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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: A Short History of the World
+
+Author: H. G. Wells
+
+Release Date: March 2, 2011 [eBook #35461]
+[Most recently updated: October 27, 2021]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+Produced by: Donald F. Behan
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT
+HISTORY OF THE WORLD
+
+By H. G. WELLS
+
+New York
+
+THE MACMILLAN & COMPANY
+
+1922
+
+_Copyright 1922_
+
+
+CONTENTS  CHAPTER Page
+
+A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD
+I. THE WORLD IN SPACE 1
+II. THE WORLD IN TIME 5
+III. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE 11
+IV. THE AGE OF FISHES 16
+V. THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS 21
+VI. THE AGE OF REPTILES 26
+VII. THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS 31
+VIII. THE AGE OF MAMMALS 37
+IX. MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN 43
+X. THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN 48
+XI. THE FIRST TRUE MEN 53
+XII. PRIMITIVE THOUGHT 60
+XIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION 65
+XIV. PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS 71
+XV. SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING 77
+XVI. PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES 84
+XVII. THE FIRST SEA-GOING PEOPLES 91
+XVIII. EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA 96
+XIX. THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS 104
+XX. THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I 109
+XXI. THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS 115
+XXII. PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA 122
+XXIII. THE GREEKS 127
+XXIV. THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS 134
+XXV. THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE 139
+XXVI. THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 145
+XXVII. THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA 150
+XXVIII. THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA 156
+XXIX. KING ASOKA 163
+XXX. CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE 167
+XXXI. ROME COMES INTO HISTORY 174
+XXXII. ROME AND CARTHAGE 180
+XXXIII. THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 185
+XXXIV. BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA 196
+XXXV. THE COMMON MAN’S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE 201
+XXXVI. RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE 208
+XXXVII. THE TEACHING OF JESUS 214
+XXXVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY 222
+XXXIX. THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST 227
+XL. THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 233
+XLI. THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES 238
+XLII. THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA 245
+XLIII. MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM 248
+XLIV. THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS 253
+XLV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM 258
+XLVI. THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION 267
+XLVII. RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM 277
+XLVIII. THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 287
+XLIX. THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS 294
+L. THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH 304
+LI. THE EMPEROR CHARLES V 309
+LII. THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND
+     PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE 318
+LIII. THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS 329
+LIV. THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 335
+LV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE 341
+LVI. 
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 349
+LVII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE 355
+LVIII. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 365
+LIX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS 370
+LX. THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 382
+LXI. THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE 390
+LXII. THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF THE STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY 393
+LXIII. 
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA, AND THE RISE OF JAPAN 399
+LXIV. THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914 405
+LXV. THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18 409
+LXVI. THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA 415
+LXVII. THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD 421
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 429
+INDEX 439 
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Page
+
+Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter 2
+
+Nebula seen Edge-on 3
+
+The Great Spiral Nebula 6
+
+A Dark Nebula 7
+
+Another Spiral Nebula 8
+
+Landscape before Life 9
+
+Marine Life in the Cambrian Period 12
+
+Fossil Trilobite 13
+
+Early Palæozoic Fossils of various Species of
+ Lingula 14
+
+Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont, Cheirotherium 15
+
+Pterichthys Milleri 17
+
+Fossil of Cladoselache 18
+
+Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Period 19
+
+A Carboniferous Swamp 22
+
+Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus 23
+
+Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops 24
+
+A Fossil Ichthyosaurus 27
+
+A Pterodactyl 28
+
+The Diplodocus 29
+
+Fossil of Archeopteryx 32
+
+Hesperornis in its Native Seas 33
+
+The Ki-wi 34
+
+Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils 35
+
+Titanotherium Robustum 38
+
+Skeleton of Giraffe-camel 40
+
+Skeleton of Early Horse 40
+
+Comparative Sizes of Brains of Rhinoceros and Dinoceras 41
+
+A Mammoth 44
+
+Flint Implements from Piltdown Region 45
+
+A Pithecanthropean Man 46
+
+The Heidelberg Man 46
+
+The Piltdown Skull 47
+
+A Neanderthaler 49
+
+Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago
+
+_Map_  50
+
+Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian Skull 51
+
+Altamira Cave Paintings 54
+
+Later Palæolithic Carvings 55
+
+Bust of Cro-magnon Man 57
+
+Later Palæolithic Art 58
+
+Relics of the Stone Age 62
+
+Gray’s Inn Lane Flint Implement 63
+
+Somaliland Flint Implement 63
+
+Neolithic Flint Implement 67
+
+Australian Spearheads 68
+
+Neolithic Pottery 69
+
+Relationship of Human Races _Map_  72
+
+A Maya Stele 73
+
+European Neolithic Warrior 75
+
+Babylonian Brick 78
+
+Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dynasty 79
+
+The Sakhara Pyramids 80
+
+The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Summit 81
+
+The Temple of Hathor 82
+
+Pottery and Implements of the Lake
+ Dwellers 85
+
+A Lake Village 86
+
+Flint Knives of 4500 B.C. 87
+
+Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads 87
+
+Egyptian Peasants Going to Work 88
+
+Stele of Naram Sin 89
+
+The Treasure House at Mycenæ 93
+
+The Palace at Cnossos 95
+
+Temple at Abu Simbel 97
+
+Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak 98
+
+The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak 99
+
+Frieze of Slaves 101
+
+The Temple of Horus, Edfu 103
+
+Archaic Amphora 105
+
+The Mound of Nippur 107
+
+Median and Chaldean Empires _Map_  110
+
+The Empire of Darius _Map_  111
+
+A Persian Monarch 112
+
+The Ruins of Persepolis 113
+
+The Great Porch of Xerxes 113
+
+The Land of the Hebrews _Map_  117
+
+Nebuchadnezzar’s Mound at Babylon 118
+
+The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon 120
+
+Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II 124
+
+Captive Princes making Obeisance 125
+
+Statue of Meleager 128
+
+Ruins of Temple of Zeus 130
+
+The Temple of Neptune, Pæstum 132
+
+Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery 135
+
+The Temple of Corinth 137
+
+The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium 138
+
+Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens 140
+
+The Acropolis, Athens 141
+
+Theatre at Epidauros, Greece 141
+
+The Caryatides of the Erechtheum 142
+
+Athene of the Parthenon 143
+
+Alexander the Great 146
+
+Alexander’s Victory at Issus 147
+
+The Apollo Belvedere 148
+
+Aristotle 152
+
+Statuette of Maitreya 153
+
+The Death of Buddha 154
+
+Tibetan Buddha 158
+
+A Burmese Buddha 159
+
+The Dhamêkh Tower, Sarnath 160
+
+A Chinese Buddhist Apostle 164
+
+The Court of Asoka 165
+
+Asoka Panel from Bharhut 165
+
+The Pillar of Lions (Asokan)  166
+
+Confucius 169
+
+The Great Wall of China 171
+
+Early Chinese Bronze Bell 172
+
+The Dying Gaul 175
+
+Ancient Roman Cisterns at Carthage 177
+
+Hannibal 181
+
+Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150 B.C. _Map_  183
+
+The Forum, Rome 188
+
+Ruined Coliseum in Tunis 189
+
+Roman Arch at Ctesiphon 190
+
+The Column of Trajan, Rome 193
+
+Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty 197
+
+Vase of Han Dynasty 198
+
+Chinese Vessel in Bronze 199
+
+A Gladiator (contemporary representation) 202
+
+A Street in Pompeii 204
+
+The Coliseum, Rome 206
+
+Interior of Coliseum 206
+
+Mithras Sacrificing a Bull 210
+
+Isis and Horus 211
+
+Bust of Emperor Commodus 212
+
+Early Portrait of Jesus Christ 216
+
+Road from Nazareth to Tiberias 217
+
+David’s Tower and Wall of Jerusalem 218
+
+A Street in Jerusalem 219
+
+The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome 223
+
+Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel)  225
+
+Roman Empire and the Barbarians _Map_  228
+
+Constantine’s Pillar, Constantinople 229
+
+The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople 231
+
+Head of Barbarian Chief 235
+
+The Church of S. Sophia, Constantinople 239
+
+Roof-work in S. Sophia 240
+
+Justinian and his Court 241
+
+The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra 242
+
+Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty 246
+
+At Prayer in the Desert 	250
+
+Looking Across the Sea of Sand 251
+
+Growth of Moslem Power _Map_  254
+
+The Moslem Empire _Map_  254
+
+The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem 255
+
+Cairo Mosques 256
+
+Frankish Dominions of Martel _Map_  260
+
+Statue of Charlemagne 262
+
+Europe at Death of Charlemagne _Map_  264
+
+Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral 268
+
+View of Cairo 269
+
+The Horses of S. Mark, Venice 271
+
+Courtyard in the Alhambra 273
+
+Milan Cathedral (showing spires)  278
+
+A Typical Crusader 280
+
+Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes)  283
+
+Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes)  284
+
+The Empire of Jengis Khan _Map_  288
+
+Ottoman Empire before 1453 _Map_  289
+
+Tartar Horsemen 291
+
+Ottoman Empire, 1566 _Map_  292
+
+An Early Printing Press 296
+
+Ancient Bronze from Benin 299
+
+Negro Bronze-work 300
+
+Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving)  301
+
+Portrait of Martin Luther 305
+
+The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work, 1543) 307
+
+Charles V (the Titian Portrait)  311
+
+S. Peter’s, Rome: the High Altar 315
+
+Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament 321
+
+The Court at Versailles 323
+
+Sack of a Village, French Revolution 325
+
+Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia,
+ 1648 _Map_  326
+
+European Territory in America, 1750 _Map_  330
+
+Europeans Tiger Hunting in India 331
+
+Fall of Tippoo Sultan 332
+
+George Washington 337
+
+The Battle of Bunker Hill 338
+
+The U.S.A., 1790 339
+
+The Trial of Louis XVI 344
+
+Execution of Marie Antoinette 346
+
+Portrait of Napoleon 352
+
+Europe after the Congress of Vienna _Map_  353
+
+Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester
+ Railway 356
+
+Passenger Train in 1833 356
+
+The Steamboat _Clermont_ 357
+
+Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel 361
+
+Arkwright’s Spinning Jenny 361
+
+An Early Weaving Machine 363
+
+An Incident of the Slave Trade 367
+
+Early Factory, in Colebrookdale 368
+
+Carl Marx 372
+
+Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine 376
+
+Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge 378
+
+American River Steamer 385
+
+Abraham Lincoln 387
+
+Europe, 1848-71 _Map_  391
+
+Victoria Falls, Zambesi 395
+
+The British Empire, 1815 _Map_  397
+
+Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century 401
+
+A Street in Tokio 403
+
+Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914 _Map_  406
+
+Gibraltar 407
+
+Street in Hong Kong 408
+
+British Tank in Battle 410
+
+The Ruins of Ypres 411
+
+Modern War: War Entanglements 412
+
+A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule 418
+
+Passenger Aeroplane in Flight 423
+
+A Peaceful Garden in England 426
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD
+
+
+
+I
+THE WORLD IN SPACE
+
+
+The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly known.
