars 1 8 + Ala-Shan 1 3 + Koko-nor and Tsaidam 5 29 + Sungaria 4 32 + Uriankhai 1 17 + -- --- + 41 226 + +Since their organisation in Aimaks and Koshungs, the Mongols have ceased +to be a terror to the surrounding peoples. The incessant struggles +between these tented warriors and the peaceful Chinese populations, +which began long before the dawn of history, were brought to a close +with the overthrow of the Sungarian power in the eighteenth century, +when their political cohesion was broken, and the whole nation reduced +to a state of abject helplessness, from which they cannot now hope to +recover. The arm of Chinese rule could be replaced only by the firmer +grip of the northern autocrat, whose shadow already lies athwart the +Gobi wilderness. + +Thus the only escape from the crushing monotony of a purely pastoral +life, no longer relieved by intervals of warlike or predatory +expeditions, lies in a survival of the old Shamanist superstitions, or a +further development of the degrading Tibetan lamaism represented at Urga +by the _Kutukhtu_, an incarnation of the Buddha only less revered than +the Dalai Lama himself[614]. Besides this High Priest at Urga, there are +over a hundred smaller incarnations--_Gigens_, as they are called--and +these saintly beings possess unlimited means of plundering their +votaries. The smallest favour, the touch of their garments, a pious +ejaculation or blessing, is regarded as a priceless spiritual gift, and +must be paid for with costly offerings. Even the dead do not escape +these exactions. However disposed of, whether buried or cremated, like +the khans and lamas, or exposed to beasts and birds of prey, as is the +fate of the common folk, "masses," which also command a high price, have +to be said for forty days to relieve their souls from the torments of +the Buddhist purgatory. + +It is a singular fact, which, however, may perhaps admit of explanation, +that nearly all the true Mongol peoples have been Buddhists since the +spread of Sakya-Muni's teachings throughout Central Asia, while their +Turki kinsmen are zealous followers of the Prophet. Thus is seen, for +instance, the strange spectacle of two Mongolic groups, the Kirghiz of +the Turki branch and the Kalmuks of the West Mongol branch, encamped +side by side on the Lower Volga plains, the former all under the banner +of the Crescent, the latter devout worshippers of all the incarnations +of Buddha. But analogous phenomena occur amongst the European peoples, +the Teutons being mainly Protestants, those of neo-Latin speech mainly +Roman Catholics, and the Easterns Orthodox. From all this, however, +nothing more can be inferred than that the religions are partly a +question of geography, partly determined by racial temperament and +political conditions; while the religious sentiment, being universal, is +above all local or ethnical considerations. + +Under the first term of the expression _Mongolo-Turki_ (p. 256) are +comprised, besides the Mongols proper, nearly all those branches of the +division which lie to the east and north-east of Mongolia, and are in +most respects more closely allied with the Mongol than with the Turki +section. Such are the _Tunguses_, with the kindred _Manchus_, _Golds_, +_Orochons_, _Lamuts_, and others of the Amur basin, the Upper Lena +head-streams, the eastern affluents of the Yenisei, and the shores of +the Sea of Okhotsk; the _Gilyaks_ about the Amur estuary and in the +northern parts of Sakhalin; the _Kamchadales_ in South Kamchatka; in the +extreme north-east the _Koryaks_, _Chukchis_, and _Yukaghirs_; lastly +the _Koreans_, _Japanese_, and _Liu-Kiu (Lu-Chu) Islanders_. To the +Mongol section thus belong nearly all the peoples lying between the +Yenisei and the Pacific (including most of the adjacent archipelagos), +and between the Great Wall and the Arctic Ocean. The only two exceptions +are the _Yakuts_ of the middle and Lower Lena and neighbouring Arctic +rivers, who are of Turki stock; and the _Ainus_ of Yezo, South Sakhalin, +and some of the Kurile Islands, who belong to the Caucasic division. + +M. A. Czaplicka proposes a useful classification of the various peoples +of Siberia, usually grouped on account of linguistic affinities as +Ural-Altaians, and as "no other part of the world presents a racial +problem of such complexity and in regard to no other part of the world's +inhabitants have ethnologists of the last hundred years put forward such +widely differing hypotheses of their origin[615]," her tabulation may +serve to clear the way. She divides the whole area[616] into +_Palaeo-Siberians_, representing the most ancient stock of dwellers in +Siberia, and _Neo-Siberians_, comprising the various tribes of Central +Asiatic origin who are sufficiently differentiated from the kindred +peoples of their earlier homes as to deserve a generic name of their +own. The Palaeo-Siberians thus include the _Chukchi_, _Koryak_, +_Kamchadale_, _Ainu_, _Gilyak_, _Eskimo_, _Aleut_, _Yukaghir_, +_Chuvanzy_ and _Ostyak_ of Yenisei. The Neo-Siberians include the Finnic +Tribes (Ugrian _Ostyak_, and _Vogul_), Samoyedic Tribes, Turkic Tribes +(_Yakut_ and Turko-Tatars of Tobolsk and Tomsk Governments), Mongolic +Tribes (Western Mongols or _Kalmuk_, Eastern Mongols, and _Buryat_), and +Tungusic Tribes (_Tungus_, _Chapogir_, _Gold_, _Lamut_, _Manchu_, +_Manyarg_, _Oroch_, _Orochon_ ("Reindeer Tungus"), _Oroke_). + +A striking illustration of the general statement that the various +cultural states are a question not of race, but of environment, is +afforded by the varying social conditions of the widespread Tungus +family, who are fishers on the Arctic coast, hunters in the East +Siberian woodlands, and for the most part sedentary tillers of the soil +and townspeople in the rich alluvial valleys of the Amur and its +southern affluents. The Russians, from whom we get the term Tungus[617], +recognise these various pursuits, and speak of _Horse_, _Cattle_, +_Reindeer_, _Dog_, _Steppe_, and _Forest_ Tunguses, besides the settled +farmers and stock-breeders of the Amur. Their original home appears to +have been the Shan-alin uplands, where they dwelt with the kindred +_Niu-chi_ (Manchus) till the thirteenth century, when the disturbances +brought about by the wars and conquests of Jenghiz-Khan drove them to +their present seat in East Siberia. The type, although essentially +Mongolic in the somewhat flat features, very prominent cheek-bones, +slant eyes, long lank hair, yellowish brown colour and low stature, +seems to show admixture with a higher race in the shapely frame, the +nimble, active figure, and quick, intelligent expression, and especially +in the variable skull. While generally round (indices 80 deg. to 84 deg.), the +head is sometimes flat on the top, like that of the true Mongol, +sometimes high and short, which, as Hamy tells us, is specially +characteristic of the Turki race[618]. + +All observers speak in enthusiastic language of the temperament and +moral qualities of the Tunguses, and particularly of those groups that +roam the forests about the Tunguska tributaries of the Yenisei, which +take their name from these daring hunters and trappers. "Full of +animation and natural impulse, always cheerful even in the deepest +misery, holding themselves and others in like respect, of gentle manners +and poetic speech, obliging without servility, unaffectedly proud, +scorning falsehood, and indifferent to suffering and death, the Tunguses +are unquestionably an heroic people[619]." + +A few have been brought within the pale of the Orthodox Church, and in +the extreme south some are classed as Buddhists. But the great bulk of +the Tungus nation are still Shamanists. Indeed the very word _Shaman_ is +of Tungus origin, though current also amongst the Buryats and Yakuts. It +is often taken to be the equivalent of priest; but in point of fact it +represents a stage in the development of natural religion which has +scarcely yet reached the sacerdotal state. "Although in many cases the +shamans act as priests, and take part in popular and family festivals, +prayers, and sacrifices, their chief importance is based on the +performance of duties which distinguish them sharply from ordinary +priests[620]." Their functions are threefold, those of the medicine-man +(the leech, or healer by supernatural means); of the soothsayer (the +prophet through communion with the invisible world); and of the priest, +especially in his capacity as exorcist, and in his general power to +influence, control, or even coerce the good and evil spirits on behalf +of their votaries. But as all spirits are, or were originally, +identified with the souls of the departed, it follows that in its +ultimate analysis Shamanism resolves itself into a form of +ancestry-worship. + +The system, of which there are many phases reflecting the different +cultural states of its adherents, still prevails amongst all the +Siberian aborigines[621], and generally amongst all the uncivilised +Ural-Altaic populations, so that here again the religions strictly +reflect the social condition of the peoples. Thus the somewhat cultured +Finns, Turks, Mongols, and Manchus are all either Christians, +Muhammadans, or Buddhists; while the uncultured but closely related +Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Orochons, Tunguses, Golds, Gilyaks, Koryaks, and +Chukchi, are almost without exception Shamanists. + +The shamans do not appear to constitute a special caste or sacerdotal +order, like the hierarchies of the Christian Churches. Some are +hereditary, some elected by popular vote, so to say. They may be either +men, or women (_shamanka_), married or single; and if "rank" is spoken +of, it simply means greater or less proficiency in the performance of +the duties imposed on them. Everything thus depends on their personal +merits, which naturally gives rise to much jealousy between the members +of the craft. Thus amongst the "whites" and the "blacks," that is, those +whose dealings are with the good and the bad spirits respectively, there +is in some districts a standing feud, often resulting in fierce +encounters and bloodshed. The Buryats tell how the two factions throw +axes at each other at great distances, the struggle usually ending in +the death of one of the combatants. The blacks, who serve the evil +spirits, bringing only disease, death, or ill-luck, and even killing +people by eating up their souls, are of course the least popular, but +also the most dreaded. Many are credited with extraordinary and even +miraculous powers, and there can be no doubt that they often act up to +their reputation by performing almost incredible conjuring tricks in +order to impose on the credulity of the ignorant, or outbid their rivals +for the public favour. Old Richard Johnson of Chancelour's expedition to +Muscovy records how he saw a Samoyed shaman stab himself with a sword, +then make the sword red hot and thrust it through his body, so that the +point protruded at the back, and Johnson was able to touch it with his +finger. They then bound the wizard tight with a reindeer-rope, and went +through some performances curiously like those of the Davenport brothers +and other modern conjurers[622]. + +To the much-discussed question whether the shamans are impostors, the +best answer has perhaps been given by Castren, who, speaking of the same +Samoyed magicians, remarks that if they were merely cheats, we should +have to suppose that they did not share the religious beliefs of their +fellow-tribesmen, but were a sort of rationalists far in advance of the +times. Hence it would seem much more probable that they deceived both +themselves and others[623], while no doubt many bolster up a waning +reputation by playing the mountebank where there is no danger of +detection. + +"Shamanism amongst the Siberian peoples," concludes our Russian +authority, "is at the present time in a moribund condition; it must die +out with those beliefs among which alone such phenomena can arise and +flourish. Buddhism on the one hand, and Muhammadanism on the other, not +to mention Christianity, are rapidly destroying the old ideas of the +tribes among whom the shamans performed. Especially has the more ancient +Black Faith suffered from the Yellow Faith preached by the lamas. But +the shamans, with their dark mysterious rites, have made a good struggle +for life, and are still frequently found among the native Christians and +Muhammadans. The mullahs and lamas have even been obliged to become +shamans to a great extent, and many Siberian tribes, who are nominally +Christians, believe in shamans, and have recourse to them." + +Of all members of the Tungusic family the Manchus alone can be called a +historical people. If they were really descended from the _Khitans_ of +the Sungari valley, then their authentic records will date from the +tenth century A.D., when these renowned warriors, after overthrowing the +Pu-hai (925), founded the Liao dynasty and reduced a great part of North +China and surrounding lands. The Khitans, from whom China was known to +Marco Polo as _Khitai_ (Cathay), as it still is to the Russians, were +conquered in 1125 by the _Niu-chi_ (_Yu-chi, Nu-chin_) of the Shan-alin +uplands, reputed cradle of the Manchu race. These Niu-chi, direct +ancestors of the Manchus, founded (1115) the State known as that of the +"Golden Tartars," from _Kin_, "gold," the title adopted by their chief +Aguta, "because iron (in reference to the _Liao_, 'Iron' dynasty) may +rust, but gold remains ever pure and bright." The Kins, however, +retained their brightness only a little over a century, having been +eclipsed by Jenghiz-Khan in 1234. But about the middle of the fourteenth +century the Niu-chi again rose to power under Aishiu-Gioro, who, +although of miraculous birth and surrounded by other legendary matter, +appears to have been a historical person. He may be regarded as the true +founder of the Manchu dynasty, for it was in his time that this name +came into general use. Sing-tsu, one of his descendants, constructed the +palisade, a feeble imitation of the Great Wall, sections of which still +exist. Thai-tsu, a still more famous member of the family, greatly +extended the Manchu Kingdom (1580-1626), and it was his son Tai-dsung +who first assumed the imperial dignity under the title of Tai-Tsing. +After his death, the Ming dynasty having been overthrown by a rebel +chief, the Manchus were invited by the imperialists to aid in restoring +order, entered Peking in triumph, and, finding that the last of the +Mings had committed suicide, placed Tai-dsung's nephew on the throne, +thus founding the Manchu dynasty (1644) which lasted down to 1912. + +Such has been the contribution of the Manchu people to history; their +contributions to arts, letters, science, in a word, to the general +progress of mankind, have been _nil_. They found the Middle Kingdom, +after ages of a sluggish growth, in a state of absolute stagnation, and +there they have left it. On the other hand their assumption of the +imperial administration brought about their own ruin, their effacement, +and almost their very extinction as a separate nationality[624]. +Manchuria, like Mongolia, is organised in a number of half military, +half civil divisions, the so-called _Paki_, or "Eight Banners," and the +constant demand made on these reserves, to support the dynasty and +supply trustworthy garrisons for all the strongholds of the empire, has +drawn off the best blood of the people, in fact sapped its vitality at +the fountain-head. Then the rich arable tracts thus depleted were +gradually occupied by agricultural settlers from the south, with the +result that the Manchu race has nearly disappeared. From the ethnical +standpoint the whole region beyond the Great Wall as far north as the +Amur has practically become an integral part of China, and from the +political standpoint since 1898 an integral part of the Russian empire. +Towards the middle of the nineteenth century the Eight Banners numbered +scarcely more than a quarter of a million, and about that time the Abbe +Huc declared that "the Manchu nationality is destroyed beyond recovery. +At present we shall look in vain for a single town or a single village +throughout Manchuria which is not exclusively inhabited by Chinese. The +local colour has been completely effaced, and except a few nomad groups +nobody speaks Manchu[625]." + +Similar testimony is afforded by later observers, and Henry Lansdell, +amongst others, remarks that "the Manchu, during the two centuries they +have reigned in China, may be said to have been working out their own +annihilation. Their manners, language, their very country has become +Chinese, and some maintain that the Manchu proper are now extinct[626]." + +But the type, so far from being extinct, may be said to have received a +considerable expansion, especially amongst the populations of north-east +China. The taller stature and greatly superior physical appearance of +the inhabitants of Tien-tsin and surrounding districts[627] over those +of the southern provinces (Fokien, Kwang-tung), who are the chief +representatives of the Chinese race abroad, seem best explained by +continual crossings with the neighbouring Manchu people, at least since +the twelfth century, if not earlier. + +Closely related to the Manchus (of the same stock says Sir H. H. +Howorth, the distinction being purely political) are the _Dauri_, who +give their name to the extensive Daur plateau, and formerly occupied +both sides of the Upper Amur. Daur is, in fact, the name applied by the +Buryats to all the Tungus peoples of the Amur basin. The Dauri proper, +who are now perhaps the best representatives of the original Manchu +type, would seem to have intermingled at a remote time with the +long-headed pre-Mongol populations of Central Asia. They are "taller and +stronger than the Oronchons [Tungus groups lower down the Amur]; the +countenance is oval and more intellectual, and the cheeks are less +broad. The nose is rather prominent, and the eyebrows straight. The skin +is tawny, and the hair brown[628]." Most of these characters are such as +we should expect to find in a people of mixed Mongolo-Caucasic descent, +the latter element being derived from the long-headed race who had +already reached the present Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and the adjacent +islands during neolithic times. Thus may be explained the tall stature, +somewhat regular features, brown hair, light eyes, and even florid +complexion so often observed amongst the present inhabitants of +Manchuria, Korea, and parts of North China. + +But no admixture, except of Chinese literary terms, is seen in the +Manchu language, which, like Mongolic, is a typical member of the +agglutinating Ural-Altaic family. Despite great differences, lexical, +phonetic, and even structural, all the members of this widespread order +of speech have in common a number of fundamental features, which justify +the assumption that all spring from an original stock language, which +has long been extinct, and the germs of which were perhaps first +developed on the Tibetan plateau. The essential characters of the system +are:--(1) a "root" or notional term, generally a closed syllable, +nominal or verbal, with a vowel or diphthong, strong or weak (hard or +soft) according to the meaning of the term, hence incapable of change; +(2) a number of particles or relational terms somewhat loosely postfixed +to the root, but incorporated with it by the principle of (3) vowel +harmony, a kind of vocal concordance, in virtue of which the vowels of +all the postfixes must harmonise with the unchangeable vowel of the +root. If this is strong all the following vowels of the combination, no +matter what its length, must be strong; if weak they must conform in the +same way. With nominal roots the postfixes are necessarily limited to +the expression of a few simple relations; but with verbal roots they are +in principle unlimited, so that the multifarious relations of the verb +to its subject and object are all incorporated in the verbal compound +itself, which may thus run at times to inordinate lengths. Hence we have +the expression "incorporating," commonly applied to this agglutinating +system, which sometimes goes so far as to embody the notions of +causality, possibility, passivity, negation, intensity, condition, and +so on, besides the direct pronominal objects, in one interminable +conglomerate, which is then treated as a simple verb, and run through +all the secondary changes of number, person, tense, and mood. The result +is an endless number of theoretically possible verbal forms, which, +although in practice naturally limited to the ordinary requirements of +speech, are far too numerous to allow of a complete verbal paradigm +being constructed of any fully developed member of the Ural-Altaic +group, such, for instance, as Yakut, Tungus, Turki, Mordvinian, Finnish, +or Magyar. + +In this system the vowels are classed as strong or hard (_a, o, u_), +weak or soft (the same _umlauted_: _ae_, _oe_, _ue_), and neutral +(generally _e_, _i_), these last being so called because they occur +indifferently with the two other classes. Thus, if the determining root +vowel is _a_ (strong), that of the postfixes may be either _a_ (strong), +_e_ or _i_ (neutral); if _ae_ (weak), that of the postfixes may be either +_ae_ (weak), or _e_ or _i_ as before. The postfixes themselves no doubt +were originally notional terms worn down in form and meaning, so as to +express mere abstract relation, as in the Magyar _vel_ = with, from +_veli_ = companion. Tacked on to the root _fa_ = tree, this will give +the ablative case, first unharmonised, _fa-vel_, then harmonised, +_fa-val_ = tree-with, with a tree. In the early Magyar texts of the +twelfth century inharmonic compounds, such as _halal-nek_, later +_halak-nak_ = at death, are numerous, from which it has been inferred +that the principle of vowel harmony is not an original feature of the +Ural-Altaic languages, but a later development, due in fact to phonetic +decay, and still scarcely known in some members of the group, such as +Votyak and Highland Cheremissian (Volga Finn). But M. Lucien Adam holds +that these idioms have lost the principle through foreign (Russian) +influence, and that the few traces still perceptible are survivals from +a time when all the Ural-Altaic tongues were subject to progressive +vowel harmony[629]. + +But however this be, Dean Byrne is disposed to regard the alternating +energetic utterance of the hard, and indolent utterance of the soft +vowel series, as an expression of the alternating active and lethargic +temperament of the race, such alternations being themselves due to the +climatic conditions of their environment. "Certainly the life of the +great nomadic races involves a twofold experience of this kind, as they +must during their abundant summer provide for their rigorous winter, +when little can be done. Their character, too, involves a striking +combination of intermittent indolence and energy; and it is very +remarkable that this distinction of roots is peculiar to the languages +spoken originally where this great distinction of seasons exists. The +fact that the distinction [between hard and soft] is imparted to all the +suffixes of a root proves that the radical characteristic which it +expresses is thought with these; and consequently that the radical idea +is retained in the consciousness while these are added to it[630]." + +This is a highly characteristic instance of the methods followed by Dean +Byrne in his ingenious but hopeless attempt to explain the subtle +structure of speech by the still more subtle temperament of the speaker, +taken in connection with the alternating nature of the climate. The +feature in question cannot be due to such alternation of mood and +climate, because it is persistent throughout all seasons, while the hard +and soft elements occur simultaneously, one might say, promiscuously, in +conversation under all mental states of those conversing. + +The true explanation is given by Schleicher, who points out that +progressive vocal assimilation is the necessary result of agglutination, +which by this means binds together the idea and its relations in their +outward expression, just as they are already inseparately associated in +the mind of the speaker. Hence it is that such assonance is not confined +to the Ural-Altaic group, analogous processes occurring at certain +stages of their growth in all forms of speech, as in Wolof, Zulu-Xosa, +Celtic (expressed by the formula of Irish grammarians: "broad to broad, +slender to slender"), and even in Latin, as in such vocalic concordance +as: _annus, perennis_; _ars, iners_; _lego, diligo_. In these examples +the root vowel is influenced by that of the prefix, while in the +Mongolo-Turki family the root vowel, coming first, is unchangeable, but, +as explained, influences the vowels of the postfixes, the phonetic +principle being the same in both systems. + +Both Mongol and Manchu are cultivated languages employing modified forms +of the Uiguric (Turki) script, which is based on the Syriac introduced +by the Christian (Nestorian) missionaries in the seventh century. It was +first adopted by the Mongols about 1280, and perfected by the scribe +Tsorji Osir under Jenezek Khan (1307-1311). The letters, connected +together by continuous strokes, and slightly modified, as in Syriac, +according to their position at the beginning, middle, or end of the +word, are disposed in vertical columns from left to right, an +arrangement due no doubt to Chinese influence. This is the more probable +since the Manchus, before the introduction of the Mongol system in the +sixteenth century, employed the Chinese characters ever since the time +of the Kin dynasty. + +None of the other Tungusic or north-east Siberian peoples possess any +writing system except the Yukaghirs of the Yasachnaya affluent of the +Kolymariver, who were visited in 1892 by the Russian traveller, S. +Shargorodsky. From his report[631], it appears that this symbolic +writing is carved with a sharp knife out of soft fresh birch-bark, these +simple materials sufficing to describe the tracks followed on hunting +and fishing expeditions, as well as the sentiments of the young women in +their correspondence with their sweethearts. Specimens are given of +these curious documents, some of which are touching and even pathetic. +"Thou goest hence, and I bide alone, for thy sake still to weep and +moan," writes one disconsolate maid to her parting lover. Another with a +touch of jealousy: "Thou goest forth thy Russian flame to seek, who +stands 'twixt thee and me, thy heart from me apart to keep. In a new +home joy wilt thou find, while I must ever grieve, as thee I bear in +mind, though another yet there be who loveth me." Or again: "Each youth +his mate doth find; my fate alone it is of him to dream, who to another +wedded is, and I must fain contented be, if only he forget not me." And +with a note of wail: "Thou hast gone hence, and of late it seems this +place for me is desolate; and I too forth must fare, that so the +memories old I may forget, and from the pangs thus flee of those bright +days, which here I once enjoyed with thee." + +Details of domestic life may even be given, and one accomplished maiden +is able to make a record in her note-book of the combs, shawls, needles, +thimble, cake of soap, lollipops, skeins of wool, and other sundries, +which she has received from a Yakut packman, in exchange for some +clothes she has made him. Without illustrations no description of the +process would be intelligible. Indeed it would seem these primitive +documents are not always understood by the young folks themselves. They +gather at times in groups to watch the process of composition by some +expert damsel, the village "notary," and much merriment, we are told, is +caused by the blunders of those who fail to read the text aright. + +It is not stated whether the system is current amongst the other +Yukaghir tribes, who dwell on the banks of the Indigirka, Yana, +Kerkodona, and neighbouring districts. They thus skirt the Frozen Ocean +from near the Lena delta to and beyond the Kolyma, and are conterminous +landwards with the Yakuts on the south-west and the Chukchi on the +north-east. With the Chukchi, the Koryaks, the Kamchadales, and the +Gilyaks they form a separate branch of the Mongolic division sometimes +grouped together as "Hyperboreans," but distinguished from other +Ural-Altaic peoples perhaps strictly on linguistic grounds. Although now +reduced to scarcely 1500, the Yukaghirs were formerly a numerous people, +and the popular saying that their hearths on the banks of the Kolyma at +one time outnumbered the stars in the sky seems a reminiscence of more +prosperous days. But great inroads have been made by epidemics, tribal +wars, the excessive use of coarse Ukraine tobacco and of bad spirits, +indulged in even by the women and children. "A Yukaghir, it is said, +never intoxicates himself alone, but calls upon his family to share the +drink, even children in arms being supplied with a portion[632]." Their +language, which A. Schiefner regards as radically distinct from all +others[633], is disappearing even more rapidly than the people +themselves, if it be not already quite extinct. In the eighties it was +spoken only by about a dozen old persons, its place being taken almost +everywhere by the Turki dialect of the Yakuts[634]. + +There appears to be a curious interchange of tribal names between the +Chukchi and their Koryak neighbours, the term _Koryak_ being the Chukchi +_Khorana_, "Reindeer," while the Koryaks are said to call themselves +_Chauchau_, whence some derive the word _Chukchi_. Hooper, however, +tells us that the proper form of Chukchi is _Tuski_, "Brothers," or +"Confederates[635]," and in any case the point is of little consequence, +as Dittmar is probably right in regarding both groups as closely +related, and sprung originally from one stock[636]. Jointly they occupy +the north-east extremity of the continent between the Kolyma and Bering +Strait, together with the northern parts of Kamchatka; the Chukchi lying +to the north, the Koryaks to the south, mainly round about the +north-eastern inlets of the Sea of Okhotsk. Reasons have already been +advanced for supposing that the Chukchi were a Tungus people who came +originally from the Amur basin. In their arctic homes they appear to +have waged long wars with the Onkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines, gradually +merging with the survivors and also mingling both with the Koryaks and +Chuklukmiut Eskimo settled on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait. + +But their relations to all these peoples are involved in great +obscurity, and while some connect them with the Itelmes of +Kamchatka[637], by others they have been affiliated to the Eskimo, owing +to the Eskimo dialect said to be spoken by them. But this "dialect" is +only a trading jargon, a sort of "pidgin Eskimo" current all round the +coast, and consisting of Chukchi, Innuit, Koryak, English, and even +Hawaii elements, mingled together in varying proportions. The true +Chukchi language, of which Nordenskioeld collected 1000 words, is quite +distinct from Eskimo, and probably akin to Koryak[638], and the Swedish +explorer aptly remarks that "this race, settled on the primeval route +between the Old and New World, bears an unmistakable stamp of the +Mongols of Asia and the Eskimo and Indians of America." He was much +struck by the great resemblance of the Chukchi weapons and household +utensils to those of the Greenland Eskimo, while Signe Rink shows that +even popular legends have been diffused amongst the populations on both +sides of Bering Strait[639]. Such common elements, however, prove little +for racial affinity, which seems excluded by the extremely round shape +of the Chukchi skull, as compared with the long-headed Eskimo. But the +type varies considerably both amongst the so-called "Fishing Chukchi," +who occupy permanent stations along the seaboard, and the "Reindeer +Chukchi," who roam the inland districts, shifting their camping-grounds +with the seasons. There are no hereditary chiefs, and little deference +is paid to the authority even of the owner of the largest reindeer +herds, on whom the Russians have conferred the title of _Jerema_, +regarding him as the head of the Chukchi nation, and holding him +responsible for the good conduct of his rude subjects. Although nominal +Christians, they continue to sacrifice animals to the spirits of the +rivers and mountains, and also to practise Shamanist rites. They believe +in an after-life, but only for those who die a violent death. Hence the +resignation and even alacrity with which the hopelessly infirm and the +aged submit, when the time comes, to be dispatched by their kinsfolk, in +accordance with the tribal custom of _kamitok_, which still survives in +full vigour amongst the Chukchi, as amongst the Sumatran Battas, and may +be traced in many other parts of the world. + +"The doomed one," writes Harry de Windt, "takes a lively interest in the +proceedings, and often assists in the preparation for his own death. The +execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal and walrus meat are +greedily devoured, and whisky consumed till all are intoxicated. A +spontaneous burst of singing and the muffled roll of walrus-hide drums +then herald the fatal moment. At a given signal a ring is formed by the +relations and friends, the entire settlement looking on from the +background. The executioner (usually the victim's son or brother) then +steps forward, and placing his right foot behind the back of the +condemned, slowly strangles him to death with a walrus-thong. A kamitok +took place during the latter part of our stay[640]." + +This custom of "voluntary death" is sometimes due to sorrow at the death +of a near relative, a quarrel at home, or merely weariness of life, and +Bogoras thinks that the custom of killing old people does not exist as +such, but is voluntarily chosen in preference to the hard life of an +invalid[641]. + +Most recent observers have come to look upon the Chukchi and _Koryaks_ +as essentially one and the same people, the chief difference being that +the latter are if possible even more degraded than their northern +neighbours[642]. Like them they are classed as sedentary fisherfolk or +nomad reindeer-owners, the latter, who call themselves Tumugulu, +"Wanderers," roaming chiefly between Ghiyiginsk Bay and the Anadyr +river. Through them the Chukchi merge gradually in the _Itelmes_, who +are better known as Kamchadales, from the Kamchatka river, where they +are now chiefly concentrated. Most of the Itelmes are already Russified +in speech and--outwardly at least--in religion; but they still secretly +immolate a dog now and then, to propitiate the malevolent beings who +throw obstacles in the way of their hunting and fishing expeditions. Yet +their very existence depends on their canine associates, who are of a +stout, almost wolfish breed, inured to hunger and hardships, and +excellent for sledge work. + +Somewhat distinct both from all these Hyperboreans and from their +neighbours, the Orochons, Golds, Manegrs and other Tungus peoples, are +the _Gilyaks_, formerly widespread, but now confined to the Amur delta +and the northern parts of Sakhalin[643]. Some observers have connected +them with the Ainu and the Korean aborigines, while A. Anuchin detects +two types--a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek-bones, and flat +face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard and more regular features[644]. +The latter traits have been attributed to Russian mixture, but, as +conjectured by H. von Siebold, are more probably due to a fundamental +connection with their Ainu neighbours[645]. + +Mentally the Gilyaks take a low position--H. Lansdell thought the lowest +of any people he had met in Siberia[646]. Despite the zeal of the +Russian missionaries, and the inducements to join the fold, they remain +obdurate Shamanists, and even fatalists, so that "if one falls into the +water the others will not help him out, on the plea that they would thus +be opposing a higher power, who wills that he should perish.... The soul +of the Gilyak is supposed to pass at death into his favourite dog, which +is accordingly fed with choice food; and when the spirit has been prayed +by the shamans out of the dog, the animal is sacrificed on his master's +grave. The soul is then represented as passing underground, lighted and +guided by its own sun and moon, and continuing to lead there, in its +spiritual abode, the same manner of life and pursuits as in the +flesh[647]." + +A speciality of the Gilyaks, as well as of their Gold neighbours, is the +fish-skin costume, made from the skins of two kinds of salmon, and from +this all these aborigines are known to the Chinese as _Yupitatse_, +"Fish-skin-clad-People." "They strip it off with great dexterity, and by +beating with a mallet remove the scales, and so render it supple. +Clothes thus made are waterproof. I saw a travelling-bag, and even the +sail of a boat, made of this material[648]." + +Like the Ainu, the Gilyaks may be called bear-worshippers. At least this +animal is supposed to be one of their chief gods, although they ensnare +him in winter, keep him in confinement, and when well fattened tear him +to pieces, devouring his mangled remains with much feasting and +jubilation. + +Since the opening up of Korea, some fresh light has been thrown upon the +origins and ethnical relations of its present inhabitants. In his +monograph on the Yellow Races[649] Hamy had included them in the Mongol +division, but not without reserve, adding that "while some might be +taken for Tibetans, others look like an Oceanic cross; hence the +contradictory reports and theories of modern travellers." Since then the +study of some skulls forwarded to Paris has enabled him to clear up some +of the confusion, which is obviously due to interminglings of different +elements dating from remote (neolithic) times. On the data supplied by +these skulls Hamy classes the Koreans in three groups:--1. The natives +of the northern provinces (Ping-ngan-tao and Hienking-tao), strikingly +like their Mongol [Tungus] neighbours; 2. Those of the southern +provinces (Klingchang-tao and Thsiusan-lo-tao), descendants of the +ancient Chinhans and Pien-hans, showing Japanese affinities; 3. Those of +the inner provinces (Hoanghae-tao and Ching-tsing-tao), who present a +transitional form between the northerns and southerns, both in their +physical type and geographical position[650]. + +Caucasic features--light eyes, large nose, hair often brown, full beard, +fair and even white skin, tall stature--are conspicuous, especially +amongst the upper classes and many of the southern Koreans[651]. They +are thus shown to be a mixed race, the Mongol element dominating in the +north, as might be expected, and the Caucasic in the south. + +These conclusions seem to be confirmed by what is known of the early +movements, migrations, and displacements of the populations in +north-east Asia about the dawn of history. In these vicissitudes the +Koreans, as they are now called[652], appear to have first taken part in +the twelfth century B.C., when the peninsula was already occupied, as it +still is, by Mongols, the _Sien-pi_, in the north, and in the south by +several branches of the _Hans_ (_San-San_), of whom it is recorded that +they spoke a language unintelligible to the Sien-pi, and resembled the +Japanese in appearance, manners, and customs. From this it may be +inferred that the Hans were the true aborigines, probably direct +descendants of the Caucasic peoples of the New Stone Age, while the +Sien-pi were Mongolic (Tungusic) intruders from the present Manchuria. +For some time these Sien-pi played a leading part in the political +convulsions prior and subsequent to the erection of the Great Wall by +Shih Hwang Ti, founder of the Tsin dynasty (221-209 B.C.)[653]. Soon +after the completion of this barrier, the _Hiung-nu_, no longer able to +scour the fertile plains of the Middle Kingdom, turned their arms +against the neighbouring _Yue-chi_, whom they drove westwards to the +Sungarian valleys. Here they were soon displaced by the _Usuns_ +(_Wusun_), a fair, blue-eyed people of unknown origin, who have been +called "Aryans," and even "Teutons," and whom Ch. de Ujfalvy identifies +with the tall long-headed western blonds (de Lapouge's _Homo +Europaeus_), mixed with brown round-headed hordes of white +complexion[654]. Accepting this view, we may go further, and identify +the Usuns, as well as the other white peoples of the early Chinese +records, with the already described Central Asiatic Caucasians of the +Stone Ages, whose osseous remains we now possess, and who come to the +surface in the very first Chinese documents dealing with the turbulent +populations beyond the Great Wall. The white element, with all the +correlated characters, existed beyond all question, for it is +continuously referred to in those documents. How is its presence in East +Central Asia, including Manchuria and Korea, to be explained? Only on +two assumptions--_proto-historic_ migrations from the Far West, barred +by the proto-historic migrations from the Far East, as largely +determined by the erection of the Great Wall; or _pre-historic_ +(neolithic) migrations, also from the Far West, but barred by no serious +obstacle, because antecedent to the arrival of the proto-Mongolic tribes +from the Tibetan plateau. The true solution of the endless ethnical +complications in the extreme East, as in the Oceanic world, will still +be found in the now-demonstrated presence of a Caucasic element +antecedent to the Mongol in those regions. + +When the Hiung-nu[655] power was weakened by their westerly migrations +to Sungaria and south-west Siberia (Upper Irtysh and Lake Balkash +depression), and broken into two sections during their wars with the two +Han dynasties (201 B.C.-220 A.D.), the Korean Sien-pi became the +dominant nation north of the Great Wall. After destroying the last +vestiges of the unstable Hiung-nu empire, and driving the Mongolo-Turki +hordes still westwards, the Yuan-yuans, most powerful of all the Sien-pi +tribes, remained masters of East Central Asia for about 400 years and +then disappeared from history[656]. At least after the sixth century +A.D. no further mention is made of the Sien-pi principalities either in +Manchuria or in Korea. Here, however, they appear still to form a +dominant element in the northern (Mongol) provinces, calling themselves +Ghirin (Khirin), from the Khirin (Sungari) valley of the Amur, where +they once held sway. + +Since those days Korea has been alternately a vassal State and a +province of the Middle Kingdom, with interludes of Japanese ascendancy, +interrupted only by the four centuries of Korai ascendancy (934-1368). +This was the most brilliant epoch in the national records, when Korea +was rather the ally than the vassal of China, and when trade, industry, +and the arts, especially porcelain and bronze work, flourished in the +land. But by centuries of subsequent misrule, a people endowed with +excellent natural qualities have been reduced to the lowest state of +degradation. Before the reforms introduced by the political events of +1895-96, "the country was eaten up by officialism. It is not only that +abuses without number prevailed, but the whole system of government was +an abuse, a sea of corruption, without a bottom or a shore, an engine of +robbery, crushing the life out of all industry[657]." But an improvement +was speedily remarked. "The air of the men has undergone a subtle and +real change, and the women, though they nominally keep up their habits +by seclusion, have lost the hang-dog air which distinguished them at +home. The alacrity of movement is a change also, and has replaced the +conceited swing of the _yang-ban_ [nobles] and the heartless lounge of +the peasant." This improvement was merely temporary. The last years of +the century were marked by the waning of Japanese influence, due to +Russian intrigues, the restoration of absolute monarchy together with +its worst abuses, the abandonment of reforms and a retrograde movement +throughout the kingdom. The successes of Japan in 1904-5 resulted in the +restoration of her ascendancy, culminating in 1910 in the cession of +sovereignty by the emperor of Korea to the emperor of Japan. + +The religious sentiment is perhaps less developed than among any other +Asiatic people. Buddhism, introduced about 380 A.D., never took root, +and while the _literati_ are satisfied with the moral precepts of +Confucius, the rest have not progressed beyond the nature-worship which +was the ancient religion of the land. Every mountain, pass, ford or even +eddy of a river has a spirit to whom offerings are made. Honour is also +paid to ancestors, both royal and domestic, at their temples or altars, +and chapels are built and dedicated to men who have specially +distinguished themselves in loyalty, virtue or lofty teaching. + +Philologists now recognise some affinity between the Korean and +Japanese languages, both of which appear to be remotely connected with +the Ural-Altaic family. The Koreans possess a true alphabet of 28 +letters, which, however, is not a local invention, as is sometimes +asserted. It appears to have been introduced by the Buddhist monks about +or before the tenth century, and to be based on some cursive form of the +Indian (Devanagari) system[658], although scarcely any resemblance can +now be traced between the two alphabets. This script is little used +except by the lower classes and the women, the _literati_ preferring to +write either in Chinese, or else in the so-called _nido_, that is, an +adaptation of the Chinese symbols to the phonetic expression of the +Korean syllables. The _nido_ is exactly analogous to the Japanese +_Katakana_ script, in which modified forms of Chinese ideographs are +used phonetically to express 47 syllables (the so-called _I-ro-fa_ +syllabary), raised to 73 by the _nigori_ and _maru_ diacritical marks. + +The present population of Japan, according to E. Baelz, shows the +following types. The first and most important is the Manchu-Korean type, +characteristic of North China and Korea, and most frequent among the +upper classes in Japan. The stature is conspicuously tall, the effect +being heightened by slender and elegant figure. The face is long, with +more or less oblique eyes but no marked prominence of the cheek-bones. +The nose is aquiline, the chin slightly receding. With this type is +associated a narrow chest, giving an air of elegance rather than of +muscularity, an effect which is enhanced by the extremely delicate hands +with long slender fingers. The second type is the Mongol, and presents a +distinct contrast, with strong and squarely built figure, broad face, +prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, flat nose and wide mouth. This type +is not common in the Japanese Islands. The third type, more conspicuous +than either of the preceding, is the Malay. The stature is small, with +well-knit frame, and broad, well-developed chest. The face is generally +round, the nose short, jaws and chin frequently projecting. None of +these three types represents the aboriginal race of Japan, for there +seems to be no doubt that the Ainu, who now survive in parts of the +northern island of Yezo, occupied a greater area in earlier times and to +them the prehistoric shell-mounds and other remains are usually +attributed[659]. The Ainu are thickly and strongly built, but differ +from all other Oriental types in the hairiness of face and body. The +head is long, with a cephalic index of 77.8. Face and nose are broad, +and the eyes are horizontal, not oblique, lacking the Mongolian fold. + +It is generally assumed that this population represents the easterly +migration of that long-headed type which can be traced across the +continents of Europe and Asia in the Stone Age, and that their entrance +into the islands was effected at a time when the channel separating them +from the mainland was neither so wide nor so deep as at the present +time. Later Manchu-Korean invaders from the West, Mongols from the +South, and Malays from the East pressed the aborigines further and +further north, to Yezo, Sakhalin and the Kuriles. But it is possible +that the Ainu were not the earliest inhabitants of Japan, for they +themselves bear witness to predecessors, the _Koro-pok-guru_, mentioned +above (p. 260). Neither is the assumption of kinship between the Ainu +and prehistoric populations of Western Europe accepted without demur. +Deniker, while acknowledging the resemblance to certain European types, +classes the Ainu as a separate race, the _Palaeasiatics_. For while in +head-length, prominent superciliary ridges, hairiness and the form of +the nose they may be compared to Russians, Todas, and Australians, their +skin colour, prominent cheek-bones, and other somatic features make any +close affinity impossible[660]. + +In spite of these various ingredients the Japanese people may be +regarded as fairly homogeneous. Apart from some tall and robust persons +amongst the upper classes, and athletes, acrobats, and wrestlers, the +general impression that the Japanese are a short finely moulded race is +fully borne out by the now regularly recorded military measurements of +recruits, showing for height an average of 1.585 m. (5 ft. 2-1/2 in.) to +1.639 m. (5 ft. 4-1/2 in.), for chest 33 in., and disproportionately +short legs. Other distinctive characters, all tending to stamp a certain +individuality on the people, taken as a whole and irrespective of local +peculiarities, are a flat forehead, great distance between the eyebrows, +a very small nose with raised nostrils, no glabella, no perceptible +nasal root[661]; an active, wiry figure; the exposed skin less yellow +than the Chinese, and rather inclining to a light fawn, but the covered +parts very light, some say even white; the eyes also less oblique, and +all other characteristically Mongol features generally softened, except +the black lank hair, which in transverse section is perhaps even rounder +than that of most other Mongol peoples[662]. + +With this it will be instructive to compare F. H. H. Guillemard's +graphic account of the Liu-Kiu islanders, whose Koreo-Japanese +affinities are now placed beyond all doubt: "They are a short race, +probably even shorter than the Japanese, but much better proportioned, +being without the long bodies and short legs of the latter people, and +having as a rule extremely well-developed chests. The colour of the skin +varies of course with the social position of the individual. Those who +work in the fields, clad only in a waist-cloth, are nearly as dark as a +Malay, but the upper classes are much fairer, and are at the same time +devoid of any of the yellow tint of the Chinaman. To the latter race +indeed they cannot be said to bear any resemblance, and though the type +is much closer to the Japanese, it is nevertheless very distinct.... In +Liu-Kiu the Japanese and natives were easily recognised by us from the +first, and must therefore be possessed of very considerable differences. +The Liu-Kiuan has the face less flattened, the eyes are more deeply set, +and the nose more prominent at its origin. The forehead is high and the +cheek-bones somewhat less marked than in the Japanese; the eyebrows are +arched and thick, and the eyelashes long. The expression is gentle and +pleasing, though somewhat sad, and is apparently a true index of their +character[663]." + +This description is not accepted without some reserve by Chamberlain, +who in fact holds that "the physical type of the Luchuans resembles that +of the Japanese almost to identity[664]." In explanation however of the +singularly mild, inoffensive, and "even timid disposition" of the +Liu-Kiuans, this observer suggests "the probable absence of any +admixture of Malay blood in the race[665]." But everybody admits a +Malay element in Japan. It would therefore appear that Guillemard must +be right, and that, as even shown by all good photographs, differences +do exist, due in fact to the presence of this very Malay strain in the +Japanese race. + +Elsewhere[666] Chamberlain has given us a scholarly account of the +Liu-Kiu language, which is not merely a "sister," as he says, but +obviously an _elder_ sister, more archaic in structure and partly in its +phonetics, than the oldest known form of Japanese. In the verb, for +instance, Japanese retains only one past tense of the indicative, with +but one grammatical form, whereas Liu-Kiuan preserves the three original +past tenses, each of which possesses a five-fold inflection. All these +racial, linguistic, and even mental resemblances, such as the +fundamental similarity of many of their customs and ways of thought, he +would explain with much probability by the routes followed by the first +emigrants from the mainland. While the great bulk spread east and north +over the great archipelago, everywhere "driving the aborigines before +them," a smaller stream may have trended southward to the little +southern group, whose islets stretch like stepping-stones the whole way +from Japan to Great Liu-Kiu[667]. + +Amongst the common mental traits, mention is made of the Shinto +religion, "the simplest and most rustic form" of which still survives in +Liu-Kiu. Here, as in Japan, it was originally a rude system of +nature-worship, the normal development of which was arrested by Chinese +and Buddhist influences. Later it became associated with spirit-worship, +the spirits being at first the souls of the dead, and although there is +at present no cult of the dead, in the strict sense of the expression, +the Liu-Kiu islanders probably pay more respect to the departed than any +other people in the world. + +In Japan, Shintoism, as reformed in recent times, has become much more a +political institution than a religious system. The _Kami-no-michi_, that +is, the Japanese form of the Chinese _Shin-to_, "way of the Gods," or +"spirits," is not merely the national faith, but is inseparably bound up +with the interests of the reigning dynasty, holding the Mikado to be the +direct descendant of the Sun-goddess Hence its three cardinal precepts +now are:--1. Honour the _Kami_ (spirits), of whom the emperor is the +chief representative on earth; 2. Revere him as thy sovereign; 3. Obey +the will of his Court, and that is the whole duty of man. There is no +moral code, and loyal expositors have declared that the Mikado's will is +the only test of right and wrong. + +But apart from this political exegesis, Shintoism in its higher form may +be called a cultured deism, in its lower a "blind obedience to +governmental and priestly dictates[668]." There are dim notions about a +supreme creator, immortality, and even rewards and penalties in the +after-life. Some also talk vaguely, as a pantheist might, of a sublime +being or essence pervading all nature, too vast and ethereal to be +personified or addressed in prayer, identified with the _tenka_, +"heavens," from which all things emanate, to which all return. Yet, +although a personal deity seems thus excluded, there are Shinto temples, +apparently for the worship of the heavenly bodies and powers of nature, +conceived as self-existing personalities--the so-called _Kami_, +"spirits," "gods," of which there are "eight millions," that is, they +are countless. + +One cannot but suspect that some of these notions have been grafted on +the old national faith by Buddhism, which was introduced about 550 A.D. +and for a time had great vogue. It was encouraged especially by the +Shoguns, or military usurpers of the Mikado's[669] functions, obviously +as a set-off against the Shinto theocracy. During their tenure of power +(1192-1868 A.D.) the land was covered with Buddhist shrines and temples, +some of vast size and quaint design, filled with hideous idols, huge +bells, and colossal statues of Buddha. + +But with the fall of the Shogun the little prestige still enjoyed by +Buddhism came to an end, and the temples, spoiled of their treasures, +have more than ever become the resort of pleasure-seekers rather than of +pious worshippers. "To all the larger temples are attached regular +spectacles, playhouses, panoramas, besides lotteries, games of various +sorts, including the famous 'fan-throwing,' and shooting-galleries, +where the bow and arrow and the blow-pipe take the place of the rifle. +The accumulated treasures of the priests have been confiscated, the +monks driven from their monasteries, and many of these buildings +converted into profane uses. Countless temple bells have already found +their way to America, or have been sold for old metal[670]." + +Besides these forms of belief, there is a third religious, or rather +philosophic system, the so-called _Siza_, based on the ethical teachings +of Confucius, a sort of refined materialism, such as underlies the whole +religious thought of the nation. Siza, always confined to the +_literati_, has in recent years found a formidable rival in the "English +Philosophy," represented by such writers as Buckle, Mill, Herbert +Spencer, Darwin, and Huxley, most of whose works have already been +translated into Japanese. + +Thus this highly gifted people are being assimilated to the western +world in their social and religious, as well as their political +institutions. Their intellectual powers, already tested in the fields of +war, science, diplomacy, and self-government, are certainly superior to +those of all other Asiatic peoples, and this is perhaps the best +guarantee for the stability of the stupendous transformation that a +single generation has witnessed from an exaggerated form of medieval +feudalism to a political and social system in harmony with the most +advanced phases of modern thought. The system has doubtless not yet +penetrated to the lower strata, especially amongst the rural +populations. But their natural receptivity, combined with a singular +freedom from "insular prejudice," must ensure the ultimate acceptance of +the new order by all classes of the community. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[569] As fully explained in _Eth._ p. 303. + +[570] Mark Aurel Stein, _Sand-buried Cities of Khotan_, 1903, and _Geog. +Journ._, July, Sept. 1909. + +[571] R. Pumpelly, _Explorations in Turkestan_, 1905, and _Explorations +in Turkestan; Expedition of 1904_, 1908. + +[572] Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia_, +1899-1902, 1906, and _Geog. Journ._, April, 1909. + +[573] Douglas Carruthers, _Unknown Mongolia_, 1913 (with bibliography). + +[574] Ellsworth Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_, 1910. + +[575] "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I. +1911. + +[576] _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse; Recherches archeologiques_ +(from 1899). + +[577] _Sand-buried Cities of Khotan_, 1903. + +[578] "Ueber Alte Grabstaetten in Sibirien und der Mongolei," in _Mitt. +d. Anthrop. Ges._, Vienna, 1895, XXV. 9. + +[579] Th. Volkov, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 82. + +[580] Too much stress must not, however, be laid upon the theory of +gradual desiccation as a factor in depopulation. There are many causes +such as earthquake, water-spouts, shifting of currents, neglect of +irrigation and, above all, the work of enemies to account for the +sand-buried ruins of populous cities in Central Asia. See T. Peisker, +"The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I. 1911, p. +326. + +[581] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1895, p. 318 sq. + +[582] Cf. _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, 6th Ser. XIV. Part 1, 1914, p. 131, +and _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._ 1910, p. 601. + +[583] "Zur Praehistorik Japans," _Globus_, 1896, No. 10. + +[584] The best account of the archaeology of Japan will be found in +_Prehistoric Japan_, by N. G. Munro, 1912. + +[585] _Die Bronzezeit Finnlands_, Helsingfors, 1897. + +[586] "Akkadian," first applied by Rawlinson to the non-Semitic texts +found at Nineveh, is still often used by English writers in place of the +more correct _Sumerian_, the Akkadians being now shown to be Semitic +immigrants into Northern Babylonia (p. 264). + +[587] Cf. L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, pp. 5, 6. + +[588] _Ueber die Summerische Sprache_, Paper read at the Russian +Archaeological Congress, Riga, 1896. + +[589] "Sumer and Sumerian," _Ency. Brit._ 1911, with references. + +[590] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 404. + +[591] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 406. +L. W. King (_History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910) discusses Meyer's +arguments and points out that the earliest Sumerian gods appear to be +free from Semitic influence (p. 51). He is inclined, however, to regard +the Sumerians as displacing an earlier Semitic people (Hutchinson's +_History of the Nations_, 1914, pp. 221 and 229). + +[592] Ellsworth Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_, 1910, p. 382. + +[593] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 357. + +[594] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 463. + +[595] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 61, and the +article, "Chronology. Babylonia and Assyria," _Ency. Brit._ 1911. Cf. +also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 2nd ed. 1909, Sec.Sec. 329 +and 383. + +[596] The cylinder-seals and tablets of Fara, excavated by Koldewey, +Andrae and Noeldeke in 1902-3 may go back to 3400 B.C. Cf. L. W. King, +_loc. cit._ p. 65. + +[597] C. H. W. Johns, _Ancient Babylonia_, 1913, regards Sharrukin as +"Sargon of Akkad," p. 39. + +[598] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, pp. 234, 343, +where the seal is referred to a period not much earlier than the First +Dynasty of Babylon. + +[599] H. V. Hilprecht, _The Babylonian Expedition of the University of +Pennsylvania_, Series D, Vol. v. 1. 1910. + +[600] See _The Times_, June 24, 1914. + +[601] "Babylonia and Elam Four Thousand Years Ago," in _Knowledge_, May +1, 1896, p. 116 sq. and elsewhere. + +[602] The term "Elam" is said to have the same meaning as "Akkad" +(_i.e._ Highland) in contradistinction to "Sumer" (Lowland). It should +be noted that neither Akkad nor Sumer occurs in the oldest texts, where +Akkad is called _Kish_ from the name of its capital, and Sumer _Kiengi_ +(_Kengi_), probably a general name meaning "the land." Kish has been +identified with the Kush of Gen. x., one of the best abused words in +Palethnology. For this identification, however, there is some ground, +seeing that Kush is mentioned in the closest connection with "Babel, and +Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar" (Mesopotamia) _v._ +10. + +[603] J. de Morgan, _Memoires de la Delegation en Perse_, 1899-1906. + +[604] S. Laing, _Human Origins_, p. 74. + +[605] And it has remained so ever since, the present Lur and Bakhtiari +inhabitants of Susiana speaking, not the standard Neo-Persian, but +dialects of the ruder Kurdish branch of the Iranian family, as if they +had been Aryanised from Media, the capital of which was Ekbatana. We +have here, perhaps, a clue to the origin of the Medes themselves, who +were certainly the above-mentioned Mandas of Nabonidus, their capital +being also the same Ekbatana. Now Sayce (_Academy_, Sept. 7, 1895, p. +189) identified the Kimmerians with these Manda nomads, whose king +Tukdamme (Tugdamme) was the Lygdanis of Strabo (I. 3, 16), who led a +horde of Kimmerians into Lydia and captured Sardis. We know from +Esarhaddon's inscriptions that by the Assyrians these Kimmerians were +called Manda, their prince Teupsa (Teispe) being described as "of the +people of the Manda." An oracle given to Esar-haddon begins: "The +Kimmerian in the mountains has set fire in the land of Ellip," _i.e._ +the land where Ekbatana was afterwards founded, which is now shown to +have already been occupied by the Kimmerian or Manda hordes. It follows +that Kimmerians, Mandas, Medes with their modern Kurd and Bakhtiari +representatives, were all one people, who were almost certainly of Aryan +speech, if not actually of proto-Aryan stock. "The Kurds are the +descendants of Aryan invaders and have maintained their type and their +language for more than 3300 years," F. v. Luschan, "The Early +Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. +230. For a classification of Kurds see Mark Sykes, "The Kurdish Tribes +of the Ottoman Empire," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVIII. 1908, p. +451. Cf. also D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer East_, 1902. + +[606] C. H. W. Johns, _Ancient Babylonia_, 1913, p. 27. + +[607] Cf. H. Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians," _Ency. +Religion and Ethics_, 1909. + +[608] G. Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_, p. 733. + +[609] _Ibid._ p. 71. + +[610] _Ibid._ p. 752. + +[611] _Vorgeschichte_, etc., Book II. _passim_. + +[612] _Geschichte Babyloniens u. Assyriens._ + +[613] G. Maspero, _The Struggle of the Nations, Egypt, Syria and +Assyria_, 1910. + +[614] It is noteworthy that _Dalai_, "Ocean," is itself a Mongol word, +though _Lama_, "Priest," is Tibetan. The explanation is that in the +thirteenth century a local incarnation of Buddha was raised by the then +dominant Mongols to the first rank, and this title of _Dalai Lama_, the +"Ocean Priest," _i.e._ the Priest of fathomless wisdom, was bestowed on +one of his successors in the sixteenth century, and still retained by +the High Pontiff at Lhasa. + +[615] _Aboriginal Siberia_, 1914, p. 13. + +[616] _Loc. cit._ pp. 18-21. + +[617] Either from the Chinese _Tunghu_, "Eastern Barbarians," or from +the Turki _Tinghiz_, as in Isaac Massa: _per interpretes se Tingoesi +vocari dixerunt_ (_Descriptio_, etc., Amsterdam, 1612). But there is no +collective national name, and at present they call themselves _Don-ki_, +_Boia_, _Boie_, etc., terms all meaning "Men," "People." In the Chinese +records they are referred to under the name of _I-lu_ so early as 263 +A.D., when they dwelt in the forest region between the Upper Temen and +Yalu rivers on the one hand and the Pacific Ocean on the other, and paid +tribute in kind--sable furs, bows, and stone arrow-heads. Arrows and +stone arrow-heads were also the tribute paid to the emperors of the +Shang dynasty (1766-1154 B.C.) by the _Su-shen_, who dwelt north of the +Liao-tung peninsula, so that we have here official proof of a Stone Age +of long duration in Manchuria. Later, the Chinese chronicles mention the +_U-ki_ or _Mo-ho_, a warlike people of the Sungari valley and +surrounding uplands, who in the 7th century founded the kingdom of +_Pu-ha[=i]_, overthrown in 925 by the Khitans of the Lower Sungari below +its Noni confluence, who were themselves Tunguses and according to some +Chinese authorities the direct ancestors of the Manchus. + +[618] "C'est la tendance de la tete a se developper en hauteur, juste en +sens inverse de l'aplatissement vertical du Mongol. La tete du Turc est +donc a la fois plus haute et plus courte" (_L'Anthropologie_, VI. 3, p. +8). + +[619] Reclus, VI.; Eng. ed. p. 360. + +[620] V. M. Mikhailovskii, _Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia_, +translated by Oliver Wardrop, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ 1895, p. 91. + +[621] M. A. Czaplicka, _Aboriginal Siberia_, 1914. Part III. discusses +Shamanism, pp. 166-255. + +[622] Hakluyt, 1809 ed., I. p. 317 sq. + +[623] Quoted by Mikhailovskii, p. 144. + +[624] Cf. H. A. Giles, _China and the Manchus_, 1912. + +[625] _Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie_, 1853, I. 162. + +[626] _Through Siberia_, 1882, Vol. II. p. 172. + +[627] European visitors often notice with surprise the fine physique of +these natives, many of whom average nearly six feet in height. But there +is an extraordinary disparity between the two sexes, perhaps greater +than in any other country. The much smaller stature and feebler +constitution of the women is no doubt due to the detestable custom of +crippling the feet in childhood, thereby depriving them of natural +exercise during the period of growth. It may be noted that the +anti-foot-bandaging movement is making progress throughout China, the +object being to abolish the cruel practice by making the _kin lien_ +("golden lilies") unfashionable, and the _ti mien_, the "heavenly +feet,"--_i.e._ the natural--popular in their stead. + +[628] H. Lansdell, _Through Siberia_, 1882, II. p. 172. + +[629] _De l'Harmonie des Voyelles dans les Langues Uralo-Altaiques_, +1874, p. 67 sq. + +[630] _General Principles of the Structure of Language_, 1885, Vol. I. +p. 357. The evidence here chiefly relied upon is that afforded by the +Yakutic, a pure Turki idiom, which is spoken in the region of extremest +heat and cold (Middle and Lower Lena basin), and in which the principle +of progressive assonance attains its greatest development. + +[631] Explained and illustrated by General Krahmer in _Globus_, 1896, p. +208 sq. + +[632] H. Lansdell, _Through Siberia_, 1882, I. p. 299. + +[633] "Ueber die Sprache der Jukagiren," in _Melanges Asiatiques_, 1859, +III. p. 595 sq. + +[634] W. I. Jochelson recently discovered two independent Yukaghir +dialects. "Essay on the Grammar of the Yukaghir Language," _Annals N. Y. +Ac. Sc._ 1905; _The Yukaghir and the Yukaghirized Tungus._ _Memoir of +the Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, Vol. IX. 1910. For the Koryak see +his monograph in the same series, Vol. VI. 1905-8. + +[635] _Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski._ + +[636] "Ueber die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten Tchouktchen," _in +Bul. Acad. Sc._, St Petersburg, XII. p. 99. + +[637] Peschel, _Races of Man_, p. 391, who says the Chukchi are "as +closely related to the Itelmes in speech as are Spaniards to +Portuguese." + +[638] _Petermann's Mitt._ Vol. 25, 1879, p. 138. + +[639] "The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-tale," _Amer. +Anthropologist_, June 1898, p. 181 sq. + +[640] _Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering Strait_, 1898. + +[641] Cf. W. Bogoras, _The Chukchee, Memoir of the Jesup North Pacific +Expedition_, Vol. VII. 1904-10 + +[642] This, however, applies only to the fishing Koryaks, for G. Kennan +speaks highly of the domestic virtues, hospitality, and other good +qualities of the nomad groups (_Tent Life in Siberia_, 1871). + +[643] See L. Sternberg, _The Tribes of the Amur River, Memoirs of the +Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, Vol. IV. 1900. + +[644] _Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc._ XX. Supplement, Moscow, 1877. + +[645] "Scheinen grosse Aenlichkeit in Sprache, Gesichtsbildung und +Sitten mit den Aino zu haben" (_Ueber die Aino_, Berlin, 1881, p. 12). + +[646] _Through Siberia_, 1882, II. p. 227. + +[647] _Ibid._ p. 235. + +[648] _Ibid._ p. 221. + +[649] _L'Anthropologie_, VI. No. 3. + +[650] _Bul. du Museum d'Hist. Nat._ 1896, No. 4. All the skulls were +brachy or sub-brachy, varying from 81 to 83.8 and 84.8. The author +remarks generally that "photographes et cranes different, du tout au +tout, des choses similaires venues jusqu'a present de Mongolie et de +Chine, et font plutot penser au Japon, a Formose, et d'une maniere plus +generale a ce vaste ensemble de peuples maritimes que Lesson designait +jadis sous le nom de 'Mongols-pelasgiens,'" p. 3. + +[651] On this juxtaposition of the yellow and blond types in Korea V. de +Saint-Martin's language is highly significative: "Cette dualite de type, +un type tout a fait caucasique a cote du type mongol, est un fait commun +a toute la ceinture d'iles qui couvre les cotes orientales de l'Asie, +depuis les Kouriles jusqu'a Formose, et meme jusqu'a la zone orientale +de l'Indo-Chine" (_Art. Coree_, p. 800). + +[652] From _Korai_, in Japanese _Kome_ (Chinese _Kaoli_), name of a +petty state, which enjoyed political predominance in the peninsula for +about 500 years (tenth to fourteenth century A.D.). An older designation +still in official use is _Tsio-sien_, that is, the Chinese _Chao-sien_, +"Bright Dawn" (Klaproth, _Asia Polyglotta_, p. 334 sq.). + +[653] This stupendous work, on which about 1,000,000 hands are said to +have been engaged for five years, possesses great ethnical as well as +political importance. Running for over 1500 miles across hills, valleys, +and rivers along the northern frontier of China proper, it long arrested +the southern movements of the restless Mongolo-Turki hordes, and thus +gave a westerly direction to their incursions many centuries before the +great invasions of Jenghiz-Khan and his successors. It is strange to +reflect that the ethnological relations were thus profoundly disturbed +throughout the eastern hemisphere by the work of a ruthless despot who +reigned only twelve years, and in that time waged war against all the +best traditions of the empire, destroying the books of Confucius and the +other sages, and burying alive 460 men of letters for their efforts to +rescue those writings from total extinction. + +[654] _Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de l'Hindou-Kouch_, 1896, p. 25. +This writer does not think that the Usuns should be identified with the +tall race of horse-like face, large nose, and deep-set eyes mentioned in +the early Chinese records, because no reference is made to "blue eyes," +which would not have been omitted had they existed. But, if I remember, +"green eyes" are spoken of, and we know that none of the early writers +use colour terms with strict accuracy. + +[655] I have not thought it desirable to touch on the interminable +controversy respecting the ethnical relations of the Hiung-nu, regarding +them, not as a distinct ethnical group, but like the Huns, their later +western representatives, as a heterogeneous collection of Mongol, +Tungus, Turki, and perhaps even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military +caste. At the same time I have little doubt that Mongolo-Tungus elements +greatly predominated in the eastern regions (Mongolia proper, Manchuria) +both amongst the Hiung-nu and their Yuan-yuan (Sien-pi) successors, and +that all the founders of the first great empires prior to that of the +Turki Assena in the Altai region (sixth century A.D.) were full-blood +Mongols, as indeed recognised by Jenghiz-Khan himself. For the +migrations of these and neighbouring peoples, consult A. C. Haddon, _The +Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, pp. 16 and 28. + +[656] On the authority of the Wei-Shu documents contained in the +Wei-Ch[=i], E. H. Parker gives (in the _China Review_ and _A Thousand +Years of the Tartars_, Shanghai, 1895) the dates 386-556 A.D. as the +period covered by the "Sien-pi Tartar dynasty of Wei." This is not to be +confused with the Chinese dynasty of Wei (224-264, or according to Kwong +Ki-Chiu 234-274 A.D.). The term "Tartar" (Ta-Ta), it may be explained, +is used by Parker, as well as by the Chinese historians generally, in a +somewhat wide sense, so as to include all the nomad populations north of +the Great Wall, whether of Tungus (Manchu), Mongol, or even Turki stock. +The original tribes bearing the name were Mongols, and Jenghiz-Khan +himself was a Tata on his mother's side. + +[657] Mrs Bishop, _Korea and Her Neighbours_, 1898. + +[658] T. de Lacouperie says on "a Tibeto-Indian base" (_Beginnings of +Writing in Central and Eastern Asia_, 1894, p. 148); and E. H. Parker: +"It is demonstrable that the Korean letters are an adaptation from the +Sanskrit," _i.e._ the Devanagari (_Academy_, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 550). + +[659] See p. 261. Also Koganei, "Ueber die Urbewohner von Japan," _Mitt. +d. Deutsch. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Voelkerkunde Ostasiens_, IX. 3, 1903, +containing an exhaustive review of recent literature, and N. G. Munro, +_Prehistoric Japan_, 1912. + +[660] J. Deniker, _Races of Man_, 1900, pp. 371-2. See also J. +Batchelor, _The Ainu of Japan_, 1892, and the article "Ainus" in _Ency. +of Religion and Ethics_, 1908. + +[661] G. Baudens, _Bul. Soc. Geogr._ X. p. 419. + +[662] See especially E. Baelz, "Die koerperlichen Eigenschaften der +Japaner," in _Mitt. der Deutsch. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Voelkerkunde +Ostasiens_, 28 and 32. + +[663] _Cruise of the Marchesa_, 1886, I. p. 36. + +[664] _Geogr. Journ._ 1895, II. p. 318. + +[665] _Geogr. Journ._ 1895, II. p. 460. + +[666] _Journ. Anthrop. Soc._ 1897, p. 47 sq. + +[667] _Ibid._ p. 58. + +[668] Ripley and Dana, _Amer. Cyc._ IX. 538. + +[669] _Shogun_ from _Sho_ = general, and _gun_ = army, hence +Commander-in-chief; _Mikado_ from _mi_ = sublime, and _kado_ = gate, +with which cf. the "Sublime Porte" (J. J. Rein, _Japan nach Reisen u. +Studien,_ 1881, I. p. 245). But Mikado has become somewhat antiquated, +being now generally replaced by the title _Kotei,_ "Emperor." + +[670] Keane's _Asia_, I. p. 487. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE NORTHERN MONGOLS (_continued_) + + The Finno-Turki Peoples--Assimilation to the Caucasic Type--Turki + Cradle--Ural-Altaian Invasions--The Scythians--Parthians and + Turkomans--Massagetae and Yue-chi--Indo-Scythians and + Graeco-Baktrians--Dahae, Jat, and Rajput Origins--The "White + Huns"--The Uigurs--Orkhon Inscriptions--The Assena Turki + Dynasty--Toghuz-Uigur Empire--Kashgarian and Sungarian + Populations--The Oghuz Turks and their Migrations--Seljuks and + Osmanli--The Yakuts--The Kirghiz--Kazak and Kossack--The + Kara-Kirghiz--The Finnish Peoples--Former and Present Domain--Late + Westward Spread of the Finns--The Bronze and Iron Ages in the + Finnish Lands--The Baltic Finns--Relations to Goths, Letts, and + Slavs--Finno-Russ Origins--Tavastian and Karelian Finns--The + Kwaens--The Lapps--Samoyeds and Permian Finns--Lapp Origins and + Migrations--Temperament--Religion--The Volga Finns--The Votyak + Pagans--Human Sacrifices--The Bulgars--Origins and Migrations--An + Ethnical Transformation--Great and Little Bulgaria--Avars and + Magyars--Magyar Origins and early Records--Present Position of the + Magyars--Ethnical and Linguistic Relations in Eastern Europe. + + +In a very broad way all the western branches of the North Mongol +division may be comprised under the collective designation of +Finno-Turki Mongols. Jointly they constitute a well-marked section of +the family, being distinguished from the eastern section by several +features which they have in common, and the most important of which is +unquestionably a much larger infusion of Caucasic blood than is seen in +any of the Mongolo-Tungusic groups. So pronounced is this feature +amongst many Finnish as well as Turkish peoples, that some +anthropologists have felt inclined to deny any direct connection between +the eastern and western divisions of Mongolian man and to regard the +Baltic Finns, for instance, rather as "Allophylian Whites" than as +original members of the yellow race. Prichard, to whom we owe this now +nearly obsolete term "Allophylian," held this view[671], and even Sayce +is "more than doubtful whether we can class the Mongols physiologically +with the Turkish-Tatars [the Turki peoples], or the Ugro-Finns[672]." + +It may, indeed, be allowed that at present the great majority of the +Finno-Turki populations occupy a position amongst the varieties of +mankind which is extremely perplexing for the strict systematist. When +the whole division is brought under survey, every shade of transition is +observed between the Siberian Samoyeds of the Finnic branch and the +steppe Kirghiz of the Turki branch on the one hand, both of whom show +Mongol characters in an exaggerated form, and on the other the Osmanli +Turks and Hungarian Magyars, most of whom may be regarded as typical +Caucasians. Moreover, the difficulty is increased by the fact, already +pointed out, that these mixed Mongolo-Caucasic characters occur not only +amongst the late historic groups, but also amongst the earliest known +groups--"Chudes," Usuns, Uigurs and others--who may be called +Proto-Finnish and Proto-Turki peoples. But precisely herein lies the +solution of the problem. Most of the region now held by Turki and +Finnish nations was originally occupied by long-headed Caucasic men of +the late Stone Ages (see above). Then followed the Proto-Mongol +intruders from the Tibetan table-land, who partly submerged, partly +intermingled with their neolithic neighbours, many thus acquiring those +mixed characters by which they have been distinguished from the earliest +historic times. Later, further interminglings took place according as +the Finno-Turki hordes, leaving their original seats in the Altai and +surrounding regions, advanced westwards and came more and more into +contact with the European populations of Caucasic type. + +We may therefore conclude that the majority of the Finno-Turki were +almost from the first a somewhat mixed race, and that during historic +times the original Mongol element has gradually yielded to the Caucasic +in the direction from east to west. Such is the picture now presented by +these heterogeneous populations, who in their primeval eastern seats are +still mostly typical Mongols, but have been more and more assimilated to +the European type in their new Anatolian, Baltic, Danubian, and Balkan +homes. + +Observant travellers have often been impressed by this progressive +conformity of the Mongolo-Turki to Europeans. During his westward +journey through Central Asia Younghusband, on passing from Mongolia to +Eastern Turkestan, found that the people, though tall and fine-looking, +had at first more of the Mongol cast of feature than he had expected. +"Their faces, however, though somewhat round, were slightly more +elongated than the Mongol, and there was considerably more intelligence +about them. But there was more roundness, less intelligence, less +sharpness in the outlines than is seen in the inhabitants of Kashgar and +Yarkand." Then he adds: "As I proceeded westwards I noticed a gradual, +scarcely perceptible, change from the round of a Mongolian type to a +sharper and yet more sharp type of feature.... As we get farther away +from Mongolia, we notice that the faces become gradually longer and +narrower; and farther west still, among some of the inhabitants of +Afghan Turkestan, we see that the Tartar or Mongol type of feature is +almost entirely lost[673]." To complete the picture it need only be +added that still further west, in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula, +Hungary, and Finland, the Mongol features are often entirely lost. "The +Turks of the west have so much Aryan and Semitic blood in them, that the +last vestiges of their original physical characters have been lost, and +their language alone indicates their previous descent[674]." + +Before they were broken up and dispersed over half the northern +hemisphere by Mongol pressure from the east, the primitive Turki tribes +dwelt, according to Howorth, mainly between the Ulugh-dagh mountains and +the Orkhon river in Mongolia, that is, along the southern slopes and +spurs of the Altai-Sayan system from the head waters of the Irtysh to +the valleys draining north to Lake Baikal. But the Turki cradle is +shifted farther east by Richthofen, who thinks that their true home lay +between the Amur, the Lena, and the Selenga, where at one time they had +their camping-grounds in close proximity to their Mongol and Tungus +kinsmen. There is nothing to show that the Yakuts, who are admittedly of +Turki stock, ever migrated to their present northern homes in the Lena +basin, which has more probably always been their native land[675]. + +But when they come within the horizon of history the Turki are already a +numerous nation, with a north-western and south-eastern division[676], +which may well have jointly occupied the whole region from the Irtysh to +the Lena, and both views may thus be reconciled. In any case the Turki +domain lay west of the Mongol, and the Altai uplands, taken in the +widest sense, may still be regarded as the most probable zone of +specialisation for the Turki physical type. The typical characteristics +are a yellowish white complexion, a high brachycephalic head, often +almost cuboid, due to parieto-occipital flattening (especially +noticeable among the Yakuts), an elongated oval face, with straight, +somewhat prominent nose, and non-Mongolian eyes. The stature is +moderate, with an average of 1.675 m. (5 ft. 6 in.), and a tendency to +stoutness. + +Intermediate between the typical Turki and the Mongols Hamy places the +Uzbegs, Kirghiz, Bashkirs, and Nogais; and between the Turks and Finns +those extremely mixed groups of East Russia commonly but wrongly called +"Tartars," as well as other transitions between Turk, Slav, Greek, Arab, +Osmanli of Constantinople, Kurugli of Algeria and others, whose study +shows the extreme difficulty of accurately determining the limits of the +Yellow and the White races[677]. + +Analogous difficulties recur in the study of the Northern (Siberian) +groups--Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Voguls and other Ugrians--who present great +individual variations, leading almost without a break from the Mongol to +the Lapp, from the Lapp to the Finn, from Finn to Slav and Teuton. Thus +may be shown a series of observations continuous between the most +typical Mongol, and those aberrant Mongolo-Caucasic groups which answer +to Prichard's "Allophylian races." Thus also is confirmed by a study of +details the above broad generalisation in which I have endeavoured to +determine the relation of the Finno-Turki peoples to the primary Mongol +and Caucasic divisions. + +Peisker's description of the Scythian invasions of Irania[678] may be +taken as typical of the whole area, and explains the complexity of the +ethnological problems. The steppes and deserts of Central Asia are an +impassable barrier for the South Asiatics, the Aryans, but not for the +North Asiatic, the Altaian; for him they are an open country, providing +him with the indispensable winter pastures. On the other hand, for the +South Asiatic Aryan these deserts are an object of terror, and besides +he is not impelled towards them as he has winter pastures near at hand. +It is this difference in the distance of summer and winter pastures that +makes the North Asiatic Altaian an ever-wandering herdsman, and the +grazing part of the Indo-European race cattle-rearers settled in limited +districts. Thus, while the native Iranian must halt before the trackless +region of steppes and deserts and cannot follow the well-mounted +robber-nomad thither, Iran itself is the object of greatest longing to +the nomadic Altaian. Here he can plunder and enslave to his heart's +delight, and if he succeeds in maintaining himself for a considerable +time among the Aryans, he learns the language of the subjugated people +and, by mingling with them, loses his Mongol characteristics more and +more. If the Iranian is now fortunate enough to shake off the yoke, the +dispossessed iranised Altaian intruder inflicts himself upon other +lands. So it was with the Scythians. Leaving their families behind in +the South Russian steppes, the Scythians invaded Media _c._ B.C. 630, +and advanced into Mesopotamia as far as Egypt. + +In Media they took Median wives and learned the Median language. After +being driven out by Cyaxares, on their return, some 28 years later, they +met with a new generation, the offspring of the wives and daughters whom +they had left behind, and slaves of an alien race. A hundred and fifty +years later Hippocrates remarked their yellowish red complexion, +corpulence, smooth skins, and their consequent eunuch-like +appearance--all typically Mongol characteristics. Hippocrates was the +most celebrated physician and natural philosopher of the ancient world. +His evidence is unshakeable and cannot be invalidated by the Aryan +speech of the Scythians. Their Mongol type was innate in them, whereas +their Iranian speech was acquired and is no refutation of Hippocrates' +testimony. On the later Greek vases from South Russian excavations they +already appear strongly demongolised and the Altaian is only suggested +by their hair, which is as stiff as a horse's mane--hence Aristotle's +epithet [Greek: euthytriches]--the characteristic that survives +longest among all Ural-Altaian hybrid peoples. + +E. H. Parker unfortunately lent the weight of his authority to the +statement that the word "Tuerkoe" [Turki] "goes no farther back than the +fifth century of our era," and that "so far as recorded history is +concerned the name of Turk dates from this time[679]." But Turki tribes +bearing this national name had penetrated into East Europe hundreds of +years before that time, and were already seated on the Tanais (Don) +about the new era. They are mentioned by name both by Pomponius +Mela[680] and by Pliny[681], and to the same connection belonged, beyond +all doubt, the warlike _Parthians_, who 300 years earlier were already +seated on the confines of Iran and Turan, routed the legions of Crassus +and Antony, and for five centuries (250 B.C.-229 A.D.) usurped the +throne of the "King of Kings," holding sway from the Euphrates to the +Ganges, and from the Caspian to the Indian Ocean. Direct descendants of +the Parthians are the fierce Turkoman nomads, who for ages terrorised +over all the settled populations encircling the Aralo-Caspian +depression. Their power has at last been broken by the Russians, but +they are still politically dominant in Persia[682]. They have thus been +for many ages in the closest contact with Caucasic Iranians, with the +result that the present Turkoman type is shown by J. L. Yavorsky's +observations to be extremely variable[683]. + +Both the Parthians and the _Massagetae_ have been identified with the +_Yue-chi_, who figured so largely in the annals of the Han dynasties, +and are above mentioned as having been driven west to Sungaria by the +Hiung-nu after the erection of the Great Wall. It has been said that, +could we follow the peregrinations of the Yue-chi bands from their early +seats at the foot of the Kinghan mountains to their disappearance amid +the snows of the Western Himalayas, we should hold the key to the +solution of the obscure problems associated with the migrations of the +Mongolo-Turki hordes since the torrent of invasion was diverted +westwards by Shih Hwang Ti's mighty barrier. One point, however, seems +clear enough, that the Yue-chi were a different people both from the +Parthians who had already occupied Hyrcania (Khorasan) at least in the +third century B.C., if not earlier, and from the Massagetae. For the +latter were seated on the Yaxartes (Sir-darya) in the time of Cyrus +(sixth century B.C.), whereas the Yue-chi still dwelt east of Lake Lob +(Tarim basin) in the third century. After their defeat by the Hiung-nu +and the Usuns (201 and 165 B.C.), they withdrew to Sogdiana +(Transoxiana), reduced the _Ta-Hia_ of Baktria, and in 126 B.C. +overthrew the Graeco-Baktrian kingdom, which had been founded after the +death of Alexander towards the close of the fourth century. But in the +Kabul valley, south of the Hindu-Kush, the Greeks still held their +ground for over 100 years, until Kadphises I., king of the Kushans--a +branch of the Yue-chi--after uniting the whole nation in a single +Indo-Scythian state, extended his conquests to Kabul and succeeded +Hermaeus, last of the Greek dynasty (40-20 B.C.?). Kadphises' son +Kadaphes (10 A.D.) added to his empire a great part of North India, +where his successors of the Yue-chi dynasty reigned from the middle of +the first to the end of the fourth century A.D. Here they are supposed +by some authorities to be still represented by the _Jats_ and _Rajputs_, +and even Prichard allows that the supposition "does not appear +altogether preposterous," although "the physical characters of the Jats +are very different from those attributed to the Yuetschi [Yue-chi] and +the kindred tribes [Suns, Kushans, etc.] by the writers cited by +Klaproth and Abel Remusat, who say that they are of sanguine complexion +with blue eyes[684]." + +We now know that these characters present little difficulty when the +composite origin of the Turki people is borne in mind. On the other hand +it is interesting to note that the above-mentioned Ta-Hia have by some +been identified with the warlike Scythian Dahae[685], and these with the +Dehiya or Dhe one of the great divisions of the Indian Jats. But if +Rawlinson[686] is right, the term _Dahae_ was not racial but social, +meaning _rustici_,--the peasantry as opposed to the nomads; hence the +Dahae are heard of everywhere throughout Irania, just as _Dehwar_[687] +is still the common designation of the Tajik (Persian) peasantry in +Afghanistan and Baluchistan. This is also the view taken by de Ujfalvy, +who identifies the Ta-Hia, not with the Scythian Dahae, or with any +other particular tribe, but with the peaceful rural population of +Baktriana[688], whose reduction by the Yue-chi, possibly Strabo's +Tokhari, was followed by the overthrow of the Graeco-Baktrians. The +solution of the puzzling Yue-chi-Jat problem would therefore seem to be +that the Dehiya and other Jats, always an agricultural people, are +descended from the old Iranian peasantry of Baktriana, some of whom +followed the fortunes of their Greek rulers into Kabul valley, while +others accompanied the conquering Yue-chi founders of the Indo-Scythian +empire into northern India. + +Then followed the overthrow of the Yue-chi themselves by the _Ye-tha_ +(_Ye-tha-i-li-to_) of the Chinese records, that is, the _Ephthalites_, +or so-called "White Huns," of the Greek and Arab writers, who about 425 +A.D. overran Transoxiana, and soon afterwards penetrated through the +mountain passes into the Kabul and Indus valleys. Although confused by +some contemporary writers (Zosimus, Am. Marcellinus) with Attila's Huns, +M. Drouin has made it clear that the Ye-tha were not Huns (Mongols) at +all, but, like the Yue-chi, a Turki people, who were driven westwards +about the same time as the Hiung-nu by the Yuan-yuans (see above). Of +Hun they had little but the name, and the more accurate Procopius was +aware that they differed entirely from "the Huns known to us, not being +nomads, but settled for a long time in a fertile region." He speaks also +of their white colour and regular features, and their sedentary +life[689] as in the Chinese accounts, where they are described as +warlike conquerors of twenty kingdoms, as far as that of the A-si +(Arsacides, Parthians), and in their customs resembling the Tu-Kiu +(Turks), being in fact "of the same race." On the ruins of the +Indo-Scythian (Yue-chi) empire, the White Huns ruled in India and the +surrounding lands from 425 to the middle of the sixth century. A little +later came the Arabs, who in 706 captured Samarkand, and under the +Abassides were supreme in Central Asia till scattered to the winds by +the Oghuz Turki hordes. + +From all this it has been suggested that--while the Baktrian peasants +entered India as settlers, and are now represented by the agricultural +Jats--the Yue-chi and Ye-tha, both of fair Turki stock, came as +conquerors, and are now represented by the Rajputs, "Sons of Kings," the +warrior and land-owning race of northern India. It is significant that +these Thakur, "feudal lords," mostly trace their genealogies from about +the beginning of the seventh century, as if they had become Hinduized +soon after the fall of the foreign Ye-tha dynasty, while on the other +hand "the country legends abound with instances of the conflict between +the Rajput and the Brahman in prehistoric times[690]." This supports the +conjecture that the Rajputs entered India, not as "Aryans" of the +Kshatriya or military caste, as is commonly assumed, but as aliens +(Turki), the avowed foes of the true Aryans, that is, the Brahman or +theocratic (priestly) caste. Thus also is explained the intimate +association of the Rajputs and the Jats from the first--the Rajputs +being the Turki leaders of the invasions; and the Jats their peaceful +Baktrian subjects following in their wake. + +The theory that the haughty Rajputs are of unsullied "Aryan blood" is +scarcely any longer held even by the Rajputs themselves; they are +undoubtedly of mixed origin. But the definite physical type which H. H. +Risley[691] describes as characteristic of Rajputs and Jats in the +Kashmir Valley, Punjab and Rajputana, shows them to be wavy-haired +dark-skinned dolichocephals, linked rather with the "Caucasic" than the +"Mongolian" division. + +Nearly related to the White Huns were the _Uigurs_, the _Kao-che_ of the +Chinese annals, who may claim to be the first Turki nation that founded +a relatively civilised State in Central Asia. Before the general +commotion caused by the westward pressure of the Hiung-nu, they appear +to have dwelt in eastern Turkestan (Kashgaria) between the Usuns and the +Sacae, and here they had already made considerable progress under +Buddhist influences about the fourth or fifth century of the new era. +Later, the Buddhist missionaries from Tibet were replaced by Christian +(Nestorian) evangelists from western Asia, who in the seventh century +reduced the Uigur language to written form, adapting for the purpose the +Syriac alphabet, which was afterwards borrowed by the Mongols and the +Manchus. + +This Syriac script--which, as shown by the authentic inscription of +Si-ngan-fu, was introduced into China in 635 A.D.--is not to be confused +with that of the Orkhon inscriptions[692] dating from 732 A.D., and +bearing a certain resemblance to some of the Runic characters, as also +to the Korean, at least in form, but never in sound. Yet although +differing from the Uiguric, Prof. Thomsen, who has successfully +deciphered the Orkhon text, thinks that this script may also be derived, +at least indirectly through some of the Iranian varieties, from the same +Aramean (Syriac) form of the Semitic alphabet that gave birth to the +Uiguric[693]. + +It is more important to note that all the non-Chinese inscriptions are +in the Turki language, while the Chinese text refers by name to the +father, the grandfather, and the great-grandfather of the reigning Khan +Bilga, which takes us back nearly to the time when Sinjibu (Dizabul), +Great Khan of the Altai Turks, was visited by the Byzantine envoy, +Zimarchus, in 569 A.D. In the still extant report of this embassy[694] +the Turks ([Greek: Tourkoi]) are mentioned by name, and are described as +nomads who dwelt in tents mounted on wagons, burnt the dead, and raised +to their memory monuments, statues, and cairns with as many stones as +the foes slain by the deceased in battle. It is also stated that they +had a peculiar writing system, which must have been that of these Orkhon +inscriptions, the Uiguric having apparently been introduced somewhat +later. + +Originally the Uigurs comprised nineteen clans, which at a remote period +already formed two great sections:--the On-Uigur ("Ten Uigurs") in the +south, and the Toghuz-Uigur ("Nine Uigurs") in the north. The former had +penetrated westwards to the Aral Sea[695] as early as the second century +A.D., and many of them undoubtedly took part in Attila's invasion of +Europe. + +Later, all these Western Uigurs, mentioned amongst the hordes that +harassed the Eastern Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries, in +association especially with the Turki Avars, disappear from history, +being merged in the Ugrian and other Finnish peoples of the Volga basin. +The Toghuz section also, after throwing off the yoke of the Mongol or +Tungus Geugen (Jeu-Jen) in the fifth century, were for a time submerged +in the vast empire of the Altai Turks, founded in 552 by Tumen of the +House of Assena (A-shi-na), who was the first to assume the title of +Kha-Khan, "Great Khan," and whose dynasty ruled over the united Turki +and Mongol peoples from the Pacific to the Caspian, and from the Frozen +Ocean to the confines of China and Tibet. Both the above-mentioned +Sinjibu, who received the Byzantine envoy, and the Bilga Khan of the +Orkhon _stele_, belonged to this dynasty, which was replaced in 774 by +Pei-lo (Huei-hu), chief of the Toghuz-Uigurs. This is how we are to +understand the statement that all the Turki peoples who during the +somewhat unstable rule of the Assena dynasty from 552 to 774 had +undergone many vicissitudes, and about 580 were even broken into two +great sections (Eastern Turks of the Karakoram region and Western Turks +of the Tarim basin), were again united in one vast political system +under the Toghuz-Uigurs. These are henceforth known in history simply as +Uigurs, the On branch having, as stated, long disappeared in the West. +The centre of their power seems to have oscillated between Karakoram and +Turfan in Eastern Turkestan, the extensive ruins of which have been +explored by D. A. Klements, Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein. Their vast +dominions were gradually dismembered, first by the _Hakas_, or +_Ki-li-Kisse_, precursors of the present Kirghiz, who overran the +eastern (Orkhon) districts about 840, and then by the Muhammadans of +Mawar-en-Nahar (Transoxiana), who overthrew the "Lion Kings," as the +Uigur Khans of Turfan were called, and set up several petty Mussulman +states in Eastern Turkestan. Later they fell under the yoke of the +Kara-Khitais, and were amongst the first to join the devastating hordes +of Jenghiz-Khan; their name, which henceforth vanishes from +history[696], has been popularly recognised under the form of "Ogres," +in fable and nursery tales, but the derivation lacks historical +foundation. + +At present the heterogeneous populations of the Tarim basin (Kashgaria, +Eastern Turkestan), where the various elements have been intermingled, +offer a striking contrast to those of the Ili valley (Sungaria), where +one invading horde has succeeded and been superimposed on another. Hence +the complexity of the Kashgarian type, in which the original "horse-like +face" everywhere crops out, absorbing the later Mongolo-Turki arrivals. +But in Sungaria the Kalmuk, Chinese, Dungan, Taranchi, and Kirghiz +groups are all still sharply distinguished and perceptible at a glance. +"Amongst the Kashgarians--a term as vague ethnically as +'Aryan'--Richthofen has determined the successive presence of the Su, +Yue-chi, and Usun hordes, as described in the early Chinese +chronicles[697]." + +The recent explorations of M. A. Stein have thrown some light on the +ethnology of this region, and a preliminary survey of results was +prepared and published by T. A. Joyce. He concludes that the original +inhabitants were of Alpine type, with, in the west, traces of the +Indo-Afghan, and that the Mongolian has had very little influence upon +the population[698]. + +In close proximity to the Toghuz-Uigurs dwelt the _Oghuz_ (_Ghuz, Uz_), +for whom eponymous heroes have been provided in the legendary records of +the Eastern Turks, although all these terms would appear to be merely +shortened forms of Toghuz[699]. But whether true Uigurs, or a distinct +branch of the Turki people, the Ghuz, as they are commonly called by +the Arab writers, began their westward migrations about the year 780. +After occupying Transoxiana, where they are now represented by the +Uzbegs[700] of Bokhara and surrounding lands, they gradually spread as +conquerors over all the northern parts of Irania, Asia Minor, Syria, the +Russian and Caucasian steppes, Ukrainia, Dacia, and the Balkan +Peninsula. In most of these lands they formed fresh ethnical +combinations both with the Caucasic aborigines, and with many kindred +Turki as well as Mongol peoples, some of whom were settled in these +regions since neolithic times, while others had either accompanied +Attila's expeditions, or followed in his wake (Pechenegs, Komans, Alans, +Kipchaks, Kara-Kalpaks), or else arrived later in company with +Jenghiz-Khan and his successors (Kazan and Nogai "Tatars"[701]). + +In Russia, Rumania (Dacia), and most of the Balkan Peninsula these +Mongolo-Turki blends have been again submerged by the dominant Slav and +Rumanian peoples (Great and Little Russians, Servo-Croatians, +Montenegrini, Moldavians, and Walachians). But in south-western Asia +they still constitute perhaps the majority of the population between the +Indus and Constantinople, in many places forming numerous compact +communities, in which the Mongolo-Turki physical and mental characters +are conspicuous. Such, besides the already mentioned Turkomans of +Parthian lineage, are all the nomad and many of the settled inhabitants +of Khiva, Ferghana, Karategin, Bokhara, generally comprised under the +name of Uzbegs and "Sartes." Such also are the Turki peoples of Afghan +Turkestan, and of the neighbouring uplands (Hazaras and Aimaks who claim +Mongol descent, though now of Persian speech); the Aderbaijani and many +other more scattered groups in Persia; the Nogai and Kumuk tribes of +Caucasia, and especially most of the nomad and settled agricultural +populations of Asia Minor. The Anatolian peasantry form, in fact, the +most numerous and compact division of the Turki family still surviving +in any part of their vast domain between the Bosporus and the Lena. + +Out of this prolific Oghuz stock arose many renowned chiefs, founders of +vast but somewhat unstable empires, such as those of the Gasnevides, who +ruled from Persia to the Indus; the Seljuks, who first wrested the +Asiatic provinces from Byzantium; the Osmanli, so named from Othman, the +Arabised form of Athman, who prepared the way for Orkhan (1326-60), true +builder of the Ottoman power, which has alone survived the shipwreck of +all the historical Turki states. The vicissitudes of these monarchies, +looked on perhaps with too kindly an eye by Gibbon, belong to the domain +of history, and it will suffice here to state that from the ethnical +standpoint the chief interest centres in that of the Seljukides, +covering the period from about the middle of the eleventh to the middle +of the thirteenth century. It was under Togrul-beg of this dynasty +(1038-63) that "the whole body of the Turkish nation embraced with +fervour and sincerity the religion of Mahomet[702]." A little later +began the permanent Turki occupation of Asia Minor, where, after the +conquest of Armenia (1065-68) and the overthrow of the Byzantine emperor +Romanus Diogenes (1071), numerous military settlements, followed by +nomad Turkoman encampments, were established by the great Seljuk rulers, +Alp Arslan and Malek Shah (1063-92), at all the strategical points. +These first arrivals were joined later by others fleeing before the +Mongol hosts led by Jenghiz-Khan's successors down to the time of +Timur-beg. But the Christians (Greeks and earlier aborigines) were not +exterminated, and we read that, while great numbers apostatised, "many +thousand children were marked by the knife of circumcision; and many +thousand captives were devoted to the service or the pleasures of their +masters" (_ib._). In other words, the already mixed Turki intruders were +yet more modified by further interminglings with the earlier inhabitants +of Asia Minor. Those who, following the fortunes of the Othman dynasty, +crossed the Bosporus and settled in Rumelia and some other parts of the +Balkan Peninsula, now prefer to call themselves _Osmanli_, even +repudiating the national name "Turk" still retained with pride by the +ruder peasant classes of Asia Minor. The latter are often spoken of as +"Seljuk Turks," as if there were some racial difference between them and +the European Osmanli, and for the distinction there is some foundation. +As pointed out by Arminius Vambery[703], the Osmanli have been +influenced and modified by their closer association with the Christian +populations of the Balkan lands, while in Anatolia the Seljuks have been +able better to preserve the national type and temperament. The true +Turki spirit ("das Tuerkentum") survives especially in the provinces of +Lykaonia and Kappadokia, where the few surviving natives were not only +Islamised but ethnically fused, whereas in Europe most of them +(Bosnians, Albanians) were only Islamised, and here the Turki element +has always been slight. + +At present the original Turki type and temperament are perhaps best +preserved amongst the remote _Yakuts_ of the Lena, and the _Kirghiz_ +groups (_Kirghiz Kazaks_ and _Kara Kirghiz_) of the West Siberian steppe +and the Pamir uplands. The Turki connection of the Yakuts, about which +some unnecessary doubts had been raised, has been set at rest by V. A. +Sierochevsky[704], who, however, describes them as now a very mixed +people, owing to alliances with the Tunguses and Russians. They are of +short stature, averaging scarcely 5 ft. 4 in., and this observer thought +their dark but not brilliant black eyes, deeply sunk in narrow orbits, +gave them more of a Red Indian than of a Mongol cast. They are almost +the only progressive aboriginal people in Siberia, although numbering +not more than 200,000 souls, concentrated chiefly along the river banks +on the plateau between the Lena and the Aldan. + +In the Yakuts we have an extreme instance of the capacity of man to +adapt himself to the _milieu_. They not merely exist, but thrive and +display a considerable degree of energy and enterprise in the coldest +region on the globe. Within the isothermal of -72 deg. Fahr., Verkhoyansk, +in the heart of their territory, is alone included, for the period from +November to February, and in this temperature, at which the quicksilver +freezes, the Yakut children may be seen gambolling naked in the snow. In +midwinter R. Kennan met some of these "men of iron," as Wrangel calls +them, airily arrayed in nothing but a shirt and a sheepskin, lounging +about as if in the enjoyment of the balmy zephyrs of some genial +sub-tropical zone. + +Although nearly all are Orthodox Christians, or at least baptized as +such, they are mere Shamanists at heart, still conjuring the powers of +nature, but offering no worship to a supreme deity, of whom they have a +vague notion, though he is too far off to hear, or too good to need +their supplications. The world of good and evil spirits, however, has +been enriched by accessions from the Russian calendar and pandemonium. +Thanks to their commercial spirit, the Yakut language, a very pure Turki +idiom, is even more widespread than the race, having become a general +medium of intercourse for Tungus, Russian, Mongol and other traders +throughout East Siberia, from Irkutsk to the Sea of Okhotsk, and from +the Chinese frontier to the Arctic Ocean[705]. + +To some extent W. Radloff is right in describing the great Kirghiz Turki +family as "of all Turks most nearly allied to the Mongols in their +physical characters, and by their family names such as Kyptshak +[Kipchak], Argyn, Naiman, giving evidence of Mongolian descent, or at +least of intermixture with Mongols[706]." But we have already been +warned against the danger of attaching too much importance to these +tribal designations, many of which seem, after acquiring renown on the +battle-field, to have passed readily from one ethnic group to another. +There are certain Hindu-Kush and Afghan tribes who think themselves +Greeks or Arabs, because of the supposed descent of their chiefs from +Alexander the Great or the Prophet's family, and genealogical trees +spring up like the conjurer's mango plant in support of such illustrious +lineage. The Chagatai (Jagatai) tribes, of Turki stock and speech, take +their name from a full-blood Mongol, Chagatai, second son of +Jenghiz-Khan, to whom fell Eastern Turkestan in the partition of the +empire. + +In the same way many Uzbeg and Kirghiz Turki tribes are named from +famous Mongol chiefs, although no one will deny a strain of true Mongol +blood in all these heterogeneous groups. This is evident enough from the +square and somewhat flat Mongol features, prominent cheek-bones, oblique +eyes, large mouth, feet and hands, yellowish brown complexion, ungainly +obese figures and short stature, all of which are characteristic of +both sections, the Kara-Kirghiz highlanders, and the Kazaks of the +lowlands. Some ethnologists regard these Kirghiz groups, not as a +distinct branch of the Mongolo-Turki race, but rather as a confederation +of several nomad tribes stretching from the Gobi to the Lower Volga, and +mingled together by Jenghiz-Khan and his successors[707]. + +The true national name is _Kazak_, "Riders," and as they were originally +for the most part mounted marauders, or free lances of the steppe, the +term came to be gradually applied to all nomad and other horsemen +engaged in predatory warfare. It thus at an early date reached the South +Russian steppe, where it was adopted in the form of _Kossack_ by the +Russians themselves. It should be noted that the compound term +Kirghiz-Kazak, introduced by the Russians to distinguish these nomads +from their own Cossacks, is really a misnomer. The word "Kirghiz," +whatever its origin, is never used by the Kazaks in reference to +themselves, but only to their near relations, the Kirghiz, or +Kara-Kirghiz[708], of the uplands. + +These highlanders, who roam the Tian-Shan and Pamir valleys, form two +sections:--_On_, "Right," or East, and _Sol_, "Left," or West. They are +the _Diko Kamennyi_, that is, "Wild Rock People," of the Russians, +whence the expression "Block Kirghiz" still found in some English books +of travel. But they call themselves simply Kirghiz, claiming descent +from an original tribe of that name, itself sprung from a legendary +Kirghiz-beg, from whom are also descended the Chiliks, Kitars and +others, all now reunited with the Ons and the Sols. + +The Kazaks also are grouped in long-established and still jealously +maintained sections--the _Great_, _Middle_, _Little_, and _Inner +Horde_--whose joint domain extends from Lake Balkash round the north +side of the Caspian down to the Lower Volga[709]. All accepted the +teachings of Islam many centuries ago, but their Muhammadanism[710] is +of a somewhat negative character, without mosques, mollahs, or +fanaticism, and in practice not greatly to be distinguished from the old +Siberian Shamanism. Kumiss, fermented mare's milk, their universal +drink, as amongst the ancient Scythians, plays a large part in the life +of these hospitable steppe nomads. + +One of the lasting results of Castren's labours has been to place beyond +reasonable doubt the Altai origin of the Finnish peoples[711]. Their +cradle may now be localised with some confidence about the head waters +of the Yenisei, in proximity to that of their Turki kinsmen. Here is the +seat of the _Soyotes_ and of the closely allied _Koibals_, +_Kamassintzi_, _Matores_, _Karagasses_ and others, who occupy a +considerable territory along both slopes of the Sayan range, and may be +regarded as the primitive stock of the widely diffused Finnish race. +Some of these groups have intermingled with the neighbouring Turki +peoples, and even speak Turki dialects. But the original Finnish type +and speech are well represented by the Soyotes, who are here indigenous, +and "from these their ... kinsmen, the Samoyeds have spread as breeders +of reindeer to the north of the continent from the White Sea to the Bay +of Chatanga[712]." Others, following a westerly route along the foot of +the Altai and down the Irtysh to the Urals, appear to have long occupied +both slopes of that range, where they acquired some degree of culture, +and especially that knowledge of, and skill in working, the precious and +other metals, for which the "White-eyed Chudes" were famous, and to +which repeated reference is made in the songs of the _Kalevala_[713]. +As there are no mines or minerals in Finland itself, it seems obvious +that the legendary heroes of the Finnish national epic must have dwelt +in some metalliferous region, which could only be the Altai or the +Urals, possibly both. + +In any case the Urals became a second home and point of dispersion for +the Finnish tribes (_Ugrian Finns_), whose migrations--some prehistoric, +some historic--can be followed thence down the Pechora and Dvina to the +Frozen Ocean[714], and down the Kama to the Volga. From this artery, +where permanent settlements were formed (_Volga Finns_), some conquering +hordes went south and west (_Danubian Finns_), while more peaceful +wanderers ascended the great river to Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and thence +to the shores of the Baltic and Lapland (_Baltic and Lake Finns_). + +Thus were constituted the main branches of the widespread Finnish +family, whose domain formerly extended from the Katanga beyond the +Yenisei to Lapland, and from the Arctic Ocean to the Altai range, the +Caspian, and the Volga, with considerable _enclaves_ in the Danube +basin. But throughout their relatively short historic life the Finnish +peoples, despite a characteristic tenacity and power of resistance, have +in many places been encroached upon, absorbed, or even entirely +eliminated, by more aggressive races, such as the Siberian "Tatars" in +their Altai cradleland, the Turki Kirghiz and Bashkirs in the West +Siberian steppes and the Urals, the Russians in the Volga and Lake +districts, the Germans and Lithuanians in the Baltic Provinces (Kurland, +Livonia, Esthonia), the Rumanians, Slavs, and others in the Danube +regions, where the Ugrian Bulgars and Magyars have been almost entirely +assimilated in type (and the former also in speech) to the surrounding +European populations. + +Few anthropologists now attach much importance to the views not yet +quite obsolete regarding a former extension of the Finnish race over +the whole of Europe and the British Isles. Despite the fact that all the +Finns are essentially round-headed, they were identified first with the +long-headed cavemen, who retreated north with the reindeer, as was the +favourite hypothesis, and then with the early neolithic races who were +also long-headed. Elaborate but now forgotten essays were written by +learned philologists to establish a common origin of the Basque and the +Finnic tongues, which have nothing in common, and half the myths, +folklore, and legendary heroes of the western nations were traced to +Finno-Ugrian sources. + +Now we know better, and both archaeologists and philologists have made +it evident that the Finnish peoples are relatively quite recent arrivals +in Europe, that the men of the Bronze Age in Finland itself were not +Finns but Teutons, and that at the beginning of the new era all the +Finnish tribes still dwelt east of the Gulf of Finland[715]. + +Not only so, but the eastern migrations themselves, as above roughly +outlined, appear to have taken place at a relatively late epoch, long +after the inhabitants of West Siberia had passed from the New Stone to +the Metal Ages. J. R. Aspelin, "founder of Finno-Ugrian archaeology," +points out that the Finno-Ugrian peoples originally occupied a +geographical position between the Indo-Germanic and the Mongolic races, +and that their first Iron Age was most probably a development, between +the Yenisei and the Kama, of the so-called Ural-Altai Bronze Age, the +last echoes of which may be traced westwards to Finland and North +Scandinavia. In the Upper Yenisei districts iron objects had still the +forms of the Bronze Age, when that ancient civilisation, associated with +the name of the "Chudes," was interrupted by an invasion which +introduced the still persisting Turki Iron Age, expelled the aboriginal +inhabitants, and thus gave rise to the great migrations first of the +Finno-Ugrians, and then of the Turki peoples (Bashkirs, Volga "Tatars" +and others) to and across the Urals. It was here, in the Permian +territory between the Irtysh and the Kama, that the West Siberian +(Chudish) Iron Age continued its normal and unbroken evolution. The +objects recovered from the old graves and kurgans in the present +governments of Tver and Iaroslav, and especially at Ananyino on the +Kama, centre of this culture, show that here took place the transition +from the Bronze to the Iron Age some 300 years before the new era, and +here was developed a later Iron Age, whose forms are characteristic of +the northern Finno-Ugrian lands. The whole region would thus appear to +have been first occupied by these immigrants from Asia after the +irruption of the Turki hordes into Western Siberia during the first Iron +Age, at most some 500 or 600 years before the Christian era. The +Finno-Ugrian migrations are thus limited to a period of not more than +2600 years from the present time, and this conclusion, based on +archaeological grounds, agrees fairly well with the historical, +linguistic, and ethnical data. + +It is especially in this obscure field of research that the eminent +Danish scholar, Vilhelm Thomsen, has rendered inestimable services to +European ethnology. By the light of his linguistic studies A. H. +Snellman[716] has elucidated the origins of the Baltic Finns, the +Proto-Esthonians, the now all but extinct Livonians, and the quite +extinct Kurlanders, from the time when they still dwelt east and +south-east of the Baltic lands, under the influence of the surrounding +Lithuanian and Gothic tribes, till the German conquest of the Baltic +provinces. We learn from Jordanes, to whom is due the first authentic +account of these populations, that the various Finnish tribes were +subject to the Gothic king Hermanarich, and Thomsen now shows that all +the Western Finns (Esthonians, Livonians, Votes, Vepses, Karelians, +Tavastians, and others of Finland) must in the first centuries of the +new era have lived practically as one people in the closest social +union, speaking one language, and following the same religious, tribal, +and political institutions. Earlier than the Gothic was the +Letto-Lithuanian contact, as shown by the fact that its traces are +perceptible in the language of the Volga Finns, in which German +loan-words are absent. From these investigations it becomes clear that +the Finnish domain must at that time have stretched from the present +Esthonia, Livonia, and Lake Ladoga south to the western Dvina. + +The westward movement was connected with the Slav migrations. When the +Slavs south of the Letts moved west, other Slav tribes must have pushed +north, thus driving both Letts and Finns west to the Baltic provinces, +which had previously been occupied by the Germans (Goths). Some of the +Western Finns must have found their way about 500 A.D., scarcely +earlier, into parts of this region, where they came into hostile and +friendly contact with the Norsemen. These relations would even appear to +be reflected in the Norse mythology, which may be regarded as in great +measure an echo of historic events. The wars of the Swedish and Danish +kings referred to in these oral records may be interpreted as plundering +expeditions rather than permanent conquests, while the undoubtedly +active intercourse between the east and west coasts of the Baltic may be +explained on the assumption that, after the withdrawal of the Goths, a +remnant of the Germanic populations remained behind in the Baltic +provinces. + +From Nestor's statement that all three of the Varangian princes settled, +not amongst Slavish but amongst Finnish peoples, it may be inferred that +the Finnish element constituted the most important section in the newly +founded Russian State; and it may here be mentioned that the term "Russ" +itself has now been traced to the Finnish word _Ruost_ (_Ruosti_), a +"Norseman." But although at first greatly outnumbering the Slavs, the +Finnish peoples soon lost the political ascendancy, and their subsequent +history may be summed up in the expression--gradual absorption in the +surrounding Slav populations. This inevitable process is still going on +amongst all the Volga, Lake and Baltic Finns, except in Finland and +Lapland, where other conditions obtain[717]. + +Most Finnish ethnologists agree that however much they may now differ in +their physical and mental characters and usages, Finns and Lapps were +all originally one people. Some variant of _Suoma_[718] enters into the +national name of all the Baltic groups--_Suomalaiset_, the Finns of +Finland, _Somelaized_, those of Esthonia, _Samelats_ (Sabmelad), the +Lapps, _Samoyad_, the Samoyeds. In Ohthere's time the Norsemen called +all the Lapps "Finnas" (as the Norwegians still do), and that early +navigator already noticed that these "Finns" seemed to speak the same +language as the Beormas, who were true Finns[719]. Nor do the present +inhabitants of Finland, taken as a whole, differ more in outward +appearance and temperament from their Lapp neighbours than do the +Tavastians and the Karelians, that is, their western and eastern +sections, from each other. The Tavastians, who call themselves +Hemelaiset, "Lake People," have rather broad, heavy frames, small and +oblique blue or grey eyes, towy hair and white complexion, without the +clear florid colour of the North Germanic and English peoples. The +temperament is somewhat sluggish, passive and enduring, morose and +vindictive, but honest and trustworthy. + +Very different are the tall, slim, active Karelians (_Karialaiset_, +"Cowherds," from _Kari_, "Cow"), with more regular features, straight +grey eyes, brown complexion, and chestnut hair, like that of the hero of +the Kalevala, hanging in ringlets down the shoulders. Many of the +Karelians, and most of the neighbouring _Ingrians_ about the head of the +Gulf of Finland, as well as the Votes and Vepses of the great lakes, +have been assimilated in speech, religion, and usages to the surrounding +Russian populations. But the more conservative Tavastians have hitherto +tenaciously preserved the national sentiment, language, and traditions. +Despite the pressure of Sweden on the west, and of Russia on the east, +the Finns still stand out as a distinct European nationality, and +continue to cultivate with success their harmonious and highly poetical +language. Since the twelfth century they have been Christians, converted +to the Catholic faith by "Saint" Eric, King of Sweden, and later to +Lutheranism, again by the Swedes[720]. The national university, removed +in 1827 from Abo to Helsingfors, is a centre of much scientific and +literary work, and here E. Loennrot, father of Finnish literature, +brought out his various editions of the _Kalevala_, that of 1849 +consisting of some 50,000 strophes[721]. + +A kind of transition from these settled and cultured Finns to the Lapps +of Scandinavia and Russia is formed by the still almost nomad, or at +least restless _Kwaens_, who formerly roamed as far as the White Sea, +which in Alfred's time was known as the _Cwen Sae_ (Kwaen Sea). These +Kwaens, who still number nearly 300,000, are even called nomads by J. A. +Friis, who tells us that there is a continual movement of small bands +between Finland and Scandinavia. "The wandering Kwaens pass round the +Gulf of Bothnia and up through Lappmarken to Kittalae, where they +separate, some going to Varanger, and others to Alten. They follow the +same route as that which, according to historians, some of the Norsemen +followed in their wanderings from Finland[722]." The references of the +Sagas are mostly to these primitive Bothnian Finns, with whom the +Norsemen first came in contact, and who in the sixth and following +centuries were still in a rude state not greatly removed from that of +their Ugrian forefathers. As shown by Almqvist's researches, they lived +almost exclusively by hunting and fishing, had scarcely a rudimentary +knowledge of agriculture, and could prepare neither butter nor cheese +from the milk of their half-wild reindeer herds. + +Such were also, and in some measure still are, the kindred Lapps, who +with the allied _Yurak Samoyeds_ of Arctic Russia are the only true +nomads still surviving in Europe. A. H. Cocks, who travelled amongst all +these rude aborigines in 1888, describes the Kwaens who range north to +Lake Enara, as "for the most part of a very rough class," and found that +the Russian Lapps of the Kola Peninsula, "except as to their clothing +and the addition of coffee and sugar to their food supply, are living +now much the same life as their ancestors probably lived 2000 or more +years ago, a far more primitive life, in fact, than the Reindeer Lapps +[of Scandinavia]. They have not yet begun to use tobacco, and reading +and writing are entirely unknown among them. Unlike the three other +divisions of the race [the Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish Lapps], they +are a very cheerful, light-hearted people, and have the curious habit +of expressing their thoughts aloud in extempore sing-song[723]." + +Similar traits have been noticed in the Samoyeds, whom F. G. Jackson +describes as an extremely sociable and hospitable people, delighting in +gossip, and much given to laughter and merriment[724]. He gives their +mean height as nearly 5 ft. 2 in., which is about the same as that of +the Lapps (Von Dueben, 5 ft. 2 in., others rather less), while that of +the Finns averages 5 ft. 5 in. (Topinard). Although the general Mongol +appearance is much less pronounced in the Lapps than in the Samoyeds, in +some respects--low stature, flat face with peculiar round outline--the +latter reminded Jackson of the Ziryanians, who are a branch of the +Beormas (Permian Finns), though like them now much mixed with the +Russians. The so-called prehistoric "Lapp Graves," occurring throughout +the southern parts of Scandinavia, are now known from their contents to +have belonged to the Norse race, who appear to have occupied this region +since the New Stone Age, while the Lapp domain seems never to have +reached very much farther south than Trondhjem. + +All these facts, taken especially in connection with the late arrival of +the Finns themselves in Finland, lend support to the view that the Lapps +are a branch, not of the Suomalaiset, but of the Permian Finns, and +reached their present homes, not from Finland, but from North Russia +through the Kanin and Kola Peninsulas, if not round the shores of the +White Sea, at some remote period prior to the occupation of Finland by +its present inhabitants. This assumption would also explain Ohthere's +statement that Lapps and Permians seemed to speak nearly the same +language. The resemblance is still close, though I am not competent to +say to which branch of the Finno-Ugrian family Lapp is most nearly +allied. + +Of the Mongol physical characters the Lapp still retains the round low +skull (index 83), the prominent cheek-bones, somewhat flat features, and +ungainly figure. The temperament, also, is still perhaps more Asiatic +than European, although since the eighteenth century they have been +Christians--Lutherans in Scandinavia, Orthodox in Russia. In pagan times +Shamanism had nowhere acquired a greater development than among the +Lapps. A great feature of the system were the "rune-trees," made of +pine or birch bark, inscribed with figures of gods, men, or animals, +which were consulted on all important occasions, and their mysterious +signs interpreted by the Shamans. Even foreign potentates hearkened to +the voice of these renowned magicians, and in England the expression +"Lapland witches" became proverbial, although it appears that there +never were any witches, but only wizards, in Lapland. Such rites have +long ceased to be practised, although some of the crude ideas of a +material after-life still linger on. Money and other treasures are often +buried or hid away, the owners dying without revealing the secret, +either through forgetfulness, or more probably of set purpose in the +hope of thus making provision for the other world. + +Amongst the kindred Samoyeds, despite their Russian orthodoxy, the old +pagan beliefs enjoy a still more vigorous existence. "As long as things +go well with him, he is a Christian; but should his reindeer die, or +other catastrophe happen, he immediately returns to his old god _Num_ or +_Chaddi_.... He conducts his heathen services by night and in secret, +and carefully screens from sight any image of Chaddi[725]." Jackson +noticed several instances of this compromise between the old and the +new, such as the wooden cross supplemented on the Samoyed graves by an +overturned sledge to convey the dead safely over the snows of the +under-world, and the rings of stones, within which the human sacrifices +were perhaps formerly offered to propitiate Chaddi; and although these +things have ceased, "it is only a few years ago that a Samoyad living on +Novaia Zemlia sacrificed a young girl[726]." + +Similar beliefs and practices still prevail not only amongst the +Siberian Finns--Ostyaks of the Yenisei and Obi rivers, Voguls of the +Urals--but even amongst the Votyaks, Mordvinians, Cheremisses and other +scattered groups still surviving in the Volga basin. So recently as the +year 1896 a number of Votyaks were tried and convicted for the murder of +a passing mendicant, whom they had beheaded to appease the wrath of +Kiremet, Spirit of Evil and author of the famine raging at that time in +Central Russia. Besides Kiremet, the Votyaks--who appear to have +migrated from the Urals to their present homes between the Kama and the +Viatka rivers about 400 A.D., and are mostly heathens--also worship +Inmar, God of Heaven, to whom they sacrifice animals as well as human +beings whenever it can be safely done. We are assured by Baron de Baye +that even the few who are baptized take part secretly in these +unhallowed rites[727]. + +To the Ugrian branch, rudest and most savage of all the Finnish peoples, +belong these now moribund Volga groups, as well as the fierce Bulgar and +Magyar hordes, if not also their precursors, the _Jazyges_ and +_Rhoxolani_, who in the second century A.D. swarmed into Pannonia from +the Russian steppe, and in company with the Germanic Quadi and +Marcomanni twice (168 and 172) advanced to the walls of Aquileia, and +were twice arrested by the legions of Marcus Aurelius and Verus. Of the +once numerous Jazyges, whom Pliny calls Sarmates, there were several +branches--_Maeotae_, Metanastae, _Basilii_ ("Royal")--who were first +reduced by the Goths spreading from the Baltic to the Euxine and Lower +Danube, and then overwhelmed with the Dacians, Getae, Bastarnae, and a +hundred other ancient peoples in the great deluge of the Hunnish +invasion. + +From the same South Russian steppe--the plains watered by the Lower Don +and Dnieper--came the _Bulgars_, first in association with the Huns, +from whom they are scarcely distinguished by the early Byzantine +writers, and then as a separate people, who, after throwing off the yoke +of the Avars (635 A.D.), withdrew before the pressure of the Khazars +westwards to the Lower Danube (678). But their records go much farther +back than these dates, and while philologists and archaeologists are +able to trace their wanderings step by step north to the Middle Volga +and the Ural Mountains, authentic Armenian documents carry their history +back to the second century B.C. Under the Arsacides numerous bands of +Bulgars, driven from their homes about the Kama confluence by civil +strife, settled on the banks of the Aras, and since that time (150-114 +B.C.) the Bulgars were known to the Armenians as a great nation dwelling +away to the north far beyond the Caucasus. + + +Originally the name, which afterwards acquired such an odious notoriety +amongst the European peoples, may have been more geographical than +ethnical, implying not so much a particular nation as all the +inhabitants of the _Bulga_ (Volga) between the Kama and the Caspian. But +at that time this section of the great river seems to have been mainly +held by more or less homogeneous branches of the Finno-Ugrian family, +and palethnologists have now shown that to this connection beyond all +question belonged in physical appearance, speech, and usages those bands +known as Bulgars, who formed permanent settlements in Moesia south of +the Lower Danube towards the close of the seventh century[728]. Here +"these bold and dexterous archers, who drank the milk and feasted on the +flesh of their fleet and indefatigable horses; whose flocks and herds +followed, or rather guided, the motions of their roving camps; to whose +inroads no country was remote or impervious, and who were practised in +flight, though incapable of fear[729]," established a powerful state, +which maintained its independence for over seven hundred years +(678-1392). + +Acting at first in association with the Slavs, and then assuming "a +vague dominion" over their restless Sarmatian allies, the Bulgars spread +the terror of their hated name throughout the Balkan lands, and were +prevented only by the skill of Belisarius from anticipating their Turki +kinsmen in the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire itself. Procopius and +Jornandes have left terrible pictures of the ferocity, debasement, and +utter savagery, both of the Bulgars and of their Slav confederates +during the period preceding the foundation of the Bulgar dynasty in +Moesia. Wherever the Slavs (Antes, Slavini) passed, no soul was left +alive; Thrace and Illyria were strewn with unburied corpses; captives +were shut up with horse and cattle in stables, and all consumed +together, while the brutal hordes danced to the music of their shrieks +and groans. Indescribable was the horror inspired by the Bulgars, who +killed for killing's sake, wasted for sheer love of destruction, swept +away all works of the human hand, burnt, razed cities, left in their +wake nought but a picture of their own cheerless native steppes. Of all +the barbarians that harried the Empire, the Bulgars have left the most +detested name, although closely rivalled by the Slavs. + +To the ethnologist the later history of the Bulgarians is of exceptional +interest. They entered the Danubian lands in the seventh century as +typical Ugro-Finns, repulsive alike in physical appearance and mental +characters. Their dreaded chief, Krum, celebrated his triumphs with +sanguinary rites, and his followers yielded in no respects to the Huns +themselves in coarseness and brutality. Yet an almost complete moral if +not physical transformation had been effected by the middle of the ninth +century, when the Bulgars were evangelised by Byzantine missionaries, +exchanged their rude Ugrian speech for a Slavonic tongue, the so-called +"Church Slav," or even "Old Bulgarian," and became henceforth merged in +the surrounding Slav populations. The national name "Bulgar" alone +survives, as that of a somewhat peaceful southern "Slav" people, who in +our time again acquired the political independence of which they had +been deprived by Bajazet I. in 1392. + +Nor did this name disappear from the Volga lands after the great +migration of Bulgar hordes to the Don basin during the third and fourth +centuries A.D. On the contrary, here arose another and a greater Bulgar +empire, which was known to the Byzantines of the tenth century as "Black +Bulgaria," and later to the Arabs and Western peoples as "Great +Bulgaria," in contradistinction to the "Little Bulgaria" south of the +Danube[730]. It fell to pieces during the later "Tatar" wars, and +nothing now remains of the Volga Bulgars, except the Volga itself from +which they were named. + +In the same region, but farther north[731], lay also a "Great Hungary," +the original seat of those other Ugrian Finns known as Hungarians and +Magyars, who followed later in the track of the Bulgars, and like them +formed permanent settlements in the Danube basin, but higher up in +Pannonia, the present kingdom of Hungary. Here, however, the Magyars had +been preceded by the kindred (or at least distantly connected) Avars, +the dominant people in the Middle Danube lands for a great part of the +period between the departure of the Huns and the arrival of the +Magyars[732]. Rolling up like a storm cloud from the depths of Siberia +to the Volga and Euxine, sweeping everything before them, reducing +Kutigurs, Utigurs, Bulgars, and Slavs, the Avars presented themselves in +the sixth century on the frontiers of the empire as the unwelcome allies +of Justinian. Arrested at the Elbe by the Austrasian Franks, and hard +pressed by the Gepidae, they withdrew to the Lower Danube under the +ferocious Khagan Bayan, who, before his overthrow by the Emperor +Mauritius and death in 602, had crossed the Danube, captured Sirmium, +and reduced the whole region bordering on the Byzantine empire. Later +the still powerful Avars with their Slav followers, "the Avar viper and +the Slav locust," overran the Balkan lands, and in 625 nearly captured +Constantinople. They were at last crushed by Pepin, king of Italy, who +reoccupied Sirmium in 799, and brought back such treasure that the value +of gold was for a time enormously reduced. + +Then came the opportunity of the _Hunagars_ (Hungarians), who, after +advancing from the Urals to the Volga (550 A.D.), had reached the Danube +about 886. Here they were invited to the aid of the Germanic king +Arnulf, threatened by a formidable coalition of the western Slavs under +the redoubtable Zventibolg, a nominal Christian who would enter the +church on horseback followed by his wild retainers, and threaten the +priest at the altar with the lash. In the upland Transylvanian valleys +the Hunagars had been joined by eight of the derelict Khazar tribes, +amongst whom were the _Megers_ or _Mogers_, whose name under the form of +_Magyar_ was eventually extended to the united Hunagar-Khazar nation. +Under their renowned king Arpad, son of Almuth, they first overthrew +Zventibolg, and then with the help of the surviving Avars reduced the +surrounding Slav populations. Thus towards the close of the ninth +century was founded in Pannonia the present kingdom of Hungary, in +which were absorbed all the kindred Mongol and Finno-Turki elements +that still survived from the two previous Mongolo-Turki empires, +established in the same region by the Huns under Attila (430-453), and +by the Avars under Khagan Bayan (562-602). + +After reducing the whole of Pannonia and ravaging Carinthia and Friuli, +the Hunagars raided Bavaria and Italy (899-900), imposed a tribute on +the feeble successor of Arnulf (910), and pushed their plundering +expeditions as far west as Alsace, Lorraine, and Burgundy, everywhere +committing atrocities that recalled the memory of Attila's savage +hordes. Trained riders, archers and javelin-throwers from infancy, they +advanced to the attack in numerous companies following hard upon each +other, avoiding close quarters, but wearing out their antagonists by the +persistence of their onslaughts. They were the scourge and terror of +Europe, and were publicly proclaimed by the Emperor Otto I. (955) the +enemies of God and humanity. + +This period of lawlessness and savagery was closed by the conversion of +Saint Stephen I. (997-1038), after which the Magyars became gradually +assimilated in type and general culture, but not in speech, to the +western nations[733]. Their harmonious and highly cultivated language +still remains a typical member of the Ural-Altaic family, reflecting in +its somewhat composite vocabulary the various Finno-Ugric and Turki +elements (Ugrians and Permians from the Urals, Volga Finns, Turki Avars +and Khazars), of which the substratum of the Magyar nation is +constituted[734]. + +"The modern Magyars," says Peisker, "are one of the most varied +race-mixtures on the face of the earth, and one of the two chief Magyar +types of today--traced to the Arpad era [end of ninth century] by +tomb-findings--is dolichocephalic with a narrow visage. There we have +before us Altaian origin, Ugrian speech and Indo-European type +combined[735]." + +Politically the Magyars continue to occupy a position of vital +importance in Eastern Europe, wedged in between the northern and +southern Slav peoples, and thus presenting an insurmountable obstacle to +the aspirations of the Panslavist dreamers. The fiery and vigorous +Magyar nationality, a compact body of about 8,000,000 (1898), holds the +boundless plains watered by the Middle Danube and the Theiss, and thus +permanently separates the Chechs, Moravians, and Slovaks of Bohemia and +the northern Carpathians from their kinsmen, the Yugo-Slavs ("Southern +Slavs") of Servia and the other now Slavonised Balkan lands. These +Yugo-Slavs are in their turn severed by the Rumanians of Neo-Latin +speech from their northern and eastern brethren, the Ruthenians, Poles, +Great and Little Russians. Had the Magyars and Rumanians adopted any of +the neighbouring Slav idioms, it is safe to say that, like the Ugrian +Bulgarians, they must have long ago been absorbed in the surrounding +Panslav world, with consequences to the central European nations which +it would not be difficult to forecast. Here we have a striking +illustration of the influence of language in developing and preserving +the national sentiment, analogous in many respects to that now witnessed +on a larger scale amongst the English-speaking populations on both sides +of the Atlantic and in the Austral lands. From this point of view the +ethnologist may unreservedly accept Ehrenreich's trenchant remark that +"the nation stands and falls with its speech[736]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[671] _Natural History of Man_, 1865 ed. pp. 185-6. + +[672] _Science of Language_, 1879, II. p. 190. + +[673] _The Heart of a Continent,_ 1896, p. 118. + +[674] O. Peschel, _Races of Man,_ 1894, p. 380. + +[675] See Ch. de Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_, etc., 1896, p. 25. Reference +should perhaps be also made to E. H. Parker's theory (_Academy_, Dec. +21, 1895) that the Turki cradle lay, not in the Altai or Altun-dagh +("Golden Mountains") of North Mongolia, but 1000 miles farther south in +the "Golden Mountains" (_Kin-shan_) of the present Chinese province of +Kansu. But the evidence relied on is not satisfactory, and indeed in one +or two important instances is not evidence at all. + +[676] J. B. Bury, _English Historical Rev.,_ July, 1897. + +[677] _L'Anthropologie,_ VI. No. 3. + +[678] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval +History,_ Vol. I. 1911, p. 354. + +[679] _Academy,_ Dec. 21, 1895, p. 548. + +[680] "Budini Gelonion urbem ligneam habitant; juxta Thyssagetae +_Turcaeque_ vastas silvas occupant, alunturque venando" (I. 19, p. 27 of +Leipzig ed. 1880). + +[681] "Dein Tanain amnem gemino ore influentem incolunt Sarmatae ... +Tindari, Thussagetae, _Tyrcae_, usque ad solitudines saltuosis +convallibus asperas, etc." (Bk. VIII. 7, Vol. I. p. 234 of Berlin ed. +1886). The variants _Turcae_ and _Tyrcae_ are noteworthy, as indicating +the same vacillating sound of the root vowel (_u_ and _y = ue_) that +still persists. + +[682] Not only was the usurper Nadir Shah a Turkoman of the Afshar tribe +but the present reigning family belongs to the rival clan of Qajar +Turkomans long settled in Khorasan, the home of their Parthian +forefathers. + +[683] Of 59 Turkomans the hair was generally a dark brown; the eyes +brown (45) and light grey (14); face orthognathous (52) and prognathous +(7); eyes mostly _not_ oblique; cephalic index 68.69 to 81.76, mean +75.64; dolicho 28, sub-dolicho 18, 9 mesati, 4 sub-brachy. Five skulls +from an old graveyard at Samarkand were also very heterogeneous, +cephalic index ranging from 77.72 to 94.93. This last, unless deformed, +exceeds in brachycephaly "le celebre crane d'un Slave vende qu'on cite +dans les manuels d'anthropologie" (Th. Volkov, _L'Anthropologie,_ 1897, +pp. 355-7). + +[684] Quoted by W. Crooke, who points out that "the opinion of the best +Indian authorities seems to be gradually turning to the belief that the +connection between Jats and Rajputs is more intimate than was formerly +supposed" (_The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and +Oudh_, Calcutta, 1896, III. p. 27). + +[685] Virgil's "indomiti Dahae" (_Aen._ VIII. 728): possibly the +Dehavites (Dievi) of Ezra iv. 9. + +[686] _Herodotus_, Vol. I. p. 413. + +[687] From Pers. [Arabic Symbol], _dih, dah_, village (Parsi _dahi_). + +[688] _Les Aryens_, etc., p. 68 sq. + +[689] _De Bello Persico, passim._ + +[690] Crooke, _op. cit._ IV. p. 221. + +[691] _The Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, 1892; _The People of India_, +1908. + +[692] Discovered in 1889 by N. M. Yadrintseff in the Orkhon valley, +which drains to the Selenga affluent of Lake Baikal. The inscriptions, +one in Chinese and three in Turki, cover the four sides of a monument +erected by a Chinese emperor to the memory of Kyul-teghin, brother of +the then reigning Turki Khan Bilga (Mogilan). In the same historical +district, where stand the ruins of Karakoram--long the centre of Turki +and later of Mongol power--other inscribed monuments have also been +found, all apparently in the same Turki language and script, but quite +distinct from the glyptic rock carvings of the Upper Yenisei river, +Siberia. The chief workers in this field were the Finnish +archaeologists, J. R. Aspelin, A. Snellman and Axel O. Heikel, the +results of whose labours are collected in the _Inscriptions de +l'Jenissei recueillies et publiees par la Societe Finlandaise +d'Archeologie_, Helsingfors, 1889; and _Inscriptions de l'Orkhon_, etc., +Helsingfors, 1892. + +[693] "La source d'ou est tiree l'origine de l'alphabet turc, sinon +immediatement, du moins par intermediaire, c'est la forme de l'alphabet +semitique qu'on appelle arameenne" (_Inscriptions de l'Orkhon +dechiffrees_, Helsingfors, 1894). + +[694] See Klaproth, _Tableau Historique de l'Asie_, p. 116 sq. + +[695] They are the _Onoi_, the "Tens," who at this time dwelt beyond the +Scythians of the Caspian Sea (Dionysius Periegetes). + +[696] It still persists, however, as a tribal designation both amongst +the Kirghiz and Uzbegs, and in 1885 Potanin visited the _Yegurs_ of the +Edzin-gol valley in south-east Mongolia, said to be the last surviving +representatives of the Uigur nation (H. Schott, "Zur Uigurenfrage," in +_Abhandl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss._, Berlin, 1873, pp. 101-21). + +[697] Ch. de Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de l'Hindou-Kouch_, +p. 28. + +[698] "Notes on the Physical Anthropology of Chinese Turkestan and the +Pamirs," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLII. 1912. + +[699] "The Uzi of the Greeks are the Gozz [Ghuz] of the Orientals. They +appear on the Danube and the Volga, in Armenia, Syria, and Chorasan, and +their name seems to have been extended to the whole Turkoman [Turki] +race" [by the Arab writers]; Gibbon, Ch. LVII. + +[700] Who take their name from a mythical Uz-beg, "Prince Uz" (_beg_ in +Turki = a chief, or hereditary ruler). + +[701] Both of these take their name, not from mythical but from +historical chiefs:--_Kazan Khan_ of the Volga, "the rival of Cyrus and +Alexander," who was however of the house of Jenghiz, consequently not a +Turk, like most of his subjects, but a true Mongol (_ob._ 1304); and +_Noga_, the ally and champion of Michael Palaeologus against the Mongols +marching under the terrible Holagu almost to the shores of the Bosporus. + +[702] Gibbon, Chap. LVII. By the "Turkish nation" is here to be +understood the western section only. The Turks of Mawar-en-Nahar and +Kashgaria (Eastern Turkestan) had been brought under the influences of +Islam by the first Arab invaders from Persia two centuries earlier. + +[703] "Die Stellung der Tuerken in Europa," in _Geogr. Zeitschrift_, +Leipzig, 1897, Part 5, p. 250 sq. + +[704] "Ethnographic Researches," edited by N. E. Vasilofsky for the +_Imperial Geogr. Soc._ 1896, quoted in _Nature_, Dec. 3, 1896, p. 97. + +[705] A. Erman, _Reise um die Erde_, 1835, Vol. III. p. 51. + +[706] Quoted by Peschel, _Races of Man_, p. 383. + +[707] M. Balkashin in _Izvestia Russ. Geogr. Soc._, April, 1883. + +[708] _Kara_ = "Black," with reference to the colour of their round felt +tents. + +[709] On the obscure relations of these Hordes to the Kara-Kirghiz and +prehistoric Usuns some light has been thrown by the investigations of N. +A. Aristov, a summary of whose conclusions is given by A. Ivanovski in +_Centralblatt fuer Anthropologie_, etc., 1896, p. 47. + +[710] Although officially returned as Muhammadans of the Sunni sect, +Levchine tells as that it is hard to say whether they are Moslem, Pagan +(Shamanists), or Manichean, this last because they believe God has made +good angels called _Mankir_ and bad angels called _Nankir_. Two of these +spirits sit invisibly on the shoulders of every person from his birth, +the good on the right, the bad on the left, each noting his actions in +their respective books, and balancing accounts at his death. It is +interesting to compare these ideas with those of the Uzbeg prince who +explained to Lansdell that at the resurrection, the earth being flat, +the dead grow out of it like grass; then God divides the good from the +bad, sending these below and those above. In heaven nobody dies, and +every wish is gratified; even the wicked creditor may seek out his +debtor, and in lieu of the money owing may take over the equivalent in +his good deeds, if there be any, and thus be saved (_Through Central +Asia_, 1887, p. 438). + +[711] See especially his _Reiseberichte u. Briefe aus den Jahren +1845-49_, p. 401 sq.; and _Versuch einer Koibalischen u. Karagassischen +Sprachlehre_, 1858, Vol. I. _passim_. But cf. J. Szinnyei, +_Finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft_, 1910, pp. 19-20. + +[712] Peschel, _Races of Man_, p. 386. + +[713] In a suggestive paper on this collection of Finnish songs C. U. +Clark (_Forum_, April, 1898, p. 238 sq.) shows from the primitive +character of the mythology, the frequent allusions to copper or bronze, +and the almost utter absence of Christian ideas and other indications, +that these songs must be of great antiquity. "There seems to be no doubt +that some parts date back to at least 3000 years ago, before the Finns +and the Hungarians had become distinct peoples; for the names of the +divinities, many of the customs, and even particular incantations and +bits of superstitions mentioned in the Kalevala are curiously duplicated +in ancient Hungarian writings." + +[714] When Ohthere made his famous voyage round North Cape to the Cwen +Sea (White Sea) all this Arctic seaboard was inhabited, not by Samoyeds, +as at present, but by true Finns, whom King Alfred calls _Beormas_, +_i.e._ the _Biarmians_ of the Norsemen, and the _Permiaki_ (_Permians_) +of the Russians (_Orosius_, I. 13). In medieval times the whole region +between the White Sea and the Urals was often called Permia; but since +the withdrawal southwards of the Zirynians and other Permian Finns this +Arctic region has been thinly occupied by Samoyed tribes spreading +slowly westward from Siberia to the Pechora and Lower Dvina. + +[715] See A. Hackman, _Die Bronzezeit Finnlands_, Helsingfors, 1897; +also M. Aspelin, O. Montelius, V. Thomsen and others, who have all, on +various grounds, arrived at the same conclusion. Even D. E. D. +Europaeus, who has advanced so many heterodox views on the Finnish +cradleland, and on the relations of the Finnic to the Mongolo-Turki +languages, agrees that "vers l'epoque de la naissance de J. C., +c'est-a-dire bien longtemps avant que ces tribus immigrassent en +Finlande, elles [the western Finns] etaient etablies immediatement au +sud des lacs d'Onega et de Ladoga." (_Travaux Geographiques executes en +Finlande jusqu'en_ 1895, Helsingfors, 1895, p. 141.) + +[716] _Finska Forminnesfoereningens Tidskrift, Journ. Fin. Antiq. Soc._ +1896, p. 137 sq. + +[717] "Les Finnois et leurs congeneres ont occupe autrefois, sur +d'immenses espaces, les vastes regions forestieres de la Russie +septentrionale et centrale, et de la Siberie occidentale; mais plus +tard, refoules et divises par d'autres peuples, ils furent reduits a des +tribus isolees, dont il ne reste maintenant que des debris epars" +(_Travaux Geographiques_, p. 132). + +[718] A word of doubtful meaning, commonly but wrongly supposed to mean +_swamp_ or _fen_, and thus to be the original of the Teutonic _Finnas_, +"Fen People" (see Thomsen, _Einfluss d. ger. Spr. auf die +finnisch-lappischen_, p. 14). + +[719] "Þa Finnas, him þuhte, and þa Beormas spraecon neah an geetheode" +(Orosius, I. 14). + +[720] See my paper on the Finns in Cassel's _Storehouse of Information_, +p. 296. + +[721] The fullest information concerning Finland and its inhabitants is +found in the _Atlas de Finlande_, with _Texte_ (2 vols.) published by +the _Soc. Geog. Finland_ in 1910. + +[722] _Laila_, Earl of Ducie's English ed., p. 58. The Swedish _Bothnia_ +is stated to be a translation of _Kwaen_, meaning low-lying coastlands; +hence _Kainulaiset_, as they call themselves, would mean "Coastlanders." + +[723] _A Boat Journey to Inari_, Viking Club, Feb. 1, 1895. + +[724] _The Great Frozen Land_, 1895, p. 61. + +[725] _The Great Frozen Land_, p. 84. + +[726] Cf. M. A. Czaplicka, _Aboriginal Siberia_, 1914, pp. 162, 289 _n._ + +[727] _Notes sur les Votiaks payens des Gouvernements de Kazan et +Viatka_, Paris, 1897. They are still numerous, especially in Viatka, +where they numbered 240,000 in 1897. + +[728] See especially Schafarik's classical work _Slavische Alterthuemer_, +II. p. 159 sq. and V. de Saint-Martin, _Etudes de Geographie Ancienne et +d'Ethnographie asiatique_, II. p. 10 sq., also the still indispensable +Gibbon, Ch. XLII., etc. + +[729] _Decline and Fall_, XLII. + +[730] Rubruquis (thirteenth century): "We came to the Etil, a very large +and deep river four times wider than the Seine, flowing from 'Great +Bulgaria,' which lies to the north." Farther on he adds: "It is from +this Great Bulgaria that issued those Bulgarians who are beyond the +Danube, on the Constantinople side" (quoted by V. de Saint-Martin). + +[731] Evidently much nearer to the Ural Mountains, for Jean du Plan +Carpin says this "Great Hungary was the land of _Bascart_," that is, +_Bashkir_, a large Finno-Turki people, who still occupy a considerable +territory in the Orenburg Government about the southern slopes of the +Urals. + +[732] With them were associated many of the surviving fugitive On-Uigurs +(Gibbon's "Ogors or Varchonites"), whence the report that they were not +true Avars. But the Turki genealogies would appear to admit their claim +to the name, and in any case the Uigurs and Avars of those times cannot +now be ethnically distinguished. _Kandish_, one of their envoys to +Justinian, is clearly a Turki name, and _Varchonites_ seems to point to +the Warkhon (Orkhon), seat in successive ages of the eastern Turks, the +Uigurs, and the true Mongols. + +[733] _Ethnology_, p. 309. + +[734] Vambery, perhaps the best authority on this point, holds that in +its structure Magyar leans more to the Finno-Ugric, and in its +vocabulary to the Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic linguistic family. He +attributes the effacement of the physical type partly to the effects of +the environment, partly to the continuous interminglings of the Ugric, +Turki, Slav, and Germanic peoples in Pannonia ("Ueber den Ursprung der +Magyaren," in _Mitt. d. K. K. Geograph. Ges._, Vienna, 1897, XL. Nos. 3 +and 4). + +[735] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Cambridge Medieval +History_, Vol. I. 1911, p. 356. + +[736] "Das Volk steht und faellt mit der Sprache" (_Urbewohner +Brasiliens_, 1897, p. 14). + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES + + American Origins--Fossil Man in America--The Lagoa-Santa + Race--Physical Type in North America--Cranial Deformation--The + Toltecs--Type of N.W. Coast Indians--Date of Migrations--Evidence + from Linguistics--Stock Languages--Culture--Classification-- + By Linguistics--Ethnic Movements--Archaeological + Classification--Cultural Classification--_Eskimo Area_--Material + Culture--Origin and Affinities--Physical Type--Social + Life--_Mackenzie Area_--The Dene--Material Culture--Physical + Type--Social Life--_North Pacific Coast Area_--Material + Culture--Physical Type--Social Life--_Plateau Area_--Material + Culture--Interior Salish--Social Organisation--_Californian + Area_--Material Culture--Social Life--_Plains Area_--Material + Culture--Dakota--Religion--The Sun Dance--Pawnee--Blackfeet-- + Arapaho--Cheyenne--_Eastern Woodland Area_--Material Culture-- + Central Group--Eastern Group--Iroquoian Tribes: Ojibway-- + Religion--Iroquois--_South-eastern Area_--Material Culture-- + Creeks--Yuchi--Mound-Builders--_South-western Area_--Material + Culture--Transitional or Intermediate Tribes--Pueblos--Cliff + Dwellings--Religion--Physical Type--Social Life. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# _N. W. Pacific Coastlands; the shores of the Arctic +Ocean, Labrador, and Greenland; the unsettled parts of Alaska and the +Dominion; Reservations and Agencies in the Dominion and the United +States; parts of Florida, Arizona, and New Mexico; most of Central and +South America with Fuegia either wild and full-blood, or semi-civilised +half-breeds._ + +#Hair#, _black, lank, coarse, often very long, nearly round in +transverse section; very scanty on face and practically absent on body_; +#Colour#, _differs, according to localities, front dusky yellowish white +to that of solid chocolate, but the prevailing colour is brown_; +#Skull#, _generally mesaticephalous (79), but with wide range from 65 +(some Eskimo) to 89 or 90 (some British Columbians, Peruvians); the_ #os +Incae# _more frequently present than amongst other races, but the_ #os +linguae# _(hyoid bone) often imperfectly developed_; #Jaws#, _massive, +but moderately projecting_; #Cheek-bone#, _as a rule rather prominent +laterally, and also high_; #Nose#, _generally large, straight or even +aquiline, and mesorrhine_; #Eyes#, _nearly always dark brown, with a +yellowish conjunctiva, and the eye-slits show a prevailing tendency to a +slight upward slant_; #Stature#, _usually above the medium 1.728 m. (5 +ft. 8 or 10 in.), but variable--under 1.677 m. (5 ft. 6 in.) on the +western plateaux (Peruvians, etc.), also in Fuegia and Alaska; 1.829 m. +(6 ft.) and upwards in Patagonia (Tehuelches), Central Brazil (Bororos) +and Prairie (Algonquians, Iroquoians); the relative proportions of the +two elements of the arms and of the legs (radio-humeral and +tibio-femoral indices) are intermediate between those of whites and +negroes_. + +#Temperament#, _moody, reserved, and wary; outwardly impassive and +capable of enduring extreme physical pain; considerate towards each +other, kind and gentle towards their women and children, but not in a +demonstrative manner; keen sense of justice, hence easily offended, but +also easily pacified. The outward show of dignity and a lofty air +assumed by many seems due more to vanity or ostentation than to a +feeling of true pride. Mental capacity considerable, much higher than +the Negro, but on the whole inferior to the Mongol_. + +#Speech#, _exclusively polysynthetic, a type unknown elsewhere; is not a +primitive condition, but a highly specialised form of agglutination, in +which all the terms of the sentence tend to coalesce in a single +polysyllabic word; stock languages very numerous, perhaps more so than +all the stock languages of all the other orders of speech in the rest of +the world_. + +#Religion#, _various grades of spirit and nature worship, corresponding +to the various cultural grades; a crude form of shamanism prevalent +amongst most of the North American aborigines, polytheism with sacrifice +and priestcraft amongst the cultured peoples (Aztecs, Mayas, etc.); the +monotheistic concept nowhere clearly evolved; belief in a natural +after-life very prevalent, if not universal_. + +#Culture#, _highly diversified, ranging from the lowest stages of +savagery through various degrees of barbarism to the advanced social +state of the more or less civilised Mayas, Aztecs, Chibchas, Yungas, +Quichuas, and Aymaras; amongst these pottery, weaving, metal-work, +agriculture, and especially architecture fairly well developed; letters +less so, although the Maya script seems to have reached the true +phonetic state; navigation and science rudimentary or absent; savagery +generally far more prevalent and intense in South than in North +America, but the tribal state almost everywhere persistent_. + + I. _Eskimo._ + + II. _Mackenzie Area._ Dene tribes. + 1 Yellow Knives, 2 Dog Rib, 3 Hares, 4 Slavey, 5 Chipewyan, + 6 Beaver, 7 Nahane, 8 Sekani, 9 Babine, 10 Carrier, + 11 Loucheux, 12 Ahtena, 13 Khotana. + + III. _North Pacific Area._ + 14 Tlingit, 15 Haida, 16 Kwakiutl, 17 Bellacoola, + 18 Coast Salish, 19 Nootka, 20 Chinook, 21 Kalapooian. + + IV. _Plateau Area._ + 22 Shahapts or Nez Perces, 23 Shoshoni, 24 Interior Salish, + Thompson, 25 Lillooet, 26 Shushwap. + + V. _Californian Area._ + 27 Wintun, 28 Pomo, 29 Miwok, 30 Yokut. + + VI. _Plains Area._ + 31 Assiniboin, 32 Arapaho, 33 Siksika or Blackfoot, 34 Blood, + 35 Piegan, 36 Crow, 37 Cheyenne, 38 Comanche, 39 Gros Ventre, + 40 Kiowa, 41 Sarsi, 42 Teton-Dakota (Sioux), 43 Arikara, + Hidatsa, Mandan, 44 Iowa, 45 Missouri, 46 Omaha, 47 Osage, + 48 Oto, 49 Pawnee, 50 Ponca, 51 Santee-Dakota (Sioux), + 52 Yankton-Dakota (Sioux), 53 Wichita, 54 Wind River Shoshoni, + 55 Plains-Ojibway, 56 Plains-Cree. + + VII. _Eastern Woodland Area._ + 57 Ojibway, 58 Saulteaux, 59 Wood Cree, 60 Montagnais, + 61 Naskapi, 62 Huron, 63 Wyandot, 64 Erie, 65 Susquehanna, + 66 Iroquois, 67 Algonquin, 68 Ottawa, 69 Menomini, 70 Sauk + and Fox, 71 Potawatomi, 72 Peoria, 73 Illinois, 74 Kickapoo, + 75 Miami, 76 Abnaki, 77 Micmac. + + VIII. _South-eastern Area._ + 78 Shawnee, 79 Creek, 80 Chickasaw, 81 Choctaw, 82 Seminole, + 83 Cherokee, 84 Tuscarora, 85 Yuchi, 86 Powhatan, 87 Tunican, + 88 Natchez. + + IX. _South-western Area._ Pueblo tribes. + 89 Hopi, 90 Zuni, 91 Rio Grande, 92 Navaho, 93 Pima, + 94 Mohave, 95 Jicarilla, 96 Mescalero. + + [Illustration: MAP OF AREAS OF MATERIAL CULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA + (after C. Wissler, _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914).] + +#North America#: _Eskimauan_ (Innuit, Aleut, Karalit); _Athapascan_ +(Dene, Pacific division, Apache, Navaho); _Koluschan_; _Algonquian_ +(Delaware, Abnaki, Ojibway, Shawnee, Arapaho, Sauk and Fox, Blackfeet); +_Iroquoian_ (Huron, Mohawk, Tuscarora, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga); +_Siouan_ (Dakota, Omaha, Crow, Iowa, Osage, Assiniboin); _Shoshonian_ +(Comanche, Ute); _Salishan_; _Shahaptian_; _Caddoan_; _Muskhogean_ +(Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole); _Pueblo_ (Zunian, Keresan, +Tanoan). + +#Central America#: _Nahuatlan_ (Aztec, Pipil, Niquiran); _Huaxtecan_ +(Maya, Quiche); _Totonac_; _Miztecan_; _Zapotecan_; _Chorotegan_; +_Tarascan_; _Otomitlan_; _Talamancan_; _Choco_. + +#South America#: _Muyscan_ (Chibcha); _Quichuan_ (Inca, Aymara); +_Yungan_ (Chimu); _Antisan_; _Jivaran_; _Zaparan_; _Betoyan_; _Maku_; +_Pana_ (Cashibo, Karipuna, Setebo); _Ticunan_; _Chiquitan_; _Arawakan_ +(Arua, Maypure, Vapisiana, Ipurina, Mahinaku, Layana, Kustenau, Moxo); +_Cariban_ (Bakairi, Nahuqua, Galibi, Kalina, Arecuna, Macusi, Ackawoi); +_Tupi-Guaranian_ (Omagua, Mundurucu, Kamayura, Emerillon); _Gesan_ +(Botocudo, Kayapo, Cherentes); _Charruan_; _Bororo_; _Karayan_; +_Guaycuruan_ (Abipones, Mataco, Toba); _Araucanian_ or _Moluchean_; +_Patagonian_ or _Tehuelchean_ (Pilma, Yacana, Ona); _Enneman_ (Lengua, +Sanapana, Angaites); _Fuegian_ (Yahgan, Alakaluf). + + * * * * * + +It is impossible to dissociate the ethnological history of the New World +from that of the Old. The absence from America at any period of the +world's history not only of anthropoid apes but also of the +_Cercopithecidae_, in other words of the Catarrhini, entirely precludes +the possibility of the independent origin of man in the western +hemisphere. Therefore the population of the Americas must have come from +the Old World. In prehistoric times there were only two possible routes +for such immigration to have taken place. For the mid-Atlantic land +connection was severed long ages before the appearance of man, and the +connection of South America with Antarctica had also long +disappeared[737]. We are therefore compelled to look to a farther +extension of land between North America and northern Europe on the one +hand, and between north-west America and north-east Asia on the other. +We know that in late Tertiary times there was a land-bridge connecting +north-west Europe with Greenland, and Scharff[738] believes that the +Barren-ground reindeer took this route to Norway and western Europe +during early glacial times, but that "towards the latter part of the +Glacial period the land-connection ... broke down." Other authorities +are of opinion that the continuous land between the two continents in +higher latitudes remained until post-glacial times. Brinton[739] +considered that it was impossible for man to have reached America from +Asia, because Siberia was covered with glaciers and not peopled until +late Neolithic times, whereas man was living in both North and South +America at the close of the Glacial Age. He acknowledged frequent +communication in later times between Asia and America, but maintained +that the movement was rather from America to Asia than otherwise. He was +therefore a strong advocate of the European origin of the American race. +There is no doubt that North America was connected with Asia in Tertiary +times, though some geologists assert that "the far North-west did not +rise from the waves of the Pacific Ocean (which once flowed with a +boundless expanse to the North Pole) until after the glacial period." In +that case "the first inhabitants of America certainly did not get there +in this way, for by that time the bones of many generations were already +bleaching on the soil of the New World[740]." The "Miocene Bridge," as +the land connecting Asia and America in late geological times has been +called, was probably very wide, one side would stretch from Kamchatka to +British Columbia, and the other across Behring Strait. If, as seems +probable, this connection persisted till, or was reconstituted during, +the human period, tribes migrating to America by the more northerly +route would enter the land east of the great barrier of the Rocky +Mountains. The route from the Old World to the New by the Pacific margin +probably remained nearly always open. Thus, while not denying the +possibility of a very early migration from North Europe to North America +through Greenland, it appears more probable that America received its +population from North Asia. + +We have next to determine what were the characteristics of the earliest +inhabitants of America, and the approximate date of their arrival. There +have been many sensational accounts of the discoveries of fossil man in +America, which have not been able to stand the criticism of scientific +investigation. It must always be remembered that the evidence is +primarily one of stratigraphy. Assuming, of course, that the human +skeletal remains found in a given deposit are contemporaneous with the +formation of that deposit and not subsequently interred in it, it is for +the geologist to determine the age. The amount of petrifaction and the +state of preservation of the bones are quite fallacious nor can much +reliance be placed upon the anatomical character of the remains. +Primordial human remains may be expected to show ancestral characters to +a marked degree, but as we have insufficient data to enable us to +determine the rate of evolution, anatomical considerations must fit into +the timescale granted by the geologist. + +Apart from pure stratigraphy associated animal remains may serve to +support or refute the claims to antiquity, while the presence of +artifacts, objects made or used by man, may afford evidence for +determining the relative date if the cultural stratigraphy of the area +has been sufficiently established. + +Fortunately the fossil human remains of America have been carefully +studied by a competent authority who says, "Irrespective of other +considerations, in every instance where enough of the bones is preserved +for comparison the somatological evidence bears witness against the +geological antiquity of the remains and for their close affinity to, or +identity with those of the modern Indian. Under these circumstances but +one conclusion is justified, which is that thus far on this continent, +no human bones of undisputed geological antiquity are known[741]." +Hrdli[vc]ka subsequently studied the remains of South America and says, +"A conscientious, unbiased study of all the available facts has shown +that the whole structure erected in support of the theory of +geologically ancient man on that continent rests on very imperfectly and +incorrectly interpreted data and in many instances on false premises, +and as a consequence of these weaknesses must completely collapse when +subjected to searching criticism.--As to the antiquity of the various +archaeological remains from Argentina attributed to early man, all +those to which particular importance has been attached have been found +without tenable claim to great age, while others, mostly single objects, +without exception fall into the category of the doubtful[742]." + +The conclusions of W. H. Holmes, Bailey Willis, F. E. Wright and C. N. +Fenner, who collaborated with Hrdli[vc]ka, with regard to the evidence +thus far furnished, are that, "it fails to establish the claim that in +South America there have been brought forth thus far tangible traces of +either geologically ancient man himself or of any precursors of the +human race[743]." Hrdli[vc]ka is careful to add, however, "This should +not be taken as a categorical denial of the existence of early man in +South America, however improbable such a presence may now appear." + +According to J. W. Gidley[744] the evidence of vertebrate paleontology +indicates (1) That man did not exist in North America at the beginning +of the Pleistocene although there was a land connection between Asia and +North America at that time permitting a free passage for large mammals. +(2) That a similar land connection was again in existence at the close +of the last glacial epoch, and probably continued up to comparatively +recent times, as indicated by the close resemblance of related living +mammalian species on either side of the present Behring Strait. (3) That +the first authentic records of prehistoric man in America have been +found in deposits that are not older than the last glacial epoch, and +probably of even later date, the inference being that man first found +his way into North America at some time near the close of the existence +of this last land bridge. (4) That this land bridge was broad and +vegetative, and the climate presumably mild, at least along its southern +coast border, making it habitable for man. + +Rivet[745] points out that from Brazil to Terra del Fuegia on the +Atlantic slope, in Bolivia and Peru, on the high plateaux of the Andes, +on the Pacific coast and perhaps in the south of California, traces of a +distinct race are met with, sometimes in single individuals, sometimes +in whole groups. This race of Lagoa Santa is an important primordial +element in the population of South America, and has been termed by +Deniker the Palaeo-American sub-race[746]. + +The men were of low stature but considerable strength, the skull was +long, narrow and high, of moderate size, prognathous, with strong brow +ridges, but not a retreating forehead. There is no reliable evidence as +to the age of these remains. Hrdli[vc]ka, after reviewing all the +evidence says, "Besides agreeing closely with the dolichocephalic +American type, which had an extensive representation throughout Brazil, +including the Province of Minas Geraes, and in many other parts of South +America, it is the same type which is met with farther north among the +Aztec, Tarasco, Otomi, Tarahumare, Pima, Californians, ancient Utah +cliff dwellers, ancient north-eastern Pueblos, Shoshoni, many of the +Plains Tribes, Iroquois, Eastern Siouan, and Algonquian. But it is apart +from the Eskimo, who form a distinct subtype of the yellow-brown strain +of humanity[747]." + +Rivet[748] adds that an examination of the present distribution of the +descendants of the Lagoa-Santa type shows that they are all border +peoples, in East Brazil, and the south of Patagonia and Terra del +Fuegia, where the climate is rigorous, in desert islands of west and +southern Chili, on the coast of Ecuador, and perhaps in California. This +suggests that they have been driven out in a great eccentric movement +from their old habitat, into new environment producing fresh crossings. + +There is an absence of this high narrow-headed type throughout the +northern part of South America, and a prevalence of medium or +sub-brachycephalic heads which are always low in the crown. These are +now represented by the Caribs and Arawaks, but there was more than one +migration of brachycephalic peoples from the north. + +To return to North America. As we have just seen Hrdli[vc]ka recognises +a dolichocephalic element in North America, and various ethnic groups +range to pronounced brachycephaly. Nevertheless he believes in the +original unity of the Indian race in America, basing his conclusions on +the colour of the skin, which ranges from yellowish white to dark brown, +the straight black hair, scanty beard, hairless body, brown and often +more or less slanting eye, mesorrhine nose, medium prognathism, +skeletal proportions and other essential features. In all these +characters the American Indians resemble the yellowish brown peoples of +eastern Asia and a large part of Polynesia[749]. He also believes that +there were many successive migrations from Asia. + +The differences of opinion between Hrdli[vc]ka and other students is +probably more a question of nomenclature than of fact. The eastern +Asiatics and Polynesians are mixed peoples, and if there were numerous +migrations from Asia, spread over a very long period of time, people of +different stocks would have found their way into America. "It is indeed +probable," Hrdli[vc]ka adds, "that the western coast of America, within +the last two thousand years, was on more than one occasion reached by +small parties of Polynesians, and that the eastern coast was similarly +reached by small groups of whites; but these accretions have not +modified greatly, if at all, the mass of the native population[750]." + +The inhabitants of the plains east of the Rocky Mountains and the +eastern wooded area are characterised by a head which varies about the +lower limit of brachycephaly, and by tall stature. This stock probably +arrived by the North Pacific Bridge before the end of the last Glacial +period, and extended over the continent east of the great divide. +Finally bands from the north, east and south migrated into the prairie +area. The markedly brachycephalic immigrants from Asia appear to have +proceeded mainly down the Pacific slope and to have populated Central +and South America, with an overflow into the south of North America. It +is probable that there were several migrations of allied but not similar +broad-headed peoples from Asia in early days, and we know that recently +there have been racial and cultural drifts between the neighbouring +portions of America and Asia[751]. Indeed Bogoras[752] suggests that +ethnographically the line separating Asia and America should lie from +the lower Kolyma River to Gishiga Bay. + +Owing to these various immigrations and subsequent minglings the cranial +forms show much variation, and are not sufficiently significant to serve +as a basis of classification. In parts of North America the round-headed +mound-builders and others were encroached upon by populations of +increasingly dolichocephalic type--Plains Indians and Cherokees, +Chichimecs, Tepanecs, Acolhuas. Even still dolichocephaly is +characteristic of Iroquois, Coahuilas, Sonorans, while the intermediate +indices met with on the prairies and plateaux undoubtedly indicate the +mixture between the long-headed invaders and the round-heads whom they +swept aside as they advanced southwards. Thus the Minnetaris are highly +dolicho; the Poncas and Osages sub-brachy; the Algonquians variable, +while the Siouans oscillate widely round a mesaticephalous mean. + +The Athapascans alone are homogeneous, and their sub-brachycephaly +recurs amongst the Apaches and their other southern kindred, who have +given it an exaggerated form by the widespread practice of artificial +deformation, which dates from remote times. The most typical cases both +of brachy and dolicho deformation are from the Cerro de las Palmas +graves in south-west Mexico. Deformation prevails also in Peru and +Bolivia, as well as in Ceara and the Rio Negro on the Atlantic side. The +flat-head form, so common from the Columbia estuary to Peru, occurs +amongst the broad-faced Huaxtecs, their near relations the Maya-Quiches, +and the Nahuatlans. It is also found amongst the extinct Cebunys of +Cuba, Hayti and Jamaica, and the so-called "Toltecs," that is, the +people of Tollan (Tula), who first founded a civilised state on the +Mexican table-land (sixth and seventh centuries A.D.), and whose name +afterwards became associated with every ancient monument throughout +Central America. On this "Toltec question" the most contradictory +theories are current; some hold that the Toltecs were a great and +powerful nation, who after the overthrow of their empire migrated +southwards, spreading their culture throughout Central America; others +regard them as "fabulous," or at all events "nothing more than a sept of +the Nahuas themselves, the ancestors of those Mexicans who built +Tenochtitlan," _i.e._ the present city of Mexico. A third view, that of +Valentini, that the Toltecs were not Nahuas but Mayas, is now supported +both by E. P. Dieseldorff[753] and by Foerstemann[754]. T. A. Joyce[755] +suggests that the vanguard of the Nahuas on reaching the Mexican valley +adopted and improved the culture of an agricultural people of Tarascan +affinities whose culture was in part due to Mayan inspiration, whom they +found settled there. Later migrations of Nahua were greatly impressed +with the "Toltec" culture which had thus arisen through the impact of a +virile hunting people on more passive agriculturalists. + +On the North-west Pacific Coast similar ethnical interminglings recur, +and Franz Boas[756] here distinguishes as many as four types, the +Northern (Tsimshian and others), the Kwakiutl, the Lillooet of the +Harrison Lake region and the inland Salishan (Flat-heads, Shuswaps, +etc.). All are brachycephalic, but while the Tsimshians are of medium +height 1.675 m. (5 ft. 6 in.) with low, concave nose, very large head, +and enormously broad face, exceeding the average for North America by 6 +mm., the Kwakiutls are shorter 1.645 m. (5 ft. 4-3/4 in.) with very high +and relatively narrow hooked nose, and quite exceptionally high face; +the Harrison Lake very short 1.600 m. (5 ft 3 in.) with exceedingly +short and broad head (C. I. nearly 89), "surpassing in this respect all +other forms known to exist in North America"; lastly, the inland Salish +of medium height 1.679 m. (5 ft. 6 in.) with high and wide nose of the +characteristic Indian form and a short head. + +It would be difficult to find anywhere a greater contrast than that +which is presented by some of these British Columbian natives, those, +for instance, of Harrison Lake with almost circular heads (88.8), and +some of the Labrador Eskimo with a degree of dolichocephaly not exceeded +even by the Fijian Kai-Colos (65)[757]. But this violent contrast is +somewhat toned by the intermediate forms, such as those of the Tlingits, +the Aleutian islanders, and the western (Alaskan) Eskimo, by which the +transition is effected between the Arctic and the more southern +populations. It is not possible at present to indicate even in outline +the chronology of any of the ethnic movements outlined above. Warren K. +Moorehead[758] agrees with the great majority of American archaeologists +in holding the existence of palaeolithic man in North America as not +proven[759], the so-called palaeoliths being either rejects or rude +tools for rough purposes. When man migrated to America from North and +East Asia whenever that period may have been, he appears to have been in +that stage of culture--or rather of stone technique--which we term +Neolithic, and the drifting movement ceased before he had learnt the use +of metals. + +A further proof of the antiquity of the migrations is afforded by +linguistics. A. F. Chamberlain asserts[760] that "it may be said with +certainty, so far as all data hitherto presented are concerned, that no +satisfactory proof whatever has been put forward to induce us to believe +that any single American Indian tongue or group of tongues has been +derived from any Old World form of speech now existing or known to have +existed in the past. In whatever way the multiplicity of American Indian +languages and dialects may have arisen, one can be reasonably sure that +the differentiation and divergence have developed here in America and +are in no sense due to the occasional intrusion of Old World tongues +individually or _en masse_.... Certain real relationships between the +American Indians and the peoples of north-eastern Asia, known as +'Paleo-Asiatics,' have, however, been revealed as a result of the +extensive investigations of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition.... The +general conclusion to be drawn from the evidence is that the so-called +'Paleo-Asiatic' peoples of north-eastern Asia, _i.e._ the Chukchee, +Koryak, Kamchadale, Gilyak, Yukaghir, etc. really belong physically and +culturally with the aborigines of north-western America.... Like the +modern Asiatic Eskimo they represent a reflex from America and Asia, and +not _vice versa_.... It is the opinion of good authorities also that the +'Paleo-Asiatic' peoples belong linguistically with the American Indians +rather than with the other tribes and stocks of northern or southern +Asia. Here we have then the only real relationship of a linguistic +character that has ever been convincingly argued between tongues of the +New World and tongues of the Old." + +It is not merely that the American languages differ from other forms of +speech in their general phonetic, structural and lexical features; they +differ from them in their very morphology, as much, for instance, as in +the zoological world class differs from class, order from order. They +have all of them developed on the same polysynthetic lines, from which +if a few here and there now appear to depart, it is only because in the +course of their further evolution they have, so to say, broken away from +that prototype[761]. Take the rudest or the most highly cultivated +anywhere from Alaska to Fuegia--Eskimauan, Iroquoian, Algonquian, Aztec, +Tarascan, Ipurina, Peruvian, Yahgan--and you will find each and all +giving abundant evidence of this universal polysynthetic character, not +one true instance of which can be found anywhere in the eastern +hemisphere. There is incorporation with the verb, as in Basque, many of +the Caucasus tongues, and the Ural-Altaic group; but it is everywhere +limited to pronominal and purely relational elements. + +But in the American order of speech there is no such limitation, and not +merely the pronouns, which are restricted in number, but the nouns with +their attributes, which are practically numberless, all enter +necessarily into the verbal paradigm. Thus in Tarascan (Mexico): +_hopocuni_ = to wash the hands; _hopodini_ = to wash the ears, from +_hoponi_ = to wash, which cannot be used alone[762]. So in Ipurina +(Amazonia): _nicucacatcaurumatinii_ = I draw the cord tight round your +waist, from _ni_, I; _cucaca_, to draw tight; _tca_, cord; _turuma_, +waist; _tini_, characteristic verbal affix; _i_, thy, referring to +waist[763]. + +We see from such examples that polysynthesis is not a primitive +condition of speech, as is often asserted, but on the contrary a +highly developed system, in which the original agglutinative process +has gone so far as to attract all the elements of the sentence to +the verb, round which they cluster like swarming bees round their +queen. In Eskimauan the tendency is shown in the construction of +nouns and verbs, by which other classes of words are made almost +unnecessary, and one word, sometimes of interminable length, is +able to express a whole sentence with its subordinate clauses. H. Rink, +one of the first Eskimo scholars of modern times, gives the instance: +"Suerukame-autdlasassoq-tusaramiuk-tuningingmago-iluarin-gilat = they +did not approve that he (_a_) had omitted to give him (_b_) something, +as he (_a_) heard that he (_b_) was going to depart on account of being +destitute of everything[764]." Such monstrosities "are so complicated +that in daily speech they could hardly ever occur; but still they are +correct and can be understood by intelligent people[765]." + +He gives another and much longer example, which the reader may be +spared, adding that there are altogether about 200 particles, as many as +ten of which may be piled up on any given stem. The process also often +involves great phonetic changes, by which the original form of the +elements becomes disguised, as, for instance, in the English _hap'oth_ = +half-penny-worth. The attempt to determine the number of words that +might be formed in this way on a single stem, such as _igdlo_, a house, +had to be given up after getting as far as the compound +_igdlorssualiortugssarsiumavoq_ = he wants to find one who will build a +large house. + +It is clear that such a linguistic evolution implies both the postulated +isolation from other influences, which must have disturbed and broken up +the cumbrous process, and also the postulated long period of time to +develop and consolidate the system throughout the New World. But time is +still more imperiously demanded by the vast number of stock languages, +many already extinct, many still current all over the continent, all of +which differ profoundly in their vocabulary, often also in their +phonesis, and in fact have nothing in common except this extraordinary +polysynthetic groove in which they are cast. There are probably about 75 +stock languages in North America, of which 58 occur north of Mexico. + +But even that conveys but a faint idea of the astonishing diversity of +speech prevailing in this truly linguistic Babel. J. W. Powell[766] +points out that the practically distinct idioms are far more numerous +than might be inferred even from such a large number of mother tongues. +Thus, in the Algonquian[767] linguistic family he tells us there are +about 40, no one of which could be understood by a people speaking +another; in Athapascan from 30 to 40; in Siouan over 20; and in +Shoshonian a still greater number[768]. The greatest linguistic +diversity in a relatively small area is found in the state of +California, where, according to Powell's classification, 22 distinct +stocks of languages are spoken. R. B. Dixon and A. L. Kroeber[769] show +however that these fall into three morphological groups which are also +characterised by certain cultural features. It is the same, or perhaps +even worse, in Central and in South America, where the linguistic +confusion is so great that no complete classification of the native +tongues seems possible. Clements R. Markham in the third edition of his +exhaustive list of the Amazonian tribes[770] has no less than 1087 +entries. He concludes that these may be referred to 485 distinct tribes +in all the periods, since the days of Acuna (1639). Deducting some 111 +as extinct or nearly so, the total amounts to "323 at the outside" (p. +135). But for such linguistic differences, large numbers of these groups +would be quite indistinguishable from each other, so great is the +prevailing similarity in physical appearance and usages in many +districts. Thus Ehrenreich tells us that, "despite their +ethnico-linguistic differences, the tribes about the head-waters of the +Xingu present complete uniformity in their daily habits, in the +conditions of their existence, and their general culture[771]," though +it is curious to note that the art of making pottery is restricted here +to the Arawak tribes[772]. Yet amongst them are represented three of +the radically distinct linguistic groups of Brazil, some (Bakairi and +Nahuqua) belonging to the Carib, some (Auetoe and Kamayura) to the +Tupi-Guarani, and some (Mehinaku and Vaura) to the Arawak family. +Obviously these could not be so discriminated but for their linguistic +differences. On the other hand the opposite phenomenon is occasionally +presented of tribes differing considerably in their social relations, +which are nevertheless of the same origin, or, what is regarded by +Ehrenreich as the same thing, belong to the same linguistic group. Such +are the Ipurina, the Paumari and the Yamamadi of the Purus valley, all +grouped as Arawaks because they speak dialects of the Arawakan stock +language. At the same time it should be noted that the social +differences observed by some modern travellers are often due to the +ever-increasing contact with the whites, who are now encroaching on the +Gran Chaco plains, and ascending every Amazonian tributary in quest of +rubber and the other natural produce abounding in these regions. The +consequent displacement of tribes is discussed by G. E. Church[773]. + +In the introduction to his valuable list Clements Markham observes that +the evidence of language favours the theory that the Amazonian tribes, +"now like the sands on the sea-shore for number, originally sprang from +two or at most three parent stocks. Dialects of the _Tupi_ language +extend from the roots of the Andes to the Atlantic, and southward into +Paraguay ... and it is established that the differences in the roots, +between the numerous Amazonian languages, are not so great as was +generally supposed[774]." This no doubt is true, and will account for +much. But when we see it here recorded that of the Carabuyanas (Japura +river) there are or were 16 branches, that the Chiquito group (Bolivia) +comprises 40 tribes speaking "seven different languages"; that of the +Juris (Upper Amazons) there are ten divisions; of the Moxos (Beni and +Mamore rivers) 26 branches, "speaking nine or, according to Southey, +thirteen languages"; of the Uaupes (Rio Negro) 30 divisions, and so on, +we feel how much there is still left to be accounted for. Attempts have +been made to weaken the force of the linguistic argument by the +assumption, at one time much in favour, that the American tongues are of +a somewhat evanescent nature, in an unstable condition, often changing +their form and structure within a few generations. But, says Powell, +"this widely spread opinion does not find warrant in the facts +discovered in the course of this research. The author has everywhere +been impressed with the fact that savage tongues are singularly +persistent, and that a language which is dependent for its existence +upon oral tradition is not easily modified[775]." A test case is the +Delaware (Leni Lenape), an Algonquian tongue which, judging from the +specimens collected by Th. Campanius about 1645, has undergone but +slight modification during the last 250 years. + +In this connection the important point to be noticed is the fact that +some of the stock languages have an immense range, while others are +crowded together in indescribable confusion in rugged upland valleys, or +about river estuaries, or in the recesses of trackless woodlands, and +this strangely irregular distribution prevails in all the main divisions +of the continent. Thus of Powell's 58 linguistic families in North +America as many as 40 are restricted to the relatively narrow strip of +coastland between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, ten are dotted +round the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to the Rio Grande, and two +disposed round the Gulf of California, while nearly all the rest of the +land--some six million square miles--is occupied by the six widely +diffused Eskimauan, Athapascan, Algonquian, Iroquoian, Siouan, and +Shoshonian families. The same phenomenon is presented by Central and +South America, where less than a dozen stock languages--Opatan, +Nahuatlan, Huastecan, Chorotegan, Quichuan, Arawakan, Gesan (Tapuyan), +Tupi-Guaranian, Cariban--are spread over millions of square miles, while +many scores of others are restricted to extremely narrow areas. Here the +crowding is largely determined, as in Caucasia, by the altitude (Andes +in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; Sierras in Mexico). + +It is strongly held by many American ethnologists that the various +cultures of America are autochthonous, nothing being borrowed from the +Old World. J. W. Powell[776], who rendered such inestimable services to +American anthropology, affirmed that "the aboriginal peoples of America +cannot be allied preferentially to any one branch of the human race in +the Old World"; that "there is no evidence that any of the arts of the +American Indians were borrowed from the Orient"; that "the industrial +arts of America were born in America, America was inhabited by tribes +at the time of the beginning of industrial arts. They left the Old World +before they had learned to make knives, spear and arrowheads, or at +least when they knew the art only in its crudest state. Thus primitive +man has been here ever since the invention of the stone knife and the +stone hammer." He further contended that "the American Indian did not +derive his forms of government, his industrial or decorative arts, his +languages, or his mythological opinions from the Old World, but +developed them in the New"; and that "in the demotic characteristics of +the American Indians, all that is common to tribes of the Orient is +universal, all that distinguishes one group of tribes from another in +America distinguishes them from all other tribes of the world." + +This view has been emphasised afresh by Fewkes[777], though of recent +years it has met with vigorous opposition. At the conclusion of his +article "Die melanesische Bogenkultur und ihre Verwandten[778]" Graebner +attempts to trace the cultural connection of South America with +South-east Asia rather than with the South Seas, the main links being +represented by head-hunting, certain types of skin-drum and of basket, +and in particular three types of crutch-handled paddle. According to him +the spread of culture has taken place by the land route and Behring +Strait, not across the Pacific by way of the South Seas, a view to which +he adheres in his later work. An ingenious and detailed attempt has also +been made by Pater Schmidt[779] to trace the various cultures determined +for Oceania and Africa in South America. Apart from the great linguistic +groups usually adopted as the basis of classification, Schmidt would +divide the South American Indians according to their stage of economic +development into collectors, cultivators, and civilised peoples of the +Andean highlands. Though this series may have the appearance of +evolution, in point of fact "each group is composed of peoples differing +absolutely in language and race, who brought with them to South America +in historically distinct migrations at all events the fundamentals of +their respective cultures.... As we pass in review the cultural elements +of the separate groups, their weapons, implements, dwellings, their +sociology, mythology, and religion we discover the innate similarity of +these groups to the culture-zones of the Old World in all essential +features[780]." The author proceeds to work out his theory in great +detail; the earlier cultures he too considers have travelled by the +enormously lengthy land route by way of North America, only the "free +patrilineal culture" (Polynesia and Indonesia) having reached the west +coast directly by sea[781]. + +W. H. Holmes[782] draws attention to analogies between American and +foreign archaeological remains, for example the stone gouge of New +England and Europe. He hints at influences coming from the Mediterranean +and even from Africa. "Even more remarkable and diversified are the +correspondences between the architectural remains of Yucatan and those +of Cambodia and Java in the far East. On the Pacific side of the +American continent strange coincidences occur in like degree, seeming to +indicate that the broad Pacific has not proved a complete bar to +intercourse of peoples of the opposing continents ... it seems highly +probable considering the nature of the archaeological evidence, that the +Western World has not been always and wholly beyond the reach of members +of the white, Polynesian, and perhaps even the black races." + +Walter Hough[783] gives various cultural parallels between America and +the other side of the Pacific but does not commit himself. S. Hagar[784] +brings forward some interesting correspondences between the astronomy of +the New and of the Old Worlds, but adopts a cautious attitude. + +More recently the problem has been attacked with great energy by G. +Elliot Smith[785]. His investigations into the processes of +mummification and the tombs of ancient Egypt led him to comparative +studies, and he notes that certain customs seem to be found in +association, forming what is known as a culture-complex. For example, +"in most regions the people who introduced the habit of megalithic +building and sun worship also brought with them the practice of +mummification." Also associated with these are:--stories of dwarfs and +giants, belief in the indwelling of gods and great men in megalithic +monuments, the use of these structures in a particular manner for +special council, the practice of hanging rags on trees in association +with such monuments, serpent worship, tattooing, distension of the lobe +of the ear, the use of pearls, the conch-shell trumpet, etc. In a map +showing the distribution of this "heliolithic" culture-complex he +indicates the main lines of migration to America, one across the +Aleutian chain and down the west coast to California, the other and more +important one, across the Pacific to Peru, and thence to various parts +of South America, through Central America to the southern half of the +United States. Contrary to Schmidt, Elliot Smith postulates contact of +cultures rather than actual migrations of people; he considers it +possible that a small number of aliens arriving by sea in Peru, for +example, might introduce customs of a highly novel and subversive +character which would take root and spread far and wide. The Peruvian +custom of embalming the dead certainly presents analogies to that of +ancient Egypt, and Elliot Smith is convinced that "the rude megalithic +architecture of America bears obvious evidence of the same inspiration +which prompted that of the Old World." In a later paper Elliot +Smith[786] adduces further evidence in support of his thesis "that the +essential elements of the ancient civilization of India, Further Asia, +the Malay Archipelago, Oceania, and America were brought in succession +to each of these places by mariners, whose oriental migrations (on an +extensive scale) began as trading intercourse between the Eastern +Mediterranean and India some time after 800 B.C. and continued for many +centuries." This dissemination was in the first instance due to the +Phoenicians and there are "unmistakable tokens that the same Phoenician +methods which led to the diffusion of this culture-complex in the Old +World also were responsible for planting it in the New[787] some +centuries after the Phoenicians themselves had ceased to be" (_l.c._ p. +27). Further evidence along the same lines is offered by W. J. +Perry[788] who has noted the geographical distribution of terraced +cultivation and irrigation and finds that it corresponds to a remarkable +extent with that of the "heliolithic" culture-complex, and by J. +Wilfrid Jackson[789] who has investigated the Aztec Moon-cult and its +relation to the Chank cult of India, the money cowry as a sacred object +among North American Indians[790], shell trumpets and their distribution +in the Old and New World[791] and the geographical distribution of the +shell purple industry[792]. He points out that we have ample evidence of +the practice of this ancient industry in several places in Central +America, and refers to Zelia Nuttall's interesting paper on the +subject[793]. Elliot Smith also discusses "Pre-Columbian Representations +of the Elephant in America[794]" and remarks "coincidences of so +remarkable a nature cannot be due to chance. They not only confirm the +identification of the elephant in designs in America, but also +incidentally point to the conclusion that the Hindu god Indra was +adopted in Central America with practically all the attributes assigned +to him in his Asiatic home." Elliot Smith believes that practically +every element of the early civilisation of America was derived from the +Old World. Small groups of immigrants from time to time brought certain +of the beliefs, customs, and inventions of the Mediterranean area, +Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Babylonia, Indonesia, Eastern Asia and Oceania, +and the confused jumble of practices became assimilated and +"Americanised" in the new home across the Pacific as the result of the +domination of the great uncultured aboriginal populations by small bands +of more cultured foreigners. These highly suggestive studies will force +adherents of the theory of the indigenous origin of American culture to +reconsider the grounds for their opinions and will lead them to turn +once more to the writings of Bancroft[795], Tylor[796], Nuttall[797], +Macmillan Brown[798], Enoch[799] and others. + +There is no satisfactory scheme of classification of the American +peoples. Although there is a good deal of scattered information about +the physical anthropology of the natives it has not yet been +systematised and no classification can at present be based thereon. A +linguistic classification is therefore usually adopted, but a +geographical or cultural grouping, or a combination of the two, has much +practical convenience. As Farrand[800] points out "It must never be +forgotten that the limits of physical, linguistic and cultural groups do +not correspond; and the overlapping of stocks determined by those +criteria is an unavoidable complication." + +An inspection of the map of the distribution of linguistic stocks of +North America prepared by J. W. Powell[801] which represents the +probable state of affairs about 1500 A.D. shows that a few linguistic +stocks have a wide distribution while there is a large number of +restricted stocks crowded along the Pacific slope. The following are the +better known tribes of the more important stocks together with their +distribution. + +_Eskimauan_ (Eskimo), along the Arctic coasts from 60 deg. N. lat. in the +west, to 50 deg. in the east. _Athapascan_, northern group, Dene or Tinneh +(including many tribes), interior of Alaska, northern British Columbia +and the Mackenzie basin, and the Sarsi of south-eastern Alberta and +northern Montana; southern group, Navaho and Apache in Arizona, New +Mexico and northern Mexico; the Pacific group, a small band in southern +British Columbia, others in Washington, Oregon and northern California. +_Algonquian_, south and west of Canada, the United States east of the +Mississippi, the whole valley of the Ohio, and the states of the +Atlantic coast. Blackfoot of Montana, Alberta, south and further east, +Cheyenne and Arapaho of Minnesota. The main group of dialects is divided +into the Massachusett, Ojibway (Ojibway, Ottawa, Illinois, Miami, etc.) +and Cree types. The latter include the Cree, Montagnais, Sauk and Fox, +Menomini, Shawnee, Abnaki, etc. _Iroquoian_, in the provinces of Ontario +and Quebec; Hurons in the valley of the St Lawrence and lake Simcoe. +Neutral confederacy in western New York and north and west of lake Erie. +The great confederacy of the Iroquois or "Five Nations" (Seneca, Cayuga, +Oneida, Onondaga and Mohawk, to which the Tuscarora were added in 1712) +in