+A couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of little more
+than the last three thousand years. What happened before that time was
+a matter of legend and speculation.  Over a large part of the civilized
+world it was believed and taught that the world had been created
+suddenly in 4004 B.C., though authorities differed as to whether this
+had occurred in the spring or autumn of that year. This fantastically
+precise misconception was based upon a too literal interpretation of
+the Hebrew Bible, and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions
+connected therewith.  Such ideas have long since been abandoned by
+religious teachers, and it is universally recognized that the universe
+in which we live has to all appearances existed for an enormous period
+of time and possibly for endless time.  Of course there may be
+deception in these appearances, as a room may be made to seem endless
+by putting mirrors facing each other at either end. But that the
+universe in which we live has existed only for six or seven thousand
+years may be regarded as an altogether exploded idea.
+
+The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere
+slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly 8,000
+miles.  Its spherical shape has been known at least to a limited number
+of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but before that time it
+was supposed to be flat, and various ideas which now seem fantastic
+were entertained about its relations to the sky and the stars and
+planets.  We know now that it rotates upon its axis (which is about 24
+miles shorter than its equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours,
+and that this is the cause of the alternations of day and night, that
+it circles about the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable
+oval path in a year. Its distance from the sun varies between
+ninety-one and a half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a
+half million miles.
+
+
+LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER
+“LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER”
+
+(Nebula photographed 1910)
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+
+About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average
+distance  of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies to
+travel round  the sun.  There are also the planets, Mercury and Venus,
+at distances of  thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of miles; and
+beyond the circle of the  earth and disregarding a belt of numerous
+smaller bodies, the planetoids,  there are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
+Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of 141, 483, 886, 1,782, and 1,793
+millions of miles respectively. These figures in millions of miles are
+very difficult for the mind to grasp.  It may help the reader’s
+imagination if we reduce the sun and planets to a smaller, more
+conceivable scale.
+
+
+THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON
+THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON
+
+Note the central core which, through millions of years, is cooling to
+solidity
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+
+If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch diameter,
+ the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323 yards away, that
+ is about a fifth of a mile, four or five minutes’ walking.  The  moon
+would be a small pea two feet and a half from the world.  Between earth
+and sun there would be the two inner planets, Mercury and Venus,  at
+distances of one hundred and twenty-five and two hundred and fifty 
+yards from the sun. All round and about these bodies there would be 
+emptiness until you came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet
+beyond the earth; Jupiter nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter;
+Saturn, a little smaller, two miles off; Uranus four miles off and
+Neptune six miles off. Then nothingness and nothingness except for
+small particles and drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands
+of miles.  The nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000
+miles away.
+
+These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of the
+immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on.
+
+For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of life
+only  upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate much more
+than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate us from the
+centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than five miles above
+its surface.  Apparently all the limitlessness of space is otherwise
+empty and dead.
+
+The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest recorded
+flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles. Men have reached
+to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of great suffering.  No
+bird can fly so high as five miles, and small birds and insects which
+have been carried up by aeroplanes drop off insensible far below that
+level.
+
+
+
+
+II
+THE WORLD IN TIME
+
+
+In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and interesting
+speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age and origin of
+our earth. Here we cannot pretend to give even a summary of such
+speculations because they involve the most subtle mathematical and
+physical considerations. The truth is that the physical and
+astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as yet to make anything
+of the sort more than an illustrative guesswork. The general tendency
+has been to make the estimated age of our globe longer and longer. It
+now seems probable that the earth has had an independent existence as a
+spinning planet flying round and round the sun for a longer period than
+2,000,000,000 years. It may have been much longer than that. This is a
+length of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination.
+
+Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth and
+the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a great
+swirl of diffused matter in space.  The telescope reveals to us in
+various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of matter, the
+spiral nebulæ, which appear to be in rotation about a centre. It is
+supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its planets were once
+such a spiral, and that their matter has undergone concentration into
+its present form. Through majestic æons that concentration went on
+until in that vast remoteness of the past for which we have given
+figures, the world and its moon were distinguishable.  They were
+spinning then much faster than they are spinning now; they were at a
+lesser distance from the sun; they travelled round it very much faster,
+and they were probably incandescent or molten at the surface.  The sun
+itself was a much greater blaze in the heavens.
+
+THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA
+THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the earth
+in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a scene more
+like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of a lava flow
+before it cools and cakes over than any other contemporary scene.  No
+water would be visible because all the water there was would still be
+superheated steam in a stormy atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic
+vapours.  Beneath this would swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock
+substance.  Across a sky of fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun
+and moon would sweep swiftly like hot breaths of flame.
+
+A DARK NEBULA
+A DARK NEBULA
+_Taken in 1920 with the aid of the largest telescope in the world. One
+of the first photographs taken by the Mount Wilson telescope._
+
+There are dark nebulæ and bright nebulæ.  Prof. Henry Norris Russell,
+against the British theory, holds that the dark nebulæ preceded the
+bright nebulæ.
+
+_Photo: Prof. Hale_
+
+
+Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, this fiery
+scene would lose its eruptive incandescence.  The vapours in the sky
+would rain down and become less dense overhead; great slaggy cakes of
+solidifying rock would appear upon the surface of the molten sea, and
+sink under it, to be replaced by other floating masses.  The sun and
+moon growing now each more distant and each smaller, would rush with
+diminishing swiftness across the heavens. The moon now, because of its
+smaller size, would be already cooled far below incandescence, and
+would be alternately obstructing and reflecting the sunlight in a
+series of eclipses and full moons.
+
+
+ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA
+ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA
+
+_Photo: G. W. Ritchey_
+
+And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time, the
+earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we live, until
+at last an age would come when, in the cooling air, steam would begin
+to condense into clouds, and the first rain would fall hissing upon the
+first rocks below.  For endless millenia the greater part of the
+earth’s water would still be vaporized in the atmosphere, but there
+would now be hot streams running over the crystallizing rocks below and
+pools and lakes into which these streams would be carrying detritus and
+depositing sediment.
+
+
+LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE
+LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE
+“Great lava-like masses of rock without traces of soil”
+
+
+At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a man
+might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived. If we
+could have visited the earth at that time we should have stood on great
+lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil or touch of living
+vegetation, under a storm-rent sky.  Hot and violent winds, exceeding
+the fiercest tornado that ever blows, and downpours of rain such as our
+milder, slower earth to-day knows nothing of, might have assailed us. 
+The water of the downpour would have rushed by us, muddy with the
+spoils of the rocks, coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges
+and canyons as they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the
+earliest seas.  Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great sun
+moving visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake of the
+moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and upheaval. And
+
+the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to earth, would then
+have been rotating visibly and showing the side it now hides so
+inexorably.
+
+The earth aged.  One million years followed another, and the day
+lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon’s pace in
+the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm diminished and the
+water in the first seas increased and ran together into the ocean
+garment our planet henceforth wore.
+
+But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were lifeless,
+and the rocks were barren.
+
+
+
+
+III
+THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE
+
+
+As everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life before
+the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived from the
+markings and fossils of living things in the stratified rocks. We find
+preserved in shale and slate, limestone, and sandstone, bones, shells,
+fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks, scratchings and the like, side by
+side with the ripple marks of the earliest tides and the pittings of
+the earliest rain-falls. It is by the sedulous examination of this
+Record of the Rocks that the past history of the earth’s life has been
+pieced together.  That much nearly everybody knows to-day.  The
+sedimentary rocks do not lie neatly stratum above stratum; they have
+been crumpled, bent, thrust about, distorted and mixed together like
+the leaves of a library that has been repeatedly looted and burnt, and
+it is only as a result of many devoted lifetimes of work that the
+record has been put into order and read.  The whole compass of time
+represented by the record of the rocks is now estimated as
+1,600,000,000 years.
+
+The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the Azoic
+rocks, because they show no traces of life.  Great areas of these Azoic
+rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of such a thickness
+that geologists consider that they represent a period of at least half
+of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to the whole geological record. 
+Let me repeat this profoundly significant fact. Half the great interval
+of time since land and sea were first distinguishable on earth has left
+us no traces of life.  There are ripplings and rain marks still to be
+found in these rocks, but no marks nor vestiges of any living thing.
+
+MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD
+MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD
+1 and 8, Jellyfishes;  2, Hyolithes (swimming snail);  3, Humenocaris; 
+4, Protospongia; 5, Lampshells (Obolella);  6, Orthoceras;  7,
+Trilobite (Paradoxides) — see fossil on page 13; 9, Coral
+(Archæocyathus);  10, Bryograptus;  11, Trilobite (Olenellus); 12,
+Palesterina
+
+
+Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and increase.
+ The age of the world’s history in which we find these past traces is
+called by geologists the Lower Palæozoic age. The first indications
+that life was astir are vestiges of comparatively simple and lowly
+things: the shells of small shellfish, the stems and flowerlike heads
+of zoophytes, seaweeds and the tracks and remains of sea worms and
+crustacea.  Very early appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice,
+crawling creatures which could roll themselves up into balls as the
+plant-lice do, the trilobites.  Later by a few million years or so come
+certain sea scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures than the
+world had ever seen before.
+
+
+FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)
+FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY MAGNIFIED)
+_Photo: John J. Ward, F.E.S._
+
+
+None of these creatures were of very great size.  Among the largest
+were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine feet in length. 
+There are no signs whatever of land life of any sort, plant or animal;
+there are no fishes nor any vertebrated creatures in this part of the
+record.  Essentially all the plants and creatures which have left us
+their traces from this period of the earth’s history are shallow-water
+and intertidal beings.  If we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of
+the Lower Palæozoic rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best,
+except in the matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock
+pool or scummy ditch and examining it under a microscope.  The little
+crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and algæ we should find
+there would display a quite striking resemblance to these clumsier,
+larger prototypes that once were the crown of life upon our planet.
+
+
+EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF LINGULA
+EARLY PALÆOLITHIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF LINGULA
+
+Species of this most ancient genus of shellfish still live to-day
+
+_(In Natural History Museum, London)_
+
+
+It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Palæozoic rocks
+probably do not give us anything at all representative of the first
+beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has bones or other
+hard parts, unless it wears a shell or is big enough and heavy enough
+to make characteristic footprints and trails in mud, it is unlikely to
+leave any fossilized traces of its existence behind.  To-day there are
+hundreds of thousands of species of small soft-bodied creatures in our
+world which it is inconceivable can ever leave any mark for future
+geologists to discover.  In the world’s past, millions of millions of
+species of such creatures may have lived and multiplied and flourished
+and passed away without a trace remaining.  The waters of the warm and
+shallow lakes and seas of the so-called Azoic period may have teemed
+with an infinite variety of lowly, jelly-like, shell-less and boneless
+creatures, and a multitude of green scummy plants may have spread over
+the sunlit intertidal rocks and beaches.  The Record of the Rocks is no
+more a complete record of life in the past than the books of a bank are
+a record of the existence of everybody in the neighbourhood.  It is
+only when a species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a
+carapace or a lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the
+future, that it goes upon the Record.  But in rocks of an age prior to
+those which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncombined
+carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it may
+have been separated out from combination through the vital activities
+of unknown living things.
+
+
+ FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM
+FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM
+
+_(In Natural History Museum, London)_
+
+
+
+
+IV
+THE AGE OF FISHES
+
+
+In the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a few
+thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of plants
+and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created exactly as
+they are to-day, each species by itself.  But as men began to discover
+and study the Record of the Rocks this belief gave place to the
+suspicion that many species had changed and developed slowly through
+the course of ages, and this again expanded into a belief in what is
+called Organic Evolution, a belief that all species of life upon earth,
+animal and vegetable alike, are descended by slow continuous processes
+of change from some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost
+structureless living substance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas.
+
+This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age of the
+earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter controversy. 
+There was a time when a belief in organic evolution was for rather
+obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with sound Christian,
+Jewish and Moslem doctrine.  That time has passed, and the men of the
+most orthodox Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and Mohammedan belief are
+now free to accept this newer and broader view of a common origin of
+all living things.  No life seems to have happened suddenly upon earth.
+ Life grew and grows.  Age by age through gulfs of time at which
+imagination reels, life has been growing from a mere stirring in the
+intertidal slime towards freedom, power and consciousness.
+
+Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite things,
+they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the limitless and
+motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they have two
+characteristics no dead matter possesses.  They can assimilate other
+matter into themselves and make it part of themselves, and they can
+reproduce themselves.  They eat and they breed.  They can give rise to
+other individuals, for the most part like themselves, but always also a
+little different from themselves.  There is a specific and family
+resemblance between an individual and its offspring, and there is an
+individual difference between every parent and every offspring it
+produces, and this is true in every species and at every stage of life.
+
+
+SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION SHOWING BODY ARMOUR
+SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION SHOWING BODY ARMOUR
+
+
+Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why offspring
+should resemble nor why they should differ from their parents.  But
+seeing that offspring do at once resemble and differ, it is a matter
+rather of common sense than of scientific knowledge that, if the
+conditions under which a species live are changed, the species should
+undergo some correlated changes.  Because in any generation of the
+species there must be a number of individuals whose individual
+differences make them better adapted to the new conditions under which
+the species has to live, and a number whose individuals whose
+individual differences make it rather harder for them to live.  And on
+the whole the former sort will live longer, bear more offspring, and
+reproduce themselves more abundantly than the latter, and so generation
+by generation the average of the species will change in the favourable
+direction.  This process, which is called Natural Selection, is not so
+much a scientific theory as a necessary deduction from the facts of
+reproduction and individual difference.  There may be many forces at
+work varying, destroying and preserving species, about which science
+may still be unaware or undecided, but the man who can deny the
+operation of this process of natural selection upon life since its
+beginning must be either ignorant of the elementary facts of life or
+incapable of ordinary thought.
+
+Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of life
+and their speculations are often of great interest, but there is
+absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of the way
+in which life began.  But nearly all authorities are agreed that it
+probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit shallow brackish water,
+and that it spread up the beaches to the intertidal lines and out to
+the open waters.
+
+
+FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK
+FOSSIL OF THE CLADOSELACHE, A DEVONIAN SHARK
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+That early world was a world of strong tides and currents.  An
+incessant destruction of individuals must have been going on through
+their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their being swept out
+to sea and sinking down out of reach of air and sun.  Early conditions
+favoured the development of every tendency to root and hold on, every
+tendency to form an outer skin and casing to protect the stranded
+individual from immediate desiccation.  From the very earliest any
+tendency to sensitiveness to taste would turn the individual in the
+direction of food, and any sensitiveness to light would assist it to
+struggle back out of the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to
+wriggle back out of the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows.
+
+Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were
+protections against drying rather than against active enemies. But
+tooth and claw come early into our earthly history.
+
+We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions.  For
+long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. Then in a
+division of these Palæozoic rocks called the Silurian division, which
+many geologists now suppose to be as old as five hundred million years,
+there appears a new type of being, equipped with eyes and teeth and
+swimming powers of an altogether more powerful kind.  These were the
+first known backboned animals, the earliest fishes, the first known
+Vertebrata.
+
+
+SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD
+SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERIOD
+
+_By Alice Woodward_
+
+
+These fishes increase greatly in the next division of rocks, the rocks
+known as the Devonian system.  They are so prevalent that this period
+of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of Fishes.  Fishes
+of a pattern now gone from the earth, and fishes allied to the sharks
+and sturgeons of to-day, rushed through the waters, leapt in the air,
+browsed among the seaweeds, pursued and preyed upon one another, and
+gave a new liveliness to the waters of the world. None of these were
+excessively big by our present standards.  Few of them were more than
+two or three feet long, but there were exceptional forms which were as
+long as twenty feet.
+
+We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes.  They do
+not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded them.
+Zoologists have the most interesting views of their ancestry, but these
+they derive from the study of the development of the eggs of their
+still living relations, and from other sources.  Apparently the
+ancestors of the vertebrata were soft-bodied and perhaps quite small
+swimming creatures who began first to develop hard parts as teeth round
+and about their mouths.  The teeth of a skate or dogfish cover the roof
+and floor of its mouth and pass at the lip into the flattened toothlike
+scales that encase most of its body. As the fishes develop these teeth
+scales in the geological record, they swim out of the hidden darkness
+of the past into the light, the first vertebrated animals visible in
+the record.
+
+
+
+
+V
+THE AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS
+
+
+The land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless. Crags
+and uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain. There was no
+real soil—for as yet there were no earthworms which help to make a
+soil, and no plants to break up the rock particles into mould; there
+was no trace of moss or lichen. Life was still only in the sea.
+
+Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate. The
+causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they have
+still to be properly estimated.  The changing shape of the earth’s
+orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation, changes in the
+shapes of the continents, probably even fluctuations in the warmth of
+the sun, now conspired to plunge great areas of the earth’s surface
+into long periods of cold and ice and now again for millions of years
+spread a warm or equable climate over this planet.  There seem to have
+been phases of great internal activity in the world’s history, when in
+the course of a few million years accumulated upthrusts would break out
+in lines of volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain
+and continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea
+and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of
+climate.  And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative
+quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the mountain
+heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise the sea
+bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider, over more and
+more of the land.  There have been “high and deep” ages in the world’s
+history and “low and level” ages.  The reader must dismiss from his
+mind any idea that the surface of the earth has been growing steadily
+cooler since its crust grew solid.  After that much cooling had been
+achieved, the internal temperature ceased to affect surface conditions.
+There are traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of “Glacial
+Ages,” that is, even in the Azoic period.
+
+It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of
+extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in any
+effectual way from the waters on to the land.  No doubt the earlier
+types of the forms that now begin to appear in great abundance had
+already been developing in a rare and obscure manner for many scores of
+millions of years.  But now came their opportunity.
+
+
+A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP
+A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP
+
+_A Coal Seam in the Making_
+
+
+Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the land, but
+the animals probably followed up the plant emigration very closely. The
+first problem that the plant had to solve was the problem of some
+sustaining stiff support to hold up its fronds to the sunlight when the
+buoyant water was withdrawn; the second was the problem of getting
+water from the swampy ground below to the tissues of the plant, now
+that it was no longer close at hand.  The two problems were solved by
+the development of woody tissue which both sustained the plant and
+acted as water carrier to the leaves.  The Record of the Rocks is
+suddenly crowded by a vast variety of woody swamp plants, many of them
+of great size, big tree mosses, tree ferns, gigantic horsetails and the
+like.  And with these, age by age, there crawled out of the water a
+great variety of animal forms. There were centipedes and millipedes;
+there were the first primitive insects; there were creatures related to
+the ancient king crabs and sea scorpions which became the earliest
+spiders and land scorpions, and presently there were vertebrated
+animals.