central New York; the Conestoga and Susquehanna to the south. A +southern group was located in eastern Virginia and north Carolina, and +the Cherokee, centred in the southern Appalachians from parts of +Virginia and Kentucky to northern Alabama. _Muskhogean_ of Georgia, +Alabama and Mississippi, including the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, +Seminole, etc. and the Natchez. There are several small groups about the +mouth of the Mississippi. _Caddoan_. The earliest inhabitants of the +central and southern plains beyond the Missouri belonged to this stock, +the largest group occupied parts of Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma and +Texas, it consists of the Caddo, Wichita, etc. and the Kichai, the +Pawnee tribes in parts of Nebraska and Kansas and an offshoot, the +Arikara in North Dakota. _Siouan_, a small group in Virginia, Carolina, +Catawba, etc. and a very large group, practically occupying the basins +of the Missouri and Arkansas, with a prolongation through Wisconsin, +where were the Winnebago. The main tribes are the Mandan, Crow, Dakota, +Assiniboin, Omaha and Osage. _Shoshonian_ of the Great Plateau and +southern California. The two outlying tribes were the Hopi of north +Arizona and the Comanche who ranged over the southern plains. Among the +plateau tribes are the Ute, Shoshoni, Mono and Luiseno. _Yuman_, from +Arizona to Lower California. + +From the data available J. R. Swanton and R. B. Dixon draw the following +conclusions[802]. "It appears that the origin of the tribes of several +of our stocks may be referred back to a swarming ground, usually of +rather indefinite size but none the less roughly indicated. That for the +Muskhogeans, including probably some of the smaller southern stocks, +must be placed in Louisiana, Arkansas and perhaps the western parts of +Mississippi and Tennessee, although a few tribes seem to have come from +the region of the Ohio. That for the Iroquoians would be along the Ohio +and perhaps farther west, and that of the Siouans on the lower Ohio and +the country to the north including part at least of Wisconsin. The +dispersion area for the Algonquians was farther north about the Great +Lakes and perhaps also the St Lawrence, and that for the Eskimo about +Hudson Bay or between it and the Mackenzie river. The Caddoan peoples +seem to have been on the southern plains from earliest times. On the +north Pacific coast we have indications that the flow of population has +been from the interior to the coast. This seems certain in the case of +the Indians of the Chimmesayan stock and some Tlinglit subdivisions. +Some Tlinglit clans, however, have moved from the neighbourhood of the +Nass northward. Looking farther south we find evidence that the coast +Salish have moved from the inner side of the coast ranges, while a small +branch has subsequently passed northward to the west of it. The +Athapascan stock in all probability has moved southward, sending one arm +down the Pacific coast, and a larger body presumably through the Plains +which reached as far as northern Mexico. Most of the stocks of the Great +Plateau and of Oregon and California show little evidence of movement, +such indications as are present, however, pointing toward the south as a +rule. The Pueblo Indians appear to have had a mixed origin, part of them +coming from the north, part from the south. In general there is to be +noted a striking contrast between the comparatively settled condition of +those tribes west of the Rocky mountains and the numerous movements, +particularly in later times, of those to the east." + +With regard to the Pacific coast Dixon[803] notes that it "has +apparently been occupied from the earliest times by peoples differing +but little in their culture from the tribes found in occupancy in the +sixteenth century. Cut off from the rest of the country by the great +chain of the Cordilleras and the inhospitable and arid interior +plateaus, the tribes of this narrow coastal strip developed in +comparative seclusion their various cultures, each adopted to the +environment in which it was found.... + +"In several of the ingenious theories relating to the development and +origin of American cultures in general, it has been contended that +considerable migrations both of peoples and of cultural elements passed +along this coastal highway from north to south. If, however, the +archaeological evidence is to be depended on, such great sweeping +movements, involving many elements of foreign culture, could hardly have +taken place, for no trace of their passage or modifying effect is +apparent.... We can feel fairly sure that the prehistoric peoples of +each area were in the main the direct ancestors of the local tribes of +today.... + +"In comparison with the relative simplicity of the archaeological record +on the Pacific coast, that of the eastern portion of the continent is +complex, and might indeed be best described as a palimpsest. This +complexity leads inevitably to the conclusion that here there have been +numerous and far-reaching ethnic movements, resulting in a +stratification of cultures." + +W. H. Holmes has compiled a map marking the limits of eleven areas which +can be recognised by their archaeological remains[804]. He points out +that the culture units are, as a matter of course, not usually +well-defined. Cultures are bound to over-lap and blend along the borders +and more especially along lines of ready communication. In some cases +evidence has been reported of early cultures radically distinct from the +type adopted as characteristic of the areas, and ancestral forms grading +into the later and into the historic forms are thought to have been +recognised. Holmes frankly acknowledges the tentative character of the +scheme, which forms part of a synthesis that he is preparing of the +antiquities of the whole American continent. + +North America is customarily divided into nine areas of material +culture, and though this is convenient, a more correct method, as C. +Wissler points out[805], is to locate the respective groups of typical +tribes as culture centres, classifying the other tribes as intermediate +or transitional. The geographical stability of the material culture +centres is confirmed by archaeological evidence which suggests that the +striking individuality they now possess resulted from a more or less +gradual expansion along original lines. The material cultures of these +centres possess great vitality and are often able completely to dominate +intrusive cultural unity. Thus tribes have passed from an intermediate +state to a typical, as when the Cheyenne were forced into the Plains +centre, and the Shoshonian Hopi adopted the typical Pueblo culture. +Wissler comes to the conclusion that "the location of these centres is +largely a matter of ethnic accident, but once located and the +adjustments made, the stability of the environment doubtless tends to +hold each particular type of material culture to its initial locality, +even in the face of many changes in blood and language." It is from his +valuable paper that the material culture traits of the following areas +have been obtained. + +I. Eskimo Area. The fact that the Eskimo live by the sea and chiefly +upon sea food does not differentiate them from the tribes of the North +Pacific coast, but they are distinguished from the latter by the habit +of camping in winter upon sea ice and living upon seal, and in the +summer upon land animals. The kayak and "woman's boat," the lamp, +harpoon, float, woman's knife, bowdrill, snow goggles, trussed-bow, and +dog traction are almost universal. The type of winter shelter varies +considerably, but the skin tent is general in summer and the snow house, +as a more or less permanent winter house, prevails east of Point Barrow. + +The mode of life of all the Eskimo, as F. Boas[806] has pointed out, is +fairly uniform and depends on the distribution of food at the different +seasons. The migrations of game compel the natives to move their +habitations from time to time, and as the inhospitable country does not +produce vegetation to an extent sufficient to support human life they +are forced to depend entirely upon animal food. The abundance of seals +in Arctic America enables man to withstand the inclemency of the climate +and the sterility of the soil. The skins of seals furnish the materials +for summer garments and for the tent, their flesh is almost their only +food, and their blubber their indispensable fuel during the long dark +winter when they live in solid snow houses. When the ice breaks up in +the spring the Eskimo establish their settlements at the head of the +fiords where salmon are easily caught. When the snow on the land has +melted in July the natives take hunting trips inland in order to obtain +the precious skins of the reindeer, or of the musk-ox, of whose heavy +pelts the winter garments are made. Walrus and the ground seal also +arrive and birds are found in abundance and eaten raw. + +The Eskimo[807] occupy more than 5000 miles of seaboard from north-east +Greenland to the mouth of the Copper river in western Alaska. Many views +have been advanced as to the position of their centre of dispersion; +most probably it lay to the west of Hudson Bay. Rink[808] is of opinion +that they originated as a distinct people in Alaska, where they +developed an Arctic culture; but Boas[809] regards them "as, +comparatively speaking, new arrivals in Alaska, which they reached from +the east." A westward movement is supported by myths and customs, and by +the affinities of the Eskimo with northern Asiatics. There was always +hostility between the Eskimo and the North American Indians, which, +apart from their very specialised mode of life, precluded any Eskimo +extension southwards. The expansion of the Eskimo to Greenland is +explained by Steensby[810] as follows:--the main southern movement would +have followed the west coast from Melville Bay, rounded the southern +point and proceeded some distance up the east coast. From the Barren +Grounds north-west of Hudson Bay the Polar Eskimo followed the musk-ox, +advanced due north to Ellesmere Land, then crossed to Greenland, and, +still hunting the musk-ox, advanced along the north coast and down the +east coast towards Scoresby Sound. Another line of migration apparently +started from the vicinity of Southampton Island and pursued the reindeer +northwards into Baffin Land; on reaching Ponds Inlet these +reindeer-hunting Eskimo for the most part turned along the east coast. + +Physically the Eskimo constitute a distinct type. They are of medium +stature, but possess uncommon strength and endurance; their skin is +light brownish yellow with a ruddy tint on the exposed parts; hands and +feet are small and well formed; their heads are high, with broad faces, +and narrow high noses, and eyes of a Mongolian character. But great +varieties are found in different parts of the vast area over which they +range. The Polar Eskimo of Greenland, studied by Steensby, were more of +American Indian than of Asiatic type[811]. Of their psychology this +writer says, "For the Polar Eskimos life is deadly real and sober, a +constant striving for food and warmth which is borne with good humour, +and all dispensations are accepted as natural consequences, about which +it is of no use to reason or complain." "The hard struggle for existence +has not permitted the Polar Eskimo to become other than a confirmed +egoist, who knows nothing of disinterestedness. Towards his enemies he +is crafty and deceitful--he does not attack them openly, but indulges +in backbiting.... It is only during the hunt that a common interest and +a common danger engender a deeper feeling of comradeship[812]." + +Still less Mongolian in type are the "blond Eskimo" recently encountered +by Stefansson in south-west Victoria Island[813], who are regarded by +him as very possibly the mixed descendants of Scandinavian ancestors who +had drifted there from west Greenland. It is known that Eric the Red +discovered Greenland in the year 982 and that 3 years later settlers +went there from the Norse colony in Iceland. + +The winter snow houses, which are about 12 x 15 ft. in diameter and 12 +ft. high, usually with annexes, are always occupied by two families, +each woman having her own lamp and sitting on the ledge in front of it. +If more families join in making a snow house, they make two main rooms. +Whenever it is possible the men spend the short days in hunting and each +woman prepares the food for her husband. The long nights are mainly +spent in various recreations. The social life in the summer settlement +is somewhat different. The families do not cook their own meals, but a +single one suffices for the whole settlement. The day before it is her +turn to cook the woman goes to the hills to fetch enough shrubs for the +fire. When a meal is ready the master of the house calls out and +everybody comes out of his tent with a knife, the men sit in one circle +and the women in another. These dinners, which are always held in the +evening, are almost always enlivened by a mimic performance. The great +religious feasts take place just before the beginning of winter. + +There are three forms of social grouping: the Family, House-mates, and +Place-mates. (1) The family consists of a man, his wife or wives, their +children and adopted children; widows and their children may be adopted, +but the woman retains her own fireplace. Sometimes men are adopted, such +as bachelors without any relatives, cripples, or impoverished men. Joint +ownership and use of a boat and house, and common labour and toil in +obtaining the means of support define the real community of the family. +(2) House-mates are families that join together to build and occupy and +maintain the same house. This form of establishment is especially common +in Greenland, but each family keeps its separate establishment inside +the common house. (3) Place-fellows. The inhabitants of the same hamlet +or winter establishment form one community although no chief is elected +or authority acknowledged. + +Generally children are betrothed when very young. The newly married pair +usually live at first with the wife's family. Both polygyny and +polyandry occur. A man may lend or exchange his wife for a whole season +or longer, as a sign of friendship. On certain occasions it is even +commanded by religious law. There is no government, but there is a kind +of chief in the settlement, though his authority is very limited. He is +called the "pimain," _i.e._ he who knows everything best. He decides the +proper time to shift the huts from one place to another, he may ask some +men to go sealing, others to go deer hunting, but there is not the +slightest obligation to obey him. The men in a community may form +themselves into an informal council for the regulation of affairs. The +decorative art of the Eskimo is not remarkably developed, but the +pictorial art consists of clever sketches of everyday scenes and there +is a well developed plastic art. Many of the carvings are toys and are +made for the pleasure of the work. "The religious views and practices of +the Eskimo while, on the whole, alike in their fundamental traits, show +a considerable amount of differentiation in the extreme east and in the +extreme west. It would seem that the characteristic traits of shamanism +are common to all the Eskimo tribes. The art of the shaman (angakok) is +acquired by the acquisition of guardian spirits.... Besides the spirits +which may become guardian spirits of men, the Eskimo believes in a great +many others which are hostile and bring disaster and death.... The +ritualistic development of Eskimo religion is very slight[814]." + +II. Mackenzie Area. Skirting the Eskimo area is a belt of semi-Arctic +lands almost cut in two by Hudson Bay. To the west are the Dene tribes, +who are believed to fall into three culture groups, an eastern group, +Yellow Knives, Dog Rib, Hares, Slavey, Chipewyan and Beaver; a +south-western group, Nahane, Sekani, Babine and Carrier; and a +north-western group, comprising the Kutchin, Loucheux, Ahtena and +Khotana. The material culture of the south-western group is deduced +from the writings of Father Morice[815]. All the tribes are hunters of +large or small game, caribou are often driven into enclosures, small +game taken in snares or traps; various kinds of fish are largely used, +and a few of the tribes on the head waters of the Pacific take salmon; +large use of berries is made, they are mashed and dried by a special +process; edible roots and other vegetable foods are used to some extent; +utensils are of wood and bark; there is no pottery; bark vessels are +used for boiling with or without stones; travel in summer is largely by +canoe, in winter by snowshoe; dog sleds are used to some extent, but +chiefly since trade days, the toboggan form prevailing; clothing is of +skins; mittens and caps are worn; there is no weaving except rabbit-skin +garments, but fine network occurs on snowshoes, bags, and fish nets, +materials being of bark fibre, sinew and babiche; there is also a +special form of woven quill work; the typical habitation seems to be the +double lean-to, though many intrusive forms occur; other material +culture traits include the making of fish-hooks and spears; a limited +use of copper; and poorly developed work in stone. + +The physical characteristics vary very much from tribe to tribe. The +Sekani, according to Morice, are slender and bony, in stature rather +below the average, with a narrow forehead, hollow cheeks, prominent +cheekbones, small eyes deeply sunk in their orbit, the upper lip very +thin and the lower somewhat protruding, the chin very small and the nose +straight. The Carriers, on the contrary, are tall and stout, without as +a rule being too corpulent. The men average 1.66 m. in height. Their +forehead is much broader than that of the Sekani, and less receding than +is usual with American aborigines. The face is full, and the nose +aquiline. All the tribes are remarkably unwarlike, timid, and even +cowardly. Weapons are seldom used and in personal combat, which consists +in a species of wrestling, knives are previously laid aside. The fear of +enemies is a marked feature, due in part, doubtless, to traditional +recollection of the raids of earlier days. Their honesty is noted by all +travellers. Morice records that among the Sekani a trader will sometimes +go on a trapping expedition, leaving his store unlocked, without fear +of any of its contents going amiss. Meantime a native may call in his +absence, help himself to as much powder and shot or any other item as he +may need, but he will never fail to leave there an exact equivalent in +furs. + +The eastern Dene are nomad hunters who gather berries and roots, while +the western are semi-sedentary, living for most of the year in villages +when they subsist largely on salmon. The former are patrilineal and the +latter are grouped into matrilineal exogamic totemic clans. The headmen +of the clans formed a class of privileged nobles who alone owned the +hunting grounds. Morice speaks of clan, honorific and personal totems. +The first two were adopted from coastal tribes, the honorific was +assumed by some individuals in order to attain a rank to which they were +not entitled by heredity. The "personal totem" is the guardian spirit or +genius, the belief in which is common to nearly all North American +peoples. Shamanism prevails throughout the area. The mythology almost +always refers to a "Transformer" who visited the world when incomplete +and set things in order. They have the custom of the potlatch[816]. If a +man desires another man's wife he can challenge the husband to a +wrestling match, the winner keeps the woman[817]. + +III. North Pacific Coast Area. This culture is rather complex with +tribal variations, but it can be treated under three subdivisions, a +northern group, Tlingit, Haida and Tsimshian; a central group, the +Kwakiutl tribes and the Bellacoola; and a southern group, the Coast +Salish, Nootka, Chinook, Kalapooian, Waiilatpuan, Chimakuan and some +Athapascan tribes. The first of these seem to be the type and are +characterised by: the great dependence upon sea food, some hunting upon +the mainland, large use of berries (dried fish, clams and berries are +the staple food); cooking with hot stones in boxes and baskets; large +rectangular gabled houses of upright cedar planks with carved posts and +totem poles; travel chiefly by water in large seagoing dug-out canoes +some of which had sails; no pottery nor stone vessels, except mortars; +baskets in checker, those in twine reaching a high state of excellence +among the Tlingit; coil basketry not made; mats of cedar bark and soft +bags in abundance; no true loom, the warp hanging from a bar and weaving +with the fingers downwards; clothing rather scanty, chiefly of skin, a +wide basket hat (the only one of the kind on the continent, apparently +for protection against rain); feet usually bare, but skin moccasins and +leggings occasionally made; for weapons the bow, club and a peculiar +dagger, no lances; slat, rod and skin armour; wooden helmets, no +shields; practically no chipped stone tools, but nephrite or green stone +used; wood work highly developed; work in copper possibly aboriginal +but, if so, weakly developed. The central group differs in a few minor +points; twisted and loosely woven bark or wool takes the place of skins +for clothing and baskets are all in checkerwork. Among the southern +group appears a strong tendency to use stone arrowheads, and a peculiar +flat club occurs, vaguely similar to the New Zealand type[818]. + +Physically the typical North Pacific tribes are of medium stature, with +long arms and short bodies. Among the northern branches the stature +averages 1.675 m. (5 ft. 6 in.), the head is very large with an average +index of 82.5. The face is very broad, the nose concave or straight, +seldom convex, with slight elevation. Among the southern tribes, notably +the Kwakiutl, the stature averages 1.645 m. (5 ft. 4-3/4 in.), the +cephalic index is 84.5, the face very broad but also of great length, +the nose very high, rather narrow and frequently convex. + +The social relations of these peoples vary from tribe to tribe, but on +the whole they fall into a sequence from north to south. In the northern +portion descent is matrilineal, but patrilineal in the south. J. G. +Frazer does not accept the view of Boas "that the Northern Kwakiutl have +borrowed both the rule of maternal descent and the division into totemic +clans from their more northerly neighbours of alien stocks; in other +words, that totemism and mother-kin have spread southward among a people +who had father-kin and no totemic system[819]." He inclines "to the +other view, formerly favoured by Boas himself, namely, that the +Kwakiutl are in a stage of transition from mother-kin to +father-kin[820]." + +Each village is autonomous and originally may have been restricted to a +single totem clan. The population is divided into three ranks, nobles, +common people and a low caste consisting of poor people and serfs who +cannot participate in the secret societies. In addition there is a +totemic grouping. There may be several totemic clans in one village and +the same totem may not only occur in every village, but may extend from +one tribe to another. This suggests that there were originally two, or +in some cases more than two, totemic clans which in process of time +became subdivided into sub-clans; these, while retaining the crest of +the original clan, acquired fresh ones, and the families contained in +each sub-clan may have their special crest or crests in addition. New +crests and names are constantly being introduced. Marriage is forbidden +between people of the same crest, irrespective of the tribe. The natives +according to Boas do not consider themselves descendants from their +totem. A wife brings her father's position, crest and privileges as a +dower to her husband, who is not allowed to use them himself, but +acquires them for the use of his son, in other words this inheritance is +in the female line. + +The widely spread American custom of a youth acquiring a guardian spirit +is far more prevalent among the southern section than the northern, but +among the Kwakiutl he can only obtain as his patron, one or more of a +limited number of spirits which are hereditary in his clan. In the +northern tribes the secret societies are coextensive with the totemic +clans; among the Kwakiutl they are connected with guardian spirits and +it is significant that during the summer, when the people are scattered, +society is based on the old clan system, but when the people live +together in villages in the winter, society is reorganised on the basis +of the secret societies. There is a highly developed system of barter of +which the blanket is now the unit of value, formerly the units were +elk-skins, canoes or slaves. Certain symbolic objects have attained +fanciful values. A vast credit system has grown up based on the custom +of loaning property at high interest, at the great festivals called +"potlatch" and by it the giver gains great honour. The religion is +closely related to the totemic beliefs; supernatural aid is given by +the spirits to those who win their favour. The raven is the chief figure +in the mythology; he regulates the phenomena of nature, procures fire, +daylight, and fresh water, and teaches men the arts. + +To the south, and extending inland to the divide, forming a much less +characteristic group are the Salish or Flat-heads who are allied to the +Athapascans. The coastal Salish assimilate the culture just described, +but the plateau Salish are more democratic, less settled and more +individualistic in religious matters[821]. The Chinooks or Flat-heads of +the lower reaches of the Columbia river are nearly extinct. They +deformed the heads of infants. These tribes and the Shahapts or Nez +Perces are differentiated by garments of raw hides, cranial deformation, +absence of tattooing and plain bows, but they still have communal houses +though without totem posts. They cook by means of heated stones and have +zoomorphic masks[822]. + +IV. Plateau Area. The Plateau area lies between the North Pacific Coast +area and the Plains. It is far less uniform than either in its +topography, the south being a veritable desert while the north is moist +and fertile. The traits may be summarised as: extensive use of salmon, +deer, roots (especially camas) and berries; the use of a handled digging +stick, cooking with hot stones in holes and baskets; the pulverisation +of dried salmon and roots for storage; winter houses, semi-subterranean, +a circular pit with a conical roof and smoke hole entrance; summer +houses, movable or transient, mat or rush-covered tents and the lean-to, +double and single; the dog sometimes used as a pack animal; water +transportation weakly developed, crude dug-outs and bark canoes being +used; pottery not known; basketry highly developed, coil, rectangular +shapes, imbricated technique; twine weaving in flexible bags and mats; +some simple weaving of bark fibre for clothing; clothing for the entire +body usually of deerskins; skin caps for the men, and in some cases +basket caps for women; blankets of woven rabbit-skin; the sinew-backed +bow prevailed; clubs, lances, and knives, and rod and slat armour were +used in war, also heavy leather shirts; fish spears, hooks, traps and +bag nets were used; dressing of deerskins highly developed; upright +stretching frames and straight long handled scrapers; wood work more +advanced than among Plains tribes, but insignificant compared to North +Pacific Coast area; stone work confined to the making of tools and +points, battering and flaking; work in bone, metal, and feathers very +weak[823]. + +Of the tribes of this area, the interior Salish, the Thompson, Shushwap +and Lillooet, appear to be the most typical of those concerning which +any information is available. The Shahapts or Nez Perces, and the +Shoshoni show some marked Plains traits. "The interior Salish are +landsmen and hunters, and from time immemorial have been accustomed to +follow their game over mountainous country. This mode of life has +engendered among them an active, slender, athletic type of men; they are +considerably taller and possess a much finer physique than their +congeners of the coastal region, who are fishermen, passing the larger +portion of their time on the water squatting in their canoes, never +walking to any place if they can possibly reach it by water. The typical +coast Salish are a squat thick-set people, with disproportionate legs +and bodies, slow and heavy in their movements, and as unlike their +brothers of the interior as it is possible for them to be[824]." + +The Thompsons represented the Salish at their highest and best, both +morally and physically, and their ethical precepts and teaching set a +very high standard of virtue before the advent of the Europeans. +Hill-Tout says that receptiveness and a wholesale adoption of foreign +fashions and customs are their striking qualities, and "if they have +fallen away from these high standards, as we fear they have, the fault +is not theirs but ours.... We assumed a grave responsibility when we +undertook to civilise these races[825]." + +The simplest form of social organisation is found among the interior +hunting tribes, where a state of pure anarchy may be said to have +formerly prevailed, each family being a law unto itself and +acknowledging no authority save that of its own elderman. Each local +community was composed of a greater or less number of these self-ruling +families. There was a kind of headship or nominal authority given to the +oldest and wisest of the eldermen in some of the larger communities, +where occasion called for it or where circumstances arose in which it +became necessary to have a central representative. This led in some +centres to the regular appointing of local chiefs or heads whose +business it was to look after the material interest of the commune over +which they presided; but the office was always strictly elective and +hedged with manifold limitations as to authority and privilege. For +example, the local chief was not necessarily the head of all +undertakings. He would not lead in war or the chase unless he happened +to be the best hunter or the bravest and most skilful warrior among +them; and he was subject to deposition at a moment's notice if his +conduct did not meet with the approval of the elders of the commune. His +office or leadership was therefore purely a nominal one. All hunting, +fishing, root, and berry grounds were common property and shared in by +all alike.... In one particular tribe even the food was held and meals +were taken in common, the presiding elder or headman calling upon a +certain family each day to provide and prepare the meals for all the +rest, every one, more or less, taking it in turn to discharge this +social duty[826]. + +V. Californian Area. Of the four sub-culture areas noted by Kroeber[827] +the central group is the most extensive and typical. Its main +characteristics are: acorns as the chief vegetable food, supplemented by +wild seeds, while roots and berries are scarcely used; the acorns are +made into bread by a roundabout process; hunting is mostly of small +game, fishing wherever possible; the houses are of many forms, all +simple shelters of brush or tule, or more substantial conical lean-to +structures of poles; the dog was not used for packing and there were no +canoes, but rafts of tule were used for ferrying; no pottery but high +development of basketry both coil and twine; bags and mats scanty; cloth +or other weaving of simple elements not known; clothing simple and +scanty; feet usually bare; the bow the only weapon, usually +sinew-backed; work in skins, wood, bone etc., weak, in metals absent, in +stone work not advanced. In the south modifications enter with large +groups of Yuman and Shoshonian tribes where pottery, sandals and wooden +war clubs are intrusive. The extinct Santa Barbara were excellent +workers in stone, bone and shell, and made plank canoes. + +Topographical variation produces consequent changes in mode of life as +the well watered and wooded country of Oregon and Northern California +gradually merges into the warm dry climate of South California with +decreasing moisture towards the tropics. As Kroeber says[828], "From the +time of the first settlement of California, its Indians have been +described as both more primitive and more peaceful than the majority of +the natives of North America.... The practical arts of life, the social +institutions and the ceremonies of the Californian Indians are unusually +simple and undeveloped. There was no war for its own sake, no +confederation of powerful tribes, no communal stone pueblos, no totems, +or potlatches. The picturesqueness and the dignity of the Indians are +lacking. In general rudeness of culture the Californian Indians are +scarcely above the Eskimo.... If the degree of civilisation attained by +people depends in any large measure on their habitat, as does not seem +likely, it might be concluded from the case of the Californian Indians +that natural advantages were an impediment rather than an incentive to +progress.... It is possible to speak of typical Californian Indians and +to recognise a typical Californian culture area. A feature that should +not be lost sight of is the great stability of population.... The social +organisation was both simple and loose.... Beyond the family the only +bases of organisation were the village and the language." In so simple a +condition of society difference of rank naturally found but little +scope. The influence of chiefs was comparatively small, and distinct +classes, as of nobility or slaves, were unknown. Individual property +rights were developed and what organisation of society there was, was +largely on the basis of property. The ceremonies are characterised by a +very slight development of the extreme ritualism that is so +characteristic of the American Indians, and by an almost entire absence +of symbolism of any kind. Fetishism is also unusual. One set of +ceremonies was usually connected with a secret religious society; during +initiation members were disguised by feathers and paint, but masks were +not worn. There was also an annual tribal spectacular ceremony held in +remembrance of the dead. In the north-west portion of the state a +somewhat more highly developed and specialised culture existed which has +some affinities with that of the north-west tribes, as is indicated by a +greater advance in technology, a social organisation largely upon a +property basis and a system of mythology that is suggestive of those +further north. The now extinct tribes of the Santa Barbara islands and +adjacent mainland were more advanced. They alone employed a plank-built +canoe instead of the balsas or canoe-shaped bundles of rushes of the +greater part of California. They made stone bowls and did inlaid work. +Like the North Californians and tribes further north they buried instead +of burning their dead. The eastern tribes shade off into their +neighbours. The Luiseno, the southernmost of the Shoshonians, had +puberty rites for girls and boys[829]. The belief in a succession of +births "is reminiscent of Oceanic and Asiatic ways of thought[830]." +[About] 1788 a secret cult arose inculcating, with penalties, obedience, +fasting, and self-sacrifice on initiates[831]. + +VI. Plains Area. The chief traits of this culture are the dependence +upon the bison ("buffalo") and the very limited use of roots and +berries; absence of fishing; lack of agriculture; the _tipi_ or tent as +the movable dwelling and transportation by land only, with the dog and +the travois (in historic times, with the horse); no baskets, pottery, or +true weaving; clothing of bison and deerskins; there is high development +of work in skins and special bead technique and raw-hide work +(parfleche, cylindrical bag etc.), and weak development of work in wood, +stone and bone. This typical culture is manifested in the Assiniboin, +Arapaho, Blackfoot, Crow, Cheyenne, Comanche, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, +Kiowa-Apache, Sarsi and Teton-Dakota[832]. Among the tribes of the +eastern border a limited use of pottery and basketry may be added, some +spinning and weaving of bags, and rather extensive agriculture. Here the +tipi alternates with larger and more permanent houses covered with +grass, bark or earth, and there was some attempt at water +transportation. These tribes are the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kansa, +Mandan, Missouri, Omaha, Osage, Oto, Pawnee, Ponca, Santee-Dakota[833], +Yankton-Dakota[833] and Wichita. + +On the western border other tribes (Wind River Shoshoni, Uinta and +Uncompahgre Ute) lack pottery but produce a rather high type of +basketry, depending far less on the bison but more on deer and small +game, making large use of wild grass seeds. + +On the north-eastern border the Plains-Ojibway and Plains-Cree combine +many traits of the forest hunting tribes with those found in the Plains. + +The Dakota or Sioux are universally conceded to be of the highest type, +physically, mentally and probably morally of any of the western tribes. +Their bravery has never been questioned by white or Indian and they +conquered or drove out every rival except the Ojibway. Their physical +characteristics are as follows: dark skin faintly tinged with red, +facial features more strongly marked than those of the Pacific Coast +Indians, nose and lower jaw particularly prominent and heavy, head +generally mesocephalic and not artificially deformed. They are a free +and dominant race of hunters and warriors, necessarily strong and +active. Their weapons of stone, wood, bone and horn are tomahawk, club, +flint knife, and bow and arrow. All their habits centre in the bison, +which provided the staple materials of nutrition and industry. Drawing +and painting were done on prepared bison skins and elaborately carved +pipes were made for ceremonial use. + +They are divided into kinship groups, with inheritance as a rule in the +male line. The woman is autocrat of the home. Exogamy was strictly +enforced in the clan but marriage within the tribe or with related +tribes was encouraged. The marriage was arranged by the parents and +polygyny was common where means would permit. Government consisted in +chieftainship acquired by personal merit, and the old men exercised +considerable influence. + +Religious conceptions were based on a belief in _Wakonda_ or +_Manito_[834], an all-pervading spirit force, whose cult involved +various shamanistic ceremonials consisting of dancing, chanting, +feasting and fasting. Most distinctive of these is the Sun dance, +practised by almost all the tribes of the plains except the Comanche. It +is an annual festival lasting several days, in honour of the sun, for +the purpose of obtaining abundant produce throughout the year. + +The Sun dance was not only the greatest ceremony of the Plains tribes +but was a condition of their existence. More than any other ceremony or +occasion, it furnished the tribe the opportunity for the expression of +emotion in rhythm, and was the occasion of the tribe becoming more +closely united. It gave opportunity for the making and renewing of +common interests, the inauguration of tribal policies, and the renewing +of the rank of the chiefs; for the exhibition, by means of mourning +feasts, of grief over the loss of members of families; for the +fulfilment of social obligations by means of feasts; and, finally, for +the exercise and gratification of the emotions of love on the part of +the young in the various social dances which always formed an +interesting feature of the ceremony[835]. + +Being strongly opposed by the missionaries because it was utterly +misunderstood[836], and finding no favour in official circles, the Sun +dance has been for many years an object of persecution, and in +consequence is extinct among the Dakota, Crows, Mandan, Pawnee, and +Kiowa, but it is still performed by the Cree, Siksika (Blackfoot), +Arapaho, Cheyenne, Assiniboin, Ponca, Shoshoni and Ute, though in many +of these tribes its disappearance is near at hand, for it has lost part +of its rites and has become largely a spectacle for gain rather than a +great religious ceremony[837]. + +The Pawnee do not differ at all widely from the Dakota, but have a +somewhat finer cast of features. They are more given to agriculture, +raising crops of maize, pumpkins, etc. The Pawnee type of hut is +characteristic, consisting of a circular framework of poles or logs, +covered with brush, bark and earth. Their religious ceremonies were +connected with the cosmic forces and the heavenly bodies. The dominating +power was Tirawa generally spoken of as "Father." The winds, thunder, +lightning and rain were his messengers. Among the Skidi the morning and +evening stars represented the masculine and feminine elements, and were +connected with the advent and perpetuation on earth of all living forms. +A series of ceremonies relative to the bringing of life and its increase +began with the first thunder in the spring and culminated at the summer +solstice in human sacrifice, but the series did not close until the +maize, called "mother corn," was harvested. At every stage of the series +certain shrines or "bundles" became the centre of a ceremony. Each +shrine was in charge of an hereditary keeper, but its rituals and +ceremonies were in the keeping of a priesthood open to all proper +aspirants. Through the sacred and symbolic articles of the shrines and +their rituals and ceremonies a medium of communication was believed to +be opened between the people and the supernatural powers, by which food, +long life and prosperity were obtained. The mythology of the Pawnee is +remarkably rich in symbolism and poetic fancy and their religious system +is elaborate and cogent. The secret societies, of which there were +several in each tribe, were connected with the belief in supernatural +animals. The functions of these societies were to call the game, to heal +diseases, and to give occult powers. Their rites were elaborate and +their ceremonies dramatic[838]. + +The Blackfeet or Siksika[839], an Algonquian confederacy of the northern +plains, agree in culture with the Plains tribes generally, though there +is evidence of an earlier culture, approximately that of the eastern +woodland tribes. They are divided into the Siksika proper, or Blackfeet, +the Kainah or Bloods, and the Piegan, the whole being popularly known as +Blackfoot or Blackfeet. Formerly bison and deer were their chief food +and there is no evidence that they ever practised agriculture, though +tobacco was grown and used entirely for ceremonial purposes. The doors +of their tipis always faced east. They have a great number of +dances--religious, war and social--besides secret societies for various +purposes, together with many "sacred bundles" around every one of which +centres a ritual. Practically every adult has his personal "medicine." +The principal deities are the Sun, and a supernatural being known as +_Napi_ "Old Man," who may be an incarnation of the same idea. The +religious activity of a Blackfoot consists in putting himself into a +position where the cosmic power will take pity upon him and give him +something in return. There was no conception of a single personal +god[840]. + +The Arapaho, another Algonquian Plains tribe, were once according to +their own traditions a sedentary agricultural people far to the north of +their present range, apparently in North Minnesota. They have been +closely associated with the Cheyenne for many generations[841]. The +annual Sun Dance is their greatest tribal ceremony, and they were active +propagators of the ghost-dance religion of the last century which +centred in the belief in the coming of a messiah and the restoration of +the country to the Indians[842]. + +The Cheyenne, also of agricultural origin, have been for generations a +typical prairie tribe, living in skin tipis, following the bison over +large areas, travelling and fighting on horseback. In character they are +proud, contentious, and brave to desperation, with an exceptionally high +standard for women. Under the old system they had a council of 44 +elective chiefs, of whom four constituted a higher body, with power to +elect one of their number as head chief of the tribe. In all councils +that concerned the relations with other tribes, one member of the +council was appointed to argue as proxy or "devil's advocate" for the +alien people. The council of 44 is still symbolised by a bundle of 44 +invitation sticks, kept with the sacred medicine-arrows, and formerly +sent round when occasion arose to convene the assembly. The four +medicine-arrows constitute the tribal palladium which they claim to have +had from the beginning of the world. It was exposed once a year with +appropriate rites, and is still religiously preserved. No woman, white +man, or even mixed blood of the tribe has ever been allowed to come near +the sacred arrows. In priestly dignity the keepers of the +medicine-arrows and the priests of the Sun dance rites stood first and +equal[843]. + +VII. Eastern Woodland Area[844]. The culture north of the Great Lakes +and east of the St Lawrence is comparable to that of the Dene (see p. +361), the main traits being: the taking of caribou in pens; the snaring +of game; the importance of small game and fish, also of berries; the +weaving of rabbit-skins; the birch canoe; the toboggan; the conical skin +or bark-covered shelter; the absence of basketry and pottery and the use +of bark and wooden utensils. To this northern group belong the Ojibway +north of the lakes, including the Saulteaux, the Wood Cree, the +Montagnais and the Naskapi. Further south the main body falls into three +large divisions: Iroquoian tribes (Huron, Wyandot, Erie, Susquehanna and +Five Nations); Central Algonquian to the west of the Iroquois (some +Ojibway, Ottawa, Menomini, Sauk and Fox[845], Potawatomi, Peoria, +Illinois, Kickapoo, Miami, Piankashaw, Shawnee and Siouan Winnebago); +Eastern Algonquian (Abnaki group and Micmac). + +The Central group west of the Iroquois appears to be the most typical +and the best known and the following are the main culture traits: maize, +squashes and bean were cultivated, wild rice where available was a great +staple, and maple sugar was manufactured; deer, bear and even bison were +hunted; also wild fowl; fishing was fairly developed, especially +sturgeon fishing on the lakes; pottery poor, but formerly used for +cooking vessels, vessels of wood and bark common; some splint basketry; +two types of shelter prevailed, a dome-shaped bark or mat-covered lodge +for winter and a rectangular bark house for summer, though the Ojibway +used the conical type of the northern border group; dug-out and bark +canoes and snowshoes were used, occasionally the toboggan and dog +traction; weaving was of bark fibre (downward with fingers), and soft +bags, pack lines and fish nets were made; clothing was of skins; +soft-soled moccasins with drooping flaps, leggings, breech-cloth and +sleeved shirts for men, for women a skirt and jacket, though a one-piece +dress was known; robes of skin or woven rabbit-skin; no armour or +lances; bows of plain wood and clubs; in trade days, the tomahawk; work +in wood, stone and bone weakly developed; probably considerable use of +copper in prehistoric times; feather-work rare. + +In the eastern group agriculture was more intensive (except in the +north) and pottery was more highly developed. Woven feather cloaks were +common, there was a special development of work in steatite, and more +use was made of edible roots. + +The Iroquoian tribes were even more intensive agriculturalists and +potters. They made some use of the blow-gun, developed cornhusk weaving, +carved elaborate masks from wood, lived in rectangular houses of +peculiar pattern, built fortifications and were superior in bone +work[846]. + +In physical type the Ojibways[847], who may be taken as typical of the +central Algonquians, were 1.73 m. (5 ft. 8 in.) in height, with +brachycephalic heads (82 in the east, 80 in the west, but variable), +heavy strongly developed cheek-bones and heavy and prominent nose. They +were hard fighters and beat back the raids of the Iroquois on the east +and of the Foxes on the south, and drove the Sioux before them out upon +the Plains. According to Schoolcraft, who was personally acquainted with +them and married a woman of the tribe, the warriors equalled in physical +appearance the best formed of the North-West Indians, with the possible +exception of the Foxes. + +They were organised in many exogamous clans; descent was patrilineal +although it was matrilineal in most Algonquian tribes. The clan system +was totemic. There was a clan chief and generally a tribal chief as +well, chosen from one clan in which the office was hereditary. His +authority was rather indefinite. + +As regards religion W. Jones[848] notes their belief in a cosmic mystery +present throughout all Nature, called "Manito." It was natural to +identify the Manito with both animate and inanimate objects and the +impulse was strong to enter into personal relations with the mystic +power. There was one personification of the cosmic mystery; and this was +an animate being called the Great Manito. Although they have long been +in friendly relations with the whites Christianity has had but little +effect on them, largely owing to the conservatism of the native +medicine-men. The _Medewiwin_, or grand medicine society, was a powerful +organisation, which controlled all the movements of the tribe[849]. + +The Iroquois[850] are not much differentiated in general culture from +the stocks around them, but in political development they stand unique. +The Five Nations, Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca +(subsequently joined by the Tuscarora), formed the famous League of the +Iroquois about the year 1570. Each tribe remained independent in matters +of local concern, but supreme authority was delegated to a council of +elected sachems. They were second to no other Indian people north of +Mexico in political organisation, statecraft and military prowess, and +their astute diplomats were a match for the wily French and English +statesmen with whom they treated. So successful was this confederacy +that for centuries it enjoyed complete supremacy over its neighbours, +until it controlled the country from Hudson Bay to North Carolina. The +powerful Ojibway at the end of Lake Superior checked their north-west +expansion, and their own kindred the Cherokee stopped their progress +southwards. + +The social organisation was as a rule much more complex and cohesive +than that of any other Indians, and the most notable difference was in +regard to the important position accorded to the women. Among the +Cherokee, the Iroquois and the Hurons the women performed important and +essential functions in their government. Every chief was chosen and +retained his position and every important measure was enacted by the +consent and cooperation of the child-bearing women, and the candidate +for a chieftainship was nominated by the suffrages of the matrons of +this group. His selection from among their sons had to be confirmed by +the tribal and the federal councils respectively, and finally he was +installed into office by federal officers. Lands and the "long houses" +of related families belonged solely to the women. + +VIII. South-eastern Area. This area is conveniently divided by the +Mississippi, the typical culture occurring in the east. The Powhatan +group and the Shawnee are intermediate, and the chief tribes are the +Muskhogean (Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, etc.) and Iroquoian +tribes (Cherokee and Tuscarora) with the Yuchi, Eastern Siouan, Tunican +and Quapaw. The main culture traits are: great use of vegetable food and +intensive agriculture; maize, cane (a kind of millet), pumpkins, +watermelons and tobacco being raised. Large use of wild vegetables, the +dog, the only domestic animal, eaten; later chickens, hogs, horses and +cattle quickly adopted; large game, deer, bear and bison, in the west; +turkeys and small game also hunted; some fishing (with fish poison); of +manufactured foods bears' oil, hickory-nut oil, persimmon bread and +hominy are noteworthy, together with the famous black drink[851]; houses +generally rectangular with curved roofs, covered with thatch or bark, +often with plaster walls, reinforced with wicker work; towns were +fortified with palisades; dug-out canoes were used for transport. +Clothing chiefly of deerskins and bison robes, shirt-like garments for +men, skirts and toga-like, upper garments for women, boot-like moccasins +in winter; there were woven fabrics of bark fibre, fine netted feather +cloaks, and some bison hair weaving in the west (the weaving being +downwards with the fingers); baskets of cane and splints, the double or +netted basket and the basket meal sieve being special forms; knives of +cane, darts of cane and bone; blow-guns in general use; pottery good, +coil process, with paddle decorations; a particular method of skin +dressing (macerated in mortars), good work in stone, but little in +metal[852]. + +The Creek women were short though well formed, while the warrior +according to Pickett[853] was "larger than the ordinary race of +Europeans, often above 6 ft. in height, but was invariably well formed, +erect in his carriage, and graceful in every movement. They were proud, +haughty and arrogant, brave and valiant in war." As a people they were +more than usually devoted to decoration and ornament; they were fond of +music and ball play was their most important game. Each Creek town had +its independent government, under an elected chief who was advised by +the council of the town in all important matters. Certain towns were +consecrated to peace ceremonies and were known as "white towns," while +others, set apart for war ceremonials, were known as "red towns." The +solemn annual festival of the Creeks was the "busk" or _puskita_, a +rejoicing over the first-fruits of the year. Each town celebrated its +busk whenever the crops had come to maturity. All the worn-out clothes, +household furniture, pots and pans and refuse, grain and other +provisions were gathered together into a heap and consumed. After a +fast, all the fires in the town were extinguished and a priest kindled a +new fire from which were made all the fires in the town. A general +amnesty was proclaimed, all malefactors might return to their towns and +their offences were forgiven. Indeed the new fire meant the new life, +physical and moral, which had to begin with the new year[854]. + +The Yuchi houses are grouped round a square plot of ground which is held +as sacred, and here the religious ceremonies and social gatherings take +place. On the edges stand four ceremonial lodges, in conformity with the +four cardinal points, in which the different clan groups have assigned +places. The square ground symbolises the rainbow, where in the +sky-world, Sun, the mythical culture-hero, underwent the ceremonial +ordeals which he handed down to the first Yuchi. The Sun, as chief of +the sky-world, author of the life, the ceremonies and the culture of the +people, is by far the most important figure in their religious life. +Various animals in the sky-world and vegetation spirits are recognised, +besides the totemic ancestral spirits, who play an important part. + +According to Speck[855] "the members of each clan believe that they are +relatives and, in some vague way, the descendants of certain +pre-existing animals whose names and identity they now bear. The animal +ancestors are accordingly totemic. In regard to the living animals, +they, too, are the earthly types and descendants of the pre-existing +ones, hence, since they trace their descent from the same sources as the +human clans, the two are consanguinely related." Thus the members of a +clan feel obliged not to do violence to the wild animals having the form +or name of their tutelaries, though the flesh and fur may be obtained +from the members of other clans who are under no such obligations. The +different individuals of the clan inherit the protection of the clan +totems at the initiatory rites, and thenceforth retain them as their +protectors through life. + +Public religious worship centres in the complex annual ceremony +connected with the corn harvest and includes the making of new fire, +clan dances impersonating totemic ancestors, dances to propitiate +maleficent spirits and acknowledge the assistance of beneficent ones in +the hope of a continuance of their benefits, scarification of the males +for sacrifice and purification, taking an emetic as a purifier, the +partaking of the first green corn of the season, and the performance of +a characteristic ball game with two sticks. + +The middle and lower portions of the Mississippi valley with out-lying +territories exhibit archaeological evidence of a remarkable culture, +higher than that of any other area north of Mexico. This culture +was characterised by "well established sedentary life, extensive +practice of agricultural pursuits, and construction of permanent +works--domiciliary, religious, civic, defensive and mortuary, of great +magnitude and much diversity of form." The people, some, if not all of +whom were mound-builders, were of numerous linguistic stocks, Siouan, +Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskhogean, Tunican, Chitimachan, Caddoan and +others, and "these historic peoples, remnants of which are still found +within the area, were doubtless preceded by other groups not of a +distinct race but probably of the same or related linguistic families. +This view, in recent years, has gradually taken the place of the early +assumption that the mound culture belonged to a people of high cultural +attainments who had been succeeded by Indian tribes. That mound building +continued down to the period of European occupancy is a well established +fact, and many of the burial mounds contain as original inclusions +articles of European make[856]." + +These general conclusions are in no way opposed to De Nadaillac's +suggestion that the mounds were certainly the work of Indians, but of +more civilised tribes than the present Algonquians, by whom they were +driven south to Florida, and there found with their towns, +council-houses, and other structures by the first white settlers[857]. +It would appear, however, from F. H. Cushing's investigations, that +these tribal council-houses of the Seminole Indians were a local +development, growing up on the spot under conditions quite different +from those prevailing in the north. Many of the vast shell-mounds, +especially between Tampa and Cape Sable, are clearly of artificial +structure, that is, made with definite purpose, and carried up +symmetrically into large mounds comparable in dimensions with the Indian +mounds of the interior. They originated with pile dwellings in shallow +water, where the kitchen refuse, chiefly shells, accumulates and rises +above the surface, when the building appears to stand on posts in a low +mound. Then this type of structure comes to be regarded as the normal +for house-building everywhere. "Through this natural series of changes +in type there is a tendency to the development of mounds as sites for +habitations and for the council-house of the clan or tribe, the sites +being either separate mounds or single large mounds, according to +circumstances. Thus the study of the living Seminole Indians and of the +shell-mounds in the same vicinity ... suggests a possible origin for a +custom of mound-building at one time so prevalent among the North +American Indians[858]." But if this be the genesis of such structures, +the custom must have spread from the shores of the Gulf inland, and not +from the Ohio valley southwards to Florida. + +IX. South-western Area. On account of its highly developed state and its +prehistoric antecedents, the Pueblo culture appears as the type, though +this is by no means uniform in the different villages. Three +geographical groups may be recognised, the Hopi[859], the Zuni[860] and +the Rio Grande[861]. + +The culture of the whole may be characterised by: main dependence upon +maize and other cultivated foods (men doing the cultivating and +cloth-weaving instead of women); use of a grinding stone instead of a +mortar; the art of masonry; loom or upward weaving; cultivated cotton as +a textile material; pottery decorated in colour; unique style of +building and the domestication of the turkey. Though the main dependence +was on vegetable food there was some hunting; the eastern villages +hunted bison and deer, especially Taos. Drives of rabbits and antelopes +were practised, the unique hunting weapon being the curved rabbit stick. +Woven robes were usual. Men wore aprons and a robe when needed. Women +wore a garment reaching from shoulder to knee fastened on the right +shoulder only. In addition to cloth robes some were woven of rabbit-skin +and some netted with turkey feathers. Hard-soled moccasins were worn, +those for women having long strips of deerskin wound round the leg. +Pottery was highly developed, not only for practical use. Basketry was +known but not so highly developed as among the non-Pueblo tribes. The +dog was not used for transportation and there were no boats. Work in +stone and wood not superior to that of other areas; some work in +turquoise, but none in metal. + +Many tribes appear to be transitional to the Pueblo type. Thus the Pima +once lived in adobe houses, though not of Pueblo type, they developed +irrigation but also made extensive use of wild plants, raised cotton, +wove cloth, were indifferent potters but experts in basketry. The +Mohave, Yuma, Cocopa, Maricopa and Yavapai built a square flat-roofed +house of wood, had no irrigation, were not good basket-makers (except +the Yavapai) but otherwise resembled the Pima. The Walapai and Havasupai +were somewhat more nomadic. + +The Athapascan tribes to the east show intermediate cultures. The +Jicarilla and Mescalero used the Plains tipi, gathered wild vegetable +food, hunted bison, had no agriculture or weaving, but dressed in skins, +and had the glass-bead technique of the Plains. The western Apache +differed little from these, but rarely used tipis and gave a little more +attention to agriculture. In general the Apache have certain undoubted +Pueblo traits, they also remind one of the Plains, the Plateaus, and, in +a lean-to like shelter, of the Mackenzie area. The Navaho seem to have +taken their most striking features from European influence, but their +shelter is of the northern type, while costume, pottery and feeble +attempts at basketry and formerly at agriculture suggest Pueblo +influence[862]. + +Pueblo culture takes its name from the towns or villages of stone or +adobe houses which form the characteristic feature of the area. These +vary according to the locality, those in the north being generally of +sandstone, while adobe or sun-dried brick was employed to the south. The +groups of dwellings were generally compact structures of several +stories, with many small rooms, built in terrace fashion, the roof of +one storey forming a promenade for the storey next above. Thus from the +front the structure is like a gigantic staircase, from the back a +perpendicular wall. The upper houses were and still are reached by means +of movable ladders and a hatchway in the roof. Mainly in the north but +scattered throughout the area are the remains of dwellings built in +natural recesses of cliffs, while in some places the cliff face is +honeycombed with masonry to provide habitations. + +Although doubtless designed for purposes of hiding and defence, many of +the cliff houses were near streams and fields and were occupied because +they afforded shelter and were natural dwelling places; many were +storage places for maize and other property: others again were places +for outlook from which the fields could be watched or the approach of +strangers observed. In some districts evidence of post-Spanish occupancy +exists. From intensive investigation of the cliff dwellings it is +evident that the inhabitants had the same material culture as that of +existing Pueblo Indians, and from the ceremonial objects which have been +discovered and the symbolic decoration that was employed it is equally +clear that their religion was essentially similar. Moreover the various +types of skulls that have been recovered are similar to those of the +present population of the district. It may therefore be safely said that +there is no evidence of the former general occupancy of the region by +peoples other than those now classed as Pueblo Indians or their +neighbours. + +J. W. Fewkes points out that the district is one of arid plateaus, +separated and dissected by deep canons, frequently composed of +flat-lying rock strata forming ledge-marked cliffs by the erosive action +of the rare storms. "Only along the few streams heading in the mountains +does permanent water exist, and along the cliff lines slabs of rock +suitable for building abound; and the primitive ancients, dependent as +they were on environment, naturally produced the cliff dwellings. The +tendency toward this type was strengthened by intertribal relations; the +cliff dwellers were probably descended from agricultural or +semi-agricultural villagers who sought protection against enemies, and +the control of land and water through aggregation in communities.... +Locally the ancient villages of Canyon de Chelly are known as Aztec +ruins, and this designation is just so far as it implies relationship +with the aborigines of moderately advanced culture in Mexico and Central +America, though it would be misleading if regarded as indicating +essential difference between the ancient villagers and their modern +descendants and neighbours still occupying the pueblos[863]." + +Each pueblo contains at least one _kiva_, either wholly or partly +underground, entered by means of a ladder and hatchway, forming a sacred +chamber for the transaction of civil or religious affairs, and also a +club for the men. In some villages each totemic clan has its own _kiva_. +The Indians are eminently a religious people and much time is devoted to +complicated rites to ensure a supply of rain, their main concern, and +the growth of crops. Among the Hopi from four to sixteen days in every +month are employed by one society or another in the carrying out of +religious rites. The secret portions of these complicated ceremonies +take place in the _kiva_, while the so-called "dances" are performed in +the open. + +The clan ancestors may be impersonated by masked men, called _katcinas_, +the name being also applied to the religious dramas in which they +appear[864]. + +In reference to J. Walter Fewkes' account of the "Tusayan Snake +Ceremonies," it is pointed out that "the Pueblo Indians adore a +plurality of deities, to which various potencies are ascribed. These +zoic deities, or beast gods, are worshipped by means of ceremonies which +are sometimes highly elaborate; and, so far as practicable, the mystic +zoic potency is represented in the ceremony by a living animal of +similar species or by an artificial symbol. Prominent among the animate +representatives of the zoic pantheon throughout the arid region is the +serpent, especially the venomous and hence mysteriously potent +rattlesnake. To the primitive mind there is intimate association, too, +between the swift-striking and deadly viper and the lightning, with its +attendant rain and thunder; there is intimate association, too, between +the moisture-loving reptile of the subdeserts and the life-giving storms +and freshets; and so the native rattlesnake plays an important role in +the ceremonies, especially in the invocations for rain, which +characterize the entire arid region[865]." + +Fewkes pursues the same fruitful line of thought in his monograph on +_The Feather Symbol in Ancient Hopi Designs_[866], showing how amongst +the Tusayan Pueblos, although they have left no written records, there +survives an elaborate paleography, the feather _motif_ in the pottery +found in the old ruins, which is in fact "a picture writing often highly +symbolic and complicated," revealing certain phases of Hopi thought in +remote times. "Thus we come back to a belief, taught by other reasoning, +that ornamentation of ancient pottery was something higher than simple +effort to beautify ceramic wares. The ruling motive was a religious one, +for in their system everything was under the same sway. Esthetic and +religious feelings were not differentiated, the one implied the other, +and to elaborately decorate a vessel without introducing a religious +symbol was to the ancient potter an impossibility[867]." + +Physically the Pueblo Indians are of short stature, with long, low head, +delicate face and dark skin. They are muscular and of great endurance, +able to carry heavy burdens up steep and difficult trails, and to walk +or even run great distances. It is said to be no uncommon thing for a +Hopi to run 40 miles over a burning desert to his cornfield, hoe his +corn, and return home within 24 hours. Distances of 140 miles are +frequently made within 36 hours[868]. In disposition they are mild and +peaceable, industrious, and extraordinarily conservative, a trait shown +in the fidelity with which they retain and perpetuate their ancient +customs[869]. Labour is more evenly divided than among most Indian +tribes. The men help the women with the heavier work of house-building, +they collect the fuel, weave blankets and make moccasins, occupations +usually regarded as women's work. The women carry the water, and make +the pottery for which the region is famous[870]. + +A. L. Kroeber has made a careful study of Zuni sociology[871] and come +to the conclusion that the family is fundamental and the clan secondary, +though kinship terms are applied to clan mates in a random fashion, and +even the true kinship terms are applied loosely. In view of the obvious +preeminence of the woman, who receives the husband into her and her +mother's house, it is worthy of note that she and her children recognise +her husband's relatives as their kin as fully as he adopts hers. The +Zuni are not a woman-ruled people. As regards government, women neither +claim nor have any voice whatever, nor are there women priests, nor +fraternity officers. Even within the house, so long as a man is a +legitimate inmate thereof, he is master of it and of its affairs. They +are a monogamous people. Divorce is more easy than marriage, and most +men and women of middle age have been married to several partners. +Marriage in the mother's clan is forbidden; in the father's clan, +disapproved. The phratries have no social significance, there is no +central clan house, no recognised head, no meeting, council or any +organisation, nor does the clan as such ever act as a body. The clans +have little connection with the religious societies or fraternities. +There are no totemic tabus nor is there worship of the clan totem. +People are reckoned as belonging to the father's clan almost as much as +to that of the mother. If one of the family of a person who belongs to a +fraternity falls sick the fraternity is called in to cure the patient, +who is subsequently received into its ranks. The Zuni fraternity is +largely a body of religious physicians, membership is voluntary and not +limited by sex. At Hopi we hear of rain-making more than of doctoring, +more of "priests" than of "theurgists." The religious functions of the +Zuni are most marked in the ceremonies of the Ko-tikkyanne, the +"god-society" or "masked-dancer society," and it is with these that the +_kivas_ are associated. They are almost wholly concerned with rain. Only +men can become members and entrance is compulsory. Kroeber believes that +"the truest understanding of Zuni life, other than its purely practical +manifestation, can be had by setting the ettowe ['fetish'] as a centre. +Around these, priesthoods, fraternities, clan organisation, as well as +most esoteric thinking and sacred tradition, group themselves; while, in +turn, kivas, dances, and acts of public worship can be construed as but +the outward means of expression of the inner activities that radiate +around the nucleus of the physical fetishes and the ideas attached to +them[872]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[737] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 72. + +[738] R. F. Scharff, _The History of the European Fauna_, 1899, pp. 155, +186. + +[739] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, 1891. + +[740] K. Haebler, _The World's History_ (ed. Helmolt), I. 1901, p. 181. + +[741] A. Hrdli[vc]ka, "Skeletal Remains suggesting or attributed to +Early Man in North America," _Bureau Am. Eth. Bull._ 33, 1907, p. 98. + +[742] A. Hrdli[vc]ka, "Early Man in South America," _Bureau Am. Eth. +Bull._ 52, 1912. + +[743] _Loc. cit._ pp. 385-6. + +[744] _American Anthropologist_, XIV. 1912, p. 22. + +[745] P. Rivet, "La Race de Lagoa-Santa chez les populations +precolombiennes de l'Equateur," _Bull. Soc. d'Anth._ V. 2, 1908, p. 264. + +[746] J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_, 1900, p. 512. + +[747] _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 52, 1912, pp. 183-4. + +[748] _Loc. cit._ p. 267. + +[749] A. Hrdli[vc]ka, _Am. Anth._ XIV. 1912, p. 10. + +[750] _Ibid._ p. 12. + +[751] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, pp. 78-9. + +[752] W. Bogoras, _Am. Anth._ IV. 1902, p. 577. + +[753] _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 28, 1904, p. 535. + +[754] _Globus_, LXX. No. 3. + +[755] _Mexican Archaeology_, 1914, p. 7 ff. + +[756] "The Social Organization, etc. of the Kwakiutl Indians," _Rep. +U.S. Nat. Mus._ 1895, Washington (1897), p. 321 sq. and _Ann. Arch. +Rep._ 1905, Toronto, 1906, p. 84. + +[757] W. L. H. Duckworth, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, August, 1895. + +[758] _The Stone Age in North America_, 1911. + +[759] On the other hand there are a few American archaeologists who +believe in the occurrence of implements of palaeolithic type in the +United States, but there is no corroborative evidence on the part of +contemporaneous fossils. See N. H. Winchell, "The weathering of +aboriginal stone artifacts," No. 1. _Collection of the Minnesota Hist. +Soc._ Vol. XVI. 1913. + +[760] _Am. Anth._ XIV. 1912, p. 55. + +[761] Such disintegration is clearly seen in the Carib still surviving +in Dominica, of which J. Numa Rat contributed a somewhat full account to +the _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ for Nov. 1897, p. 293 sq. Here the broken form +_arametakuahatina buka_ appears to represent the polysynthetic +_arametakuanientibubuka_ (root _arameta_, to hide), as in Pere Breton's +_Grammaire Caraibe_, p. 45, where we have also the form +_arametakualubatibubasubutuiruni_ = know that he will conceal thee (p. +48). It may at the same time be allowed that great inroads have been +made on the principle of polysynthesis even in the continental (South +American) Carib, as well as in the Colombian Chibcha, the Mexican Otomi +and Pima, and no doubt in some other linguistic groups. But that the +system must have formerly been continuous over the whole of America +seems proved by the persistence of extremely polysynthetic tongues in +such widely separated regions as Greenland (Eskimo), Mexico (Aztec), +Peru (Quichuan), and Chili (Araucanian). + +[762] R. de la Grasserie and N. Leon, _Langue Tarasque_, Paris, 1896. + +[763] J. E. R. Polak, _Ipurina Grammar_, etc., London, 1894. + +[764] _The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics_, +Copenhagen, 1887, I. p. 62 sq. + +[765] In fact this very word was first given "as an ordinary example" by +Kleinschmidt, _Gram. d. Groenlandischen Sprache_, Sect. 99, and is also +quoted by Byrne, who translates: "They disapproved of him, because he +did not give to him, when he heard that he would go off, because he had +nothing" (_Principles_, etc., I. p. 140). + +[766] "Indian Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico," _Seventh +Ann. Rept. Bureau of Ethnology_, 1885-6 (1891). See also the "Handbook +of American Indian Languages," Part I by Franz Boas and others, _Bureau +of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40_, 1911. The Introduction by F. Boas +gives a good general idea of the characteristics of these languages and +deals shortly with related problems. + +[767] Following this ethnologist's convenient precedent, I use both in +_Ethnology_ and here the final syllable _an_ to indicate stock races and +languages in America. Thus _Algonquin_ = the particular tribe and +language of that name; _Algonquian_ = the whole family; _Iroquois_, +_Iroquoian_, _Carib_, _Cariban_, etc. + +[768] _Forum_, Feb. 1898, p. 683. + +[769] Studies of these languages by Kroeber and others will be found in +_University of California Publications; American Archaeology and +Ethnology_, L. 1903 onwards. Cf. also A. L. Kroeber, "The Languages of +the American Indians," _Pop. Sci. Monthly_, LXXVIII. 1911. + +[770] _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. 1910, p. 73. + +[771] _Urbewohner Brasiliens_, 1897, p. 46. + +[772] Karl v. d. Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, +1894, p. 215. + +[773] _Aborigines of South America_, 1912. + +[774] _Loc. cit._ p. 75. + +[775] _Indian Linguistic Families_, p. 141. + +[776] "Whence came the American Indians?" _Forum_, Feb. 1898. + +[777] J. Walter Fewkes, "Great Stone Monuments in History and +Geography," _Pres. Add. Anthrop. Soc., Washington_, 1912. + +[778] F. Graebner, _Anthropos_, IV. 1909, esp. pp. 1013-24. Cf. also his +_Ethnologie_, 1914. + +[779] W. Schmidt, "Kulturkreise und Kulturschichten in Suedamerika," +_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, Jg. 45, 1913, p. 1014 ff. + +[780] _Loc. cit._ pp. 1020, 1021. + +[781] _Ibid._ p. 1093; cf. also p. 1098 where the Peruvian sailing balsa +is traced to Polynesia, sailing rafts being still used in the Eastern +Paumotu islands. + +[782] _Am. Anth._ XIV. 1912, pp. 34-6. + +[783] _Loc. cit._ p. 39. + +[784] _Loc. cit._ p. 43. + +[785] G. Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_, 1915. + +[786] G. Elliot Smith, "The Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilization +in the East and in America," _Bull. of the John Rylands Library_, +Jany.--March, 1916, pp. 3, 4. + +[787] Cf. W. J. Perry, "The Relationship between the Geographical +Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines," reprinted from +_Manchester Memoirs_, Vol. LX. (1915), pt. 1. + +[788] W. J. Perry, _Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc._ LX. +1916, No. 6. + +[789] _Loc. cit._ No. 5. + +[790] _Loc. cit._ No. 4. + +[791] _Loc. cit._ No. 8. + +[792] _Loc. cit._ No. 7. + +[793] _Putnam Anniversary Volume_, 1909, p. 365. + +[794] _Nature_, Nov. 25 and Dec. 16, 1915. + +[795] H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific States of North +America_, 1875. + +[796] E. B. Tylor, "On the game of Patolli in Ancient Mexico and its +probably Asiatic origin," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ VIII. 1878, p. 116. +_Rep. Brit. Ass._ 1894, p. 774. + +[797] Zelia Nuttall, "The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World +Civilisations," _Arch. and Eth. Papers, Peabody Mus. Cambridge, Mass._ +II. 1901. + +[798] J. Macmillan Brown, _Maori and Polynesian_, 1907. + +[799] C. R. Enoch, _The Secret of the Pacific_, 1912. + +[800] Livingston Farrand, _Basis of American History_, 1904, pp. 88-9. + +[801] _7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1885-6_ (1891). + +[802] "Primitive American History," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, pp. 410-11. + +[803] Roland B. Dixon, _Am. Anth._ XV. 1913, pp. 538-9. + +[804] "Areas of American culture characterization tentatively outlined +as an aid in the study of the Antiquities," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, pp. +413-46. + +[805] Clark Wissler, "Material Cultures of the North American Indians," +_Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, pp. 447-505. + +[806] "The Central Eskimo," _6th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1884-5_ (1888), +p. 419. + +[807] The name is said to come from the Abnaki _Esquimantsic_, or from +_Ashkimeq_, the Ojibway equivalent, meaning "eaters of raw flesh." They +call themselves Innuit, meaning "people." + +[808] H. Rink, "The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and +Characteristics," _Meddelelser om Groenland_, II. 1887. + +[809] F. Boas, "Ethnological Problems in Canada," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XL. 1910, p. 529. + +[810] H. P. Steensby, "Contributions to the Ethnology and +Anthropogeography of the Polar Eskimos," _Meddelelser om Groenland_, +XXXIV. 1910. + +[811] H. P. Steensby, _loc. cit._ p. 384. + +[812] _Loc. cit_. pp. 366, 376. + +[813] V. Stefansson, _My life with the Eskimo_, 1913, p. 194 ff. + +[814] F. Boas, "The Eskimo," _Annual Archaeological Report_, 1905, +Toronto (1906), p. 112 ff. + +[815] A. G. Morice, "Notes on the Western Denes," _Trans. Canadian +Inst._ IV. 1895; "The Western Denes," _Proc. Canadian Inst._ XXV. (3rd +Series, VII.) 1890; "The Canadian Denes," _Ann. Arch. Rep. 1905_ (1906), +p. 187. + +[816] From the Nootka word _potlatsh_, "giving" or "a gift," so called +because these great winter ceremonials were especially marked by the +giving away of quantities of goods, commonly blankets. Cf. J. R. Swanton +in _Handbook of American Indians_ (F. W. Hodge, editor), 1910. + +[817] Besides C. Wissler, _loc. cit._ p. 457 and A. G. Morice, _loc. +cit._, cf. J. Jette, _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907, p. 157; C. +Hill-Tout, _British North America_, 1907; and G. T. Emmons, "The Tahltan +Indians," _Anthr. Pub. University of Pennsylvania_, IV. 1, 1911. + +[818] C. Wissler, _loc. cit._ p. 454. + +[819] J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, III. 1910, p. 319. + +[820] _Loc. cit._ p. 333. + +[821] See p. 367. + +[822] F. Boas, _Brit. Ass. Reports_, 1885-98; _Social Organisation of +the Kwakiutl Indians_, 1897; A. P. Niblack, "The Coast Indians," _U.S. +Nat. Mus. Report_, 1898. + +[823] For this area consult J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British +Columbia," "The Lillooet Indians," and "The Shushwap," in _Memoirs, Am. +Mus. Nat. Hist._ Vol. II. 4, 1900; Vol. IV. 5, 1906; and Vol. IV. 7, +1909; F. Boas, "The Salish Tribes of the Interior of British Columbia," +_Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905 (Toronto, 1906); C. Hill-Tout, "The Salish Tribes +of the Coast and Lower Fraser Delta," _Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905 (Toronto, +1906); H. J. Spinden, "The Nez Perces Indians," _Memoirs, Am. Anth. +Ass._ II. 3, 1908; R. H. Lowie, "The Northern Shoshone," _Anth. Papers, +Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ II. 2, 1908; A. B. Lewis, "Tribes of the Columbia +Valley," etc., _Memoirs, Am. Anth. Ass._ I. 2, 1906. + +[824] C. Hill-Tout, _British North America_, 1907, p. 37. + +[825] _Loc. cit._ p. 50. + +[826] _Loc. cit._ pp. 158-9. + +[827] A. L. Kroeber, "Types of Indian Culture in California," +_University of California Publications Am. Arch. and Eth._ II. 3, 1904; +cf. also the special anthropological publications of the University of +California. + +[828] _Loc. cit._ p. 81 ff. + +[829] P. S. Spartman, _University of California Publications, Am. Arch. +and Eth._ VIII. 1908, p. 221 ff.; A. L. Kroeber, "Types of Indian +Culture in California," _ibid._ II. 1904, p. 81 ff. + +[830] A. L. Kroeber, _ibid._ VIII. 1908, p. 72. + +[831] C. G. DuBois, "The Religion of the Luiseno Indians," _tom. cit._ +p. 73 ff. + +[832] Dakota is the name of the largest division of the Siouan +linguistic family, commonly called Sioux; Santee, Yankton and Teton +constituting, with the Assiniboin, the four main dialects. + +[833] See note 4, p. 370. + +[834] _Wakonda_ is the term employed "when the power believed to animate +all natural forms is spoken to or spoken of in supplications or rituals" +by many tribes of the Siouan family. _Manito_ is the Algonquian name for +"the mysterious and unknown potencies and powers of life and of the +universe." "_Wakonda_," says Miss Fletcher, "is difficult to define, for +exact terms change it from its native uncrystallized condition to +something foreign to aboriginal thought. Vague as the concept seems to +be to one of another race, to the Indian it is as real and as mysterious +as the starry night or the flush of the coming day," "Handbook of +American Indians" (ed. F. W. Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 30, 1907. + +[835] See G. A. Dorsey, "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. +Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 30, 1907. + +[836] G. B. Grinnell points out that the personal torture often +associated with the ceremonies has no connection with them, but +represents the fulfilment of individual vows. "The Cheyenne Medicine +Lodge," _Am. Anth._ XVI. 1914, p. 245. + +[837] See G. A. Dorsey, "Arapaho Sun Dance," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. +Anth._ IV. 4 (Chicago), 1903; "The Cheyenne," _tom. cit._ IX. 1905. + +[838] A. C. Fletcher, in "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. +Hodge), _Bur. Am. Eth.,_ Bull. 30, 1907; _Am. Anth._ IV. 4, 1902; "The +Hako, a Pawnee Ceremony," _22nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1900-1_, 2 +(1904); G. A. Dorsey, "Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee," _Mem. Am. +Folklore Soc._ VIII. 1904. + +[839] From _siksinam_ "black," and _ka_, the root of _oqkatsh_ "foot." +The origin of the name is commonly given as referring to the blackening +of their moccasins by the ashes of the prairie fires. + +[840] J. Mooney, "Handbook of American Indians" (ed. F. W. Hodge), _Bur. +Am. Eth._, Bull. 30, 1907; C. Wissler, "Material culture of the +Blackfoot Indians," _Anth. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ V. 1, 1910; J. +W. Schultz, _My Life as an Indian_, 1907. + +[841] A. L. Kroeber. "The Arapaho," _Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ XVIII. +1900; G. A. Dorsey and A. L. Kroeber, "Traditions of the Arapaho," _Pub. +Field Col. Mus. Anth._ V. 1903; G. A. Dorsey, "Arapaho Sun Dance," _ib._ +IV. 1903. + +[842] J. Mooney, "The Ghost Dance Religion," _14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. +Eth._ 1896. + +[843] G. A. Dorsey, "The Cheyenne," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. Anth._ IX. +1905; G. B. Grinnell, "Social organisation of the Cheyennes," _Rep. Int. +Cong. Am._ XIII. 1902. + +[844] Consult the following: A. C. Parker, "Iroquois uses of Maize and +other Food Plants," Bull. 144, _University of California Pub., Arch. and +Eth._ VII. 4, 1909; W. J. Hoffman, "The Menomini Indians," _14th Ann. +Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1892-3_, I. (1896); A. E. Jenks, "The Wild Rice +Gatherers of the Upper Lakes," _19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1897-8_, +II. (1912); A. F. Chamberlain, "The Kootenay Indians and Indians of the +Eastern Provinces of Canada," _Ann. Arch. Rep. 1905_ (1906); A. Skinner, +"Notes on the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux," _Anth. Papers, Am. +Mus. Nat. Hist._ IX. 1, 1911; _The Indians of Greater New York_, 1914; +J. N. B. Hewitt, "Iroquoian Cosmology," _21st Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ +1899-1900 (1903), etc. + +[845] For the Foxes (properly Musquakie) see M. A. Owen, _Folklore of +the Musquakie Indians_, 1904. + +[846] C. Wissler, _loc. cit._ p. 459. + +[847] Ojibway, meaning "to roast till puckered up," referred to the +puckered seam on the moccasins. Chippewa is the popular adaptation of +the word. + +[848] W. Jones, _Ann. Arch. Rep._ 1905 (Toronto), 1906, p. 144. Cf. note +on p. 372. + +[849] W. J. Hoffman, "The Midewiwin or 'grand medicine society' of the +Ojibwa," _7th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1886 (1891). + +[850] From the Algonkin word meaning "real adders" with French suffix. + +[851] A decoction made by boiling the leaves of _Ilex cassine_ in water, +employed as "medicine" for ceremonial purification. It was a powerful +agent for the production of the nervous state and disordered imagination +necessary to "spiritual" power. + +[852] C. Wissler,_ loc. cit._ pp. 462-3. + +[853] A. J. Pickett, _Hist. of Alabama_, 1851 (ed. 1896), p. 87. + +[854] Cf. A. S. Gatschet, "A migration legend of the Creek Indians," +_Trans. Acad. Sci. St Louis_, V. 1888. + +[855] F. G. Speck, "Some outlines of Aboriginal Culture in the S. E. +States," _Am. Anth._ N. S. IX. 1907; "Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians," +_Anth. Pub. Mus. Univ. Pa._ I. 1, 1909. + +[856] W. H. Holmes, "Areas of American Culture," etc., _Am. Anth._ XVI. +1914, p. 424. + +[857] _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 702 sq. + +[858] _16th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._, Washington, 1897, p. lvi sq. + +[859] Walpi, Sichumovi, Hano (Tewa), Shipaulovi, Mishongnovi, Shunopovi +and Oraibi. + +[860] Zuni proper, Pescado, Nutria and Ojo Caliente. + +[861] Taos, Picuris, San Juan, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Tesuque, +Pojoaque, Nambe, Jemez, Pecos, Sandia, Isleta, all of Tanoan stock; San +Felipe, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Santa Ana, Sia Laguna and Acoma, of +Keresan stock. + +[862] For this area see A. F. Bandelier, "Final Report of Investigations +among the Indians of the S. W. United States," _Arch. Inst. of Am. +Papers_, 1890-2; P. E. Goddard, "Indians of the Southwest," _Handbook +Series, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ 2, 1913; F. Russell, "The Pima Indians," +_26th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1904-5 (1908); G. Nordenskioeld, _The +Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde, S. W. Colorado_, 1893; C. Mindeleff, +"Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona," _13th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. +Eth._ 1891-2 (1896). For chronology cf. L. Spier, _Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. +Anth._ XVIII. + +[863] _16th Ann. Report_, p. xciv. Cf. E. Huntington, "Desiccation in +Arizona," _Geog. Journ._, Sept. and Oct. 1912. + +[864] For the religion consult F. H. Cushing, "Zuni Creation Myths," +_13th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1891-2 (1896); _Zuni Folk Tales_, 1901; +Matilda C. Stevenson, "The Religious Life of the Zuni Child," _5th Ann. +Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1887; "The Zuni Indians, their mythology, esoteric +fraternities, and ceremonies," _23rd Rep._ 1904; J. W. Fewkes, "Tusayan +Katcinas," _15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1893-4 (1897); "Tusayan Snake +Ceremonies," _16th Rep._ 1894-5 (1897); "Tusayan Flute and Snake +Ceremonies," _19th Rep._ 1897-8, 11. (1900); "Hopi Katcinas," _21st +Rep._ 1899-1900 (1903), and other papers. For dances see W. Hough, _Moki +Snake dance_, 1898; G. A. Dorsey and H. R. Voth, "Mishongnovi Ceremonies +of the Snake and Antelope Fraternities," _Pub. Field Col. Mus. Anth._ +III. 3, 1902; J. W. Fewkes, "Snake Ceremonials at Walpi," _Jour. Am. +Eth. and Arch._ IV. 1894 and "Tusayan Snake Ceremonies," _16th Ann, Rep. +Bur. Am. Eth._ 1897; H. Hodge, "Pueblo Snake Ceremonies," _Am. Anth._ +IX. 1896. + +[865] p. xcvii. + +[866] _Amer. Anthropologist_, Jan. 1898. + +[867] p. 13. + +[868] G. W. James, _Indians of the Painted Desert Region_, 1903, p. 90. + +[869] L. Farrand, _Basis of American History_, 1904, p. 184. + +[870] W. H. Holmes, "Pottery of the ancient Pueblos," _4th Ann. Rep. +Bur. Am. Eth. 1882-3_ (1886); F. H. Cushing, "A study of Pueblo +Pottery," etc., _ib,_; J. W. Fewkes, "Archaeological expedition to +Arizona," _17th Rep. 1895-6_ (1898); W. Hough, "Archaeological field +work in N.E. Arizona" (1901), _Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus._ 1903. + +[871] "Zuni Kin and Clan," _Anth. Papers, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ XVIII. +1917, p. 39. + +[872] p. 167. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES (_continued_) + + Mexican and Central American Cultures--Aztec and Maya Scripts and + Calendars--Nahua and Shoshoni--Chichimec and Aztec Empires-- + Uncultured Mexican Peoples: _Otomi_; _Seri_--Early Man in + Yucatan--The Maya to-day--Transitions from North to South + America--_Chontal_ and _Choco_--The _Catio_--Cultures of the Andean + area--The Colombian _Chibcha_--Empire of the Inca--_Quichuan_ Race + and Language--Inca Origins and History--The _Aymara_--_Chimu_ + Culture--Peruvian Politico-Social System--The _Araucanians_--The + _Pampas Indians_--The _Gauchos_--_Patagonians_ and _Fuegians_-- + Linguistic Relations--The _Yahgans_--The _Cashibo_--The _Pana + Family_--The _Caribs_--_Arawakan Family_--The _Ges (Tapuyan) + Family_--The _Botocudo_--The _Tupi-Guaranian Family_--The + _Chiquito_--_Mataco_ and _Toba_ of the Gran Chaco. + + +In Mexico and Central America interest is centred chiefly in two great +ethnical groups--the _Nahuatlan_ and _Huaxtecan_--whose cultural, +historical, and even geographical relations are so intimately interwoven +that they can scarcely be treated apart. Thus, although their +civilisations are concentrated respectively in the Anahuac (Mexican) +plateau and Yucatan and Guatemala, the two domains overlap completely at +both ends, so that there are isolated branches of the Huaxtecan family +in Mexico (the Huaxtecs (Totonacs) of Vera Cruz, from whom the whole +group is named, and of the Nahuatlan in Nicaragua (Pipils, Niquirans, +and others)[873]. + +This very circumstance has no doubt tended to increase the difficulties +connected with the questions of their origins, migrations, and mutual +cultural influences. Some of these difficulties disappear if the +"Toltecs" be eliminated (see p. 342), who had hitherto been a great +disturbing element in this connection, and all the rest have in my +opinion been satisfactorily disposed of by E. Foerstemann, a leading +authority on all Aztec-Maya questions[874]. This eminent archaeologist +refers first to the views of Seler[875], who assumes a southern movement +of Maya tribes from Yucatan, and a like movement of Aztecs from Tabasco +to Nicaragua, and even to Yucatan. On the other hand Dieseldorff holds +that Maya art was independently developed, while the link between it and +the Aztec shows that an interchange took place, in which process the +Maya was the giver, the Aztec the recipient. He further attributes the +overthrow of the Maya power 100 or 200 years before the conquest to the +Aztecs, and thinks the Aztecs or Nahuas took their god Quetzalcoatl from +the "Toltecs," who were a Maya people. Ph. J. Valentini also infers that +the Maya were the original people, the Aztecs "mere parasites[876]." + +Now Foerstemann lays down the principle that any theory, to be +satisfactory, should fit in with such facts as:--(1) the agreement and +diversity of both cultures; (2) the antiquity and disappearance of the +mysterious Toltecs; (3) the complete isolation at 22 deg. N. lat. of the +Huaxtecs from the other Maya tribes, and their difference from them; (4) +the equally complete isolation of the Guatemalan Pipils, and of the +other southern (Nicaraguan) Aztec groups from the rest of the Nahua +peoples; (5) the remarkable absence of Aztec local names in Yucatan, +while they occur in hundreds in Chiapas, Guatemala, Honduras and +Nicaragua, where scarcely any trace is left of Maya names. + +To account for these facts he assumes that in the earliest known times +Central America from about 23 deg. to 10 deg. N. was mainly inhabited by Maya +tribes, who had even reached Cuba. While these Mayas were still at quite +a low stage of culture, the Aztecs advanced from as far north as at +least 26 deg. N. but only on the Pacific side, thus leaving the Huaxtecs +almost untouched in the east. The Aztecs called the Mayas "Toltecs" +because they first came in contact with one of their northern branches +living in the region about Tula (north of Mexico city)[877]. But when +all the relations became clearer, the Toltecs fell gradually into the +background, and at last entered the domain of the fabulous. + +Now the Aztecs borrowed much from the Mayas, especially gods, whose +names they simply translated. A typical case is that of Cuculcan, which +becomes Quetzalcoatl, where _cuc_ = _quezal_ = the bird _Trogon +resplendens_, and _can_ = _coatl_ = snake[878]. With the higher culture +developed in Guatemala the Aztecs came first in contact after passing +through Mixtec and Zapotec territory, not long before Columbian times, +so that they had no time here to consolidate their empire and assimilate +the Mayas. On the contrary the Aztecs were themselves merged in these, +all but the Pipils and the settlements on Lake Nicaragua, which retained +their national peculiarities. + +But whence came the hundreds of Aztec names in the lands between Chiapas +and Nicaragua? Here it should be noted that these names are almost +exclusively confined to the more important stations, while the less +prominent places have everywhere names taken from the tongues of the +local tribes. But even the Aztec names themselves occur properly only in +official use, hence also on the charts, and are not current to-day +amongst the natives who have kept aloof from the Spanish-speaking +populations. Hence the inference that such names were mainly introduced +by the Spaniards and their Mexican troops during the conquest of those +lands, say, up to about 1535, and do not appear in Yucatan which was not +conquered from Mexico. Foerstemann reluctantly accepts this view, +advanced by Sapper[879], having nothing better to suggest. + +The coastal towns of Yucatan visited by Spaniards from Cuba in 1517 and +onwards were decidedly inferior architecturally to the great temple +structures of the interior, though doubtless erected by the same people. +The inland cities of Chichen-Itza and Uxmal by that time had fallen from +their ancient glory though still religious centres[880]. + +The Maya would thus appear to have stood on a higher plane of culture +than their Aztec rivals, and the same conclusion may be drawn from +their respective writing systems. Of all the aborigines these two alone +had developed what may fairly be called a script in the strict sense of +the term, although neither of them had reached the same level of +efficiency as the Babylonian cuneiforms, or the Chinese or the Egyptian +hieroglyphs, not to speak of the syllabic and alphabetic systems of the +Old World. Some even of the barbaric peoples, such as most of the +prairie Indians, had reached the stage of graphic symbolism, and were +thus on the threshold of writing at the discovery. "The art was +rudimentary and limited to crude pictography. The pictographs were +painted or sculptured on cliff-faces, boulders, the walls of caverns, +and even on trees, as well as on skins, bark, and various artificial +objects. Among certain Mexican tribes, also, autographic records were in +use, and some of them were much better differentiated than any within +the present area of the United States. The records were not only painted +and sculptured on stone and moulded in stucco, but were inscribed in +books or codices of native parchment and paper; while the characters +were measurably arbitrary, _i.e._ ideographic rather than +pictographic[881]." + +The Aztec writing may be best described as pictographic, the pictures +being symbolical or, in the case of names, combined into a rebus. No +doubt much diversity of opinion prevails as to whether the Maya symbols +are phonetic or ideographic, and it is a fact that no single text, +however short, has yet been satisfactorily deciphered. It seems that +many of the symbols possessed true phonetic value and were used to +express sounds and syllables, though it cannot be claimed that the Maya +scribes had reached that advanced stage where they could indicate each +letter sound by a glyph or symbol[882]. According to Cyrus Thomas, a +symbol was selected because the name or word it represented had as its +chief phonetic element a certain consonant sound or syllable. If this +were _b_ the symbol would be used where _b_ was the prominent element of +the word to be indicated, no reference, however, to its original +signification being necessarily retained. Thus the symbol for _cab_, +'earth,' might be used in writing _Caban_, a day name, or _cabil_, +'honey,' because _cab_ is their chief phonetic element.... One reason +why attempts at decipherment have failed is a misconception of the +peculiar character of the writing, which is in a transition stage from +the purely ideographic to the phonetic[883]. From the example here +given, the Maya script would appear to have in part reached the rebus +stage, which also plays so large a part in the Egyptian hieroglyphic +system. _Cab_ is obviously a rebus, and the transition from the rebus to +true syllabic and alphabetic systems has already been explained[884]. +The German Americanists on the other hand have always regarded Maya +writing as more ideographic, and H. Beuchat adopts this view, for "no +symbol has ever been read phonetically with a different meaning from +that which it possesses as an ideogram[885]." + +But not only were the Maya day characters phonetic; the Maya calendar +itself, afterwards borrowed by the Aztecs, has been described as even +more accurate than the Julian itself. "Among the Plains Indians the +calendars are simple, consisting commonly of a record of winters +('winter counts'), and of notable events occurring either during the +winter or during some other season; while the shorter time divisions are +reckoned by 'nights' (days), 'dead moons' (lunations), and seasons of +leafing, flowering, or fruiting of plants, migrating of animals, etc., +and there is no definite system of reducing days to lunations or +lunations to years. Among the Pueblo Indians calendric records are +inconspicuous or absent, though there is a much more definite calendric +system which is fixed and perpetuated by religious ceremonies; while +among some of the Mexican tribes there are elaborate calendric systems +combined with complete calendric records. The perfection of the calendar +among the Maya and Nahua Indians is indicated by the fact that not only +were 365 days reckoned as a year, but the bissextile was +recognized[886]." + +In another important respect the superiority of the Maya-Quiche peoples +over the northern Nahuans is incontestable. When their religious systems +are compared, it is at once seen that at the time of the discovery the +Mexican Aztecs were little better than ruthless barbarians newly clothed +in the borrowed robes of an advanced culture, to which they had not had +time to adapt themselves properly, and in which they could but +masquerade after their own savage fashion. + +It has to be remembered that the Aztecs were but one branch of the +Nahuatlan family, whose affinities Buschmann[887] has traced northwards +to the rude Shoshonian aborigines who roamed from the present States of +Montana, Idaho, and Oregon down into Utah, Texas, and California[888]. +To this Nahuatlan stock belonged the barbaric hordes who overthrew the +civilisation which flourished on the Anahuac (Mexican) table-land about +the sixth century A.D. and is associated with the ruins of Tula and +Cholula. It now seems clear that the so-called "Toltecs," the +"Pyramid-builders," were not Nahuatlans but Huaxtecans, who were +absorbed by the immigrants or driven southwards. + +To north and north-west of the settled peoples of the valley lived +nomadic hunting tribes called Chichimec[889], merged in a loose +political system which was dignified in the local traditions by the name +of the "Chichimec Empire." The chief part was played by tribes of Nahuan +origin[890], whose ascendancy lasted from about the eleventh to the +fifteenth century, when they were in their turn overthrown and absorbed +by the historical Nahuan confederacy of the _Aztecs_[891] whose capital +was Tenochtitlan (the present city of Mexico), the _Acolhuas_ (capital +Tezcuco), and the _Tepanecs_ (capital Tlacopan). + +Thus the Aztec Empire reduced by the Conquistadores in 1520 had but a +brief record, although the Aztecs themselves as well as many other +tribes of Nahuatl speech, must have been in contact with the more +civilised Huaxtecan peoples for centuries before the appearance of the +Spaniards on the scene. It was during these ages that the Nahuas +"borrowed much from the Mayas," as Foerstemann puts it, without greatly +benefiting by the process. Thus the Maya gods, for the most part of a +relatively mild type like the Maya themselves, become in the hideous +Aztec pantheon ferocious demons with an insatiable thirst for blood, so +that the teocalli, "god's houses," were transformed to human shambles, +where on solemn occasions the victims were said to have numbered tens of +thousands[892]. + +Besides the Aztecs and their allies, the elevated Mexican plateaus were +occupied by several other relatively civilised nations, such as the +_Miztecs_ and _Zapotecs_ of Oajaca, the _Tarasco_ and neighbouring +_Matlaltzinca_, of Michoacan[893], all of whom spoke independent stock +languages, and the _Totonacs_ of Vera Cruz, who were of Huaxtecan +speech, and were in touch to the north with the Huaxtecs, a primitive +Maya people. The high degree of civilisation attained by some of these +nations before their reduction by the Aztecs is attested by the +magnificent ruins of Mitla, capital of the Zapotecs, which was captured +and destroyed by the Mexicans in 1494[894]. Of the royal palace +Viollet-le-Duc speaks in enthusiastic terms, declaring that "the +monuments of the golden age of Greece and Rome alone equal the beauty of +the masonry of this great building[895]." In general their usages and +religious rites resembled those of the Aztecs, although the Zapotecs, +besides the civil ruler, had a High Priest who took part in the +government. "His feet were never allowed to touch the ground; he was +carried on the shoulders of his attendants; and when he appeared all, +even the chiefs themselves, had to fall prostrate before him, and none +dared to raise their eyes in his presence[896]." The Zapotec language is +still spoken by about 260 natives in the State of Oajaca. + +Farther north the plains and uplands continued to be inhabited by a +multitude of wild tribes speaking an unknown number of stock languages, +and thus presenting a chaos of ethnical and linguistic elements +comparable to that which prevails along the north-west coast. Of these +rude populations one of the most widespread are the Otomi of the central +region, noted for the monosyllabic tendencies of their language, which +Najera, a native grammarian, has on this ground compared with Chinese, +from which, however, it is fundamentally distinct. Still more primitive +are the Seri Indians of Tiburon island in the Gulf of California and the +adjacent mainland, who were visited in 1895 by W. J. McGee, and found to +be probably more isolated and savage than any other tribe remaining on +the North American Continent. They hunt, fish, and collect vegetable +food, and most of their food is eaten raw, they have no domestic animals +save dogs, they are totally without agriculture, and their industrial +arts are few and rude. They use the bow and arrow but have no knife. +Their houses are flimsy huts. They make pottery and rafts of canes. The +Seri are loosely organised in a number of exogamic, matrilineal, totemic +clans. Mother-right obtains to a greater extent perhaps than in any +other people. At marriage the husband becomes a privileged guest in the +wife's mother's household, and it is only in the chase or on the +war-path that men take an important place. Polygyny prevails. The most +conspicuous ceremony is the girls' puberty feast. The dead are buried in +a contracted position. "The strongest tribal characteristic is +implacable animosity towards aliens.... In their estimation the +brightest virtue is the shedding of alien blood, while the blackest +crime in their calendar is alien conjugal union[897]." + +It is noteworthy that but few traces of such savagery have yet been +discovered in Yucatan. The investigations of Henry Mercer[898] in this +region lend strong support to Foerstemann's views regarding the early +Huaxtecan migrations and the general southward spread of Maya culture +from the Mexican table-land. Nearly thirty caves examined by this +explorer failed to yield any remains either of the mastodon, mammoth, +and horse, or of early man, elsewhere so often associated with these +animals. Hence Mercer infers that the Mayas reached Yucatan already in +an advanced state of culture, which remained unchanged till the +conquest. In the caves were found great quantities of good pottery, +generally well baked and of symmetrical form, the oldest quite as good +as the latest where they occur in stratified beds, showing no progress +anywhere. + +The caves of Loltun (Yucatan) and Copan (Honduras), examined by E. H. +Thompson and G. Byron-Gordon, yielded pre-Mayan debris from the deep +strata. Perhaps this very ancient population was of the same race as the +little known tribes still living in the forests of Honduras and San +Salvador[899]. + +Since the conquest the Aztecs, and other cultured nations of Anahuac, +have yielded to European influences to a far greater extent than the +Maya-Quiche of Yucatan and Guatemala. In the city of Mexico the Nahuatl +tongue has almost died out, and this place has long been a leading +centre of Spanish arts and letters[900]; yet the Mexicans yearly +celebrate a feast in memory of their great ancestors who died in defence +of their country[901]. But Merida, standing on the site of the ancient +Ti-hoo, has almost again become a Maya town, where the white settlers +themselves have been largely assimilated in speech and usages to the +natives. The very streets are still indicated by the carved images of +the hawk, flamingo, or other tutelar deities, while the houses of the +suburbs continue to be built in the old Maya style, two or three feet +above the street level, with a walled porch and stone bench running +round the enclosure. + +One reason for this remarkable contrast may be that the Nahua culture, +as above seen, was to a great extent borrowed in relatively recent +times, whereas the Maya civilisation is now shown to date from the epoch +of the Tolan and Cholulan pyramid-builders. Hence the former yielded to +the first shock, while the latter still persists to some extent in +Yucatan. Here about 1000 A.D. the cities of Chichen-Itza, Uxmal and +Mayapan formed a confederacy in which each was to share equally in the +government of the country. Under the peaceful conditions of the next two +centuries followed the second and last great Maya epoch, the Age of +Architecture, as it has been termed, as opposed to the first epoch, the +Age of Sculpture, from the second to the sixth century A.D. During this +earlier epoch flourished the great cities of the south, Palenque, +Quirigua, Copan, and others[902]. Despite their more gentle +disposition, as expressed in the softer and almost feminine lines of +their features, the Mayas held out more valiantly than the Aztecs +against the Spaniards, and a section of the nation occupying a strip of +territory between Yucatan and British Honduras, still maintains its +independence. The "barbarians," as the inhabitants of this district are +called, would appear to be scarcely less civilised than their +neighbours, although they have forgotten the teachings of the padres, +and transformed the Catholic churches to wayside inns. Even as it is the +descendants of the Spaniards have to a great extent forgotten their +mother-tongue, and Maya-Quiche dialects are almost everywhere current +except in the Campeachy district. Those also who call themselves +Catholics preserve and practise many of the old rites. After burial the +track from the grave to the house is carefully chalked, so that the soul +of the departed may know the way back when the time comes to enter the +body of some new-born babe. The descendants of the national astrologers +everywhere pursue their arts, determining events, forecasting the +harvests and so on by the conjunctions of the stars, and every village +has its native "Zadkiel" who reads the future in the ubiquitous crystal +globe. Even certain priests continue to celebrate the "Field Mass," at +which a cock is sacrificed to the Mayan Aesculapius, with invocations to +the Trinity and their associates, the four genii of the rain and crops. +"These tutelar deities, however, have taken Christian names, the Red, or +God of the East, having become St Dominic; the White, or God of the +North, St Gabriel; the Black, or God of the West, St James; and the +'Yellow Goddess' of the South, Mary Magdalene[903]." + + * * * * * + +To the observer passing from the northern to the southern division of +the New World no marked contrasts are at first perceptible, either in +the physical appearance, or in the social condition of the aborigines. +The substantial uniformity, which in these respects prevails from the +Arctic to the Austral waters, is in fact well illustrated by the +comparatively slight differences presented by the primitive populations +dwelling north and south of the Isthmus of Panama. + +At the discovery the West Indies were inhabited by two distinct +peoples, both apparently of South American origin. The populations of +the Greater Antilles, Cuba, Jamaica, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico were +of Arawak stock, as were also the Lucayans of the Bahamas. The Lesser +Antilles were peopled by Caribs, whose culture had been somewhat +modified by the Arawaks who had preceded them. As regards influences +from the north-west and west, Joyce considers that intercourse between +Yucatan and Western Cuba was confined to occasional trading voyages and +did not long antedate the arrival of the Spaniards. The same applies to +Florida where, however, Antillean influences may be traced, especially +in pottery designs[904]. According to Beuchat, however, the Guacanabibes +of Cuba are of common origin with the Tekestas of Florida. Other tribes +from Florida spread to the Bahamas, Cuba[905], and perhaps Hayti, but +were checked by Arawaks from South America who mastered the whole of the +West Indies. Last came the more vigorous but less advanced Caribs, also +from the southern mainland (of Arawak origin according to Joyce and +Beuchat). The statement of Columbus that the Lucayans[906] were "of good +size, with large eyes and broader foreheads than he had ever seen in any +other race of men" is fully borne out by the character of some old +skulls from the Bahamas measured by W. K. Brooks, who regarded them as +belonging to "a well-marked type of the North American Indian race which +was at that time distributed over the Bahama Islands, Hayti, and the +greater part of Cuba. As these islands are only a few miles from the +peninsula of Florida, this race must at some time have inhabited at +least the south-eastern extremity of the continent, and it is therefore +extremely interesting to note that the North American crania which +exhibit the closest resemblance to those from the Bahama Islands have +been obtained from Florida[907]." This observer dwells on the solidity +and massiveness of the Lucayan skulls, which bring them into direct +relation with the races both of the Mississippi plains and of the +Brazilian and Venezuelan coast-lands, though the general ethnography of +Panama and Costa Rica reveals no active influence exerted by tribes of +Colombia and Venezuela, except in eastern Panama[908]. + +Equally close is the connection established between the surviving +Isthmian and Colombian peoples of the Atrato and Magdalena basins. The +Chontal of Nicaragua are scarcely to be distinguished from some of the +Santa Marta hillmen, while the Choco and perhaps the Cuna of Panama have +been affiliated to the Choco of the Atrato and San Juan rivers. The +cultural connection between the tribes of the Isthmus and of Colombia +appears especially in the gold-work and pottery of the Chiriqui; at the +Chiriqui Lagoon, however, Nahuan influence is perceptible[909]. +Attempts, which however can hardly be regarded as successful, have even +been made to establish linguistic relations between the Costa Rican +Guatuso and the Timote of the Merida uplands of Venezuela, who are +themselves a branch of the formerly widespread Muyscan family. + +But with these Muyscans we at once enter a new ethnical and cultural +domain, in which may be studied the resemblances due to the common +origin of all the American aborigines, and the divergences due obviously +to long isolation and independent local developments in the two +continental divisions. In general the southern populations present more +violent contrasts than the northern in their social and intellectual +developments, so that while the wild tribes touch a lower depth of +savagery, some at least of the civilised peoples rise to a higher degree +of excellence, if not in letters--where the inferiority is +manifest--certainly in the arts of engineering, architecture, +agriculture, and political organisation. Thus we need not travel many +miles inland from the Isthmus without meeting the Catio, a wild tribe +between the Atrato and the Cauca, more degraded even than the Seri of +Tiburon island, most debased of all North American hordes. These Catio, +a now nearly extinct branch of the Choco stock, were said to dwell like +the anthropoid apes, in the branches of trees; they mostly went naked, +and were reported, like the Mangbattus and other Congo negroes, to +"fatten their captives for the table." Their Darien neighbours of the +Nore valley, who gave an alternative name to the Panama peninsula, were +accustomed to steal the women of hostile tribes, cohabit with them, and +carefully bring up the children till their fourteenth year, when they +were eaten with much rejoicing, the mothers ultimately sharing the same +fate[910]; and the Cocoma of the Maranon "were in the habit of eating +their own dead relations, and grinding their bones to drink in their +fermented liquor. They said it was better to be inside a friend than to +be swallowed up by the cold earth[911]." In fact of the Colombian +aborigines Herrera tells us that "the living are the grave of the dead; +for the husband has been seen to eat his wife, the brother his brother +or sister, the son his father; captives also are eaten roasted[912]." + +Thus is raised the question of cannibalism in the New World, where at +the discovery it was incomparably more prevalent south than north of the +equator. Compare the Eskimo and the Fuegians at the two extremes, the +former practically exonerated of the charge, and in distress sparing +wives and children and eating their dogs; the latter sparing their dogs +because useful for catching otters, and smoking and eating their old +women because useless for further purposes[913]. In the north the taste +for human flesh had declined, and the practice survived only as a +ceremonial rite, chiefly amongst the British Columbians and the Aztecs, +except of course in case of famine, when even the highest races are +capable of devouring their fellows. But in the south cannibalism in some +of its most repulsive forms was common enough almost everywhere. Killing +and eating feeble and aged members of the tribe in kindness is still +general; but the Mayorunas of the Upper Amazon waters do not wait till +they have grown lean with years or wasted with disease[914]; and it was +a baptized member of the same tribe who complained on his death-bed that +he would not now provide a meal for his Christian friends, but must be +devoured by worms[915]. + +In the southern continent the social conditions illustrated by these +practices prevailed everywhere, except on the elevated plateaus of the +western Cordilleras, which for many ages before the discovery had been +the seats of several successive cultures, in some respects rivalling, +but in others much inferior to those of Central America. When the +Conquistadores reached this part of the New World, to which they were +attracted by the not altogether groundless reports of fabulous wealth +embodied in the legend of _El Dorado_, the "Man of Gold," they found it +occupied by a cultural zone which extended almost continuously from the +present republic of Colombia through Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia right +into Chili. In the north the dominant people were the semi-civilised +Chibcha, already mentioned under the name of Muysca[916], who had +developed an organised system of government on the Bogota table-land, +and had succeeded in extending their somewhat more refined social +institutions to some of the other aborigines of Colombia, though not to +many of the outlying members of their own race. As in Mexico many of the +Nahuatlan tribes remained little better than savages to the last, so in +Colombia the civilised Muyscans were surrounded by numerous kindred +tribes--Coyaima, Natagaima, Tocaima and others, collectively known as +Panches--who were real savages with scarcely any tribal organisation, +wearing no clothes, and according to the early accounts still addicted +to cannibalism. + +The Muysca proper had a tradition that they owed their superiority to +their culture-hero Bochica, who came from the east long ago, taught them +everything, and was then placed with Chiminigagua, the creator, at the +head of their pantheon, and worshipped with solemn rites and even human +sacrifices. Amongst the arts thus acquired was that of the goldsmith, in +which they surpassed all other peoples of the New World. The precious +metal was even said to be minted in the shape of discs, which formed an +almost solitary instance of a true metal currency amongst the American +aborigines[917]. Brooches, pendants, and especially grotesque figurines +of gold, often alloyed with silver and copper, have been found in great +numbers and still occasionally turn up on the plateau. These finds are +partly accounted for by the practice of offering such objects in the +open air to the personified constellations and forces of nature, for the +primitive religion of all the Andean tribes consisted of nature-, in +particular sun-cults. Near Bogota was a temple of the Sun, where +children were reared for sacrifice[918]. Any mysterious sound emanating +from a forest, a rock, a mountain pass, or gloomy gorge, was accepted as +a manifestation of some divine presence; a shrine was raised to the +embodied spirit, and so the whole land became literally crowded with +local deities. This world itself was upborne on the shoulders of +Chibchacum, a national Atlas, who now and then eased himself by shifting +the burden, and thus caused earthquakes. In most lands subject to +underground disturbances analogous ideas prevail, and when their source +is so obvious, it seems unreasonable to seek for explanations in racial +affinities, contacts, foreign influences, and so forth. + +It has often been remarked that at the advent of the whites the native +civilisations seemed generally stricken as if by the hand of death, so +that even if not suddenly arrested by the intruders they must sooner or +later have perished of themselves. Such speculations are seldom +convincing, because we never know what recuperative forces may be at +work to ward off the evil day. When the Spaniards arrived in Colombia +they found at one end of the scale naked and savage cannibals, at the +other a people with a feudal form of government, whose political system +was progressive, who, though possessing no form of writing, had a system +of measures and a calendar, and who were skilled in the arts of weaving, +pottery, and metallurgy[919]. The chiefs of the Chibcha were all +absolute monarchs and the appointment of priests rested with them. +Succession to the chieftainship was matrilineal, and installation in the +office was attended by much ceremony. A great gulf separated nobles and +commoners; slavery existed as an institution but slaves were well +treated. Polygyny was permitted, but relatives within certain degrees +might not marry[920]. This feebly organised political system broke to +pieces at the first shock from without, and so disheartened had the +people become under their half theocratic rulers, that they scarcely +raised a hand in defence of a government which in their minds was +associated only with tyranny and oppression. The conquest was in any +case facilitated by the civil war at the time raging between the +northern and southern kingdoms which with several other semi-independent +states constituted the Muyscan empire. This empire was almost +conterminous southwards with that of the Incas. At least the numerous +terms occurring in the dialects of the Paes, Coconucos, and other South +Colombian tribes, show that Peruvian influences had spread beyond the +political frontiers far to the north, without, however, quite reaching +the confines of the Muyscan domain. + +But for several centuries prior to the discovery the sway of the +Peruvian Incas had been established throughout nearly the whole of the +Andean lands, and the territory directly ruled by them extended from the +Quito district about the equator for some 2500 miles southwards to the +Rio Maule in Chili, with an average breadth of 400 miles between the +Pacific and the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. Their dominion thus +comprised a considerable part of the present republics of Ecuador, Peru, +Bolivia, Chili, and Argentina, with a roughly estimated area of +1,000,000 square miles, and a population of over 10,000,000. Here the +ruling race were the Quichua, whose speech, called by themselves +_ruma-simi_, "the language of men," is still current in several +well-marked dialects throughout all the provinces of the old empire. In +Lima and all the seaports and inland towns Spanish prevails, but in the +rural districts Quichuan remains the mother-tongue of over 2,000,000 +natives, and has even become the _lingua franca_ of the western regions, +just as Tupi-Guarani is the _lingoa geral_, "general language," of the +eastern section of South America. The attempts to find affinities with +Aryan (especially Sanskrit), and other linguistic families of the +eastern hemisphere, have broken down before the application of sound +philological principles to these studies, and Quichuan is now recognised +as a stock language of the usual American type, unconnected with any +other except that of the Bolivian Aymaras. Even this connection is +regarded by some students as verbal rather than structural, an +interchange of a considerable number of terms being easily explained by +the close contact in which the two peoples have long dwelt. + +As to the origin of the Incas we cannot do better than follow the views +of Sir Clements Markham, who has made a careful study of the various +early authorities. His account (_The Incas of Peru,_ 1910) is based +largely on the works of Spanish military writers such as Ciezo de Leon +and Pedro Pizarro (cousin of the conqueror), of priests like Molina, +Montesinos, and the half-breed Blas Valera, and on those of the Inca +Garcilasso de la Vega, son of a Spanish knight and an Inca princess. The +megalithic ruins of Tiahuanacu, at the southern end of Lake Titicaca, +mark the earliest known centre of culture in southern Peru. They are +situated on a lofty plateau, over 13,000 feet above the sea, and are the +remains of a great city built by highly skilled masons who used enormous +stones. The placing of such monoliths, unrivalled except by those of +ancient Egypt, indicates a dense and well-organised population. The +famous monolithic doorway is elaborately carved, the central figure +apparently representing the deity, while on either side are figures, +human- or bird-headed, kneeling in adoration (_op. cit._, pls. at pp. +26, 28). Now it seems probable that the builders of this megalithic city +were the ancestors of the Incas, assuming that a substratum of truth +underlies the Paccari-tampu myth. + +The end of the early civilisation is stated to have been caused by a +great invasion from the south, when the king was killed in a battle in +the Collao, north of Lake Titicaca. A state of barbarism ensued. A +remnant of the royal house took refuge in a district called Tampu-Tocco +("Window Tavern")[921] and there preserved a vestige of their ancient +traditions and civilisation. Elsewhere religion deteriorated to nature +worship, here the kings declared themselves to be children of the sun. +Montesinos' list of kings gives 27 names for this period of Tampu-Tocco, +which may cover 650 years. + +The myth, which is "certainly the outcome of a real tradition, ... the +fabulous version of a distant historical event," tells how Manco Ccapac +and the three other Ayars, his brothers, the children of the sun, came +forth with their wives from the central opening or window in the hill +Tampu-Tocco. They advanced slowly at the head of several _ayllus_ +(lineages). Ayar Manco took the lead, and he had with him a falcon-like +bird revered as sacred, and a golden staff which he flung ahead; when it +reached soil so fertile that the whole length sank in, there the final +halt was to be made. This happened in the fertile vale of Cuzco. The +date of these events would be about four centuries before the Spanish +conquest. + +Farther north at about 15 deg. S. lat. the Inca civilisation was preceded, +according to Uhle, by the very ancient one of Ica and Nazca, where dwelt +a people who made pottery but were ignorant of weaving. The same +authority has also discovered about Lima the remains of a tall people, +who made rude pottery, nets, and objects of bone[922]. + +Manco established himself in the Cuzco valley, his third successor +finally subjugating the tribes there. The early position of the Incas, +cemented by judicious marriages, seems to have been one of priority in a +very loose confederacy. The rise of the Incas was due to the ambition of +the lady Siuyacu whose son, Inca Rocca, appears to have been the pioneer +of empire; material prosperity began under him, schools were erected and +irrigation works begun. Then from a strip of land 250 miles long between +the gorge of the Apurimac and the wide fertile valley of Vilcamayu, the +empire was extended to form the Ttahua-ntin-suyu, "the four provinces," +of which the northern one, Chinchay-suyu, reached to Quito, and the +southern, Colla-suyu, into Chili. This southward extension was due to +the efforts of Pachacuti who succeeded after hard fighting in annexing +the region around Lake Titicaca, and the new territory was named after +the Collas, the largest and most powerful tribe thereabouts. In order to +pacify the region permanently large numbers of Collas were sent as +_mitimaes_, or colonists, as far as the borders of Quito, while their +places were filled by loyal colonists from Inca districts. Among these +were a number of Aymaras from the Quichuan region of the Pachachaca, a +left bank tributary of the Apurimac, who were settled among the +remaining Lupacas on the west shore of Lake Titicaca at Juli. Thither +came Jesuit fathers in 1572 and learnt the language of the Lupacas from +these Aymara colonists, who had been there three generations; the name +Aymara was given by the priests not only to the Lupaca language but to +those spoken by Collas and other Titicacan tribes. Thus the name Aymara +is now generally but quite erroneously applied to the language and +people of this region; it was first so used in 1575. It must be pointed +out, however, that other authorities regard the Aymara and Quichua as +entirely distinct. A. Chervin[923] discusses the physical differences at +great length and concludes that they are two separate brachycephalic +peoples. + +The Peruvians were primarily agriculturists, maize and at higher +altitudes the potato being their chief crops. Their aqueducts and +irrigation systems moved the admiration of early chroniclers, as did +also their roads and suspension bridges[924]. The supreme deity and +creator was Uira-cocha, who was worshipped by the more intellectual and +had a temple at Cuzco. The popular religion was the worship of the +founder of each _ayllu_, or clan, and all joined in adoration of the sun +as ancestor of the sovereign Incas. Sun-worship was attended by a +magnificent ritual, the high priest was an official of highest rank, +often a brother of the sovereign, and there were over 3000 Virgins of +the Sun (_aclla_) connected with the cult at Cuzco. The peasants put +their trust in _conopas_, or household gods, which controlled their +crops and their llamas. The calendar had been calculated with +considerable ingenuity, and certain festivals took place annually and +were usually accompanied with much chicha-drinking. It is remarkable +that so advanced a people kept all their elaborate records by means of +_quipus_ (coloured strings with knots). + +Here is not the place to enter into the details of the astonishing +architectural, engineering, and artistic remains, often assigned to the +Incas, whose empire had absorbed in the north the old civilisation of +the _Chimu_, perhaps of the _Atacameno_, and other cultured peoples +whose very names have perished. The Yunga (Mochica or Chimu), conquered +by the Inca Tupac Yupanqui, had a language radically distinct from +Quichuan, but have long been assimilated to their conquerors. + +The ruins of Grand Chimu (modern Trujillo) cover a vast area, nearly 15 +miles by 6, which is everywhere strewn with the remains of palaces, +reservoirs, aqueducts, ramparts, and especially _huacas_, that is, +truncated pyramids not unlike those of Mexico, whence the theory that +the Chimus, of unknown origin, were "Toltecs" from Central America. One +of these huacas is described by Squier as 150 feet high with a base 580 +feet square, and an area of 8 acres, presenting from a distance the +appearance of a huge crater[925]. Still larger is the so-called "Temple +of the Sun," 800 by 470 feet, 200 feet high, and covering an area of 7 +acres. An immense population of hundreds of thousands was assigned to +this place in pre-Inca times; but from some rough surveys made in 1897 +it would appear that much of the space within the enclosures consists of +waste lands, which had never been built over, and it is calculated that +at no time could the number of inhabitants have greatly exceeded 50,000. + +We need not stop to describe the peculiar civil and social institutions +of the Peruvians, which are of common knowledge. Enough to say that here +everything was planned in the interests of the theocratic and +all-powerful Incas, who were more than obeyed, almost honoured with +divine worship by their much bethralled and priest-ridden subjects. "The +despotic authority of the Incas was the basis of government; that +authority was founded on the religious respect yielded to the descendant +of the sun, and supported by a skilfully combined hierarchy[926]." From +remote antiquity the peoples of this area were organised into _ayllus_ +each occupying part of a valley or a limited area. It was a patriarchal +system, land belonging to the _ayllu_, which was a group of families. +The Incas systematised this institution, the _ayllu_ was made to +comprise 100 families under a village officer who annually allotted land +to the heads of families. Each family was divided by the head into 10 +classes based on age. Ten _ayllus_ (now termed _pachacas_) formed a +_huaranca_. A valley with a varying number of _huarancas_ was termed a +_hunu_; over four _hunus_ there was an imperial officer. "This was +indeed Socialism," Markham observes, "existing under an inexorable +despotism" (p. 169). + +Beyond the Maule, southernmost limits of all these effete civilisations, +man reasserted himself in the "South American Iroquois," as those +Chilian aborigines have been called who called themselves _Molu-che_, +"Warriors," but are better known by their Quichuan designation of +_Aucaes_, "Rebels," whence the Spanish Aucans (Araucan, Araucanian). +These "Rebels," who have never hitherto been overcome by the arms of any +people, and whose heroic deeds in the long wars waged by the white +intruders against their freedom form the topic of a noble Spanish epic +poem[927], still maintain a measure of national autonomy as the friends +and faithful allies of the Chilian republic. Individual freedom and +equality were leading features of the social system which was in the +main patriarchal. The Araucanians were led by four independent chiefs, +each supported by five _ulmen_, or district chiefs, whose office was +hereditary but whose authority was little more than nominal. It was only +in time of national warfare that the tribes united under a +war-chief[928]. Not only are all the tribes absolutely free, but the +same is true of every clan, sept, and family group. Needless to say, +there are no slaves or serfs. "The law of retaliation was the only one +understood, although the commercial spirit of the Araucano led him to +forego personal revenge for its accruing profit. Thus every injury had +its price[929]." + +The basis of their belief is a rude form of nature worship, the +principal deities being malignant and requiring propitiation. The chief +god was Pillan, the thunder god. Spirits of the dead go west over the +sea to a place of abundance where no evil spirits have entry[930]. And +this simple belief is almost the only substitute for the rewards and +punishments which supply the motive for the observance of an artificial +ethical code in so many more developed religious systems. + +In the sonorous Araucanian language, which is still spoken by about +40,000 full-blood natives, the term _che_, meaning "people," occurs as +the postfix of several ethnical groups, which, however, are not tribal +but purely territorial divisions. Thus, while _Molu-che_ is the +collective name of the whole nation, the _Picun-che_, _Huilli-che_, and +_Puel-che_ are simply the North, South, and East men respectively. The +Central and most numerous division are the _Puen-che_, that is, people +of the pine district, who are both the most typical and most intelligent +of all the Araucanian family. Ehrenreich's remark that many of the +American aborigines resemble Europeans as much as or even more than the +Asiatic Mongols, is certainly borne out by the facial expression of +these Puenche. The resemblance is even extended to the mental +characters, as reflected in their oral literature. Amongst the specimens +of the national folklore preserved in the Puenche dialect and edited +with Spanish translations by Rodolfo Lenz[931], is the story of a +departed lover, who returns from the other world to demand his betrothed +and carries her off to his grave. Although this might seem an adaptation +of Buerger's "Lenore," Lenz is of opinion that it is a genuine Araucanian +legend. + +Of the above-mentioned groups the Puelche are now included politically +in Argentina. Their original home seems to have been north of the Rio +Negro, but they raided westwards and some adopted the Araucanian +language[932] and to them also the Chilian affix _che_ has also been +extended. Indeed the term Puelche, meaning simply "Easterns," is applied +not only to the Argentine Moluche, whose territory stretches east of the +Cordilleras as far as Mendoza in Cuyo, but also to all the aborigines +commonly called _Pampeans_ (_Pampas Indians_) by the Europeans and +_Penek_ by the Patagonians. Under the designation of Puelche would +therefore be comprised the now extinct _Ranqualche_ (Ranqueles), who +formerly raided up to Buenos-Ayres and the other Spanish settlements on +the Plate River, the _Mapoche_ of the Lower Salado, and generally all +the nomads as far south as the Rio Negro. + +These aborigines are now best represented by the _Gauchos_, who are +mostly Spaniards on the father's side and Indians on the mother's, and +reflect this double descent in their half-nomadic, half-civilised life. +These Gauchos, who are now also disappearing before the encroachments +of the "Gringos[933]," _i.e._ the white immigrants from almost every +country in Europe, have been enveloped in an ill-deserved halo of +romance, thanks mainly to their roving habits, splendid horsemanship, +love of finery, and genial disposition combined with that innate grace +and courtesy which belongs to all of Spanish blood. But those who knew +them best described them as of sordid nature, cruel to their women-kind, +reckless gamblers and libertines, ruthless political partisans, at times +even religious fanatics without a spark of true religion, and at heart +little better than bloodthirsty savages. + +Beyond the Rio Negro follow the gigantic Patagonians, that is, the +_Tehuelche_ or _Chuelche_ of the Araucanians, who have no true +collective name unless it be _Tsoneca_, a word of uncertain use and +origin. Most of the tribal groups--_Yacana_, _Pilma_, _Chao_ and +others--are broken up, and the former division between the Northern +Tehuelche (Tehuelhet), comprising the _Callilehet_ (Serranos or +Highlanders) of the Upper Chupat, with the Calilan between the Rios +Chupat and Negro, and the Southern Tehuelche (Yacana, Sehuan, etc.), +south to Fuegia, no longer holds good since the general displacement of +all these fluctuating nomad hordes. A branch of the Tehuelche are +unquestionably the _Ona_ of the eastern parts of Fuegia, the true +aborigines of which are the _Yahgans_ of the central and the _Alakalufs_ +of the western islands. + +Hitherto to the question whence came these tall Patagonians, no answer +could be given beyond the suggestion that they may have been specialised +in their present habitat, where nevertheless they seem to be obviously +intruders. Now, however, one may perhaps venture to look for their +original home amongst the _Bororo_ of Matto Grosso, a once powerful race +who held the region between the Rios Cuyaba and Paraguay. These Bororo, +who had been heard of by Martius, were visited by Ehrenreich[934] and by +Karl von den Steinen[935], who found them to be a nomadic hunting people +with a remarkable social organisation centring in the men's club-house +(_baito_). Their physical characters, as described by the former +observer, correspond closely with those of the Patagonians: "An +exceptionally tall race rivalling the South Sea Islanders, Patagonians, +and Redskins; by far the tallest Indians hitherto discovered within the +tropics," their stature ranging nearly up to 6 ft. 4 in., with very +large and rounded heads (men 81.2; women 77.4). With this should be +compared the very large round old Patagonian skull from the Rio Negro, +measured by Rudolf Martin[936]. The account reads like the description +of some forerunner of a prehistoric Bororo irruption into the Patagonian +steppe lands. + +To the perplexing use of the term Puelche above referred to is perhaps +due the difference of opinion still prevailing on the number of stock +languages in this southern section of the Continent. D'Orbigny's +emphatic statement[937] that the Puelche spoke a language fundamentally +distinct both from the Araucanian and the Patagonian has been questioned +on the strength of some Puelche words, which were collected by Hale at +Carmen on the Rio Negro, and differ but slightly from Patagonian. But +the Rio Negro lies on the ethnical divide between the two races, which +sufficiently accounts for the resemblances, while the words are too few +to prove anything. Hale calls them "Southern Puelche," but they were in +fact Tehuelche (Patagonian), the true Pampean Puelche having disappeared +from that region before Hale's time[938]. I have now the unimpeachable +authority of T. P. Schmid, for many years a missionary amongst these +aborigines, for asserting that d'Orbigny's statement is absolutely +correct. His Puelche were the Pampeans, because he locates them in the +region between the Rios Negro and Colorado, that is, north of Patagonian +and east of Araucanian territory, and Schmid assures me that all +three--Araucanian, Pampean, and Patagonian--are undoubtedly stock +languages, distinct both in their vocabulary and structure, with nothing +in common except their common polysynthetic form. In a list of 2000 +Patagonian and Araucanian words he found only two alike, _patac_ = 100, +and _huarunc_ = 1000, numerals obviously borrowed by the rude Tehuelche +from the more cultured Moluche. In Fuegia there is at least one +radically distinct tongue, the Yahgan, studied by Bridges. Here the Ona +is probably a Patagonian dialect, and Alakaluf perhaps remotely allied +to Araucanian. Thus in the whole region south of the Plate River the +stock languages are not known to exceed four: Araucanian; Pampean +(Puelche); Patagonian (Tehuelche); and Yahgan. + +Few aboriginal peoples have been the subject of more glaringly +discrepant statements than the Yahgans, to whom several lengthy +monographs have been devoted during the last few decades. How +contradictory are the statements of intelligent and even trained +observers, whose good faith is beyond suspicion and who have no cause to +serve except the truth, will best be seen by placing in juxtaposition +the accounts of the family relations by G. Bove, a well-known Italian +observer, and P. Hyades of the French Cape Horn Expedition, both +summarised[939]:-- + + _Bove._ + + The women are treated as slaves. The greater the number of wives or + slaves a man has the easier he finds a living; hence polygamy is + deep-rooted and four wives common. Owing to rigid climate and bad + treatment the mortality of children under 10 years is excessive; the + mother's love lasts till the child is weaned, after which it rapidly + wanes, and is completely gone when the child attains the age of 7 or + 8 years. The Fuegian's only lasting love is the love of self. As + there are no family ties, the word "authority" is devoid of meaning. + + _Hyades._ + + The Fuegians are capable of great love which accounts for the + jealousy of the men over their wives and the coquetry sometimes + manifested by the women and girls. + + Some men have two or more wives, but monogamy is the rule. + + Children are tenderly cared for by their parents, who in return are + treated by them with affection and deference. + + The Fuegians are of a generous disposition and like to share their + pleasures with others. The husbands exercise due control, and punish + severely any act of infidelity. + +These seeming contradictions may be partly explained by the general +improvement in manners due to the beneficent action of the English +missionaries in recent years, and great progress has certainly been made +since the accounts of King, Fitz-Roy and Darwin[940]. + +But even in the more favoured regions of the Parana and Amazon basins +many tribes are met which yield little if at all to the Fuegians of the +early writers in sheer savagery and debasement. Thus the _Cashibo_ or +_Carapache_ of the Ucayali, who are described as "white as Germans, with +long beards[941]," may be said to answer almost better than any other +human group to the old saying, _homo homini lupus_. They roam the +forests like wild beasts, living almost entirely upon game, in which is +included man himself. "When one of them is pursuing the chase in the +woods and hears another hunter imitating the cry of an animal, he +immediately makes the same cry to entice him nearer, and, if he is of +another tribe, he kills him if he can, and (as is alleged) eats him." +Hence they are naturally "in a state of hostility with all their +neighbours[942]." + +These Cashibo, _i.e._ "Bats," are members of a widespread linguistic +family which in ethnological writings bears the name of _Pano_, from the +Pano of the Huallaga and Maranon, who are now broken up or greatly +reduced, but whose language is current amongst the Cashibo, the Conibo, +the Karipuna, the Setebo, the Sipivio (Shipibo) and others about the +head waters of the Amazons in Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, as far east as +the Madeira. Amongst these, as amongst the Moxo and so many other +riverine tribes in Amazonia, a slow transformation is in progress. Some +have been baptized, and while still occupying their old haunts and +keeping up the tribal organisation, have been induced to forego their +savage ways and turn to peaceful pursuits. They are beginning to wear +clothes, usually cotton robes of some vivid colour, to till the soil, +take service with the white traders, or even trade themselves in their +canoes up and down the tributaries of the Amazons. Beyond the Rubber +Belt, however, many tribes are quite untouched by outside influences. +The cannibal Boro and Witoto, living between the Issa and Japura, are +ignorant of any method of producing fire, and their women go entirely +nude, though some of their arts and crafts exhibit considerable skill, +notably the plaitwork and blow-pipes of the Boro[943]. + +In this boundless Amazonian region of moist sunless woodlands fringed +north and east by Atlantic coast ranges, diversified by the open +Venezuelan llanos, and merging southwards in the vast alluvial plains +of the Parana-Paraguay basin, much light has been brought to bear on the +obscure ethnical relations by the recent explorations especially of Paul +Ehrenreich and Karl von den Steinen about the Xingu, Purus, Madeira and +other southern affluents of the great artery[944]. These observers +comprise the countless Brazilian aborigines in four main linguistic +divisions, which in conformity with Powell's terminology may here be +named the CARIBAN, ARAWAKAN, GESAN and TUPI-GUARANIAN families. There +remain, however, numerous groups which cannot be so classified, such as +the Bororo and Karaya of Matto Grosso, while in the relatively small +area between the Japura and the Waupes Koch-Gruenberg found two other +language groups, Betoya and Maku in addition to Carib and Arawak[945]. + +Hitherto the Caribs were commonly supposed to have had their original +homes far to the north, possibly in the Alleghany uplands, or in +Florida, where they have been doubtfully identified with the extinct +Timuquanans, and whence they spread through the Antilles southwards to +Venezuela, the Guianas, and north-east Brazil, beyond which they were +not known to have ranged anywhere south of the Amazons. But this view is +now shown to be untenable, and several Carib tribes, such as the Bakairi +and Nahuqua[946] of the Upper Xingu, all speaking archaic forms of the +Carib stock language, have been met by the German explorers in the very +heart of Brazil; whence the inference that the cradle of this race is to +be sought rather in the centre of South America, perhaps on the Goyaz +and Matto Grosso table-lands, from which region they moved northwards, +if not to Florida, at least to the Caribbean Sea which is named from +them[947]. The wide diffusion of this stock is evidenced by the +existence of an unmistakably Carib tribe in the basin of the Rio +Magdalena beyond the Andes[948]. + +In the north the chief groups are the Makirifare of Venezuela and the +Macusi, Kalina, and Galibi of British, Dutch, and French Guiana[949] +respectively. In general all the Caribs present much the same physical +characters, although the southerners are rather taller (5 ft. 4 in.) +with less round heads (index 79.6) than the Guiana Caribs (5 ft 2 in., +and 81.3). + +Perhaps even a greater extension has been given by the German explorers +to the Arawakan family, which, like the Cariban, was hitherto supposed +to be mainly confined to the region north of the Amazons, but is now +known to range as far south as the Upper Paraguay, about 20 deg. S. lat. +(_Layana_, _Kwana_, etc.), east to the Amazons estuary (_Aruan_), and +north-west to the Goajira peninsula. To this great family--which von den +Steinen proposes to call _Nu-Aruak_ from the pronominal prefix _nu_ = I, +common to most of the tribes--belong also the _Maypures_ of the Orinoco; +the _Atarais_ and _Vapisiana_ of British Guiana; the _Manao_ of the Rio +Negro; the _Yumana_; the _Paumari_ and _Ipurina_ of the Ipuri basin; the +_Moxo_ of the Upper Mamore, and the _Mehinaku_ and _Kustenau_ of the +Upper Xingu. + +Physically the Arawaks differ from the Caribs scarcely, if at all, more +than their Amazonian and Guiana sections differ from each other. In +fact, but for their radically distinct speech it would be impossible to +constitute these two ethnical divisions, which are admittedly based on +linguistic grounds. But while the Caribs had their cradle in Central +Brazil and migrated northwards, the Arawaks would appear to have +originated in eastern Bolivia, and spread thence east, north-east and +south-east along the Amazons and Orinoco and into the Paraguay +basin[950]. + +Our third great Brazilian division, the Gesan family, takes its name +from the syllable ges which, like the Araucan _che_, forms the final +element of several tribal names in East Brazil. Of this the most +characteristic are the _Aimores_ of the Serra dos Aimores coast range, +who are better known as Botocudo, and it was to the kindred tribes of +the province of Goyaz that the arbitrary collective name of "Ges" was +first applied by Martius. A better general designation would perhaps +have been _Tapuya_, "Strangers," "Enemies," a term by which the Tupi +people called all other natives of that region who were not of their +race or speech, or rather who were not "Tupi," that is, "Allies" or +"Associates." Tapuya had been adopted somewhat in this sense by the +early Portuguese writers, who however applied it rather loosely not only +to the Aimores, but also to a large number of kindred and other tribes +as far north as the Amazons estuary. + +To the same connection belong several groups in Goyaz already described +by Milliet and Martius, and more recently visited by Ehrenreich, von den +Steinen and Krause. Such are the Kayapo or Suya, a large nation with +several divisions between the Araguaya and Xingu rivers; and the Akua, +better known as Cherentes, about the upper course of the Tocantins. +Isolated Tapuyan tribes, such as the Kames or Kaingangs, wrongly called +"Coroados," and the Chogleng of Santa Catharina and Rio Grand do Sul, +are scattered over the southern provinces of Brazil. + +The Tapuya would thus appear to have formerly occupied the whole of East +Brazil from the Amazons to the Plate River for an unknown distance +inland. Here they must be regarded as the true aborigines, who were in +remote times already encroached upon, and broken into isolated +fragments, by tribes of the Tupi-Guarani stock spreading from the +interior seawards[951]. + +But in their physical characters and extremely low cultural state, or +rather the almost total absence of anything that can be called +"culture," the Tapuya are the nearest representatives and probably the +direct descendants of the primitive race, whose osseous remains have +been found in the Lagoa Santa caves, and the Santa Catharina +shell-mounds (_sambaqui_). On anatomic grounds the Botocudo are allied +both to the Lagoa Santa fossil man and to the _sambaqui_ race by J. R. +Peixoto, who describes the skull as marked by prominent glabella and +superciliary arches, keel or roof-shaped vault, vertical lateral walls, +simple sutures, receding brow, deeply depressed nasal root, high +prognathism, massive lower jaw, and long head (index 73.30) with +cranial capacity 1480 c.c. for men, and 1212 for women[952]. It is also +noteworthy that some of the Botocudo[953] call themselves _Nacnanuk_, +_Nac-poruc_, "Sons of the Soil," and they have no traditions of ever +having migrated from any other land. All their implements--spears, bow +and arrows, mortars, water-vessels, bags--are of wood or vegetable +fibre, so that they may be said not to have yet reached even the stone +age. They are not, however, in the promiscuous state, as has been +asserted, for the unions, though temporary, are jealously guarded while +they last, and, as amongst the Fuegians whom they resemble in so many +respects, the women are constantly subject to the most barbarous +treatment, beaten with clubs or hacked about with bamboo knives. One of +those in Ribeiro's party, who visited London in 1883, had her arms, +legs, and whole body covered with scars and gashes inflicted during +momentary fits of brutal rage by her ephemeral partner. Their dwellings +are mere branches stuck in the ground, bound together with bast, and +though seldom over 4 ft. in height accommodating two or more families. +The Botocudo are pure nomads, roaming naked in the woods in quest of the +roots, berries, honey, frogs, snakes, grubs, man, and other larger game +which form their diet, and are eaten raw or else cooked in huge bamboo +canes. Formerly they had no hammocks, but slept without any covering, +either on the ground strewn with bast, or in the ashes of the fire +kindled for the evening meal. About their cannibalism, which has been +doubted, there is really no question. They wore the teeth of those they +had eaten strung together as necklaces, and ate not only the foe slain +in battle, but members of kindred tribes, all but the heads, which were +stuck as trophies on stakes and used as butts for the practice of +archery. + +At the graves of the dead, fires are kept up for some time to scare away +the bad spirits, from which custom the Botocudo might be credited with +some notions concerning the supernatural. All good influences are +attributed by them to the "day-fire" (sun), all bad things to the +"night-fire" (moon), which causes the thunderstorm, and is supposed +itself at times to fall on the earth, crushing the hill-tops, flooding +the plains and destroying multitudes of people. During storms and +eclipses arrows are shot up to scare away the demons or devouring +dragons, as amongst so many Indo-Chinese peoples. But beyond this there +is no conception of a supreme being, or creative force, the terms +_yanchong_, _tapan_, said to mean "God," standing merely for spirit, +demon, thunder, or at most the thunder god. + +Owing to the choice made by the missionaries of the Tupi language as the +_lingoa geral_, or common medium of intercourse amongst the +multitudinous populations of Brazil and Paraguay, a somewhat exaggerated +idea has been formed of the range of the Tupi-Guarani family. Many of +the tribes about the stations, after being induced by the padres to +learn this convenient _lingua franca_, were apt in course of time to +forget their own mother-tongue, and thus came to be accounted members of +this family. But allowing for such a source of error, there can be no +doubt that at the discovery the Tupi or Eastern, and the Guarani or +Western, section occupied jointly an immense area, which may perhaps be +estimated at about one-fourth of the southern continent. Tupi tribes +were met as far west as Peru, where they were represented by the Omagua +("Flatheads[954]"), in French Guiana the Emerillons and the Oyampi +belong to this stock, as do the Kamayura and Auetoe on the Upper Xingu, +and the Mundurucu of the middle Tapajoz. + +Some attention has been paid to the speech of the Ticuna of the Maranon, +which appears to be a stock language with strong Pana and weak +Aymara[955] affinities. Although its numeral system stops at 2, it is +still in advance of a neighbouring _Chiquito_ tongue, which is said to +have no numerals at all, _etama_, supposed to be 1, really meaning +"alone." + +Yet it would be a mistake to infer that these Bolivian Chiquito, who +occupy the southernmost headstreams of the Madeira, are a particularly +stupid people. On the contrary, the Naquinoneis, "Men," as they call +themselves, are in some respects remarkably clever, and, strange to say, +their otherwise rich and harmonious language (presumably the dominant +_Moncoca_ dialect is meant) has terms to express such various +distinctions as the height of a tree, of a house, of a tower, and other +subtle shades of difference disregarded in more cultured tongues[956]. +But it is to be considered that, _pace_ Max Mueller, the range of thought +and of speech is not the same, and all peoples have no doubt many +notions for which they have no equivalents in their necessarily +defective languages. The Chiquito, _i.e._ "Little Folks," were so named +because, "when the country was first invaded, the Indians fled to the +forests; and the Spaniards came to their abandoned huts, where the +doorways were so exceedingly low that the Indians who had fled were +supposed to be dwarfs[957]." They are a peaceful industrious nation, who +ply several trades, manufacture their own copper boilers for making +sugar, weave ponchos and straw hats, and when they want blue trousers +they plant a row of indigo, and rows of white and yellow cotton when +striped trousers are in fashion. Hence the question arises, whether +these clever little people may not after all have originally possessed +some defective numeral system, which was merely superseded by the +Spanish numbers. + +The Gran Chaco is another area of considerable modification induced by +European influence, and there only remain hybridised descendants of many +of the ancient peoples, for example, the Abipone of the Guaycuru family. +Pure survivals of this family are the Mataco and Toba of the Vermejo and +Pilcomayo rivers. These two tribes were visited by Ehrenreich, who +noticed their disproportionately short arms and legs, and excessive +development of the thorax[958]. The daily life, customs, and beliefs of +these and other Chaco Indians have been admirably described and +illustrated by Erland Nordenskioeld[959], who lived and travelled among +them. The Toba and Mataco frequently fall out with the neighbouring +Choroti and Ashluslays of the Pilcomayo anent fishing rights and so on, +but the conflict consists in ambuscades and treachery rather than in +pitched battles. Weapons consist of bows and arrows and clubs, and +lances are used on horseback. Enemies are scalped and these trophies are +greatly prized, being hung outside the victor's hut when fine and +playing a part on great occasions. On the conclusion of peace both sides +pay the blood-price for those slain by them in sheep, horses, etc. +Within the Choroti or Ashluslay village all are equal, and though +property is held individually, the fortunate will always share with +those in want, so that theft is unknown. To kill old people or young +children is regarded as no crime[960]. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[873] Some Nahuas, whom the Spaniards called "Mexicans" or "Chichimecs," +were met by Vasquez de Coronado even as far south as the Chiriqui +lagoon, Panama. These Seguas, as they called themselves, have since +disappeared, and it is no longer possible to say how they strayed so far +from their northern homes. + +[874] "Recent Maya Investigations," _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 28, 1904, p. +555. + +[875] _Alterthuemer aus Guatemala_, p. 24. + +[876] _Analysis of the Pictorial Text inscribed on two Palenque +Tablets_, N. York, 1896. + +[877] H. Beuchat however considers that "the Toltec question remains +insoluble"; though the hypothesis that the Toltecs formed part of the +north to south movement is attractive, it is not yet proved, _Manuel +d'Archeologie americaine_, Paris, 1912, pp. 258-61. + +[878] Quetzalcoatl, the "Bright-feathered Snake," was one of the three +chief gods of the Nahuan pantheon. He was the god of wind and inventor +of all the arts, round whom clusters much of the mythology, and of the +pictorial and plastic art of the Mexicans. + +[879] _Globus_, LXVI. pp. 95-6. + +[880] Herbert J. Spinden, "A Study of Maya Art," _Mem. Peabody Mus._ +VI., Cambridge, Mass. 1913, p. 3 ff., and _Proc. Nineteenth Internat. +Congress Americanists_, 1917, p. 165. + +[881] J. W. Powell, _16th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1894, p. xcv. + +[882] Sylvanus Griswold Morley ("An Introduction to the Study of the +Maya hieroglyphs," _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 57, 1915), briefly summarises +the theories advanced for the interpretation of Maya writing (pp. +26-30). "The theory now most generally accepted is, that while chiefly +ideographic, the glyphs are sometimes phonetic." This author is of +opinion "that as the decipherment of Maya writing progresses, more and +more phonetic elements will be identified, though the idea conveyed by a +glyph will always be found to overshadow its phonetic value" (p. 30). + +[883] "Day Symbols of the Maya Year," _16th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ +1894, p. 205. + +[884] p. 32 ff. + +[885] _Manuel d'Archeologie americaine_, p. 506. + +[886] _16th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth._ 1894, p. xcvi. In "The Maya Year" +(1894) Cyrus Thomas shows that "the year recorded in the Dresden codex +consisted of 18 months of 20 days each, with 5 supplemental days, or of +365 days" (_ib._). S. G. Morley points out (_Bur. Am. Eth. Bull._ 57, +pp. 44-5) that though the Maya doubtless knew that the true length of +the year exceeded 365 days by 6 hours, yet no interpolation of +intercalary days was actually made, as this would have thrown the whole +calendar into confusion. The priests apparently corrected the calendar +by additional calculations to show how far the recorded year was ahead +of the true year. Those who have persistently appealed to these +Maya-Aztec calendric systems as convincing proofs of Asiatic influences +in the evolution of American cultures will now have to show where these +influences come in. As a matter of fact the systems are fundamentally +distinct, the American showing the clearest indications of local +development, as seen in the mere fact that the day characters of the +Maya codices were phonetic, _i.e._ largely rebuses explicable only in +the Maya language, which has no affinities out of America. A careful +study of the Maya calendric system based both on the codices and the +inscriptions has been made by C. P. Bowditch, _The Numeration, Calendar +Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas_, Cambridge, Mass. 1910. +The Aztec month of 20 days is also clearly indicated by the 20 +corresponding signs on the great Calendar Stone now fixed in the wall of +the Cathedral tower of Mexico. This basalt stone, which weighs 25 tons +and has a diameter of 11 feet, is briefly described and figured by T. A. +Joyce, _Mexican Archaeology_, 1914, pp. 73, 74; cf. Pl. VIII. fig. 1. +See also the account by Alfredo Chavero in the _Anales del Museo +Nacional de Mexico_, and an excellent reproduction of the Calendar Stone +in T. U. Brocklehurst's _Mexico To-day_, 1883, p. 186; also Zelia +Nuttall's study of the "Mexican Calendar System," _Tenth Internat. +Congress of Americanists_, Stockholm, 1894. "The regular rotation of +market-days and the day of enforced rest every 20 days were the +prominent and permanent features of the civil solar year" (_ib._). + +[887] _Spuren der Aztek. Sprache_, 1859, _passim_. + +[888] Linguistic and mythological affinities also exist according to +Spence between the Nahuan people and the Tsimshian-Nootka group of +Columbia. Cf. _The Civilization of Ancient Mexico_, 1912, p. 6. + +[889] "Chiefly of the Nahuatl race" (De Nadaillac, p. 279). It should, +however be noted that this general name of Chichimec (meaning little +more than "nomadic hunters") comprised a large number of barbarous +tribes--Pames, Pintos, etc.--who are described as wandering about naked +or wearing only the skins of beasts, living in caves or rock-shelters, +armed with bows, slings, and clubs, constantly at war amongst themselves +or with the surrounding peoples, eating raw flesh, drinking the blood of +their captives or treating them with unheard-of cruelty, altogether a +horror and terror to all the more civilised communities. "Chichimec +Empire" may therefore be taken merely as a euphemistic expression for +the reign of barbarism raised up on the ruins of the early Toltec +civilisation. Yet it had its dynasties and dates and legendary sequence +of events, according to the native historian, Ixtlilxochitl, himself of +royal lineage, and he states that Xolotl, founder of the empire, had +under orders 3,202,000 men and women, that his decisive victory over the +Toltecs took place in 1015, that he assumed the title of "Chichimecatl +Tecuhti," Great Chief of the Chichimecs, and that after a succession of +revolts, wars, conspiracies, and revolutions, Maxtla, last of the +dynasty, was overthrown in 1431 by the Aztecs and their allies. + +[890] H. Beuchat, _Manuel d'Archeologie americaine_, pp. 262-6. + +[891] Named from the shadowy land of Aztlan away to the north, where +they long dwelt in the seven legendary caves of Chicomoztoc, whence they +migrated at some unknown period to the lacustrine region, where they +founded Tenochtitlan, seat of their empire. + +[892] "The gods of the Mayas appear to have been less sanguinary than +those of the Nahuas. The immolation of a dog was with them enough for an +occasion that would have been celebrated by the Nahuas with hecatombs of +victims. Human sacrifices did however take place" (De Nadaillac, p. +266), though they were as nothing compared with the countless victims +demanded by the Aztec gods. "The dedication by Ahuizotl of the great +temple of Huitzilopochtli in 1487 is alleged to have been celebrated by +the butchery of 72,344 victims," and "under Montezuma II. 12,000 +captives are said to have perished" on one occasion (_ib._ p. 297); all +no doubt gross exaggerations, but leaving a large margin for perhaps the +most terrible chapter of horrors in the records of natural religions. +Cf. T. A. Joyce, _Mexican Archaeology_, pp. 261-2. + +[893] A popular and well-illustrated account of Huichols and Tarascos, +as also of the Tarahumare farther north, is given by Carl Lumholtz, +_Unknown Mexico_, 2 vols. New York, 1902. + +[894] Cf. Hans Gadow, _Through Southern Mexico_, 1908, map p. 296, also +p. 314. + +[895] Quoted by De Nadaillac, p. 365. + +[896] p. 363. + +[897] _17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Eth. 1895-6_, Pt. 1 (1898), p. 11. + +[898] _The Hill Caves of Yucatan_, New York, 1903. + +[899] H. Beuchat, _Manuel d'Acheologie americaine_, 1912, p. 407. + +[900] "In the city of Mexico everything has a Spanish look" +(Brocklehurst, _Mexico To-day_, p. 15). The Aztec language however is +still current in the surrounding districts and generally in the +provinces forming part of the former Aztec empire. + +[901] C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_, II. p. 480; cf. pp. 477-80. + +[902] Sylvanus Griswold Morley, "An Introduction to the Study of the +Maya Hieroglyphs," _Bur. Am. Eth. Bull. 57_, 1915, pp. 2-5. + +[903] E. Reclus, _Universal Geography_, XVII. p. 156. + +[904] T. A. Joyce, _Central American and West Indian Archaeology_, 1916, +pp. 157, 256-7. An admirable account is given of the material culture +and mode of life of these peoples at the time of the discovery. + +[905] The rapid disappearance of the Cuban aborigines has been the +subject of much comment. Between the years 1512-32 all but some 4000 had +perished, although they are supposed to have originally numbered about a +million, distributed in 30 tribal groups, whose names and territories +have all been carefully preserved. But they practically offered no +resistance to the ruthless Conquistadores, and it was a Cuban chief who +even under torture refused to be baptized, declaring that he would never +enter the same heaven as the Spaniard. One is reminded of the analogous +cases of Jarl Hakon, the Norseman, and the Saxon Witikind, who rejected +Christianity, preferring to share the lot of their pagan forefathers in +the next world. + +[906] H. Beuchat, pp. 507-11, 526-8. + +[907] Paper read before the National Academy of Sciences, America, 1890. + +[908] T. A. Joyce, p. 2, who deals with the archaeology, as far as it is +known as yet, of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. Cf. especially +linguistic map at p. 30 for distribution of tribes. + +[909] T. A. Joyce, _South American Archaeology_, 1912, p. 7. + +[910] "The travels of P. de Cieza de Leon" (Hakluyt Soc. 1864, p. 50 +f.). + +[911] Sir C. R. Markham, "List of Tribes," etc., _Journ. Roy. Anth. +Inst._ XI. 1910, p. 95. "This idea was widespread, and many Amazonian +peoples declared they preferred to be eaten by their friends than by +worms." + +[912] Quoted by Steinmetz, _Endokannibalismus_, p. 19. + +[913] C. Darwin, _Journal of Researches_, 1889, p. 155. Thanks to their +frequent contact with Europeans since the expeditions of Fitzroy and +Darwin, the Fuegians have given up the practice, hence the doubts or +denials of Bridges, Hyades, and other later observers. + +[914] V. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Brasiliens_, 1867, p. 430. + +[915] Herbert Spencer, _The Principles of Ethics_, 1892, I. p. 330. + +[916] The national name was _Muysca_, "Men," "Human Body," and the +number twenty (in reference to the ten fingers and ten toes making up +that score). _Chibcha_ was a mimetic name having allusion to the sound +_ch_ (as in Charles), which is of frequent recurrence in the Muysca +language. With man = 20, cf. the Bellacoola (British Columbia) 19 = 1 +man - 1; 20 = 1 man, etc.; and this again with Lat. _undeviginti_. + +[917] W. Bollaert, _Antiquarian, Ethnological, and other Researches in +New Granada_, etc. 1860, _passim_. + +[918] T. A. Joyce, _South American Archaeology_, 1912, p. 28. + +[919] _Ibid._ p. 44. + +[920] T. A. Joyce, _loc. cit._ pp. 18-22. + +[921] Markham locates it in the province of Paruro, department of Cuzco; +Hiram Bingham, director of the Peruvian Expeditions of the Nat. Geog. +Soc. and Yale University, identifies it with Machu Picchu (_Nat. Geog. +Mag.,_ Washington, D. C., Feb. 1915, p. 172). + +[922] H. Beuchat, pp. 573-5. For culture sequences in the Andean area +see P. A. Means, _Proc. Nineteenth Internat. Congress of Americanists,_ +1917, p. 236 ff., and _Man_, 1918, No. 91. + +[923] _Anthropologie Bolivienne_, 3 vols. Paris, 1907-8. + +[924] An admirable account of the material culture of Peru is given by +T. A. Joyce, _South American Archaeology_, 1912, cap. VI. + +[925] _Peru_, p. 120. + +[926] De Nadaillac, _Pre-Historic America_, 1885, p. 438. + +[927] Alonzo de Ercilla's _Araucana_. + +[928] T. A. Joyce, _South American Archaeology_, 1912, p. 243; R. E. +Latham, "Ethnology of the Araucanos," _Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst._ XXXIX. +1909, p. 355. + +[929] Latham, p. 356. + +[930] _Ibid._ pp. 344-50. + +[931] In the _Anales de la Universidad de Chile_ for 1897. + +[932] T. A. Joyce, p. 240. + +[933] Properly _Griegos_, "Greeks," so called because supposed to speak +"Greek," _i.e._ any language other than Spanish. + +[934] _Urbewohner Brasiliens_, 1897, pp. 69, 110, 125. + +[935] _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, 1894, pp. 441-3, 468 +ff. + +[936] _Quarterly Journal of Swiss Naturalists_, Zurich, 1896, p. 496 +ff.; cf. T. A. Joyce, _South American Archaeology_, 1912, pp. 241-2. + +[937] _L'Homme Americain_, II. p. 70. + +[938] They were replaced or absorbed partly by the Patagonians, but +chiefly by the Araucanian Puelche, who many years ago migrated down the +Rio Negro as far as El Carmen and even to the coast at Bahia Blanca. +Hence Hale's Puelche were in fact Araucanians with a Patagonian strain. + +[939] _Mission Scientifique de Cap Horn_, VII., par P. Hyades et J. +Deniker, 1891, pp. 238, 243, 378. + +[940] For the latest information and full bibliography see J. M. Cooper, +_Bureau Am. Eth. Bull. 63_, 1917, and _Proc. Nineteenth Internat. +Congress Americanists_, 1917, p. 445; also, C. W. Furlong, _ibid._ pp. +420 ff., 432 ff. + +[941] Markham, "List of Tribes," etc., _Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst._ XI. +1910, pp. 89-90. + +[942] _Ibid._ + +[943] T. Whiffen, _The North-West Amazons_, 1915, pp. 48, 78, 91, etc. + +[944] For the material culture of the Araguayan tribes, cf. Fritz +Krause, _In den Wildnissen Brasiliens_, 1911. + +[945] T. Koch-Gruenberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_, 2 vols. +Berlin, 1910. See Vol. II. map after p. 319. + +[946] Ehrenreich, _loc. cit._ p. 45 ff.; von den Steinen, _loc. cit._ p. +153 ff. + +[947] It should be stated that a like conclusion was reached by Lucien +Adam from the vocabularies brought by Crevaux from the Upper Japura +tribes--Witotos, Corequajes, Kariginas and others--all of Carib speech. + +[948] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, Cambridge, 1911, p. +109. + +[949] Described by E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, +London, 1883. + +[950] A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, pp. 110-11. + +[951] V. d. Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, p. +157. "D'apres Goncalves Dias les tribus bresiliennes descendraient de +deux races absolument distinctes: la race conquerante des Tupi ... et la +race vaincue, pourchassee, des Tapuya...."; V. de Saint-Martin, p. 517, +_Nouveau Dictionnaire de Geographie Universelle_, 1879, A--C. + +[952] _Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocudos_, Rio Janeiro, +1882, _passim_. + +[953] Possibly so called from the Portuguese _botoque_, a barrel plug, +from the wooden plug or disc formerly worn by all the tribes both as a +lip ornament and an ear-plug, distending the lobes like great leathern +bat's-wings down to the shoulders. But this embellishment is called +_tembeitera_ by the Brazilians, and Botocudo may perhaps be connected +with _beto-apoc_, the native name of the ear-plug. + +[954] They are the _Cambebas_ of the Tupi, a term also meaning +Flatheads, and they are so called because "apertao aos recemnacidos as +cabecas entre duas taboas afim de achatal-as, costume que actualmente +han perdido" (Milliet, II. p. 174). + +[955] Such "identities" as Tic. _dreja_ = Aym. _chacha_ (man); _etai_ = +_utax_ (house) etc., are not convincing, especially in the absence of +any scientific study of the laws of _Lautverschiebung_, if any exist +between the Aymara-Ticuna phonetic systems. And then the question of +loan words has to be settled before any safe conclusions can be drawn +from such assumed resemblances. The point is important in the present +connection, because current statements regarding the supposed reduction +of the number of stock languages in South America are largely based on +the unscientific comparison of lists of words, which may have nothing in +common except perhaps a letter or two like the _m_ in Macedon and +Monmouth. Two languages (cf. Turkish and Arabic) may have hundreds or +thousands of words in common, and yet belong to fundamentally different +linguistic families. + +[956] A. Balbi, _Atlas Ethnographique du Globe_, XXVII. With regard to +the numerals this authority tells us that "il a emprunte a l'espagnol +ses noms de nombres" (_ib._). + +[957] Markham, _List of the Tribes_, p. 92. + +[958] _Urbewohner Brasiliens_, p. 101. + +[959] "La vie des Indiens dans le Chaco," trans. by H. Beuchat, _Rev. de +Geog. annuelle_, t. VI. Paris, 1912. Cf. also the forthcoming book by R. +Karsten of Helsingfors who has recently visited some of these tribes. + +[960] While this account of Central and South America was in the Press +Clark Wissler's valuable book was published, _The American Indian_, New +York, 1917. He describes (pp. 227-42) the following culture areas: + + X. The Nahua area (the ancient Maya and the later Aztec cultures). + + XI. The Chibcha area (from the Chibcha-speaking Talamanca and + Chiriqui of Costa Rica to and including Colombia and western + Venezuela). + + XII. The Inca area (Ecuador, Peru and northern Chili). + + XIII. The Guanaco area (lower half of Chili, Argentine, Patagonia, + Tierra del Fuego). + + XIV. The Amazon area (all the rest of South America). + + XV. The Antilles (West Indies, linking on to the Amazon area). + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE PRE-DRAVIDIANS: JUNGLE TRIBES OF THE DECCAN, VEDDA, SAKAI, +AUSTRALIANS + + The Pre-Dravidians--The _Kadir_--The _Paniyan_--The _Irula_--The + _Kurumba_--The _Vedda_--The _Sakai_--The _Toala_--Australia: + Physical Conditions--Physical Type--Australian Origins--Evidence + from Language and Culture--Four Successive Immigrations--Earlier + Views--Material Culture--Sociology--Initiation Ceremonies-- + Totemism--The Family--Kinship--Property and Trade--Magic and + Religion. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# _Jungle Tribes, Deccan; Vedda, Ceylon; Sakai, Malay +Peninsula and East Sumatra; Australians, unsettled parts of Australia +and reservations._ + +#Hair#, _wavy to curly, long, usually black_. + +#Colour#, _dark brown_. #Skull#, _typically dolichocephalic_. _Vedda +skull dolichocephalic (70.5) and very small, Sakai mesaticephalic (78), +Toala (mixed) low brachycephalic (82)._ #Jaws#, _orthognathous_. +_Australians, generally prognathous._ #Nose#, _usually platyrrhine_. +#Stature#, _low_. _Vedda 1.53 m. (5 ft. 0-1/2 in.) to Australian 1.575 +m. (5 ft. 2 in.)_ + +#Speech#, _Jungle tribes, usually borrowed from neighbours_. _Australian +languages agglutinative, not uniform throughout the continent and +unconnected with any other group._ + +#Culture#, _lowest hunting stage, simple agriculture has been adopted by +a few tribes from their neighbours_. + + * * * * * + +The term Pre-Dravidian, the first use of which seems to be due to +Lapicque, is now employed to include certain jungle tribes of South +India, the Vedda of Ceylon, the Sakai of the southern Malay Peninsula, +the basal element in certain tribes in the East India Archipelago and +the main element in the Australians. Pre-Dravidian characters are +coarse hair, more or less wavy or curly, a narrow head, a very broad +nose, dark brown skin and short stature. + +The following may be taken as examples of the Pre-Dravidian jungle +tribes of Southern India[961]. The _Kadir_ of the Anaimalai Hills and +the mountain ranges south into Travancore, are of short stature (1.577 +m. 5 ft. 2 in.), with a dark skin, dolichocephalic and platyrrhine. They +chip their incisor teeth, as do the _Mala-Vadan_, and dilate the lobes +of their ears, but do not tattoo. They wear bamboo combs similar to +those of the Sakai. They speak a Tamil patois. "The Kadirs," according +to Thurston, "afford a typical example of happiness without culture"; +they are nomad hunters and collectors of jungle products, with scarcely +any tillage; they do not possess land but have the right to collect all +minor forest produce and sell it to the Government. They deal most +extensively in wax and honey. They are polygynous. Their dead are buried +in the jungle, the head is entirely covered with leaves and placed +towards the east; there are no monuments. Their religion is a crude +polytheism with a vague worship of stone images or invisible gods; it is +"an ejaculatory religion." + +The _Paniyan_, who live in Malabar, the Wynad and the Nilgiris, have +thick and sometimes everted lips and the hair is in some a mass of short +curls, in others long wavy curls. They are dark skinned, dolichocephalic +(index 74), platyrrhine and of short stature (1.574 m. 5 ft. 2 in.). +They sometimes tattoo, and the lobes of the ears are dilated. Fire is +made by the sawing method. They are agriculturalists and were +practically serfs; they are bold and reckless and were formerly often +employed as thieves. They speak a debased Malayalam patois. Their dead +are buried; they practise monogamy and have beliefs in various spirits. + +The _Irula_ are the darkest of the Nilgiri tribes. They are +dolichocephalic (index 75.8), platyrrhine and of low stature (1.598 m. +nearly 5 ft. 3 in.). No tattooing is recorded, but they dilate the lobes +of their ears. Their language is a corrupt form of Tamil. They are +agriculturalists and eat all kinds of meat except that of buffaloes and +cattle. They are as a rule monogamous. Their dead are buried in a +sitting posture and the grave is marked by a stone. Professedly they are +worshippers of Vishnu. + +The jungle _Kurumba_ of the Nilgiris appear to be remnants of a great +and widely spread people who erected dolmens. They have slightly broader +heads (index 77) than allied tribes, but resemble them in their broad +nose, dark skin and low stature (1.575 m. 5 ft. 2 in.). They cultivate +the ground a little, but are essentially woodcutters, hunters, and +collectors of jungle produce. There is said to be no marriage rite, and +several brothers share a wife. Some bury their dead. After a death a +long waterworn stone is usually placed in one of the old dolmens which +are scattered over the Nilgiri plateau, but occasionally a small dolmen +is raised to mark the burial. They have a great reputation for magical +powers. Some worship Siva, others worship Kuribattraya (Lord of many +sheep), and the wife of Siva. They also worship a rough stone, setting +it up in a cave or in a circle of stones to which they make _puja_ and +offer cooked rice at the sowing time. The Kadu Kurumba of Mysore bury +children but cremate adults; there is a separate house in each village +for unmarried girls and another at the end of the village for unmarried +males. + +The _Vedda_ of Ceylon have long black coarse wavy or slightly curly +hair. The cephalic index is 70.5, the nose is depressed at the root, +almost platyrrhine; the broad face is remarkably orthognathous and the +forehead is slightly retreating with prominent brow arches; the lips are +thin, and the skin is dark brown. The stature is extremely low, only +1.533 m. (5 ft. 0-1/2 in.). The Coast and less pure Vedda average 43 mm. +(1-3/4 in.) taller and have broader heads. The true Vedda are a grave +but happy people, quiet, upright, hospitable with a strong love of +liberty. Lying and theft are unknown. They are timid and have a great +fear of strangers. The bow and arrow are their only weapons and the +arrow tipped with iron obtained from the Sinhalese forms a universal +tool. They speak a modified Sinhali, but employ only one numeral and +count with sticks. They live under rock shelters or in simple huts made +of boughs. They are strictly monogamous and live in isolated families +with no chiefs and have no regular clan meetings. Each section of the +Vedda had in earlier days its own hunting grounds where fish, game, +honey, and yams constituted their sole food. The wild Vedda simply leave +their dead in a cave, which is then deserted. The three things that loom +largest in the native mind are hunting, honey, and the cult of the +dead. The last constitutes almost the whole of the religious life and +magical practices of the people; it is the _motif_ of almost every dance +and may have been the source of all. After a death they perform certain +dances and rites through a _shaman_ in connection with the recently +departed ghost, _yaka_. They also propitiate powerful _yaku_, male and +female, by sacrifices and ceremonial dances[962]. + +The _Sakai_ or _Senoi_ are jungle folk, some of whom have mixed with +Semang and other peoples. Their skin is of a medium brown colour. Their +hair is long, mainly wavy or loosely curly, and black with a reddish +tinge. The average stature may be taken to be from 1.5 m. to 1.55 m. (59 +to 61 inches), the head index varies from about 77 to 81. The face is +fairly broad, with prominent cheek-bones and brow ridges; the low broad +nose has spreading alae and short concave ridge; the lips are thick but +not everted. They are largely nomadic, and their agriculture is of the +most primitive description, their usual implement being the digging +stick. Their houses are built on the ground and as a rule are +rectangular in plan though occasionally conical, and huts are sometimes +built in trees as refuges from wild beasts. A scanty garment of bark +cloth was formerly worn, and, like the Semang, they make fringed girdles +from a black thread-like fungus. Their distinctive weapon is the +blow-pipe which they have brought to great perfection, and their food +consists in jungle produce, including many poisonous roots and tubers +which they have learnt how to treat, so as to render them innocuous. +They do not make canoes and rarely use rafts. In the marriage ceremony +the man has to chase the girl round a mound of earth and catch her +before she has encircled it a third time. The marriage tie is strictly +observed. Each village has a petty chief, whose influence is purely +personal. Individual property does not exist, only family property. +Cultivation is also communal. The inhabitants of the upper heaven +consist of Tuhan or Peng, the "god" of the Sakai and a giantess named +"Granny Long-breasts" who washes sin-blackened human souls in hot water; +the good souls ultimately go to a cloud-land. There are numerous demons +and whenever the Sakai have done wrong Tuhan gives the demons leave to +attack them, and there is no contending against his decree. He is not +prayed to, as his will is unalterable[963]. + +The _Toala_ of the south-west peninsula of the Celebes are at base, +according to the Sarasins[964], a Pre-Dravidian people, though some +mixture with other races has taken place. The hair is very wavy and even +curly, the skin darkish brown, the head low brachycephalic (index 82) +and the stature 1.575 m. (5 ft. 2 in.). The face is somewhat short with +very broad nose and thick lips. Possibly the _Ulu Ayar_ of west Borneo +who are related to the Land Dayaks may be partly of Pre-Dravidian origin +and other traces of this race will probably be found in the East India +Archipelago[965]. + +Australia resembles South Africa in the arid conditions characterising +the interior, the eastern range of mountains precipitating the warm +moisture-laden winds from the Pacific. As a result of the restricted +rainfall there is no river system of importance except that of the +Murray and its tributary the Darling. In the north and north-east, owing +to heavier rainfall, there are numerous water-courses, but they do not +open up the interior of the country. The lack of uniformity in the water +supply has a far-reaching effect on all living beings. The arid +conditions, the irregularity and short duration of the rainfall oblige +the natives to be continually migrating, and prevent these unsettled +bands from ever attaining any size, indeed they are sometimes hard +pressed to obtain enough food to keep alive. + +It may be assumed that the backwardness of the culture of the +Australians is due partly to the low state of culture of their ancestors +when they arrived in the country, and partly to the peculiar character +of the country as well as of its flora and fauna, since Australia has +never been stocked with wild animals dangerous to human life, or with +any suitable for domestication. The relative isolation from other +peoples has had a retarding effect and the Australian has developed +largely along his own lines without the impetus given by competition +with other peoples. Records of simple migration are rare. There have +been no waves of aggression, and intertribal feuds are not very serious +affairs. The Australians have never influenced any other peoples and +they are doomed gradually to disappear. + +Baldwin Spencer says "In the matter of personal appearance while +conforming generally to what is known as the Australian type, there is +considerable variation. The man varies from, approximately, a maximum of +6 ft. 3 in. to a minimum of 5 ft. 2 in.... As a general rule, few of +them are taller than 5 ft. 8 in. The women vary between 5 ft. 9 in. and +4 ft. 9 in. Their average height is not more than 5 ft. 2 in. The brow +ridges are strongly marked, especially in the man, and the forehead +slopes back. The nose is broad with the root deep set. In colour the +native is dark chocolate brown, not black. The hair ... may be almost +straight, decidedly wavy--its usual feature--or almost, but never +really, frizzly.... The beard also may be well developed or almost +absent[966]." The skull is dolichocephalic with an average cranial index +of 72, prognathous and platyrrhine. + +There has been much speculation with regard to the origin of the present +Australian race. According to Baldwin Spencer "There can be no doubt but +that in past times the whole of the continent, including Tasmania, was +occupied by one race. This original, and probably Negritto[967] +population, at an early period; was widely spread over Malayasia and +Australia including Tasmania, which at that time was not shut off by +Bass Strait. The Tasmanians had no boats capable of crossing the latter +and [it is assumed that their ancestors] must have gone over on +land[968]." + +Subsequently when the land sank a remnant of the old ulotrichous +population "was thus left stranded in Tasmania, where _Homo tasmanianus_ +survived until he came in contact with Europeans and was exterminated." +He had frizzly hair. "His weapons and implements were of the most +primitive kind; long pointed unbarbed spears, no spear thrower, no +boomerang, simple throwing stick and only the crudest form of chipped +stone axes, knives and scrapers that were never hafted. Unfortunately +of his organisation, customs, and beliefs we know but little in +detail[969]." + +It is now generally held that at a later date an immigration of a people +in a somewhat higher stage of culture took place; these are regarded by +some as belonging to the Dravidian, and by others, and with more +probability, to the Pre-Dravidian race. J. Mathew[970] suggests that +"the two races are represented by the two primary classes, or phratries, +of Australian society, which were generally designated by names +indicating a contrast of colour, such as eaglehawk and crow. The crow, +black cockatoo, etc., would represent the Tasmanian element; the +eaglehawk, white cockatoo, etc., the so-called Dravidian." Baldwin +Spencer does not think that the moiety names lend any serious support to +the theory of the mixture of two races differing in colour. He goes on +to say "Mr Mathew also postulates a comparatively recent slight infusion +of Malay blood in the northern half of Australia. There is, however, +practically no evidence of Malay infusion. One of the most striking +features of the Malay is his long, lank hair, and yet it is just in +these north parts that the most frizzly hair is met with[971]." + +As concerns linguistics S. H. Ray says "There is no evidence of an +African, Andaman, Papuan, or Malay connection with the Australian +languages. There are reasons for regarding the Australian as in a +similar morphological stage to the Dravidian, but there is no +genealogical relationship proved[972]." No connection has yet been +proved between the Australian languages and the Austronesian or Oceanic +branch of the Austric family of languages, first systematically +described by W. Schmidt[973]. The study of Australian languages is +particularly difficult owing to the very few serviceable grammars and +dictionaries, and the large number of very incomplete vocabularies +scattered about in inaccessible works and journals. The main conclusion +to which Schmidt has arrived[974] is that the Australian languages are +not, as had been supposed, a mainly uniform group. Though over the +greater part of Australia languages possess strong common elements, +North Australia has languages showing no similarities in vocabulary and +very few in grammar with that larger group or with each other. The area +of the North Australian languages is included in a line from south of +Roebuck Bay in the west to Cape Flattery in the east, with a southward +bend to include Arunta (Aranda), interrupted by a branch of southern +languages running up north down Flinders and Leichhardt rivers[975]. The +area contains two or three linguistic groups, best distinguished by +their terminations which consist respectively of vowels and consonants, +the oldest group; vowels alone, the latest group; and vowels and +liquids, probably representing a transition between the two. + +In South Australia, though differences occur, the languages possess +common features both in grammar and vocabulary, having similar personal +pronouns, and certain words for parts of the body in common. Linguistic +differences are associated with differences in social grouping, the area +of purely vowel endings coinciding with the area of the 2-class system +and matrilinear descent, while the area of liquid endings is partly +coterminous with the 4-class system and (often) patrilinear succession. + +Schmidt endeavours to trace the connection between the distribution of +languages with that of types of social groupings, more particularly in +connection with the culture zones which Graebner[976] has traced +throughout the Pacific area, representing successive waves of migration. +The first immigration, corresponding with Graebner's _Ur-period_, is +represented by languages with postposed genitive, the earliest stratum +being pure only in Tasmania; remnants of the first stratum and a second +stratum occur in Victoria, and remnants of the second stratum to the +north and north-east. According to Schmidt this cultural stratum is +characterised by absence of group or marriage totemism, and presence of +sex patrons ("sex-totemism"). The second immigration is represented by +languages with preposition of the genitive, initial _r_ and _l_, vowel +and explosive endings, and is found fairly pure only in the extreme +north-west and north, and in places in the north-east. The great +multiplicity of languages belonging to this stratum may be attributed to +the predominance of the strictly local type of totem-groups. These are +the languages of Graebner's "totem-culture." The third immigration is +represented by languages with preposition of the genitive, no initial +_r_ and _l_, and purely vowel terminations. These are the languages of +the south central group of tribes with a 2-class system and matrilinear +descent. This uniform group has the largest area and has influenced the +whole mass of Australian languages, only North Australia and Tasmania +remaining immune. Their sociological structure with no localisation of +totems and classes contributed to their power of expansion. The fourth +immigration is represented by languages of an intermediate type, with +vowel and liquid endings but no initial _r_ and _l_. These are the +tribes with 4-class and 8-class systems, universal father-right (proving +the strong influence of older totemic ideas), curious fertility rites, +conception ideas and migration myths. + +It will be seen that Schmidt's conclusions confute the evolutionary +theory developed by Frazer, Hartland, Howitt, Spencer and Gillen, +Durkheim and (in part) Andrew Lang, that Australia was essentially +homogeneous in fundamental ideas which have developed differently on +account of geographic and climatic variation. Schmidt's view is that +Australia was entered successively by a number of entirely different +tribes, so that the variation now met with is due to radical diversities +and to the numerous intermixtures arising from migrations and +stratifications of peoples. The linguistic data dispose of the idea that +the oldest tribes with mother-right, 2-class system, traces of +group-marriage, and lack of moral and religious ideas live in the +centre, and that from thence advancement radiated towards the coast +bringing about father-right, abandonment of class system and totemism, +individual marriage, and higher ethical and religious ideas. On the +contrary it would appear that the centre of the continent is the great +channel in which movements are still taking place; the older peoples are +driven out towards the margin and there preserve the old sociological, +ethical and religious conditions. In fact, the older the people, judging +from their linguistic stratum, the less one finds among them what has +been assumed to be the initial stage for Central Australia[977]. These +are Schmidt's views and they confirm the cultural results established by +Graebner. But as the whole question of the culture layers in the Pacific +is still under discussion it is inadvisable at this stage of our +knowledge to make any definite statements. It is worth noting, however, +that[978] the distribution of simple burial of the dead coincides in the +main with Schmidt's South Australian language area, and the area roughly +enclosed on the east by long. 140 deg. E. and the north by lat. 20 deg. S. +appears to form a technological province distinct from the rest of +Australia[979]. + +Rarely can the Australian depend on regular supplies of food. He feeds +on flesh, fish, grubs and insects, and wild vegetable food; probably +everything that is edible is eaten. Cannibalism is widely spread, but +human flesh is nowhere a regular article of food. Clothing, apart from +ornament, is rarely worn, but in the south, skin cloaks and fur aprons +are fairly common. Scarification of the body is frequent and +conspicuous. The men usually let their hair grow long, and the women +keep theirs short. Dwellings are of the simplest character, usually +merely breakwinds or slight huts, but where there is a large supply of +vegetable food, huts are made of boughs covered with bark or grass and +are sometimes coated with clay. Implements are made of shell, bone, wood +and stone. Baldwin Spencer remarks "It is not too much to say that at +the present time we can parallel amongst Australian stone weapons all +the types known in Europe under the names Chellean, Mousterian, +Aurignacian etc.... The terms Eolithic, Palaeolithic, and Neolithic do +not apply in Australia as indicating either time periods or levels of +culture[980]." Spears and wooden clubs are universal, and the use of the +spear-thrower is generally distributed. The boomerang is found almost +throughout Australia; the variety that returns when it is thrown is as a +rule only a plaything or for throwing at birds. The forms of the various +implements vary in different parts of the country and in some districts +certain implements may be entirely absent. For example the boomerang is +not found in the northern parts of Cape York peninsula or of the +Northern Territory, and the spear-thrower is absent from south-east +Queensland. Bows and arrows are unknown and pottery making does not +occur. Rafts are made of one or more logs, and the commonest form of +canoe is that made of a single sheet of bark. Dug-outs occur in a few +places, and both single and double outriggers are found only on the +Queensland coast. These sporadic occurrences give additional support to +the modern view that the racial and cultural history of Australia is by +no means so simple as has till lately been assumed[981]. + +Students of Australian sociology have been so much impressed with +certain prominent features of social organisation that they have paid +insufficient attention to kinship and the family; the former has however +recently been investigated by A. R. Brown[982], while information +concerning the latter has been carefully sifted by B. Malinowski[983]. +The main features of social groupings are the tribe, the local groups, +the classes, the totemic clans and the families. A tribe is composed of +a number of local groups and these are perpetuated in the same tracts by +the sons, who hunt over the grounds of their fathers; this is the "local +organisation." The local group is the only political unit, and +_intra_-group justice has been extended to _inter_-group justice, where +the units of reference are not based on kinship; this may be regarded as +the earliest stage of what is known as International Law[984]. In the +so-called "social organisation," the tribe as a community is divided +into two parts (moieties or phratries), which are quite distinct from +the local groups, though rarely they may be coincident. Each moiety may +be subdivided into two or four exogamous sections which are generally +called "classes" and are peculiar to Australia. Descent in the classes +is as a rule indirect matrilineal or indirect patrilineal, that is to +say, while the child still belongs to its mother's or father's moiety +(as the case may be) it is assigned to the class to which the mother or +the father does not belong; but the grandchildren belong to the class of +a grandmother or grandfather. In diagram I (below) _A_ and _C_ are +classes of one moiety, #B# and _D_ those of the other. Thus when _A_ man +marries _B_ woman the children are _D_. _B_ man marries _A_ woman and +the children are _C_ and so on. When there are four classes in each +moiety the diagram works out as follows (II)[985]: + + [Illustration] + +Very important in social life are the initiation ceremonies by means of +which a youth is admitted to the status of tribal manhood. These +ceremonies vary greatly from tribe to tribe but they agree in certain +fundamental points. "(1) They begin at the age of puberty. (2) During +the initiation ceremonies the women play an important part. (3) At the +close of the first part of the ceremonies, such as that of tooth +knocking out or circumcision, a definite performance is enacted +emblematic of the fact that the youths have passed out of the control of +the women. (4) During the essential parts the women are typically absent +and the youths are shown the bull-roarer, have the secret beliefs +explained to them and are instructed in the moral precepts and customs, +including food restrictions, that they must henceforth observe under +severe penalties. (5) The last grade is not passed through until a man +is quite mature[986]." + +Practically universal is the existence of a grouping of individuals +under the names of plants, animals or various objects; these are termed +totems and the human groups are termed totem clans. The members of a +totem clan commonly believe themselves to be actually descended from or +related to their totem, and all members of a clan, whatever tribe they +may belong to, are regarded as brethren, who have mutual duties, +prohibitions and privileges. Thus a member of a totem clan must help and +never injure any fellow member. "Speaking generally it may be said that +every totemic group has certain ceremonies associated with it and that +these refer to old totemic ancestors. In all tribes they form part of a +secret ritual in which only the initiated may take part. In most tribes +a certain number are shown to the youths during the early stages of +initiation, but at a later period he sees many more[987]." + +In several tribes, and probably it was very general, certain magical +ceremonies were performed to render the totem abundant or efficacious. +The sex patron ("sex totem"), when the women have one animal, such as +the owlet night-jar associated with them, and the men another, such as +the bat; and the guardian genius (mis-called "individual totem"), +acquired by dreaming of some animal, are of rare occurrence. + +The individual family has been shown by Malinowski[988] to be "a unit +playing an important part in the social life of the natives and well +defined by a number of moral, customary and legal norms; it is further +determined by the sexual division of labour, the aboriginal mode of +living, and especially by the intimate relation between the parents and +children. The individual relation between husband and wife (marriage) is +rooted in the unity of the family ... and in the well-defined, though +not always exclusive, sexual right the husband acquires over his wife." +All sexual licence is regulated by and subject to strict rules. The +_Pirrauru_ custom, by which individuals are allocated accessory spouses, +"proves that the relationship involved does not possess the character of +marriage. For it completely differs from marriage in nearly all the +essential points by which marriage in Australia is defined. And above +all the Pirrauru relation does not seem to involve the facts of family +life in its true sense" (p. 298). + +A. R. Brown[989] asserts that so far as our information goes, the only +method of regulating marriage is by means of the relationship system. In +every tribe there is a law to the effect that a man may only marry women +who stand to him in a certain relationship, and there is no evidence +that there is any other method of regulating marriage. The so-called +class rule by which a man of a special division or group is required to +marry a woman of another division is merely the law of relationship +stated in a less exact form. It is the fact that a man may only marry a +relative of a certain kind that necessitates the marrying into a +particular relationship division. The rule of totemic exogamy, according +to A. R. Brown, is equally seen to have no existence apart from the +relationship rule. Where a totemic group is a clan and consists of +relations all of one line of descent, a man is prohibited from marrying +a woman of his own group by the ordinary rule of relationship. On the +other hand, where the totemic group is not a clan, but is a local group +(as in the Burduna tribe) or a cult society (as in the Arunta tribe) +there is no rule prohibiting a man from marrying a woman of the same +totemic group as himself. The so-called rule of local exogamy in some +tribes (perhaps in all) is merely a result of the fact that the local +group is a clan, _i.e._ a group of persons related in one line of +descent only. Only two methods of regulating marriage are known to exist +in the greater part of Australia[990]: Type I. A man marries the +daughter of one of the men he denotes by the same term as his mother's +brother. Type II. A man marries a woman who is the daughter's daughter +of some man whom he denotes by the same term as his mother's mother's +brother. In either case he may not marry any other kind of relative. The +existence of two phratries or moieties or four named divisions +("classes") in a tribe conveys no information whatever as to the +marriage rule of the tribe. The term "class" and "sub-class," according +to A. R. Brown, had better be discarded as writers use them to denote +several totally distinct kinds of divisions. + +The tribe has collecting and hunting rights over an area with recognised +limits, smaller communities down to the family unit having similar +rights within the tribal boundaries. In some cases a tribe which had no +stone suitable for making stone implements within its own boundaries was +allowed to send tribal messengers to a quarry to procure what was needed +without molestation, though Howitt speaks of family ownership of +quarries[991]. Implements are personal property. An extensive system of +intertribal communication and exchange is carried on, apparently by +recognised middlemen, and tribes meet on certain occasions at +established trade centres for a regulated barter. + +Beneficent and malevolent magic are universally practised and totemism +possesses a religious besides a social aspect. An emotional relation +often exists between the members of a totem clan and their totem, and +the latter are believed at times to warn or protect their human +kinsmen. It may be noted that the widely spread and elaborate ceremonies +designed to render the totem prolific or to ensure its abundance, though +performed solely by members of the totem clan concerned, are less for +their own benefit than for that of the community[992]. Owing perhaps to +the difficulty of distinguishing between the purely social and the +religious institutions of primitive peoples great diversity of opinion +prevails even amongst the best observers regarding the religious views +of the Australian aborigines. The existence of a "tribal All-Father" is +perhaps most clearly emphasised by A. W. Howitt[993], who finds this +belief widespread in the whole of Victoria and New South Wales, up to +the eastern boundaries of the tribes of the Darling River. Amongst those +of New South Wales are the Euahlayi, whom K. Langloh Parker +describes[994] as having a more advanced theology and a more developed +worship (including prayers, pp. 79-80) than any other Australian tribe. +These now eat their hereditary totem without scruple--a sure sign that +the totemic system is dying out, although still outwardly in full force. +Amongst the Arunta, Kaitish, and the other Central and Northern tribes +studied by Spencer and Gillen, totemism still survives, and totems are +even assigned to the mysterious _Iruntarinia_ entities, vague and +invisible incarnations of the ghosts of ancestors who lived in the +_Alcheringa_ time, the dim remote past at the beginning of everything. +These are far more powerful than living men, because their spirit part +is associated with the so-called _churinga_, consisting of stones, +pieces of wood or any other objects which are deemed sacred as +possessing a kind of _mana_ which makes the yams and grass to grow, +enables a man to capture game, and so forth. "That the _churinga_ are +simply objects endowed with _mana_ is the happy suggestion of Sidney +Hartland[995] whose explanation has dispelled the dense fog of +mystification hitherto enveloping the strange beliefs and observances of +these Central and Northern tribes[996]." N. W. Thomas[997] reviews the +whole question of Australian religion, and after describing Twanjiraka, +Malbanga and Ulthaana, of the Arunta, Baiame or Byamee, famous in +anthropological controversy[998], Daramulun of the Yuin, Mungan-ngaua +(our father) of the Kurnai, Nurrundere of the Narrinyeri, Bunjil or +Pundjel, often called Mamingorak (our father) of Victoria, and others, +he concludes "These are by no means the only gods known to Australian +tribes; on the contrary it can hardly be definitely asserted that there +is or was any tribe which had not some such belief[999]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[961] E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, 1909. + +[962] P. and F. Sarasin, _Ergebnisse Naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen +auf Ceylon. Die Steinzeit auf Ceylon_, 1908; H. Parker, _Ancient +Ceylon_, 1909. The most complete account is given by C. G. and B. Z. +Seligman, _The Veddas_, 1911. + +[963] W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay +Peninsula_, 1906; R. Martin, _Die Inlandstaemme der Malayischen +Halbinseln_, 1905. + +[964] Fritz Sarasin, _Versuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes_. +_Zweiter Teil: Die Varietaeten des Menschen auf Celebes_, 1906. + +[965] A. C. Haddon, Appendix to C. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan +Tribes of Borneo_, II. 1912. + +[966] _Federal Handbook, Brit. Ass. for Advancement of Science_, 1914, +p. 36. + +[967] The Tasmanians can scarcely be termed Negritoes. The important +point to be noted is that this early population was ulotrichous, cf. p. +159. + +[968] _Loc. cit._ p. 34. Or the Strait may then have been very narrow. + +[969] _Loc. cit._ p. 34. + +[970] _Two Representative Tribes of Queensland_, 1910, p. 30. + +[971] _Loc. cit._ p. 34. + +[972] _Reports Camb. Exped. to Torres Straits_, III. 1907, p. 528. + +[973] _Die Mon-Khmer Voelker_, 1906. Schmidt has for many years studied +the Australian languages and has published his results in _Anthropos_, +Vols, VII., VIII. 1912, 1913, from which, and also from _Man_, No. 8, +1908, the following summarised extracts are taken. + +[974] See _Man_, No. 8, 1908, pp. 184-5. + +[975] See the map constructed by P. W. Schmidt and P. K. Streit, +_Anthropos_, VII. 1912. + +[976] See _Globus_, XC. 1906, and "Die sozialen Systeme d. Suedsee," +_Ztschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft_, XI. 1908. Schmidt's divergence from +Graebner's views are dealt with in _Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie_, 1909, pp. +372-5, and _Anthropos_, VII. 1912, p. 246 ff. + +[977] _Anthropos_, VII. 1912, pp. 247, 248. + +[978] N. W. Thomas, "The Disposal of the Dead in Australia," _Folklore_, +XIX. 1908. + +[979] A. R. Brown, MS. + +[980] _Federal Handbook, British Association for the Advancement of +Science_, 1914, p. 76. + +[981] A. C. Haddon, "The Outrigger Canoes of Torres Straits and North +Queensland," _Essays and Studies Presented to W. Ridgeway_, 1913, p. +621, and W. H. R. Rivers, "The Contact of Peoples," in the same volume, +p. 479. + +[982] _Man_, No. 32, 1910. + +[983] _The Family among the Australian Aborigines_, 1913. + +[984] G. C. Wheeler, _The Tribe, and intertribal relations in +Australia_, 1910, p. 163. + +[985] A. R. Brown, "Marriage and Descent in North Australia," _Man_, No. +32, 1910. + +[986] W. Baldwin Spencer, _loc. cit._ p. 50. + +[987] W. Baldwin Spencer, _loc. cit._ p. 44. + +[988] _The Family among the Australian Aborigines_, 1913, p. 304. + +[989] MS. + +[990] A. R. Brown, "Three Tribes of Western Australia," _Journ. Roy. +Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913. + +[991] A. W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-east Australia_, 1904, +p. 311. + +[992] W. Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _The Native Tribes of Central +Australia_, 1899, Chap. VI., and _The Northern Tribes of Central +Australia_, 1904, Chap. IX. + +[993] _The Native Tribes of South-east Australia_, 1904, p. 500. + +[994] _The Euahlayi Tribe_, 1905. + +[995] Presidential Address (Section H) Brit. Ass. York, 1906. + +[996] A. H. Keane, Art. "Australasia," in Hastings' _Encyclopaedia of +Religion and Ethics_, 1909, p. 244. + +[997] _The Natives of Australia_, 1906, Chap. XIII. Religion. + +[998] E. B. Tylor, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXI. p. 292; A. Lang, _Magic +and Religion_, p. 25; _Myth, Ritual and Religion_, Chap. XII.; K. +Langloh Parker, _The Euahlayi Tribe_, 1905, Chap. II.; M. F. v. +Leonhardi, _Anthropos_, IV. 1909, p. 1065, and many others. + +[999] The following should be consulted: + + Original memoirs: C. Strehlow, _Die Aranda- und Loritza-Staemme in + Zentral-Australien_, 1907; W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies among + the north-west-central Queensland Aborigines_, 1897; _North + Queensland Ethnography, Bulletins_ 1-8, 1901-6, and _Bulletins_ + 9-18; _Records of the Australian Museum_, VI.-VIII. Sydney, + 1890-1910. + + Compilations and discussions: E. Durkheim, _The Elementary Forms + of the Religious Life: a Study in Religious Sociology_ (translated + by J. W. Swain), a very suggestive study based on Australian + custom and belief; J. G. Frazer, _Exogamy and Totemism_, I. 1910; + _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, I. pp. + 67-169, 1913. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES + + General Considerations--Constituent Elements--Past and Present + Range--Cradle-land: Africa north of Sudan--Quaternary + "Sahara"--Early European and Mauretanian types--The _Guanches_, + Types and Affinities--Origin of the European Brachycephals-- + Summary of Orthodox View--Linguistic Evidence--The _Basques_-- + The _Iberians_--The _Ligurians_ in Rhineland and Italy. + Sicilian Origins--_Sicani_; _Siculi_--_Sard_ and _Corsican_ + Origins--Ethnological Relations in Italy--Sergi's Mediterranean + Domain--Range of the Mediterraneans--The _Pelasgians_-- + Theory of pre-Hellenic Pelasgians--Pelasgians and Mykenean + civilisation--Aegean Culture--Other Views--Range of the Hamites in + Africa--The Eastern Hamites--The Western "Moors"--General Hamitic + Type--Foreign Elements in Mauretania--Arab and Berber Contrasts-- + The _Tibus_--The Egyptian Hamites--Origins--Theory of Asiatic + Origins--Proto-Egyptian type--Armenoid type--Asiatic influence on + Egyptian Culture--Negroid mixture--The _Fulah_--Other Eastern + Hamites--_Bejas_--_Somals_--Somal Genealogies--The _Galla_--The + _Masai_. + + +CONSPECTUS. + +#Present Range.# _All the extra-tropical habitable lands, except Chinese +empire, Japan, and the Arctic zone; intertropical America, Arabia, +India, and Indonesia; sporadically everywhere._ + +_Three main types_:--1. _Southern dolichocephals_, #Mediterranean#; 2. +_Northern Dolichocephals_, #Nordic#; 3. _Brachycephals_, #Alpine#. + +#Hair#: 1. _Very dark brown or black, wiry, curly or ringletty._ 2. +_Very light brown, flaxen, or red, rather long, straight or wavy, smooth +and glossy._ 3. _Light chestnut or reddish brown, wavy, rather short and +dull. All oval in section; beard of all full, bushy, straight, or wavy, +often lighter than hair of head, sometimes very long._ #Colour#: 1. +_Very variable--white, light olive, all shades of brown and even +blackish (Eastern Hamites and others)._ 2. _Florid._ 3. _Pale white, +swarthy or very light brown._ #Skull#: _1 and 2 long (72 to 79); 3 round +(85 to 87 and upwards); all orthognathous_. _Cheek-bone of all small, +never projecting laterally, sometimes rather high (some Berbers and +Scotch)._ #Nose#, _mostly large, narrow, straight, arched or hooked, +sometimes rather broad, heavy, concave and short_. #Eyes#: 1. _Black or +deep brown, but also blue._ 2. _Mainly blue. 3. Brown, hazel-grey and +black._ + +#Stature#: 1. _Under-sized (mean 1.630 m. 5 ft. 4 in.), but variable +(some Hamites, Hindus, and others medium or tall)._ 2. _Tall (mean 1.728 +m. 5 ft. 8 or 9 in.)._ 3. _Medium (mean 5 ft. 6 in.), but also very tall +(Indonesians 1.750 m. to 1.830 m. 5 ft. 9 to 6 ft.)._ #Lips#, _mostly +rather full and well-shaped, but sometimes thin, or upper lip very long +(many Irish), and under lip pendulous (many Jews)_. #Arms#, _rather +short as compared with Negro_. #Legs#, _shapely, with calves usually +well developed_. #Feet#: _1 and 3 small with high instep_; _2 rather +large_. + +#Temperament#: 1 and 3. _Brilliant, quick-witted, excitable and +impulsive; sociable and courteous, but fickle, untrustworthy, and even +treacherous (Iberian, South Italian); often atrociously cruel (many +Slavs, Persians, Semites, Indonesians and even South Europeans); +aesthetic sense highly, ethic slightly developed. All brave, +imaginative, musical, and richly endowed intellectually._ 2. _Earnest, +energetic, and enterprising; steadfast, solid, and stolid; outwardly +reserved, thoughtful, and deeply religious; humane, firm, but not +normally cruel._ + +#Speech#, _mostly of the inflecting order with strong tendency +towards analytical forms_; _very few stock languages (Aryan, +Ibero-Hamito-Semitic), except in the Caucasus, where stock languages of +highly agglutinating types are numerous, and in Indonesia, where one +agglutinating stock language prevails_. + +#Religion#, _mainly Monotheistic, with or without priesthood and +sacrifice (Jewish, Christian, Muhammadan)_; _polytheistic and animistic +in parts of Caucasus, India, Indonesia, and Africa_. _Gross +superstitions still prevalent in many places._ + +#Culture#, _generally high--all arts, industries, science, philosophy +and letters in a flourishing state now almost everywhere except in +Africa and Indonesia, and still progressive_. _In some regions +civilisation dates from an early period (Egypt, South Arabia, Babylonia; +the Minoan, Hellenic, Hittite, and Italic cultures). Indonesians and +many Hamites still rude, with primitive usages, few arts, no science or +letters, and cannibalism prevalent in some places (Gallaland)._ + +#Mediterranean type#: _most Iberians, Corsicans, Sards, Sicilians, +Italians_; _some Greeks_; _Berbers and other Hamites_; _Arabs and other +Semites_; _some Hindus_; _Dravidians, Todas, Ainus, Indonesians, some +Polynesians_. + +#Nordic type#: _Scandinavians, North-west Germans, Dutch, Flemings, most +English, Scotch, some Irish, Anglo-Americans, Anglo-Australasians, +English and Dutch of S. Africa_; _Thrako-Hellenes, true Kurds, most West +Persians, Afghans, Dards and Siah-post Kafirs_. + +#Alpine type#: _most French, South Germans, Swiss and Tyrolese_; +_Russians, Poles, Chekhs, Yugo-Slavs_; _some Albanians and Rumanians_; +_Armenians, Tajiks (East Persians), Galchas_. + + * * * * * + +It is a remarkable fact that the Caucasic division of the human family, +of which nearly all students of the subject are members, with which we +are in any case, so to say, on the most intimate terms, and with the +constituent elements of which we might consequently be supposed to be +best acquainted, is the most debatable field in the whole range of +anthropological studies. Why this should be so is not at first sight +quite apparent, though the phenomenon may perhaps be partly explained by +the consideration that the component parts are really of a more complex +character, and thus present more intricate problems for solution, than +those of any other division. But to some extent this would also seem to +be one of those cases in which we fail to see the wood for the trees. To +put it plainly, few will venture to deny that the inherent difficulties +of the subject have in recent times been rather increased than +diminished by the bold and often mutually destructive theories, and, in +some instances one might add, the really wild speculations put forward +in the earnest desire to remove the endless obscurities in which the +more fundamental questions are undoubtedly still involved. Controversial +matter which seemed thrashed out has been reopened, several fresh +factors have been brought into play, and the warfare connected with such +burning topics as Aryan origins, Ibero-Pelasgic relations, European +round-heads and long-heads, has acquired renewed intensity amid the +rival theories of eminent champions of new ideas. + +The question is not made any simpler by the frequent attacks that have +been directed from more than one quarter against the long-established +Caucasic terminology, and well-supported objections are raised to the +use of such time-honoured names as "Hamitic," "Semitic," and even +"Caucasic" itself. But no really satisfactory substitute for "Caucasic" +has yet been suggested, and it is doubtful if any name could be found +sufficiently comprehensive to include all the races, long-headed and +short-headed, fair and dark, tall and short, that we are at present +content to group under this non-committal heading. Undoubtedly the term +"Caucasic" cannot be defended on ethnical grounds. "Nowhere else in the +world probably is so heterogeneous a lot of people, languages and +religions gathered together in one place as along the chain of the +Caucasus mountains[1000]." But we are no more called upon to believe +that the "Caucasic" peoples originated in the Caucasus, than that the +Semites are all descendants of Shem or Hamites of Ham. "Caucasic" has +one claim that can never be disputed, that of priority, and it would be +well if innovators in these matters were to take to heart the sober +language of Ehrenreich, who reminds us that the accepted names are, what +they ought to be, "purely conventional," and "historically justified," +and "should be held as valid until something better can be found to take +their place[1001]." It was considerations such as these, weighing so +strongly in favour of current usage, that induced me _stare per vias +antiquas_ in the _Ethnology_, and consequently also in the present work. +Hence, here as there, the Caucasic Division retains its title, together +with those of its main subdivisions--Hamitic, Semitic, Keltic, Slavic, +Hellenic, Teutonic, Iranic, Galchic and so on. + +The chief exception is "Aryan," a linguistic expression forced by the +philologists into the domain of Ethnology, where it has no place or +meaning. There was of course a time when a community, or group of +communities, existed probably in the steppe region between the +Carpathians and the Hindu-Kush[1002], by whom the Aryan mother-tongue +was evolved, and who still for a time presented a certain uniformity in +their physical characters, were, in fact, of Aryan speech and type. But +while their Aryan speech persists in endlessly modified forms, they have +themselves long disappeared as a distinct race, merged in the countless +other races on whom they, perhaps as conquerors, imposed their Aryan +language. Hence we can and must speak of Aryan tongues, and of an Aryan +linguistic family, which continues to flourish and spread over the +globe. But of an Aryan race there can be no further question since the +absorption of the original stock in a hundred other races in remote +prehistoric times. Where comprehensive references have to be made, I +therefore substitute for Aryans and Aryan race the expression peoples of +Aryan speech, at least wherever the unqualified term Aryan might lead to +misunderstandings. + +This way of looking at the question, which has now become more thorny +than ever, has the signal advantage of being indifferent to any +preconceived theories regarding the physical characters of that long +vanished proto-Aryan race. How great this advantage is may be judged +from the mere statement that, while German anthropologists are still +almost to a man loyal to the traditional view that the first Aryans were +best represented by the tall, long-headed, tawny-haired, blue-eyed +Teutonic barbarians of Tacitus--who, Virchow tells us, have completely +disappeared from sight in the present population--the Italian school, or +at least its chief exponent, Sergi, was equally convinced that the +picture was a myth, that such Aryans never existed, that "the true +primitive Aryans were not long, but round-headed, not fair but dark, not +tall but short, and are in fact to-day best represented by the +round-headed Kelts, Slavs, and South Germans[1003]." + +The fact is that the Aryan prototype has vanished as completely as has +the Aryan mother-tongue, and can be conjecturally restored only by +processes analogous to those by which Schleicher and other philologists +have endeavoured with dubious success to restore the organic Aryan +speech as constituted before the dispersion. + +But here arises the more important question, by what right are so many +and such diverse peoples grouped together and ticketed "Caucasians"? Are +they to be really taken as objectively one, or are they merely +artificial groupings, arbitrarily arranged abstractions? Certainly this +Caucasic division consists apparently of the most heterogeneous +elements, more so than perhaps any other. Hence it seems to require a +strong mental effort to sweep into a single category, however elastic, +so many different peoples--Europeans, North Africans, West Asiatics, +Iranians and others all the way to the Indo-Gangetic plains and uplands, +whose complexion presents every shade of colour, except yellow, from +white to the deepest brown or even black. + +But they are grouped together in a single division, because of certain +common characteristics, and because, as pointed out by Ehrenreich, who +himself emphasises these objections, their substantial uniformity speaks +to the eye that sees below the surface. At the first glance, except +perhaps in a few extreme cases for which it would be futile to create +independent categories, we recognise a common racial stamp in the facial +expression, the structure of the hair, partly also the bodily +proportions, in all of which points they agree more with each other than +with the other main divisions. Even in the case of certain black or very +dark races, such as the Beja, Somali, and a few other Eastern Hamites, +we are reminded instinctively more of Europeans or Berbers than of +negroes, thanks to their more regular features and brighter expression. +"Those who will accept nothing unless it can be measured, weighed, and +numbered, may think perhaps that according to modern notions this appeal +to the outward expression is unscientific. Nevertheless nobody can deny +the evidence of the obvious physical differences between Caucasians, +African Negroes, Mongols, Australians and so on. After all, physical +anthropology itself dates only from the moment when we became conscious +of these differences, even before we were able to give them exact +expression by measurements. It was precisely the general picture that +spoke powerfully and directly to the eye[1004]." The argument need not +here be pursued farther, as it will receive abundant illustration in the +details to follow. + +Since the discovery of the New and the Austral Worlds, the Caucasic +division as represented by the chief European nations has received an +enormous expansion. Here of course it is necessary to distinguish +between political and ethnical conquests, as, for instance, those of +India, held by military tenure, and of Australia by actual settlement. +Politically the whole world has become Caucasic with the exception of +half-a-dozen states such as China, Turkey, Japan, Siam, Marocco, still +enjoying a real or fictitious autonomy. But, from the ethnical +standpoint, those regions in which the Caucasic peoples can establish +themselves and perpetuate their race as colonists are alone to be +regarded as fresh accessions to the original and later (historical) +Caucasic domains. Such fresh accessions are however of vast extent, +including the greater part of Siberia and adjoining regions, where Slav +branches of the Aryan-speaking peoples are now founding permanent new +homes; the whole of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, which have +become the inheritance of the Caucasic inhabitants of the British Isles; +large tracts in South Africa, already occupied by settlers chiefly from +Holland and Great Britain; lastly the New World, where most of the +northern continent is settled by full-blood Europeans, mainly British, +French and German, while in the rest (Central and South America) the +Caucasic immigrants (chiefly from the Iberian peninsula) have formed new +ethnical groups by fusion with the aborigines. These new accessions, all +acquired within the last 400 years, may be roughly estimated at about 28 +million square miles, which with some 12 millions held throughout the +historic period (Africa north of Sudan, most of Europe, South-West and +parts of Central and South Asia, Indonesia) gives an extent of 40 +million square miles to the present Caucasic domain, either actually +occupied or in process of settlement. As the whole of the dry land +scarcely exceeds 52 millions, this leaves not more than about 12 +millions for the now reduced domains of all the other divisions, and +even of this a great part (_e.g._ Tibetan table-land, Gobi, tundras, +Greenland) is barely or not at all inhabitable. This, it may be +incidentally remarked, is perhaps the best reply to those who have in +late years given expression to gloomy forebodings regarding the ultimate +fate of the Caucasic races. The "yellow scare" may be dismissed with the +reflection that the Caucasian populations, who have inherited or +acquired nearly four-fifths of the earth's surface besides the absolute +dominion of the high seas, is not destined to be submerged by any +conceivable combination of all the other elements, still less by the +Mongol alone[1005]. + +Where have we to seek the primeval home of this most vigorous and +dominant branch of the human family? Since no direct evidence can be +cited, the answer necessarily takes the form of a hypothesis, and must +rely mainly on the indirect evidence supplied by our vague knowledge of +geographical conditions in pleistocene times, on past and present +zoological distributions, with here and there, the assistance of a hint +gleaned from archaeological discoveries. We may deal first with the +arguments brought forward in favour of Africa north of Sudan. Here were +found in quaternary times all the physical elements which zoologists +demand for great specialisations--ample space, a favourable climate and +abundance of food, besides continuous land connection at two or three +points across the Mediterranean, by which the pliocene and early +pleistocene faunas moved freely between the two continents. + +Many of the speculations on the subject failed to convince, largely +because the writers took, so to say, the ground from under their own +feet, by submerging most of the land under a vast "Quaternary Sahara +Sea," which had no existence, and which, moreover, reduced the whole of +North Africa to a Mauretanian island, a mere "appendix of Europe," as it +is in one place expressly called. Then this inconvenient inland basin +was got rid of, not by an outflow--being on the same level as the +Atlantic, of which it was, in fact figured as an inlet--but by +"evaporation," which process is however somehow confined to this inlet, +and does not affect either the Mediterranean or the Atlantic itself. Nor +is it explained how the oceanic waters were prevented from rushing in +according "as the Sahara sea evaporated to become a desert." The attempt +to evolve a "Eurafrican race" in such an impossible area necessarily +broke down, other endless perplexities being involved in the initial +geological misconception. + +Not only was the Sahara dry land in pleistocene times, but it stood then +at a considerably higher altitude than at present, although its mean +elevation is still estimated by Chavanne at 1500 feet above sea-level. +"Quaternary deposits cover wide areas, and were at one time supposed to +be of marine origin. It was even held that the great sand dunes must +have been formed under the sea; but at this date it is scarcely +necessary to discuss such a view. The advocates of a Quaternary Sahara +Sea argued chiefly from the discovery of marine shells at several points +in the middle of the Sahara. But Tournouer has shown that to call in the +aid of a great ocean in order to explain the presence of one or two +shells is a needless expenditure of energy[1006]." + +At an altitude of probably over 2000 feet the Sahara must have enjoyed +an almost ideal climate during late pliocene and pleistocene times, when +Europe was exposed to more than one glacial invasion, and to a large +extent covered at long intervals by a succession of solid ice-caps. We +now know that these stony and sandy wastes were traversed in all +directions by great rivers, such as the Massarawa trending south to the +Niger, or the Igharghar[1007] flowing north to the Mediterranean, and +that these now dry beds may still be traced for hundreds of miles by +chains of pools or lakelets, by long eroded valleys and by other +indications of the action of running waters. + +Nor could there be any lack of vegetable or animal life in a favoured +region, which was thus abundantly supplied with natural irrigation +arteries, while the tropical heats were tempered by great elevation and +at times by the refreshing breezes from sub-arctic Europe. + +From these well-watered and fertile lands, some of which continued even +in Roman times to be the granary of the empire, came that succession of +southern animals--hippopotamus, hyaena, rhinoceros, elephant, +cave-lion--which made Europe seem like a "zoological appendix of +Africa." In association with this fauna may have come man himself, for +although North Africa has not yet yielded evidence of a widespread +culture comparable to that of the Palaeolithic Age in Europe, yet the +negroid characters of the Grimaldi skeletons have been held to prove an +early connection between the opposite shores of the Mediterranean. The +hypothesis of African origin is supported by archaeological evidence of +the presence of early man all over North Africa from the shores of the +Mediterranean through Egypt to Somaliland. Thus one of J. de Morgan's +momentous conclusions was that the existence of civilised men in Egypt +might be reckoned by thousands, and of the aborigines by myriads of +years. These aborigines he identified with the men of the Old Stone Age, +of whom he believed four stations to have been discovered--Dahshur, +Abydos, Tukh, and Thebes[1008]. + +Of Tunisia Arsene Dumont declared that "the immense period of time +during which man made use of stone implements is nowhere so strikingly +shown." Here some of the flints were found in abundance under a thick +bed of quaternary limestone deposited by the waters of a stream that has +disappeared. Hence "the origin of man in Mauretania must be set back to +a remote age which deranges all chronology and confounds the very fables +of the mythologies[1009]." + +The skeleton found in 1914 by Hans Reck at Oldoway (then German East +Africa) was claimed to be of Pleistocene Age, but according to A. Keith +"the evidence ... cannot be accepted as having finally proved this +degree of antiquity[1010]." + +The doctrine of the specialisation of the dolichocephalic European types +in Africa, before their migrations northwards, lies at the base of +Sergi's views regarding the African origin of those types. Arguing +against the Asiatic origin of the Hamites, as held by Prichard, Virchow, +Sayce and others, he points out that this race, scarcely if at all +represented in Asia, has an immense range in Africa, where its several +sub-varieties must have been evolved before their dispersion over a +great part of that continent and of Europe. Then, regarding Hamites and +Semites as essentially one, he concludes that Africa is the cradle +whence this primitive stock "spread northwards to Europe, where it still +persists, especially in the Mediterranean and its three principal +peninsulas, and eastwards to West Asia[1011]." + +The theory of an African cradle for the dolichocephalic Mediterranean +type does not lack supporters, but when, relying on the undeniable +presence of brachycephals, some writers would derive the Alpine type +from the same area, the larger aspect of continental migrations appears +to be overlooked (see pp. 451-2 below). To constitute a distinct race, +says Zaborowski, a wide geographical area is needed, such as is +presented by both shores of the Mediterranean "with the whole of North +Africa including the Sahara, which was till lately still thickly +peopled[1012]." Then to the question by whom has this North African and +Mediterranean region been inhabited since quaternary times, he answers +"by the ancestors of our Libyans, Egyptians, Pelasgians, Iberians"; and +after rejecting the Asiatic theory, he elsewhere arrives at "the grand +generalisation that the whole of North Africa, connected by land with +Europe in the Quaternary epoch, formed part of the geographical area of +the ancient white race, of which the Egyptians, so far from being the +parent stem, would appear to be merely a branch[1013]." + +Coming to details, Bertholon[1014], from the human remains found by +Carton at Bulla-Regia, determined for Tunisia and surrounding lands two +main long-headed types, one like the Neandertal (occurring both in +Khumeria, and in the stations abounding in palaeoliths), the other like +the later Cro-Magnon dolmen-builders, whom De Quatrefages had already +identified with the tall, long-headed, fair, and even blue-eyed Berbers +still met in various parts of Mauretania, and formerly represented in +the Canary Islands[1015]. Bertholon agrees with Collignon that the +Mauretanian megalith-builders are of the same race as those of Europe, +and besides the two long-headed races describes (1) a short +round-headed type in Gerba Island and East Tunisia[1016] representing +the Libyans proper, and (2) a blond type of the Sahel, Khumeria, and +other parts, whom he identifies with the Mazices of Herodotus, with the +"Afri," whose name has been extended to the whole continent, and the +blond Getulians of the Aures Mountains. + +It has been objected that, as established by de Lapouge and Ripley, +there are three distinct ethnical zones in Europe:--(1) Nordic: the +tall, fair, long-headed northern type, commonly identified by the +Germans with the race represented by the osseous remains from the +"Reihengraeber," _i.e._ the "Germanic," which the French call Kymric or +Aryan, for which de Lapouge reserves Linne's _Homo europaeus_, and to +which Ripley applies the term "Teutonic," because the whole combination +of characters "accords exactly with the descriptions handed down to us +by the ancients. Such were the Goths, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, +Lombards, together with the Danes, Norsemen, Saxons.... History is thus +corroborated by natural science." (2) Mediterranean: the southern zone +of short, dark, long-heads, _i.e._ the primitive element in Iberia, +Italy, South France, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and Greece, called +Iberians by the English, and identified by many with the Ligurians, +Pelasgians, and allied peoples, grouped together by Ripley as +Mediterraneans[1017]. (3) Alpine: the central zone of short, +medium-sized round-heads with light or chestnut hair, and gray or hazel +eye, de Lapouge's and Ripley's _Homo alpinus_, the Kelts or Kelto-Slavs +of the French, the Ligurians or Arvernians of Beddoe and other English +writers. Here belong the tall Armenoids, the Armenians being descendants +of the Hittites. + +The question is, Can all these have come from North Africa? We have +seen that this region has yielded the remains of one round-headed and +two long-headed prehistoric types. Henri Malbot pointed out that, as far +back as we can go, we meet the two quite distinct long-headed Berber +types, and he holds that this racial duality is proved by the megalithic +tombs (dolmens) of Roknia between Jemmapes and Guelma, possibly some +4000 or 5000 years old. The remains here found by L. L. C. Faidherbe +belong to two different races, both dolichocephalic, but one tall, with +prominent zygomatic arches and very strong nasal spine (it reads almost +like the description of a brawny Caledonian), the other short, with +well-balanced skull and small nasal spine[1018]. The earliest (Egyptian) +records refer to brown and blond populations living in North Africa some +5000 years ago, and it has been claimed that the raw materials, so to +say, were here to hand both of the fair northern and dark southern +European long-heads. + +These different races were represented even amongst the extinct Guanches +of the Canary Islands, as shown by a study of the 52 heads procured in +1894 by H. Meyer from caves in the archipelago[1019]. Three distinct +types are determined: (1) Guanche, akin to the Cro-Magnon, tall (5 ft. 8 +in. to 6 ft. 2 in.), robust, dolicho (78), low, broad face; large eyes, +rather short nose; fair, reddish or light chestnut hair; skin and eyes +light; ranged throughout the islands, but centred chiefly in Tenerife; +(2) "_Semitic_," short (5 ft. 4 or 5 in.), slim, narrow mesocephalic +head (81), narrow, long face, black hair, light brown skin, dark eyes; +range, Grand Canary, Palma, and Hierro; (3) _Armenoid_, akin to von +Luschan's pre-Semitic of Asia Minor; shorter than 1 and 2; very short, +broad, and high skull (hyperbrachy, 84); hair, skin and eyes very +probably of the West Asiatic brunette type; range, mainly in Gomera, but +met everywhere. Many of the skulls had been trepanned, and these are +brought into direct association with the full-blood Berbers of the +Aures Mts. in Algeria, who still practise trepanning for wounds, +headaches, and other reasons. This type is scarcely to be distinguished +from Lapouge's short brown _Homo alpinus_, which dates from the Stone +Ages, and is found in densest masses in the Central Alpine regions, but +the true Armenoids are differentiated by their taller stature[1020]. + +How numerous were the inhabitants of France at that time may be inferred +from the long list of no less than 4000 neolithic stations given for +that region by Ph. Salmon. Of the 688 skulls from those stations +measured by him, 57.7 per cent. are classed as dolicho, 21.2 as +brachycephalic, and 21.1 as intermediate. This distinguished +palethnologist regards the intermediates as the result of crossings +between the two others, and of these he thinks the first arrivals were +the round-heads, who ranged over a vast area between Brittany, the +Channel, the Pyrenees, and the Mediterranean, 60 per cent. of the graves +hitherto studied containing skulls of this type[1021]. Belgium also, +where a mixture of long- and round-heads is found amongst the men of +Furfooz, must be included in this neolithic brachy domain, which can be +traced as far westward as the British Isles[1022]. Attempts have been +made, as indicated above, to derive these brachycephals, as well as the +dolichocephals, from North Africa, in accordance with the view that the +latter region was the true centre of evolution and of dispersion for all +the main branches of the Caucasic family, but this theory has few +supporters at the present time. Sergi recognised the Asiatic origin of +the neolithic round-heads and regarded them as "peaceful +infiltrations[1023]," forerunners of the great invasions of the later +Metal Ages. Verneau points out[1024] that when all the neolithic +stations in which brachycephalic skulls have been discovered are plotted +out on a map of Europe it is easy to recognise a current running almost +directly from east to west. Moreover towards the west this current +divides, being clearly separated by zones of dolichocephaly. + +Evidence of the presence in early times of tall blond peoples in Africa, +side by side with a short dark population, and of brachycephals together +with dolichocephals, proves that even in the Stone Age ethnic mixtures +had already taken place, and racial purity--if indeed it ever +existed--must be sought for in still remoter periods. + +With Sergi's view which traces the neolithic inhabitants of the northern +shores of the Mediterranean (Iberians, Ligurians, Messapians, Siculi and +other Itali, Pelasgians), to North Africa, most anthropologists +agree[1025]. Also that all or most of these were primarily of a dark +(brown), short, dolicho type, which still persists both in South Europe +and North Africa, and in fact is the race which Ripley properly calls +"Mediterranean," although in the west they almost certainly ranged into +Brittany and the British Isles. But there are some who hold that the +migration was in the opposite direction, and derive the North African +branch from Europe, rather than the European branches from Africa. +"Anthropologists who have specially studied the question of the Berbers +or Kabyles have concluded that they are descendants of prehistoric +European invaders who occupied the tracts that suited them best[1026]." +In France the neolithic "Mediterranean type" has been regarded as +lineally descended from palaeolithic predecessors _in situ_[1027]. Some +would even go further still, and claim Europe as the place of origin not +only of the Mediterranean but also of the Alpine and Northern branches. +"The so-called three races of Europe are in the main the result of +variation from a common European stock, a variation due to isolation and +natural selection[1028]." + +Without making any claim to finality the following perhaps best +represents orthodox opinion at the present time. It may be assumed that +man evolved somewhere in Southern Asia in pliocene times, and that the +early groups possessed a tendency to variability which was directed to +some extent by geographical conditions and became fixed by isolation. +The tall fair blue-eyed dolichocephals (Northern Race) and the short +dark dolichocephals (Mediterranean Race) may be regarded as two +varieties of a common stock, the former having their area of +characterisation in the steppes north of the plateaus of Eur-Asia, and +migrating eastwards and westwards as the country dried after the last +glacial phase. The southern branch, entering East Africa from Southern +Asia, spread all over North Africa; those in the east were the archaic +Egyptians; to the west were the Libyans whose descendants are the +Berbers; those who crossed the Mediterranean formed the European +branches of the Mediterranean race. With regard to the third type, while +the central plateaus of Asia were the centre of dispersal for the true +Mongols the western plateaus were the area of characterisation of a +non-Mongolian brachycephalic race, which includes short and tall +varieties. This is the Alpine race, which extends from the Hindu Kush to +Brittany, and formerly spread further westwards into the British +Isles[1029]. + +The problem of European origins has often in the past been obscured +rather than enlightened by an appeal to linguistics, but linguistic +factors cannot altogether be ignored. No doubt the earliest populations +of the Mediterranean shores during the Stone Age spoke non-Aryan +languages, but it is only here and there that traces--mostly +indecipherable--can be discovered. On the African side we have the +Berber language still in its full vigour; and apparently little changed +for thousands of years. But in Europe the primitive tongues have +everywhere been swept away by the Aryan (Hellenic, Italic, Keltic) +except in the region of the Pyrenees. In Italy Etruscan is the only +language which can with safety be called non-Aryan[1030], though the +place of Ligurian is still under dispute[1031]. Of Pelasgian, nothing +survives except the statement of Herodotus, a dangerous guide in this +matter, that it was a barbaric tongue like the peoples themselves[1032], +but Ridgeway considers it Indo-European[1033]. Further east, in Asia +Minor, neither Karian inscriptions and glosses nor occasional +Lydian[1034] and Mysian glosses afford any safe basis for establishing +relationships[1035]; the fuller evidence of Lycian leaves its position +indeterminate[1036] and the Cretan script is still undeciphered[1037]. + +But in Iberia besides the Iberian inscriptions, which, so far, remain +indecipherable[1038], there survives the Basque of the western Pyrenees, +which beyond question represents a form of speech which was current in +the peninsula in pre-Aryan times, and on the assumption of a common +origin of the populations on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar might +be expected to show traces of kinship with Berber. In a posthumous work +on this subject[1039], the eminent philologist G. von der Gabelenz goes +much further than mere traces, and claims to establish not only phonetic +and verbal resemblances, but structural correspondences, so that his +editor Graf von der Schulenberg was satisfied as to the relationship of +the two languages[1040]. This conclusion has not, however, met with +general acceptance[1041] and the affinities of Basque with Finno-Ugrian +cannot be overlooked[1042]. A study of the physical features of the +modern Basques adds complexity to the problem. Most observers are agreed +that a distinct Basque type exists, and this physical and linguistic +singularity has led to various more or less fanciful theories +"connecting the Basques with every outlandish language and bankrupt +people under the sun[1043]," while G. Herve[1044] would regard them as +forming by themselves a separate ethnic group, "a fourth European race." +On the other hand Feist[1045] has grounds for claiming that the Basques +are not, in anthropological respects, essentially different from their +Spanish or French neighbours (p. 357) and Jullian[1046] denies them more +than a superficial unity. These apparently conflicting opinions are +reconciled by the conclusions of R. Collignon[1047], himself one of the +best authorities on the subject. "The physical traits characteristic of +the Basques attach them unquestionably ('indiscutablement') to the great +Hamitic branch of the white races, that is to say, to the ancient +Egyptians and to the various groups commonly comprised under the +collective name of Berbers. Their brachycephaly, slight as it is, cannot +outweigh the aggregate of the other characters which they present.... It +is therefore in this direction and not amongst Finns or Esthonians that +is to be sought the parent stem of this paradoxical race. It is North +African or European, assuredly not Asiatic." Collignon's explanation of +the Basque type is that it is a sub-species of the Mediterranean stock +evolved by long-continued and complete isolation, and in-and-in +breeding, primarily engendered by peculiarity of language. The effects +of heredity, aided perhaps by artificial selection, have generated local +peculiarities and have developed them to an extreme[1048]. + +"The Iberian question," says Rice Holmes, "is the most complicated and +difficult of all the problems of Gallic ethnology[1049]." From the +testimony of Greek and Roman authors, he draws the following +conclusions. "The name Iberian was probably applied, in the first +instance, only to the people who dwelt between the Ebro and the +Pyrenees. The Iberians once occupied the seaboard of Gaul between the +Rhone and the Pyrenees; but Ligurians encroached upon this part of their +territory. They also probably occupied the whole eastern region of the +Spanish peninsula. But," he adds, "we must bear in mind that the data +are both insufficient and uncertain" (p. 288). Later (p. 301), reviewing +the evidence collected by philologists and by craniologists, he +continues, "it seems to me probable that the Iberians comprised both +people who spoke, or whose ancestors had spoken, Basque, and people who +spoke the language or languages[1050] of the 'Iberian' inscriptions; +that to observers who had not learned to measure skulls and knew nothing +of scientific methods, they appeared to be homogeneous; that the +prevailing type was that which is now called Iberian and is seen at its +purest in Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily; but that a certain proportion of +the whole population may have been characterised by physical features +more or less closely resembling those which the modern Basques--French +and Spanish--possess in common, and which, as MM. Broca and Collignon +tell us, distinguish them from all other European peoples. Finally it +seems probable that the true Iberians were the people who spoke the +languages of the inscriptions, and that Basque was spoken by a people +who occupied Spain and Southern Gaul before the Iberians arrived. But +unless and until the key to those appalling inscriptions is found, the +problem will never be solved." + +The Ligurian question is still more complex than the Iberian. For while +no facts can be brought forward in direct contradiction of the +assumption that the Iberians were a short dark dolichocephalic +population occupying the Iberian peninsula in the Stone Age, and +speaking a non-Indo-European language, no such generalisations with +regard to race, physical type, culture, geographical distribution or +language are accepted for the Ligurians. Some, with Sergi[1051], +consider the Ligurians merely as another branch of the Mediterranean +race. Others, with Zaborowski[1052], tracing their presence among the +modern inhabitants of Liguria, regard them as representing the small, +dark, brachycephalic race at its purest. While many who recognise the +Ligurians as belonging to the Mediterranean physical type deny their +affinity with the Iberians. Meyer[1053] considers such a relationship +"not improbable," but Dechelette[1054] shows that it is absolutely +untenable on archaeological grounds. The geographical range is equally +uncertain. C. Jullian[1055] distributes Ligurians not only over the +whole of Gaul, but also throughout Western Europe, and attributes to +them all the glories of neolithic civilisation; A. Bertrand[1056] thinks +that they played even in Gaul merely a secondary role; Dechelette[1057], +on archaeological evidence, proves that the Ligurian period was _par +excellence_ the Age of Bronze, and Ridgeway[1058] identifies it with the +Terramare civilisation. Finally, if we follow Sergi, the Ligurians must +have spoken a non-Indo-European language; but the most eminent +authorities are in the main agreed that such traces of Ligurian as +remain show affinities with Indo-European[1059]. With regard to their +physical type Sergi puts forward the view that the true Ligurians were +like the Iberians, a section of the long-headed Mediterranean +(Afro-European) stock. From prehistoric stations in the valley of the Po +he collected 59 skulls, all of this type, and all Ligurian; history and +tradition being of accord that before the arrival of the Kelts this +region belonged to the Ligurian domain. "If it be true that prehistoric +Italy was occupied by the Mediterranean race and by two +branches--Ligurian and Pelasgian--of that race, the ancient inhabitants +of the Po valley, now exhumed in those 59 skulls, were Ligurian[1060]." + +These Ligurians have been traced from their homes on the Mediterranean +into Central Europe. From a study of the neolithic finds made in +Germany, in the district between Neustadt and Worms, C. Mehlis[1061] +infers that here the first settlers were Ligurians, who had penetrated +up the Rhone and Saone into Rhineland. In the Kircherian Museum in Rome +he was surprised to find a marked analogy between objects from the +Riviera and from the Rhine; skulls (both dolicho), vases, stone +implements, mill-stones, etc., all alike. Such Ligurian objects, found +everywhere in North Italy, occur in the Rhine lands chiefly along the +left bank of the main stream between Basel and Mainz, and farther north +in the Rheingau at Wiesbaden, and in the Lahn valley. + +The Ligurians may of course have reached the Riviera round the coast +from Illiberis and Iberia; but the same race is found as the aboriginal +element also at the "heel of the boot," and in fact throughout the whole +of Italy and all the adjacent islands. This point is now firmly +established, and not only Sergi, but several other leading Italian +authorities hold that the early inhabitants of the peninsula and islands +were Ligurians and Pelasgians, whom they look upon as of the same stock, +all of whom came from North Africa, and that, despite subsequent +invasions and crossings, this Mediterranean stock still persists, +especially in the southern provinces and in the islands--Sicily, +Sardinia, and Corsica. Hence it seems more reasonable to bring this +aboriginal element straight from Africa by the stepping stones of +Pantellaria, Malta, and Gozzo (formerly more extensive than at present, +and still strewn with megalithic remains comparable to those of both +continents), than by the roundabout route of Iberia and Southern +Gaul[1062]. This is a simple solution of the problem, but it is a +question if it is justifiable to extend the name Ligurian to all that +branch of the Mediterranean race which undoubtedly forms the substratum +of population in Italy and parts of Gaul, ignoring the presence or +absence of "Ligurian" culture or traces of Ligurian language. +Dechelette[1063], relying chiefly upon archaeological and cultural +evidence, sums up as follows: we must consider the Ligurians as +Indo-European tribes, whose area of domination had its centre, during +the Bronze Age, in North Italy, and the left bank of the Rhone. They +were enterprising and energetic in agriculture and in commerce. Together +with neighbouring peoples of Illyrian stock they engaged in an indirect +but nevertheless regular trade with the northern regions where amber was +collected. Among the Ligurians, as among the Illyrians and Hyperboreans, +a form of heliolatry was prevalent, popularising the old solar myths in +which the swan appears to have played an important role. Rice +Holmes[1064] defines more closely their geographical range. "Ligurians +undoubtedly lived in South-eastern Gaul, where they were found at least +as far north as Bellegarde in the department of the Ain; and, mingled +more or less with Iberians, in the departments of the Gard, Herault, +Aude and Pyrenees-Orientales. Most probably they had once occupied the +whole eastern region as far north as the Marne, but had been submerged +by Celts: and perhaps they had also pushed westward as far as +Aquitania." He continues, "Were it possible to regard the theory of MM. +d'Arbois de Jubainville and Jullian as more than an interesting +hypothesis, we should have to conclude that the Ligurians were simply +the long-headed and short-headed peoples who, reinforced perhaps from +time to time by hordes of immigrants, had inhabited the whole of Gaul +since the Neolithic Age, and of whom the former, or many of them, were +descended from palaeolithic hunters; in other words that they were the +same people who, after they had been conquered by, or had coalesced +with, the Celtic invaders, called themselves _Celtae_: but to say which +of them were first known as Ligurians or introduced the Ligurian +language would be utterly hopeless. Finally the little evidence we +possess tends to show that the people called Ligurians, when they became +known to the Greek writers who described them, were a medley of +different races." + +For Sicily, with which may practically be included the south of Italy, +we have the conclusions of G. Patroni based on years of intelligent and +patient labours[1065]. To Africa this archaeologist traces the +palaeolithic men of the west coast of Sicily and of the caves near +Syracuse explored by Von Adrian[1066]. "We are forced to conclude that +man arrived in Sicily from Africa at a time when the isthmus connecting +the island with that Continent still stood above sea-level. He made his +appearance about the same time as the elephant, whose remains are +associated with human bones especially in the west. He followed the sea +coasts, the shells of which offered him sufficient food[1067]." He was +followed by the neolithic man, whose presence has been revealed by the +researches of Paolo Orsi at the station of Stentinello on the coast +north of Syracuse. + +To Orsi is also due the discovery of what he calls the "Aeneolithic +Epoch[1068]," represented by the bronzes of the Girgenti district. Orsi +assigns this culture to the _Siculi_, and divides it into three periods, +while regarding the neolithic men of Stentinello as _pre-Siculi_. But +Patroni holds that the aeneolithic peoples have a right to the historic +name of _Sicani_, and that the true Siculi were those that arrived from +Italy in Orsi's second period. It seems no longer possible to determine +the true relations of these two peoples, who stand out as distinct +throughout early historic times. They are by many[1069] regarded as of +one race, although both ([Greek: Sikanos, Sikelos]) are already +mentioned in the Odyssey. But the evidence tends to show that the Sicani +represent the oldest element which came direct from Africa in the Stone +Age, while the Siculi were a branch of the Ligurians driven in the Metal +Age from Italy to the island, which was already occupied by the Sicani, +as related by Dionysius Halicarnassus[1070]. In fact this migration of +the Siculi may be regarded as almost an historical event, which +according to Thucydides took place "about 300 years before the Hellenes +came to Sicily[1071]." The Siculi bore this national name on the +mainland, so that the modern expression "Kingdom of the Two Sicilies" +(the late Kingdom of Naples) has its justification in the earliest +traditions of the people. Later, both races were merged in one, and the +present Sicilian nation was gradually constituted by further accessions +of Phoenician (Carthaginian), Greek, Roman, Vandal, Arab, Norman, French +and Spanish elements. + +Very remarkable is the contrast presented by the conditions prevailing +in this ethnical microcosm and those of Sardinia, inhabited since the +Stone Ages by one of the most homogeneous groups in the world. From the +statistics embodied in R. Livi's _Antropologia Militare_[1072] the +Sards would almost seem to be cast all in one mould, the great bulk of +the natives having the shortest stature, the brownest eyes and hair, the +longest heads, the swarthiest complexion of all the Italian populations. +"They consequently form quite a distinct variety amongst the Italian +races, which is natural enough when we remember the seclusion in which +this island has remained for so many ages[1073]." They seem to have been +preserved as if in some natural museum to show us what the Ligurian +branch of the Mediterranean stock may have been in neolithic times. Yet +they were probably preceded by the microcephalous dwarfish race +described by Sergi as one of the early Mediterranean stocks. Their +presence in Sardinia has now been determined by A. Niceforo and E. A. +Onnis, who find that of about 130 skulls from old graves thirty have a +capacity of only 1150 c.c. or under, while several living persons range +in height from 4 ft. 2 in. to 4 ft. 11 in. Niceforo agrees with Sergi in +bringing this dwarfish race also from North Africa[1074]. + +With remarkable cranial uniformity, similar phenomena are presented by +the Corsicans who show "the same exaggerated length of face and +narrowness of the forehead. The cephalic index drops from 87 and above +in the Alps to about 75 all along the line. Coincidently the colour of +hair and eyes becomes very dark, almost black. The figure is less amply +proportioned, the people become light and rather agile. It is certain +that the stature at the same time falls to an exceedingly low level: +fully 9 inches below the average for Teutonic Europe," although "the +people of Northern Africa, pure Mediterranean Europeans, are of medium +size[1075]." + +In the Italian peninsula Sergi holds not only that the aborigines were +exclusively of Ligurian, _i.e._ Mediterranean stock, but that this stock +still persists in the whole of the region south of the Tiber, although +here and there mixed with "Aryan" elements. North of that river these +elements increase gradually up to the Italian Alps, and at present are +dominant in the valley of the Po[1076]. In this way he would explain +the rising percentage of round-heads in that direction, the Ligurians +being for him, as stated, long-headed, the "Aryans" round-headed. + +Similarly Beddoe, commenting on Livi's statistics, showing predominance +of tall stature, round heads, and fair complexion in North Italy, infers +"that a type, the one we usually call the Mediterranean, does really +predominate in the south, and exists in a state of comparative purity in +Sardinia and Calabria; while in the north the broad-headed Alpine type +is powerful, but is almost everywhere more or less modified by, or +interspersed with other types--Germanic, Slavic, or of doubtful +origin--to which the variations of stature and complexion may probably +be, at least in part, attributed[1077]." + +Similar relations prevail in the Balkan peninsula, where the +Mediterranean stock is represented by the "Pelasgic[1078]" substratum. +Invented, as has been said, for the purpose of confounding future +ethnologists, these Pelasgians certainly present an extremely difficult +racial problem, the solution of which has hitherto resisted the combined +attacks of ancient and modern students. When Dionysius tells us bluntly +that they were Greeks[1079], we fancy the question is settled off-hand, +until we find Herodotus describing them a few hundred years earlier as +aliens, rude in speech and usages, distinctly not Greeks, and in his +time here and there (Thrace, Hellespont) still speaking apparently +non-Hellenic dialects[1080]. Then Homer several centuries still earlier, +with his epithet of [Greek: dioi], occurring both in the _Iliad_ and +the _Odyssey_[1081], exalts them almost above the level of the Greeks +themselves. It would seem, therefore, almost impossible to discover a +key to the puzzle, one which will also fit in both with Sergi's +Mediterranean theory, and with the results of recent archaeological +researches in the Aegean lands. The following hypothesis is supported by +a certain amount of evidence. If the pre-Mykenaean culture revealed by +Schliemann and others in the Troad, Mykenae, Argos, Tiryns, by Evans and +others in Crete, by Cesnola in Cyprus, be ascribed to a pre-Hellenic +rather than to a proto-Hellenic people, then the classical references +will explain themselves, while this pre-Hellenic race will be readily +identified with the Pelasgians, as this term is understood by Sergi. + +It is, I suppose, universally allowed that Greece really was peopled +before the arrival of the Hellenes, which term is here to be taken as +comprising all the invading tribes from the north, of which the Achaeans +were perhaps the earliest. On their arrival the Hellenes therefore found +the land not only inhabited, but inhabited by a cultured people more +civilised than themselves, who could thus be identified with Sergi's +Pelasgian branch of the Mediterranean or Afro-European stock, whom the +proto-Hellenes naturally regarded as their superiors, and whom their +first singers also naturally called [Greek: dioi Pelasgoi][1082]. But in +the course of a few centuries[1083] these Pelasgians became Hellenised, +all but a few scattered groups, which lagging behind in the general +social progress are now also looked upon as barbarians, speaking +barbaric tongues, and are so described by contemporary historians. Then +these few remnants of a glorious but forgotten past are also merged in +the Hellenic stream, and can no longer be distinguished from other +Greeks by contemporary writers. Hence for Dionysius the Pelasgians are +simply Greeks, which in a sense may be true enough. All the +heterogeneous elements have been fused in a single Hellenic nationality, +built upon a rough Pelasgic substratum, and adorned with all the graces +of Hellenic culture. + +Now to make good this hypothesis, it is necessary to show, first, that +the Pelasgians were not an obscure tribe, a small people confined to +some remote corner of Hellas, but a widespread nation diffused over all +the land; secondly, that this nation, as far as can now be determined, +presented mental and other characters answering to those of Sergi's +Mediterraneans, and also such as might be looked for in a race capable +of developing the splendid Aegean culture of pre-Hellenic times. + +On the first point it has been claimed that the Pelasgians were so +widely distributed[1084] that the difficulty rather is to discover a +district where their presence was unknown. They fill the background of +Hellenic origins, and even spread beyond the Hellenic horizon, to such +an extent that there seems little room for any other people between the +Adriatic and the Hellespont. Thus Ridgeway[1085] has brought together a +good many passages which clearly establish their universal range, as +well as their occupation especially of those places where have been +found objects of Mykenaean and pre-Mykenaean culture, such as engraved +gems, pottery, implements, buildings, inscriptions in pictographic and +syllabic scripts. In Crete they had the "great city of Knossos" in +Homer's time[1086]; not only was Mykenae theirs, but the whole of +Peloponnesus took the name of Pelasgia; the kings of Tiryns were +Pelasgians, and Aeschylus calls Argos a Pelasgian city; an old wall at +Athens was attributed to them, and the people of Attica had from all +time been Pelasgians[1087]. Orchomenus in Boeotia was founded by a +colony from Pelasgiotis in Thessaly; Lesbos also was called Pelasgia, +and Homer knew of Pelasgians in the Troad. Their settlements are further +traced to Egypt, to Rhodes, Cyprus, Epirus--where Dodona was their +ancient shrine--and lastly to various parts of Italy. + +Moreover, the Pelasgians were traditionally the civilising element, who +taught people to make bread, to yoke the ox to the plough, and to +measure land. It would appear from these and other allusions that there +were memories of still earlier aborigines, amongst whom the Pelasgians +appear as a cultured people, introducing perhaps the arts and industries +of the pre-Mykenaean Age. But the assumption, based on no known data, is +unnecessary, and it seems more reasonable to look on this culture as +locally developed, to some extent under eastern (Egyptian, Babylonian, +Hittite?) influences[1088]. Here it is important to note that the +Pelasgians were credited with a knowledge of letters[1089], and all this +has been advanced as sufficient confirmation of our second postulate. +Nevertheless it must be acknowledged that the difficulties are not all +overcome by this hypothesis, and the further question of language +divides even its stanchest supporters into opposing groups, for while +Sergi's Mediterraneans necessarily speak a non-Indo-European +language[1090], Ridgeway's Pelasgians speak Aeolic Greek[1091]. + +The range and importance of the Pelasgians are most strictly limited by +J. L. Myres[1092], who thinks that the Alpine type may even be primitive +in the Morea, Mediterranean man being an intruder from the south merely +fringing the coast and never penetrating inland. The researches of von +Luschan in Lycia support this view[1093], and Ripley's map of the +present inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula shows the "Greek contingent +closely confined to the sea-coast[1094]." Ripley, however, though +carefully avoiding any dragging of "Pelasgians" into the question, +assumes a primitive substratum of Mediterranean type all over Greece. +"The testimony of these ancient Greek crania is perfectly harmonious. +All authorities agree that the ancient Hellenes were decidedly +long-headed, betraying in this respect their affinity to the +Mediterranean Race.... Whether from Attica, from Schliemann's successive +cities excavated upon the site of Troy, or from the coast of Asia +Minor[1095]; at all times from 400 B.C. to the third century of our era, +it would seem proved that the Greeks were of this dolichocephalic +type.... Every characteristic of their modern descendants and every +analogy with the neighbouring populations, leads us to the conclusion +that the classical Hellenes were distinctly of the Mediterranean racial +type, little different from the Phoenicians, the Romans or the +Iberians[1096]." Nevertheless Doerpfeld[1097] claims that there were, +from the first, two races in Greece, a Southern, or Aegean, and a +Northern, who were the Aryan Achaeans of history, and recent +archaeological discoveries certainly support this view. + +Another attempt to solve the Pelasgian problem is that of E. +Meyer[1098]. After enumerating the various areas said to have been +occupied by the Pelasgians "_ein grosses Urvolk_" who ranged from Asia +Minor to Italy, he pricks the bubble by saying that in reality there +were no Pelasgians save in Thessaly, in the fruitful plain of Peneus, +hence called "Pelasgic Argos[1099]," and later Pelasgiotis. They, like +the Dorians, invaded Crete from Thessaly and at the beginning of the +first millennium were defeated and enslaved by the incoming Thessalians. +These are the only true Pelasgians. The other so-called Pelasgians are +the descendants of an eponymous Pelasgos who in genealogical poetry +becomes the ancestor of mankind. Since the Arcadians were regarded as +the earliest of the indigenous peoples, Pelasgos was made the ancestor +of the Arcadians. The name "Pelasgic Argos" was transferred from +Thessaly to the Peloponnesian city. Attic Pelasgians were derived from a +mistake of Hecataeus[1100]. So the legend grew. The only real Pelasgian +problem, concludes Meyer, is whether the Thessalian Pelasgians were a +Greek or pre-Greek people, and he is inclined to favour the latter view. +The identity of "the most mysterious people of antiquity" is further +obscured by philology, for, as P. Giles points out, their name appears +merely to mean "the people of the sea," so that "they do not seem to be +in all cases the same stock[1101]." + +Whether we call them Pelasgians or no, there would seem to be little +doubt that the splendours of Aegean civilisation which have been and +still are being gradually revealed by the researches of British, +Italian, American and German archaeologists are to be attributed to an +indigenous people of Mediterranean type, occupying an area of which +Crete was the centre, from the Stone Age, right through the Bronze Age, +down to the Northern invasions of the second millennium and the +introduction of iron. In range this culture included Greece with its +islands, Cyprus, and Western Anatolia, and its influence extended +westwards to Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and eastwards to Syria +and Egypt. Its chief characteristics are (1) an indigenous script both +pictographic and linear, with possible affinities in Hittite, Cypriote +and South-west Anatolian scripts, but hitherto indecipherable; (2) a +characteristic art attempting "to express an ideal in forms more and +more closely approaching to realities[1102]," exhibited in frescoes, +pottery, reliefs, sculptures, jewelry etc.; (3) a distinctive +architectural style, and (4) type of tomb, which have no parallels +elsewhere. Excavations at Cnossos go far towards establishing a +chronology for the Aegean area. At the base is an immensely thick +neolithic deposit, above which come pottery and other objects of Minoan +Period I. 1, which are correlated by Petrie with objects found at +Abydos, referred by him to the 1st Dynasty (4000 B.C.). Minoan Period +II. 2 corresponds with the Egyptian XII Dynasty (2500 B.C.), +characteristic Cretan pottery of this period being found in the Fayum. +Minoan Period III. 1 and 2 synchronises with Dynasty XVIII (1600 to +1400 B.C.). Iron begins to be used for weapons after Period III. 3, and +is commonly attributed to incursions from the north, the Dorian invasion +of the Greek authors, about 1000 B.C. which led to the destruction of +the palace of Cnossos and the substitution of "Geometric" for +"Mykenaean" art. + +Turning to the African branch of the Mediterranean type, we find it +forming not merely the substratum, but the great bulk of the inhabitants +throughout all recorded time from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and from +the Mediterranean to Sudan, although since Muhammadan times largely +intermingled with the kindred Semitic stock (mainly Arabs) in the north +and west, and in the east (Abyssinia) with the same stock since +prehistoric times. All are comprised by Sergi[1103] in two main +divisions:-- + +1. EASTERN HAMITES, answering to the _Ethiopic Branch_ of some writers, +of somewhat variable type, comprising the _Old_ and _Modern Egyptians_ +now mixed with Semitic (Arab) elements; the _Nubians_, the _Bejas_, the +_Abyssinians_, collective name of all the peoples between Khor Barka and +Shoa (with, in some places, a considerable infusion of Himyaritic or +early Semitic blood from South Arabia); the _Gallas_ (Gallas proper, +Somals, and Afars or Danakils); the _Masai_ and _Ba-Hima_. + +2. NORTHERN HAMITES, the _Libyan Race_ or _Berber (Western) Branch_ of +some writers, comprising the _Mediterranean Berbers_ of Algeria, Tunis, +and Tripoli; the _Atlantic Berbers_ (_Shluhs_ and others) of Morocco; +the _West Saharan Berbers_ commonly called _Tuaregs_; the _Tibus_ of the +East Sahara; the _Fulahs_, dispersed amongst the Sudanese Negroes; the +_Guanches_ of the Canary Islands. + +Of the Eastern Hamites he remarks generally that they do not form a +homogeneous division, but rather a number of different peoples either +crowded together in separate areas, or dispersed in the territories of +other peoples. They agree more in their inner than in their outer +characters, without constituting a single ethnical type. The cranial +forms are variable, though converging, and evidently to be regarded as +very old varieties of an original stock. The features are also variable, +converging and characteristic, with straight or arched (aquiloid) nose +quite different from the Negro; lips rather thick, but never everted as +in the Negro; hair usually frizzled, not wavy; beard thin; skin very +variable, brown, red-brown, black-brown, ruddy black, chocolate and +coffee-brown, reddish or yellowish, these variations being due to +crossings and the outward physical conditions. + +In this assumption Sergi is supported by the analogous case of the +western Berbers between the Senegal and Morocco, to whom Collignon and +Deniker[1104] restrict the term "Moor," as an ethnical name. The chief +groups, which range from the Atlantic coast east to the camping grounds +of the true Tuaregs[1105], are the Trarsas and Braknas of the Senegal +river, and farther north the Dwaish (Idoesh), Uled-Bella, Uled-Embark, +and Uled-en-Nasur. From a study of four of these Moors, who visited +Paris in 1895, it appears that they are not an Arabo-Berber cross, as +commonly supposed, but true Hamites, with a distinct Negro strain, shown +especially in their frizzly hair, bronze colour, short broad nose, and +thickish lips, their general appearance showing an astonishing likeness +to the Bejas, Afars, Somals, Abyssinians, and other Eastern Hamites. +This is not due to direct descent, and it is more reasonable to suppose +"that at the two extremities of the continent the same causes have +produced the same effects, and that from the infusion of a certain +proportion of black blood in the Egyptian [eastern] and Berber branches +of the Hamites, there have sprung closely analogous mixed groups[1106]." +From the true Negro they are also distinguished by their grave and +dignified bearing, and still more by their far greater intelligence. + +Both divisions of the Hamites, continues Sergi, agree substantially in +their bony structure, and thus form a single anthropological group with +variable skull--pentagonoid, ovoid, ellipsoid, sphenoid, etc., as +expressed in his terminology--but constant, that is, each variety +recurring in all the branches; face also variable (tetragonal, +ellipsoid, etc.), but similarly identical in all the branches; profile +non-prognathous; eyes dark, straight, not prominent; nose straight or +arched; hair smooth, curly, long, black or chestnut; beard full, also +scant; lips thin or slightly tumid, never protruding; skin of various +brown shades; stature medium or tall. + +Such is the great anthropological division, which was diffused +continuously over the greater part of Africa, and round the northern +shores of the Mediterranean. According to Stuhlmann[1107] it had its +origin in South Arabia, if not further east, and entered Africa in the +region of Erythrea. He regards the Red Sea as offering no obstacle to +migrations, but suggests a possible land connection between the opposite +shores. + +Nothing is more astonishing than the strange persistence not merely of +the Berber type, but of the Berber temperament and nationality since the +Stone Ages, despite the successive invasions of foreign peoples during +the historic period. First came the Sidonian Phoenicians, founders of +Carthage and Utica probably about 1500 B.C. The Greek occupation of +Cyrenaica (628 B.C.) was followed by the advent of the Romans on the +ruins of the Carthaginian empire. The Romans have certainly left +distinct traces of their presence, and some of the Aures highlanders +still proudly call themselves _Rumaniya_. These _Shawias_ ("Pastors") +form a numerous group, all claiming Roman descent, and even still +keeping certain Roman and Christian feasts, such as _Bu Ini_, _i.e._ +Christmas; _Innar_ or _January_ (New Year's Day); Spring (Easter), etc. +A few Latin words also survive such as _urtho_ = hortus; _kerrush_ = +quercus (evergreen oak); _milli_ = milliarium (milestone). + +After the temporary Vandal occupation came the great Arab invasions of +the seventh and later centuries, and even these had been preceded by the +kindred _Ruadites_, who had in pre-Moslem times already reached +Mauretania from Arabia. With the Jews, some of whom had also reached +Tripolitana before the New Era, a steady infiltration of Negroes from +Sudan, and the recent French, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese settlers, we +have all the elements that go to make up the cosmopolitan population of +Mauretania. + +But amid them all the Berbers and the Arabs stand out as the immensely +predominant factors, still distinct despite a probably common origin in +the far distant past and later interminglings. The Arab remains above +all a nomad herdsman, dwelling in tents, without house or hamlet, a good +stock-breeder, but a bad husbandman, and that only on compulsion. "The +ploughshare and shame enter hand in hand into the family," says the +national proverb. To find space for his flocks and herds he continues +the destructive work of Carthaginian and Roman, who ages ago cleared +vast wooded tracts for their fleets and commercial navies, and thus +rendered large areas barren and desolate. + +The Berber on the contrary loves the sheltering woodlands; he is +essentially a highlander who carefully tills the forest glades, settles +in permanent homes, and often develops flourishing industries. Arab +society is feudal and theocratic, ruled by a despotic Sheikh, while the +Berber with his _Jemaa_, or "Witenagemot," and his _Kanun_ or unwritten +code, feels himself a freeman; and it may well have been this democratic +spirit, inherited by his European descendants, that enabled the western +nations to take the lead in the onward movement of humanity. The Arab +again is a fanatic, ever to be feared, because he blindly obeys the will +of Allah proclaimed by his prophets, marabouts, and mahdis[1108]. But +the Berber, a born sceptic, looks askance at theological dogmas; an +unconscious philosopher, he is far less of a fatalist than his Semitic +neighbour, who associates with Allah countless demons and jins in the +government of the world. + +In their physical characters the two races also present some striking +contrasts, the Arab having the regular oval brain-cap and face of the +true Semite, whereas the Berber head is more angular, less finely +moulded, with more prominent cheekbones, shorter and less aquiline nose, +which combined with a slight degree of sub-nasal prognathism, imparts +to the features coarser and less harmonious outlines. He is at the same +time distinctly taller and more muscular, with less uniformity in the +colour of the eye and the hair, as might be expected from the numerous +elements entering into the constitution of present Berber populations. + +In the social conflict between the Arab and Berber races, the curious +spectacle is presented of two nearly equal elements (same origin, same +religion, same government, same or analogous tribal groupings, at about +the same cultural development) refusing to amalgamate to any great +extent, although living in the closest proximity for over a thousand +years. In this struggle the Arab seems so far to have had the advantage. +Instances of Berberised Arabs occur, but are extremely rare, whereas the +Berbers have not only everywhere accepted the Koran, but whole tribes +have become assimilated in speech, costume, and usages to the Semitic +intruders. It might therefore seem as if the Arab must ultimately +prevail. But we are assured by the French observers that in Algeria and +Tunisia appearances are fallacious, however the case may stand in +Morocco and the Sahara. "The Arab," writes Malbot, to whom I am indebted +for some of these details, "an alien in Mauretania, transported to a +soil which does not always suit him, so far from thriving tends to +disappear, whereas the Berber, especially under the shield of France, +becomes more and more aggressive, and yearly increases in numbers. At +present he forms at least three-fifths of the population in Algeria, and +in Morocco the proportion is greater. He is the race of the future as of +the past[1109]." + +This however would seem to apply only to the races, not to their +languages, for we are elsewhere told that Arabic is encroaching steadily +on the somewhat ruder Berber dialects[1110]. Considering the enormous +space over which they are diffused, and the thousands of years that some +of the groups have ceased to be in contact, these dialects show +remarkably slight divergence from the long extinct speech from which all +have sprung. Whatever it be called--Kabyle, Zenatia, Shawia, Tamashek, +Shluh--the Berber language is still essentially one, and the likeness +between the forms current in Morocco, Algeria, the Sahara, and the +remote Siwah Oasis on the confines of Egypt, is much closer, for +instance, than between Norse and English in the sub-Aryan Teutonic +group[1111]. + +But when we cross the conventional frontier between the contiguous +Tuareg and Tibu domains in the central Sahara the divergence is so great +that philologists are still doubtful whether the two languages are even +remotely or are at all connected. Ever since the abandonment of the +generalisation of Lepsius that Hamitic and Negro were the sole stock +languages, the complexity of African linguistic problems has been +growing more and more apparent, and Tibu is only one among many puzzles, +concerning which there is great discordance of opinion even among the +most recent and competent authorities[1112]. + +The Tibu themselves, apparently direct descendants of the ancient +Garamantes, have their primeval home in the Tibesti range, _i.e._ the +"Rocky Mountains," whence they take their name[1113]. There are two +distinct sections, the Northern _Tedas_, a name recalling the +_Tedamansii_, a branch of the Garamantes located by Ptolemy somewhere +between Tripolitana and Phazania (Fezzan), and the Southern _Dazas_, +through whom the Tibu merge gradually in the negroid populations of +central Sudan. This intermingling with the blacks dates from remote +times, whence Ptolemy's remark that the Garamantes seemed rather more +"Ethiopians" than Libyans[1114]. But there can be no doubt that the +full-blood Tibu, as represented by the northern section, are mainly +Mediterranean, and although the type of the men is somewhat coarser than +that of their Tuareg neighbours, that of the women is almost the finest +in Africa. "Their women are charming while still in the bloom of youth, +unrivalled amongst their sisters of North Africa for their physical +beauty; pliant and graceful figures[1115]." + +It is interesting to notice amongst these somewhat secluded Saharan +nomads the slow growth of culture, and the curious survival of usages +which have their explanation in primitive social conditions. "The Tibu +is always distrustful; hence, meeting a fellow-countryman in the desert +he is careful not to draw near without due precaution. At sight of each +other both generally stop suddenly; then crouching and throwing the +litham over the lower part of the face in Tuareg fashion, they grasp the +inseparable spear in their right and the shanger-mangor, or bill-hook, +in their left. After these preliminaries they begin to interchange +compliments, inquiring after each other's health and family connections, +receiving every answer with expressions of thanksgiving to Allah. These +formalities usually last some minutes[1116]." Obviously all this means +nothing more than a doffing of the hat or a shake-hands amongst more +advanced peoples; but it points to times when every stranger was a +_hostis_, who later became the _hospes_ (host, guest). + +It will be noticed that the Tibu domain, with the now absolutely +impassable Libyan desert[1117], almost completely separates the +Mediterranean branch from the Hamites proper. Continuity, however, is +accorded, both on the north along the shores of the Mediterranean to the +Nile Delta (Lower Egypt), and on the south through Darfur and Kordofan +to the White Nile, and thence down the main stream to Upper Egypt, and +through Abyssinia, Galla and Somali lands to the Indian Ocean. Between +the Nile and the east coast the domain of the Hamites stretches from the +equator northwards to Egypt and the Mediterranean. + +It appears therefore that Egypt, occupied for many thousands of years by +an admittedly Hamitic people, might have been reached either from the +west by the Mediterranean route, or down the Nile, or, lastly, it maybe +suggested that the Hamites were specialised in the Nile valley itself. +The point is not easy to decide, because, when appeal is made to the +evidence of the Stone Ages, we find nothing to choose between such +widely separated regions as Somaliland, Upper Egypt, and Mauretania, all +of which have yielded superabundant proofs of the presence of man for +incalculable ages, estimated by some palethnologists at several hundred +thousand years. In Egypt the palaeoliths indicate not only extreme +antiquity, but also that the course of civilisation was uninterrupted by +any such crises as have afforded means of chronological classification +in Western Europe. The differences in technique are local and +geographical, not historic. The Neolithic period tells the same tale, +and the use of copper at the beginning of the historic period only +slowly replaced the flint industry, which continued during the earlier +dynasties down to the period of the Middle Empire and attained a degree +of perfection nowhere surpassed. Prehistoric pottery strengthens the +evidence of a slow, gradual development, the newer forms nowhere +jostling out the old, but co-existing side by side[1118]. + +It might seem therefore that the question of Egyptian origins was +settled by the mere statement of the case, and that there could be no +hesitation in saying that the Egyptian Hamites were evolved on Egyptian +soil, consequently are the true autochthones in the Nile valley. Yet +there is no ethnological question more hotly discussed than this of +Egyptian origins and culture, for the two seem inseparable. There are +broadly speaking two schools: the African, whose fundamental views are +thus briefly set forth, and the Asiatic, which brings the Egyptians with +all their works from the neighbouring continent. But, seeing that the +Egyptians are now admitted to be Hamites, that there are no Hamites to +speak of (let it be frankly said, none at all) in Asia, and that they +have for untold ages occupied large tracts of Africa, there are several +members of the Asiatic school who allow that, not the people themselves, +but their culture only came from western Asia (Mesopotamia). If so, this +culture would presumably have its roots in the delta, which is first +reached by the Isthmus of Suez from Asia, and spread thence, say, from +Memphis up the Nile to Thebes and Upper Egypt, and here arises a +difficulty. For at that time there was no delta[1119], or at least it +was only in process of formation, a kind of debatable region between +land and water, inhabitable mainly by crocodiles, and utterly unsuited +to become the seat of a culture whose characteristic features are huge +stone monuments, amongst the largest ever erected by man, and +consequently needing solid foundations on _terra firma_. It further +appears that although Memphis is very old, Thebes is much older, in +other words, that Egyptian culture began in Upper Egypt, and spread not +up but down the Nile. On the other hand the Egyptians themselves looked +upon the delta as the cradle of their civilisation, although no traces +of material culture have survived, or could be expected to survive, in +such a soil[1120]. Moreover it is not necessary to introduce Asiatic +invaders by way of Lower Egypt. F. Stuhlmann postulates a land +connection between Africa and Arabia, but even without this assumption +he regards the Red Sea as affording no hindrance to early +infiltrations[1121]. Flinders Petrie, while rejecting any considerable +water transport for the uncultured prehistoric Egyptians (whom he +derives from Libya), detects a succession of subsequent invasions from +Asia, the dynastic race crossing the Red Sea to the neighbourhood of +Koptos, and Syrian invasions leading to the civilisation of the Twelfth +Dynasty, besides the later Hyksos invasions of Semito-Babylonian +stock[1122]. + +The theory of Asiatic origins is clearly summed up by H. H. +Johnston[1123]. He regards the earliest inhabitants of Egypt as a +dwarfish Negro-like race, not unlike the Congo Pygmies of to-day (p. +375), with possibly some trace of Bushman (p. 378), but this population +was displaced more than 15,000 years ago by Mediterranean man, who may +have penetrated as far as Abyssinia, and may have been linguistically +parent of the Fulah[1124]. The Fulah type was displaced by the invasions +of the Hamites and the Libyans or Berbers. "The Hamites were no doubt +of common origin, linguistically and racially, with the Semites, and +perhaps originated in that great breeding ground of conquering peoples, +South-west Asia. They preceded the Semites, and (we may suppose) after a +long stay and concentration in Mesopotamia invaded and colonised Arabia, +Southern Palestine, Egypt, Abyssinia, Somaliland and North Africa to its +Atlantic shores. The Dynastic Egyptians were also Hamites in a sense, +both linguistically and physically; but they seem to have attained to a +high civilisation in Western Arabia, to have crossed the Red Sea in +vessels, and to have made their first base on the Egyptian coast near +Berenice in the natural harbour formed by Ras Benas. From here a long, +broad wadi or valley--then no doubt fertile--led them to the Nile in the +Thebaid, the first seat of their kingly power[1125]. The ancestors of +the Dynastic Egyptians may have originated the great dams and irrigation +works in Western Arabia; and such long struggles with increasing drought +may have first broken them in to the arts of quarrying stone blocks and +building with stone. Over population and increasing drought may have +caused them to migrate across the Red Sea in search of another home; or +their migration may have been partly impelled by the Semitic hordes from +the north, whom we can imagine at this period--some 9000 to 10,000 years +ago--pressing southwards into Arabia and conquering or fusing with the +preceding Hamites; just as these latter, no doubt, at an earlier day, +had wrested Arabia from the domain of the Negroid and Dravidian" (p. +382). + +That the founding of the First Dynasty was coincident with a physical +change in the population, is proved by the thousands of skeletons and +mummies examined by Elliot Smith[1126], who regards the Pre-dynastic +Egyptians as "probably the nearest approximation to that anthropological +abstraction, a pure race, that we know of (p. 83)." He describes the +type as follows (Chap. IV.). + +The Proto-Egyptian (_i.e._ Pre-dynastic) was a man of small stature, his +mean height, estimated at a little under 5 ft. 5 in., in the flesh for +men, and almost 5 ft. in the case of women, being just about the +average for mankind in general, whereas the modern Egyptian _fellah_ +averages about 5 ft. 6 in. He was of very slender build with indications +of poor muscular development. In fact there is a suggestion of +effeminate grace and frailty about his bones, which is lacking in the +more rugged outlines of the skeletons of his more virile successors. The +hair of the Proto-Egyptian was precisely similar to that of the brunet +South European or Iberian people of the present day. It was a very dark +brown or black colour, wavy or almost straight and sometimes curly, +never "woolly." There can be no doubt whatever that this dark hair was +associated with dark eyes and a bronzed complexion. Elliot Smith +emphatically endorses Sergi's identification of the ancient Egyptian as +belonging to his Mediterranean Race. "So striking is the family likeness +between the Early Neolithic peoples of the British Isles and the +Mediterranean and the bulk of the population, both ancient and modern, +of Egypt and East Africa, that a description of the bones of an early +Briton might apply in all essential details to an inhabitant of +Somaliland." But he points out also that there is an equally close +relationship linking the Proto-Egyptians with the populations to the +east, from the Red Sea as far as India, including Semites as well as +Hamites. Rejecting the terms "Mediterranean" or "Hamite" as inadequate +he would classify his Mediterranean-Hamite-Semite group as the "Brown +Race[1127]." + +A most fortunate combination of circumstances afforded Elliot Smith an +opportunity for determining the ethnic affinities of the Egyptian +people. + +The Hearst Expedition of the University of California, under the +direction of G. A. Reisner, was occupied from 1901 onwards with +excavations at Naga-ed-Der in the Thebaid, where a cemetery, excavated +by A. M. Lythgoe, contained well-preserved bodies and skeletons of the +earliest known Pre-dynastic period. Close by was a series of graves of +the First and Second Dynasties; a few hundred yards away tombs of the +Second to the Fifth Dynasties (examined by A. C. Mace), with a large +number of tombs ranging from the time of the Sixth Dynasty to the +Twelfth. "Thus there was provided a chronologically unbroken series of +human remains representing every epoch in the history of Upper Egypt +from prehistoric times, roughly estimated at 4000 B.C., up till the +close of the Middle Empire, more than two thousand years later." To +complete the story Coptic (Christian Egyptian) graves of the fifth and +sixth centuries were discovered on the same site. + +"The study of this extraordinarily complete series of human remains, +providing in a manner such as no other site has ever done the materials +for the reconstruction of the racial history of one spot during more +than forty-five centuries, made it abundantly clear that the people +whose remains were buried just before the introduction of Islam into +Egypt were of the same flesh and blood as their forerunners in the same +locality before the dawn of history. And nine years' experience in the +Anatomical Department of the School of Medicine in Cairo," continues +Elliot Smith, "has left me in no doubt that the bulk of the present +population in Egypt conforms to precisely the same racial type, which +has thus been dominant in the northern portion of the Valley of the Nile +for sixty centuries[1128]." + +As early as the Second Dynasty certain alien traits began to appear, +which became comparatively common in the Sixth to Twelfth series. The +non-Egyptian characters are observable in remains from numerous sites +excavated by Flinders Petrie in Lower and Middle Egypt, and are +particularly marked in the cemetery round the Giza Pyramids (excavated +by the Hearst Expedition, 1903), containing remains of more than five +hundred individuals, who had lived at the time of the Pyramid-builders; +they are therefore referred to by Elliot Smith as "Giza traits," and +attributed to Armenoid influence. Soon after the amalgamation of the +Egyptian kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt by Menes (Mena), consequent +perhaps upon the discovery of copper and the invention of metal +implements[1129], expeditions were sent beyond the frontiers of the +United Kingdom to obtain copper ore, wood and other objects. Even in the +times of the First Dynasty the Egyptians began the exploitation of the +mines in the Sinai Peninsula for copper ore. It is claimed by +Meyer[1130] that Palestine and the Phoenician coast were Egyptian +dependencies, and there is ample evidence that there was intimate +intercourse between Egypt and Palestine as far north as the Lebanons +before the end of the Third Dynasty. From this time forward the +physical characters of the people of Lower Egypt show the results of +foreign admixture, and present marked features of contrast to the pure +type of Upper Egypt. The curious blending of characters suggests that +the process of racial admixture took place in Syria rather than in Egypt +itself[1131]. The alien type is best shown in the Giza necropolis, and +its representatives may be regarded as the builders and guardians of the +Pyramids. The stature is about the same as that of the Proto-Egyptians, +possibly rather lower, but they were built on far sturdier lines, their +bones being more massive, with well-developed muscular ridges and +impressions, and none of the effeminacy or infantilism of the +prehistoric skeletons. The brain-case has greater capacity with no trace +of the meagre ill-filled character exhibited by the latter. +Characteristic peculiarities were the "Grecian profile" and a jaw +closely resembling those of the round-headed Alpine races. + +These "Giza traits" were not a local development, for they have been +noted in all parts of Palestine and Asia Minor, and abundantly in Persia +and Afghanistan. They occur in the Punjab but are absent from India, +having an area of greatest concentration in the neighbourhood of the +Pamirs; while in a westerly direction, besides being sporadically +scattered over North Africa, they are recognised again in the extinct +Guanches of the Canary Islands. From these considerations Elliot Smith +shapes the following "working hypothesis." + +"The Egyptians, Arabs and Sumerians may have been kinsmen of the Brown +Race, each diversely specialized by long residence in its own domain; +and in Pre-dynastic times, before the wider usefulness of copper as a +military instrument of tremendous power was realized, the Middle +Pre-dynastic phase of culture became diffused far and wide throughout +Arabia and Sumer. Then came the awakening to the knowledge of the +supremacy which the possession of metal weapons conferred upon those who +wielded them in combat against those not so armed. Upper Egypt +vanquished Lower Egypt in virtue of this knowledge and the possession of +such weapons. The United Kingdom pushed its way into Syria to obtain +wood and ore, and incidentally taught the Arabs the value of metal +weapons. The Arabs thereby obtained the supremacy over the Armenoids of +Northern Syria, and the hybrid race of Semites formed from this blend +were able to descend the Euphrates and vanquish the more cultured +Sumerians, because the latter were without metal implements of war. The +non-Semitic Armenoids of Asia Minor carried the new knowledge into +Europe[1132]." + +This hypothesis might explain some of the difficult problems connecting +Egypt and Babylonia[1133]. The non-Asiatic origin of the Egyptian people +appears to be indicated by recent excavations, but, as mentioned above, +there are still many who hold that Egyptian culture and civilisation +were derived mainly, if not wholly, from Asiatic (probably Sumerian) +sources. The Semitic elements existing in the ancient Egyptian language, +certain resemblances between names of Sumerian and Egyptian gods, and +the similarity of hieroglyphic characters to the Sumerian system of +writing have been cited as proofs of the dependence of the one culture +upon the other; while the introduction of the knowledge of metals, +metal-working and the crafts of brick-making and tomb construction have, +together with the bulbous mace-head, cylinder-seal and domesticated +animals and plants[1134], been traced to Babylonia. + +But the excavations of Reisner at Naga-ed-Der and those of Naville at +Abydos (1909-10) appear to place the indigenous development of Egyptian +culture beyond question. Reisner's conclusions[1135] are that there was +no sudden break of continuity between the neolithic and early dynastic +cultures of Egypt. No essential change took place in the Egyptian +conception of life after death, or in the rites and practices +accompanying interment. The most noticeable changes, in the character of +the pottery and household vessels, in the materials for tools and +weapons and the introduction of writing, were all gradually introduced, +and one period fades into another without any strongly marked line of +division between them. Egypt no doubt had trading relations with +surrounding countries. Egyptians and Babylonians must have met in the +markets of Syria, and in the tents of Bedouin chiefs. Still, as Meyer +points out, far from Egypt taking over a ready-made civilisation from +Babylonia, Egypt, as regards cultural influence, was the giver not the +receiver[1136]. + +One more alien element in Egypt remains to be discussed. Most writers on +Egyptian ethnology detect a Negro or at least Negroid element in the +Caucasoid population, and although usually assigning priority to the +Negro, assume the co-existence of the two races from time immemorial to +the present day. Measurements on more than 1000 individuals were made by +C. S. Myers, and these are his conclusions. "There is no anthropometric +(despite the historic) evidence that the population of Egypt, past or +present, is composed of several different races. Our new anthropometric +data favour the view which regards the Egyptians always as a homogeneous +people, who have varied now towards Caucasian, now towards negroid +characters (according to environment), showing such close anthropometric +affinity to Libyan, Arabian and like neighbouring peoples, showing such +variability and possibly such power of absorption, that from the +anthropometric standpoint no evidence is obtainable that the modern +Egyptians have been appreciably affected by other than sporadic Sudanese +admixture[1137]." + +It was seen above (Chap. III.) that non-Negro elements are found +throughout the Sudan from Senegal nearly to Darfur, nowhere forming the +whole of the population, but nearly always the dominant native race. +These are the Fulah (Fula, Fulbe or Fulani), whose ethnic affinities +have given rise to an