+
+
+SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS
+SKULL OF A LABYRINTHODONT, CAPITOSAURUS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon flies in
+this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine inches.
+
+In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves to
+breathing air.  Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved in
+water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do. But now in
+divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the power of supplying
+its own moisture where it was needed.  A man with a perfectly dry lung
+would suffocate to-day; his lung surfaces must be moist in order that
+air may pass through them into his blood.  The adaptation to air
+breathing consists in all cases either in the development of a cover to
+the old-fashioned gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of
+tubes or other new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and
+moistened by a watery secretion.  The old gills with which the
+ancestral fish of the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to
+breathing upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal
+kingdom it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new,
+deep-seated breathing organ, the lung.  The kind of animals known as
+amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin their lives in the water
+and breathe by gills; and subsequently the lung, developing in the same
+way as the swimming bladder of many fishes do, as a baglike outgrowth
+from the throat, takes over the business of breathing, the animal comes
+out on land, and the gills dwindle and the gill slits disappear.  (All
+except an outgrowth of one gill slit, which becomes the passage of the
+ear and ear-drum.)  The animal can now live only in the air, but it
+must return at least to the edge of the water to lay its eggs and
+reproduce its kind.
+
+
+SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS
+SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and plants
+belonged to the class amphibia.  They were nearly all of them forms
+related to the newts of to-day, and some of them attained a
+considerable size.  They were land animals, it is true, but they were
+land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy places, and
+all the great trees of this period were equally amphibious in their
+habits.  None of them had yet developed fruits and seeds of a kind that
+could fall on land and develop with the help only of such moisture as
+dew and rain could bring.  They all had to shed their spores in water,
+it would seem, if they were to germinate.
+
+It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful science,
+comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful adaptations of
+living things to the necessities of existence in air.  All living
+things, plants and animals alike, are primarily water things.  For
+example all the higher vertebrated animals above the fishes, up to and
+including man, pass through a stage in their development in the egg or
+before birth in which they have gill slits which are obliterated before
+the young emerge.  The bare, water-washed eye of the fish is protected
+in the higher forms from drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete
+moisture.  The weaker sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum. 
+In nearly every organ of the body similar modifications and adaptations
+are to be detected, similar patchings-up to meet aerial conditions.
+
+This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of life in
+the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these waters. Thus
+far life had now extended.  The hills and high lands were still quite
+barren and lifeless.  Life had learnt to breathe air indeed, but it
+still had its roots in its native water; it still had to return to the
+water to reproduce its kind.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+THE AGE OF REPTILES
+
+
+The abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a vast
+cycle of dry and bitter ages.  They are represented in the Record of
+the Rocks by thick deposits of sandstones and the like, in which
+fossils are comparatively few. The temperature of the world fluctuated
+widely, and there were long periods of glacial cold. Over great areas
+the former profusion of swamp vegetation ceased, and, overlaid by these
+newer deposits, it began that process of compression and mineralization
+that gave the world most of the coal deposits of to-day.
+
+But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most rapid
+modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest lessons. 
+As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again we find a new
+series of animal and plant forms established,  We find in the record
+the remains of vertebrated animals that laid eggs which, instead of
+hatching out tadpoles which needed to live for a time in water, carried
+on their development before hatching to a stage so nearly like the
+adult form that the young could live in air from the first moment of
+independent existence.  Gills had been cut out altogether, and the gill
+slits only appeared as an embryonic phase.
+
+These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles.
+Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees, which
+could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes. There were
+now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though as yet there
+were no flowering plants and no grasses.  There was a great number of
+ferns.  And there was now also an increased variety of insects.  There
+were beetles, though bees and butterflies had yet to come.  But all the
+fundamental forms of a new real land fauna and flora had been laid down
+during these vast ages of severity.  This new land life needed only the
+opportunity of favourable conditions to flourish and prevail.
+
+
+A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD
+A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD
+
+Found in the Lower Lias in Somersetshire
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came.  The
+still incalculable movements of the earth’s crust, the changes in its
+orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual inclination of orbit
+and pole, worked together to produce a great spell of widely diffused
+warm conditions.  The period lasted altogether, it is now supposed,
+upwards of two hundred million years.  It is called the Mesozoic
+period, to distinguish it from the altogether vaster Palæozoic and
+Azoic periods (together fourteen hundred millions) that preceded it,
+and from the Cainozoic or new life period that intervened between its
+close and the present time, and it is also called the Age of Reptiles
+because of the astonishing predominance and variety of this form of
+life.  It came to an end some eighty million  years ago.
+
+In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few and
+their distribution is very limited.  They are more various, it is true,
+than are the few surviving members of the order of the amphibia which
+once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world.  We still have the
+snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the Chelonia), the alligators and
+crocodiles, and the lizards.  Without exception they are creatures
+requiring warmth all the year round; they cannot stand exposure to
+cold, and it is probable that all the reptilian beings of the Mesozoic
+suffered under the same limitation.  It was a hothouse fauna, living
+amidst a hothouse flora.  It endured no frosts.  But the world had at
+least attained a real dry land fauna and flora as distinguished from
+the mud and swamp fauna and flora of the previous heyday of life upon
+earth.
+
+
+A PTERODACTYL
+A PTERODACTYL
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly
+represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and many
+lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of series of
+wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether from the earth. 
+There was a vast variety of beings called the Dinosaurs. Vegetation was
+now spreading over the lower levels of the world, reeds, brakes of fern
+and the like; and browsing upon this abundance came a multitude of
+herbivorous reptiles, which increased in size as the Mesozoic period
+rose to its climax.  Some of these beasts exceeded in size any other
+land animals that have ever lived; they were as large as whales.  The
+_Diplodocus Carnegii_ for example measured eighty-four feet from snout
+to tail; the Gigantosaurus was even greater; it measured a hundred
+feet.  Living upon these monsters was a swarm of carnivorous Dinosaurs
+of a corresponding size.  One of these, the Tyrannosaurus, is figured
+and described in many books as the last word in reptilian
+frightfulness.
+
+
+A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM
+SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP
+A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM
+SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds and
+evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now vanished tribe of
+reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs, pursued
+insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and presently flew
+amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees.  These were the
+Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures with backbones;
+they mark a new achievement in the growing powers of vertebrated life.
+
+Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters. Three
+groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which their
+ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and Ichthyosaurs. 
+Some of these again approached the proportions of our present whales. 
+The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite seagoing creatures, but the
+Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that has no cognate form to-day.  The
+body was stout and big with paddles, adapted either for swimming or
+crawling through marshes, or along the bottom of shallow waters.  The
+comparatively small head was poised on a vast snake of neck, altogether
+outdoing the neck of the swan. Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched
+for food under the water and fed as the swan will do, or it lurked
+under water and snatched at passing fish or beast.
+
+Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age.  It was
+by our human standards an advance upon anything that had preceded it. 
+It had produced land animals greater in size, range, power and
+activity, more “vital” as people say, than anything the world had seen
+before.  In the seas there had been no such advance but a great
+proliferation of new forms of life.  An enormous variety of squid-like
+creatures with chambered shells, for the most part coiled, had appeared
+in the shallow seas, the Ammonites.  They had had predecessors in the
+Palæozoic seas, but now was their age of glory.  To-day they have left
+no survivors at all; their nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an
+inhabitant of tropical waters.  And a new and more prolific type of
+fish with lighter, finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like
+coverings that had hitherto prevailed, became and has since remained
+predominant in the seas and rivers.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+THE FIRST BIRDS AND THE FIRST MAMMALS
+
+
+In a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming
+reptiles of that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period, has
+been sketched.  But while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot selvas
+and marshy plains and the Pterodactyls filled the forests with their
+flutterings and possibly with shrieks and croakings as they pursued the
+humming insect life of the still flowerless shrubs and trees, some less
+conspicuous and less abundant forms upon the margins of this abounding
+life were acquiring certain powers and learning certain lessons of
+endurance, that were to be of the utmost value to their race when at
+last the smiling generosity of sun and earth began to fade.
+
+A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures of
+the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and the
+pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of extinction or
+adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills or by the sea.
+Among these distressed tribes there was developed a new type of
+scale—scales that were elongated into quill-like forms and that
+presently branched into the crude beginnings of feathers. These
+quill-like scales layover one another and formed a heat-retaining
+covering more efficient than any reptilian covering that had hitherto
+existed.  So they permitted an invasion of colder regions that were
+otherwise uninhabited.  Perhaps simultaneously with these changes there
+arose in these creatures a greater solicitude for their eggs.  Most
+reptiles are apparently quite careless about their eggs, which are left
+for sun and season to hatch.  But some of the varieties upon this new
+branch of the tree of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their
+eggs and keeping them warm with the warmth of their bodies.
+
+With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications were going
+on that made these creatures, the primitive birds, warm-blooded and
+independent of basking.  The very earliest birds seem to have been
+seabirds living upon fish, and their fore limbs were not wings but
+paddles rather after the penguin type.  That peculiarly primitive bird,
+the New Zealand Ki-Wi, has feathers of a very simple sort, and neither
+flies nor appears to be descended from flying ancestors.  In the
+development of the birds, feathers came before wings.  But once the
+feather was developed the possibility of making a light spread of
+feathers led inevitably to the wing.  We know of the fossil remains of
+one bird at least which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long
+reptilian tail, but which also had a true bird’s wing and which
+certainly flew and held its own among the pterodactyls of the Mesozoic
+time.  Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant in Mesozoic
+times.  If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic country, he might
+walk for days and never see or hear such a thing as a bird, though he
+would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and insects among the
+fronds and reeds.
+
+
+FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS
+FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be any
+sign of a mammal.  Probably the first mammals were in existence
+millions of years before the first thing one could call a bird, but
+they were altogether too small and obscure and remote for attention.
+
+
+HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS
+HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS
+
+
+The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were creatures driven by
+competition and pursuit into a life of hardship and adaptation to cold.
+ With them also the scale became quill-like, and was developed into a
+heat-retaining covering; and they too underwent modifications, similar
+in kind though different in detail, to become warm-blooded and
+independent of basking.  Instead of feathers they developed hairs, and
+instead of guarding and incubating their eggs they kept them warm and
+safe by retaining them inside their bodies until they were almost
+mature.  Most of them became altogether vivaparous and brought their
+young into the world alive.  And even after their young were born they
+tended to maintain a protective and nutritive association with them. 
+Most but not all mammals to-day have mammæ and suckle their young.  Two
+mammals still live which lay eggs and which have not proper mammæ,
+though they nourish their young by a nutritive secretion of the under
+skin; these are the duck-billed platypus and the echidna.  The echidna
+lays leathery eggs and then puts them into a pouch under its belly, and
+so carries them about warm and safe until they hatch.
+
+But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched for
+days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew exactly where
+to go and look, he might have searched in vain for any traces of a
+mammal.  Both birds and mammals would have seemed very eccentric and
+secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic times.
+
+
+THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND
+THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND
+_Photo: Autotype Fine Art Co._
+
+SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL
+SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL
+Discovered in Greece; it is rich in fossilized bones of early mammals
+
+
+The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million years.
+Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world through that
+inconceivable length of time, how safe and eternal the sunshine and
+abundance must have seemed, how assured the wallowing prosperity of the
+dinosaurs and the flapping abundance of the flying lizards! And then
+the mysterious rhythms and accumulating forces of the universe began to
+turn against that quasi-eternal stability.  That run of luck for life
+was running out.  Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of years,
+with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change towards hardship
+and extreme conditions, came great alterations of level and great
+redistributions of mountain and sea.  We find one thing in the Record
+of the Rocks during the decadence of the long Mesozoic age of
+prosperity that is very significant of steadily sustained changes of
+condition, and that is a violent fluctuation of living forms and the
+appearance of new and strange species. Under the gathering threat of
+extinction the older orders and genera are displaying their utmost
+capacity for variation and adaptation.  The Ammonites for example in
+these last pages of the Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of
+fantastic forms.  Under settled conditions there is no encouragement
+for novelties; they do not develop, they are suppressed; what is best
+adapted is already there.  Under novel conditions it is the ordinary
+type that suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to
+survive and establish itself....
+
+There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may represent
+several million years.  There is a veil here still, over even the
+outline of the history of life.  When it lifts again, the Age of
+Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and Ichthyosaurs,
+the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species of Ammonite have
+all gone absolutely.  In all their stupendous variety they have died
+out and left no descendants.  The cold has killed them.  All their
+final variations were insufficient; they had never hit upon survival
+conditions.  The world had passed through a phase of extreme conditions
+beyond their powers of endurance, a slow and complete massacre of
+Mesozoic life has occurred, and we find now a new scene, a new and
+hardier flora, and a new and hardier fauna in possession of the world.
+
+It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new volume
+of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical conifers have given
+place very largely to trees that shed their leaves to avoid destruction
+by the snows of winter and to flowering plants and shrubs, and where
+there was formerly a profusion of reptiles, an increasing variety of
+birds and mammals is entering into their inheritance.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+THE AGE OF MAMMALS
+
+
+The opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the
+Cainozoic period, was a period of upheaval and extreme volcanic
+activity. Now it was that the vast masses of the Alps and Himalayas and
+the mountain backbone of the Rockies and Andes were thrust up, and that
+the rude outlines of our present oceans and continents appeared. The
+map of the world begins to display a first dim resemblance to the map
+of to-day. It is estimated now that between forty and eighty million
+years have elapsed from the beginnings of the Cainozoic period to the
+present time.
+
+At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the world was
+austere.  It grew generally warmer until a fresh phase of great
+abundance was reached, after which conditions grew hard again and the
+earth passed into a series of extremely cold cycles, the Glacial Ages,
+from which apparently it is now slowly emerging.
+
+But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic change at
+present to forecast the possible fluctuations of climatic conditions
+that lie before us.  We may be moving towards increasing sunshine or
+lapsing towards another glacial age; volcanic activity and the upheaval
+of mountain masses may be increasing or diminishing; we do not know; we
+lack sufficient science.
+
+With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the first time
+there is pasture in the world; and with the full development of the
+once obscure mammalian type, appear a number of interesting grazing
+animals and of carnivorous types which prey upon these.
+
+At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few characters
+from the great herbivorous and carnivorous reptiles that ages before
+had flourished and then vanished from the earth.  A careless observer
+might suppose that in this second long age of warmth and plenty that
+was now beginning, nature was merely repeating the first, with
+herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to parallel the herbivorous and
+carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds replacing pterodactyls and so on. 
+But this would be an altogether superficial comparison.  The variety of
+the universe is infinite and incessant; it progresses eternally;
+history never repeats itself and no parallels are precisely true. The
+differences between the life of the Cainozoic and Mesozoic periods are
+far profounder than the resemblances.
+
+
+A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD
+A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD
+
+The Titanotherum (Brontops) Robustum
+
+
+The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the mental life
+of the two periods.  It arises essentially out of the continuing
+contact of parent and offspring which distinguishes mammalian and in a
+lesser degree bird life, from the life of the reptile.  With very few
+exceptions the reptile abandons its egg to hatch alone.  The young
+reptile has no knowledge whatever of its parent; its mental life, such
+as it is, begins and ends with its own experiences. It may tolerate the
+existence of its fellows but it has no communication with them; it
+never imitates, never learns from them, is incapable of concerted
+action with them.  Its life is that of an isolated individual.  But
+with the suckling and cherishing of young which was distinctive of the
+new mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning by
+imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other concerted
+action, of mutual control and instruction.  A teachable type of life
+had come into the world.
+
+The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little superior in
+brain size to the more active carnivorous dinosaurs, but as we read on
+through the record towards modern times we find, in every tribe and
+race of the mammalian animals, a steady universal increase in brain
+capacity.  For instance we find at a comparatively early stage that
+rhinoceros-like beasts appear.  There is a creature, the Titanotherium,
+which lived in the earliest division of this period.  It was probably
+very like a modern rhinoceros in its habits and needs.  But its brain
+capacity was not one tenth that of its living successor.
+
+The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as soon as
+suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual understanding has
+arisen, the advantages of continuing the association are very great;
+and we presently find a number of mammalian species displaying the
+beginnings of a true social life and keeping together in herds, packs
+and flocks, watching each other, imitating each other, taking warning
+from each other’s acts and cries.  This is something that the world had
+not seen before among vertebrated animals. Reptiles and fish may no
+doubt be found in swarms and shoals; they have been hatched in
+quantities and similar conditions have kept them together, but in the
+case of the social and gregarious mammals the association arises not
+simply from a community of external forces, it is sustained by an inner
+impulse.  They are not merely like one another and so found in the same
+places at the same times; they like one another and so they keep
+together.
+
+
+STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI--A GIRAFFE-CAMEL
+STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI—A GIRAFFE-CAMEL
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS—EARLY HORSE
+SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS--EARLY HORSE
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+This difference between the reptile world and the world of our human
+minds is one our sympathies seem unable to pass. We cannot conceive in
+ourselves the swift uncomplicated urgency of a reptile’s instinctive
+motives, its appetites, fears and hates.  We cannot understand them in
+their simplicity because all our motives are complicated; our’s are
+balances and resultants and not simple urgencies.  But the mammals and
+birds have self-restraint and consideration for other individuals, a
+social appeal, a self- control that is, at its lower level, after our
+own fashion. We can in consequence establish relations with almost all
+sorts of them.  When they suffer they utter cries and make movements
+that rouse our feelings.  We can make understanding pets of them with a
+mutual recognition.  They can be tamed to self-restraint towards us,
+domesticated and taught.
+
+
+COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS
+COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+
+That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of Cainozoic
+times marks a new communication and interdependence of individuals.  It
+foreshadows the development of human societies of which we shall soon
+be telling.
+
+As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its flora and
+fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the world to-day
+increased.  The big clumsy Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the
+Entelodonts and Hyracodons, big clumsy brutes like nothing living,
+disappeared.  On the other hand a series of forms led up by steady
+degrees from grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes, camels,
+horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the existing
+world.  The evolution of the horse is particularly legible upon the
+geological record.  We have a fairly complete series of forms from a
+small tapir-like ancestor in the early Cainozoic.  Another line of
+development that has now been pieced together with some precision is
+that of the llamas and camels.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+MONKEYS, APES AND SUB-MEN
+
+
+Naturalists divide the class _Mammalia_ into a number of orders. At the
+head of these is the order _Primates_, which includes the lemurs, the
+monkeys, apes and man. Their classification was based originally upon
+anatomical resemblances and took no account of any mental qualities.
+
+Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to decipher
+in the geological record.  They are for the most part animals which
+live in forests like the lemurs and monkeys or in bare rocky places
+like the baboons.  They are rarely drowned and covered up by sediment,
+nor are most of them very numerous species, and so they do not figure
+so largely among the fossils as the ancestors of the horses, camels and
+so forth do.  But we know that quite early in the Cainozoic period,
+that is to say some forty million years ago or so, primitive monkeys
+and lemuroid creatures had appeared, poorer in brain and not so
+specialized as their later successors.
+
+The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at last to
+an end.  It was to follow those other two great summers in the history
+of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps and the vast summer of the Age
+of Reptiles.  Once more the earth spun towards an ice age.  The world
+chilled, grew milder for a time and chilled again.  In the warm past
+hippopotami had wallowed through a lush sub-tropical vegetation, and a
+tremendous tiger with fangs like sabres, the sabre-toothed tiger, had
+hunted its prey where now the journalists of Fleet Street go to and
+fro.  Now came a bleaker age and still bleaker ages.  A great weeding
+and extinction of species occurred.  A woolly rhinoceros, adapted to a
+cold climate, and the mammoth, a big woolly cousin of the elephants,
+the Arctic musk ox and the reindeer passed across the scene.  Then
+century by century the Arctic ice cap, the wintry death of the great
+Ice Age, crept southward.  In England it came almost down to the
+Thames, in America it reached Ohio.  There would be warmer spells of a
+few thousand years and relapses towards a bitterer cold.