enormous amount of speculation. Their linguistic +peculiarity had led many ethnologists to regard them as the descendants +of the first white colonists of North Africa, "Caucasoid invaders," +15,000 years ago, prior to Hamitic intrusions from the east[1138]. Thus +would be explained the fact that their language betrays absolutely no +structural affinity with Semitic or Libyo-Hamitic groups, or with any +other speech families outside Africa, though offering faint +resemblances in structure with the Lesghian[1139] speech of the Caucasus +and the Dravidian tongues of Baluchistan and India. Physically there +seems to be nothing to differentiate them from other blends[1140] of +Hamite-Negro. The physical type of the pure-bred Fulah H. H. Johnston +describes as follows: "Tall of stature (but not gigantic, like the +Nilote and South-east Sudanese), olive-skinned or even a pale yellow; +well-proportioned, with delicate hands and feet, without steatopygy, +with long, oval face, big nose (in men), straight nose in women (nose +finely cut, like that of the Caucasian), eyes large and "melting," with +an Egyptian look about them, head-hair long, black, kinky or ringlety, +never quite straight[1141]." They were at first a quiet people, herdsmen +and shepherds with a high and intricate type of pagan religion which +still survives in parts of Nigeria. But large numbers of them became +converted to Islam from the twelfth century onwards and gained some +knowledge of the world outside Africa by their pilgrimages to Mecca. At +the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries +an uprise of Muhammadan fanaticism and a proud consciousness of their +racial superiority to the mere Negro armed them as an aristocracy to +wrest political control of all Nigeria from the hands of Negro rulers or +the decaying power of Tuareg and Songhai. This race was all +unconsciously carrying on the Caucasian invasion and penetration of +Africa. + +A less controversial problem is presented by the Eastern Hamites, who +form a continuous chain of dark Caucasic peoples from the Mediterranean +to the equator, and whose ethnical unity is now established by Sergi on +anatomical grounds[1142]. Bordering on Upper Egypt, and extending thence +to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau, is the Beja section, whose chief +divisions--Ababdeh, Hadendoa, Bisharin, Beni Amer--have from the +earliest times occupied the whole region between the Nile and the Red +Sea. + +C. G. Seligman has analysed the physical and cultural characters of the +Beja tribes (_Bisharin_, _Hadendoa_ and _Beni Amer_), the _Barabra_, +nomad Arabs (such as the _Kababish_ and _Kawahla_), Nilotes (_Shilluk, +Dinka, Nuer_) and half-Hamites (_Ba-Hima, Masai_), in an attempt by +eliminating the Negro and Semitic elements to deduce the main features +which may be held to indicate Hamitic influence. He regards the _Beni +Amer_ as approximating most closely to the original _Beja_ type which he +thus describes. "Summarizing their physical characteristics it may be +said that they are moderately short, slightly built men, with +reddish-brown or brown skins in which a greater or less tinge of black +is present, while in some cases the skin is definitely darker and +presents some shade of brown-black. The hair is usually curly, in some +instances it certainly might be described as wavy, but the method of +hair dressing adopted tends to make difficult an exact description of +its condition. Often, as is everywhere common amongst wearers of +turbans, the head is shaved.... The face is usually long and oval, or +approaching the oval in shape, the jaw is often lightly built, which +with the presence of a rather pointed chin may tend to make the upper +part of the face appear disproportionately broad. The nose is well +shaped and thoroughly Caucasian in type and form[1143]." Among the +Hadendoa the "Armenoid" or so-called "Jewish" nose is not uncommon. +Seligman draws attention to the close resemblance between the _Beja_ +type and that of the ancient Egyptians. + +Through the Afars (Danakil) of the arid coastlands between Abyssinia and +the sea, the Bejas are connected with the numerous Hamitic populations +of the Somali and Galla lands. For the term "Somal," which is quite +recent and of course unknown to the natives, H. M. Abud[1144] suggests +an interesting and plausible explanation. Being a hospitable people, and +milk their staple food, "the first word a stranger would hear on +visiting their kraals would be 'So mal,' _i.e._ 'Go and bring milk.'" +Strangers may have named them from this circumstance, and other tribal +names may certainly be traced to more improbable sources. + +The natives hold that two races inhabit the land: (1) ASHA, true Somals, +of whom there are two great divisions, _Darod_ and _Ishak_, both +claiming descent from certain noble Arab families, though no longer of +Arab speech; (2) HAWIYA, who are not counted by the others as true +Somals, but only "pagans," and also comprise two main branches, _Aysa_ +and _Gadabursi_. In the national genealogies collected by Abud and Cox, +many of the mythical heroes are buried at or near Meit, which may thus +be termed the cradle of the Somal race. From this point they spread in +all directions, the Darods pushing south and driving the Galla beyond +the Webbe Shebel, and till lately raiding them as far as the Tana river. +It should be noticed that these genealogical tables are far from +complete, for they exclude most of the southern sections, notably the +_Rahanwin_ who have a very wide range on both sides of the Jub. + +In the statements made by the natives about true Somals and "pagans," +race and religion are confused, and the distinction between Asha and +Hawiya is merely one between Moslem and infidel. The latter are probably +of much purer stock than the former, whose very genealogies testify to +interminglings of the Moslem Arab intruders with the heathen aborigines. + +Despite their dark colour C. Keller[1145] has no difficulty in regarding +the Somali as members of the "Caucasic Race." The Semitic type crops out +decidedly in several groups, and they are generally speaking of fine +physique, well grown, with proud bearing and often with classic profile, +though the type is very variable owing to Arab and Negro grafts on the +Hamitic stock. The hair is never woolly, but, like that of the Beja, +ringlety and less thick than the Abyssinian and Galla, sometimes even +quite straight. The forehead is finely rounded and prominent, eye +moderately large and rather deep-set, nose straight, but also snub and +aquiline, mouth regular, lips not too thick, head sub-dolichocephalic. + +Great attention has been paid to all these Eastern Hamitic peoples by +Ph. Paulitschke[1146], who regards the Galla as both intellectually and +morally superior to the Somals and Afars, the chief reason being that +the baneful influences exercised by the Arabs and Abyssinians affect to +a far greater extent the two latter than the former group. + +The Galla appear to have reached the African coast before the Danakil +and Somali, but were driven south-east by pressure from the latter, +leaving Galla remnants as serfs among the southern Somali, while the +presence of servile negroid tribes among the Galla gives proof of an +earlier population which they partially displaced. Subsequent pressure +from the Masai on the south forced the Galla into contact with the +Danakil, and a branch penetrating inland established themselves on the +north and east of Victoria Nyanza, where they are known to-day as the +Ba-Hima, Wa-Tusi, Wa-Ruanda and kindred tribes, which have been +described on p. 91. + +The Masai, the terror of their neighbours, are a mixture of Galla and +Nilotic Negro, producing what has been described as the finest type in +Africa. The build is slender and the height often over six feet, the +face is well formed, with straight nose and finely cut nostrils, the +hair is usually frizzly, and the skin dark or reddish brown. They are +purely pastoral, possessing enormous herds of cattle in which they take +great pride, but they are chiefly remarkable for their military +organisation which was hardly surpassed by that of the Zulu. They have +everywhere found in the agricultural peoples an easy prey, and until the +reduction of their wealth by rinderpest (since 1891) and the restraining +influence of the white man, the Masai were regarded as an ever-dreaded +scourge by all the less warlike inhabitants of Eastern Africa[1147]. + +Amongst the Abyssinian Hamites we find the strangest interminglings of +primitive and more advanced religious ideas. On a seething mass of +African heathendom, already in pre-historic times affected by early +Semitic ideas introduced by the Himyarites from South Arabia, was +somewhat suddenly imposed an undeveloped form of Christianity by the +preaching of Frumentius in the fourth century, with results that cannot +be called satisfactory. While the heterogeneous ethnical elements have +been merged in a composite Abyssinian nationality, the discordant +religious ideas have never yet been fused in a consistent uniform +system. Hence "Abyssinian Christianity" is a sort of by-word even +amongst the Eastern Churches, while the social institutions are marked +by elementary notions of justice and paradoxical "shamanistic" +practices, interspersed with a few sublime moral precepts. Many things +came as a surprise to the members of the Rennell Rodd Mission[1148], who +could not understand such a strange mixture of savagery and lofty +notions in a Christian community which, for instance, accounted +accidental death as wilful murder. The case is mentioned of a man +falling from a tree on a friend below and killing him. "He was adjudged +to perish at the hands of the bereaved family, in the same manner as the +corpse. But the family refused to sacrifice a second member, so the +culprit escaped." Dreams also are resorted to, as in the days of the +Pharaohs, for detecting crime. A priest is sent for, and if his prayers +and curses fail, a small boy is drugged and told to dream. "Whatever +person he dreams of is fixed on as the criminal; no further proof is +needed.... If the boy does not dream of the person whom the priest has +determined on as the criminal, he is kept under drugs until he does what +is required of him." + +To outsiders society seems to be a strange jumble of an iron despotism, +which forbids the selling of a horse for over L10 under severe +penalties, and a personal freedom or licence, which allows the labourer +to claim his wages after a week's work and forthwith decamp to spend +them, returning next day or next month as the humour takes him. Yet +somehow things hold together, and a few Semitic immigrants from South +Arabia have for over 2000 years contrived to maintain some kind of +control over the Hamitic aborigines who have always formed the bulk of +the population in Abyssinia[1149]. + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1000] _The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study_, W. Z. Ripley, 1900, +p. 437. + +[1001] "Diese Namen sind natuerlich rein conventionell. Sie sind +historisch berechtigt ... und moegen Geltung behalten, so lange wir keine +zutrefferenden an ihre Stelle setzen koennen" (_Anthropologische +Studien_, etc., p. 15). + +[1002] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, 1909, l. 2, discussing the +original home of the Indo-Europeans (Sec. 561, _Das Problem der Heimat und +Ausbreitung der Indogermanen_) remarks (p. 800) that the discovery of +Tocharish (Sieg und Siegling, "Tocharish, die Sprache der Indo-skythen," +_Sitz. d. Berl. Ak._ 1908, p. 915 ff.), a language belonging apparently +to the _centum_ (Western and European) group, overthrows all earlier +conceptions as to the distribution of the Indogermans and gives weight +to the hypothesis of their Asiatic origin. + +[1003] "Io non dubito di denominare _aria_ questa stirpe etc." (_Umbri_, +_Italici_, _Arii_, Bologna, 1897, p. 14, and elsewhere). + +[1004] _Anthrop. Studien_, p. 15, "Diese Gemeinsamkeit der Charakteren +beweist uns die Blutverwandtschaft" (_ib._). + +[1005] Sir W. Crooke's anticipation of a possible future failure of the +wheat supply as affecting the destinies of the Caucasic peoples +(_Presidential Address at Meeting Br. Assoc._ Bristol, 1898) is an +economic question which cannot here be discussed. + +[1006] Ph. Lake, "The Geology of the Sahara," in _Science Progress_, +July, 1895. + +[1007] This name, meaning in Berber "running water," has been handed +down from a time when the Igharghar was still a mighty stream with a +northerly course of some 800 miles, draining an area of many thousand +square miles, in which there is not at present a single perennial +brooklet. It would appear that even crocodiles still survive from those +remote times in the so-called Lake Miharo of the Tassili district, where +von Bary detected very distinct traces of their presence in 1876. A. E. +Pease also refers to a Frenchman "who had satisfied himself of the +existence of crocodiles cut off in ages long ago from watercourses that +have disappeared" (_Contemp. Review_, July, 1896). + +[1008] _Recherches sur les Origines de l'Egypte: L'Age de la Pierre et +des Metaux_, 1897. + +[1009] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 394. This indefatigable explorer +remarks, in reference to the continuity of human culture in Tunisia +throughout the Old and New Stone Ages, that "ces populations fortement +melangees d'elements neanderthaloides de la Kromirie fabriquent encore +des vases de tous points analogues a la poterie neolithique" (_ib._). + +[1010] _The Antiquity of Man_, 1915, p. 255. + +[1011] _Africa, Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica_, Turin, 1897, p. 404 +sq. + +[1012] "Le nord de l'Afrique entiere, y compris le Sahara naguere encore +fort peuple," _i.e._ of course relatively speaking, "Du Dniester a la +Caspienne," in _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 81 sq. + +[1013] _Ibid._ p. 654 sq. + +[1014] _Resume de l'Anthropologie de la Tunisie_, 1896, p. 4 sq. + +[1015] This identity is confirmed by the characters of three skulls from +the dolmens of Madracen near Batna, Algeria, now in the Constantine +Museum, found by Letourneau and Papillaut to present striking affinities +with the long-headed Cro-Magnon race (Ceph. Index 70, 74, 78); +leptoprosope with prominent glabella, notable alveolar prognathism, and +sub-occipital bone projecting chignon-fashion at the back (_Bul. Soc. +d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 347). + +[1016] He shows ("Exploration Anthropologique de l'Ile de Gerba," in +_L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 424 sq.) that the North African brown +brachycephalics, forming the substratum in Mauretania, and very pure in +Gerba, resemble the European populations the more they have avoided +contact with foreign races. He quotes H. Martin: "Le type brun qui +domine dans la Grande Kabylie du Jurjura ressemble singulierement en +majorite au type francais brun. Si l'on habillait ces hommes de +vetements europeens, vous ne les distingueriez pas de paysans ou de +soldats francais." He compares them especially to the Bretons, and +agrees with Martin that "il y a parmi les Berberes bruns des +brachycephales; je croirais volontiers que les brachycephales bruns sont +des Ligures. Libyens et Ligures paraissent avoir ete originairement de +la meme race." He thinks the very names are the same: "[Greek: Libyes] +est exactement le meme mot que [Greek: Ligyes]; rien n'etait plus +frequent dans les dialectes primitifs que la mutation du _b_ en _g_." + +[1017] _The Races of Europe_, 1900, _passim._ + +[1018] "Les Chaouias," etc., in _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 1 sq. + +[1019] _Ueber eine Schaedelsammlung von den Kanarischen Inseln_, with F. +von Luschan's appendix; also "Ueber die Urbewohner der Kanarischen +Inseln," in _Bastian-Festschrift_, 1896, p. 63. The inferences here +drawn are in substantial agreement with those of Henry Wallack, in his +paper on "The Guanches," in _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ June, 1887, p. 158 +sq.; and also with J. C. Shrubsall, who, however, distinguishes four +pre-Spanish types from a study of numerous skulls and other remains from +Tenerife in _Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc._ IX. 154-78. The 152 cave skulls +measured by Von Detloff von Behr, _Metrische Studien an 152 +Guanchenschaedeln_, 1908, agree in the main with earlier results. + +[1020] For an interpretation of the significance of Armenoid skulls in +the Canary Is. see G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, pp. +156-7. + +[1021] "Denombrement et Types des Cranes Neolithiques de la Gaule," in +_Rev. Mens. de l'Ecole d'Anthrop._ 1896. + +[1022] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 424. + +[1023] "Infiltrazioni pacifiche." (_Arii e Italici_, p. 124.) + +[1024] _L'Anthr._ XII. 1901, pp. 547-8. + +[1025] Cf. G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, p. 58 ff. + +[1026] T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 266, with +list of authorities. See also Sigmund Feist, _Kultur_, _Ausbreitung und +Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 364, and H. H. Johnston, "A Survey +of the Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913, +pp. 386 and 387. + +[1027] T. Rice Holmes, _loc. cit._ p. 272. + +[1028] W. Wright, _Middlesex Hospital Journal_, XII. 1908, p. 44. + +[1029] See A. C. Haddon, _The Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, pp. 16, 17, +55. + +[1030] R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, 1897, and Art. "Etruria: +Language," _Ency. Brit._ 1911. + +[1031] Cf. T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 283. +"The truth is that linguistic data are insufficient." + +[1032] I. 57. + +[1033] See p. 465. + +[1034] For Lydian see E. Littmann, _Sardis_, "Lydian Inscriptions," +1916, briefly summarised by P. Giles, "Some Notes on the New Lydian +Inscriptions," _Camb. Univ. Rep._ 1917, p. 587. + +[1035] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, +1913, p. 385. + +[1036] "The attempts to connect the language with the Indo-European +family have been unsuccessful," A. H. Sayce, Art. "Lycia," _Ency. Brit._ +1911. But cf. also S. Feist, _loc. cit._ pp. 385-7; and Th. Kluge, _Die +Lykier, ihre Geschichte und ihre Inschriften_, 1910. + +[1037] A. J. Evans, _Scripta Minoa_, 1909. + +[1038] T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 289 _n._ 4. + +[1039] _Die Verwandtschaft des Baskischen mit den Berbersprachen +Nord-Afrikas nachgewiesen_, 1894. + +[1040] "Die Sprachen waren mit einander verwandt, das stand ausser +Zweifel." (Pref. IV.) + +[1041] J. Vinson (_Rev. de linguistique_, XXXVIII. 1905, p. 111) says, +"no more absurd book on Basque has appeared of late years." See T. Rice +Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 299 _n._ 3. + +[1042] "In the general series of organised linguistic families it +[Basque] would take an intermediate place between the American on the +one side and the Ugro-Altaic or Ugrian on the other." Wentworth Webster +and Julien Vinson, _Ency. Brit._ 1910, "Basques." + +[1043] See W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, Chap. VIII. "The +Basques," pp. 180-204. + +[1044] _Rev. mensuelle de l'Ecole d'Anthr._ X. 1900, pp. 225-7. + +[1045] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, +1913. + +[1046] _Hist. de la Gaule_, I. 1908, p. 271. + +[1047] "La Race Basque," _L'Anthrop._ 1894. + +[1048] W. Z. Ripley, _loc. cit._ p. 200. + +[1049] _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 287. Cf. J. Dechelette +(_Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1910, p. 27), "As a rule it +is wise to attach to this expression (Iberian) merely a geographical +value." Reviewing the problems of Iberian origins (which he considers +remain unsolved), he quotes as an example of their range, the opinion of +C. Jullian (_Revue des Etudes Anciennes_, 1903, p. 383), "There is no +Iberian race. The Iberians were a state constituted at latest towards +the 6th century, in the valley of the Ebro, which received, either from +strangers or from the indigenous peoples, the name of the river as _nom +de guerre_." + +[1050] J. Vinson (_Rev. de linguistique_, XL. 1907, pp. 5, 211) divides +the Iberian inscriptions into three groups, each of which, he believes, +represents a different language. + +[1051] _The Mediterranean Race_, 1901. + +[1052] _Dict. des sc. anthr._ p. 247, and _Rev. de l'Ecole d'Anthr._ +XVII. 1907, p. 365. + +[1053] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, p. 723. + +[1054] _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1910, p. 27 _n._, see +also p. 22 for archaeological proofs of "ethnographic distinctions." + +[1055] _Hist. de la Gaule_, I. Chap. IV. The author makes it clear, +however, that his "Ligurians" are not necessarily an ethnic unit, "De +l'unite de nom, ne concluons pas a l'unite de race" (119), and later (p. +120), "Ne considerons donc pas les Ligures comme les representants +uniformes d'une race determinee. Ils sont la population qui habitait +l'Europe occidentale avant les invasions connues des Celtes ou des +Etrusques, avant la naissance des peuples latin ou ibere. Ils ne sont +pas autre chose." + +[1056] _Gaule av. Gaulois_, p. 248. + +[1057] _Loc. cit._ p. 23 _n._ I. + +[1058] _Early Age of Greece_, 1901, p. 237 ff., and "Who were the +Romans?" _Proc. Brit. Acad._ III. 19, 1908, p. 3. + +[1059] See R. S. Conway, Art. "Liguria," _Ency. Brit._ 1911. It may be +noted, however, as Feist points out (_Ausbreitung und Herkunft des +Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 368), this hypothesis rests on slight +foundations ("ruht auf schwachen Fuessen"). + +[1060] _Arii e Italici_, p. 60. + +[1061] _Corresbl. d. d. Ges. f. Anthrop._, Feb. 1898, p. 12. + +[1062] Yet Ligurians are actually planted on the North Atlantic coast of +Spain by S. Sempere y Miguel (_Revista de Ciencias Historicas_, I. v. +1887). + +[1063] _Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1910, p. 22. + +[1064] _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 287. + +[1065] "La Civilisation Primitive dans la Sicilie Orientale," in +_L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 130 sq.; and p. 295 sq. + +[1066] _Praehistorische Studien aus Sicilien_, quoted by Patroni. + +[1067] p. 130. + +[1068] See p. 21. + +[1069] It may be mentioned that while Penka makes the Siculi Illyrians +from Upper Italy ("Zur Palaeoethnologie Mittel-u. Suedeuropas," in _Wiener +Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18), E. A. Freeman holds that they were not only +Aryans, but closely akin to the Romans, speaking "an undeveloped Latin," +or "something which did not differ more widely from Latin than one +dialect of Greek differed from another" (_The History of Sicily_, etc., +I. p. 488). On the Siculi and Sicani, see E. Meyer, _Geschichte des +Altertums_, 1909, I. 2, p. 723, also Art. "Sicily, History," _Ency. +Brit._ 1911. Dechelette (_Manuel d'Archeologie prehistorique_, II. 1910, +p. 17) suggests that Sikelos or Siculus, the eponymous hero of Sicily, +may have been merely the personification of the typical Ligurian +implement, the bronze _sickle_ (Lat. secula, sicula). + +[1070] I. 22. + +[1071] VI. 2. + +[1072] _Parte I. Dati Antropologici ed Etnologici_, Rome, 1896. + +[1073] p. 182. + +[1074] _Atti Soc. Rom. d' Antrop._ 1896, pp. 179 and 201. + +[1075] Cf. W. Z. Ripley, "Racial Geography of Europe," _Pop. Sci. +Monthly_, New York, 1897-9, and _The Races of Europe_, 1900, pp. 54, +175. + +[1076] _Arii e Italici_, p. 188. Hence for these Italian Ligurians he +claims the name of "Italici," which he refuses to extend to the Aryan +intruders in the peninsula. "A questi primi abitatori spetta +legittimamente il nome di Italici, non a popolazioni successive [Aryan +Umbrians], che avrebbero sloggiato i primi abitanti" (p. 60). The result +is a little confusing, "Italic" being now the accepted name of the +Italian branch of the Aryan linguistic family, and also commonly applied +to the Aryans of this Italic speech, although the word _Italia_ itself +may have been indigenous (Ligurian) and not introduced by the Aryans. It +would perhaps be better to regard "Italia" as a "geographical +expression" applicable to all its inhabitants, whatever their origin or +speech. + +[1077] _Science Progress_, July, 1894. It will be noticed that the +facts, accepted by all, are differently interpreted by Beddoe and Sergi, +the latter taking the long-headed element in North Italy as the +aboriginal (Ligurian), modified by the later intrusion of round-headed +Aryan Slavs, Teutons, and especially Kelts, while Beddoe seems to regard +the broad-headed Alpine as the original, afterwards modified by +intrusive long-headed types "Germanic, Slavic, or of doubtful origin." +Either view would no doubt account for the present relations; but +Sergi's study of the prehistoric remains (see above) seems to compel +acceptance of his explanation. From the statistics an average height of +not more than 5 ft. 4 in. results for the whole of Italy. + +[1078] For the identification of the Mediterranean race in Greece with +the Pelasgians, see W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, I. 1901, though +Ripley contends (_The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 407), "Positively no +anthropological data on the matter exist." + +[1079] [Greek: To ton Pelasgon genos Hellenikon.] + +[1080] I. 57. + +[1081] _Il._ X. 429; _Od._ XIX. 177. + +[1082] "We recognize in the Pelasgi an ancient and honourable race, +ante-Hellenic, it is true, but distinguished from the Hellenes only in +the political and social development of their age.... Herodotus and +others take a prejudiced view when, reasoning back from the subsequent +Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, they call the ancient Pelasgians a rude and +worthless race, their language barbarous, and their deities nameless. +Numerous traditionary accounts, of undoubted authenticity, describe them +as a brave, moral, and honourable people, which was less a distinct +stock and tribe, than a race united by a resemblance in manners and the +forms of life" (W. Wachsmuth, _The Historical Antiquities of the +Greeks_, etc., Engl. ed. 1837, I. p. 39). Remarkable words to have been +written before the recent revelations of archaeology in Hellas. + +[1083] That the two cultures went on for a long time side by side is +evident from the different social institutions and religious ideas +prevailing in different parts of Hellas during the strictly historic +period. + +[1084] [Greek: kata ten Hellada pasan epepolase] (Strabo, V. 220). This +might almost be translated, "they flooded the whole of Greece." + +[1085] _Early Age of Greece_, 1901, Chaps. I. and II. + +[1086] _Od._ XIX. + +[1087] Thuc. I. 3. + +[1088] This idea of an independent evolution of western (European) +culture is steadily gaining ground, and is strenuously advocated, +amongst others, by M. Salomon Reinach, who has made a vigorous attack on +what he calls the "oriental mirage," _i.e._ the delusion which sees +nothing but Asiatic or Egyptian influences everywhere. Sergi of course +goes further, regarding the Mediterranean (Iberian, Ligurian, Pelasgian) +cultures not only as local growths, but as independent both of Asiatics +and of the rude Aryan hordes, who came rather as destroyers than +civilisers. This is one of the fundamental ideas pervading the whole of +his _Arii e Italici_, and some earlier writings. + +[1089] Pausanias, III. 20. 5. + +[1090] G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_, 1901. In the main he is +supported by philologists. "The languages of the indigenous peoples +throughout Asia Minor and the Aegean area are commonly believed to have +been non-Indo-European." H. M. Chadwick, _The Heroic Age_, 1912, p. 179 +n. + +[1091] W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901, p. 681 ff. + +[1092] _The Dawn of History_, 1911, p. 40. For his views on Pelasgians, +see _Journ. Hell. St._ 1907, p. 170, and the Art. "Pelasgians" in _Ency. +Brit._ 1911. + +[1093] E. Petersen and F. von Luschan, _Reisen in Lykien_, 1889. + +[1094] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, p. 404 ff. The map (facing +p. 402) does not include Greece, and the grouping is based on language, +not race. + +[1095] The Mykenaean skull found by Bent at Antiparos is described as +"abnormally dolichocephalic." W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, I. +1901, p. 78. + +[1096] But in Ridgeway's view the "classical Hellenes" were descendants +of tall fair-haired invaders from the North, and in this he has the +concurrence of J. L. Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, p. 209. + +[1097] _Mitt. d. K. d. Inst. Athen._ XXX. See H. R. Hall, _Ancient +History of the Near East_, 1913, pp. 61-4. + +[1098] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, Sec. 507. + +[1099] For a discussion of the meaning of "Pelasgic Argos" see H. M. +Chadwick, _The Heroic Age_, 1912, pp. 274 ff. and 278-9, and for his +criticism of Meyer, p. 285. + +[1100] But see W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, I. 1901, p. 138 ff. + +[1101] Art. "Indo-European Languages," _Ency. Brit._ 1911. + +[1102] R. S. Conway, Art. "Aegean Civilisation," in _Ency. Brit._ 1911, +whence this summary is derived, including the chronology, which is not +in all respects universally adopted (see p. 27). For a full discussion +of the chronology see J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'Archeologie +prehistorique_, Vol. II. 1910, _Archeologie celtique ou +protohistorique_, Ch. II. Sec. V. Chronologie egeenne, p. 54 ff. + +[1103] In his valuable and comprehensive work, _Africa: Antropologia +della Stirpe Camitica_, Turin, 1897. It must not be supposed that this +classification is unchallenged. T. A. Joyce, "Hamitic Races and +Languages," _Ency. Brit._ 1911, points out that it is impossible to +prove the connection between the Eastern and Northern Hamites. The +former have a brown skin, with frizzy hair, and are nomadic or +semi-nomadic pastors; the latter, whom he would call not Hamites at all, +but the Libyan variety of the Mediterranean race, are a white people, +with curly hair, and their purest representatives, the Berbers, are +agriculturalists. For the fullest and most recent treatment of the +subject see the monumental work of Oric Bates, _The Eastern Libyans: An +Essay_, 1913, with bibliography. + +[1104] "Les Maures du Senegal," _L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 258 sq. + +[1105] That is, the _Sanhaja-an Litham_, those who wear the _litham_ or +veil, which is needed to protect them from the sand, but has now +acquired religious significance, and is never worn by the "Moors." + +[1106] p. 269. + +[1107] See F. Stuhlmann's invaluable work on African culture and race +distribution, _Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika_, 1910, especially +the map showing the distribution of the Hamites, Pl. II. B. + +[1108] The Kababish and Baggara tribes, chief mainstays of former +Sudanese revolts, claim to be of unsullied Arab descent with long +fictitious pedigrees going back to early Muhammadan times (see p. 74). + +[1109] "Les Chaouias," _L'Anthropologie_, 1897, p. 14. + +[1110] P. 17. + +[1111] The words collected by Sir H. H. Johnston at Dwirat in Tunis show +a great resemblance with the language of the Saharan Tuaregs, and the +sheikh of that place "admitted that his people could understand and make +themselves understood by those fierce nomads, who range between the +southern frontier of Algeria and Tunis and the Sudan" (_Geogr. Jour._, +June, 1898, p. 590). + +[1112] Cf. Meinhof, _Die Moderne Sprachforschung in Africa_, 1910. + +[1113] _Ti-bu_ = "Rock People"; cf. _Kanem-bu_ = "Kanem People," +southernmost branch of the family on north side of Lake Chad. + +[1114] [Greek: Onton de kai auton ede mallon Aithiopon] (I. 8). I take +[Greek: ede], which has caused some trouble to commentators, here to +mean that, as you advance southwards from the Mediterranean seaboard, +you find yourself on entering Garamantian territory already rather +amongst Ethiopians than Libyans. + +[1115] Reclus, Eng. ed. Vol. XI. p. 429. For the complicated ancestral +mixture producing the Tibu see Sir H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the +Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913, p. 386. + +[1116] Reclus, Eng. ed. Vol. XI. p. 430. + +[1117] From the enormous sheets of tuffs near the Kharga Oasis Zettel, +geologist of G. Rohlf's expedition in 1876, considered that even this +sandy waste might have supported a rich vegetation in Quaternary times. + +[1118] See _Histoire de la Civilisation Egyptienne_, G. Jequier, 1913, +p. 53 ff. Also, concerning pottery, E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian +Civilisation," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907, p. 203. + +[1119] The Egyptians themselves had a tradition that when Menes moved +north he found the delta still under water. The sea reached almost as +far as the Fayum, and the whole valley, except the Thebais, was a +malarious swamp (Herod. II. 4). Thus late into historic times memories +still survived that the delta was of relatively recent formation, and +that the _Retu_ (_Romitu_ of the Pyramid texts, later _Rotu_, _Romi_, +etc.) had already developed their social system before the Lower Nile +valley was inhabitable. Hence whether the Nile took 20,000 years +(Schweinfurth) or over 70,000, as others hold, to fill in its estuary, +the beginning of the Egyptian prehistoric period must still be set back +many millenniums before the new era. "Ce que nous savons du Sahara, +lui-meme alors sillonne de rivieres, atteste qu'il [the delta] ne devait +pas etre habitable, pas etre constitue a l'epoque quaternaire" (M. +Zaborowski, _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 655). + +[1120] G. Jequier, _Histoire de la Civilisation Egyptienne_, 1913, p. +95, but see E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907, p. 209. + +[1121] _Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika_, 1910, p. 143. + +[1122] "Migrations," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVI. 1906. + +[1123] "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLIII. 1913. + +[1124] See p. 482 below. + +[1125] For an alternative route see E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian +Civilisation," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907, p. 209; J. L. +Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, pp. 56-7, also p. 65, and the +criticism of Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, pp. 88-9. + +[1126] _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911. + +[1127] _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, pp. 56, 58, 62. + +[1128] _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, pp. 104-5. + +[1129] G. Elliot Smith, _loc. cit._ pp. 97 and 147. + +[1130] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, Sec.Sec. 229, 232, +253. + +[1131] G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, p. 108, but for a +different interpretation see J. L. Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911 +pp. 51 and 65. + +[1132] _Loc. cit._ p. 147. + +[1133] H. R. Hall (_The Ancient History of the Near East_, 1913, p. 87 +_n._ 3) sees "no resemblance whatever between the facial traits of the +Memphite grandees of the Old Kingdom and those of Hittites, Syrians, or +modern Anatolians, Armenians or Kurds. They were much more like South +Europeans, like modern Italians or Cretans." + +[1134] Cf. H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc._ XLIII. 1913, p. 383, and also E. Naville, "The +Origin of Egyptian Civilisation," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. +1907, p. 210. + +[1135] G. A. Reisner, "The Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Der," +Part 1. Vol. II. of _University of California Publications_, 1908, +summarised by L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, pp. 326, +334. + +[1136] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, p. 156. + +[1137] _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIII. 1903, XXXV. 1905, XXXVI. 1906, and +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVIII. 1908. + +[1138] Cf. H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa," +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913, p. 382. + +[1139] No physical affinity is suggested. The Lesghian tribes "betray an +accentuated brachycephaly, equal to that of the pure Mongols about the +Caspians." W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, p. 440. + +[1140] J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_, 1900, p. 439, places the Fulahs +in a separate group, the Fulah-Zandeh group. Cf. also A. C. Haddon, _The +Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 59. + +[1141] _Loc. cit._ p. 401 _n._ + +[1142] _Africa_, 1897, _passim_. + +[1143] "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian +Sudan," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIII. 1913, p. 604. See also C. +Crossland, _Desert and Water Gardens of the Red Sea_, 1913. + +[1144] _Genealogies of the Somal_, 1896. + +[1145] "Reisestudien in den Somalilaendern," _Globus_, LXX. p. 33 sq. + +[1146] _Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas: Die geistige Kultur der Danakil, +Galla u. Somal_, 1896, 2 vols. + +[1147] M. Merker, _Die Masai_, 1904; A. C. Hollis, _The Masai, their +Language and Folklore_, 1905. C. Dundas, "The Organization and Laws of +some Bantu Tribes in East Africa," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. 1915, +pp. 236-7, thinks that the power of the Masai was over-rated, and that +the Galla were really a fiercer race. He quotes Krapf, "Give me the +Galla and I have Central Africa." The _Nandi_ (an allied tribe) are +described by A. C. Hollis, 1909, and _The Suk_ by M. W. H. Beech, 1911. + +[1148] A. E. W. Gleichen, _Rennell Rodd's Mission to Menelik_, 1897. + +[1149] Among recent works on Abyssinia may be mentioned A. B. Wylde, +_Modern Abyssinia_, 1901; H. Weld Blundell, "A Journey through +Abyssinia," _Geog. Journ._ XV. 1900, and "Exploration in the Abai +Basin," _ib._ XXVII. 1906; the _Anthropological Survey of Abyssinia_ +published by the French Government in 1911; and various publications of +the Princeton University Expedition to Abyssinia, edited by E. Littmann. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (_continued_) + + THE SEMITES--Cradle, Origins, and Migrations--Divisions: Semitic + Migrations--Babylonia, People and Civilisation--Assyria, People + and Civilisation--Syria and Palestine--_Canaanites_: _Amorites_: + _Phoenicians_--_The Jews_--Origins--Early and Later Dispersions-- + Diverse Physical Types--Present Range and Population-- + THE HITTITES--Conflicting Theories--_The Arabs_--Spread of the + Arab Race and Language--Semitic Monotheism--Its Evolution. + + +The Himyaritic immigrants, who still hold sway in a foreign land, have +long ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in their own country, +where they had nevertheless ages ago founded flourishing empires, +centres of one of the very oldest civilisations of which there is any +record. Should future research confirm the now generally received view +that Hamites and Semites are fundamentally of one stock, a view based +both on physical and linguistic data[1150], the cradle of the Semitic +branch will also probably be traced to South Arabia, and more +particularly to that south-western region known to the ancients as +Arabia Felix, _i.e._ the Yemen of the Arabs. While Asia and Africa were +still partly separated in the north by a broad marine inlet before the +formation of the Nile delta, easy communication was afforded between the +two continents farther south at the head of the Gulf of Aden, where they +are still almost contiguous. By this route the primitive Hamito-Semitic +populations may have moved either westwards into Africa, or, as has also +been suggested, eastwards into Asia, where in the course of ages the +Semitic type became specialised. + +On this assumption South Arabia would necessarily be the first home of +the Semites, who in later times spread thence north and east. They +appear as _Babylonians_ and _Assyrians_ in Mesopotamia; as _Phoenicians_ +on the Syrian coast; as _Arabs_ on the Nejd steppe; as _Canaanites_, +_Moabites_ and others in and about Palestine; as _Amorites_ (_Aramaeans, +Syrians_) in Syria and Asia Minor. + +This is the common view of Semitic origins and early migrations, but as +practically no systematic excavations have been possible in Arabia, +owing to political conditions and the attitude of the inhabitants, +definite archaeological or anthropological proofs are still lacking. The +hypothesis would, however, seem to harmonise well with all the known +conditions. In the first place is to be considered the very narrow area +occupied by the Semites, both absolutely and relatively to the domains +of the other fundamental ethnical groups. While the Mongols are found in +possession of the greater part of Asia, and the Hamites with the +Mediterraneans are diffused over the whole of North Africa, South and +West Europe since the Stone Ages, the Semites, excluding later +expansions--Himyarites to Abyssinia, Phoenicians to the shores of the +Mediterranean, Moslem Arabs to Africa, Irania, and Transoxiana--have +always been confined to the south-west corner of Asia, comprising very +little more than the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Syria, and +(doubtfully) parts of Asia Minor. Moreover the whole mental outlook of +the Semites, their mode of thought, their religion and organisation, +indicate their derivation from a desert people; while in Arabia are +found at the present time the purest examples not only of Semitic type, +but also of Semitic speech[1151]. Their early history, however, as +pointed out above, still awaits the spade of the archaeologist, and the +earliest migrations that can be definitely traced are in the form of +invasions of already established states[1152]. + +The first great wave of Semitic migration from Arabia is placed in the +fourth millennium B.C., 3500 to 2500 or earlier; it affected Babylonia +and probably Syria and Palestine, judging from the Palestinian +place-names belonging to this "Babylonian-Semitic" period, and the close +connection between Palestine and Babylonia in culture and in religious +ideas, indicating prehistoric relationship[1153]. A second wave, +Winckler's Canaanitic or Amoritic migration, followed in the third +millennium, covering Babylonia, laying the foundations of the Assyrian +Empire, invading Syria and Palestine (Phoenicians, Amorites) and +possibly later Egypt (_Hyksos_). A third wave, the Aramaean, which +spread over Babylonia, Mesopotamia and Syria in the second millennium, +was preceded by the swarming into Syria from the desert of the Khabiri +(Habiru) or Hebrews (Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites and Israelites among +others). From the same area the Suti pressed into Babylonia about 1100, +followed by another branch, the Chaldeans from Eastern Arabia. + +These are but a few of the earlier waves of migration from the south of +which traces can be detected in Western Asia. Of all invasions from the +north, that of the Hittites is the most important and the most +confusing. The Hittites appear to have moved south from Cappadocia about +2000 B.C., and they are found warring against Babylonia in the +eighteenth century. A Hittite dynasty flourished at Mittanni 1420-1411 +and in the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries they conquered and +largely occupied Syria[1154]. Invasions of Phrygians and Philistines +from the west followed the breaking up of the Hittite Empire. The last +great Semitic migration was the most widespread of all. "It issued, like +its predecessors, along the whole margin of the desert, and in the +course of a century had flooded not only Syria and Egypt, but all North +Africa and Spain; it had occupied Sicily, raided Constance, and in +France was only checked at Poitiers in 732. Eastward it flooded Persia, +founded an empire in India, and carried war and commerce by sea past +Singapore[1155]." + +"Thus Western Asia has been swept times and again, almost without +number, by conquering hordes and the no less severe ethnical +disturbances of peaceful infiltrations converging from every point of +the compass in turn.... How, then, is it possible to learn anything +today from the contents of this cauldron, filled with such an assortment +of ingredients and still seething from the effects of the disturbance +incidental to the harsh mixing of such incompatible elements[1156]?" +Some of the problems must for the present be regarded as insoluble, but +with the evidence provided by archaeologists and anthropologists an +attempt may be made to read the ethnological history in these obscure +regions. + +The earliest Semitic wave was traceable in Babylonia, but, as seen +above, opinions differ as to its origin and date. "At what period the +Semites first invaded Babylonia, when and where they first attained +supremacy, are not yet matters of history. We find Semites in the land +and in possession of considerable power almost as early as we can go +back[1157]." The characteristic Semitic features are clearly marked, and +the language is closely connected with Canaanitic and Assyrian[1158]. +From the monuments we learn that the Babylonian Semites had full beards +and wore their hair long, contrasting sharply with the shaven Sumerians, +and thus gaining the epithet "the black-headed ones." In nose and lips, +as in dress, they are clearly distinct from the Sumerian type[1159]. + +When history commences, the inhabitants of Babylonia were already highly +civilised. They lived in towns, containing great temples, and were +organised in distinct classes or occupations, and possessed much wealth +in sheep and cattle, manufactured goods, gold, silver and copper. +Engraving on metals and precious stones, statuary, architecture, +pottery, weaving and embroidery, all show a high level of workmanship. +They possessed an elaborate and efficient system of writing, extensively +used and widely understood, consisting of a number of signs, obviously +descended from a form of picture writing, but conventionalised to an +extent that usually precludes the recognition of the original pictures. +This writing was made by the impression of a stylus on blocks or cakes +of fine clay while still quite soft. These "tablets" were sun-dried, but +occasionally baked hard. This cuneiform writing was adopted by, or was +common to, many neighbouring nations, being freely used in Elam, +Armenia and Northern Mesopotamia as far as Cappadocia. + +Assyrian culture was founded upon that of Babylonia, but the Assyrians +appear to have differed from the Babylonians in character, though not in +physical type[1160], while they were closely related in speech. "The +Assyrians differed markedly from the Babylonians in national character. +They were more robust, warlike, fierce, than the mild industrial people +of the south. It is doubtful if they were much devoted to agriculture or +distinguished for manufactures, arts and crafts. They were essentially a +military folk. The king was a despot at home, but the general of the +army abroad. The whole organisation of the state was for war. The +agriculture was left to serfs or slaves. The manufactures, weaving at +any rate, were done by women. The guilds of workmen were probably +foreigners, as the merchants mostly were. The great temples and palaces, +walls and moats, were constructed by captives.... For the greater part +of its existence Assyria was the scourge of the nations and sucked the +blood of other races. It lived on the tribute of subject states, and +conquest ever meant added tribute in all necessaries and luxuries of +life, beside an annual demand for men and horses, cattle and sheep, +grain and wool to supply the needs of the army and the city[1161]." + +The early history of Syria and Palestine is by no means clear, although +much light has been shed in recent years by the excavations of R. A. S. +Macalister at Gezer[1162], where remains were found of a pre-Semitic +race, of Ernst Sellin at Tell Ta'anek and Jericho[1163], and the labours +of the _Deutscher Palaestina-Verein_ and especially G. Schumacher at +Megiddo[1164]. Caves apparently occupied by man in the Neolithic period +were discovered at Gezer, and are dated at about 3500 to 3000 B.C. from +their position below layers in which Egyptian scarabs appear. Fragments +of bones give indications of the physical type. None of the individuals +exceeded 5 ft. 7 inches (1.702 m.) in height, and most were under 5 ft. +4 inches (1.626 m.). They were muscular, with elongated crania and thick +heavy skull-bones. From their physical characters it could be clearly +seen that they did not belong to the Semitic race. They burned their +dead, a non-Semitic custom, a cave being fitted up as a crematorium, +with a chimney cut up through the solid rock to secure a good +draught[1165]. + +The first great influx of Semitic nomads is conjectured to have reached +Babylonia, not from the south, but from the north-west, after traversing +the Syrian coast lands. They left colonists behind them in this region, +who afterwards as the Amurru (Amorites) pressed on in their turn into +Babylonia and established the earliest independent dynasty in +Babylon[1166]. + +The second great wave of Semitic migration appears to have included the +Phoenicians[1167], so called by the Greeks, though they called +themselves Canaanites and their land Canaan[1168], and are referred to +in the Old Testament, as in inscriptions at Tyre, as "Sidonians." They +themselves had a tradition that their early home was on the Persian +Gulf, a view held by Theodore Bent and others[1169], and recent +discoveries emphasise the close cultural (not necessarily racial) +connection between Palestine and Babylonia[1170]. + +The weakening of Egyptian hold upon Palestine about the fourteenth +century B.C. encouraged incursions of restless Habiru (Habiri) from the +Syrian deserts, commonly identified with the Hebrews, and invasions of +Hittites from the north. In the thirteenth century Egypt recovered +Palestine, leaving the Hittites in possession of Syria. About this time +the coast was invaded by Levantines, including the Purasati, in whom +may perhaps be recognised the Philistines, who gave their name to +Palestine[1171]. + +With the Hebrew or Israelitish inhabitants of south Syria (Canaan, +Palestine, "Land of Promise") we are here concerned only in so far as +they form a distinct branch of the Semitic family. The term +"Jews[1172]," properly indicating the children of Judah, fourth son of +Jacob, has long been applied generally to the whole people, who since +the disappearance of the ten northern tribes have been mainly +represented by the tribe of Judah, a remnant of Benjamin and a few +Levites, _i.e._ the section of the nation which to the number of some +50,000 returned to south Palestine (kingdom of Judaea) after the +Babylonian captivity. These were doubtless later joined by some of the +dispersed northern tribes, who from Jacob's alternative name were +commonly called the "ten tribes of Israel." But all such Israelites had +lost their separate nationality, and were consequently absorbed in the +royal tribe of Judah. Since the suppression of the various revolts under +the Empire, the Judaei themselves have been a dispersed nationality, and +even before those events numerous settlements had been made in different +parts of the Greek and Roman worlds, as far west as Tripolitana, and +also in Arabia and Abyssinia. + +But most of the present communities probably descend from those of the +great dispersion after the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.), increased by +considerable accessions of converted "Gentiles," for the assumption that +they have made few or no converts is no longer tenable. In exile they +have been far more a religious body than a broken nation, and as such +they could not fail under favourable conditions to spread their +teachings, not only amongst their Christian slaves, but also amongst +peoples, such as the Abyssinian Falashas, of lower culture than +themselves. In pre-Muhammadan times many Arabs of Yemen and other +districts had conformed, and some of their Jewish kings (Asad Abu-Karib, +Dhu Nowas, and others) are still remembered. About the seventh century +all the Khazars--a renowned Turki people of the Volga, the Crimea, and +the Caspian--accepted Judaism, though they later conformed to Russian +orthodoxy. The Visigoth persecution of the Spanish Jews (fifth and sixth +centuries) was largely due to their proselytising zeal, against which, +as well as against Jewish and Christian mixed marriages, numerous papal +decrees were issued in medieval times. + +To this process of miscegenation is attributed the great variety of +physical features observed amongst the Jews of different +countries[1173], while the distinctly red type cropping out almost +everywhere has been traced by Sayce and others to primordial +interminglings with the Amorites ("Red People"). "Uniformity only exists +in the books and not in reality. There are Jews with light and with dark +eyes, Jews with straight and with curly hair, Jews with high and narrow +and Jews with short and broad, noses; their cephalic index oscillates +between 65 and 98--as far as this index ever oscillates in the _genus +homo_[1174]!" Nevertheless certain marked characteristics--large hooked +nose, prominent watery eyes, thick pendulous and almost everted under +lip, rough frizzly lustreless hair--are sufficiently general to be +regarded as racial traits. + +The race is richly endowed with the most varied qualities, as shown by +the whole tenour of their history. Originally pure nomads, they became +excellent agriculturists after the settlement in Canaan, and since then +they have given proof of the highest capacity for science, letters, +erudition of all kinds, finance, music, and diplomacy. The reputation of +the medieval Arabs as restorers of learning is largely due to their wise +tolerance of the enlightened Jewish communities in their midst, and on +the other hand Spain and Portugal have never recovered from the national +loss sustained by the expulsion of the Jews in the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries. In late years the persecutions, especially in +Russia, have caused a fresh exodus from the east of Europe, and by the +aid of philanthropic capitalists flourishing agricultural settlements +have been founded in Palestine and Argentina. From statistics taken in +various places up to 1911 the Jewish communities are at present +estimated at about 12,000,000, of whom three-fourths are in Europe, +380,000 in Africa, 500,000 in Asia, the rest in America and +Australia[1175]. + +Intimately associated with all these Aramaic Canaanitic Semites were a +mysterious people who have been identified with the _Hittites_[1176] of +Scripture, and to whom this name has been extended by common consent. +They are also identified with the _Kheta_ of the Egyptian +monuments[1177], as well as with the _Khatti_ of the Assyrian cuneiform +texts. Indeed all these are, without any clear proof, assumed to be the +same people, and to them are ascribed a considerable number of stones, +cylinders, and gems from time to time picked up at various points +between the Middle Euphrates and the Mediterranean, engraved in a kind +of hieroglyphic or rather pictorial script, which has been variously +deciphered according to the bias or fancy of epigraphists. This simply +means that the "Hittite texts" have not yet been interpreted, and are +likely to remain unexplained, until a clue is found in some bilingual +document, such as the Rosetta Stone, which surrendered the secret of the +Egyptian hieroglyphs. L. Messerschmidt, editor of a number of Hittite +texts[1178], declared (in 1902) that only one sign in two hundred had +been interpreted with any certainty[1179], and although the system of A. +H. Sayce[1180] is based on a scientific plan, his decipherments must for +the present remain uncertain. The important tablets found by H. Winckler +in 1907[1181] at Boghaz Keui in Cappadocia, identified with Khatti, the +Hittite capital, have thrown much light on Hittite history, and support +many of Sayce's conjectures. The records show that the Hittites were +one of the great nations of antiquity, with a power extending at its +prime from the Asiatic coast of the Aegean to Mesopotamia, and from the +Black Sea to Kadesh on the Orontes, a power which neither Egypt nor +Assyria could withstand. "It is still not certain to which of the great +families of nations they belonged. The suggestion has been made that +their language has certain Indo-European characteristics; but for the +present it is safer to regard them as an indigenous race of Asia Minor. +Their strongly-marked facial type, with long, straight nose and receding +forehead and chin, is strikingly reproduced on all their monuments, and +suggests no comparison with Aryan or Semitic stocks[1182]." + +F. von Luschan, however, is able to throw some light on the ethnological +history of the Hittites. When investigating the early inhabitants of +Western Asia he was constantly struck by the appearance of a markedly +non-Semitic type, which he called "Armenoid." The most typical were the +Tahtadji or woodcutters of Western Lycia living up in the mountains and +totally distinct in every way from their Mohammedan neighbours. "Their +somatic characters are remarkably homogeneous; they have a tawny white +skin, much hair on the face, straight hair, dark brown eyes, a narrow, +generally aquiline nose, and a very short and high head. The cephalic +index varies only from 82 to 91, with a maximum frequency of 86[1183]." +Similar types were found in the Bektash, who are town-dwellers in Lycia, +and in the Ansariyeh in Northern Syria. In Upper Mesopotamia these +features occur again among the Kyzylbash, and in Western Kurdistan among +the Yezidi. "We find a small minority of groups possessing a similarity +of creed and a remarkable uniformity of type, scattered over a vast part +of Western Asia. I see no other way to account for this fact than to +assume that the members of all these sects are the remains of an old +homogeneous population, which have preserved their religion and have +therefore refrained from intermarriage with strangers and so preserved +their old physical characteristics[1184]." They all speak the languages +of their orthodox neighbours, Turkish, Arabic and Kurdish, but are +absolutely homogeneous as to their somatic characters. Two other groups +with the same physical type are the Druses of the Lebanon and +Antilebanos country, who speak Arabic and pass officially as +Mohammedans, though their secret creed contains many Christian, Jewish +and pantheistic elements. To the north of the Druses are the Christian +Maronites, said to be the descendants of a Monophysite sect, separated +from the common Christian Church after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 +A.D. "Partly through their isolation in the mountains, partly through +their not intermarrying with their Mahometan or Druse neighbours, the +Maronites of today have preserved an old type in almost marvellous +purity. In no other Oriental group is there a greater number of men with +extreme height of the skull and excessive flattening of the occipital +region than among the Maronites.... Very often their occiput is so steep +that one is again and again inclined to think of artificial +deformation." But "no such possibility is found[1185]." + +These hypsibrachycephalic groups with high narrow noses, found also in +Persia, among Turks, Greeks, and still more commonly among Armenians, +were first (1892) called by von Luschan "Armenoid," but "there can be no +doubt that they are all descended from tribes belonging to the great +Hittite Empire. So it is the type of the Hittites that has been +preserved in all these groups for more than 3000 years[1186]." As to +their primordial home von Luschan connects them with the "Alpine Race" +of Central Europe, but leaves it an open question whether the Hittites +came from Central Europe, or the Alpine Race from Western Asia, though +inclining to the latter view. The high narrow nose (the essential +somatic difference between the Hittites and the other brachycephalic +Arabs) "originated as a merely accidental mutation and was then locally +fixed, either by a certain tendency of taste and fashion or by long, +perhaps millennial in-breeding. The 'Hittite nose' has finally become a +dominant characteristic in the Mendelian sense, and we see it, not only +in the actual geographical province of the Alpine Race, but often enough +also here in England[1186]." + +In Arabia itself inscriptions point to the early existence of civilised +kingdoms, among which those of the Sabaeans[1187] and the +Minaeans[1188] stand out most clearly, though their dates and even their +chronological order are much disputed. Possibly both lasted until the +rise of the Himyarites at the beginning of the Christian era. All are +agreed however that Arabian civilisation reached a very high level in +the centuries preceding the birth of the Prophet, before the increase in +shipping led to the abandonment of the caravan trade. + +The modern inhabitants are divided into the Southern Arabians, mainly +settled agriculturalists of Yemen, Hadramaut and Oman, who trace their +descent from Shem, and the Northern Arabians (Bedouin[1189]), pastoral +tribes, who trace their descent from Ishmael. The two groups have even +been considered ethnologically distinct, but, as von Luschan points out, +"peninsular Arabia is the least-known land in the world, and large +regions of it are even now absolutely _terrae incognitae_, so great +caution is necessary in forming conclusions, from the measurements of a +few dozens of men, concerning the anthropology of a land more than five +times as great as France[1190]." His measurements of "the only real +Semites, the Bedawy," gave a cephalic index ranging from 68 to 78, while +the nose was short and fairly broad, very seldom of a "Jewish type." +Recently Seligman[1191] has shown that whereas the Semites of Northern +Arabia conform more or less to the type just mentioned those of Southern +Arabia are of low or median stature (1.62-1.65 m., 63-3/4-65 in.), and +are predominantly brachycephalic, the cephalic index ranging from 71 to +92, with an average of about 82. + +Elsewhere--Iberia, Sicily, Malta[1192], Irania, Central Asia, +Malaysia--the Arab invaders have failed to preserve either their speech +or their racial individuality. In some places (Spain, Portugal, Sicily) +they have disappeared altogether, leaving nothing behind them beyond +some slight linguistic traces, and the monuments of their wonderful +architecture, crumbling Alhambras or stupendous mosques re-consecrated +as Christian temples. But in the eastern lands their influence is still +felt by multitudes, who profess Islam and use the Arabic script in +writing their Persian, Turki, or Malay languages, because some centuries +ago those regions were swept by a tornado of rude Bedouin fanatics, or +else visited by peaceful traders and missionaries from the Arabian +peninsula. + +The monotheism proclaimed by these zealous preachers is often spoken of +as a special inheritance of the Semitic peoples, or at least already +possessed by them at such an early period in their life-history as to +seem inseparable from their very being. But it was not so. Before the +time of Allah or of Jahveh every hill-top had its tutelar deity; the +caves and rocks and the very atmosphere swarmed with "jins"; Assyrian +and Phoenician pantheons, with their Baals, and Molochs, and Astartes +and Adonais, were as thickly peopled as those of the Hellenes and +Hindus, and in this, as in all other natural systems of belief, the +monotheistic concept was gradually evolved by a slow process of +elimination. Nor was the process perfected by all the Semitic +peoples--Canaanites, Assyrians, Amorites, Phoenicians, and others having +always remained at the polytheistic stage--but only by the Hebrews and +the Arabs, the two more richly endowed members of the Semitic family. +Even here a reservation has to be made, for we now know that there was +really but one evolution, that of Jahveh, the adoption of the idea +embodied in Allah being historically traceable to the Jewish and +Christian systems. As Jastrow points out, the higher religious and +ethical movement began with Moses, who invested the national Jahveh with +ethical traits, thus paving the way for the wider conceptions of the +Prophets. "The point of departure in the Hebrew religion from that of +the Semitic in general did not come until the rise of a body of men who +set up a new ideal of divine government of the universe, and with it as +a necessary corollary a new standard of religious conduct. Throwing +aside the barriers of tribal limitations to the jurisdiction of a deity, +it was the Hebrew Prophets who first prominently and emphatically +brought forth the view of a divine power conceived in spiritual terms, +who, in presiding over the universe and in controlling the fates of +nations and individuals, acts from self-imposed laws of righteousness +tempered with mercy[1193]." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1150] The divergent views of orientalists concerning Semitic +(linguistic) origins are summarised by W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of +Europe_, 1900, p. 375. + +[1151] E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, Sec. 336. O. +Procksch, however, while regarding the origin of the Semites as an +unsolved problem, considers Arabia as their centre of dispersal rather +than their original home. As far as early Semitic migrations can be +traced he thinks they indicate a north to south direction, and he sees +no cause for disputing the Biblical account (_Gen._ ii. 10 ff.) deriving +the descendants of Shem "from the neighbourhood of Ararat, i.e. +Armenia, across the Taurus to the North Syrian plain." "Die Voelker +Altpalaestinas," _Das Land der Bibel_, I. 2, 1914, p. 11. Cf. also J. L. +Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, p. 115. + +[1152] For the discussion as to whether Semites or Sumerians were the +earlier occupants of Babylonia see p. 263 above. + +[1153] Hugo Winckler, "Die Voelker Vorderasiens," _Der Alte Orient_, I. +1900, pp. 14-15 and _Auszug aus der Vorderasiatische Geschichte_, 1905, +p. 2. + +[1154] Cf. A. C. Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 21. + +[1155] J. L. Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, pp. 118-9. For an +admirable description of the Semitic migrations see pp. 104-5, and for +the geographical aspect, see E. C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic +Environment: on the basis of Ratzel's System of Anthropo-Geography_, +1911, pp. 6-7 and under "Nomads" in the Index. + +[1156] G. Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, 1911, p. 133. + +[1157] C. H. W. Johns, _Ancient Babylonia_, 1913, pp. 18-19. For culture +see pp. 16-17. + +[1158] O. Procksch, "Die Voelker Altpalaestinas," _Das Land der Bibel_, I. +2, 1914. + +[1159] Cf. E. Meyer, "Sumerier und Semiten in Babylonien," _Abh. der +Koenigl. Preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaft_. 1906; L. W. King, _History of +Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 40 ff. + +[1160] In the Assyrians von Luschan detects traces of the +hyperbrachycephalic people of Asia Minor and Armenia, for they appear to +differ from the pure Semites especially in the shape of the nose. Meyer +regards this variation as possibly due to a prehistoric population, but, +he adds, studies of physical types both historically and +anthropologically are in their infancy. E. Meyer, _Geschichte des +Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, Sec. 330 A. + +[1161] C. H. W. Johns, _Ancient Assyria_, 1912, p. 8. + +[1162] _Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statements_, 1902 onwards. +See also L. B. Paton, Art. "Canaanites," in Hastings' _Encyclopaedia of +Religion and Ethics_. + +[1163] Tell Ta'anek, 1904, _Denkschriften_, Vienna Academy, and "The +German Excavations at Jericho," _Pal. Expl. Fund Quart. St._ 1910. + +[1164] _Tell el-Mutesellim_, 1908. + +[1165] _Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statements_, 1902, p. 347 +ff. + +[1166] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, 1910, p. 55; C. H. W. +Johns, _Ancient Babylonia_, 1913, pp. 61-2; L. B. Paton, Art. +"Canaanites," Hastings' _Ency. of Religion and Ethics_, 1910; E. Meyer, +_Geschichte des Altertums_, I. 2, 1909, Sec.Sec. 396, 436; O. Procksch, "Die +Voelker Altpalaestinas," _Das Land der Bibel_, I. 2, 1914, p. 25 ff.; G. +Maspero, _The Struggle of the Nations, Egypt, Syria, and Assyria_, 1910. + +[1167] [Greek: Phoinikes], probably meaning red, either on account of +their sun-burnt skin, or from the dye for which they were famous. For +the Phoenician physical type cf. W. Z. Ripley, _Races of Europe_, 1900, +pp. 287, 444. + +[1168] In the Old Testament "Canaanite" and "Amorite" are usually +synonymous. + +[1169] A. C. Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 22. For a general +account of Phoenician history see J. P. Mahaffy, in Hutchinson's +_History of the Nations_, 1914, p. 303 ff. + +[1170] Cf. Morris Jastrow, _Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions_ (Haskell +Lectures), 1913. + +[1171] See S. A. Cook, Art. "Jews," _Ency. Brit._ 1911; O. Procksch, +"Die Voelker Altpalaestinas," _Das Land der Bibel_, I. 2, 1914, p. 28 ff. + +[1172] From Old French _Juis_, Lat. _Judaei_, _i.e._ Sons of Jehudah +(Judah). See my article, "Jews," in Cassell's _Storehouse of General +Information_, 1893, from which I take many of the following particulars. + +[1173] W. M. Flinders Petrie attributes the variation to environment, +not miscegenation. "History and common observation lead us to the +equally legitimate conclusion that the country and not the race +determines the cranium." "Migrations," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVI. +1906, p. 218. He is here criticising the excellent discussion of the +whole question in W. Z. Ripley's _The Races of Europe_, 1900, Chap. XIV. +"The Jews and Semites," pp. 368-400, with bibliography. Cf. also R. N. +Salaman, "Heredity and the Jews," _Journ. of Genetics_, I. p. 274. + +[1174] F. von Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 226. + +[1175] M. Fishberg, _The Jews_, 1911, p. 10. + +[1176] As Heth, settled in Hebron (_Gen._ xxiii. 3) and the central +uplands (_Num._ xiii. 29) but also as a confederacy of tribes to the +north (1 _Kings_ x. 29, 2 _Kings_ vii. 6). + +[1177] This identification is based on "the casts of Hittite profiles +made by Petrie from the Egyptian monuments. The profiles are peculiar, +unlike those of any other people represented by the Egyptian artists, +but they are identical with the profiles which occur among the Hittite +hieroglyphs" (A. H. Sayce, _Acad._, Sept. 1894, p. 259). + +[1178] "Corpus insc. Hetticarum," _Zeitschr. d. d. morgenlaend. +Gesellsch._ 1900, 1902, 1906, etc. + +[1179] "Die Hettiter," _Der Alte Orient_, I. 4, 1902, p. 14 n. The sign +in question, a bisected oval, is interpreted "god." + +[1180] "Decipherment of the Hittite Inscriptions," _Soc. of Bibl. +Archaeology_, 1903, and "Hittite Inscriptions," _ib._ 1905, 1907. + +[1181] _Orient. Literaturzeitung_, 1907, and _Orient-Gesellsch._ 1907. +See D. G. Hogarth, "Recent Hittite Research," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ +XXXVI. 1909, p. 408. + +[1182] L. W. King, "The Hittites," Hutchinson's _History of the +Nations_, 1914, p. 263. For this type see the illustration of Hittite +divinities, Pl. XXXI. of F. von Luschan's paper referred to below. For +language see now C. J. S. Marstrander, "Caractere Indo-Europeen de la +langue Hittite," _Videnskapsselskapets Skrifter II Hist. filos. Klasse_, +1918, No. 2. + +[1183] "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 230. For this region see D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer +East_, 1902, with ethnological map. + +[1184] _Loc. cit._ p. 232. + +[1185] F. von Luschan, _loc. cit._ p. 233. + +[1186] _Loc. cit._ pp. 242-3. + +[1187] Saba', Sheba of the Old Testament, where there are various +allusions to its wealth and trading importance from the time of Solomon +to that of Cyrus. + +[1188] Ma'[=i]n of the inscriptions. + +[1189] Arabic _badaw[=i]y_, a dweller in the desert. + +[1190] _Loc. cit._ p. 235. + +[1191] C. G. Seligman, "The physical characters of the Arabs," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLVII. 1917, p. 214 ff. + +[1192] The rude Semitic dialect still current in this island appears to +be fundamentally Phoenician (Carthaginian), later affected by Arabic and +Italian influences. (M. Mizzi, _A Voice from Malta_, 1896, _passim_.) + +[1193] M. Jastrow, _Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions_, 1910. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (_continued_) + + THE PEOPLES OF ARYAN SPEECH--European Trade Routes--"Aryan" + Migrations--Indo-European Cradle--Indo-European Type--Date of + Indo-European Expansion--Origin of Nordic Peoples--The _Cimbri_ + and _Teutoni_--_The Bastarnae_--_The Moeso-Goths_--Scandinavia-- + Modification of the Nordic Type--THE CELTO-SLAVS: Their Ethnical + Position defined--Aberrant _Tyrolese_ Type--_Rhaetians_ and + _Etruscans_--Etruscan Origins--The Celts--Definitions--Celts + in Britain--The Picts--Brachycephals in Britain--Round Barrow + Type--Alpine Type--Ethnic Relations--Formation of the English + Nation--Ethnic Relations in Ireland--Scotland--and in Wales--Present + Constitution of the British Peoples--The English Language--_The + French Nation_--Constituent Elements--Mental Traits--_The Spaniards + and Portuguese_--Ethnic Relations in Italy--_Ligurian_, _Illyrian_, + and _Aryan Elements_--The Present _Italians_--Art and Ethics--_The + Rumanians_--Ethnic Relations in Greece--_The Hellenes_--Origins and + Migrations--The _Lithuanian_ Factor--_Aeolians_; _Dorians_; + _Ionians_--The Hellenic Legend--The Greek Language--THE SLAVS-- + Origins and Migrations--_Sarmatians_ and _Budini_--_Wends_, + _Chekhs_, and _Poles_--The Southern Slavs--Migrations--_Serbs_, + _Croats_, _Bosnians_--_The Albanians_--_The Russians_-- + Panslavism--Russian Origins--_Alans_ and _Ossets_--Aborigines + of the Caucasus--THE IRANIANS--Ethnic and Linguistic Relations-- + _Persians_, _Tajiks_ and _Galcha_--_Afghans_--Lowland and Hill + Tajiks--The Galchic Linguistic Family--Galcha and Tajik Types-- + _Homo Europaeus_ and _H. Alpinus_ in Central Asia--THE HINDUS-- + Ethnic Relations in India--Classification of Types--_The Kols_-- + _The Dravidians_--Dravidian and Aryan Languages--The Hindu + Castes--OCEANIA--_Indonesians_--_Micronesians_--_Eastern + Polynesians_--Origins, Types, and Divisions--Migrations-- + Polynesian Culture. + + +As the result of recent researches there is an end of the theory that +bronze came in with the "Aryans," and it is from this standpoint that +the revelation of an independent Aegean culture in touch with Babylonia +and Egypt some four millenniums before the new era is of such momentous +import in determining the ethnical relations of the historical, _i.e._ +the present European populations. + +Some idea of cultured relations in prehistoric times may be obtained +from a review of the trade communications as indicated by archaeology +during the Bronze Age which lasted through the whole of the third +millennium down to the middle of the second. As we have seen, in the +Nile valley, in Mesopotamia and in the Aegean area, remains +characteristic of Bronze Age culture rest on a neolithic substratum, and +a transitional stage, when gold and copper were the only metals known, +often connects the two. From the time of this dawning of the Age of +Metals, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley, of Crete, of Cyprus and of +the mainland of Greece freely exchanged their products. Navigation was +already flourishing, and the sea united rather than divided the insular +and coastal populations. Gradually Egeo-Mykenaean civilisation extended +from Crete and the Greek lands to the west, influencing Sicily directly, +and leaving distinct traces in Southern Italy, Sardinia and the Iberian +peninsula, while Iberia in its turn contributed to the development of +Western Gaul and the British Isles. The knowledge of copper, and, soon +after, that of bronze, spread by the Atlantic route to Ireland, while +Central Europe was reached directly from the south. Thanks to the trade +in amber, always in demand by the Mediterranean populations, there was a +continuous trade route to Scandinavia, which thus had direct +communication with Southern Europe. As civilisation developed, the lands +of the north and west became exporters as well as importers, each +developing a distinct industry not always inferior to the more +precocious culture of the south[1194]. + +With trade communications thus stretching across Europe from south to +north, and from east to extreme west, it would seem not improbable that +movements of peoples were equally unrestricted, and this would account +for the appearance on the threshold of history of various peoples +formerly grouped together on account of their language, as "Aryan." +J. L. Myres, however, is inclined to attribute "the coming of the North" +to the same type of climatic impulse which induced the Semitic swarms +described above (p. 489). After referring to the earliest occurrence of +Indo-European names[1195], he continues "Before the time of the +Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt there had been a very extensive raid of +Indo-European-speaking folk by way of the Persian plateau, as far as the +Syrian coastland and the interior of Asia Minor." These raids coincide +with a new cultural feature of great significance. "It is of the first +importance to find that it is in the dark period which immediately +precedes the Eighteenth Dynasty revival--when Egypt was prostrate under +mysterious 'Shepherd Kings,' and Babylon under Kassite invaders equally +mysterious--that the civilized world first became acquainted with one of +the greatest blessings of civilisation, the domesticated horse. The +period of Arabian drought, which drove forth the 'Canaanite' emigrants, +may have had its counterpart on the northern steppe, to provoke the +migration of these horsemen." He adds, however, "our knowledge both of +the extent of these droughts and of the chronology of both these +migrations, is too vague for this to be taken as more than a provisional +basis for more exact enquiry[1196]." + +The attempt has often been made to locate the original home of the +Indo-European people by an appeal to philology, and idyllic pictures +have been drawn up of the "Aryan family" consisting of the father the +protector, the mother the producer, and the children "whose name implied +that they kept everything clean and neat[1197]." They were regarded as +originally pastoral and later agricultural, ranging over a wide area +with Bactria for its centre. With advancing knowledge of what is +primitive in Indo-European this circumstantial picture crumbled to +pieces, and Feist[1198] reduces all inferences deducible from linguistic +palaeontology to the sole "argumentum ex silencio" (which he regards as +distinctly untrustworthy in itself), that the "Urheimat" was a country +in which in the middle of the third millennium B.C. such southern +animals as lion, elephant, and tiger, were unknown. It was commonly +assumed that the "Aryan cradle" was in Asia, and the suggestion of R. G. +Latham in 1851 that the original home was in Europe was scouted by one +of the most eminent writers on the subject--Victor Hehn--as lunacy +possible only to one who lived in a country of cranks[1197]. But +since this date, there has been a shifting of the "Urheimat" further and +further west. O. Schrader[1199] places it in South Russia, G. +Kossinna[1200] and H. Hirt[1201] support the claims of Germany, while K. +Penka and many others go still further north, deriving both language +and tall fair dolichocephalic speakers (proto-Teutons) from +Scandinavia[1202]. + +F. Kauffmann[1203], noting the contrast between the cultures associated +with pre-neolithic and with neolithic kitchen-middens, is prepared to +attribute the former to aboriginal inhabitants, Ligurians, and, further +north, Kvaens (Finns, Lapps), and the neolithic civilisation of Europe +to Indo-Europeans. "Thus the neolithic Indo-Europeans would already have +advanced as far as South Sweden in the Litorina period of the Baltic, +during the oak-period." + +On the other hand the discovery of Tocharish has inclined E. Meyer[1204] +to reconsider an Asiatic origin, but the information as to this language +is too fragmentary to be conclusive on this point. After reviewing the +various theories Giles[1205] concludes "in the great plain which extends +across Europe north of the Alps and Carpathians and across Asia north of +the Hindu Kush there are few geographical obstacles to prevent the rapid +spread of peoples from any part of its area to any other, and, as we +have seen, the Celts and the Hungarians etc. have in the historical +period demonstrated the rapidity with which such migrations could be +made. Such migrations may possibly account for the appearance of a +people using a _centum_ language so far east as Turkestan[1206]." + +More acrimonious than the discussion of the original home is the dispute +as to the original physical type of the Indo-European-speaking people. +It was almost a matter of faith with Germans that the language was +introduced by tall fair dolichocephals of Nordic type. On the other hand +the Gallic school sought to identify the Alpine race as the only and +original Aryans. The futility of the whole discussion is ably +demonstrated by W. Z. Ripley in his protest against the confusion of +language and race[1207]. Feist[1208] summarises our information as +follows. All that we can say about the physical type of the "Urvolk" is +that since the Indo-Europeans came from a northerly region[1209] (not +yet identified) it is surmised that they belonged to the light-skinned +people. The observation that mountain folk of Indo-Germanic speech in +southern areas, such as the Ossets of the Caucasus, the Kurds of the +uplands of Armenia and Irania, and the Tajiks of the western Pamirs not +infrequently exhibit fair hair or blue eyes supports this view. +Nevertheless, as he points out, brachycephals are not hereby excluded. +His own conclusion, which naturally results from a review of the whole +evidence, is that the "Urvolk" was not a pure race, but a mixture of +different types. Already in neolithic times races in Europe were no +longer pure, and in France "formed an almost inextricable medley" and +Feist assumes with E. de Michelis[1210] that the Indo-Europeans were a +conglomerate of peoples of different origins who in prehistoric times +were welded together into an ethnic unity, as the present English have +been formed from pre-Indo-European Caledonians (Picts and Scots), Celts, +Roman traders and soldiers and later Teutonic settlers[1211]. + +The evidence that Indo-Europeans were already in existence in +Mesopotamia, Syria and Irania about the middle of the second millennium +B.C. has already been mentioned. About the same time the Vedic hymns +bear witness to the appearance of the Aryans of Western India. The +formation of an Aryan group with a common language, religion and culture +is a process necessarily requiring considerable length of time, so that +their swarming off from the Indo-European parent group must be pushed +back to far into the third millennium. At this period there are +indications of the settling of the Greeks in the southern promontories +of the Balkan peninsula at latest about 2000 B.C., while Thracian and +Illyrian peoples may have filled the mainland, though the Dorians +occupied Epirus, Macedonia, and perhaps Southern Illyria. Indo-European +stocks were already in occupation of Central Italy. It would appear +therefore that the period of the Indo-European community, before the +migrations, must be placed at the end of the Stone Ages, at the time +when copper was first introduced. Thus it seems legitimate to infer +that the expansion of the Indo-Europeans began about 2500 B.C. and the +furthest advanced branches entered into the regions of the older +populations and cultures at latest after the beginning of the second +millennium[1212]. About 1000 B.C. we find three areas occupied by +Indo-European-speaking peoples, all widely separated from each other and +apparently independent. These are (1) the Aryan groups in Asia; (2) the +Balkan peninsula together with Central and Lower Italy, and the Mysians +and Phrygians of Asia Minor (possibly the Thracians had already advanced +across the Danube); and (3) Teutons, Celts and Letto-Slavs over the +greater part of Germany and Scandinavia, perhaps also already in Eastern +France and in Poland. The following centuries saw the advance of +Iranians to South Russia and further west, the pressing of the Phrygians +into Armenia, and lastly the Celtic migrations in Western Europe. + +From the linguistic and botanical evidence brought forward by the Polish +botanist Rostafinski[1213] the ancestors of the Celts, Germans and +Balto-Slavs must have occupied a region north of the Carpathians, and +west of a line between Koenigsberg and Odessa (the beech and yew zone). +The Balto-Slavs subsequently lost the word for beech and transferred the +word for yew to the sallow and black alder (both with red wood) but +their possession of a word for hornbeam locates their original home in +Polesie--the marshland traversed by the Pripet but not south or east of +Kiev. + +Although, owing to the absence of Teutonic inscriptions before the third +or fourth century A.D. it is difficult to trace the Nordic peoples with +any certainty during the Bronze or Early Iron Ages, yet the fairly +well-defined group of Bronze Age antiquities, covering the basin of the +Elbe, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Jutland, Southern Sweden and the islands of +the Belt have been conjectured with much probability to represent early +Teutonic civilisation. "Whether we are justified in speaking of a +Teutonic race in the anthropological sense is at least doubtful, for the +most striking characteristics of these peoples [as deduced from +prehistoric skeletons, descriptions of ancient writers and present day +statistics] occur also to a considerable extent among their eastern and +western neighbours, where they can hardly be ascribed altogether to +Teutonic admixture. The only result of anthropological investigation +which so far can be regarded as definitely established is that the old +Teutonic lands in Northern Germany, Denmark and Southern Sweden have +been inhabited by people of the same type since the neolithic age if not +earlier[1214]." This type is characterised by tall stature, long narrow +skull, light complexion with light hair and eyes[1215]. + +During the age of national migrations, from the fourth to the sixth +century, the territories of the Nordic peoples were vastly extended, +partly by conquest, and partly by arrangement with the Romans. But these +movements had begun before the new era, for we hear of the _Cimbri_ +invading Illyricum, Gaul and Italy in the second century B.C. probably +from Jutland[1216], where they were apparently associated with the +_Teutoni_. Still earlier, in the third century B.C., the _Bastarnae_, +said by many ancient writers to have been Teutonic in origin, invaded +and settled between the Carpathians and the Black Sea. Already mentioned +doubtfully by Strabo as separating the Germani from the Scythians +(Tyragetes) about the Dniester and Dnieper, their movements may now be +followed by authentic documents from the Baltic to the Euxine. +Furtwaengler[1217] shows that the earliest known German figures are those +of the Adamklissi monument, in the Dobruja, commemorating the victory of +Crassus over the Bastarnae, Getae, and Thracians in 28 B.C. The +Bastarnae migrated before the Cimbri and Teutons through the Vistula +valley to the Lower Danube about 200 B.C. They had relations with the +Macedonians, and the successes of Mithridates over the Romans were due +to their aid. The account of their overthrow by Crassus in Dio Cassius +is in striking accord with the scenes on the Adamklissi monument. Here +they appear dressed only in a kind of trowsers, with long pointed +beards, and defiant but noble features. The same type recurs both on the +column of Trajan, who engaged them as auxiliaries in his Dacian wars, +and on the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, here however wearing a tunic, a sign +perhaps of later Roman influences. And thus after 2000 years are +answered Strabo's doubts by modern archaeology. + +Much later there followed along the same beaten track between the Baltic +and Black Sea a section of the Goths, whom we find first settled in the +Baltic lands in proximity to the Finns. The exodus from this region can +scarcely have taken place before the second century of the new era, for +they are still unknown to Strabo, while Tacitus locates them on the +Baltic between the Elbe and the Vistula. Later Cassiodorus and others +bring them from Scandinavia to the Vistula, and up that river to the +Euxine and Lower Danube. Although often regarded as legendary[1218], +this migration is supported by archaeological evidence. In 1837 a gold +torque with a Gothic inscription was found at Petroassa in Wallachia, +and in 1858 an iron spear-head with a Gothic name in the same script, +which dates from the first Iron Age, turned up near Kovel in Volhynia. +The spear-head is identical with one found in 1865 at Muenchenberg in +Brandenburg, on which Wimmer remarks that "of 15 Runic inscriptions in +Germany the two earliest occur on iron pikes. There is no doubt that the +runes of the Kovel spear-head and of the ring came from Gothic +tribes[1219]." These Southern Goths, later called Moeso-Goths, because +they settled in Moesia (Bulgaria and Servia), had certain physical and +even moral characters of the Old Teutons, as seen in the Emperor +Maximinus, born in Thrace of a Goth by an Alan woman--very tall, strong, +handsome, with light hair and milk-white skin[1220], temperate in all +things and of great mental energy. + +Before their absorption in the surrounding Bulgar and Slav populations +the Moeso-Goths were evangelised in the fourth century by their bishop +Ulfilas ("Wolf"), whose fragmentary translation of Scripture, preserved +in the _Codex Argenteus_ of Upsala, is the most precious monument of +early Teutonic speech extant. + +To find the pure Nordic type at the present day we must seek for it in +Scandinavia, which possesses one of the most highly individualised +populations in Europe. The Osterdal, and the neighbourhood of Vaage in +Upper Gudbrandsdal in Norway, and the Dalarna district in Sweden contain +perhaps the purest Teutonic type in all Europe, the cephalic index +falling well below 78. But along the Norwegian coasts there is a strong +tendency to brachycephaly (the index rising to 82-3), combined with a +darkening of the hair and eye colour (the type occurs also in Denmark), +indicating an outlying lodgement of the Alpine race from Central Europe. +The anthropological history of Scandinavia, according to Ripley, is as +follows: "Norway has ... probably been peopled from two directions, one +element coming from Sweden and another from the south by way of Denmark. +The latter type, now found on the sea coast and especially along the +least attractive portion of it, has been closely hemmed in by the +Teutonic immigration from Sweden[1221]." Brachycephalic people already +occupied parts of Denmark in the Stone Age[1222], and, according to the +scanty information available, the present population is extremely mixed. +One-third of the children have light hair and light eyes, and tall +stature coincides in the main with fair colouring, but in Bornholm where +the cephalic index is 80 there is a taller dark type and a shorter light +type, the latter perhaps akin to the Eastern variety of the Alpine +race[1223]. + +The original Nordic type is by no means universally represented among +the present Germanic peoples. From the examination made some years ago +of 6,758,000 school children[1224], it would appear that about 31 per +cent. of living Germans may be classed as blonds, 14 as brunettes, and +55 as mixed; and further that of the blonds about 43 per cent. are +centred in North, 33 in Central and 24 in South Germany. The brunettes +increase, generally speaking, southwards, South Bavaria showing only +about 14 per cent. of blonds, and the same law holds good of the +long-heads and the round-heads respectively. To what cause is to be +attributed this profound modification of this branch of the Nordic type +in the direction of the south? + +That the Teutons ranged in considerable numbers far beyond their +northern seats is proved by the spread of the German language to the +central highlands, and beyond them down the southern slopes, where a +rude High German dialect lingered on in the so-called "Seven Communes" +of the Veronese district far into the nineteenth century. But after +passing the Main, which appears to have long formed the ethnical divide +for Central Europe, they entered the zone of the brown Alpine +round-heads[1225], to whom they communicated their speech, but by whom +they were largely modified in physical appearance. The process has for +long ages been much the same everywhere--perennial streams of Teutonism +setting steadily from the north, all successively submerged in the great +ocean of dark round-headed humanity, which under many names has occupied +the central uplands and eastern plains since the Neolithic Age, +overflowing also in later times into the Balkan Peninsula. + +This absorption of what is assumed to be the superior in the inferior +type, may be due to the conditions of the general movement--warlike +bands, accompanied by few women, appearing as conquerors in the midst of +the Alpines and merging with them in the great mass of brachycephalic +peoples. Or is the transformation to be explained by de Lapouge's +doctrine, that cranial forms are not so much a question of race as of +social conditions, and that, owing to the increasingly unfavourable +nature of these conditions, there is a general tendency for the superior +long-heads to be absorbed in the inferior round-heads[1226]. + +The fact that dolichocephaly is more prevalent in cities and +brachycephaly in rural areas has been interpreted in various ways. De +Lapouge[1227] contended that in France the restless and more +enterprising long-heads migrated from the rural districts in +disproportionate numbers to the towns, where they died out. For the +department of Aveyron he gives a table showing a steady rise of the +cephalic index from 71.4 in prehistoric times to 86.5 in 1899, and +attributes this to the dolichos gravitating chiefly to the large towns, +as O. Ammon has also shown for Baden. L. Laloy summed up the results +thus: France is being depopulated, and, what is worse, it is precisely +the best section of the inhabitants that disappears, the section most +productive in eminent men in all departments of learning, while the +ignorant and rude _pecus_ alone increase. + +These views have met with favour even across the Atlantic, but are by no +means universally accepted. The ground seems cut from the whole theory +by A. Macalister, who read a paper at the Toronto Meeting of the British +Association, 1897, on "The Causes of Brachycephaly," showing that the +infantile and primitive skull is relatively long, and that there is a +gradual change, phylogenetic (racial) as well as ontogenetic +(individual) toward brachycephaly, which is certainly correlated with, +and is apparently produced by, cerebral activity and growth; in the +process of development in the individual and the race the frontal lobes +of the brain grow the more rapidly and tend to fill out and broaden the +skull[1228]. The tendency would thus have nothing to do with rustic and +urban life, nor would the round be necessarily, if at all, inferior to +the long head. Some of de Lapouge's generalisations are also traversed +by Livi[1229], Deniker[1230], Sergi[1231] and others, and the whole +question is admirably summarised by W. Z. Ripley[1232]. + +But whatever be the cause, the fact must be accepted that _Homo +Europaeus_ (the Nordics) becomes merged southwards in _Homo Alpinus_ +whose names, as stated, are many. Broca and many continental writers use +the name _Kelt_ or _Slavo-Kelt_, which has led to much confusion. But it +merely means for them the great mass of brachycephalic peoples in +Central Europe, where, at various times, Celtic and Slavonic languages +have prevailed. + +It is remarkable that in the Alpine region, especially Tyrol, where the +brachy element comes to a focus, there is a peculiar form of round-head +which has greatly puzzled de Lapouge, but may perhaps be accounted for +on the hypothesis of two brachy types here fused in one. To explain the +exceedingly round Tyrolese head, which shows affinities on the one hand +with the Swiss, on the other with the Illyrian and Albanian, that is, +with the normal Alpine, a Mongol strain has been suggested, but is +rightly rejected by Franz Tappeiner as inadmissible on many +grounds[1233]. De Ujfalvy[1234], a follower of de Lapouge, looks on the +hyperbrachy Tyrolese as descendants of the ancient Rhaetians or Rasenes, +whom so many regard as the parent stock of the Etruscans. + +But Montelius (with most other modern ethnologists) rejects the land +route from the north, and brings the Etruscans by the sea route direct +from the Aegean and Lydia (Asia Minor). They are the Thessalian +Pelasgians whom Hellanikos of Lesbos brings to Campania, or the +Tyrrhenian Pelasgians transported by Antiklides from Asia Minor to +Etruria, and he is "quite sure that the archaeological facts in Central +and North Italy ... prove the truth of this tradition[1235]." Of course, +until the affinities of the Etruscan language are determined, from which +we are still as far off as ever[1236], Etruscan origins must remain +chiefly an archaeological question. Even the help afforded by the crania +from the Etruscan tombs is but slight, both long and round heads being +here found in the closest association. Sergi, who also brings the +Etruscans from the east, explains this by supposing that, being +Pelasgians, they were of the same dolicho Mediterranean stock as the +Italians (Ligurians) themselves, and differed only from the brachy +Umbrians of Aryan speech. Hence the skulls from the tombs are of two +types, the intruding Aryan, and the Mediterranean, the latter, whether +representing native Ligurians or intruding Etruscans, being +indistinguishable. "I can show," he says, "Etruscan crania, which differ +in no respect from the Italian [Ligurian], from the oldest graves, as I +can also show heads from the Etruscan graves which do not differ from +those still found in Aryan lands, whether Slav, Keltic, or +Germanic[1237]." Perhaps the difficulty is best explained by Feist's +suggestion that the Etruscans were merely a highly civilised warlike +aristocracy, spreading thinly over the conquered population by which +they were ultimately absorbed[1238]. + +The migrations of the Celts preceded those of the Teutonic peoples to +whom they were probably closely related in race as in language[1239]. At +the beginning of the historical period Celts are found in the west of +Germany in the region of the Rhine and the Weser. Possibly about 600 +B.C. they occupied Gaul and parts of the Iberian peninsula, subsequently +crossing over into the British Isles. In Italy they came into conflict +with the rising power of Rome, and, after the battle of the Allia (390 +B.C.) occupied Rome itself. Descents were also made into the Danube +valley and the Balkans, and later (280 B.C.) into Thessaly. At the +height of their power they extended from the north of Scotland to the +southern shores of Spain and Portugal, and from the northern coasts of +Germany to a little south of Senegaglia. To the west their boundary was +the Atlantic, to the east, the Black Sea[1240]. + +Unfortunately the indiscriminate use of the term Celt has led to much +confusion. For historians and geographers the Celts are the people in +the centre and west of Europe referred to by writers of antiquity under +the names of _Keltoi_, _Celtae_, _Galli_ and _Galatae_. But many +anthropologists, especially on the continent, regard Celts and Gauls as +representing two well-determined physical types, the former +brachycephalic, with short sturdy build and chestnut coloured hair +(Alpine type), and the latter dolichocephalic with tall stature, fair +complexion and light hair (Nordic type). Linguists, ignoring physical +characters, class as Celts those people who speak an Indo-European +language characterised in particular by the loss of p and by the +modifications undergone by mutation of initial consonants, while for +many archaeologists the Celts were the people responsible for the spread +of the civilisation of the Hallstatt and La Tene periods, that is of the +earlier and later Iron Age[1241]. + +It is not surprising therefore that it has been proposed to drop the +word Celt out of anthropological nomenclature, as having no ethnical +significance. But this, says Rice Holmes[1242], "is because writers on +ethnology have not kept their heads clear." And in particular one point +has been overlooked. "Just as the French are called after one conquering +people, the Franks; just as the English are called after one conquering +people, the Angles; so the heterogeneous Celtae of Transalpine Gaul were +called after one conquering people; and that people were the Celts, or +rather a branch of the Celts in the true sense of the word. The Celts, +in short, were the people who introduced the Celtic language into Gaul, +into Asia Minor, and into Britain; the people who included the victors +of the Allia, the conquerors of Gallia Celtica, and the conquerors of +Gallia Bel['g]ica; the people whom Polybius called indifferently Gauls +and Celts; the people who, as Pausanius said, were originally called +Celts and afterwards called Gauls. If certain ancient writers confounded +the tall fair Celts who spoke Celtic with the tall fair Germans who +spoke German the ancient writers who were better informed avoided such a +mistake.... Let us therefore restore to the word 'Celt' the ethnical +significance which of right belongs to it." + +It is not certain at what date the Celtic tribes effected settlements in +Great Britain, but it is held by many that the earliest invasions were +not prior to the sixth or possibly even the fifth century. At the time +of the Roman conquest the Celts were divided into two linguistic groups, +_Goidelic_, represented at the present day by Irish, Manx and Scotch +Gaelic, and _Brythonic_, including Welsh, Cornish and Breton. These +groups must have been virtually identical save in two particulars. In +Brythonic the labial velar q became p (a change which apparently took +place before the time of Pytheas), whilst in Goidelic the sound remained +unaltered. q is retained in the earlier ogham inscriptions, but by the +end of the seventh century it had lost the labial element, appearing in +Old Irish as c. Thus O. Irish _cenn_, head, as in Kenmare, Kintyre, +Kinsale, equates with Brythonic _pen_, as in Penryn (Cornwall), Penrhyn +(Wales), Penkridge (Staffordshire), Penruddock, Penrith and many others. +The two groups are therefore distinguished as the Q Celts and the P +Celts[1243]. From the fact that Goidelic retained the q it has been +commonly assumed that the Goidels were separated from the main Celtic +stock at a time before the