+
+Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second, Third and
+Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as Interglacial periods.  We
+live to-day in a world that is still impoverished and scarred by that
+terrible winter.  The First Glacial Age was coming on 600,000 years
+ago; the Fourth Glacial Age reached its bitterest some fifty thousand
+years ago.  And it was amidst the snows of this long universal winter
+that the first man-like beings lived upon our planet.
+
+A MAMMOTH
+A MAMMOTH
+
+By the middle Cainozoic period there have appeared various apes with
+many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg bones, but it is only
+as we approach these Glacial Ages that we find traces of creatures that
+we can speak of as “almost human.”  These traces are not bones but
+implements.  In Europe, in deposits of this period, between half a
+million and a million years old, we find flints and stones that have
+evidently been chipped intentionally by some handy creature desirous of
+hammering, scraping or fighting with the sharpened edge.  These things
+have been called “Eoliths” (dawn stones).  In Europe there are no bones
+nor other remains of the creature which made these objects, simply the
+objects themselves.  For all the certainty we have it may have been
+some entirely un-human but intelligent monkey.  But at Trinil in Java,
+in accumulations of this age, a piece of a skull and various teeth and
+bones have been found of a sort of ape man, with a brain case bigger
+than that of any living apes, which seems to have walked erect.  This
+creature is now called _Pithecanthropus erectus_, the walking ape man,
+and the little trayful of its bones is the only help our imaginations
+have as yet in figuring to, ourselves the makers of the Eoliths.
+
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION
+FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN PILTDOWN REGION
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of a million
+years old that we find any other particle of a sub- human being.  But
+there are plenty of implements, and they are steadily improving in
+quality as we read on through the record.  They are no longer clumsy
+Eoliths; they are now shapely instruments made with considerable skill.
+ _And they are much bigger than the similar implements afterwards made
+by true man._  Then, in a sandpit at Heidelberg, appears a single
+quasi-human jaw-bone, a clumsy jaw-bone, absolutely chinless, far
+heavier than a true human jaw-bone and narrower, so that it is
+improbable the creature’s tongue could have moved about for articulate
+speech.  On the strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this
+creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly with huge
+limbs and hands, possibly with a thick felt of hair, and they call it
+the Heidelberg Man.
+
+A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT
+A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT
+
+This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in the
+world to our human curiosity.  To see it is like looking through a
+defective glass into the past and catching just one blurred and
+tantalizing glimpse of this Thing, shambling through the bleak
+wilderness, clambering to avoid the sabre- toothed tiger, watching the
+woolly rhinoceros in the woods. Then before we can scrutinize the
+monster, he vanishes.  Yet the soil is littered abundantly with the
+indestructible implements he chipped out for his uses.
+
+THE HEIDELBERG MAN
+THE HEIDELBERG MAN
+
+The Heidelberg Man, as modelled under the supervision of Prof. Rutot
+
+Still more fascinatingly enigmatical are the remains of a creature
+found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may indicate an age
+between a hundred and a hundred and fifty thousand years ago, though
+some authorities would put these particular remains back in time to
+before the Heidelberg jaw- bone. Here there are the remains of a thick
+sub-human skull much larger than any existing ape’s, and a
+chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong to it, and, in
+addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone evidently carefully
+manufactured, through which a hole had apparently been bored.  There is
+also the thigh-bone of a deer with cuts upon it like a tally.  That is
+all.
+
+THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT
+THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored holes in
+bones?
+
+Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, the Dawn Man.  He stands
+apart from his kindred; a very different being either from the
+Heidelberg creature or from any living ape.  No other vestige like him
+is known.  But the gravels and deposits of from one hundred thousand
+years onward are increasingly rich in implements of flint and similar
+stone. And these implements are no longer rude “Eoliths.” The
+archæologists are presently able to distinguish scrapers, borers,
+knives, darts, throwing stones and hand axes ....
+
+We are drawing very near to man.  In our next section we shall have to
+describe the strangest of all these precursors of humanity, the
+Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but not quite, true men.
+
+But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that no
+scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the Heidelberg Man
+or _Eoanthropus_, to be direct ancestors of the men of to-day.  These
+are, at the closest, related forms.
+
+
+
+
+X
+THE NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN
+
+
+About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the
+Fourth Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man that
+until a few years ago its remains were considered to be altogether
+human. We have skulls and bones of it and a great accumulation of the
+large implements it made and used. It made fires. It sheltered in caves
+from the cold. It probably dressed skins roughly and wore them. It was
+right-handed as men are.
+
+Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not true men. 
+They were of a different species of the same genus.  They had heavy
+protruding jaws and great brow ridges above the eyes and very low
+foreheads.  Their thumbs were not opposable to the fingers as men’s
+are; their necks were so poised that they could not turn back their
+heads and look up to the sky.  They probably slouched along, head down
+and forward.  Their chinless jaw-bones resemble the Heidelberg jaw-bone
+and are markedly unlike human jaw-bones.  And there were great
+differences from the human pattern in their teeth. Their cheek teeth
+were more complicated in structure than ours, more complicated and not
+less so; they had not the long fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these
+quasi-men had not the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human
+being. The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain was
+bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain. Their
+intellectual faculties were differently arranged.  They were not
+ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically they were upon a
+different line from the human line.
+
+Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at
+Neanderthal among other places, and from that place these strange
+proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or Neanderthalers. They
+must have endured in Europe for many hundreds or even thousands of
+years.
+
+THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT
+THE NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT
+
+At that time the climate and geography of our world was very different
+from what they are at the present time. Europe for example was covered
+with ice reaching as far south as the Thames and into Central Germany
+and Russia; there was no Channel separating Britain from France; the
+Mediterranean and the Red Sea were great valleys, with perhaps a chain
+of lakes in their deeper portions, and a great inland sea spread from
+the present Black Sea across South Russia and far into Central Asia. 
+Spain and all of Europe not actually under ice consisted of bleak
+uplands under a harder climate than that of Labrador, and it was only
+when North Africa was reached that one would have found a temperate
+climate.  Across the cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse
+arctic vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly mammoth,
+and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no doubt following the
+vegetation northward in spring and southward in autumn.
+
+Map: Possible Outline of Europe and Western Asia at the Maximum of the
+Fourth Ice Age (about 50,000 years ago)
+
+Such was the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered, gathering
+such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits and berries and
+roots.  Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian, chewing twigs and roots. 
+His level elaborate teeth suggest a largely vegetarian dietary.  But we
+also find the long marrow bones of great animals in his caves, cracked
+to extract the marrow.  His weapons could not have been of much avail
+in open conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he attacked
+them with spears at difficult river crossings and even constructed
+pitfalls for them.  Possibly he followed the herds and preyed upon any
+dead that were killed in fights, and perhaps he played the part of
+jackal to the sabre-toothed tiger which still survived in his day. 
+Possibly in the bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages this creature had
+taken to attacking animals after long ages of vegetarian adaptation.
+
+We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may have been
+very hairy and very unhuman-looking indeed.  It is even doubtful if he
+went erect.  He may have used his knuckles as well as his feet to hold
+himself up. Probably he went about alone or in small family groups.  It
+is inferred from the structure of his jaw that he was incapable of
+speech as we understand it.
+
+For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest animals
+that the European area had ever seen; and then some thirty or
+thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew warmer a race of
+kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing more, talking and
+co-operating together, came drifting into the Neanderthaler’s world
+from the south.  They ousted the Neanderthalers from their caves and
+squatting places; they hunted the same food; they probably made war
+upon their grisly predecessors and killed them off.  These newcomers
+from the south or the east—for at present we do not know their region
+of origin—who at last drove the Neanderthalers out of existence
+altogether, were beings of our own blood and kin, the first True Men. 
+Their brain-cases and thumbs and necks and teeth were anatomically the
+same as our own.  In a cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi, a
+number of skeletons have been found, the earliest truly human remains
+that are so far known.
+
+So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the story of
+mankind begins.
+
+COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL
+COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL
+
+_Nat. Hist. Mus._
+
+The world was growing liker our own in those days though the climate
+was still austere.  The glaciers of the Ice Age were receding in
+Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain presently gave way to great
+herds of horses as grass increased upon the steppes, and the mammoth
+became more and more rare in southern Europe and finally receded
+northward altogether ....
+
+We do not know where the True Men first originated.  But in the summer
+of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found together with pieces
+of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South Africa, which seems to be a relic
+of a third sort of man, intermediate in its characteristics between the
+Neanderthaler and the human being.  The brain-case indicates a brain
+bigger in front and smaller behind than the Neanderthaler’s, and the
+skull was poised erect upon the backbone in a quite human way.  The
+teeth also and the bones are quite human. But the face must have been
+ape-like with enormous brow ridges and a ridge along the middle of the
+skull.  The creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape-
+like, Neanderthaler face.  This Rhodesian Man is evidently still closer
+to real men than the Neanderthal Man.
+
+This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in the end may
+prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human species which lived on
+the earth in the vast interval of time between the beginnings of the
+Ice Age and the appearance of their common heir, and perhaps their
+common exterminator, the True Man.  The Rhodesian skull itself may not
+be very ancient.  Up to the time of publishing this book there has been
+no exact determination of its probable age. It may be that this
+sub-human creature survived in South Africa until quite recent times.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+THE FIRST TRUE MEN
+
+
+The earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a
+humanity which is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have been found
+in western Europe and particularly in France and Spain. Bones, weapons,
+scratchings upon bone and rock, carved fragments of bone, and paintings
+in caves and upon rock surfaces dating. it is supposed. from 30,000
+years ago or more, have been discovered in both these countries. Spain
+is at present the richest country in the world in these first relics of
+our real human ancestors.
+
+Of course our present collections of these things are the merest
+beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the future, when
+there are searchers enough to make a thorough examination of all
+possible sources and when other countries in the world, now
+inaccessible to archæologists, have been explored in some detail.  The
+greater part of Africa and Asia has never even been traversed yet by a
+trained observer interested in these matters and free to explore, and
+we must be very careful therefore not to conclude that the early true
+men were distinctively inhabitants of western Europe or that they first
+appeared in that region.
+
+In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day there may be
+richer and much earlier deposits of real human remains than anything
+that has yet come to light.  I write in Asia or Africa, and I do not
+mention America because so far there have been no finds at all of any
+of the higher Primates, either of great apes, sub-men, Neanderthalers
+nor early true men.  This development of life seems to have been an
+exclusively old world development, and it was only apparently at the
+end of the Old Stone Age that human beings first made their way across
+the land connexion that is now cut by Behring Straits, into the
+American continent.
+
+ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN
+ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN
+
+The Walls of the Caves are covered in these representations of Bulls,
+etc., painted in the soft tones of red shaded to black. They may be
+fifteen or twenty thousand years old
+
+These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already to
+have belonged to one or other of at least two very distinct races. One
+of these races was of a very high type indeed; it was tall and big
+brained.  One of the women’s skulls found exceeds in capacity that of
+the average man of to-day.  One of the men’s skeletons is over six feet
+in height.  The physical type resembled that of the North American
+Indian.  From the Cro-Magnon cave in which the first skeletons were
+found these people have been called Cro-Magnards.  They were savages,
+but savages of a high order. The second race, the race of the Grimaldi
+cave remains, was distinctly negroid in its characters.  Its nearest
+living affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of South Africa.  It
+is interesting to find at the very outset of the known human story,
+that mankind was already racially divided into at least two main
+varieties; and one is tempted to such unwarrantable guesses as that the
+former race was probably brownish rather than black and that it came
+from the East or North, and that the latter was blackish rather than
+brown and came from the equatorial south.
+
+BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD
+BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD
+
+(1 and 2) Mammoth tusk carved to shape of Reindeer, (3) Dagger Handle
+representing Mammoth, and (4) Bone engraved with Horses’ Heads
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+And these savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so human
+that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted themselves, carved
+images of bone and stone, scratched figures on rocks and bones, and
+painted rude but often very able sketches of beasts and the like upon
+the smooth walls of caves and upon inviting rock surfaces.  They made a
+great variety of implements, much smaller in scale and finer than those
+of the Neanderthal men.  We have now in our museums great quantities of
+their implements, their statuettes, their rock drawings and the like.
+
+The earliest of them were hunters.  Their chief pursuit was the wild
+horse, the little bearded pony of that time.  They followed it as it
+moved after pasture.  And also they followed the bison.  They knew the
+mammoth, because they have left us strikingly effective pictures of
+that creature.  To judge by one rather ambiguous drawing they trapped
+and killed it.
+
+They hunted with spears and throwing stones.  They do not seem to have
+had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet learnt to tame any
+animals.  They had no dogs.  There is one carving of a horse’s head and
+one or two drawings that suggest a bridled horse, with a twisted skin
+or tendon round it.  But the little horses of that age and region could
+not have carried a man, and if the horse was domesticated it was used
+as a led horse.  It is doubtful and improbable that they had yet learnt
+the rather unnatural use of animal’s milk as food.
+
+They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they may have had
+tents of skins, and though they made clay figures they never rose to
+the making of pottery.  Since they had no cooking implements their
+cookery must have been rudimentary or nonexistent.  They knew nothing
+of cultivation and nothing of any sort of basket work or woven cloth.
+Except for their robes of skin or fur they were naked painted savages.
+
+These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe for a
+hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and changed before a
+change of climate.  Europe, century by century, was growing milder and
+damper. Reindeer receded northward and eastward, and bison and horse
+followed.  The steppes gave way to forests, and red deer took the place
+of horse and bison. There is a change in the character of the
+implements with this change in their application.  River and lake
+fishing becomes of great importance to men, and fine implements of bone
+increased.  “The bone needles of this age,” says de Mortillet, “are
+much superior to those of later, even historical times, down to the
+Renaissance.  The Romans, for example, never had needles comparable to
+those of this epoch.”
+
+THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN
+THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN
+
+Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people drifted into
+the south of Spain, and left very remarkable drawings of themselves
+upon exposed rock faces there.  These were the Azilians (named from the
+Mas d’Azil cave). They had the bow; they seem to have worn feather
+headdresses; they drew vividly; but also they had reduced their
+drawings to a sort of symbolism—a man for instance would be represented
+by a vertical dab with two or three horizontal dabs—that suggest the
+dawn of the writing idea. Against hunting sketches there are often
+marks like tallies. One drawing shows two men smoking out a bees’ nest.
+
+FIGHT OF BOWMEN
+Among the most recent discoveries of Palæolithic Art are these
+specimens found in 1920 in Spain.  They are probably ten or twelve
+thousand years old
+
+These are the latest of the men that we call Palæolithic (Old Stone
+Age) because they had only chipped implements.  By ten or twelve
+thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in Europe, men have learnt
+not only to chip but to polish and grind stone implements, and they
+have begun cultivation.  The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) was
+beginning.
+
+It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there still
+survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a race of human
+beings at a lower level of physical and intellectual development than
+any of these earliest races of mankind who have left traces in Europe. 
+These people had long ago been cut off by geographical changes from the
+rest of the species, and from stimulation and improvement.  They seem
+to have degenerated rather than developed.  They lived a base life
+subsisting upon shellfish and small game.  They had no habitations but
+only squatting places.  They were real men of our species, but they had
+neither the manual dexterity nor the artistic powers of the first true
+men.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+PRIMITIVE THOUGHT
+
+
+And now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did it
+feel to be a man in those early days of the human adventure? How did
+men think and what did they think in those remote days of hunting and
+wandering four hundred centuries ago before seed time and harvest
+began. Those were days long before the written record of any human
+impressions, and we are left almost entirely to inference and guesswork
+in our answers to these questions.
+
+The sources to which scientific men have gone in their attempts to
+reconstruct that primitive mentality are very various.  Recently the
+science of psycho-analysis, which analyzes the way in which the
+egotistic and passionate impulses of the child are restrained,
+suppressed, modified or overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of social
+life, seems to have thrown a considerable amount of light upon the
+history of primitive society; and another fruitful source of suggestion
+has been the study of the ideas and customs of such contemporary
+savages as still survive.  Again there is a sort of mental
+fossilization which we find in folk-lore and the deep-lying irrational
+superstitions and prejudices that still survive among modern civilized
+people.  And finally we have in the increasingly numerous pictures,
+statues, carvings, symbols and the like, as we draw near to our own
+time, clearer and clearer indications of what man found interesting and
+worthy of record and representation.
+
+Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks, that is to
+say in a series of imaginative pictures.  He conjured up images or
+images presented themselves to his mind, and he acted in accordance
+with the emotions they aroused.  So a child or an uneducated person
+does to-day. Systematic thinking is apparently a comparatively late
+development in human experience; it has not played any great part in
+human life until within the last three thousand years.  And even to-day
+those who really control and order their thoughts are but a small
+minority of mankind.  Most of the world still lives by imagination and
+passion.
+
+Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages of the
+true human story, were small family groups.  Just as the flocks and
+herds of the earlier mammals arose out of families which remained
+together and multiplied, so probably did the earliest tribes.  But
+before this could happen a certain restraint upon the primitive
+egotisms of the individual had to be established.  The fear of the
+father and respect for the mother had to be extended into adult life,
+and the natural jealousy of the old man of the group for the younger
+males as they grew up had to be mitigated.  The mother on the other
+hand was the natural adviser and protector of the young.  Human social
+life grew up out of the reaction between the crude instinct of the
+young to go off and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one
+hand, and the dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other.  An
+anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in his _Primal
+Law_, has shown how much of the customary law of savages, the _Tabus_,
+that are so remarkable a fact in tribal life, can be ascribed to such a
+mental adjustment of the needs of the primitive human animal to a
+developing social life, and the later work of the psycho- analysts has
+done much to confirm his interpretation of these possibilities.
+
+Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect and fear of
+the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the primitive savage to older
+protective women, exaggerated in dreams and enriched by fanciful mental
+play, played a large part in the beginnings of primitive religion and
+in the conception of gods and goddesses.  Associated with this respect
+for powerful or helpful personalities was a dread and exaltation of
+such personages after their deaths, due to their reappearance in
+dreams.  It was easy to believe they were not truly dead but only
+fantastically transferred to a remoteness of greater power.
+
+The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more vivid and
+real than those of a modern adult, and primitive man was always
+something of a child. He was nearer to the animals also, and he could
+suppose them to have motives and reactions like his own.  He could
+imagine animal helpers, animal enemies, animal gods.  One needs to have
+been an imaginative child oneself to realize again how important,
+significant, portentous or friendly, strangely shaped rocks, lumps of
+wood, exceptional trees or the like may have appeared to the men of the
+Old Stone Age, and how dream and fancy would create stories and legends
+about such things that would become credible as they told them.  Some
+of these stories would be good enough to remember and tell again.  The
+women would tell them to the children and so establish a tradition.  To
+this day most imaginative children invent long stories in which some
+favourite doll or animal or some fantastic semi-human being figures as
+the hero, and primitive man probably did the same—with a much stronger
+disposition to believe his hero real.
+
+RELICS OF THE STONE AGE
+RELICS OF THE STONE AGE
+
+Chert implements from Somaliland.  In general form they are similar to
+those found in Western and Northern Europe
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were probably
+quite talkative beings.  In that way they have differed from the
+Neanderthalers and had an advantage over them.  The Neanderthaler may
+have been a dumb animal. Of course the primitive human speech was
+probably a very scanty collection of names, and may have been eked out
+with gestures and signs.
+
+There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of science of
+cause and effect.  But primitive man was not very critical in his
+associations of cause with effect; he very easily connected an effect
+with something quite wrong as its cause. “You do so and so,” he said,
+“and so and so happens.”  You give a child a poisonous berry and it
+dies.  You eat the heart of a valiant enemy and you become strong. 