labialisation had taken place, but many +scholars maintain that the parent Goidelic was evolved in Ireland, and +was carried from that island to Man and Scotland in the early centuries +of our era[1244]. + +From an anthropological point of view, the Picts are if possible more +difficult to identify than the Celts. But the question is not between +tall fair long-heads and short dark round-heads, but between short dark +long-heads (neolithic aborigines) and Celts. The Pictish question is +summed up by Rice Holmes[1245] and the various theories have been more +recently reviewed by Windisch[1246] giving a valuable summary of earlier +writings. On the one hand it is maintained as "the most tenable +hypothesis that the Picts were non-Aryans, whom the first Celtic +migrations found already settled here ... descendants of the +Aborigines[1247]." Windisch[1248] at the other extreme, regards them as +late comers into North Britain, when Scotland was already occupied by +Brythonic tribes. But the geographical distribution of the Picts in +historical times suggests rather a people driven into mountainous +regions by successive conquerors, than the settlements of successful +invaders. Also it is not improbable that the language of the Bronze Age +lingered in these wilder districts, and this would account for the fact +that St Columba had to employ an interpreter in his relations with the +Picts; though this is explained by others on the assumption that Pictish +was Brythonic. The linguistic evidence is however extremely slight, only +a few words presumably Pictish having survived and these through Celtic +writers. "The one absolutely certain conclusion to which the student of +ethnology can come is that the name of the Picts has not been proved to +be of pre-Aryan origin[1249]." "For me," continues Rice Holmes (p. 417), +"the Picts were a mixed people comprising descendants of the neolithic +aborigines, of the Round Barrow Race, and of the Celtic invaders--a +mixed people who [or at least whose aristocracy] spoke a Celtic +dialect." + +Before attempting a survey of the ethnology of Britain it is necessary +to ascertain what ethnic elements the area contained before the arrival +of the Celts. The neolithic inhabitants, the short, dark dolichocephals +of Mediterranean type have already been described (Ch. XIII.). Their +remains are associated with the characteristic forms of sepulchral +monuments the dolmens and the long barrows. But towards the end of the +Stone Age a brachycephalic race was already penetrating into the +islands. This appears to have been a peaceful infiltration, at any rate +in certain districts, where remains of the two types are found side by +side and there is evidence of racial intermixture. The brachycephals +introduced a new form of sepulture, making their burial mounds circular +instead of elongated, whence Thurnam's convenient formula, "long barrow, +long skull; round barrow, round skull." But the earlier view that there +was a definite transition from long heads, neolithic culture and long +barrows, to round heads, bronze culture and round barrows can no longer +be maintained. "It is often taken for granted that no round barrows were +erected in Britain before the close of the Neolithic Age, and that the +earliest of the brachycephalic invaders whose remains have been found in +them landed with bronze weapons in their hands[1250]." But there is +abundant evidence that the brachycephalic element preceded the knowledge +of metals, and a number of round barrows in Yorkshire and further north +show no trace of bronze. + +Nevertheless the majority of the round barrows belong to the Bronze Age, +and the physical type of their builders is sufficiently well marked. The +stature is remarkably tall, attaining a height of 1.763 m. or over 5 ft. +9 ins. The skull is brachycephalic with an average index of about 80. It +is also characterised by great strength and ruggedness of outline, with +(often) a sloping forehead, prominent supraciliary ridges, and a certain +degree of prognathism. + +According to Rolleston's description "The eyebrows must have given a +beetling and probably even formidable appearance to the upper part of +the face, whilst the boldly outstanding and heavy cheekbones must have +produced an impression of raw and rough strength. Overhung at its root, +the nose must have projected boldly forward." And Thurnam adds "the +prominence of the large incisor and canine teeth is so great as to give +an almost bestial expression to the skull[1251]." + +Although this type is conveniently called the Round Barrow type, or even +the Round Barrow Race, the round barrows also contain remains of a +different racial character. The skull form shows a more extreme +brachycephaly, with an index of 84 or 85, and exhibits none of the +rugged features associated with the true Round Barrow type. On the +contrary, of the two typical groups, one from round barrows in +Glamorganshire, and the other from short cists in Aberdeenshire not one +of the skulls is prognathous, the supraciliary ridges are but slightly +developed, the cheek bones are not prominent, the face is both broad and +short and the lower jaw is small. But the greatest contrast is in the +height, which averages in the two groups, 1.664 m. and 1.6 m. +respectively, _i.e._ 5 ft. 5-3/4 ins. and 5 ft. 3 ins. All these +characters connect this type closely with the Alpine type on the +continent. + +These round-headed peoples have been the subject of much discussion ably +summarised and criticised by Rice Holmes, whose conclusion perhaps best +represents the view now taken of their affinities and origins. + +"The great mistake that has been made in discussing the question is the +not uncommon assumption that the brachycephalic immigrants who buried +their dead in round barrows arrived in Britain at one time, and came +from one place. Some of them certainly appeared before the end of the +Neolithic Age: others may have introduced bronze implements or +ornaments; others doubtless came, in successive hordes, during the +course of the Bronze Age. Some of those who belonged to the Grenelle +race [Alpine type], who certainly came from Eastern Europe and possibly +from Asia, and whose centre of dispersion was the Alpine region, may +have started from Gaul; others could have traced their origin to some +Rhenish tribe; and I am inclined to believe that those who belonged to +the characteristic rugged Round Barrow type crossed over, for the most +part, from Denmark or the out-lying islands[1252]." + +After the passage of the Romans, who mingled little with the aborigines +and made, perhaps, but slight impression on the speech or type of the +British populations, a great transformation was effected in these +respects by the arrival of the historical Teutonic tribes. Hand in hand +with the Teutonic invasions went a lust for expansion on the part of the +peoples in Ireland. Settlements were effected by them in South Wales and +Anglesey, the Isle of Man and Argyll, probably also in North Devon and +Cornwall. For many generations the south and east of England were the +scenes of fierce struggles, during which the Romano-British civilisation +perished. Only in more inaccessible districts, such as the fen country, +may a British population have survived, though Celtic languages are not +yet dislodged from their mountain strongholds in Wales and Scotland, and +lingered for many centuries in Strathclyde and Cornwall. After the +strengthening of the Teutonic element by the arrival of the +Scandinavians and Normans, all very much of the same physical type, no +serious accessions were made to this composite ethnical group, which on +the east side ranged uninterruptedly from the Channel to the Grampians. +Later the expansion was continued northwards beyond the Grampians, and +westwards through Strathclyde to Ireland, while now the spread of +education and the development of the industries are already threatening +to absorb the last strongholds of Celtic speech in Wales, the Highlands, +and Ireland. + +Thanks to its isolation in the extreme west, Ireland had been left +untouched by some of the above described ethnical movements. It is +doubtful whether Palaeolithic man ever reached this region, and but few +even of the round-heads ranged so far west during the Bronze Age[1253]. +The land oscillations during post-Glacial times appear to have been +practically identical over an area including northern Ireland, the +southern half of Scotland, and northern England. There was a period of +depression followed by one of elevation. The Larne beach-deposits prove +that Neolithic man was in existence from almost the beginning of the +deposition of that series until after its conclusion. The estuarine +clays of Belfast Lough correspond to the depression, and the Neolithic +period extended from at least near the top of the lower estuarine clay +to the beach-deposit of yellow sand which overlies it, or possibly till +later. It is to this period of elevation that the Neolithic sites among +the sand dunes of North Ireland belong; those of Whitepark Bay and +Portstewart, for example, extend to the maximum elevation. A slight +movement of subsidence of about five feet in recent times has left the +surface as we now find it. The implements found in the Larne gravels +correspond to some extent with those of Danish kitchen-middens; this +was not a dwelling site but a quarry-shop or roughing-out place, the +serviceable flakes being taken away for further manipulation; it thus +belongs to the earliest phase of neolithic times. The sandhill sites +were occupied, continuously and occasionally, during neolithic times, +through the Bronze Age, and into the Iron and Christian periods[1254]. +Nina F. Layard has recently studied the Larne raised beach and exposed a +new section. She states that "Taken as a whole the flints certainly do +not correspond at all closely either to the Palaeoliths or Neoliths so +far found in England.... Some are strongly reminiscent of well-known +drift type.... Again, there are shapes that bear a closer resemblance to +some of the earliest Neolithic types[1255]." She believes that, from +their rolled condition, they were derived from another source. + +F. J. Bigger[1256] described some kitchen-middens at Portnafeadog, near +Roundstone, Connemara, which yielded stone hammers but no worked flints, +pottery or metal-ware. The chief interest of this paper is due to the +fact that it is the first record of the occurrence of vast quantities of +the shells of _Purpura lapillus_, all of which were broken in such a +manner that the animal could easily be extracted. There can be no doubt +that the purple dye was manufactured here in prehistoric times[1257]. W. +J. Knowles[1258] suggests from the close resemblance--in fact +identity--of a great number of neolithic objects in Ireland with +palaeolithic forms in France (Saint-Acheul, Moustier, Solutre, La +Madeleine types), that the Irish objects bridge over the gap between the +two ages, and were worked by tribes from the continent following the +migration of the reindeer northwards. These peoples may have continued +to make tools of palaeolithic types, while at the same time coming under +the influence of the neolithic culture gradually arriving from some +southern region. The astonishing development of this neolithic culture +in the remote island on the confines of the west, as illustrated in W. +C. Borlase's sumptuous volumes[1259], is a perpetual wonder, but is +rendered less inexplicable if we assume an immense duration of the New +Stone Age in the British Isles. The Irish dolmen-builders were +presumably of the same long-headed stock as those of Britain[1260], and +they were followed by Celtic-speaking Goidels who may have come directly +from the continent[1261], and there is evidence in Ptolemy and elsewhere +of the presence of Brythonic tribes from Gaul in the east. Since these +early historic times the intruders have been almost exclusively of +Teutonic race, and Viking invaders from Norway and Denmark founded the +earliest towns such as Dublin, Waterford and Limerick. Now all alike, +save for an almost insignificant and rapidly dwindling minority, have +assumed the speech of the English and Lowland Scotch intruders, who +began to arrive late in the 12th century, and are now chiefly massed in +Ulster, Leinster, and all the large towns. The rich and highly poetic +Irish language has a copious medieval literature of the utmost +importance to students of European origins. + +In Scotland few ethnical changes or displacements have occurred since +the colonisation of portions of the west by Gaelic-speaking Scottic +tribes from Ireland, and the English (Angle) occupation of the Lothians. +The Grampians have during historic times formed the main ethnical divide +between the two elements, and brooklets which can be taken at a leap are +shown where the opposite banks have for hundreds of years been +respectively held by formerly hostile, but now friendly communities of +Gaelic and broad Scotch speech. Here the chief intruders have been +Scandinavians, whose descendants may still be recognised in Caithness, +the Hebrides, and the Orkney and Shetland groups. Faint echoes of the +old Norrena tongue are said still to linger amongst the sturdy +Shetlanders, whose assimilation to the dominant race began only after +their transfer from Norway to the Crown of Scotland. + +Since 1901 the researches of Gray and Tocher[1262] on the pigmentation +of some 500,000 school children of Scotland have increased our +information as to racial distribution. The average percentage of boys +with fair hair is nearly 25 for the whole of the country, and when this +is compared with 82 in Schleswig Holstein "we are driven to the +conclusion that the pure Norse or Anglo-Saxon element in our population +is by no means predominant. There is evidently also a dark or brunette +element which is at least equal in amount and probably greater than that +of the Norse element" (p. 380). Pure blue eyes for the whole of Scotland +average 14.7 per cent., which may be compared with 42.9 in Prussia. The +greatest density for fair hair and eyes is to be found in the great +river valleys opening on to the German Ocean, and also in the Western +Isles. The Tweed, Forth, Tay and Don all show indications of settlements +of a blonde race "probably due to Anglo-Saxon invasions," but the +maximum is to be found at the mouth of the Spey. The high percentage +here and in the Hebrides and opposite coasts, the authors trace to +Viking invasions. The percentage of dark hair for boys and girls is 25.2 +as compared with 1.3 in Prussian school children, the maximum density as +we should expect being in the west. Jet black hair (1.2%) has its +maximum density in the central highlands and wild west coast. +Beddoe[1263] commenting on Gray and Tocher's results calculates an even +higher percentage of black hair (over 2%) "either within or astride of +the Highland frontier. Except Paisley, there is not a single instance +south of the Forth, nor one between the Spey and the Firth of Tay. +Surely there is something 'racial' here." Beddoe's map, constructed from +Gray and Tocher's statistics, clearly indicates the distribution of +racial types. + +The work carried on in Wales for a number of years by H. J. Fleure and +T. C. James[1264] has produced some extremely interesting results. The +chief types (based on measurements and observations of head, face, nose, +skin, hair and eye colour, stature, etc.) fall into the following +groups. + +1. "The fundamental type is certainly the long-headed brunet of the +moorlands and their inland valleys. He is universally recognised as +belonging to the Mediterranean race of Sergi and as dating back in this +country to early Neolithic times." The cephalic index is about 78, with +high colouring, dark hair and eyes, and stature rather below the +average. A possible mixture of earlier stocks is shown in a +longer-headed type (c.i. about 75), with well-marked occiput, very dark +hair and eyes, swarthy complexion, and average stature (about 1690 mm. = +5 ft. 6-1/2 ins.). Occasionally in North Wales the occurrence of lank +black hair, a sallow complexion and prominent cheekbones suggests a +"Mongoloid" type; and a type with small stature, black, closely curled +hair and a rather broad nose has negroid reminiscences. The Plynlymon +moorlands contain a "nest" of extreme dolichocephaly and an unusually +high percentage of red hair. + +2. Nordic-Alpine type, with cephalic index mainly between 76 and 81. +This group includes (_a_) a "local version of the Nordic type" occurring +at Newcastle Emlyn and in South and South-West Pembrokeshire with fair +hair and eyes, usually tall stature and great strength of brow, jaw and +chin; (_b_) a heavier variant on the Welsh border, often with cephalic +index above 80, and extremely tall stature; (_c_) the Borreby or +Beaker-Maker type, broad-headed and short-faced with darker +pigmentation, probably a cross between Alpine and Nordic, characteristic +of the long cleft from Corwen _via_ Bala to Tabyllyn and Towyn. + +3. Dark bullet-headed short thick-set men of the general type denoted by +the term Alpine or more exactly perhaps by the term Cevenole are found, +though not commonly, in North Montgomeryshire valleys. + +4. Powerfully built, often intensely dark, broad-headed, broad-faced, +strong and square jawed men are characteristic of the Ardudwy coast, the +South Glamorgan coast, Newquay district (Cardiganshire) and elsewhere. + +The authors observe that Type 1 with its variations contributes +"considerable numbers to the ministries of the various churches, +possibly in part from inherent and racial leanings, but partly also +because these are the people of the moorlands. The idealism of such +people usually expresses itself in music, poetry, literature and +religion rather than in architecture, painting and plastic arts +generally. They rarely have a sufficiency of material resources for the +latter activities. These types also contribute a number of men to the +medical profession.... The successful commercial men, who have given the +Welsh their extraordinarily prominent place in British trade (shipping +firms for example) usually belong to types 2 or 4, rather than to 1, as +also do the majority of Welsh members of Parliament, though there are +exceptions of the first importance. The Nordic type is marked by +ingenuity and enterprise in striking out new lines. Type 2 (_c_) in +Wales is remarkable for governmental ability of the administrative kind +as well as for independence of thought and critical power" (p. 119). + +We have now all the elements needed to unravel the ethnical tangle of +the present inhabitants of the British Isles. The astonishing prevalence +everywhere of the moderately dolicho heads is at once explained by the +absence of brachy immigrants except in the Bronze period, and these +could do no more than raise the cephalic index from about 70 or 72 to +the present mean of about 78. With the other perhaps less stable +characters the case is not always quite so simple. The brunettes, +representing the Mediterranean type, certainly increase, as we should +expect, from north-east to south-west, though even here there is a +considerable dark patch, due to local causes, in the home shires about +London[1265]. But the stature, almost everywhere a troublesome factor, +seems to wander somewhat lawlessly over the land. + +Although a short stature more or less coincides with brunetteness in +England and Wales, and the observations in Ireland are too few to be +relied on, no such parallelism can be traced in Scotland. The west +(Inverness and Argyllshire), though as dark as South Wales, shows an +average stature of 1.73 m. to 1.74 m. (5 ft. 8 ins. to 5 ft. 8-1/2 +ins.), which is higher than the average for the whole of Britain. And +South-west Scotland, where the type is fairly dark, contains the tallest +population in Europe, if not in the world. Ripley suggests either that +"some ethnic element of which no pure trace remains, served to increase +the stature of the western Highlanders without at the same time +conducing to blondness; or else some local influences of natural +selection or environment are responsible for it[1266]"; and he hints +also that the linguistic distinction between Gaels and Brythons may +have been associated with physical variation. + +The English tongue need not detain us long. Its qualities, illustrated +in the noblest of all literatures, are patent to the world[1267], indeed +have earned for it from Jacob Grimm the title of _Welt-Sprache_, the +"World Speech." It belongs, as might be anticipated from the northern +origin of the Teutonic element in Britain, to the Low German division of +the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family. Despite extreme pressure from +Norman French, continued for over 200 years (1066-1300), it has remained +faithful to this connection in its inner structure, which reveals not a +trace of Neo-Latin influences. The phonetic system has undergone +profound changes, which can be only indirectly and to a small extent due +to French action. What English owes to French and Latin is a very large +number, many thousands, of words, some superadded to, some superseding +their Saxon equivalents, but altogether immensely increasing its wealth +of expression, while giving it a transitional position between the +somewhat sharply contrasted Germanic and Romance worlds. + +Amongst the Romance peoples, that is, the French, Spaniards, Portuguese, +Italians, Rumanians, many Swiss and Belgians, who were entirely +assimilated in speech and largely in their civil institutions to their +Roman masters, the paramount position, a sort of international hegemony, +has been taken by the French nation since the decadence of Spain under +the feeble successors of Philip II. The constituent elements of these +Gallo-Romans, as they may be called, are much the same as those of the +British peoples, but differ in their distribution and relative +proportions. Thus the Iberians (Aquitani, Pictones, and later Vascones), +who may perhaps be identified with the neolithic long-heads[1268], do +not appear ever to have ranged much farther north than Brittany, and +were Aryanised in pre-Roman times by the P-speaking Celts everywhere +north of the Garonne. The prehistoric Teutons again, who had advanced +beyond the Rhine at an early period (Caesar says _antiquitus_) into the +present Belgium, were mainly confined to the northern provinces. Even +the historic Teutons (chiefly Franks and Burgundians) penetrated little +beyond the Seine in the north and the present Burgundy in the east, +while the Vandals, Visigoths and a few others passed rapidly through to +Iberia beyond the Pyrenees. + +Thus the greater part of the land, say from the Seine-Marne basin to the +Mediterranean, continued to be held by the Romanised mass of Alpine type +throughout all the central and most of the southern provinces, and +elsewhere in the south by the Romanised long-headed Mediterranean type. +This great preponderance of the Romanised Alpine masses explains the +rapid absorption of the Teutonic intruders, who were all, except the +Fleming section of the Belgae, completely assimilated to the +Gallo-Romans before the close of the tenth century. It also explains the +perhaps still more remarkable fact that the Norsemen who settled (912) +under Rollo in Normandy were all practically Frenchmen when a few +generations later they followed their Duke William to the conquest of +Saxon England. Thus the only intractable groups have proved to be the +Basques[1269] and the Bretons, both of whom to this day retain their +speech in isolated corners of the country. With these exceptions the +whole of France, save the debateable area of Alsace-Lorraine, presents +in its speech a certain homogeneous character, the standard language +(_langue d'oil_[1270]) being current throughout all the northern and +central provinces, while it is steadily gaining upon the southern form +(_langue d'oc_[1270]) still surviving in the rural districts of +Limousin and Provence. + +But pending a more thorough fusion of such tenacious elements as +Basques, Bretons, Auvergnats, and Savoyards, we can scarcely yet speak +of a common French type, but only of a common nationality. Tall stature, +long skulls, fair or light brown colour, grey or blue eyes, still +prevail, as might be expected, in the north, these being traits common +alike to the prehistoric Belgae, the Franks of the Merovingian and +Carlovingian empires, and Rollo's Norsemen. With these contrast the +southern peoples of short stature, olive-brown skin, round heads, dark +brown or black eyes and hair. The tendency towards uniformity has +proceeded far more rapidly in the urban than in the rural districts. +Hence the citizens of Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Marseilles and other large +towns, present fewer and less striking contrasts than the natives of the +old historical provinces, where are still distinguished the loquacious +and mendacious Gascon, the pliant and versatile Basque, the slow and +wary Norman, the dreamy and fanatical Breton, the quick and enterprising +Burgundian, and the bright, intelligent, more even-tempered native of +Touraine, a typical Frenchman occupying the heart of the land, and +holding, as it were, the balance between all the surrounding elements. + +In Spain and Portugal we have again the same ethnological elements, but +also again in different proportions and differently distributed, with +others superadded--proto-Phoenicians and later Phoenicians +(Carthaginians), Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, and still later Berbers and +Arabs. Here the Celtic-speaking mixed peoples mingled in prehistoric +times with the long-headed Mediterraneans, an ethnical fusion known to +the ancients, who labelled it "Keltiberian[1271]." But, as in Britain, +the other intruders were mostly long-heads, with the striking result +that the Peninsula presents to-day exactly the same uniform cranial type +as the British Isles. Even the range (76 to 79) and the mean (78) of the +cephalic index are the same, rising in Spain to 80 only in the Basque +corner. As Ripley states, "the average cephalic index of 78 occurs +nowhere else so uniformly distributed in Europe" except in Norway, and +this uniformity "is the concomitant and index of two relatively pure, +albeit widely different, ethnic types--Mediterranean in Spain, Teutonic +in Norway[1272]." + +In other respects the social, one might almost say the national, groups +are both more numerous and perhaps even more sharply discriminated in +the Peninsula than in France. Besides the Basques and Portuguese, the +latter with a considerable strain of negro blood[1273], we have such +very distinct populations as the haughty and punctilious Castilians, who +under an outward show of pride and honour, are capable of much meanness; +the sprightly and vainglorious Andalusians, who have been called the +Gascons of Spain, yet of graceful address and seductive manners; the +morose and impassive Murcians, indolent because fatalists; the gay +Valencians given to much dancing and revelry, but also to sudden fits of +murderous rage, holding life so cheap that they will hire themselves out +as assassins, and cut their bread with the blood-stained knife of their +last victim; the dull and superstitious Aragonese, also given to +bloodshed, and so obdurate that they are said to "drive nails in with +their heads"; lastly the Catalans, noisy and quarrelsome, but brave, +industrious, and enterprising, on the whole the best element in this +motley aggregate of unbalanced temperaments. The various aspects of +Spanish temperament are regarded by Havelock Ellis[1274] as +manifestations of an aboriginally primitive race, which, under the +stress of a peculiarly stimulating and yet hardening environment, has +retained through every stage of development an unusual degree of the +endowment of fresh youth, of elemental savagery, with which it started. +This explains the fine qualities of Spain and her defects, the splendid +initiative, and lack of sustained ability to carry it out, the +importance of the point of honour and the glorification of the primitive +virtue of valour. + +In Italy the past and present relations, as elucidated especially by +Livi and Sergi, may be thus briefly stated. After the first Stone Age, +of which there are fewer indications than might be expected[1275], the +whole land was thickly settled by dark long-headed Mediterranean peoples +in neolithic times. These were later joined by Pelasgians of like type +from Greece, and by Illyrians of doubtful affinity from the Balkan +Peninsula. Indeed C. Penka[1276], who has so many paradoxical theories, +makes the Illyrians the first inhabitants of Italy, as shown by the +striking resemblance of the _terramara_ culture of Aemilia with that of +the Venetian and Laibach pile-dwellings. The recent finds in Bosnia +also[1277], besides the historically proved (?) migration of the Siculi +from Upper Italy to Sicily, and their Illyrian origin, all point in the +same direction. But the facts are differently interpreted by +Sergi[1278], who holds that the whole land was occupied by the +Mediterraneans, because we find even in Switzerland pile-dwellers of the +same type[1279]. + +Then came the peoples of Aryan speech, Celtic-speaking Alpines from the +north-west and Slavs from the north-east, who raised the cephalic index +in the north, where the brachy element, as already seen, still greatly +predominates but diminishes steadily southwards[1280]. They occupied the +whole of Umbria, which at first stretched across the peninsula from the +Adriatic to the Mediterranean, but was later encroached upon by the +intruding Etruscans on the west side. Then also some of these Umbrians, +migrating southwards to Latium beyond the Tiber, intermingled, says +Sergi, with the Italic (Ligurian) aborigines, and became the founders of +the Roman state[1281]. With the spread of the Roman arms the Latin +language, which Sergi claims to be a kind of Aryanised Ligurian, but +must be regarded as a true member of the Aryan family, was diffused +throughout the whole of the peninsula and islands, sweeping away all +traces not only of the original Ligurian and other Mediterranean +tongues, but also of Etruscan and its own sister languages, such as +Umbrian, Oscan, and Sabellian. + +At the fall of the empire the land was overrun by Ostrogoths, Heruli, +and other Teutons, none of whom formed permanent settlements except the +Longobards, who gave their name to the present Lombardy, but were +themselves rapidly assimilated in speech and general culture to the +surrounding populations, whom we may now call Italians in the modern +sense of the term. + +When it is remembered that the Aegean culture had spread to Italy at an +early date, that it was continued under Hellenic influences by Etruscans +and Umbrians, that Greek arts and letters were planted on Italian soil +(_Magna Graecia_) before the foundation of Rome, that all these +civilisations converged in Rome itself and were thence diffused +throughout the West, that the traditions of previous cultural epochs +never died out, acquired new life with the Renascence and were thus +perpetuated to the present day, it may be claimed for the gifted Italian +people that they have been for a longer period than any others under the +unbroken sway of general humanising influences. + +These "Latin Peoples," as they are called because they all speak +languages of the Latin stock, are not confined to the West. To the +Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, with the less known and ruder +Walloon of Belgium and Romansch of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Friuli, must +be associated the _Rumanian_ current amongst some nine millions of +so-called "Daco-Rumanians" in Moldavia and Wallachia, _i.e._ the modern +kingdom of Rumania. The same Neo-Latin tongue is also spoken by the +_Tsintsars_ or _Kutzo-Vlacks_[1282] of the Mount Pindus districts in the +Balkan Peninsula, and by numerous Rumanians who have in later times +migrated into Hungary. They form a compact and vigorous nationality, who +claim direct descent from the Roman military colonists settled north of +the Lower Danube by Trajan after his conquest of the Dacians (107 A.D.). +But great difficulties attach to this theory, which is rejected by many +ethnologists, especially on the ground that, after Trajan's time, Dacia +was repeatedly swept clean by the Huns, the Finns, the Avars, Magyars +and other rude Mongolo-Turki hordes, besides many almost ruder Slavic +peoples during the many centuries when the eastern populations were in a +state of continual flux after the withdrawal of the Roman legionaries +from the Lower Danube. Besides, it is shown by Roesler[1283] and others +that under Aurelian (257 A.D.) Trajan's colonists withdrew bodily +southwards to and beyond the Hemus to the territory of the old Bessi +(Thracians), _i.e._ the district still occupied by the Macedo-Rumanians. +But in the 13th century, during the break-up of the Byzantine empire, +most of these fugitives were again driven north to their former seats +beyond the Danube, where they have ever since held their ground, and +constituted themselves a distinct and far from feeble branch of the +Neo-Latin community. The Pindus, therefore, rather than the Carpathians, +is to be taken as the last area of dispersion of these valiant and +intelligent descendants of the Daco-Romans. This seems the most rational +solution of what A. D. Xenopol calls "an historic enigma," although he +himself rejects Roesler's conclusions in favour of the old view so dear +to the national pride of the present Rumanian people[1284]. The +composite character of the Rumanian language--fundamentally Neo-Latin or +rather early Italian, with strong Illyrian (Albanian) and Slav +affinities--would almost imply that Dacia had never been Romanised under +the empire, and that in fact this region was _for the first time_ +occupied by its present Romance speaking inhabitants in the 13th +century[1285]. The nomadic life of the Rumanians is in itself, as +Peisker points out[1286], a refutation of their descent from settled +Roman colonists, and indicates a Central Asiatic origin. The mounted +nomads grazed during the summer "on most of the mountains of the Balkan +peninsula, and took up their winter quarters on the sea-coasts among a +peasant population speaking a different language. Thence they gradually +spread, unnoticed by the chroniclers, along all the mountain ranges, +over all the Carpathians of Transylvania, North Hungary, and South +Galicia, to Moravia; towards the north-west from Montenegro onwards over +Herzegovina, Bosnia, Istria, as far as South Styria; towards the south +over Albania far into Greece.... And like the peasantry among which they +wintered (and winter) long enough, they became (and become) after a +transitory bilingualism, Greeks, Albanians, Servians, Bulgarians, +Ruthenians, Poles, Slovaks, Chekhs, Slovenes, Croatians ... a mobile +nomad stratum among a strange-tongued and more numerous peasant element, +and not till later did they gradually take to agriculture and themselves +become settled." + +The Pelasgians and Minoan civilisation have been briefly discussed above +(Ch. XIII.). Later problems in Greek ethnology are still under dispute. +Sergi, who regards the proto-Aryans as round-headed barbarians of +Celtic, Slav, and Teutonic speech, makes no exception in favour of the +Hellenes. These also enter Greece not as civilisers, but rather as +destroyers of the flourishing Mykenaean culture developed here, as in +Italy, by the Mediterranean aborigines. But in course of time the +intruders become absorbed in the Pelasgic or eastern branch of the +Mediterraneans, and what we call Hellenism is really Pelasgianism +revived, and to some extent modified by the Aryan (Hellenic) element. + +If it may be allowed that at their advent the Hellenes were less +civilised than the native Aegeans on whom they imposed their Aryan +speech, whence and when came they? By Penka[1287], for whom the Baltic +lands would be the original home not merely of the Germanic branch but +of all the Aryans, the Hellenic cradle is located in the Oder basin +between the Elbe and the Vistula. As the Doric, doubtless the last Greek +irruption into Hellas, is chronologically fixed at 1149 B.C., the +beginning of the Hellenic migrations may be dated back to the 13th +century. When the Hellenes migrated from Central Europe to Greece, the +period of the general ethnic dispersion was already closed, and the +migratory period which next followed began with the Hellenes, and was +continued by the Itali, Gauls, Germans, etc. The difficulties created +by this view are insurmountable. Thus we should have to suppose that +from this relatively contracted Aryan cradle countless tribes swarmed +over Europe since the 13th century B.C., speaking profoundly different +languages (Greek, Celtic, Latin, etc.), all differentiated since that +time on the shores of the Baltic. The proto-Aryans with their already +specialised tongues had reached the shores of the Mediterranean long +before that time and, according to Maspero[1288], were known to the +Egyptians of the 5th dynasty (3990-3804 B.C.) if not earlier. Allowing +that these may have rather been pre-Hellenes (Pelasgians), we still know +that the Achaeans had traditionally arrived about 1250 B.C. and they +were already speaking the language of Homer. + +"The indications of archaeology and of legend agree marvellously well +with those of the Egyptian records," says H. R. Hall[1289], "in making +the Third Late Minoan period one of incessant disturbance.... The whole +basin of the Eastern Mediterranean seems to have been a seething turmoil +of migrations, expulsions, wars and piracies, started first by the +Mycenaean (Achaian) conquest of Crete, and then intensified by the +constant impulse of the Northern iron-users into Greece." Herodotus +speaks of the great invasion of the Thesprotian tribes from beyond +Pindus, which took place probably in the 13th century B.C.[1290] As a +result "an overwhelming Aryan and iron-using population was first +brought into Greece. The earlier Achaian (?) tribes of Aryans in +Thessaly, who had perhaps lived there from time immemorial, and had +probably already infiltrated southwards to form the mixed Ionian +population about the Isthmus, were scattered, only a small portion of +the nation remaining in its original home, while of the rest part +conquered the South and another part emigrated across the sea to the +Phrygian coast. Of this emigration to Asia the first event must have +been the war of Troy.... The Boeotian and Achaian invasion of the South +scattered the Minyae, Pelasgians, and Ionians. The remnant of the Minyae +emigrated to Lemnos, the Pelasgi and Ionians were concentrated in Attica +and another body of Ionians in the later Achaia, while the Southern +Achaeans pressed forward into the Peloponnese[1291]." + +It is evident from the national traditions that the proto-Greeks did not +arrive _en bloc_, but rather at intervals in separate and often hostile +bands bearing different names. But all these groups--Achaeans, Danai, +Argians, Dolopes, Myrmidons, Leleges and many others, some of which were +also found in Asia Minor--retained a strong sense of their common +origin. The sentiment, which may be called racial rather than national, +received ultimate expression when to all of them was extended the +collective name of Hellenes (Sellenes originally), that is, descendants +of Deucalion's son Hellen, whose two sons Aeolus and Dorus, and grandson +Ion, were supposed to be the progenitors of the Aeolians, Dorians, and +Ionians. But such traditions are merely reminiscences of times when the +tribal groupings still prevailed, and it may be taken for granted that +the three main branches of the Hellenic stock did not spring from a +particular family that rose to power in comparatively recent times in +the Thessalian district of Phthiotis. Whatever truth may lie behind the +Hellenic legend, it is highly probable that, at the time when Hellen is +said to have flourished (about 1500 B.C.), the Aeolic-speaking +communities of Thessaly, Arcadia, Boeotia, the closely-allied +Dorians[1292] of Phocaea, Argos, and Laconia, and the Ionians of Attica, +had already been clearly specialised, had in fact formed special groups +before entering Greece. Later their dialects, after acquiring a certain +polish and leaving some imperishable records of the many-sided Greek +genius, were gradually merged in the literary Neo-Ionic or Attic, which +thus became the [Greek: koine dialektos], or current speech of the Greek +world. + +Admirable alike for its manifold aptitudes and surprising vitality, the +language of Aeschylus, Thucydides, and the other great Athenians +outlived all the vicissitudes of the Byzantine empire, during which it +was for a time banished from Southern Greece, and even still survives, +although in a somewhat degraded form, in the Romaic or Neo-Hellenic +tongue of modern Hellas. Romaic, a name which recalls a time when the +Byzantines were known as "Romans" throughout the East, differs far less +from the classical standard than do any of the Romance tongues from +Latin. Since the restoration of Greek independence great efforts have +been made to revive the old language in all its purity, and some modern +writers now compose in a style differing little from that of the classic +period. + +Yet the Hellenic race itself has almost perished on the mainland. Traces +of the old Greek type have been detected by Lenormant and others, +especially amongst the women of Patras and Missolonghi. But within +living memory Attica was still an Albanian land, and Fallmerayer has +conclusively shown that the Peloponnesus and adjacent districts had +become thoroughly Slavonised during the 6th and 7th centuries[1293]. +"For many centuries," writes the careful Roesler, "the Greek peninsula +served as a colonial domain for the Slavs, receiving the overflow of +their population from the Sarmatian lowlands[1294]." Their presence is +betrayed in numerous geographical terms, such as _Varsova_ in Arcadia, +_Glogova_, _Tsilikhova_, etc. Nevertheless, since the revival of the +Hellenic sentiment there has been a steady flow of Greek immigration +from the Archipelago and Anatolia; and the Albanian, Slav, Italian, +Turkish, Rumanian, and Norman elements have in modern Greece already +become almost completely Hellenised, at least in speech. Of the old +dialects Doric alone appears to have survived in the Tsaconic of the +Laconian hills. The Greek language has, however, disappeared from +Southern Italy, Sicily, Syria, and the greater part of Egypt and Asia +Minor, where it was long dominant. + +To understand the appearance of SLAVS in the Peloponnesus we must go +back to the Eurasian steppe, the probable cradle of these multitudinous +populations. Here they have often been confused with the ancient +Sarmatae, who already before the dawn of history were in possession of +the South Russian plains between the Scythians towards the east and the +proto-Germanic tribes before their migration to the Baltic lands. But +even at that time, before the close of the Neolithic Age, there must +have been interminglings, if not with the western Teutons, almost +certainly with the eastern Scythians, which helps to explain the +generally vague character of the references made by classical writers +both to the Sarmatians and the Scythians, who sometimes seem to be +indistinguishable from savage Mongol hordes, and at others are +represented as semi-cultured peoples, such as the Aryans of the Bronze +period might have been round about the district of Olbia and the other +early Miletian settlements on the northern shores of the Euxine. + +Owing to these early crossings Andre Lefevre goes so far as to say that +"there is no Slav race[1295]," but only nations of divers more or less +pure types, more or less crossed, speaking dialects of the same +language, who later received the name of Slavs, borne by a prehistoric +tribe of _Sarmatians_, and meaning "renowned," "illustrious[1296]." Both +their language and mythologies, continues Lefevre, point to the vast +region near Irania as the primeval home of the Slav, as of the Celtic +and Germanic populations. The Sauromatae or Sarmatae of Herodotus[1297], +who had given their name to the mass of Slav or Slavonised peoples, +still dwelt north of the Caucasus and south of the _Budini_ between the +Caspian, the Don and Sea of Azov; "after crossing the Tanais (Don) we +are no longer in Scythia; we begin to enter the lands of the Sauromatae, +who, starting from the angle of the Palus Moeotis (Sea of Azov), occupy +a space of 15 days' march, where are neither trees, fruit-trees, nor +savages. Above the tract fallen to them the Budini occupy another +district, which is overgrown with all kinds of trees[1298]." Then +Herodotus seems to identify these Sarmatians with the Scythians, whence +all the subsequent doubts and confusion. Both spoke the same language, +of which seven distinct dialects are mentioned, yet a number of +personal names preserved by the Greeks have a certain Iranic look, so +that these Scythian tongues seem to have been really Aryan, forming a +transition between the Asiatic and the European branches of the family. + +The probable explanation is that the Scythians[1299] were a horde which +came down from Upper Asia, conquered an Iranian-speaking people, and in +time adopted the speech of its subjects. E. H. Minns[1300] suggests that +the settled Scythians represent the remains of the Iranian population, +and the nomads the conquering peoples. These were displaced later by the +Sarmatians, and Scythia becomes merely a geographical term. Skulls dug +up in Scythic graves throw no light on racial affinities, some being +long, and some short, but in customs there is a close analogy with the +Mongols, though, as Minns points out, "the natural conditions of +steppe-ranging dictated the greater part of them." + +Both Slav and Germanic tribes had probably in remote times penetrated up +the Danube and the Volga, while some of the former under the name of +_Wends_ (Venedi[1301]), appear to have reached the Carpathians and the +Baltic shores down the Vistula. The movement was continued far into +medieval times, when great overlappings took place, and when numerous +Slav tribes, some still known as Wends, others as _Sorbs_, _Croats_, or +_Chekhs_, ranged over Central Europe to Pomerania and beyond the Upper +Elbe to Suabia. Most of these have long been Teutonised, but a few of +the _Polabs_[1302] survive as Wends in Prussian and Saxon Lausatz, while +the Chekhs and _Slovaks_ still hold their ground in Bohemia and Moravia, +as the _Poles_ do in Posen and the Vistula valley, and the _Rusniaks_ or +_Ruthenes_ with the closely allied "Little Russians," in the +Carpathians, Galicia, and Ukrania. + +It was from the Carpathian[1303] lands that came those _Yugo-Slavs_ +("Southern Slavs") who, under the collective name of Sorbs (Serbs, +Servians), moved southwards beyond the Danube, and overran a great part +of the Balkan peninsula and nearly the whole of Greece in the 6th and +7th centuries. They were the Khorvats[1304] or Khrobats[1304] from +the upland valleys of the Oder and Vistula, whom, after his Persian +wars, Heraclius invited to settle in the wasted provinces south of the +Danube, hoping, as Nadir Shah did later with the Kurds in Khorasan, to +make them a northern bulwark of the empire against the incursions of the +Avars and other Mongolo-Turki hordes. Thus was formed the first +permanent settlement of the Yugo-Slavs in Croatia, Istria, Dalmatia, +Bosnia, and the Nerenta valley in 680, under the five brothers Klukas, +Lobol, Kosentses, Mukl, and Khrobat, with their sisters Tuga and Buga. +These were followed by the kindred Srp (Sorb) tribes from the Elbe, who +left their homes in Misnia and Lusatia, and received as their patrimony +the whole region between Macedonia and Epirus, Dardania, Upper Moesia, +the Dacia of Aurelian, and Illyria, _i.e._ Bosnia and Servia. The lower +Danube was at the same time occupied by the _Severenses_, "Seven +Nations," also Slavs, who reached to the foot of the Hemus beyond the +present Varna. Nothing could stem this great Slav inundation, which soon +overflowed into Macedonia (Rumelia), Thessaly, and Peloponnesus, so that +for a time nearly the whole of the Balkan lands, from the Danube to the +Mediterranean, became a Slav domain--parts of Illyria and Epirus +(Albania) with the Greek districts about Constantinople alone excepted. + +Hellas, as above seen, has recovered itself, and the _Albanians_[1305], +direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians, still hold their ground and +keep alive the last echoes of the old Illyrian language, which was +almost certainly a proto-Aryan form of speech probably intermediate, as +above-mentioned, between the Italic and Hellenic branches. They even +retain the old tribal system, so that there are not only two main +sections, the northern _Ghegs_ and the southern _Toshks_, but each +section is divided into a number of minor groups[1306], such as the +Malliesors (Klementi, Pulati, Hoti, etc.) and Mirdites (Dibri, Fandi, +Matia, etc.) in the north, and the Toxides (whence Toshk) and the +Yapides (Lapides) in the south. The southerners are mainly Orthodox +Greeks, and in other respects half-Hellenised Epirotes, the northerners +partly Moslem and partly Roman Catholics of the Latin rite. From this +section came chiefly those Albanians who, after the death (1467) of +their valiant champion, George Castriota (_Scanderbeg_, "Alexander the +Great"), fled from Turkish oppression and formed numerous settlements, +especially in Calabria and Sicily, and still retain their national +traditions. + +In their original homes, located by some between the Bug and the +Dnieper, the Slavs have not only recovered from the fierce Mongolo-Turki +and Finn tornadoes, by which the eastern steppes were repeatedly swept +for over 1500 years after the building of the Great Wall, but have in +recent historic times displayed a prodigious power of expansion second +only to that of the British peoples. The _Russians_ (Great, Little, and +White Russians), whose political empire now stretches continuously from +the Baltic to the Pacific, have already absorbed nearly all the Mongol +elements in East Europe, have founded compact settlements in Caucasia +and West Siberia, and have thrown off numerous pioneer groups of +colonists along all the highways of trade and migration, and down the +great fluvial arteries between the Ob and the Amur estuary. They number +collectively over 100 millions, with a domain of some nine million +square miles. The majority belong to Deniker's Eastern race[1307] (a +variety of the Alpine type), being blond, sub-brachycephalic and short, +1.64 m. (5 ft. 4-1/2 ins.). The Little Russians in the South on the +Black Mould belt are more brachycephalic and have darker colouring and +taller stature. The White Russians in the West between Poland and +Lithuania are the fairest of all. + +We need not be detained by the controversy carried on between Sergi and +Zaborowski regarding a prehistoric spread of the Mediterranean race to +Russia[1308]. The skulls from several of the old Kurgans, identified by +Sergi with his Mediterranean type, have not been sufficiently determined +as to date or cultural periods to decide the question, while their +dolicho shape is common both to the Mediterraneans and to the +proto-Aryans of the North European type[1309]. To this stock the +proto-Slavs are affiliated by Zaborowski and many others[1310], although +the present Slavs are all distinctly round-headed. Ripley asks, almost +in despair, what is to be done with the present Slav element, and +decides to apply "the term _Homo Alpinus_ to this broad-headed group +wherever it occurs, whether on mountains or plains, in the west or in +the east[1311]." + +We are beset by the same difficulties as we pass with the _Ossets_ of +the Caucasus into the Iranian and Indian domains of the proto-Aryan +peoples. These Ossets, who are the only aborigines of Aryan speech in +Caucasia, are by Zaborowski[1312] identified with the Alans, who are +already mentioned in the 1st century A.D. and were Scythians of Iranian +speech, blonds, mixed with Medes, and perhaps descendants of the +Massagetae. We know from history that the Goths and Alans became closely +united, and it may be from the Goths that the Osset descendants of the +Alans (some still call themselves Alans) learned to brew beer. +Elsewhere[1313] Zaborowski represents the Ossets as of European origin, +till lately for the most part blonds, though now showing many Scythian +traits. But they are not physically Iranians "despite the Iranian and +Asiatic origin of their language," as shown by Max Kowalewsky[1314]. On +the whole, therefore, the Ossets may be taken as originally blond +Europeans, closely blended with Scythians, and later with the other +modern Caucasus peoples, who are mostly brown brachys. But Ernest +Chantre[1315] allies these groups to their brown and brachy Tatar +neighbours, and denies that the Ossets are the last remnants of Germanic +immigrants into Caucasia. + +We have therefore in the Caucasus a very curious and puzzling +phenomenon--several somewhat distinct groups of aborigines, mainly of de +Lapouge's Alpine type, but all except the Ossets speaking an amazing +number of non-Aryan stock languages. Philologists have been for some +time hard at work in this linguistic wilderness, the "Mountain of +Languages" of the early Arabo-Persian writers, without greatly reducing +the number of independent groups, while many idioms traceable to a +single stem still differ so profoundly from each other that they are +practically so many stocks. Of the really distinct families the more +important are:--the _Kartweli_ of the southern slopes, comprising the +historical Georgian, cultivated since the 5th century, the Mingrelian, +Imeritian, Laz of Lazistan, and many others; the _Cherkess_ +(Circassian), the _Abkhasian_ and _Kabard_ of the Western and Central +Caucasus; the _Chechenz_ and _Lesghian_, the _Andi_, the _Ude_, the +_Kubachi_ and _Duodez_ of Daghestan, _i.e._ the Eastern Caucasus. Where +did this babel of tongues come from? We know that 2500 years ago the +relations were much the same as at present, because the Greeks speak of +scores of languages current in the port of Dioscurias in their time. If +therefore the aborigines are the "sweepings of the plains," they must +have been swept up long before the historic period. Did they bring their +different languages with them, or were these specialised in their new +upland homes? The consideration that an open environment makes for +uniformity, secluded upland valleys for diversity, seems greatly to +favour the latter assumption, which is further strengthened by the now +established fact that, although there are few traces of the Palaeolithic +epoch, the Caucasus was somewhat thickly inhabited in the New Stone Age. + +Crossing into Irania we are at once confronted with totally different +conditions. For the ethnologist this region comprises, besides the +tableland between the Tigris and Indus, both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, +and the Pamir, with the uplands bounded south and north by the upper +courses of the Oxus and the Sir-darya. Overlooking later Mongolo-Turki +encroachments, a general survey will, I think, show that from the +earliest times the whole of this region has formed part of the Caucasic +domain; that the bulk of the indigenous populations must have belonged +to the dark, round-headed Alpine type; that these, still found in +compact masses in many places, were apparently conquered, but certainly +Aryanised in speech, in very remote prehistoric times by long-headed +blond Aryans of the IRANIC and GALCHIC branches, who arrived in large +numbers from the contiguous Eurasian steppe, mingled generally with the +brachy aborigines, but also kept aloof in several districts, where they +still survive with more or less modified proto-Aryan features. Thus we +are at once struck by the remarkable fact that absolute uniformity of +speech, always apart from late Mongol intrusions, has prevailed during +the historic period throughout Irania, which has been in this respect as +completely Aryanised as Europe itself; and further, that all current +Aryan tongues, with perhaps one trifling exception[1316], are members +either of the Iranic or the Galchic branch of the family. Both Iranic +and Galchic are thus rather linguistic than ethnic terms, and so true is +this that a philologist always knows what is meant by an Iranic +language, while the anthropologist is unable to define or form any clear +conception of an Iranian, who may be either of long-headed Nordic or +round-headed Alpine type. Here confusion may be avoided by reserving the +historic name of PERSIAN[1317] for the former, and comprising all the +Alpines under the also time-honoured though less known name of TAJIKS. + +Khanikoff has shown that these Tajiks constitute the primitive element +in ancient Iran. To the true Persians of the west, as well as to the +kindred Afghans in the east, both of dolicho type, the term is rarely +applied. But almost everywhere the sedentary and agricultural aborigines +are called Tajiks, and are spoken of as _Parsivan_, that is, +_Parsizaban_[1318], "of Persian speech," or else _Dihkan_[1318], that +is, "Peasants," all being mainly husbandmen "of Persian race and +tongue[1319]." They form endless tribal, or at least social, groups, who +keep somewhat aloof from their proto-Aryan conquerors, so that, in the +east especially, the ethnic fusion is far from complete, the various +sections of the community being still rather juxtaposed than fused in a +single nationality. When to these primeval differences is added the +tribal system still surviving in full vigour amongst the intruding +Afghans themselves, we see how impossible it is yet to speak of an +Afghan nation, but only of heterogeneous masses loosely held together by +the paramount tribe--at present the _Durani_ of Kabul. + +The Tajiks are first mentioned by Herodotus, whose _Dadikes_[1320] are +identified by Hammer and Khanikoff with them[1321]. They are now +commonly divided into Lowland, and Highland or Hill Tajiks, of whom the +former were always Parsivan, whereas the Hill Tajiks did not originally +speak Persian at all, but, as many still do, an independent sister +language called Galchic, current in the Pamir, Zerafshan and Sir-darya +uplands, and holding a somewhat intermediate position between the Iranic +and Indic branches. + +This term Galcha, although new to science, has long been applied to the +Aryans of the Pamir valleys, being identified with the _Calcienses +populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goez, who crossed the Pamir in 1603, +and describes them as "of light hair and beard like the Belgians." +Meyendorff also calls those of Zerafshan "Eastern Persians, Galchi, +Galchas." The word has been explained to mean "the hungry raven who has +withdrawn to the mountains," probably in reference to those Lowland +Tajiks who took refuge in the uplands from the predatory Turki hordes. +But it is no doubt the Persian _galcha_, a peasant or clown, then a +vagabond, etc., whence _galchagi_, rudeness. + +As shown by J. Biddulph[1322], the tribes of Galchic speech range over +both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, comprising the natives of Sarakol, +Wakhan, Shignan, Munjan (with the Yidoks of the Upper Lud-kho or Chitral +river), Sanglich, and Ishkashim. To these he is inclined to add the +Pakhpus and the Shakshus of the Upper Yarkand-darya, as well as those of +the Kocha valley, with whom must now be included the Zerafshan Galchas +(Maghians, Kshtuts, Falghars, Machas and Fans), but not the Yagnobis. +All these form also one ethnic group of Alpine type, with whom on +linguistic grounds Biddulph also includes two other groups, the Khos of +Chitral with the Siah Posh of Kafiristan, and the Shins (Dards), Gors, +Chilasi and other small tribes of the Upper Indus and side valleys, all +these apparently being long-heads of the blond Aryan type. Keeping this +distinction in view, Biddulph's valuable treatise on the Hindu-Kush +populations may be followed with safety. He traces the Galcha idioms +generally to the old Baktrian (East Persia, so-called "Zend Avesta"), +the Shin however leaning closely to Sanskrit, while Khowar, the speech +of the Chitrali (Khos), is intermediate between Baktrian and Sanskrit. +But differences prevail on these details, which will give occupation to +philologists for some time to come. + +Speaking generally, all the Galchas of the northern slopes (most of +Biddulph's first group) are physically connected with all the other +Lowland and Hill Tajiks, with whom should also probably be included +Elphinstone's[1323] southern Tajiks dwelling south of the Hindu-Kush +(Kohistani, Berraki, Purmuli or Fermuli, Sirdehi, Sistani, and others +scattered over Afghanistan and northern Baluchistan). Their type is +pronouncedly Alpine, so much so that they have been spoken of by French +anthropologists as "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan[1324]." De +Ujfalvy, who has studied them carefully, describes them as tall, brown +or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks recalling the Englishman, +black or chestnut hair, sometimes red and even light, smooth, wavy or +curly, full beard, brown, ruddy or blond (he met two brothers near +Penjakend with hair "blanc comme du lin"); brown, blue, or grey eyes, +never oblique, long, shapely nose slightly curved, thin, straight lips, +oval face, stout, vigorous frame, and round heads with cephalic index as +high as 86.50. This description, which is confirmed by Bonvalot and +other recent observers, applies to the Darwazi, Wakhi, Badakhshi, and in +fact all the groups, so that we have beyond all doubt an eastern +extension of the Alpine brachycephalic zone through Armenia and the +Bakhtiari uplands to the Central Asiatic highlands, a conclusion +confirmed by the explorations of M. A. Stein in Chinese Turkestan and +the Pamirs (1900-8)[1325]. Indeed this Asiatic extension of the Alpine +type inclines v. Luschan[1326] to regard the European branch as one +offshoot, and the high and narrow ("Hittite") nosed type as another, or +rather as a specialised group, of which the Armenians, Persians, Druses, +and other sectarian groups of Syria and Asia Minor represent the purest +examples. According to his summary of this complicated region "All +Western Asia was originally inhabited by a homogeneous melanochroic +race, with extreme hypsi-brachycephaly and with a 'Hittite' nose. About +4000 B.C. began a Semitic invasion from the south-east, probably from +Arabia, by people looking like the modern Bedawy. Two thousand years +later commenced a second invasion, this time from the north-west, by +xanthrochroous and long-headed tribes like the modern Kurds, half +savage, and in some way or other, perhaps, connected with the historic +Harri, Amorites, Tamehu and Galatians[1327]." + +But the eventful drama is not yet closed. Arrested perhaps for a time by +the barrier of the Hindu-Kush and Suliman ranges, proto-Aryan conquerors +burst at last, probably through the Kabul river gorges, on to the plains +of India, and thereby added another world to the Caucasic domain. Here +they were brought face to face with new conditions, which gave rise to +fresh changes and adaptations resulting in the present ethnical +relations in the peninsula. There is good reason to think that in this +region the leavening Aryan element never was numerous, while even on +their first arrival the Aryan invaders found the land already somewhat +thickly peopled by the aborigines[1328]. + +The marked linguistic and ethnical differences between Eastern and +Western Hindustan have given rise to the theory of two separate streams +of immigration, perhaps continued over many centuries[1329]. The +earlier entered from the north-west, bringing their herds and families +with them, whose descendants are the homogeneous and handsome +populations of the Punjab and Rajputana. Later swarms entered by way of +the difficult passes of Gilgit and Chitral, a route which made it +impossible for their women to accompany them. "Here they came in contact +with the Dravidians; here by the stress of that contact caste was +evolved; here the Vedas were composed and the whole fantastic structure +of orthodox ritual and usage was built up.... The men of the stronger +race took to themselves women of the weaker, and from these unions was +evolved the mixed type which we find in Hindustan and Bihar[1330]." + +An attempt to analyse the complicated ethnic elements contained in the +vast area of India was made by H. H. Risley[1331], who recognised seven +types, his classification being based on theories of origin. + +1. The TURKO-IRANIAN type, including the _Baloch_, _Brahui_, and +_Afghans_ of Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Provinces, all +Muhammadans, with broad head, long prominent nose, abundant hair, fair +complexion and tall stature. + +2. INDO-ARYAN type in the Punjab, Rajputana and Kashmir, with its most +conspicuous members the _Rajputs_, _Khatri_ and _Jats_ in all but colour +closely resembling the European type and showing little difference +between upper and lower social strata. Their characteristics are tall +stature, fair complexion, plentiful hair on face, long head, and narrow +prominent nose. + +3. ARYO-DRAVIDIAN or Hindustani type in the United Provinces, parts of +Rajputana, Bihar, and Ceylon, with lower stature, variable complexion, +longish head, and a nose index exactly corresponding to social station. + +4. SCYTHO-DRAVIDIAN of Western India, including the _Maratha Brahmans_, +_Kunbi_, and _Coorgs_, of medium stature, fair complexion, broad head +with scanty hair on the face, and a fine nose. + +5. DRAVIDIAN, generally regarded as representing the indigenous element. +The characteristics are fairly uniform from Ceylon to the Ganges valley +throughout Madras, Hyderabad, the Central Provinces, Central India and +Chota Nagpur, and the name is now used to include the mass of the +population unaffected by foreign (Aryan, Scythian, Mongoloid) +immigration. The _Nairs_ of Malabar and the _Santal_ of Chota Nagpur are +typical representatives. The stature is short, complexion very dark, +almost black, hair plentiful with a tendency to curl, head long and nose +very broad[1332]. + +6. MONGOLO-DRAVIDIAN or Bengali type of Bengal and Orissa, showing +fusion with Tibeto-Burman elements. The stature is medium, complexion +dark, and head conspicuously broad, nose variable. + +7. MONGOLOID of the Himalayas, Nepal, Assam, and Burma, represented by +the _Kanet_ of Lahoul and Kulu, the _Lepcha_ of Darjiling, the _Limbu_, +_Murmi_ and _Gurung_ of Nepal, the _Bodo_ of Assam and the _Burmese_. +The stature is short, the complexion dark with a yellowish tinge, the +hair on the face scanty. The head is broad with characteristic flat face +and frequently oblique eyes. + +This classification while more or less generally adopted in outline is +not allowed to pass unchallenged, especially with regard to the theories +of origin implied. Concerning the brachycephalic element of Western +India Risley's belief that it was the result of so-called "Scythian" +invasions is not supported by sufficient evidence. "The foreign element +is certainly Alpine, not Mongolian, and it may be due to a migration of +which the history has not been written[1333]." Ramaprasad Chanda[1334] +goes further and traces the broad-headed elements in both +"Scytho-Dravidians" (Gujaratis, Marathas and Coorgs) and +"Mongolo-Dravidians" (Bengalis and Oriyas) to one common source, "the +_Homo alpinus_ of the Pamirs and Chinese Turkestan," and attempts to +reconstruct the history of the migration of the Alpine invaders from +Central Asia over Gujarat, Deccan, Bihar and Bengal. His conclusions are +supported by the reports of Sir Aurel Stein of the _Homo Alpinus_ type +discovered in the region of Lob Nor, dating from the first centuries +A.D. This type "still supplies the prevalent element in the racial +constitution of the indigenous population of Chinese Turkestan, and is +seen in its purest form in the Iranian-speaking tribes near the +Pamirs[1335]." + +But any scheme of classification must be merely tentative, subject to +modification as statistics of the vast area are gradually collected. And +W. Crooke[1336], while acknowledging the value of Risley's scheme[1337] +points out the need of caution in accepting measurements of skull and +nose forms applied to the mixed races and half-breeds which form the +majority of the people. "The race migrations are all prehistoric, and +the amalgamation of the races has continued for ages among a people to +whom moral restraints are irksome and unfamiliar. The existing castes +are quite a modern creation, dating only from the later Buddhist age." +"The present population thus represents the flotsam and jetsam collected +from many streams of ethnical movement, and any attempt to sort out the +existing races into a set of pigeon-holes, each representing a defined +type of race, is, in the present state of our knowledge, +impossible[1338]." + +In features, says Dalton, the Kols[1339] show "much variety, and I think +in a great many families there is a considerable admixture of Aryan +blood. Many have high noses and oval faces, and young girls are at +times met with who have delicate and regular features, finely-chiselled +straight noses, and perfectly formed mouths and chins. The eyes, +however, are seldom so large, so bright, and gazelle-like as those of +pure Hindu maidens, and I have met strongly marked Mongolian features. +In colour they vary greatly, the copper tints being about the most +common [though the Mirzapur Kols are very dark]. Eyes dark brown, hair +black, straight or wavy [as all over India]. Both men and women are +noticeable for their fine, erect carriage and long, free stride[1340]." + +The same variations are found among the Dravidians, where, as should be +expected, there are many aberrant groups showing divergences in all +directions, as amongst the _Kurumba_ and _Toda_ of the Nilgiris, the +former approximating to the Mongol, the latter to the Aryan standard. W. +Sikemeier, who lived amongst them for years, notes that "many of the +Kurumbas have decided Mongoloid face and stature, and appear to be the +aborigines of that region[1341]." The same correspondent adds that much +nonsense has been written about the Todas, who have become the trump +card of popular ethnographists. "Being ransacked by European visitors +they invent all kinds of traditions, which they found out their +questioners liked to get, and for which they were paid." Still the type +is remarkable and strikingly European, "well proportioned and stalwart, +with straight nose, regular features and perfect teeth," the chief +characteristic being the development of the hairy system, less however +than amongst the Ainu, whom they so closely resemble[1342]. From the +illustrations given in Thurston's valuable series one might be tempted +to infer that a group of proto-Aryans had reached this extreme limit of +their Asiatic domain, and although W. H. R. Rivers has cleared away the +mystery and established links between the Todas and tribes of Malabar +and Travancore, the problem of their origin is not yet entirely +solved[1343]. + +The Dravidians occupy the greater part of the Deccan, where they are +constituted in a few great nations--Telugus (Telingas), Tamils (numbers +of whom have crossed into Ceylon and occupied the northern and central +parts of that island, working in the coffee districts), Kanarese, and +the Malayalim of the west coast. These with some others were brought at +an early date under Aryan (Hindu) influences, but have preserved their +highly agglutinating Dravidian speech, which has no known affinities +elsewhere, unless perhaps with the language of the Brahuis, who are +regarded by many as belated Dravidians left behind in East Baluchistan. + +But for this very old, but highly cultivated Dravidian language, which +is still spoken by about 54 millions between the Ganges and Ceylon, it +would no longer be possible to distinguish these southern Hindus from +those of Aryan speech who occupy all the rest of the peninsula together +with the southern slopes of the Hindu-Kush and parts of the western +Himalayas. Their main divisions are the Kashmiri, many of whom might be +called typical Aryans; the Punjabis with several sub-groups, amongst +which are the Sikhs, religious sectaries half Moslem half Hindu, also of +magnificent physique; the Gujaratis, Mahratis, Hindis, Bengalis, +Assamis, and Oraons of Orissa, all speaking Neo-Sanskritic idioms, which +collectively constitute the Indic branch of the Aryan family. Hindustani +or Urdu, a simplified form of Hindi current especially in the Doab, or +"Two waters," the region between the Ganges and Jumna above Allahabad, +has become a sort of _lingua franca_, the chief medium of intercourse +throughout the peninsula, and is understood by certainly over 100 +millions, while all the population of Neo-Sanskritic speech numbered in +1898 considerably over 200 millions. + +Classification derives little help from the consideration of caste, +whatever view be taken of the origin of this institution. The rather +obvious theory that it was introduced by the handful of Aryan conquerors +to prevent the submergence of the race in the great ocean of black or +dark aborigines, is now rejected by many investigators, who hold that +its origin is occupational, a question rather of social or industrial +pursuits becoming hereditary in family groups than of race distinctions +sanctioned by religion. They point out that the commentator's +interpretation of the _Pancha Ksitaya_, "Five Classes," as _Brahmans_ +(priests), _Kshatriyas_ (fighters), _Vaisya_ (traders), _Sudra_ +(peasants and craftsmen of all kinds), and _Nishada_ (savages or +outcasts) is recent, and conveys only the current sentiment of the age. +It never had any substantial base, and even in the comparatively late +Institutes of Manu "the rules of food, connubium and intercourse +between the various castes are very different from what we find at +present"; also that, far from being eternal and changeless, caste has +been subject to endless modifications throughout the whole range of +Hindu myth and history. Nor is it an institution peculiar to India, +while even here the stereotyped four or five divisions neither accord +with existing facts, nor correspond to so many distinct ethnical groups. + +All this is perfectly true, and it is also true that for generations the +recognised castes, say, social pursuits, have been in a state of +constant flux, incessantly undergoing processes of segmentation, so that +their number is at present past counting. Nevertheless, the system may +have been, and probably was, first inspired by racial motives, an +instinctive sense of self-preservation, which expressed itself in an +informal way by local class distinctions which were afterwards +sanctioned by religion, but eventually broke down or degenerated into +the present relations under the outward pressure of imperious social +necessities[1344]. + + * * * * * + +Beyond the mainland and Ceylon no Caucasic peoples of Aryan speech are +known to have ranged in neolithic or prehistoric times. But we have +already followed the migrations of a kindred[1345], though mixed race, +here called INDONESIANS, into Malaysia, the Philippines, Formosa, and +the Japanese Archipelago, which they must have occupied in the New Stone +Age. Here there occurs a great break, for they are not again met till we +reach Micronesia and the still more remote insular groups beyond +Melanesia. In Micronesia the relations are extremely confused, because, +as it seems, this group had already been occupied by the Papuans from +New Guinea before the arrival of the Indonesians, while after their +arrival they were followed at intervals by Malays perhaps from the +Philippines and Formosa, and still later by Japanese, if not also by +Chinese from the mainland. Hence the types are here as varied as the +colour, which appears, going eastwards, to shade off from the dark brown +of the Pelew and Caroline Islanders to the light brown of the Marshall +and Gilbert groups, where we already touch upon the skirts of the true +Indonesian domain[1346]. + +A line drawn athwart the Pacific from New Zealand through Fiji to Hawaii +will roughly cut off this domain from the rest of the Oceanic world, +where all to the west is Melanesian, Papuan or mixed, while all to the +right--_Maori_, some of the eastern _Fijians_, _Tongans_, _Samoans_, +_Tahitians_, _Marquesans_, _Hawaiians_ and _Easter Islanders_--is +grouped under the name POLYNESIAN, a type produced by a mixture of +Proto-Malayan and Indonesian. Dolichocephaly and mesaticephaly prevail +throughout the region, but there are brachycephalic centres in Tonga, +the Marquesas and Hawaiian Islands. The hair is mostly black and +straight, but also wavy, though never frizzly or even kinky. The colour +also is of a light brown compared to cinnamon or cafe-au-lait, and +sometimes approaching an almost white shade, while the tall stature +averages 1.72 m. (5 ft. 7-3/4 ins.). + +Migrating at an unknown date eastwards from the East Indian +archipelago[1347], the first permanent settlements appear to have been +formed in Samoa, and more particularly in the island of _Savaii_, +originally _Savaiki_, which name under divers forms and still more +divers meanings accompanied all their subsequent migrations over the +Pacific waters. Thus we have in Tahiti _Havaii_[1348], the "universe," +and the old capital of Raiatea; in Rarotonga _Avaiki_, "the land under +the wind"; in New Zealand _Hawaiki_, "the land whence came the Maori"; +in the Marquesas _Havaiki_, "the lower regions of the dead," as in _to +fenua Havaiki_, "return to the land of thy forefathers," the words with +which the victims in human sacrifices were speeded to the other world; +lastly in _Hawaii_, the name of the chief island of the Sandwich group. + +The Polynesians are cheerful, dignified, polite, imaginative and +intelligent, varying in temperament between the wild and energetic and +politically capable Maori to his indolent and politically sterile +kinsmen to the north, who have been unnerved by the unvarying +uniformity of temperature. Wherever possible, they are agriculturalists, +growing yams, sweet potatoes and taro. Coconuts, bread-fruit and bananas +form the staple food in many islands. Scantily endowed with fertile soil +and edible plants the Polynesians have gained command over the sea which +everywhere surrounds them, and have developed into the best seamen among +primitive races. Large sailing double canoes were formerly in use, and +single canoes with an outrigger are still made. Native costume for men +is made of bark cloth, and for women ample petticoats of split and +plaited leaves. Ornaments, with the exception of flowers, are sparingly +worn. The bow and arrow are unknown, short spears, clubs and slings are +used, but no shields. The arts of writing, pottery making, loom-weaving +and the use of metals were, with few exceptions, unknown, but +mat-making, basketry and the making of _tapa_ were carried to a high +pitch, and Polynesian bark-cloth is the finest in the world. + +Throughout Polynesia the community is divided into nobles or chiefs, +freemen and slaves, which divisions are, by reason of _tabu_, as sharp +as those of caste. They fall into those which participate in the divine, +and those which are wholly excluded from it. Women have a high position, +and men do their fair share of work. Polygyny is universal, being +limited only by the wealth of the husband, or the numerical +preponderance of the men. Priests have considerable influence, there are +numerous gods, sometimes worshipped in the outward form of idols, and +ancestors are deified. + +Polynesian culture has been analysed by W. H. R. Rivers[1349], and the +following briefly summarises his results. At first sight the culture +appears very simple, especially as regards language and social +structure, while there is a considerable degree of uniformity in +religious belief. Everywhere we find the same kind of higher being or +god and the resemblance extends even to the name, usually some form of +the word _atua_. In material culture also there are striking +similarities, though here the variations are more definite and obvious, +and the apparent uniformity is probably due to the attention given to +the customs of chiefs, overlooking the culture of the ordinary people +where more diversity is discoverable. + +There is much that points to the twofold nature of Polynesian culture. +The evidence from the study of the ritual indicates the presence of two +peoples, an earlier who interred their dead in a sitting posture like +the dual people of Melanesia[1350], and a later, who became chiefs and +believed in the need for the preservation of the dead among the living. +All the evidence available, physical and cultural, points to the +conjecture that the early stratum of the population of Polynesia was +formed by an immigrant people who also found their way to Melanesia. + +The later stream of settlers can be identified with the +kava-people[1350]. Kava was drunk especially by the chiefs, and the +accompanying ceremonial shows its connection with the higher ranks of +the people. The close association of the _Areoi_ (secret society) of +eastern Polynesia with the chiefs is further proof. Thus both in +Melanesia and in Polynesia the chiefs who preserved their dead are +identified with the founders of secret societies--organisations which +came into being through the desire of an immigrant people to practise +their religious rites in secret. Burial in the extended position occurs +in Tikopia, Tonga and Samoa--perhaps it may have been the custom of some +special group of the kava-people. Chiefs were placed in vaults +constructed of large stones--a feature unknown elsewhere in Oceania. It +is safe also to ascribe the human design which has undergone +conventionalisation in Polynesia to the kava-people. The geometric art +through which the conventionalisation was produced belonged to the +earlier inhabitants who interred their dead in the sitting position. + +Money, if it exists at all, occupies a very unimportant place in the +culture of the people. There is no evidence of the use of any object in +Polynesia with the definite scale of values which is possessed by +several kinds of money in Melanesia. The Polynesians are largely +communistic, probably more so than the Melanesians, and afford one of +the best examples of communism in property with which we are acquainted. +This feature may be ascribed to the earlier settlers. The suggestion +that the kava-people never formed independent communities in Polynesia, +but were accepted at once as chiefs of those among whom they settled +would account for the absence of money (for which there was no need), +and the failure to disturb in any great measure the communism of the +earlier inhabitants. Communism in property was associated with sexual +communism. There is evidence that Polynesian chiefs rarely had more than +one wife, while the licentiousness which probably stood in a definite +relation to the communism of the people is said to have been more +pronounced among the lower strata of the community. Both communism and +licentiousness appear to have been much less marked in the Samoan and +Tongan islands, and here there is no evidence of interment in the +sitting position. These and other facts support the view that the +influence of the kava-people was greater here than in the more eastern +islands: probably it was greatest in Tikopia, which in many respects +differs from other parts of Polynesia. + +Magic is altogether absent from the culture of Tikopia and it probably +took a relatively unimportant place throughout Polynesia. In Tikopia the +ghosts of dead ancestors and relatives as well as animals are _atua_ and +this connotation of the word appears to be general in other parts of +Polynesia. These may be regarded as the representatives of the ghosts +and spirits of Melanesia. The _vui_ of Melanesia may be represented by +the _tii_ of Tahiti, beings not greatly respected, who had to some +extent a local character. This comparison suggests that the ancestral +ghosts belong to the culture of the kava-people, and that the local +spirits are derived from the culture of the people who interred their +dead in the sitting position, from which people the dual people of +Melanesia derived their beliefs and practices. + +To sum up. Polynesian culture is made up of at least two elements, an +earlier, associated with the practice of interring the dead in a sitting +position, communism, geometric art, local spirits and magical rites, and +a later, which practised preservation of the dead. These latter may be +identified with the kava-people while the earlier Polynesian stratum is +that which entered into the composition of the dual-people of Melanesia +at a still earlier date, and introduced the Austronesian language into +Oceania[1351]. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1194] Cf. J. Dechelette, _Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique_, Vol. II. +1910, p. 2, and for neolithic trade routes, _ib._ Vol. I. p. 626. + +[1195] The Tell-el-Amarna correspondence contains names of chieftains in +Syria and Palestine about 1400 B.C., including the name of Tushratta, +king of Mitanni; the Boghaz Keui document with Iranian divine names, and +Babylonian records of Iranian names from the Persian highlands, are a +little later in date. + +[1196] J. L. Myres, _The Dawn of History_, 1911, p. 200. + +[1197] Cf. P. Giles, Art. "Indo-European Languages" in _Ency. Brit._ +1911. + +[1198] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, +1913, pp. 40 and 486-528. + +[1199] O. Schrader, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_, 3rd ed. +1906-7. + +[1200] G. Kossinna, _Die Herkunft der Germanen_, 1911. + +[1201] H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen, ihre Verbreitung, ihre Urheimat und +ihre Kultur_, 1905-7. + +[1202] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, +1913, pp. 40 and 486-528. + +[1203] _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, I. 1913, p. 49. + +[1204] See Note 3, p. 441 above. + +[1205] Art. "Indo-European Languages," _Ency. Brit._ 1911, p. 500. + +[1206] Centum (hard guttural) group is the name applied to the Western +and entirely European branches of the Indo-European family, as opposed +to the satem (sibilant) group, situated mainly in Asia. + +[1207] _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 17 and chap. XVII. European +origins: Race and Language: The Aryan Question. + +[1208] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, +1913, pp. 497, 501 ff. + +[1209] Cf. T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 273. + +[1210] E. de Michelis, _L'origine degli Indo-Europei_, 1905. + +[1211] Even Sweden, regarded as the home of the purest Nordic type, +already had a brachycephalic mixture in the Stone Age. See G. Retzius, +"The So-called North European Race of Mankind," _Journ. Roy. Anthrop. +Inst._ XXXIX. 1909, p. 304. + +[1212] Cf. E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, 1909, l. 2, Sec. 551. + +[1213] For the working out of this hypothesis see T. Peisker, "The +Expansion of the Slavs," _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. II. 1913. + +[1214] H. M. Chadwick, Art. "Teutonic Peoples" in _Ency. Brit._ 1911. +Cf. S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, 1913, +p. 480. + +[1215] See R. Much, Art. "Germanen," J. Hoops' _Reallexikon d. Germ. +Altertumskunde_, 1914. + +[1216] H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_, 1907, pp. +210-215. For a full account of the affinities of the _Cimbri_ and +_Teutoni_ see T. Rice Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, pp. +546-553. + +[1217] Paper read at the Meeting of the Ger. Anthrop. Soc., Spiers, +1896. Figures of Bastarnae from the Adamklissi monument and elsewhere +are reproduced in H. Hahne's _Das Vorgeschichtliche Europa: Kulturen und +Voelker_, 1910, figs. 144, 149. Cf. T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the +Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 430. + +[1218] Cf. H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_, 1907, pp. +174 and 219. + +[1219] _Monuments runiques_ in _Mem. Soc. R. Ant. du Nord_, 1893. + +[1220] "Lactea cutis" (Sidonius Apollinaris). + +[1221] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 205 ff. See also O. +Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens_, 1906; G. Retzius and C. M. +Fuerst, _Anthropologica Suecica_, 1902. + +[1222] Commonly called the Borreby type from skulls found at Borreby in +the island of Falster, which resemble Round Barrow skulls in Britain. + +[1223] For Denmark consult _Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi_ udgivne +af den Antropologiske Komite, with English summaries, Bd. I. 1907-1911, +Bd. II. 1913. + +[1224] The results were tabulated by Virchow and may be seen, without +going to German sources, in W. Z. Ripley's map, p. 222, of _The Races of +Europe_, 1900, where the whole question is fully dealt with. + +[1225] See Ripley's Craniological chart in "Une carte de l'Indice +Cephalique en Europe," _L'Anthropologie_, VII. 1896, p. 513. + +[1226] The case is stated in uncompromising language by Alfred Fouillee: +"Une autre loi, plus generalement admise, c'est que depuis les temps +prehistoriques, les brachycephales tendent a eliminer les +dolichocephales par l'invasion progressive des couches inferieures et +l'absorption des aristocraties dans les democraties, ou elles viennent +se noyer" (_Rev. des Deux Mondes_, March 15, 1895). + +[1227] _Recherches Anthrop. sur le Probleme de la Depopulation_, in +_Rev. d'Economie politique_, IX. p. 1002; X. p. 132 (1895-6). + +[1228] _Nature_, 1897, p. 487. Cf. also A. Thomson, "Consideration +of ... factors concerned in production of Man's Cranial Form," _Journ. +Anthr. Inst._ XXXIII. 1903, and A. Keith, "The Bronze Age Invaders of +Britain," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. 1915. + +[1229] Livi's results for Italy (_Antropometria Militare_) differ in +some respects from those of de Lapouge and Ammon for France and Baden. +Thus he finds that in the brachy districts the urban population is less +brachy than the rural, while in the dolicho districts the towns are more +brachy than the plains. + +[1230] Dealing with some studies of the Lithuanian race, Deniker writes: +"Ainsi donc, contrairement aux idees de MM. de Lapouge et Ammon, en +Pologne, comme d'ailleurs en Italie, les classes les plus instruites, +dirigeantes, urbaines, sont plus brachy que les paysans" +(_L'Anthropologie_, 1896, p. 351). Similar contradictions occur in +connection with light and dark hair, eyes, etc. + +[1231] "E qui non posso tralasciare di avvertire un errore assai diffuso +fra gli antropologi ... i quali vorrebbero ammettere una trasformazione +del cranio da dolicocefalo in brachicefalo" (_Arii e Italici_, p. 155). + +[1232] W. Z. Ripley's _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 544 ff. + +[1233] This specialist insists "dass von einer mongolischen Einwanderung +in Europa keine Rede mehr sein koenne" (_Der europaeische Mensch. u. die +Tiroler_, 1896). He is of course speaking of prehistoric times, not of +the late (historical) Mongol irruptions. Cf. T. Peisker, "The Expansion +of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 452, with reference +to mongoloid traits in Bavaria. + +[1234] "Malgre les nombreuses invasions des populations germaniques, le +Tyrolien est reste, quant a sa conformation cranienne, le Rasene ou +Rhaetien des temps antiques--hyperbrachycephale" (_Les Aryens_, p. 7). +The mean index of the so-called Disentis type of Rhaetian skulls is +about 86 (His and Ruetimeyer, _Crania Helvetica_, p. 29 and Plate E. 1). + +[1235] "The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy," in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ +1897, p. 258. In this splendidly illustrated paper the date of the +immigration is referred to the 11th century B.C. on the ground that the +first Etruscan saeculum was considered as beginning about 1050 B.C., +presumably the date of their arrival in Italy (p. 259). But Sergi thinks +they did not arrive till about the end of the 8th century (_Arii e +Italici_, p. 149). + +[1236] See R. S. Conway, Art. Etruria: Language, _Ency. Brit._ 1911. + +[1237] _Op. cit._ p. 151. By German he means the round-headed South +German. + +[1238] S. Feist, _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen_, +1913, p. 370. + +[1239] S. Feist, _loc. cit._ p. 65. For cultural and linguistic +influence of Celts on Germans see pp. 480 ff. Evidence of Celtic names +in Germany is discussed by H. M. Chadwick "Some German River names," +_Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgeway_, 1913. + +[1240] H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Celtes depuis les Temps les plus +anciens jusqu'en l'an 100 avant notre ere_, 1904, p. 1. + +[1241] G. Dottin, _Manuel pour servir a l'etude de l'Antiquite +Celtique_, 1915, p. 1. + +[1242] T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's _Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 321. W. Z. +Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, reviewing the "_Celtic Question_, +than which no greater stumbling-block in the way of our clear thinking +exists" (p. 124) comes to a different conclusion. He states that "the +term _Celt_, if used at all, belongs to the ... brachycephalic, darkish +population of the Alpine highlands," and he claims for this view +"complete unanimity of opinion among physical anthropologists" (p. 126). +His own view however is that "the linguists are best entitled to the +name _Celt_" while the broad-headed type commonly called Celtic by +continental writers "we shall ... everywhere ... call ... Alpine" (p. +128). + +[1243] Cf. the similar dual treatment in Italic. + +[1244] "No Gael [_i.e._ Q Celt] ever set his foot on British soil save +on a vessel that had put out from Ireland." Kuno Meyer, _Trans. Hon. +Soc. Cymmrodorion_, 1895-6, p. 69. + +[1245] _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 409-424. + +[1246] _Das keltische Britannien_, 1912, pp. 28-37. + +[1247] J. Rhys, _The Welsh People_, 1902, pp. 13-14. + +[1248] _Das keltische Britannien_, 1912, pp. 28-37. + +[1249] _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 414. The name of the Picts is +apparently Indo-European in form, and if the Celts were late comers into +Britain (see above) they may well have been preceded by invaders of +Indo-European speech. + +[1250] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 408. Cf. A. Keith, +"The Bronze Age Invaders of Britain," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLV. +1915. + +[1251] Quoted in T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, pp. 426-427. + +[1252] T. Rice Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 443. See also John +Abercromby, _A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and +Ireland and its associated Grave Goods_, 1912, tracing the distribution +and migration of pottery forms: and the following papers of H. J. +Fleure, "Archaeological Problems of the West Coast of Britain," +_Archaeologia Cambrensis_, Oct. 1915; "The Early Distribution of +Population in South Britain," _ib._ April, 1916; "The Geographical +Distribution of Anthropological Types in Wales," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XLVI. 1916, and "A Proposal for Local Surveys of the British +People," _Arch. Camb._ Jan. 1917. + +[1253] W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 310; T. Rice +Holmes, _Ancient Britain_, 1907, p. 432. + +[1254] G. Coffey and R. Lloyd Praeger, "The Antrim Raised Beach: a +Contribution to the Neolithic History of the North of Ireland," _Proc. +Roy. Irish Acad._ XXV. (c.) 1904. See also the valuable series of +"Reports on Prehistoric Remains from the Sandhills of the Coast of +Ireland," _P. R. I. A._ XVI. + +[1255] _Man_, IX. 1909, NO. 54. + +[1256] _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._ (3), III. 1896, p. 727. + +[1257] Cf. also J. Wilfred Jackson, "The Geographical Distribution of +the Shell-Purple Industry," _Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. +Soc._ LX. No. 7, 1916. + +[1258] _Survivals from the Palaeolithic Age among Irish Neolithic +Implements_, 1897. + +[1259] _The Dolmens of Ireland_, 1897. + +[1260] They need not, however, have come from Britain, and the allusions +in Irish literature to direct immigration from Spain, probable enough in +itself, are too numerous to be disregarded. Thus, Geoffrey of +Monmouth:--"Hibernia Basclensibus [to the Basques] incolenda datur" +(_Hist. Reg. Brit._ III. Sec. 12); and Giraldus Cambrensis:--"De Gurguntio +Brytonum Rege, qui Rasclenses [read Basclenses] in Hiberniam transmisit +et eandem ipsis habitandam concessit." I am indebted to Wentworth +Webster for these references (_Academy_, Oct. 19, 1895). + +[1261] H. Zimmer, "Auf welchen Wege kamen die Goidelen vom Kontinent +nach Irland?" _Abh. d. K. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss._ 1912. + +[1262] J. Gray, "Memoir on the Pigmentation Survey of Scotland," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XXXVII. 1907. + +[1263] "A Last Contribution to Scottish Ethnology," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. +Inst._ XXXVIII. 1908. + +[1264] "The Geographical Distribution of Anthropological Types in +Wales," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLVI. 1916. + +[1265] For the explanation see W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_, +1900, p. 322 ff. + +[1266] W. Z. Ripley, _loc. cit._ p. 329. + +[1267] "The Frenchman, the German, the Italian, the Englishman, to each +of whom his own literature and the great traditions of his national life +are most dear and familiar, cannot help but feel that the vernacular in +which these are embodied and expressed is, and must be, superior to the +alien and awkward languages of his neighbours." L. Pearsall Smith, _The +English Language_, p. 54. + +[1268] See above p. 455. T. Rice Holmes points out that the Aquitani +were already mixed in type. _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_, 1911, p. 12. + +[1269] See above p. 454. + +[1270] That is, the languages whose affirmatives were the Latin pronouns +_hoc illud_ (_oil_) and _hoc_ (_oc_), the former being more contracted, +the latter more expanded, as we see in the very names of the respective +Northern and Southern bards: _Trouveres_ and _Troubadours_. It was +customary in medieval times to name languages in this way, Dante, for +instance, calling Italian _la lingua del si_, "the language of _yes_"; +and, strange to say, the same usage prevails largely amongst the +Australian aborigines, who, however, use both the affirmative and the +negative particles, so that we have here _no_- as well as _yes_-tribes. + +[1271] S. Feist points out that two physical types were recognised in +antiquity, one dark and one fair, and reference to red hair and fair +skin suggests Celtic infusion. _Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der +Indogermanen_, 1913, p. 365. + +[1272] _Science Progress_, p. 159. + +[1273] "The Portuguese are much mixed with Negroes more particularly in +the south and along the coast. The slave trade existed long before the +Negroes of Guinea were exported to the plantations of America. Damiao de +Goes estimated the number of blacks imported into Lisbon alone during +the 16th century at 10,000 or 12,000 per annum. If contemporary +eye-witnesses can be trusted, the number of blacks met with in the +streets of Lisbon equalled that of the whites. Not a house but had its +negro servants, and the wealthy owned entire gangs of them" (Reclus, I. +p. 471). + +[1274] "The Spanish People," _Cont. Rev._ May, 1907, and _The Soul of +Spain_, 1908. + +[1275] T. E. Peet, _Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily_, 1909, +gives a full account of the archaeology. + +[1276] "Zur Palaeoethnologie Mittel- u. Suedeuropas" in _Mitt. Wiener +Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18. It should here be noted that in his _History +of the Greek Language_ (1896) Kretschmer connects the inscriptions of +the Veneti in north Italy and of the Messapians in the south with the +Illyrian linguistic family, which he regards as Aryan intermediate +between the Greek and the Italic branches, the present Albanian being a +surviving member of it. In the same Illyrian family W. M. Lindsay would +also include the "Old Sabellian" of Picenum, "believed to be the oldest +inscriptions on Italian soil. The manifest identity of the name +_Aodatos_ and the word _meitimon_ with the Illyrian names [Greek: +Audata] and _Meitima_ is almost sufficient of itself to prove these +inscriptions to be Illyrian. Further the whole character of their +language, with its Greek and its Italic features, corresponds with what +we know and what we can safely infer about the Illyrian family of +languages" (_Academy_, Oct. 24, 1896). Cf. R. S. Conway, _The Italic +Dialects_, 1897. + +[1277] R. Munro, _Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, 1900. See also W. +Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901, ch. V., showing that remains +of the Iron Age in Bosnia are closely connected with Hallstatt and La +Tene cultures. + +[1278] _Arii e Italici_, p. 158 sq. + +[1279] "Liguri e Pelasgi furono i primi abitatori d'Italia; e Liguri +sembra siano stati quelli che occupavano la Valle del Po e costrussero +le palafitte, e Liguri forse anche i costruttori delle palafitte +svizzere: Mediterranei tutti" (_Ib._ p. 138). + +[1280] Ripley's chart shows a range of from 87 in Piedmont to 76 and 77 +in Calabria, Puglia, and Sardinia, and 75 and under in Corsica. _The +Races of Europe_, 1900, p. 251. + +[1281] But cf. W. Ridgeway, _Who were the Romans?_ 1908. + +[1282] The true name of these southern or Macedo-Rumanians, as pointed +out by Gustav Weigland (_Globus_, LXXI. p. 54), is _Aramani_ or +_Armani_, _i.e._ "Romans." _Tsintsar_, _Kutzo-Vlack_, etc. are mere +nicknames, by which they are known to their Macedonian (Bulgar and +Greek) neighbours. See also W. R. Morfill in _Academy_, July 1, 1893. +The Vlachs of Macedonia are described by E. Pears, _Turkey and its +People_, 1911, and a full account of the Balkan Vlachs is given by A. J. +B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, _The Nomads of the Balkans_, 1914. + +[1283] _Romaenische Studien_, Leipzig, 1871. + +[1284] _Les Roumains au Moyen Age, passim._ Hunfalvy, quoted by A. J. +Patterson (_Academy_, Sept. 7, 1895), also shows that "for a thousand +years there is no authentic mention of a Latin or Romance speaking +population north of the Danube." + +[1285] This view is held by L. Rethy, also quoted by Patterson, and the +term _Vlack_ (_Welsch_, whence Wallachia) applied to the Rumanians by +all their Slav and Greek neighbours points in the same direction. + +[1286] T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. I. +1911, p. 356, and "The Expansion of the Slavs," _ib._ Vol. II. 1913, p. +440. + +[1287] _Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges._ 1897, p. 18. + +[1288] _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 391. + +[1289] _The Ancient History of the Near East_, 1913, p. 69. + +[1290] Hall notes (p. 73) that "it is to the Thesprotian invasion, which +displaced the Achaians, that, in all probability, the general +introduction of iron into Greece is to be assigned. The invaders came +ultimately from the Danube region, where iron was probably first used in +Europe, whereas their kindred, the Achaians, had possibly already lived +in Thessaly in the Stone Age, and derived the knowledge of metal from +the Aegeans. The speedy victory of the new-comers over the older Aryan +inhabitants of Northern Greece may be ascribed to their possession of +iron weapons." Ridgeway, however, has little difficulty in proving that +the Achaeans themselves were tall fair Celts from Central Europe. _The +Early Age of Greece_, 1901, especially chap. IV., "Whence came the +Acheans?" The question is dealt with from a different point of view by +J. L. Myres, in _The Dawn of History_, 1911, chap. IX., "The Coming of +the North," tracing the invasion from the Eurasian steppes. + +[1291] H. R. Hall, _loc. cit._ p. 68; cf. H. Peake, _Journ. Roy. Anth. +Inst._ 1916, p. 154. + +[1292] C. H. Hawes, "Some Dorian Descendants," _Ann. Brit. School Ath._ +No. XVI. 1909-10, proves that the Dorian or Illyrian (Alpine) type still +persists in South Greece and Crete. + +[1293] _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea, Stuttgart_, 1830. See also G. +Finlay's _Mediaeval Greece_, and the _Anthrop. Rev._ 1868, VI. p. 154. + +[1294] _Romaenische Studien_, 1871. + +[1295] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 351 sq. + +[1296] By a sort of grim irony the word has come to mean "slave" in the +West, owing to the multitudes of Slavs captured and enslaved during the +medieval border warfare. But the term is by many referred to the root +_slovo_, word, speech, implying a people of intelligible utterance, and +this is supported by the form _Slovene_ occurring in Nestor and still +borne by a southern Slav group. See T. Peisker, "The Expansion of the +Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, p. 421 _n._ 2. + +[1297] IV. 21. + +[1298] These Budini are described as a large nation with "remarkably +blue eyes and red hair," on which account Zaborowski thinks they may +have been ancestors of the present Finns. But they may also very well +have been belated proto-Germani left behind by the body of the nation +_en route_ for their new Baltic homes. + +[1299] Cf. p. 304. + +[1300] _Scythians and Greeks_, 1909. + +[1301] The meaning of Wend is uncertain. It has led to confusion with +the Armorican _Veneti_, the Paphlagonian _Enetae_, and the Adriatic +_Enetae-Venetae_, all non-Slav peoples. Shakhmatov regards it as a name +inherited by Slavs from their conquerors, the Celtic Venedi, who +occupied the Vistula region in the 3rd or 2nd centuries B.C. See T. +Peisker, "The Expansion of the Slavs," _Camb. Med. Hist._ Vol. II. 1913, +p. 421 _n._ 2. + +[1302] That is, the Elbe Slaves, from _po_=by, near, and _Labe_=Elbe; +cf. _Pomor_ (Pomeranians), "by the Sea"; Borussia, Porussia, Prussia, +originally peopled by the _Pruczi_, a branch of the Lithuanians +Germanised in the 17th century. + +[1303] _Carpath_, _Khrobat_, _Khorvat_ are all the same word, meaning +highlands, mountains, hence not strictly an ethnic term, although at +present so used by the _Crovats_ or _Croatians_, a considerable section +of the Yugo-Slavs south of the Danube. + +[1304] See note 5, p. 537. + +[1305] That is, "Highlanders" (root _alb_, _alp_, height, hill). From +_Albanites_ through the Byzantine _Arvanites_ comes the Turkish +_Arnaut_, while the national name _Skipetar_ has precisely the same +meaning (root _skip_, _scop_, as in [Greek: skopelos], scopulus, cliff, +crag). + +[1306] There are about twenty of these _phis_ or _phar_ (phratries) +amongst the Ghegs, and the practice of exogamous marriage still survives +amongst the Mirdites south of the Drin, who, although Catholics, seek +their wives amongst the surrounding hostile Turkish and Muhammadan Gheg +populations. + +[1307] J. Deniker, "Les Six Races composant la Population actuelle de +l'Europe," _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ XXXIV. 1904, pp. 182, 202. + +[1308] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ VII. 1896. + +[1309] Hence Virchow (Meeting Ger. Anthrop. Soc. 1897) declared that the +extent and duration of the Slav encroachments in German territory could +not be determined by the old skulls, because it is impossible to say +whether a given skull is Slav or not. + +[1310] Especially Lubor Niederle, for whom the proto-Slavs are +unquestionably long-headed blonds like the Teutons, although he admits +that round skulls occur even of old date, and practically gives up the +attempt to account for the transition to the modern Slav. + +[1311] "The Racial Geography of Europe," in _Popular Science Monthly_, +June, 1897. + +[1312] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1896, p. 81 sq. + +[1313] _Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop._ 1894, p. 36. + +[1314] _Droit Coutumier Ossethien_, 1893. + +[1315] Quoted by Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_ etc. p. 11. + +[1316] The _Yagnobi_ of the river of like name, an affluent of the +Zerafshan; yet even this shows lexical affinities with Iranic, while its +structure seems to connect it with Leitner's Kajuna and Biddulph's +Burish, a non-Aryan tongue current in Ghilghit, Yasin, Hunza and Nagar, +whose inhabitants are regarded by Biddulph as descendants of the +Yue-chi. The Yagnobi themselves, however, are distinctly Alpines, +somewhat short, very hirsute and brown, with broad face, large head, and +a Savoyard expression. They have the curious custom of never cutting but +always breaking their bread, the use of the knife being sure to raise +the price of flour. + +[1317] F. v. Luschan points out that very little is known of the +anthropology of Persia. "In a land inhabited by about ten millions not +more than twenty or thirty men have been regularly measured and not one +skull has been studied." The old type preserved in the Parsi is +short-headed and dark. "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 233. + +[1318] _Dih, deh_, village. _Zaban_, tongue, language. + +[1319] H. Walter, _From Indus to Tigris_, p. 16. Of course this +traveller refers only to the Tajiks of the plateau (Persia, +Afghanistan). Of the Galchic Tajiks he knew nothing; nor indeed is the +distinction even yet quite understood by European ethnologists. + +[1320] III. 91. + +[1321] Even Ptolemy's [Greek: pasichai] appear to be the same people, +[Greek: p] being an error for [Greek: t], so that [Greek: tasikai] would +be the nearest possible Greek transcription of _Tajik_. + +[1322] _Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh_, 1880, _passim._ + +[1323] _An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_, 1815. + +[1324] "Ces Savoyards attardes du Kohistan" (Ujfalvy, _Les Aryens_ +etc.). + +[1325] The anthropological data are dealt with by T. A. Joyce, "Notes on +the Physical Anthropology of Chinese Turkestan and the Pamirs," _Journ. +Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLII. 1912. "The original inhabitant ... is that type +of man described by Lapouge as _Homo Alpinus_," p. 468. + +[1326] F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Asia," _Journ. Roy. +Anthr. Inst._ XLI. 1911, p. 243. + +[1327] For the evidence of the extension of this element in East Central +Asia see Ch. IX. + +[1328] R. B. Foote, _Madras Government Museum_. _The Foote Collection of +Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities. Notes on their ages +and distribution_, 1916, is the most recent contribution to the +prehistoric period, but the conclusions are not universally accepted. + +[1329] A. F. R. Hoernle, _A Grammar of Eastern Hindi compared with the +other Gaudian Languages_, 1880, first suggested (p. xxxi. ff.) the +distinction between the languages of the Midland and the Outer Band, +which has been corroborated by G. A. Grierson, _Languages of India_, +1903, p. 51; _Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1907-8, Vol. I. pp. 357-8. + +[1330] H. H. Risley, _The People of India_, 1908, p. 54. See also J. D. +Anderson, _The Peoples of India_, 1913, p. 27. + +[1331] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_ etc. 1892, _Indian Census Report_, +1901, and _Imperial Gazetteer_, Vol. I. ch. VI. + +[1332] The jungle tribes of this group, such as the _Paniyan_, _Kurumba_ +and _Irula_ are classed as PRE-DRAVIDIAN. See chap. XII. + +[1333] A. C. Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, 1911, p. 27. + +[1334] _The Indo-Aryan Races_, 1916, pp. 65-71 and 75-78. + +[1335] "A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia 1913-16," _Geog. +Journ._ 1916. + +[1336] _Natives of Northern India_, 1907, pp. 19, 24. See also his +article "R[=a]jputs and Mar[=a]thas," _Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XL. +1910. + +[1337] "His report, compiled during the inevitable distractions incident +to the enumeration of a population of some 300 millions, was a notable +performance, and will remain one of the classics of Indian +anthropology." "The Stability of Caste and Tribal Groups in India," +_Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst._ XLIV. 1914, p. 270. + +[1338] A vast amount of material has been collected in recent years +besides _Ethnographical Surveys_ of the various provinces, the _Imperial +Gazetteer_ of 1909, and the magnificent _Census Reports_ of 1901 and +1911. Some of the more important works are as follows:--H. H. Risley, +_Ethnography of India_, 1903, _The People of India_, 1908; E. Thurston, +_Ethnographical Notes on Southern India_, 1906, _Castes and Tribes of +Southern India_, 1909; H. A. Rose, _Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of +the Punjab and N.W. Frontier Province_, 1911; E. A. de Brett, +_Gazetteer, Chhatisgarh Feudatory States_, 1909; C. E. Luard, +_Ethnographic Survey, Central India_, 1909; L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, +_The Cochin Tribes and Castes_, 1909, _Tribes and Castes of Cochin_, +1912; M. Longworth Dames, _The Baloch Race_, 1904; W. H. R. Rivers, _The +Todas_, 1906; P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, 1907; T. C. Hodson, _The +Meitheis_, 1908, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_, 1911; E. Stack and C. J. +Lyall, _The Mikirs_, 1908; A. Playfair, _The Garos_, 1909; S. Endle, +_The Kacharis_, 1911; C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, _The Veddas_, 1911; J. +Shakespear, _The Lushei Kuki Clans_, 1912; S. Chandra Roy, _The Mundas +and their Country_, 1912, _The Oraons_, 1915; and R. V. Russell, _Tribes +and Castes of the N.W. Central Provinces_, 1916. + +[1339] The term _Kol_, which occurs as an element in a great many tribal +names, and was first introduced by Campbell in a collective sense +(1866), is of unknown origin, but probably connected with a root meaning +"Man" (W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, III. p. 294). + +[1340] _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 190. + +[1341] In a letter to the author, June 18, 1895. + +[1342] Edgar Thurston, _Anthropology_ etc., Bul. 4, Madras, 1896, pp. +147-8. For fuller details see his _Castes and Tribes of S. India_, 1909. + +[1343] _The Todas_, 1906. See chap. XXX. "The Origin and History of the +Todas." + +[1344] For the discussion of Caste see E. A. Gait's article in _Ency. of +Religion and Ethics_, 1910, with bibliography; also V. A. Smith, _Caste +in India, East and West_, 1913. + +[1345] See Ch. VII. + +[1346] See A. Kraemer, _Hawaii, Ostmikronesien und Samoa_, 1906. + +[1347] For Polynesian wanderings see S. Percy Smith, _Hawaiki: the +original home of the Maori_, 1904; J. M. Brown, _Maori and Polynesian; +their origin, history and culture_, 1907; W. Churchill, _The Polynesian +Wanderings_, 1911. + +[1348] _H_ everywhere takes the place of _S_, which is preserved only in +the Samoan mother-tongue; cf. Gr. [Greek: hepta] with Lat. _septem_, +Eng. _seven_. + +[1349] _The History of Melanesian Society_, 1914. + +[1350] Cf. p. 139 ff. + +[1351] Among recent works on Polynesia see H. Mager, _Le Monde +polynesien_, 1902; B. H. Thomson, _Savage Island_, 1902; A. Kraemer, _Die +Samoa-Inseln_, 1902; J. M. Brown, _Maori and Polynesian_, 1907; G. +Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, 1910; F. W. Christian, _Eastern +Pacific Islands_, 1910. + + + + +APPENDIX A. (p. 5) + + +Since the first few pages of this book were in print an important memoir +on the "Phylogeny of Recent and Extinct Anthropoids with Special +Reference to the Origin of Man" has been published by W. K. Gregory +(_Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ Vol. XXXV., Article XIX, pp. 258 ff., New +York, 1916). As Gregory's lucid statement of the problems involved is +based on a prolonged examination of very varied and abundant material we +have considered it advisable to present his summary. The chief +conclusions, which appear to be of a conservative character, are as +follows (p. 341). + + +_The Origin of Man._ + +1. Comparative anatomical (including embryological) evidence alone has +shown that man and the anthropoids have been derived from a primitive +anthropoid stock and that man's existing relatives are the chimpanzee +and the gorilla. + +2. The chimpanzee and gorilla have retained, with only minor changes, +the ancestral habits and habitus in brain, dentition, skull and limbs, +while the forerunners of the Hominidae, through a profound change in +function, lost the primitive anthropoid habitus, gave up arboreal +frugivorous adaptations and early became terrestrial, bipedal and +predatory, using crude flints to cut up and smash the varied food. + +3. The ancestral chimpanzee-gorilla-man stock appears to be represented +by the Upper Miocene genera _Sivapithecus_ and _Dryopithecus_, the +former more closely allied to, or directly ancestral to, the Hominidae, +the latter to the chimpanzee and gorilla. + +4. Many of the differences that separate man from anthropoids of the +_Sivapithecus_ type are retrogressive changes, following the profound +change in food habits above noted. Here belong the retraction of the +face and dental arch, the reduction in size of the canines, the +reduction of the jaw muscles, the loss of the prehensile character of +the hallux. Many other differences are secondary adjustments in relative +proportions, connected with the change from semi-arboreal, semi-erect +and semi-quadrupedal progression to fully terrestrial bipedal +progression. The earliest anthropoids being of small size doubtless had +slender limbs; later semi-terrestrial semi-erect forms were probably not +unlike a very young gorilla, with fairly short legs and not excessively +elongate arms. The long legs and short arms of man are due, I believe, +to a secondary readjustment of proportions. The very short legs and very +long arms of old male gorillas may well be a specialization. + +5. At present I know no good evidence for believing that the separation +of the Hominidae from the Simiidae took place any earlier than the +Miocene, and probably the Upper Miocene. The change in structure during +this vast interval (two or more million years) is much greater in the +Hominidae than in the conservative anthropoids, but it is not unlikely +that during a profound change of life habits evolution sometimes +proceeds more rapidly than in the more familiar cases where +uninterrupted adaptations proceed in a single direction. + +6. _Homo heidelbergensis_ appears to be directly ancestral to all the +later Hominidae. + + +_On the evolution of human food habits._ + +While all the great apes are prevailingly frugivorous, and even their +forerunners in the Lower Oligocene have the teeth well adapted for +piercing the tough rinds of fruits and for chewing vegetable food, yet +they also appear to have at least a latent capacity for a mixed diet. +The digestive tract, especially of the chimpanzee and gorilla, is +essentially similar to that of man and at least some captive chimpanzees +thrive upon a mixed diet including large quantities of fruits, +vegetables and bread and small quantities of meat[1352]. Mr R. L. +Garner, who has spent many years in studying the African anthropoids in +their wild state, states[1353] that "their foods are mainly vegetable, +but that flesh is an essential part of their diet." Other observers +state[1354] that the gorilla and chimpanzee greedily devour young birds +as well as eggs, vermin and small rodents. + +Even the existing anthropoids, although highly conservative both in +brain development and general habits, show the beginning of the use of +the hands, and trained anthropoids can perform quite elaborate acts. At +a time when tough-rined tubers and fruits were still the main element of +the diet the nascent Hominidae may have sought out the lairs and nesting +places of many animals for the purpose of stealing the young and thus +they may have learned to fight with and kill the enraged parents. They +had also learned to fight in protecting their own nesting places and +young. And possibly they killed both by biting, as in carnivores, and by +strangling, or, in the case of a small animal, by dashing it violently +down. + +We may conceive that the Upper Tertiary ape-men, in the course of their +dispersal from a south central Asiatic centre[1355], entered regions +where flint-bearing formations were abundant. In some way they learned +perhaps that these "Eolith" flints could be used to smash open the head +of a small strangled animal, to crack open tough vegetables, or to mash +substances into an edible condition. Much later, after the mental +association of hand and flint had been well established, they may have +struck at intruders with the flints with which they were preparing their +food and in this way they may have learned to use the heavier flints as +hand axes and daggers. At a very early date they learned to throw down +heavy stones upon an object to smash it, and this led finally to the +hurling of flints at men and small game. Very early also they had +learned to swing a heavy piece of wood or a heavy bone as a weapon. For +all such purposes shorter and stockier arms are more advantageous than +the long slender arms of a semi-quadrupedal ancestral stage and I have +argued above (p. 333) that a secondary shortening and thickening of the +arms ensued. + +One of the first medium-sized animals that the nascent Hominidae would be +successful in killing was the wild boar, which in the Pleistocene had a +wide Palaearctic distribution. + +From the very first the ape-men were more or less social in habits and +learned to hunt in packs. Whether the art of hunting began in south +central Asia or in Europe, perhaps one of the first large animals that +men learned to kill after they had invaded the open country was the +horse, because, when a pack of men had surrounded a horse, a single good +stroke with a coup-de-poing upon the brain-case might be sufficient to +kill it. + +I have argued above (p. 321) that the retraction of the dental arch and +the reduction of the canines is not consistent with the use of meat as +food, because men learned to use rough flints, in place of their teeth, +to tear the flesh and to puncture the bones, and because the erect +incisors, short canines and bicuspids were highly effective in securing +a powerful hold upon the tough hide and connective tissue. It must be +remembered that with a given muscular power small teeth are more easily +forced into meat than large teeth. + +After every feast there would be a residuum of hide and bones which +would gradually assume economic value. The hides of animals were at +first rudely stripped off simply to get at the meat. Small sharp-edged +natural flints could be used for this purpose as well as to cut the +sinews and flesh. After a time it was found that the furry sides of +these hides were useful to cover the body at night or during a storm. +Thus the initial stage in the making of clothes may have been a +byproduct of the hunting habit. + +Dr Matthew (_loc. cit._ pp. 211, 212) has well suggested that man may +have learned to cover the body with the skins of animals in a cool +temperate climate (such as that on the northern slopes of the Himalayas) +and that afterward they were able to invade colder regions. The use of +rough skins to cover the body must have caused exposure to new sources +of annoyance and infection, but we cannot affirm that natural selection +was the cause of the reduction of hair on the body and of the many +correlated modifications of glandular activity. We can only affirm that +a naked race of mammals must surely have had hairy ancestors and that +the loss of hair on the body was probably subsequent to the adoption of +predatory habits. + +The food habits of the early Hominidae, and thus indirectly the jaws and +teeth, were later modified through the use of fire for softening the +food. Men had early learned to huddle round the dying embers of forest +fires that had been started by lightning, to feed the fire-monster with +branches, and to carry about firebrands. They learned eventually that +frozen meat could be softened by exposing it to the fire. Thus the +broiling and roasting of meat and vegetables might be learned even +before the ways of kindling fire through percussion and friction had +been discovered. But the full art of cooking and the subsequent stages +in the reduction of the jaws and teeth in the higher races probably had +to await the development of vessels for holding hot water, perhaps in +neolithic times. + +This account of the evolution of the food habits of the Hominidae will +probably be condemned by experimentalists, who have adduced strong +evidence for the doctrine that "acquired characters" cannot be +inherited. But, whatever the explanation may be, it is a fact that +progressive changes in food-habits and correlated changes in structure +have occurred in thousands of phyla, the history of which is more or +less fully known. Nobody with a practical knowledge of the mechanical +interactions of the upper and lower teeth of mammals, or of the +progressive changes in the evolution of shearing and grinding teeth, can +doubt that the dentition has evolved _pari passu_ with changes in food +habits. Whether, as commonly supposed, the food habits changed before +the dentition, or _vice versa_, the evidence appears to show that the +Hominidae passed through the following stages of evolution: + +1. A chiefly frugivorous stage, with large canines and parallel rows of +cheek teeth (cf. _Sivapithecus_). + +2. A predatory, omnivorous stage, with reduced canines and convergent +tooth rows (cf. _Homo heidelbergensis_). + +3. A stage in which the food is softened by cooking and the dentition is +more or less reduced in size and retrograde in character, as in +modernized types of _H. sapiens_. + +The following is an abbreviation of Gregory's arrangement of the +Primates (pp. 266, 267). + + Order Primates + Suborder Lemuroidea + Suborder Anthropoidea + Series Platyrrhinae [New World monkeys] + Fam. Cebidae + Fam. Hapalidae [Marmosets] + Series Catarrhinae [Old World monkeys] + Fam. Parapithecidae [extinct] + Fam. Cercopithecidae + Fam. Simiidae + Sub-fam. Hylobatinae [Gibbons] + Sub-fam. Simiinae [Simians or Anthropoid apes] + +By the courtesy of the author we are permitted to reproduce his +provisional diagram of the phylogeny of the Hominidae and Simiidae (p. +337). + + [Illustration] + +The following explanation is offered for the convenience of those who +may not be familiar with the technical terms here employed. + + _Simia_, the genus containing the orang-utan. + + _Pan_, a name occasionally employed for the genus containing the + chimpanzee. Most authorities place the chimpanzee and the gorilla in + the genus Anthropopithecus. + + _Hylobatinae_, the sub-family containing the gibbons. + + _Palaeopithecus_, _Dryopithecus_, _Palaeosimia_, and _Sivapithecus_ + are extinct simians. + + _Pan vetus_ is the name suggested by Miller[1356] for the supposed + chimpanzee whose jaw was found associated with the Piltdown cranium. + He says "The Piltdown remains include parts of a brain-case showing + fundamental characters not hitherto known except in members of the + genus _Homo_, and a mandible, two molars, and an upper canine + showing equally diagnostic features hitherto unknown, except in + members of the genus _Pan_ [_Anthropopithecus_]. On the evidence + furnished by these characters the fossils must be supposed to + represent either a single individual belonging to an otherwise + unknown extinct genus (_Eoanthropus_) or to two individuals + belonging to two now-existing families (_Hominidae_ and _Pongidae_)." + He argues that the jaw was actually that of a chimpanzee and that + the cranium was that of a true man, whom he terms _Homo Dawsoni_. + Gregory accepts this hypothesis. W. P. Pycraft[1357] has submitted + Miller's data and conclusions to searching criticism and bases his + deductions on far more ample material than that at the disposal of + Miller. He says "That the Piltdown jaw does present many points of + striking resemblance to that of the chimpanzee is beyond dispute. Dr + Smith Woodward pointed out these resemblances long ago, in his + original description of the jaw. But Mr Miller contends that because + of these resemblances therefore it _is_ the jaw of a chimpanzee" + (_loc. cit._ p. 408). Pycraft points out that there is more + variability in the jaws of chimpanzees than Miller was aware of, and + that most of the features of the Piltdown jaw are well within the + limits of human variation; in discussing the conformation of the + inner surface of the body of the jaw he says "Between the two + extremes seen in the jaws of chimpanzees every gradation will be + found, but in no case would there be any possibility of confusing + the Piltdown fragment, or any similar fragment of a modern human + jaw, with similar fragments of chimpanzee jaws" (p. 407). + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1352] A. Keith, "On the Chimpanzees and their Relationship to the +Gorilla," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1899, I. p. 296. + +[1353] _Science_, Vol. XLII. Dec. 10, 1915, p. 843. + +[1354] A. H. Keane, _Ethnology_, 1901, p. 111. + +[1355] W. D. Matthew, "Climate and Evolution," _Ann. New York Acad. +Sci._ XXIV. 1915, pp. 210, 214. + +[1356] Gerrit S. Miller, "The Jaw of Piltdown Man," _Smithsonian Misc. +Coll._ Vol. 65, No. 12, 1915. + +[1357] "The Jaw of the Piltdown Man, a Reply to Mr Gerrit S. Miller," +_Science Progress_, No. 43, 1917, p. 389. + + + + +INDEX + + +Thanks are due to Hilary and Patrick Quiggin for help in the +preparation, and to Miss L. Whitehouse for help in the revision, +of the index. + + Ababdeh, the, 483 + + Abaka, the, 78 + + Abbadie, A. d', 123 + + Abbot, W. J. L., 7 + + Abipone, the, 420 + + Abkhasian language, the, 541 + + Abnaki, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Abo, the, 117 + + Abor, the, 170 _n._ + + Abud, H. M., 484 sq. + + Abydos, excavations at, 481 + + Abyssinians, the, 468 sq. + + Achaeans, the, 463, 466, 533 sq. + + Acheulean culture, 11, 14 + + Achinese, the, 223, 238 sq. + + Acolhuas, the, 342, 394 + + Acoma, the, 382 _n._ + + Adam, L., 283, 415 _n._ + + Adelung, J. C., 127 _n._ + + Aderbaijani, the, 312 + + Aegean, the, culture of, 25 sq., 463 sqq., 467 sq., 501 sq.; + prehistoric chronology of, 27; + race, 466 + + Aeneolithic period, 21, 460 + + Aeta, the, 138, 149, 156 sqq., and Pl. II fig. 3 + + Afars, the, 468 sq., 484 sqq. + + Afghans, the, 542 sq., 546 + + Ahoms, the, 192 + + Ahtena, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Aimaks, the, 312 + + Aimores. _See_ Botocudos + + Ainu, the, 289, 294 sq., and Pl. VII figs. 1, 2 + + Akkadians, the, 261 sqq., 264 + + Akua. _See_ Cherentes + + Alakalufs, the, 411; language of, 413 + + Alans, the, 312, 540 + + Albanians, the, 532, 538 sq. + + Algonquian linguistic stock, the, 342, 347, 354 sq., 370 sqq., 381 + + Algonquin, the, 347 _n._ and map, pp. 334-5 + + Alldridge, T. J., 56 _n._ + + Alpine race, the, 449, 452 sq., Pl. XI figs. 3, 4, 6, and + Pl. XIV figs. 3-6; + in the Morea, 465; + in Western Asia, 498, 504; + in Scandinavia, 509; + in Germany, 509 sq.; + in France, 510, 525 sqq.; + in the Tyrol, 512; + and the Celts, 514 sq.; + in Britain, 516 sqq.; + in Italy, 529; + in Russia, 539 sq.; + in Irania, 541 sqq.; + in Central Asia, 544 sq.; + in India, 547 sq. + + Altamira cave art, 13 + + Alur, the, 79 + + Ama-Fingu, the, 102 + + Ama-Tembu, the, 104 + + Ama-Xosa, the, 101 + + Ama-Zulu, the, 101 + + Amias, the, 250 + + Ammon, O., 511 + + Ammonites, the, 490 + + Amorites, the, 489 sq., 493, 545 + + Anau, exploration of, 257 sq. + + Andaman Islanders, the, 138, 149 sqq., 155, 158, and Pl. II fig. 1 + + Anderson, J. D., 546 _n._ + + Anderson, John, 186 _n._ + + Andi language, the, 541 + + Andrae, W., 264 _n._ + + Angami Naga, the, 178; + language, 177 + + A-Ngoni, the, 102 + + Annamese, the, 180, 202 sqq. + + Annandale, N., 153, 222 _n._ + + Anorohoro, the, 242 + + Ansariyeh, the, 497 + + Antankarana, the, 241 + + Antimerina. _See_ Hova + + Anu, the, 197 + + Anuchin, A., 289 + + Apaches, the, 342, 354, 383 + + Aquitani, the, 525 + + Arabs, the, 468, 470 sqq., 480, 488, 495, 498 sqq. + + Arakanese, the, 180 + + Aramaeans, the, 489 sq. + + Aramka, the, 73 + + Arapaho, the, 354, 370, 372, 374, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Araucanians, the, 409 sqq.; + language, 412 + + Arawakan linguistic stock, 415 sq. + + Arawaks, the, 348, 399, 416 + + Arbois de Jubainville, M. H. d', 459, 514 _n._ + + Arcadians, the, 466 + + Argentina, fossil man in, 338 + + Arikara, the, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Aristov, N. A., 316 _n._ + + Arldt, T., 93 + + Armenians, the, 449, 498, 545, and Pl. XIV figs. 3, 4 + + Armenoids, the, 449, 450 sq., 479, 481, 497 sq. + + Aruan, the, 416 + + Arunta, the, 429, 435 sqq. + + Arvernians. _See_ Alpine race + + Aryan languages. _See_ Indo-European languages + + "Aryans," the, 441 sq., 449, 501 sqq.; + "cradle" of, 503 sq. + + Aryans, the, in India, 505 sq., 545 sq., 550 and Pl. XV figs. 1-3 + + Aryo-Dravidian type, Risley's, 546 + + Asha, the, 485 + + Ashango, the, 115 + + Ashanti, the, 58 sq. + + Ashe, R. P., 95 _n._ + + Ashluslays, the, 421 + + Aspelin, J. R., 309 _n._, 319 + + Assami, the, 193, 550 + + Assiniboin, the, 355, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Assyrians, the, 488 sq., 492 + + Atacamenos, the, 408 + + Atarais, the, 416 + + Athapascan linguistic stock, the, 342, 347, 354, 363, 383 + + Atharaka, the, 97 _n._ + + Aucaes. _See_ Araucanians + + Auetoe, the, 348, 419 + + Aurignacian man, 2, 9, 10; + culture, 12, 14 + + Australians, the, 422, 426-437, and Pl. X figs. 5, 6; + languages of, 428 sqq. + + Austronesian languages, 221, 223, 240 + + Autenrieth, H. von, 237 _n._ + + Avars, the, 310, 326, 329 sq., 531 + + Ayamats, the, 52 + + Aymara, the, 407, 419 + + Aysa, the, 485 + + Azandeh, the, 44 + + Azilian culture, 12 sqq. + + Aztecs, the, 384, 389-395, 397 + + + Babine, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Babir, the, 70 + + Babylonia, Copper Age in, 22; + Bronze Age in, 24; + chronology, 27, 264 sq.; + writing, 32 sqq.; + influence of, on China, 207 sq.; + inhabitants, 261 sqq., 488 sq., 491 sqq.; + religion, 268; + social system, 269; + culture, 270 sq., 491; + connection with Egypt, 481 + + Badakhshi, the, 544 + + Baele, the, 73 + + Baelz, E., 294, 296 _n._ + + Ba-Fiot. _See_ Eshi-Kongo + + Ba-Ganda, the, 44, 94 sqq., 248 + + Ba-Gesu, the, 91 _n._ + + Baggara, the, 74, 471 _n._ + + Baghirmi, the, 69, 72 + + Bagobo, the, 247 + + Bahau, the, 231 + + Ba-Hima, the, 91, 93, 468, 484, 486 + + Ba-Huana, the, 115 + + Baining, the, 142 + + Bajau, the, 228 + + Ba-Kalai, the, 115 + + Bakairi, the, 348, 415 + + Ba-Kene, the, 91 + + Ba-Kish, the, 117 + + Ba-Kundu, the, 117 + + Ba-Kwiri, the, 117 + + Balagnini, the, 228 + + Balbi, A., 420 _n._ + + Balinese, the, 224 + + Balkashin, M., 316 _n._ + + Ball, C. J., 208 _n._ + + Ball, J., Dyer, 212 _n._, 216 _n._ + + Baloch, the, 546 + + Ba-Lolo, the, 110, 114 + + Ba-Long, the, 117 + + Balti, the, 167 + + Balto-Slavs, the, 506 + + Ba-Luba, the, 113 + + Ba-Mangwato, the, 109 + + Ba-Mba, the, 112 + + Bambara, the, 49, 50 + + Bancroft, H. H., 353 + + Bandelier, A. F., 383 _n._ + + Bandziri, the, 87 + + Banjars, the, 52 + + Bantu, the, compared with Sudanese Negro, 44 sqq.; + Chap. IV. _passim_; + in Madagascar, 239 sq. + + Ba-Nyai, the, 105 + + Ba-Nyoro, the, 92 + + Banyuns, the, 52 + + Ba-Puti, the, 109 + + Bara, the, 244 sq. + + Barabra, the, 75 sqq., 484 + + Barawan, the, 231 + + Barea, the, 42 + + Bari, the, 78, 79 + + Ba-Rolong, the, 106 + + Ba-Rotse, the, 106 sqq. + + Barrett, W. E. H., 100 _n._ + + Barth, H., 51, 64 _n._, 65 sq., 70 sq., 72 _n._ + + Bary, E. von, 446 _n._ + + Ba-Sa, the, 117 + + Ba-Sange, the, 113 + + Base, the, 42 + + Ba-Senga, the, 105 + + Ba-Shilange, the, 110, 113 + + Bashkirs, the, 303, 318 sq., 328 _n._ + + Ba-Soga, the, 91 _n._ + + Ba-Songe, the, 113 + + Basques, the, 454 sqq., 526 sq. + + Bastarnae, the, 326, 507 + + Ba-Suto, the, 104, 106 + + Batak, the, 247 + + Ba-Tanga, the, 117 + + Ba-Tau, the, 109 + + Batchelor, J., 295 _n._ + + Ba-Teke, the, 115 + + Bateman, C. S. L., 113 + + Bates, O., 468 + + Ba-Teso, the, 91 _n._ + + Ba-Thonga, the, 102 + + Ba-Tlapin, the, 106 + + Batta, the, 237 sq. + + Ba-Twa, the, 125, 130 + + Bavaria, blond type in, 510; + Mongoloid traits in, 512 _n._ + + Baya, the, 88 + + Ba-Yanzi, the, 120 + + Ba-Yong, the, 117 + + Bayots, the, 52 + + Bean, R. B., 248 + + Beaver, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Beccari, O., 231 _n._ + + Be-Chuana, the, 44, 49, 104, 106, 108 sq. + + Beddoe, J., 449, 462, 522 + + Bede, the, 70 + + Bedouin, the, 499 sq., 545, and Pl. XII fig. 5 + + Beech, M. W. H., 486 _n._ + + Behr, V. D. v., 450 _n._ + + Beja, the, 76 sq., 443, 468 sq., 483 sq. + + Bektash, the, 497 + + Belck, W., 26 _n._ + + Belgae, the, 526 sq. + + Belgium, neolithic inhabitants of, 451 + + Bellacoola, the, 363, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Bengali, the, 547, 550 + + Beni Amer, the, 483 sq. + + Bent, J. T., 44, 89, 105, 466 _n._, 493 + + Bentley, W. H., 111, 119 + + Berbers, the, 448, 449 _n._, 450 sqq., 453, 468-472, 476; + language of, 453 sqq., 472 sq. + + Bernard, A., 137 + + Berrakis, the, 544 + + Bertholon, L., 448 + + Bertin, G., 129 + + Bertrand, A., 457 + + Bertrand-Bocande, M., 53 _n._ + + Betoya, linguistic stock, 415 + + Betsileo, the, 242 sqq. + + Betsimisaraka, the, 242 sq. + + Beuchat, H., 389 _n._, 392, 394 _n._, 397 _n._, 399, 406 _n._, + 421 _n._ + + Bhotiya, the, 169 sq. + + Bicol, the, 221 _n._, 247 + + Biddulph, J., 542 _n._, 543 sq. + + Bigandet, P., 186, 190 + + Bigger, F. J., 520 + + Billet, A., 197 sq. + + Binger, L. G., 50 _n._, 52, 62 + + Bingham, H., 405 _n._ + + Bini, the, 58 sq. + + Bird, G. W., 188 _n._ + + Bisayas, the, 221 + + Bisharin, the, 483 sq., and Pl. XIII figs. 1, 2 + + Bishop, I. (Bird), 197 _n._, 218 _n._, 293 _n._ + + Blackfoot. _See_ Siksika + + Blagden, C. O., 153 _n._, 154 _n._, 222 _n._, 426 _n._ + + Bleek, E. D., 128 _n._ + + Bleek, W. H. I., 118, 128 sq. + + Blood Indians. _See_ Kainah + + Blumentritt, F., 156 _n._ + + Blundell, H. Weld, 487 _n._ + + Boas, F., 343, 347 _n._, 358 sq., 364 sqq., 367 _n._ + + Bock, Carl, 192 _n._, 194 + + Bodo, the, 547 + + Bod-pa, the, 168 sq., 171 + + Bogoras, W., 288, 341 + + Boghaz Keui, 496, 502 _n._ + + Bollaert, W., 403 _n._ + + Bongo, the, 78 sq. + + Bonjo, the, 87 + + Bonvalot, P. G., 544 + + Booth, A. J., 34 _n._ + + Borgu, the, 62 + + Bori, the, 170 _n._ + + Borlase, W. C., 520 + + Borneo, natives of, 230 sqq. + + Boro, the, 414 + + Bororo, the, 411 sq., 415 + + Borreby type, the, 509 _n._ + + Botocudo, the, 416 sqq. + + Bottego, V., 81 _n._ + + Boule, M., 8 sq. + + Bove, G., 413 + + Bowditch, C. P., 393 _n._ + + Brahui, the, 546, 550 + + Braknas, the, 469 + + Bretons, the, 449 _n._, 529 sq. + + Brett, E. A. de, 548 _n._ + + Breuil, H., 13 _n._ + + Bridges, T., 401 _n._, 413 + + Brinton, D. G., 337 + + Britain, neolithic inhabitants of, 451 sqq.; + and prehistoric trade routes, 501; + races of, 516 sqq., 524 + + Broca, P., 456, 512 + + Brocklehurst, T. U., 393 _n._, 397 _n._ + + Brogger, W. C., 14 + + Brooks, W. K., 399 + + Brown, A. R., 151, 431 _n._, 432 sqq. + + Brown, G., 146 _n._, 555 _n._ + + Brown, J. M., 353, 552 _n._, 555 _n._ + + Brown, R., 181 _n._ + + Brown, R. Grant, 190 + + Brueckner, E., 13 sqq. + + Bruenn, skeleton, the, 9 + + Bruex skull, the, 9 + + Brythons, the, 515 + + Budini, the, 536 + + Buduma, the, 69 + + Bugis, the, 224, 226 sqq., 236 + + Bukidnon, the, 247 + + Bulala, the, 73 + + Bulams, the, 53 + + Bulgarians, the, 532 + + Bulgars, the, 318, 326 sqq., 329 + + Burduna, the, 435 + + Burish dialect, 542 _n._ + + Burmese, the, 180, 188 sqq., 547; + language, 177 _n._ + + Burton, Sir R., 116 + + Bury, J. B., 303 _n._ + + Buryats, the, 272, 277 + + Buschmann, K. E., 393 + + Bushmen, the, 12, 30, 226 sqq., and Pl. I figs. 5, 6; + traces of, in Egypt, 476 + + Bwais, the, 187 + + Byrne, J., 283, 346 _n._ + + Byron-Gordon G., 397 + + + Caddo, the, 355 + + Caddoan linguistic stock, the, 355, 381 + + Cagayans, the, 247 + + California, Indians of, 368 sqq. _See_ map, pp. 334-5 + + Callilehet, the, 411 + + Cambeba, the, 419 _n._ + + Cambojans, the, 180 + + Canaanites, the, 489 sq., 493, 503 + + Canary Islands, natives of the, 448, 450, 480 + + Capitan, L., 9 _n._ + + Carabuyanas, the, 348 + + Carapaches, the, 414 + + Carey, S., 183 + + Cariban linguistic stock, 415 + + Caribs, the, 399, 415 sq., and Pl. IX fig. 1 + + Carpin, J. du P., 328 _n._ + + Carrier, the, 361 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Carruthers, D., 257 + + Cartailhac, E., 13 _n._ + + Cashibos, the, 414 + + Castren, M. A., 278, 317 + + Catios, the, 400 sq. + + "Caucasic," definition of, 440 sq.; + peoples, Chaps. XIII, XIV, XV; + type in Central Asia, 291 sq.; + in Finno-Turki Mongols, 300 sqq. + + Caucasus, racial elements in the, 540 sq. + + Cayuga, the, 354, 377 + + Cebunys, the, 342 + + Celts, the, 442, 457, 459, 462 _n._, 506, 513 sqq., 525; + language of, 453, 512, 515 + + Cesnola, L. P. di, 463 + + Chadwick, H. M., 465 _n._, 466 _n._, 507 _n._, 508 _n._, 513 _n._ + + Chaldeans, the, 490 + + Chalmers, J., 146 _n._ + + Chamberlain, A. F., 344, 375 _n._ + + Chamberlain, B. H., 296 sq. + + Champas, the, 166, 180, 203 + + Champion, A. M., 97 _n._ + + Chanda, Ramaprasad, 547 + + Chandra Das, S., 169 _n._, 175 _n._ + + Chanler, W. A., 124 + + Chantre, E., 540 + + Chao, the, 411 + + Chatelperron industry, the, 12 + + Chavanne, J., 446 + + Chavero, A., 393 _n._ + + Chechenz language, 541 + + Chekhs, the, 331, 532, 537 + + Chellean culture, 7, 11, 14 sq. + + Cheremisses, the, 325 + + Cherentes, the, 417 + + Cherokee, the, 32 _n._, 342, 354, 378, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Chervin, A., 407 + + Cheyenne, the, 354, 357, 370, 372, 374, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Chibcha, the, 402 sqq., 421 _n._ + + Chichimecs, the, 342, 388 _n._, 394 + + Chickasaw, the, 355, 378, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Chilasi, the, 544 + + Chiliks, the, 316 + + Chimakuan, the, 363 + + Chimmesayan, the, 355 + + Chimu, the, 407 sq. + + China, prehistoric age in, 30 sq. + + Chinese, the, 193 sqq., 206 sqq. + + Chingpaws. _See_ Singpho + + Chinhwans, the, 250 + + Chinook, the, 363, 366, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Chins, the, 182 sqq. + + Chipewyan, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Chiquito, the, 348, 420 + + Chiriqui, the, 400, 421 _n._ + + Chiru, the, 178 + + Chitimachan, the, 381 + + Chocos, the, 400 sq. + + Choctaw, the, 355, 378, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Choglengs, the, 417 + + Chontals, the, 400 + + Choroti, the, 421 + + Christian, F. W., 555 _n._ + + Chudes, the, 258, 301, 317, 319 sq. + + Chukchi, the, 274 sq., 277, 285 sqq., 344 + + Church, G. E., 348 + + Churchill, W., 552 _n._ + + Cimbri, the, 507 + + Circassians, the, 541 + + Clark, C. U., 317 _n._ + + Clifford, H., 153 sqq., 227 _n._, 229 + + Clozel, F. J., 88, 90 + + Coahuila, the, 342 + + Cochiti, the, 382 _n._ + + Cockburn, J., 166 _n._ + + Cocks, A. H., 323 + + Cocoma, the, 401 + + Cocopa, the, 383, and Pl. VIII fig. 3 + + Coconuco, the, 404 + + Codrington, R., 102 _n._ + + Codrington, R. H., 146 _n._, 241 _n._ + + Coffey, G., 23 _n._, 26, 520 _n._ + + Cole, Fay-Cooper, 248 _n._ + + Collas, the, 406 sq. + + Collignon, R., 448, 455 sq., 469 + + Colquhoun, A. R., 193 _n._, 202 + + Colvile, Z., 243 _n._, 244 + + Comanche, the, 355, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Combe Capelle skeleton, the, 9, 10 + + Conestoga, the, 354 + + Conibos, the, 414 + + Conway, R. S., 453 _n._, 457 _n._, 467 _n._, 513 _n._, 529 + + Congo pygmies, the, 122, 125; + in Egypt, 122, 124, 476 + + Cook, S. A., 494 _n._ + + Cool, W., 225 + + Cooper, J. M., 413 _n._ + + Coorgs, the, 546 sq. + + Corequajes, the, 415 _n._ + + Coroados. _See_ Kames + + Corsicans, the, 461 + + Cowan, W. D., 242 _n._ + + Coyaima, the, 402 + + Crawfurd, J., 146 sq. + + Cree, the, 354; + Plains-Cree, 371; + Wood-Cree, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Creek, the, 355, 378 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Crete, bronze in, 25; + iron in, 26; + exploration in, 463, 467; + Pelasgians in, 464, 466; + language, 454; + and prehistoric trade routes, 502 + + Crevaux, J., 415 _n._ + + Croatians, the, 532, 537 sq. + + Cro-Magnon skeletons, the, 9, 448, 450 + + Crook, Dr W., 189 _n._, 306 _n._, 308 _n._, 445 _n._, 548 + + Crossland, C., 484 _n._ + + Crow, the, 355, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Cummins, S. L., 79 _n._ + + Cunas, the, 400 + + Cunningham, A., 176 + + Cunningham, J. F., 94 _n._ + + Curzon, G. N., Lord, 204 + + Cushing, F. H., 381, 385 _n._, 387 _n._ + + Cyprus, 463; + Pelasgians in, 464, 467; + and prehistoric trade routes, 502 + + Czaplicka, M. A., 275, 277 _n._, 325 + + + Dadikes. _See_ Tajiks + + Daflas, the, 170 + + Dahae, the, 306 sq. + + Dahle, L., 241, 245 + + Dahomi, the, 58 sq. + + Dakota, the, 355, 370 sqq., and Pl. VIII figs. 5, 6 + + Dalton, E. T., 170 _n._, 186 _n._, 192 _n._, 548 + + Dalton, O. M., 62 + + Damant, G. H., 178 _n._ + + Damara. See Ova-Herero + + Dames, M. Longworth, 548 _n._ + + Danakil. See Afars + + Danes, the, 449, and Pl. XI figs. 1-3 + + Dards, the, 167 + + Darod, the, 485 + + Darwazi, the, 544 + + Darwin, C., 401 _n._, 413 + + Dauri, the, 281 + + Dawson, C., 3 _n._, 6 _n._ + + Daza, the, 473 + + Dechelette, J., on the prehistoric period, 11 _n._, 13 _n._, 21 _n._, + 22 _n._, 25 _n._, 26, 27 _n._, 28 _n._, 35; + Iberians, 455 _n._; + Ligurians, 456 sqq.; + Siculi, 460 _n._; + AEgean chronology, 467 _n._; + trade routes, 502 _n._ + + Decle, L., 91 + + Deggaras, the, 68 + + Dehiya. _See_ Dahae + + Dehwar. _See_ Tajik + + Delaware (Leni Lenape), language, 349 + + Dene (Tinneh), the, 354, 361 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Deniker, J., 38 _n._, 240 _n._, 295, 340, 413 _n._, 469, 483 _n._, + 511, 539 + + Denmark, Alpine type in, 509 + + Dennett, R. E., 45 _n._, 58 _n._ + + Deodhaings, the, 192 + + Desgodins, P., 167 _n._, 170 _n._, 171, 196, 197 _n._ + + Dewey, H., 10 _n._ + + Dhe. _See_ Dahae + + Diaramocks, the, 250 + + Diasu, the, 197 + + Dieseldorff, E. P., 342, 389 + + Dinka, the, 46, 78 sqq., 484 + + Dittmar, C. von, 286 + + Diula, the, 51 _n._ + + Dixon, R. B., 347, 355 sq. + + Dog Rib, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Doko, the, 123 + + Dongolawi, the, 75 + + Dorians, the, 466, 468, 505, 534 + + Doerpfeld, W., 466 + + Dorsey, G. A., 372 _n._ sqq., 385 _n._ + + Dottin, G., 514 _n._ + + Dravidians, the, 428, 546 sq., 549 sqq., and Pl. XV figs. 4, 5; + language, 550 + + Dris, Rajah, 230 + + Drouin, M., 307 + + Dru-pa, the, 168 + + Druses, the, 498, 545 + + Du Bois, C. G., 370 + + Dubois, E., 3 _n._ + + Dubois, F., 65 + + Duckworth, W. L. H., 2 _n._, 3 _n._, 4 _n._, 8, 243, 343 _n._ + + Dume, the, 123 sq. + + Dumont, A., 447 + + Dundas, C., 486 _n._ + + Dungan, the, 311 + + Duodez language, 541 + + Durani, the, 543 + + Durkheim, E., 430 + + Dusun, the, 230 sq. + + Dwaish, the, 469 + + Dwala (Duala), the, 47 _n._, 117 + + Dybowski, M., 86 sq. + + Dzo, the, 178 + + + Ebisu, the, 261 + + Edkins, J., 211 _n._ + + Edomites, the, 490 + + Efiks, the, 117 + + Egypt, Copper Age in, 21 sq.; + Bronze Age in, 24 sq.; + Iron Age in, 26; + prehistoric chronology, 27; + writing, 32 sq.; + Pelasgian influence in, 464; + racial elements in, 474-481; + and Babylonia, 481, 501; + and Palestine, 493 + + Egyptians, the, 450, 453, 455, 468, 474-483 + + Ehrenreich, P., 38, 331, 347 sq., 410 sq., 415, 417, 420, 441, 443 + + Elam, Copper Age in, 22; + Bronze Age in, 25 + + Elamites, the, 266 + + Eliot, C., 97 _n._ + + Eliri, the, 75 + + Ellis, A. B., 47 _n._, 55 _n._, 58 sqq., 119 + + Ellis, Havelock, 528 + + Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 544 + + Emerillons, the, 419 + + Emmons, G. T., 363 _n._ + + Endle, S., 548 _n._ + + Enoch, C. R., 353 + + _Eoanthropus Dawsoni._ _See_ Piltdown + + Eolithic period, 10 + + Ephthalites. _See_ Ye-tha + + Ercilla, A. de, 409 _n._ + + Erie, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Eshi-Kongo, the, 110, 112, 248 + + Eskimauan linguistic stock, the, 354 + + Eskimo, the, Alaskan, 343, 357 sq., 401; + Labrador, 343, 357 sq.; + Asiatic, 344; + "blonde," 360; + _see also_ map, pp. 334-5, and Pl. VIII fig. 1 + + Esthonians, the, 320 + + Ethiopians. _See_ Eastern Hamites + + Etruscan language, 453 + + Etruscans, the, 512 sq. + + Euahlayi, the, 436 + + Europaeus, D. E. D., 319 _n._ + + Evans, Sir A. J., 454 _n._, 463 + + Evans, Sir J., 7 + + Ewe, the, 46, 58 + + + Faidherbe, L. L. C., 450 + + Falghars, the, 543 + + Fallmerayer, J. P., 535 + + Fans, the (West Africa), 81 _n._, 115 + + Fans, the (Zerafshan), 543 + + Fanti, the, 58 sq. + + Farrand, L., 354, 386 _n._ + + Featherman, A., 62 _n._ + + Feist, S., 452, 454, 457 _n._, 503 _n._, 504 sq., 507 _n._, 513, + 527 _n._ + + Felups, the, 52 sq. + + Fenner, C. N., 339 + + Fermuli. _See_ Purmuli + + Fewkes, J. W., 350, 384 sqq., 387 _n._ + + Finlay, G., 535 _n._ + + Finno-Turki Mongols, the, Chap. IX. _passim_ + + Finno-Ugrians, the, 319 sq.; + language, 454 + + Finns, the, 317 sqq., 504, 508, 531, 536 _n._; + Danubian, 318; + Volga, 318, 320; + Baltic, 320 sq.; + Tavastian, 320, 322; + Karelian, _ib._ + + Finsch, O., 146 _n._ + + Fishberg, M., 496 _n._ + + Fitzgerald, W. W. A., 98 + + Fitz-Roy, R., 413 + + Five Nations, the, 354, 375, 377 + + Flat-heads (Columbia River). _See_ Chinook + + Flat-heads (Inland Salish), the, 343, 366 + + Fleischer, H. L., 241 + + Fletcher, A. C., 372 _n._ sq. + + Fleure, H. J., 522 + + Flower, Sir W., 123 + + Foerstemann, E., 342, 389 sq., 394, 396 + + Folkmar, D., 156 _n._ + + Foote, R. B., 545 _n._ + + Forbes, C. J. F. S., 147, 188 _n._ + + Foreman, J., 156, 246 _n._, 247 sq. + + Formosa, aborigines of, 248 sqq. + + Fouillee, A., 510 _n._ + + Foy, W., 236 _n._ + + Fraipont, J., 8 _n._ + + France, neolithic inhabitants of, 451 sq.; + racial elements in, 510 sq., 525 sqq. + + Frazer, Sir J. G., 364, 430 + + Freeman, E. A., 460 _n._ + + Friederici, G., 138 sq. + + Friis, J. A., 323 + + Fritsch, G., 126 + + Frobenius, L., 62 _n._ + + Fuegians, the, 401, 411, 413 + + Fulah, the, 46, 53, 59, 66 sq., 73, 75, 90, 468, 476, 482 sq. + + Fulani. _See_ Fulah + + Fulbe. _See_ Fulah + + Fuluns, the, 52 + + Funj, the, 78 + + Fur, the, 75 + + Furfooz brachycephals, the, 451 + + Furlong, C. W., 413 _n._ + + Furness, W. H., 234 _n._ + + Furtwaengler, A., 507 + + + Ga, the, 58 sq. + + Gabelenz, G. v. d., 454 + + Gadabursi, the, 485 + + Gaddanes, the, 157 + + Gadow, H., 395 _n._ + + Gagelin, Abbe, 204 + + Gaillard, R., 69 _n._ + + Gait, E. A., 192 _n._, 551 _n._ + + Galatians, the, 545 + + Galcha, the, 541, 543 sq. + + Galchic language, 541 sqq. + + Galibi, the, 416 + + Galla, the, 90 sqq., 98, 468, 485 sq. + + Galley Hill skeleton, the, 8 sq. + + Gallinas, the, 53 + + Gamergu, the, 70 + + Gannett, H., 248 _n._ + + Garamantes, the, 473 + + Garhwali, the, 170 + + Garner, R. L., 557 + + Gatschet, A. S., 379 _n._ + + Gauchos, the, 410 + + Gautier, J. E., 258 + + Geer, Baron G. de, 14 sq. + + Geikie, J., 14, 16 _n._, 123 _n._ + + Gentil, E., 69 + + Georgians, the, 541 + + Gepidae, the, 329 + + Germanic race. _See_ Nordic race + + Germans, the, 318, 321 + + Germany, racial elements in, 509 sq. + + Gesan linguistic stock, 415 sq. + + Getae, the, 326 + + Ghegs, the, 538 + + Ghuz. _See_ Oghuz + + Giao-shi, the, 203 + + Gibbons, A. St H., 107 _n._ + + Gibraltar skull, the, 8 + + Gidley, J. W., 339 + + Giles, H. A., 215 _n._, 218 _n._, 280 _n._ + + Giles, P., 34 _n._, 453 _n._, 467, 503 _n._, 504 + + Gill, W., 197 _n._ + + Gillen, F. J., 430, 436 _n._ + + Gilyaks, the, 274 sq., 277, 285, 288 sq., 344, and Pl. VI fig. 6 + + Gladstone, J. H., 21, 24 + + Gleichen, A. E. W., 487 _n._ + + Goddard, P. E., 383 _n._ + + Godden, G. M., 177 _n._ + + Goez, B., 543 + + Goidels, the, 515 + + Gola, the, 53 + + Golds, the, 274 sq., 277, 289, and Pl. VI fig. 5 + + Goliki, the, 172 + + Golo, the, 78 sq. + + Gomes, E. H., 234 _n._ + + Gonaqua, the, 128 + + Gorjanovi[vc]-Kramberger, 8 _n._ + + Gors, the, 544 + + Goths, the, 449, 508, 540 + + Gowland, W., 260 + + Graebner, F., 139, 350, 429 sqq. + + Grasserie, R. de la, 345 _n._ + + Gravette industry, the, 12 + + Gray, J., 522 + + Greece, prehistoric chronology of, 27 + + Greeks, the, 463 sqq., 466, 532 sqq. + + Gregory, W. K., 556, 559 sqq. + + Grenard, F., 169 _n._ + + Grey, Sir G., 237 + + Grierson, G. A., 176 _n._, 177 _n._, 178 _n._, 546 _n._ + + Grimaldi skeletons, the, 447 + + Grinnell, G. B., 372 _n._, 375 _n._ + + Griqua, the, 128 + + Gros Ventre, the, 370, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Guacanabibes, the, 399 + + Guanches, the, 450, 468, 480 + + Guarani, the, 419. _See also_ Tupi-Guarani + + Guatusos, the, 400, and Pl. IX fig. 2 + + Guillemard, F. H. H., 147 _n._, 247, 296 sq. + + Guinness, H. G. (Mrs), 114 + + Gujarati, the, 547, 550 + + Guppy, H. B., 137 + + Gura'an, the, 73 + + Gurdon, P. R. T., 548 _n._ + + Gurkhas, the, 170 + + Gurungs, the, 170 _n._, 547 + + + Habiru. _See_ Khabiri + + Hackman, A., 261, 319 _n._ + + Hacquard, Pere, 65 _n._ + + Haddon, A. C., on Negrilloes, 126 _n._, 149 _n._, 154 _n._, 156 _n._; + Melanesia, 135 _n._, 138 _n._, 146 _n._; + Indonesians, 221 _n._; + Borneo, 230 sqq., 426 _n._; + America, 336 _n._, 341 _n._, 415 _n._, 416 _n._; + Australia, 432 _n._; + racial migrations, 292 _n._, 453 _n._, 483 _n._, 490 _n._, 493 _n._, + 547 _n._ + + Hadendoa, the, 483 sq. + + Haebler, K., 337 _n._ + + Hagar, S., 351 + + Hagen, B., 224 + + Hahne, H., 507 _n._ + + Haida, the, 363, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Hakas (Ki-li-Kisse), the, 310 + + Hakas, (Burma), the, 183, 185 + + Hakkas, the, 211, 249 + + Hale, H., 412 + + Halevy, J., 262 + + Hall, H. Fielding, 191 _n._ + + Hall, H. R. H., on prehistoric periods, + 21 _n._, 26 _n._, 27 _n._, 43 _n._; + Greece, 466 _n._, 533, 534 _n._ + + Hall, R. N., 89 _n._, 106 _n._ + + Hallett, H. S., 190 sq., 192 _n._, 201 _n._, 202 _n._ + + Hallstatt, Iron Age, culture of, 28 sq. + + Hamada, K., 260 + + Hamilton, A., 170 _n._ + + Hamites, the, 441, 447, 468-487, 488, and Pl. XIII; + Abyssinian, 486 sq.; + Eastern, 468 sqq., 474 sqq., 483-7; + Egyptian, 468, 474 sqq.; + Northern, 468 sqq. + + Hammer, G., 543 + + Hampel, J., 23, 24 _n._ + + Hamy, E. T., 50 _n._, 126, 221 _n._, 276, 290, 303 + + Hano, the, 382 _n._ + + Hans (San-San), the, 291 + + Harding, Sir A., 97 + + Hares, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Harri, the, 545 + + Harrison, H. S., 49 _n._ + + Harrison Lake. _See_ Lillooet + + Hartland, E. S., 100 _n._, 120 _n._, 430, 436 + + Hausa, the, 44, 66 sqq., and Pl. I fig. I + + Havasupai, the, 383 + + Hawes, C. H., 27 _n._, 534 _n._ + + Hawes, H. B., 27 _n._ + + Hawiya, the, 485 + + Hazaras, the, 312 + + Hebrews. _See_ Khabiri + + Hedin, Sven, 257, 310 + + Heikel, A. O., 309 + + Hellenes, the, 463 sq., 466, 532 + + Helm, O., 24 _n._ + + Hermann, K. A., 262 + + Herve, G., 454 + + Hewitt, J. N. B., 375 _n._ + + Hickson, S. J., 119 _n._, 148 _n._ + + Hidatsa, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Hill-Tout, C., 363 _n._, 367 + + Hilprecht, H. V., 265 _n._ + + Hilton-Simpson, M. W., 113 _n._ + + Himyarites, the, 487 sq., 499 + + Hirt, H., 503 _n._ + + Hirth, F., 210 _n._ + + Hittites, the, 449, 467, 490, 493, 496 sqq. + + Hiung-nu, the, 291 sq., 305 + + Hobley, C. W., 97 _n._ + + Hodge, H., 385 _n._ + + Hodgson, B. H., 177 + + Hodson, T. C., 178, 181, 182 _n._, 548 _n._ + + Hoei, the, 211 + + Hoernle, A. F. R., 546 _n._ + + Hoffman, W. J., 375 _n._ + + Hogarth, D. G., 268 _n._, 496 _n._, 497 _n._ + + Hok-los, the, 211, 249 + + Hollis, A. C., 486 _n._ + + Holmes, T. Rice, 25 _n._, 174 _n._, 451 _n._; + on the Mediterranean Race, 452-456, 459; + Indo-Europeans, 505 _n._, 507 _n._; + Celts, 514; + Picts, 516; + British round-heads, 517 _n._, 518; + 525 _n._ + + Holmes, W. H., 339, 351, 357, 381 _n._, 387 _n._ + + Hommel, F., 210 _n._, 270 + + _Homo Alpinus_, 449 sq. _See also_ Alpine race + + ---- _Europaeus_, 449. _See also_ Nordic race + + ---- _heidelbergensis_, 8, 9. _See also_ Mauer jaw + + ---- _primigenius_, 8, 9. _See also_ Neandertal man + + ---- _recens_, 8 sqq. + + Hooper, W. H., 286 + + Hoops, J., 507 _n._ + + Hopi, the, 355, 357, 382, 385, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Hor-pa, the, 172 + + Horsoks, the, 172 + + Hose, C., 231 + + Hottentots, the, 126 sqq., and Pl. I figs. 3, 4 + + Hough, W., 351, 385 _n._, 387 _n._ + + Houghton, B., 183 + + Hova, the, 224, 240, 242 sqq., 244 sq. + + Howitt, A. W., 430, 435 _n._, 436 + + Howorth, Sir H. H., 172 _n._, 281, 302 + + Hrasso, the, 170 + + Hrdli[vc]ka, A., 338 sqq. + + Huaxtecans, the, 388, 393 sqq., 396 + + Huaxtecs (Totonacs), the, 342, 388 sq., 395 + + Huc, E. R. (Abbe), 280 + + Huichols, the, 395 _n._ + + Huilli-che, the, 410 + + Hungarians, the, 317 _n._, 328 sqq. + + Hungary, Copper Age in, 23 + + Huns, the, 307, 326 sqq., 531 + + Huntington, E., 165 _n._, 257, 263 _n._, 384 _n._ + + Hurgronje, C. S., 239 _n._ + + Huron, the, 354, 375, 378, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Hyades, P. D. J., 401 _n._, 413 + + Hyksos, the, 476, 490 + + "Hyperboreans," the, 285 + + + Iban, the, 230, 232 sqq. + + Ibara, the, 242 + + Ibea, the, 117 + + Iberians, the, 449, 452, 455 sq., 459, 525; + language of, 454 + + Ibis, P., 249 + + Idoesh. _See_ Dwaish + + Igorots (Igorrotes), the, 157, 247 + + Ihring, H. V., 270 + + Illanuns, the, 228 _n._ + + Illinois, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Illinois dialect, the, 354 + + Illyrians, the, 460 _n._, 529 _n._, 538 + + Ilocano, the, 247 + + Imeritian language, 541 + + Inca, the, 404-407, 421 _n._ + + Indo-Aryan type, Risley's, 546 + + Indo-European languages, 441 sq., 453, 456 sq., 502 sqq.; + type, 504 sq.; + migrations, 505 sqq. + + Indo-Germanic. + _See_ Indo-European + + Indonesians, the, 221, 230, 235, 248 sq., 551 sq. + + Ingham, E. G., 56 _n._, 57 + + Ingrians, the, 322 + + Iowa, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Ipurina, the, 348, 416 + + Iranians, the, 506, 541 sqq., and Pl. XII fig. 6 + + Ireland, Copper Age in, 23; + Bronze Age in, 25 sq., 502; + racial elements in, 519 sqq. + + Ireland, A., 191 _n._ + + Iroquoian linguistic stock, the, 354 sq., 375 sqq., 381 + + Iroquois, the, 342, 354 sq., 375 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Irula, the, 423, and Pl. X fig. 2 + + Ishak, the, 485 + + Ishogo, the, 115 + + Isleta, the, 382 _n._ + + Israelites, the, 490, 494 + + Italic language, 461 _n._ + + "Italici" of Sergi, 461 _n._ + + Italy, racial elements in, 528 sqq. + + Itaves, the, 157 + + Itelmes. + _See_ Kamchadales + + Iungs (Njungs), the, 196 + + Ivanovski, A., 316 _n._ + + Iyer, L. K. A. K., 548 _n._ + + + Jaalin, the, 74 + + Jackson, F. G., 324 + + Jackson, J. Wilfred, 353, 520 _n._ + + Jallonke the, 49, 51 + + Jaluo, the, 80 + + James, A. W., 386 _n._ + + James, G. C., 522 + + Jansens, the, 178 + + Japan, Stone Age in, 260 sq. + + Japanese, the, 274, 294 sqq.; + language, 297; + religion, 297 sqq., and Pl. VII figs. 3, 4 + + Jastrow, M., 493 _n._, 500 + + Jats, the, 306 sqq., 546 + + Java, fossil man in, 3 + + Javanese, the, 224, 240 + + Jazyges, the, 326 + + Jemez, the, 382 _n._ + + Jenks, A. E., 247 sq., 375 _n._ + + Jequier, G., 475 _n._ + + Jette, J., 363 + + Jews, the, 494 sqq. + + Jicarilla, the, 383, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Jigushes, the, 52 + + Joats, the, 52 + + Jochelson, W. I., 286 _n._ + + Johns, C. H. W., 265 _n._, 268 _n._, 491 _n._, 492 _n._, 493 _n._ + + Johnston, Sir H. H., on the Sudanese, 43 _n._, 45, 57 _n._, 65, + 67 _n._, 86; + Bantu, 92 sq., 94 _n._, 96 _n._, 106 _n._, 113 _n._, 116, 117 _n._; + Bushman, 121 _n._, 126, 129 _n._, 229 _n._; + Berbers, 452 _n._, 473 _n._; + Egypt, 476 sq., 481 _n._; + Fulah, 483 + + Johnson, J. P., 43 _n._, 161 + + Jola, the, 52 + + Jolof, the, 47 + + Jones, W., 377 _n._ + + Joyce, T. A., on Africa, 41 _n._, 43 _n._, 44 _n._, 113 _n._, + 115 _n._, 468 _n._; + Madagascar, 240, 244 sq.; + Central Asia, 311, 545 _n._; + Mexico, 342, 393 _n._, 395 _n._; + Central America, 399; + South America, 400 _n._, 403 _n._, 404 _n._, 407 _n._, 409 _n._, + 410 _n._, 412 _n._ + + Jullian, C., 455, 457, 459 + + Junker, W., 79 sq., 82 sq., 122, 124 + + Junod, H. A., 102 _n._, 104 _n._ + + Juris, the, 348 + + + Kababish, the, 74, 471 _n._, 484, and Pl. XII figs. 3, 4 + + Kabard language, the, 541 + + Kabinda, the, 110, 112 sq. + + Kabuis, the, 178 + + Kabyles, the, 452 + + Kachins. + _See_ Kakhyens + + Kadayans, the, 232 + + Kadir, the, 423 + + Kai-Colo, the, 137 _n._, 343 + + Kainah, the, 374, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Kaingangs. + _See_ Kames + + Kaitish, the, 436, and, Pl. X fig. 5 + + Kajuna dialect, the, 542 _n._ + + Kakhyens, the, 182, 186, 193 + + Kalabit, the, 230 sq. + + Kalapooian, the, 363, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Kalina, the, 416 + + Kalmuks, the, 272, 274 sq., 311, and Pl. VI fig. 4 + + Kamassintzi, the, 317 + + Kamayura, the, 348, 419 + + Kamchadales, the, 274 sq., 285 sqq., 344 + + Kames, the, 417 + + Kamjangs, the, 192 + + "Kanakas," the, 137 + + Kanarese, the, 549, and Pl. XV fig. 6 + + Kanembu, the, 69, 72 sq. + + Kanet, the, 547 + + Kansa, the, 371 + + Kanuri, the, 69, 72 + + Kara, the, 75 + + Karagasses, the, 317 + + Kara-Kalpaks, the, 312 + + Kara-Kirghiz, the, 314, 316 + + Kara-Tangutans, the, 169 + + Karaya, the, 415 + + Karenni, the, 187 + + Karens, the, 182, 186 sq., 199 + + Kargo, the, 75 + + Karian inscriptions, 453 + + Karigina, the, 415 _n._ + + Karipuna, the, 414 + + Karons, the, 52 + + Karsten, R., 421 _n._ + + Kartweli, the, 541 + + Kasak, the, 316 + + Kashgarians, the, 311, 313 _n._ + + Kashmiri, the, 550 + + Kassonke, the, 49 + + Kattea. + _See_ Vaalpens + + Kauffmann, F., 504 + + Kavirondo, the, 91 _n._ + + Kawahla, the, 484 + + Kayan, the, 159 _n._, 231 sqq. + + Kayapos, the, 417 + + Keith, A., 2 _n._, 3 _n._, 5 _n._, 6, 8 _n._, 9, 447, 511 _n._, + 517 _n._, 557 _n._ + + Keller, C., 485 + + Kelt (Celt), use of term, 449, 512, 514 + + "Keltiberians," the, 527 + + Kelto-Slavs, the, 449 + + Kennan, G., 288 _n._ + + Kennan, R., 314 + + Kennelly, M., 212 _n._, 216 _n._ + + Kenyah, the, 231 sqq. + + Keresans, the, 382 _n._ + + Keribina, the, 70 + + Kerrikerri, the, 70 + + Khabiri (Hebrews), the, 490, 493 sq.; + religion of the, 500 + + Khamti, the, 180 + + Khanikoff, N. V., 542 sq. + + Khanungs. + _See_ Kiu-tse + + Khas (Gurkha), the, 170 + + Khas (of Siam), the, 170 _n._ + + Khatri, the, 546 + + Khatti, the, 496 + + Khazars, the, 326, 494 + + Khemis, the, 188 + + Kheongs, the, 187 + + Kheta, the, 496 + + Khitans, the, 279 + + Khmers, the, 199 + + Khorvats. + _See_ Croatians + + Khos, the, 544 + + Khotana, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Khyengs, the, 188 + + Khyungthas, the, 188 + + Kiao-shi. + _See_ Giao-shi + + Kichai, the, 355 + + Kickapoo, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Kidd, D., 104 _n._ + + Kimmerians, the, 267 _n._ + + Kimos, the, 239 + + King, L. W., 23 _n._, 27 _n._, 262 _n._ sqq., 481 _n._, 491 _n._, + 493 _n._, 497 _n._ + + King, P. P., 413 + + Kingsley, M. H., 58, 116 + + Kiowa, the, 370, 372, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Kiowa-Apache, the, 370 + + Kipchaks, the, 312, 315 + + Kirghiz, the, 274, 301, 303, 310 sq., 314 sqq. + + Kitars, the, 316 + + Kiu-tse, the, 197 + + Klaatsch, H., 2, 9 _n._, 10 _n._ + + Klangklangs, the, 183 + + Klaproth, H. J., 306, 309 _n._ + + Kleinschmidt, S., 346 _n._ + + Klemantan, the, 231 sqq. + + Klements, D. A., 310 + + Kloss, C. B., 252 _n._ + + Kobito, the, 260 + + Knowles, W. J., 520 + + Koch-Gruenberg, T., 415 + + Koeze, C. A., 248 _n._ + + Koganei, Y., 295 _n._ + + Kohistani, the, 544 + + Kohlbrugge, J. H., 230 _n._ + + Koibals, the, 317 + + Kolaji, the, 75 + + Koldewey, K., 264 _n._ + + Kollmann, J., 123 + + Kols, the, 548 sq. + + Kolya, the, 178 + + Komans, the, 312 + + Kono, the, 53 + + Konow-Sten, 176 _n._, 177 _n._, 178 _n._ + + Koraqua, the, 128 + + Koreans, the, 274, 289 sqq., and Pl. VII fig. 5; + Korean script, 294 + + Korinchi, the, 236 + + Koro-pok-guru, the, 260, 295 + + Koryak, the, 274 sq., 277, 285 sqq., 344 + + Kossacks. + _See_ Kasak + + Kossinna, G., 503 _n._ + + Kowalewsky, M., 540 + + Kraemer, A., 552 _n._, 555 _n._ + + Krapina skeletons, the, 8, 12 + + Krause, F., 415 _n._, 417 + + Kreitner, G., 194 + + Krej, the, 78 + + Kretschmer, P., 529 _n._ + + Kroeber, A. L., 347, 368 sqq., 374 _n._ + + Kropotkin, P. A., prince, 165 _n._ + + Kru, the, 53, 57 sq. + + Kshtuts, the, 543 + + Kubachi language, the, 541 + + Kuki, the, 178 sq., 182, 186 + + Kuki-Lushai, the, 178 _n._, sqq., 183; + language, 177 + + Kulfan, the, 75 + + Kumi, the, 188 + + Kumuks, the, 312 + + Kunbi, the, 546 + + Kurankos, the, 53 + + Kurds, the, 267 _n._, 505, 545, and Pl. XIV figs. 1, 2 + + Kuri, the, 69 + + Kurlanders, the, 320 + + Kurnai, the, 437 + + Kurugli, the, 303 + + Kurumba, the, 424, 547 _n._, 549 + + Kussas, the, 53 + + Kustenaus, the, 416 + + Kutchin, the, 361 + + Kutigurs, the, 329 + + Kwaens, the, 323 + + Kwakiutl, the, 343, 363 sqq., _see_ map, pp. 334-5, and + Pl. VIII fig. 2 + + Kwana, the, 416 + + Kymric race. + _See_ Nordic race + + Kyzylbash, the, 497 + + + La Chapelle-aux-Saints skull, the, 8, 9, 12 + + Lacouperie, T. de, 168 _n._, 176 _n._, 193, 195 sq., 207 sqq., + 294 _n._, 249 _n._, 251 _n._ + + Ladakhi, the, 166 sq. + + La Ferassie skeleton, the, 9, 12 + + Lafofa, the, 75 + + Lagden, G., 109 _n._ + + Lagoa Santa race, the, 339 sq., 417 + + Laguna, the, 382 _n._ + + Lai, the, 183 + + Lai, the, 211 + + Laing, S., 267 _n._ + + Lake, P., 446 _n._ + + Laloy, L., 16, 511 + + La Micoque industry, the, 11 + + Lampongs, the, 235 sq. + + Lampre, G., 258 + + Lamut, the, 274 sq. + + Land Dayak, the, 230 sq., 426 + + Lang, Andrew, 151, 430, 437 _n._ + + Lansdell, H., 280, 281 _n._, 285 _n._, 289 + + Laos, the, 180, 191 sq., 201 + + Lapicque, L., 149 sq., 422 + + Lapouge, G. V. de, 449, 510, 512, 540 + + Lapps, the, 321 sqq., 324, and Pl. VII fig. 6; + physical characters of, 324 + + Lartet, L., 9 _n._ + + Last, J. T., 241 + + La Tene, Later Iron Age culture of, 28 + + Latham, R. E., 409 _n._ + + Lawas, the, 199 + + Layana, the, 416 + + Layard, N. F., 520 + + Laz language, 541 + + Leder, H., 258 sqq. + + Lefevre, A., 536 + + Legendre, A. F., 196 _n._ + + Leitner, G. W., 167, 542 _n._ + + Le Moustier, culture, 8, 11, 14; + skeleton, 9, 12 + + Lenormant, F., 535 + + Lenz, O., 116 _n._ + + Lenz, R., 410 + + Leon, N., 345 _n._ + + Leonard, A. G., 45 _n._, 58 _n._ + + Leonhardi, M. F. v., 437 _n._ + + Lepcha, the, 547; + language, 177 + + Lepsius, K. R., 76 sq., 473 + + Lesghians, the, 541; + language of, 483 + + Letourneau, C., 36, 448 + + Letto-Slavs, the, 506 + + Letts, the, 321 + + Levallois industry, the, 11 + + Levchine, A. de, 316 _n._ + + Lewis, A. B., 367 _n._ + + Leyden, J., 222 _n._ + + Lho-pa, the, 170 + + Liberians, the, 53, 56 sq. + + Libyan Race. + _See_ Northern Hamites + + Libyans, the, 448 sq., 453, 476 + + Lichtenstein, M. H. K., 127 + + Ligurians, the, 449, 455-9, 461 sq., 504, 513, 529; + language of, 453 + + Lillooet, the, 343, 367, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Limba, the, 53 + + Limbu, the, 547 + + Lindsay, W. M., 529 _n._ + + Lin-tin-yu. + _See_ Yayo + + Lippert, J., 67 _n._ + + Lithuanians, the, 318 + + Littmann, E., 453 _n._, 487 _n._ + + Liu-Kiu (Lu-Chu), the, 274, 296 sq. + + Livi, R., 460, 462, 511, 528 + + Livingstone, D., 107 + + Livonians, the, 320 + + Logon, the, 70 + + Lohest, M., 8 _n._ + + Lokko, the, 53 + + Lolos, the, 173, 195 sq., 211 + + Lombards, the, 449 + + Loucheux, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Low, Brook, 231 + + Lowie, R. H., 367 _n._ + + Luard, C. E., 548 _n._ + + Lubbers, A., 239 + + Lucayans, the, 399 sq. + + Luchuans. + _See_ Liu-Kiu + + Lugard, F. D., 62 + + Lugard, F. S. (Lady), 73 _n._ + + Luiseno, the, 355, 370 + + Lukach, H. C., 56 _n._ + + Lumholtz, C, 395 _n._, 397 _n._ + + Lupacas, the, 407 + + Luschan, F. v., 268 _n._, 450, 465, 492 _n._, 495 _n._, 497 sqq., + 542 _n._, 545 + + Lushai, the, 178 + + Lu-tse, the, 197 + + Lyall, C. J., 548 _n._ + + Lycia, inhabitants of, 497; + language, 454 + + Lydian dialect, the, 453 + + Lythgoe, A. M., 478 + + + Maba, the, 73 sq. + + Macalister, A., 511 + + Macalister, R. A. S., 492 + + MacCurdy, G. G., 5 _n._, 35 + + Macdonald, J., 104 _n._, 108 + + Mace, A. C., 478 + + Machas, the, 543 + + Mackintosh, C. W., 107 _n._ + + MacMichael, H. A., 74, 75 _n._ + + Macusi, the, 416 + + Madagascar, 239 sqq. + + Madi, the, 78 + + Madurese, the, 224 + + Mafflian industry, the, 10, 14 + + Mafulu, the, 158 + + Magars, the, 170 _n._ + + Magdalenian culture, 12 sqq. + + Mager, H., 555 _n._ + + Maghians, the, 543 + + Magyars, the, 301, 318, 326, 328 sqq., 531; + language of, 282 + + Mahaffy, J. P., 493 _n._ + + Mahai, the, 75 + + Mahamid, the, 73 + + Mahrati, the, 550 + + Mainwaring, G. B., 177 _n._ + + Ma-Kalaka, the, 104 sq. + + Makaraka, the, 78 sq. + + Makari, the, 69 sq. + + Makirifares, the, 415 + + Ma-Kololo, the, 106 sqq. + + Makowsky, A., 9 _n._ + + Maku, linguistic stock, 415 + + Malagasy, the, 239 sqq.; + language, 241; + mental qualities, 244 + + Mala-Vadan, the, 423 + + Malayalim, the, 549 + + Malayans, the, 221 sqq., 227; + folklore of, 229 sq. + + Malayo-Polynesian. + _See_ Austronesian + + Malays, the, 221 sqq., 226; + in Borneo, 230, 232 sqq.; + in Madagascar, 240; + in Australia, 428, 551 + + Malbot, H., 450, 472 + + Malinowski, B., 432, 434 + + Malliesors, the, 538 + + Malta, inhabitants of, 499 + + Man, E. H., 150 _n._, 152, 251 sqq. + + Man, the, 197 sq., 211 + + Manaos, the, 416 + + Manchu, the, 274 sq., 279 sqq. + + Manda, the, 267 _n._ + + Mandan, the, 355, 371 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Mandara, the, 69 sq. + + Mandaya, the, 247 + + Mandingans, the, 44, 46, 49 sqq., 66 + + Mangbattu, the, 44, 46, 78, 80 sqq. + + Mangkassaras, the, 224, 226, 236 + + Manguianes, the, 237 + + Manipuri, the, 178 sqq., 181 + + Manobo, the, 247 + + Mans-Coc, the, 198 + + Mans-Meo, the, 198, 211 + + Mans-Tien, the, 198 + + Mansuy, M., 186 _n._ + + Man-tse. + _See_ Man + + Mao Nagas, the, 178 sq. + + Maori, the, 552, and Pl. XVI figs. 3, 4 + + Mapoches, the, 410 + + Maram Nagas, the, 178 sq. + + Maratha Brahmans, the, 546 sq. + + Margi, the, 70 + + Maricopa, the, 383 + + Markham, Sir C. R., 347 sq., 401 _n._, 405, 409, 414 _n._, 420 _n._ + + Maronites, the, 498 + + Marre, A., 241 _n._ + + Marrings, the, 178 sq. + + Marstrander, C. J. S., 497 _n._ + + Martin, H., 449 _n._ + + Martin, R., 153 _n._, 154, 412, 426 _n._ + + Martius, V., 402 _n._, 411, 416 sq. + + Masai, the, 97, 468, 484, 486 + + Mas-d'Azil, 12; + pebbles, 34 sqq. + + Ma-Shona, the, 104 + + Maspero, G., 270, 493 _n._, 533 + + Massagetae, the, 305 sq. + + Ma-Tabili, the, 105 + + Mataco, the, 420 sq. + + Mathew, J., 237 _n._, 428 + + Matlaltzincas, the, 395 + + Matokki, the, 75 + + Matores, the, 317 + + Matthew, W. D., 557 _n._ + + Mauer jaw, the, 3 sqq., 11, 14 + + Ma-Vambu, the, 113 + + Maya, the, 389-398 + + Mayang Khong, the, 178 + + Maya-Quiche the, 342, 393, 397 sq. + + Mayorunas, the, 402 + + Maypures, the, 416 + + Mbenga, the, 115 + + McCabe, R. B., 177 + + McDougall, W., 231 _n._ + + McGee, W. J., 396 + + Means, P. A., 406 _n._ + + Mecklenberg, A. F., Duke of, 113 _n._ + + Medes, the, 267 _n._ + + Mediterranean race, the, 448 sq., 452; + in Europe, 455-468; + in Africa, 468-478; + language of, 453 sq. + + Mehinaku, the, 348, 416 + + Mehlis, C., 457 + + Meinhof, C., 473 _n._ + + Meithis, the, 181; + language of, 177 _n._ + + Melam, the, 197 + + Melanesians, the, 135 sqq.; + analysis of, 138 sq.; + culture of, 139-146 + + Mendi, the, 53 + + Menominee, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Mentawi, the, natives of, 235 + + Mentone, Grottes de Grimaldi, the, 9 + + Mercer, H., 396 + + Merker, M., 486 _n._ + + Mescalero, the, 383, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Messapians, the, 452, 529 _n._ + + Messerschmidt, L., 496 + + Mesvinian industry, the, 10, 14 + + Meyer, A. B., 230 + + Meyer, E., 27 _n._, 262 sqq.; + on Indo-Europeans, 441 _n._, 456, 504, 506 _n._, 460 _n._; + Pelasgians, 466 sqq.; + Egyptians, 479, 482; + Semites, 489 _n._, 491 _n._, 492 _n._, 493 _n._ + + Meyer, H., 450 + + Meyer, Kuno, 515 _n._ + + Miami, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Miao-tse. + _See_ Mans-Meo + + Michelis, E. de, 505 + + Micmac, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Micronesians, the, 551, and Pl. XVI figs. 5, 6 + + Mikhailovskii, V. M., 277 _n._, 278 _n._ + + Miklukho-Maclay, N. v., 137 _n._ + + Milanau, the, 231, 233 + + Miller, Gerrit S., 560 _n._, 561 + + Milliet. + _See_ Saint Adolphe + + Milligan, J., 160 + + Milne, J., 260 + + Minaeans, the, 499 + + Minahasans, the, 224 + + Mindeleff, C., 383 _n._ + + Mingrelian language, the, 541 + + Minnetari, the, 342 + + Minns, E. H., 537 + + Minoan culture, 463 sqq., 467, 502 + + Minyong, the, 170 + + Mirdites, the, 538 _n._, 539 + + Miri, the, 170 + + Mishmi, the, 170 + + Mishongnovi, the, 382 _n._ + + Missouri, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Mittu, the, 78 + + Miwok, the, pp. 334-5 + + Miztecs, the, 390, 395 + + Mizzi, M., 499 _n._ + + Moabites, the, 489 sq. + + Mochicas, the, 408 + + Moeso-Goths, the, 508 + + Mohave, the, 383, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Mohawk, the, 354, 377 + + Moi, the, 197 + + Molu-che. + _See_ Araucanians + + Mongolia, prehistoric remains in, 259 sq. + + Mongoloid type, Risley's, 547 + + Mongolo-Dravidian type, Risley's, 547 + + Mongolo-Tatar. + _See_ Mongolo-Turki + + Mongolo-Turki, the, 164 sq., 256, 274 sqq. + + Mongols, Northern, Chap. VIII + + Mongols, Oceanic, Chap. VII + + ---- Southern, Chap. VI + + Mono, the, 355 + + Mons, the, 180 + + Montagnais, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Montano, J., 157 + + Montelius, O., 27, 210 _n._, 319 _n._, 512 + + Mooney, J., 374 _n._ + + Moorehead, W. K., 343 + + "Moors," the, 469 + + Moravians, the, 331 + + Mordvinians, the, 325 + + Morel, E. D., 58 _n._ + + Morgan, J. de, 22, 25 _n._, 258, 267 _n._, 447 + + Morgan, E. Delmar, 173 _n._ + + Morfill, W. R., 530 + + Morice, A. G., 362 sq. + + Morley, S. G., 391 _n._, 392 _n._, 397 _n._ + + Mosgu, the, 69, 71 + + Mossi, the, 62 + + Mossos, the, 173, 195 sq. + + Mostitz, A. P., 259 + + Moszkowski, Max, 149 + + Mousterian man. + _See_ Le Moustier + + Moxos, the, 348, 414, 416 + + Mpangwe. + _See_ Fans + + Mpongwe, the, 115 + + Mros, the, 187 sq. + + Mrungs, the, 188 + + Much, M., 23 + + Much, R., 507 _n._ + + Mueller, F., 236 _n._ + + Mugs, the, 187 sq. + + Mundu, the, 78 + + Mundurucu, the, 419 + + Munro, N. G., 295 _n._ + + Munro, R., 529 _n._ + + Muong, the, 197 + + Murmi, the, 547 + + Murut, the, 230 sq. + + Muskhogean linguistic stock, the, 355, 381 + + Musquakie. + _See_ Sauk and Fox + + Mussian, explorations at, 258 + + Muyscans, the, 400, 402 + + Myers, C. S., 75 _n._, 79 _n._, 482 + + Mycenaean (Mykenaean). + _See_ Minoan + + Myong, the, 197 + + Myres, J. L., 465, 466 _n._, 477 _n._, 489 _n._, 490 _n._, 502, + 533 _n._ + + Mysians, the, 506; + language of, 453 + + + Nachtigal, G., 70 sqq., 74 _n._ + + Nadaillac, Marquis de, J. F. A., 381, 394 _n._, 395 _n._, 408 _n._ + + Naga, the, 178 sq.; + language, 177 + + Naga-ed-Der, excavations at, 478, 481 + + Nahane the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Nahua, the, 342 sq., 388 _n._, 392 sqq., 397, 400, 421 _n._ + + Nahuatlans, the, 342, 388, 393 sqq., 402 + + Nahuqua, the, 348, 415 + + Nairs, the, 547 + + Najera, 396 + + Nambe, the, 382 _n._ + + Narrinyeri, the, 437 + + Nashi (Nashri). + _See_ Mossos + + Naskapi, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Nassau, R. H., 61 _n._ + + Natagaima, the, 402 + + Natchez, the, 355, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Navaho, the, 354, 383, _see_ map, pp. 334-5, and Pl. VIII fig. 4. + + Naville, E., 475 _n._, 477 _n._, 481 + + Neandertal man, 2, 8 sqq., 12, 448 + + Negrilloes, the, 122 sqq., and Pl. II fig. 4 + + Negritoes, the, 149 sqq., and Pl. II figs. 1, 2, 3, 5-7; + culture of, 158-9, 230 + + Neumann, O., 127 + + Nez-perces. + _See_ Shahapts + + Ngao, the, 198 + + Ngiou. + _See_ Burmese + + Ngisem, the, 70 + + Nias, the, 235 + + Niblack, A. P., 366 _n._ + + Niceforo, A., 461 + + Nickas, the, 250 + + Nicobarese, the, 251 sqq. + + Niederle, L., 540 _n._ + + Nieuwenhuis, A. W., 234 _n._ + + Nilotes, the, 486, and Pl. XIII + + Niquirans, the, 388 + + Niu-chi (Yu-chi, Nu-chin), the, 279 + + Njungs. + _See_ Iungs + + Nogai, the, 303 + + Nong, the, 197 sq. + + Nootka, the, 363, 393 _n._, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Nordenskioeld, A. E. von, 287 + + Nordenskioeld, E., 421 + + Nordenskioeld, G., 383 _n._ + + Nordic race, the, 449, 452 sq., 504, 506 sqq., Pl. XI figs. 1, 2, 5, + and Pl. XIV figs. 1, 2; + in Scandinavia, 509 + + Norsemen, the, 449, 526 sq. + + Northcote, G. A. S., 79 _n._ + + Norway, racial elements in, 509 + + Nossu (Nesu). + _See_ Lolos + + Nu-Aruak, the, 416 + + Nuba, the, 74 sqq. + + Nubians, the, 75 sqq., 468 + + Nuer, the, 78 sq., 484 + + Nueesch, J., 16, 123 + + Nutria, the, 382 _n._ + + Nuttall, Z., 353, 393 _n._ + + Nwengals, the, 183 + + + Obermaier, H., 4 _n._, 8, 9 _n._, 14 _n._ + + Oghuz, the, 311 sqq. + + Ojibway, the, 354, 371, 375 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Ojo Caliente, the, 382 _n._ + + Okanda, the, 115 + + Oldoway skeleton, the, 43 _n._, 447 + + Omagua (Flat-heads), the, 419 + + Omaha, the, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Onas, the, 411; + language of, 413 + + Oneida, the, 354, 377 + + Onnis, E. A., 461 + + Onondaga, the, 354, 377 + + Ons, the, 316 + + Oraibi, the, 382 _n._ + + Orang-Baruh, the, 238 + + ---- -Benua, the, 223 + + ---- -Malayu. + _See_ Malays + + ---- -Selat, the, 228 + + ---- -Tunong, the, 238 + + Oraons, the, 550 + + Orbigny, A. D. d', 412 + + Oriyas, the, 547 + + Orleans, H., Prince d', 186 _n._, 191 _n._, 192 sq., 195 sqq. + + Oroch, the, 275 + + Orochon, the, 274 sq., 277 + + Oroke, the, 275 + + Orsi, P., 460 + + Osage, the, 342, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Oshyeba. + _See_ Fans + + Ossets, the, 505, 540 + + O'Sullivan, H., 79 _n._ + + Ostrogoths, the, 449 + + Ostyaks, the, 275, 277, 303, 325, and Pl. VI fig. 3 + + Otomi, the, 395 + + Ottawa, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5; + language, 354 + + Oto, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Ova-Herero, the, 44, 109 sqq., 119 sq. + + ---- -Mpo, the, 109 + + ---- -Zorotu, the, 110 + + Oyampi, the, 419 + + + Padam, the, 170 _n._, 193 + + Padao, the, 193 + + Paes, the, 404 + + Pahuins. + _See_ Fans (West Africa) + + Paiwans, the, 250 + + Pai, the, (Laos) of Assam, 192 + + Pa-i, the, of S.W. China, 211 + + Pakhpu, the, 543 + + Pakpaks, the, 237 _n._ + + Palaeasiatics, Deniker's, 295 + + Palaeo-Siberians, the, 275, 344 + + Palawans, the, 237 + + Palembang, the 235 sq. + + Paleo-Asiatics. + _See_ Palaeo-Siberians + + Palmer, H. R., 68 _n._ + + Pames, the, 394 _n._ + + Pampangan, the, 247 + + Pampeans, the, 410; + language of, 412 + + Panches, the, 402 + + Pangasinan, the, 247 + + Paniyan, the, 423, and Pl. X fig. 4 + + Pano, the, 414, 419 + + Pan-y, the, 198 + + Pan-yao, the, 198 + + Papuans, the, 135 sq., 188, 146 sqq., 551, and Pl. III figs. 3, 4 + + Papuasians, the, chap. V. _passim_ + + Papuo-Melanesians, the, 135 sq., and Pl. III figs. 5, 6 + + Parker, A. C., 375 _n._ + + Parker, E. H., 216 _n._, 292 _n._, 294 _n._, 304 + + Parker, H., 425 _n._ + + Parker, K. Langloh, 436, 437 _n._ + + Parkinson, J., 58 _n._ + + Parkinson, R., 146 + + Parthians, the, 305 sq. + + Partridge, C., 58 _n._ + + Passumahs, the, 223 + + Patagonians, the, 411 sq., and Pl. IX figs. 5, 6; + language of, 412 sq. + + Paton, L. B., 492 _n._, 493 _n._ + + Patroni, G., 459 sq. + + Patterson, A. J., 531 _n._ + + Paulitschke, P., 485 + + Paumari, the, 348, 416 + + Pawnee, the, 355, 371 sqq., 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Peal, S. E., 192 _n._ + + Pears, E., 530 _n._ + + Pease, A. E., 446 _n._ + + Pechenegs, the, 312 + + Pecos, the, 382 _n._ + + Peet, T. E., 528 _n._ + + Peisker, T., 257, 260 _n._, 303 sq., 330, 506 _n._, 507 _n._, + 512 _n._, 531, 536 _n._, 537 _n._ + + Peixoto, J. R., 417 + + Pelasgians, the, 449, 452, 458, 462-7, 512 sq.; + in Italy, 528; + in Greece, 532 sq.; + language of, 453, 465 + + Penck, A., 13 sqq. + + Penek, the, 410 + + Penka, C., 460 _n._, 529, 532 + + Peoria, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Pepohwans, the, 249 + + Peringuey, L., 121 + + Permians, (Beormas, Permian Finns), the, 318 _n._, 322, 324, 330 + + Persians, the, 542, 545 + + Pescado, the, 382 _n._ + + Perry, W. J., 352 + + Peschel, O., 286 _n._, 302 _n._, 315 _n._, 317 _n._ + + P[)e]s[)e]g[)e]m, the, 158 + + Petersen, E., 465 _n._ + + Petrie, W. M. Flinders, 27 _n._, 37, 467, 476, 479, 495 _n._ + + Peyrony, M., 9 _n._ + + Philippines, the, 246 sqq. + + Philistines, the, 490, 494 + + Phoenicians, the, 352, 488 sq., 493, 527 + + Phrygians, the, 490, 506 + + Piankashaw, the, 375 + + Pickett, A. J., 379 _n._ + + Pictones, the, 525 + + Picts, the, 515 sq. + + Picun-che, the, 410 + + Picuris, the, 382 _n._ + + Piegan, the, 374, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Piette, E., 13, 34, 36 + + Pilma, the, 411 + + Piltdown skull, the, 3 sqq., 11, 560 sq. + + Pima, the, 382 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Pinches, T. G., 34, 208, 266 + + Pintos, the, 394 _n._ + + Pipils, the, 388 sqq. + + _Pithecanthropus erectus_, 2 sqq., 9 + + Plains Indians, the, 342, 370-5, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Planert, W., 129 _n._ + + Playfair, A., 548 _n._ + + Pojoaque, the, 382 _n._ + + Polabs, the, 537 + + Polak, J. E. R., 345 _n._ + + Poles, the, 532, 537 + + Polynesians, the, 341, 552 sqq., and Pl. XVI figs. 1-4 + + Pomo, the, pp. 334-5 + + Ponca, the, 342, 371 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Portugal, racial elements in, 527 sq. + + Potanin, G. N., 169, 311 _n._ + + Potawatomi, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Poutrin, L., 69 _n._ + + Powell, J. W., 16, 347, 349, 354, 391 _n._ + + Powhatan, the, 378, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Praeger, R. Lloyd, 520 _n._ + + Pre-Dravidians, the, 149, 230, Chap. XII, 428, and Pl. X figs. 1-4 + + Prichard, J. C., 300, 303, 306, 447 + + Prince, J. D., 262 + + Prjevalsky, N. M., 168, 172 + + Procksch, O., 489 _n._, 491 _n._, 493 _n._, 494 _n._ + + Proto-Malays, the, 230 + + Proto-Polynesians, the, 138 + + Pryer, W. B., 228 _n._ + + Pueblo Indians, the, 356, 382-7, 392; + and map, pp. 334-5 + + Puelche, the, 410, 412 + + Puenche, the, 410 + + Pumpelly, R., 257 + + Punan, the, 230 sq., 233 + + Punjabi, the, 550 + + Pun-ti, the, 212 + + Purasati, the, 494 + + Purmuli, the, 544 + + Pwos, the, 187 + + Pycraft, W. P., 561 + + + Quapaw, the, 378 + + Quatrefages, A. de, 230 + + Quoirengs, the, 178 + + Quichuas, the, 404 sq., 407 + + + Radloff, W., 315 + + Raffles, Sir T. S., 238 + + Rahanwin, the, 485 + + Rajputs, the, 306 sqq., 546 + + Rakhaingtha, the, 188 + + Randall-MacIver, D., 89 _n._, 106 _n._ + + Rangkhols, the, 177 + + Ranqualches, the, 410 + + Rat, J. Numa, 345 _n._ + + Rattray, R. S., 69 _n._ + + Rawling, C. G., 157 _n._ + + Rawlinson, G., 262 _n._, 307 + + Ray, S. H., 135 _n._, 139 _n._, 428 + + Read, C. H., 62 + + Reade, W. Winwood, 116 + + Reck, Hans, 43 _n._, 447 + + Reclus, E., 276 _n._, 398 _n._ + + Reed, W. A., 156 _n._ + + Regnault, M. F., 48 + + Rein, J. J., 298 _n._ + + Reinach, L. de, 192 _n._ + + Reinach, S., 13 _n._, 465 _n._ + + Reinecke, P., 27 + + Reinisch, L., 80 + + Reisner, G. A., 22, 75, 478, 481 + + Rejang, the, 223, 235 sq. + + Retu, the, 475 _n._ + + Retzius, G., 505 _n._ + + Reutelian culture, 10 + + Rhaetians (Rasenes), the, 512 + + Rhoxolani, the, 326 + + Rhys, Sir J., 516 _n._ + + Rialle, G. de, 249 _n._ + + Richthofen, F. von, 302, 311 + + Ridgeway, Sir W., 2 _n._, 28; + on Pelasgians, 453, 462 _n._, 464 sq., 466 _n._, 467 _n._; + Ligurians, 457; + Romans, 529 _n._; + Achaeans, 533 _n._ + + Rink, H. J., 346, 358 + + Rink, S., 287 + + Ripley, W. Z., 17 _n._, 441 _n._, 449; + on the Mediterranean race, 452, 461 _n._; + Basques, 454 _n._, 455 _n._; + Greeks, 462 _n._, 465, 483 _n._; + Phoenicians, 493 _n._; + Jews and Semites, 495 _n._, 504; + Scandinavia, 509; + Central Europe, 510 _n._, 511 _n._; + Celts, 514 _n._; + Britain, 524, 527; + Italy, 529 _n._ + + Risley, H. H., 167 _n._, 308, 546 sqq. + + Rivers, W. H. R., 139 sqq., 432 _n._, 548 _n._, 549, 553 + + Rivet, P., 339 sq. + + Robinson, C. H., 67 _n._ + + Robinson, H. C., 153, 222 _n._ + + Rockhill, W. W., 168 sqq., 171, 174 + + Roesler, R., 531, 535 + + Roeys, the, 178 + + Rol, the, 78 + + Rolleston, J., 517 + + Romans in North Africa, the, 470 + + Romilly, H. H., 146 _n._ + + Rong, the, 170, 177 + + Roscoe, J., 91 sq., 97 _n._ + + Rose, H. A., 548 _n._ + + Rosenberg, H. von, 234 _n._, 235 _n._, 237 _n._ + + Rostafinski, J., 506 + + Roth, H. Ling, 62 _n._, 160 _n._, 231 _n._ + + Routledge, W. S. and K., 97 _n._ + + Roy, S. C., 548 _n._ + + Ruadites, the, 470 + + Rumanians, the, 318, 331, 530 sqq. + + Rumaniya, the, 470 + + Russell, F., 383 _n._ + + Russell, R. V., 548 _n._ + + Russians, the, 318, 539 sq. + + Ruthenians, the, 532, 537 + + Rutot, M., 10, 14 + + + Sabaeans, the, 498 + + Sacae, the, 167 sq. + + Saint-Adolphe, Milliet de, 417, 419 _n._ + + Saint-Denys, d'H. de, 198 + + Saint-Martin, V. de, 290 _n._, 327 _n._, 328 _n._ + + Sakai, the, 149, 154, 422 sq., 425 sq., and Pl. X fig. 2 + + Sakalava, the, 241 sq., 245 + + Sakhersi, the, 51 _n._ + + Salaman, R. N., 495 _n._ + + Salars, the, 169 + + Salish, the Coast, 363, 366 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Salish, the Inland, 343, 366 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Salmon, P., 451 + + Sambaqui (shell-mound) race, the, 417 + + Samoyeds, the, 275, 301, 303, 317, 323 sq., and Pl. VI fig. 1; + religion of, 277 sq., 325 + + Sandberg, G., 169 _n._ + + Sande, G. A. J. van der, 146 + + Sandia, the, 382 _n._ + + San Felipe (Indians), the, 382 _n._ + + San Ildefonso (Indians), the, 382 _n._ + + San Juan (Indians), the, 382 _n._ + + Santa Ana (Indians), the, 382 _n._ + + Santa Barbara (Indians), the, 369 sq. + + Santa Clara (Indians), the, 382 + + Santo Domingo (Indians), the, 382 _n._ + + Santal, the, 547 + + Santee-Dakota, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Sapper, K., 390 + + Sarasin, F., 224 _n._, 425 _n._, 426 + + Sarasin, P., 224 _n._, 425 _n._, 426 + + Sards, the, 460 sq. + + Sarmatians (Sarmatae), the, 326, 535 sq. + + Sarsi, the, 354, 370, and map, pp. 334-335 + + "Sartes," the, 312 + + Sassaks, the, 224 sq. + + Sauk and Fox, the, 354, 375, 377, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Saulteaux, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Saxons, the, 449 + + Sayce, A. H., 236 _n._, 267 _n._, 300, 447, 495 sq. + + Scandinavia and amber trade, 502; + "Aryan cradle" in, 504; + population of, 509 + + Schafarik, P. J., 327 _n._ + + Scharff, R. F., 337 + + Schetelig, A., 251 + + Schiefner, A., 286 + + Schleicher, A., 283, 442 + + Schliemann, H., 463 + + Schlenker, C. F., 54 _n._ + + Schmid, T. P., 412 + + Schmidt, H., 258 + + Schmidt, W., 135 _n._, 151 _n._, 221 _n._, 350, 428 sqq. + + Schoetensack, O., 3 _n._ + + Schoolcraft, H. R., 377 + + Schott, H., 311 _n._ + + Schrader, O., 503 _n._ + + Schultz, J. W., 374 _n._ + + Schumacher, G., 492 + + Schwalbe, G., 9 _n._ + + Schweinfurth, G., 79 _n._ + + Scotland, racial elements in, 521 sqq. + + Scott, J. G., 189 _n._, 191 _n._, 204 + + Scythians, the, 168 _n._, 304, 507, 535 sqq.; + in India, 547 + + Scytho-Dravidian type, Risley's, 546 + + Sea Dayak. + _See_ Iban + + Sebop, the, 231 + + Seger, H., 29 _n._ + + Seguas, the, 388 _n._ + + Sekani, the, 361 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Sekhwans, the, 249 + + Seki-Manzi, the, 261 + + Seler, E., 389 + + Seligman, B. Z., 76 _n._, 425 _n._ + + Seligman, C. G., 74 _n._, 75, 76 _n._, 77 _n._, 79, 135, 425 _n._, + 484, 499, 548 _n._ + + Seljuks, the, 314 + + Sellin, E., 492 + + Semang, the, 138, 149, 153 sqq., 158, 425, and Pl. II fig. 2 + + Seminole, the, 355, 378, 381, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Semites, the, in Babylonia, 262 sqq., 266, 441, 468; + Arabs, 470 sqq., 477 sqq.; + in Africa, 481, 485; + Chap, XIV + + Semple, E. C., 490 _n._ + + Seneca, the, 354, 377 + + Senoi. + _See_ Sakai + + Serbians, the, 532, 538 + + Serer, the, 47 sqq. + + Sergi, G., 36, 442, 447; + on the Mediterranean race, 451 sq., 456 sqq., 461 sqq., 478; + in Italy, 512 _n._, 513, 528 sq.; + in Greece, 532; + in Russia, 539; + Hamites, 468 sq., 483 + + Seri Indians, the, 396, 401 + + Setebos, the, 414 + + Sgaws, the, 187 + + Shahapts, the, 366 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Shakespear, J., 178 _n._, 548 _n._ + + Shakshu, the, 543 + + Shans, the, 166, 180, 191 sqq.; + alphabets of, 195, 198 sq. + + Shargorodsky, S., 284 + + Sharra, the, 272 + + Shaw, G. A., 242 + + Shawias, the, 470 + + Shawnee, the, 354, 375, 378, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Shendu, the, 183 + + Sheyante, the, 183 + + Shilluk, the, 78 sqq., 484 + + Shinomura, M., 261 + + Shins, the, 544 + + Shipaulovi, the, 382 _n._ + + Shipibos. + _See_ Sipivios + + Shluhs, the, 468 + + Shom Pen, the, 251 sqq. + + Shoshoni, the, 355, 367, 371 sq., and map, pp, 334-5 + + Shoshonian linguistic stock, the, 347, 369 + + Shrubsall, F. C., 121, 126, 450 _n._ + + Shu, the, 183 + + Shunopovi, the, 382 _n._ + + Shushwap, the, 343, 367, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Sia, the, 382 _n._ + + Siah Posh, the, 544 + + Siamese, the, 180, 199 sq.; + writing system, 195 + + Sibree, J., 242 _n._ + + Sicani, the, 460 + + Sichumovi, the, 382 _n._ + + Siculi, the, 452, 460, 529 + + Sidonians. + _See_ Phoenicians + + Siebold, H. v., 289 + + Sien-pi, the, 290 sqq. + + Sierochevsky, V. A., 314 + + Sierra-Leonese, the, 53 sqq. + + Sifans, the, 211 + + Sihanakas, the, 242 + + Sikemeier, W., 549 + + Sikhs, the, 550 + + Siksika, the, 354, 370, 372 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Singpho, the, 186 + + Siouan linguistic stock, the, 342, 347, 355, 371 sqq., 381; + Eastern, 378 + + Sioux. + _See_ Dakota + + Sipivios, the, 414 + + Sirdehi, the, 544 + + Sistani, the, 544 + + Siyirs, the, 183 + + Skeat, W. W., 153 _n._, 154 _n._, 222 _n._, 426 _n._ + + Skidi, the, 373 + + Skinner, A., 375 _n._ + + Slavey, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Slavo-Kelt, use of term, 512 + + Slavs, the, 318, 321, 327 sqq., 442, 444, 529, 535, 537 sqq. + + Slovaks, the, 331, 532, 537 + + Slovenes, the, 532, 536 _n._ + + Smeaton, D. M., 187 + + Smith, A. H., 215 _n._ + + Smith, Donaldson, 122 + + Smith, G. Elliot, 21 sq., 25, 78, 81 _n._, 351 sqq., 451 _n._, + 452 _n._, 477 sqq., 480, 491 _n._ + + Smith, R., 10 _n._ + + Smith, S. Percy, 552 _n._ + + Smith, V. A., 551 _n._ + + Smyth, R. Brough, 160 _n._ + + Smyth-Warington, H., 165, 201 _n._ + + Snellman, A. H., 309 _n._, 320 + + So, the, 70 + + Sok-pa, the, 168 _n._, 172 + + Sokte, the, 183 + + Sollas, W. J., 8, 10 _n._, 12 sqq., 128 _n._, 131, 159, 161 + + Sols, the, 316 + + Solutrian culture, 12, 14 + + Somali, the, 443, 468 sq., 484 sqq. + + Songhai, the, 64 sqq. + + Soninke the, 49, 51 + + Sonorans, the, 342 + + Soppitt, C. A., 178 + + Soyotes, the, 317 + + Spain, racial elements in, 527 sq. + + Spartman, P. S., 370 _n._ + + Speck, F. G., 380 + + Speiser, F., 146 _n._ + + Speke, J. H., 91 + + Spence, L., 393 _n._ + + Spencer, H., 402 _n._ + + Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, 427 sq., 430 sq., 433, 434 _n._, 436 + + Spinden, H. J., 367 _n._, 390 _n._ + + Spy skeletons, the, 8 + + Squier, E. G., 408 + + Stack, E., 548 _n._ + + Stanley, H. E. J., 101 _n._ + + Stanley, H. M., 95 _n._ + + Starr, F., 112 _n._ + + Steensby, H. P., 359 + + Stefansson, V., 360 + + Stein, Sir M. A., 257 sq., 310 sq., 544, 547 + + Steinen, K. v. D., 347 _n._, 411, 415 sqq. + + Steinmetz, R. S., 81 _n._, 401 n + + Sternberg, L., 288 _n._ + + Stevenson, M. C., 385 _n._ + + Stow, G. W., 104 _n._, 106 _n._ + + Strandloopers, the, 121 + + Strepyan culture, 10 + + Stuhlmann, F., 27 _n._, 45 _n._, 93, 470, 476 + + Sturge, Allen, 15 + + Subano, the, 247 + + Sudanese Negro, chap. III + + Sumerians, the, 261 sqq., 480 sq., 491; + _see also_ Babylonia + + Sumu, the, 197 + + Sundanese, the, 224 + + Susa, explorations at, 258, 267 + + Susquehanna, the, 354, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Suti, the, 490 + + Suyas. + _See_ Kayapos + + Swahili. + _See_ Wa-Swaheli + + Swanton, J. R., 355, 363 _n._ + + Swazi, the, 104 + + Sweden, Alpine type in, 505 _n._, 509; + Nordic type in, 509 + + Swettenham, Sir F. A., 222 _n._, 227 + + Swiss pile-dwellers, the, 529 + + Sykes, Sir M., 268 _n._ + + Syrians, the, 489 sq. + + Szinnyei, J., 317 + + + Tagalogs, the, 156, 224, 237, 246 sq. + + Tagbanua, the, 247 + + Ta-Hia, the, 306 + + Tahltan Indians, the, 363 _n._ + + Tahtadji, the, 497 + + Tai (T'hai). + _See_ Shans + + Tai-Shan language, the, 194 sq. + + Tajiks, the, 307, 505, 542 sqq., and Pl. XIV figs. 5, 6 + + Talaings, the, 180 + + Talamanca, the, 421 _n._ + + Talbot, P. A., 69 _n._ + + Talko-Hryncewicz, J. D., 259 + + Talodi, the, 75 + + Tamai, K., 250 + + Tamehu, the, 545 + + Tamils, the, 549 + + Tanala, the, 242 + + Tangkhuls, the, 178 + + Tanguts, the, 168, 172 + + Tanoans, the, 382 _n._ + + Taos, the, 382 _n._ + + Tapiro, the, 157, and Pl. II figs. 5-7 + + Tappeiner, F., 512 + + Tapuya, the, 417 + + Tarahumare, the, 395 _n._ + + Taranchi, the, 311 + + Tarascan language, the, 345 + + Tarascos, the, 395 + + Tardenoisian industry, the, 13 + + "Tartars," the, 292 _n._, 303; + Kazan, 312; + Nogai, _ib._; + Siberian, 318; + Volga, 320 + + Tarte industry, the, 12 + + Tashons, the, 183 sq. + + Tasmanians, the, 159 sqq., 427 sqq., and Pl. III figs. 1, 2 + + Taubach tooth, the, 6 + + Taute the, 183 + + Tavoyers, the, 188 + + Tawangs, the, 170 + + Tawyans, the, 184 + + Taylor, E. J., 225 + + Taylor, G., 249 _n._ + + Taylor, W. E., 98, 100 + + Teda, the, 473 + + Tehuelche. + _See_ Patagonians + + Teilhard, P., 6 + + Teit, J., 367 _n._ + + Tekestas, the, 399 + + Telinga (Telugu, Tling), the, 180, 549 + + Temple, Sir R. C., 152 sq., 182, 185 _n._, 187 _n._ + + Ten Kate, H. F. C., 147 + + Tepanecs, the, 342, 394 + + Terrage, M. de V. du, 23 + + Tesuque, the, 382 _n._ + + Teton-Dakota, the, 370, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Teutoni, the, 507 + + Teutonic race. + _See_ Nordic race + + Teutons, the, historic and prehistoric, 506, 525 sq., 530 + + Theal, G. M., 104 _n._, 105 _n._, 108 _n._, 126 _n._ + + Thessalians, the, 466 + + Tho, the, 197 sq., 211 + + Thomas, Cyrus, 391, 392 _n._ + + Thomas, N. W., 58 _n._, 59 _n._, 431 _n._, 436 + + Thompson, Basil, 146 _n._ + + Thompson, E. H., 397 + + Thompson, J. P., 146 _n._ + + Thompson, M. S., 530 _n._ + + Thompson, P. A., 201 _n._ + + Thompson, the, 367, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Thomsen, Wilhelm, 259, 261, 309, 319 _n._, 320 + + Thomson, A., 511 _n._ + + Thomson, B. H., 555 + + Thracians, the, 505 sq., 531 + + Thurn, Sir E. F. im, 416 _n._ + + Thurnam, J., 517 + + Thurston, E., 423, 548 _n._, 549 + + Tibetans, the, 165 sqq.; + language of, 281 + + Tibeto-Indo-Chinese branch, 165 + + Tibu, the, 468, 473 sq. + + Ticuna, the, 419 + + Tilho, M., 69 _n._, 72 _n._ + + Timni, the, 53 sq. + + Timotes, the, 400 + + Timuquanans, the, 415 + + Tipperahs, the, 188 + + Tipuns, the, 250 + + Tling. + _See_ Telinga + + Tlingit, the, 343, 355, 363 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Toala, the, 426 + + Toba, the, 420 sq. + + Tocaima, the, 402 + + Tocharish, 441 _n._, 504 + + Tocher, J. F., 522 + + Toda, the, 549 + + Toghuz, the, 310 sq. + + Toltecs, the, 342, 388 sq., 393, 394 _n._ + + Tongue, M. H., 128 _n._ + + Tooke, W. H., 119 + + Topinard, P., 38 + + Torday, E., 113 _n._, 115 _n._ + + Toshks, the, 538 sq. + + Tosti, G., 37 + + Totonacs. + _See_ Huaxtecs + + Toung-gnu, the, 188 + + Toxides, the, 539 + + Trarsas, the, 469 + + Tremearne, A. J. N., 58 _n._, 69 _n._ + + Tremlett, C. F., 203 _n._ + + Tshi, the, 46, 58 + + Tsiampa. + _See_ Champa + + Tsimshian, the, 343, 363, 393 _n._ + + Tsintsars, the, 530 + + Tsoneca. + _See_ Tehuelche + + Tuaregs, the, 468 sq., 473 + + Tuck, H. N., 183 + + Tucker, A. W., 75 _n._, 79 _n._ + + Tumali, the, 75 + + Tungthas, the, 188 + + Tungus, the, 274 sqq., and Pl. VI figs. 2, 5 + + Tunican, the, 378, 381, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Tunisia, natives of, 448 sq. + + Tupi, the, 417, 419; + language, 419 + + Tupi-Guarani, the, 348; + language, 404; + linguistic stock, 415, 417, 419 + + Turki, the, 169, 172, 302 sqq.; + physical features, 303; + in India, 308; + in Central Asia, 308 sqq.; + in Asia Minor, 313 sq.; + in Siberia, 314 sqq. + + Turko-Iranian type, Risley's, 546 + + Turkomans, the, 305, 312 sq. + + Turks, Osmanli, 301, 303, 313 sq. + + Turner, S., 171 + + Turner, Sir William, 15, 159 _n._ + + Tusayans, the, 385 sq. + + Tuscarora, the, 354, 377 sq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Tylor, Sir E. B., 353, 437 _n._ + + Tynjur, the, 74 + + Tyrol, the, brachycephaly in, 512 + + + Uaupes, the, 348 + + Ude language, 541 + + Ugrian Finns, the, 317 sqq., 326 sq. + + Uigurs, the, 301, 308 sqq., 329 _n._ + + Uinta, the, 371 + + Ujfalvy, C. de, 166 sq., 271 sq., 291, 302 _n._, 307, 311 _n._, 512, + 544 + + Ukit, the, 230 sq. + + Uled-Bella, the, 469 + + Uled-Embark, the, 469 + + Uled-en-Nasur, the, 469 + + Ulu Ayar, the, 230, 426 + + Umbrians, the, 513, 529 + + Ural-Altaic peoples. + _See_ Northern Mongols + + ---- languages, 281 sqq. + + Usuns (Wusun), the, 291, 301, 306 + + Ute, the, 355, 371 sq. + + Utigurs, the, 329 + + Uzbegs, the, 303, 312, 315 + + + Vaalpens, the, 120 sq. + + Vacas, the, 52 + + Valentini, P. J. J., 342, 389 + + Vambery, A., 314, 330 _n._ + + Vandals, the, 449, 470 + + Vandeleur, S., 68 _n._ + + Vansittart, E., 170 _n._ + + Vapisianas, the, 416 + + Vascones, the, 525 + + Vasilofsky, N. E., 314 _n._ + + Vater, J. S., 127 + + Vauru, the, 348 + + Vazimba, the, 239, 244 sq. + + Vedda, the, 149, 422, 424, and Pl. X fig. 1 + + Vei, the, 32 _n._, 46 _n._, 49 + + Venedi, the, 537 + + Veneti, the, 529 _n._, 537 _n._ + + Vepses, the, 320, 322 + + Verneau, R., 9 _n._, 123, 186 _n._, 198, 451 + + Vierkandt, A., 37 _n._ + + Vinson, J., 454 _n._, 456 _n._ + + Virchow, R., 29, 38, 127, 442, 447, 540 _n._ + + Visayas, the, 224, 246 + + Visigoths, the, 449 + + Vlachs, the, 530 + + Voguls, the, 303, 325 + + Volkov, T., 259 _n._, 305 _n._ + + Volz, W., 237 _n._ + + Votes, the, 320, 322 + + Voth, H. R., 385 _n._ + + Votyaks, the, 325 + + Vouchereau, A., 243 + + + Wa-Boni, the, 97 + + Wace, A. J. B., 530 _n._ + + Wa-Chaga, the, 97 + + Wachsmuth, W., 463 _n._ + + Waddell, L. A., 169 _n._ + + Wa-Duruma, the, 97 + + Wa-Giryama, the, 97 sqq. + + Wa-Gweno, the, 97 + + Wa-Hha, the, 91 + + Wahuma. + _See_ Ba-Hima + + Waiilatpuan, the, 363 + + Wainwright, G. A., 26 _n._ + + Wa-Kamba, the, 97 + + Wa-Kedi, the, 62 _n._, 96 + + Wakhi, the, 544 + + Wa-Kikuyu, the, 97 _n._ + + Wakore, the, 51 _n._ + + Walapai, the, 383 + + Wales, racial elements in, 522 sqq. + + Walkhoff, E., 4 _n._ + + Wallace, A. R., 223, 224 _n._, 226 sqq. + + Wallack, H., 450 + + Walpi, the, 382 _n._ + + Walter, H., 542 _n._ + + Wandorobbo, the, 124 + + Wangara, the, 51 _n._ + + Wa-Nyika, the, 97 + + Wa-Pokomo, the, 97 + + Wa-Ruanda, the, 91, 486 + + Wa-Sandawi, the, 127, 129 + + Wa-Swahili, the, 44, 100 + + Wa-Taveita, the, 97 + + Wa-Teita, the, 97 + + Watt, G., 181, 182 _n._ + + Wa-Tusi, the, 91, 486 + + Webster, W., 454 _n._, 521 _n._ + + Weeks, J. H., 113 _n._ + + Weigland, G., 530 _n._ + + Weiss, M., 97 _n._ + + Wends, the, 537 + + Werner, A., 97 _n._, 98 _n._, 102 _n._ + + Weule, K., 97 _n._ + + Wheeler, G. C., 432 _n._ + + Whenohs, the, 184 + + Whiffen, T., 414 _n._ + + Wibling, Carl, 16 + + Wichita, the, 355, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Williamson, R. W., 158 + + Willis, B., 339 + + Wilson, Thomas, 175 + + Winchell, N. H., 344 + + Winckler, H., 490, 496 + + Windisch, E., 516 + + Windt, H. de, 287 + + Winnebago, the, 355, 375 + + Wintun, the, pp. 334-5 + + Wissler, C., 357-383 _passim_ + + Wissmann, H. von, 125 + + Witoto, the, 414, 415 _n._ + + Wochua, the, 124 + + Wolf, L., 125 + + Wollaston, A. F. R., 149 _n._, 154 _n._, 157 _n._ + + Wolof, the, 44, 47 sqq. + + Woodford, C. M., 137 _n._, 146 _n._ + + Woodthorpe, R. G., 195 _n._ + + Woodward, A. Smith, 3 _n._, 5 _n._, 6 _n._ + + Worcester, D. C., 156 _n._ + + Wray, L., 155 _n._ + + Wright, F. E., 339 + + Wright, W., 4 _n._, 452 _n._ + + Wuri, the, 117 + + Wyandot, the, 375, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Wylde, A. B., 487 _n._ + + + Xenopol, A. D., 531 + + + Yacana, the, 411 + + Yadrintseff, N. M., 309 _n._ + + Yagi, S., 261 + + Yagnobi, the, 542 _n._ + + Yahgans, the, 411, 413; + language of, 413 + + Yakut, the, 172, 274 sq.; + language, 283 _n._, 303, 314 sq. + + Yamamadi, the, 348 + + Yankton-Dakota, the, 371, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Yavapai, the, 383 + + Yavorsky, J. L., 305 + + Yayo (Yao), the, 197 + + Yedina, the, 69 + + Yegrai, the, 172 + + Yegurs, the, 311 _n._ + + Yellow Knives, the, 361, and map, pp. 334-5 + + Yemanieh, the, 74 + + Ye-tha, the, 307 sq. + + Yezidi, the, 497 + + Yidoks, the, 543 + + Y-jen, the, 211 + + Yo, the, 183 + + Yokut, the, pp. 334-5 + + Yoma, the, 188 + + Yoruba, the, 46, 58 sq. + + Yotkan, explorations at, 258 + + Younghusband, Sir F., 301 sq. + + Yuan-yuans, the, 292, 307 + + Yuchi, the, 378 sqq., and map, pp. 334-5 + + Yue-chi, the, 291, 305 sqq., 542 _n._ + + Yugo-Slavs, the, 331, 537 + + Yuin, the, 437 + + Yukaghir, the, 274 sq.; + writing system, 284 sq., 344 + + Yuma, the, 383 + + Yuman linguistic stock, the, 355, 369 + + Yumanas, the, 416 + + Yungas, the, 408 + + + Zaborowski, S., 448, 456, 536 _n._, 539 sq. + + Zandeh, the, 44, 78 sq., 81 sq. + + Zapotecs, the, 390, 395 + + Zimbabwe monuments, the, 44, 89 sq., 105, 241 _n._ + + Zimmer, H., 521 _n._ + + Zimmern, H., 269 _n._ + + Ziryanians, the, 324 + + Zoghawa, the, 73 + + Zulu-Xosa, the, 44, 101 sqq., 129, and Pl. I fig. 2 + + Zuni, the, 382, and map, pp. 334-5 + + + CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS + + +PLATE I + + [Illustration: 1. Hausa, Western Sudanese Negro] + + [Illustration: 2. Zulu, Bantu Negroid] + + [Illustration: 3. Koranna Hottentot] + + [Illustration: 4. Koranna Hottentot] + + [Illustration: 5. Bushman] + + [Illustration: 6. Bushman] + + +PLATE II + + [Illustration: 1. Andamanese, Negrito] + + [Illustration: 2. Semang, Negrito] + + [Illustration: 3. Aeta, Negrito] + + [Illustration: 4. Central African, Negrillo] + + [Illustration: 5-7. Tapiro, Negrito] + + +PLATE III + + [Illustration: 1. Tasmanian] + + [Illustration: 2. Tasmanian] + + [Illustration: 3. Kiwai, Papuan] + + [Illustration: 4. Kiwai, Papuan] + + [Illustration: 5. Hula, Papuo-Melanesian] + + [Illustration: 6. Hula, Papuo-Melanesian] + + +PLATE IV + + [Illustration: 1. Chinese] + + [Illustration: 2. Chinese] + + [Illustration: 3. Kara-Kirghiz, Mongolo-Turki] + + [Illustration: 4. Kara-Kirghiz, Mongolo-Turki] + + [Illustration: 5. Kara-Kirghiz] + + [Illustration: 6. Manchu-Tungus] + + +PLATE V + + [Illustration: 1. Iban, mixed Proto-Malay] + + [Illustration: 2. Buginese, Malayan] + + [Illustration: 3. Bontoc Igorot, Malayan] + + [Illustration: 4. Bagobo, Malayan] + + [Illustration: 5, 6. Kenyah, mixed Proto-Malay] + + +PLATE VI + + [Illustration: 1. Samoyed] + + [Illustration: 2. Tungus] + + [Illustration: 3. Yenesei Ostiak, Palaeo-Siberian] + + [Illustration: 4. Kalmuk, Western Mongol] + + [Illustration: 5. Gold of Amur River, Tungus] + + [Illustration: 6. Gilyak, N. E. Mongol] + + +PLATE VII + + [Illustration: 1. Ainu, Palaeo-Siberian] + + [Illustration: 2. Ainu, Palaeo-Siberian] + + [Illustration: 3, 4. Japanese, mixed Manchu-Korean and Southern + Mongol] + + [Illustration: 5. Korean] + + [Illustration: 6. Lapp] + + +PLATE VIII + + [Illustration: 1. Eskimo] + + [Illustration: 2. Indian, North-west coast of North America] + + [Illustration: 3. Cocopa, Yuman] + + [Illustration: 4. Navaho, Athapascan] + + [Illustration: 5. Dakota, Siouan] + + [Illustration: 6. Dakota, Siouan] + + +PLATE IX + + [Illustration: 1. Carib] + + [Illustration: 2. Guatuso, Costa Rica] + + [Illustration: 3. Native of Otovalo, Ecuador] + + [Illustration: 4. Native of Zambisa, Ecuador] + + [Illustration: 5. Tehuel-che, Patagonia] + + [Illustration: 6. Tehuel-che, Patagonia] + + +PLATE X + + [Illustration: 1. Vedda, Pre-Dravidian] + + [Illustration: 2. Sakai, Pre-Dravidian] + + [Illustration: 3. Irula, Pre-Dravidian] + + [Illustration: 4. Paniyan, Pre-Dravidian] + + [Illustration: 5. Kaitish, Australian] + + [Illustration: 6. Australian] + + +PLATE XI + + [Illustration: 1. Dane, Nordic] + + [Illustration: 2. Dane, Nordic] + + [Illustration: 3. Dane, mixed Alpine] + + [Illustration: 4. Breton, mixed Alpine] + + [Illustration: 5. Swiss, Nordic] + + [Illustration: 6. Swiss, Alpine] + + +PLATE XII + + [Illustration: 1. Catalan, Iberian] + + [Illustration: 2. Irishman, Mediterranean] + + [Illustration: 3. Kababish, mixed Semite] + + [Illustration: 4. Kababish, mixed Semite] + + [Illustration: 5. Egyptian Bedouin, mixed Semite] + + [Illustration: 6. Afghan, Iranian] + + +PLATE XIII + + [Illustration: 1. Bisharin, Hamite] + + [Illustration: 2. Bisharin, Hamite] + + [Illustration: 3. Ben Amer, Hamite] + + [Illustration: 4. Masai, mixed Nilotic Hamite] + + [Illustration: 5. Shilluk, Hamitic Nilote] + + [Illustration: 6. Shilluk, Nilote] + + +PLATE XIV + + [Illustration: 1. Kurd, Nordic] + + [Illustration: 2. Kurd, Nordic] + + [Illustration: 3. Armenian, Armenoid Alpine] + + [Illustration: 4. Armenian, Armenoid Alpine] + + [Illustration: 5. Tajik, Alpine] + + [Illustration: 6. Tajik, mixed Alpine and Turki] + + +PLATE XV + + [Illustration: 1. Sinhalese, mixed "Aryan"] + + [Illustration: 2. Sinhalese, mixed "Aryan"] + + [Illustration: 3. Hindu, mixed "Aryan"] + + [Illustration: 4. Kling, Dravidian] + + [Illustration: 5. Linga, Dravidian] + + [Illustration: 6. Vakkaliga, mixed Alpine] + + +PLATE XVI + + [Illustration: 1, 2. Raiatea, Polynesian] + + [Illustration: 3. Maori, Polynesian] + + [Illustration: 4. Maori, Polynesian] + + [Illustration: 5, 6. Caroline Islands, Micronesian] + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + + +1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_. + +2. Passages in bold are indicated by #bold#. + +3. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest +paragraph break. + +4. Footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of the chapter +in which they are referenced. + +5. Obvious punctuation errors have been corrected. + +6. This text contains certain characters with diacritical marks, which +are marked within square brackets. For example, [)e] represents small +letter "e" with breve. + +7. The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version, +these letters have been replaced with transliterations. + +8. The following misprints have been corrected: + "identity" corrected to "identify" (page 82) + "archeological" corrected to "archaeological" (page 351) + "momenclature" corrected to "nomenclature" (page 514) + +9. Sidenotes have been removed from this text version. + +10. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies +in spelling, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Man, Past and Present, by +Agustus Henry Keane and A. 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