+There we have two bits of cause and effect association, one true one
+false.  We call the system of cause and effect in the mind of a savage,
+Fetish; but Fetish is simply savage science.  It differs from modern
+science in that it is totally unsystematic and uncritical and so more
+frequently wrong.
+
+WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE
+WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE
+
+On the left is a flint implement excavated in Gray’s Inn Lane, London;
+on the right one of similar form chipped by primitive men of Somaliland
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect, in many
+others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by experience; but there was
+a large series of issues of very great importance to primitive man,
+where he sought persistently for causes and found explanations that
+were wrong but not sufficiently wrong nor so obviously wrong as to be
+detected.  It was a matter of great importance to him that game should
+be abundant or fish plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried
+and believed in a thousand charms, incantations and omens to determine
+these desirable results.  Another great concern of his was illness and
+death.  Occasionally infections crept through the land and men died of
+them.  Occasionally men were stricken by illness and died or were
+enfeebled without any manifest cause.  This too must have given the
+hasty, emotional mind of primitive man much feverish exercise. Dreams
+and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or appeal for help to that
+man or beast or thing.  He had the child’s aptitude for fear and panic.
+
+Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds sharing
+the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little more forceful than
+the others, must have asserted themselves, to advise, to prescribe, to
+command. This they declared unpropitious and that imperative, this an
+omen of good and that an omen of evil.  The expert in Fetish, the
+Medicine Man, was the first priest.  He exhorted, he interpreted
+dreams, he warned, he performed the complicated hocus pocus that
+brought luck or averted calamity.  Primitive religion was not so much
+what we now call religion as practice and observance, and the early
+priest dictated what was indeed an arbitrary primitive practical
+science.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION
+
+
+We are still very ignorant about the beginnings of cultivation and
+settlement in the world although a vast amount of research and
+speculation has been given to these matters in the last fifty years.
+All that we can say with any confidence at present is that somewhen
+about 15,000 and 12,000 B.C. while the Azilian people were in the south
+of Spain and while the remnants of the earlier hunters were drifting
+northward and eastward, somewhere in North Africa or Western Asia or in
+that great Mediterranean valley that is now submerged under the waters
+of the Mediterranean sea, there were people who, age by age, were
+working out two vitally important things; they were beginning
+cultivation and they were domesticating animals. They were also
+beginning to make, in addition to the chipped implements of their
+hunter forebears, implements of polished stone. They had discovered the
+possibility of basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre,
+and they were beginning to make a rudely modelled pottery.
+
+They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the Neolithic
+phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the Palæolithic (Old Stone)
+phase of the Cro-Magnards, the Grimaldi people, the Azilians and their
+like.  [1] Slowly these Neolithic people spread over the warmer parts
+of the world; and the arts they had mastered, the plants and animals
+they had learnt to use, spread by imitation and acquisition even more
+widely than they did.  By 10,000 B.C., most of mankind was at the
+Neolithic level.
+
+Now the ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of harvest,
+threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously reasonable steps to
+a modern mind just as to a modern mind it is a commonplace that the
+world is round.  What else could you do? people will ask.  What else
+can it be?  But to the primitive man of twenty thousand years ago
+neither of the systems of action and reasoning that seem so sure and
+manifest to us to-day were at all obvious.  He felt his way to
+effectual practice through a multitude of trials and misconceptions,
+with fantastic and unnecessary elaborations and false interpretations
+at every turn.  Somewhere in the Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild;
+and man may have learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food
+long before he learnt to sow.  He reaped before he sowed.
+
+And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world wherever
+there is sowing and harvesting there is still traceable the vestiges of
+a strong primitive association of the idea of sowing with the idea of a
+blood sacrifice, and primarily of the sacrifice of a human being.  The
+study of the original entanglement of these two things is a profoundly
+attractive one to the curious mind; the interested reader will find it
+very fully developed in that monumental work, Sir J. G. Frazer’s
+_Golden Bough_.  It was an entanglement, we must remember, in the
+childish, dreaming, myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned process
+will explain it.  But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000 years ago, it
+would seem that whenever seed time came round to the Neolithic peoples
+there was a human sacrifice.  And it was not the sacrifice of any mean
+or outcast person; it was the sacrifice usually of a chosen youth or
+maiden, a youth more often who was treated with profound deference and
+even worship up to the moment of his immolation.  He was a sort of
+sacrificial god-king, and all the details of his killing had become a
+ritual directed by the old, knowing men and sanctioned by the
+accumulated usage of ages.
+
+NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS
+NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the seasons,
+must have found great difficulty in determining when was the propitious
+moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the sowing.  There is some
+reason for supposing that there was an early stage in human experience
+when men had no idea of a year. The first chronology was in lunar
+months; it is supposed that the years of the Biblical patriarchs are
+really moons, and the Babylonian calendar shows distinct traces of an
+attempt to reckon seed time by taking thirteen lunar months to see it
+round. This lunar influence upon the calendar reaches down to our own
+days. If usage did not dull our sense of its strangeness we should
+think it a very remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does
+not commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ on the
+proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with the
+phases of the moon.
+
+It may be doubted whether the first agriculturalists made any
+observation of the stars.  It is more likely that stars were first
+observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a convenient mark of
+direction.  But once their use in determining seasons was realized,
+their importance to agriculture became very great.  The seed-time
+sacrifice was linked up with the southing or northing of some prominent
+star.  A myth and worship of that star was for primitive man an almost
+inevitable consequence.
+
+NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY
+NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY
+
+Spearheads, exactly as in the true Neolithic days, but made recently by
+Australian Natives,
+
+(1) Made from a telegraph insulator;
+
+(2) from a piece of broken bottle glass.
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and experience,
+the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and the stars, became in
+this early Neolithic world.
+
+The fear of uncleanness and pollution, and the methods of cleansing
+that were advisable, constituted another source of power for the
+knowledgeable men and women. For there have always been witches as well
+as wizards, and priestesses as well as priests.  The early priest was
+really not so much a religious man as a man of applied science.  His
+science was generally empirical and often bad; he kept it secret from
+the generality of men very jealously; but that does not alter the fact
+that his primary function was knowledge and that his primary use was a
+practical use.
+
+SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY
+SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY
+
+Dug up at Mortlake from the Thames Bed
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and fairly
+well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic human communities,
+with their class and tradition of priests and priestesses and their
+cultivated fields and their development of villages and little walled
+cities, were spreading.  Age by age a drift and exchange of ideas went
+on between these communities.  Eliot Smith and Rivers have used the
+term “Heliolithic culture” for the culture of these first agricultural
+peoples.  “Heliolithic” (Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best
+possible word to use for this, but until scientific men give us a
+better one we shall have to use it.  Originating somewhere in the
+Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age eastward
+and from island to island across the Pacific until it may even have
+reached America and mingled with the more primitive ways of living of
+the Mongoloid immigrants coming down from the North.
+
+Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture went they
+took with them all or most of a certain group of curious ideas and
+practices.  Some of them are such queer ideas that they call for the
+explanation of the mental expert.  They made pyramids and great mounds,
+and set up great circles of big stones, perhaps to facilitate the
+astronomical observation of the priests; they made mummies of some or
+all of their dead; they tattooed and circumcized; they had the old
+custom, known as the _couvade_, of sending the _father_ to bed and rest
+when a child was born, and they had as a luck symbol the well-known
+Swastika.
+
+If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how far these
+group practices have left their traces, we should make a belt along the
+temperate and sub-tropical coasts of the world from Stonehenge and
+Spain across the world to Mexico and Peru.  But Africa below the
+equator, north central Europe, and north Asia would show none of these
+dottings; there lived races who were developing along practically
+independent lines.
+
+[1] The term Palæolithic we may note is also used to cover the
+Neanderthaler and even the Eolithic implements.  The pre-human age is
+called the “Older Palæolithic;” the age of true men using unpolished
+stones in the “Newer Palæolithic.”
+
+
+XIV
+PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+About 10,000 B.C. the geography of the world was very similar in its
+general outline to that of the world to-day. It is probable that by
+that time the great barrier across the Straits of Gibraltar that had
+hitherto banked back the ocean waters from the Mediterranean valley had
+been eaten through, and that the Mediterranean was a sea following much
+the same coastlines as it does now. The Caspian Sea was probably still
+far more extensive than it is at present, and it may have been
+continuous with the Black Sea to the north of the Caucasus Mountains.
+About this great Central Asian sea lands that are now steppes and
+deserts were fertile and habitable. Generally it was a moister and more
+fertile world. European Russia was much more a land of swamp and lake
+than it is now, and there may still have been a land connexion between
+Asia and America at Behring Straits.
+
+It would have been already possible at that time to have distinguished
+the main racial divisions of mankind as we know them to-day.  Across
+the warm temperate regions of this rather warmer and better-wooded
+world, and along the coasts, stretched the brownish peoples of the
+Heliolithic culture, the ancestors of the bulk of the living
+inhabitants of the Mediterranean world, of the Berbers, the Egyptians
+and of much of the population of South and Eastern Asia.  This great
+race had of course a number of varieties.  The Iberian or Mediterranean
+or “dark-white” race of the Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the
+“Hamitic” peoples which include the Berbers and Egyptians, the
+Dravidians; the darker people of India, a multitude of East Indian
+people, many Polynesian races and the Maoris are all divisions of
+various value of this great main mass of humanity.  Its western
+varieties are whiter than its eastern.
+
+In the forests of central and northern Europe a more blonde variety of
+men with blue eyes was becoming distinguishable, branching off from the
+main mass of brownish people, a variety which many people now speak of
+as the Nordic race.  In the more open regions of northeastern Asia was
+another differentiation of this brownish humanity in the direction of a
+type with more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish skin, and
+very straight black hair, the Mongolian peoples.  In South Africa,
+Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of Asia were remains
+of the early negroid peoples. The central parts of Africa were already
+a region of racial intermixture. Nearly all the coloured races of
+Africa to-day seem to be blends of the brownish peoples of the north
+with a negroid substratum.
+
+
+A Diagrammatic Summary of Current Ideas of the Relationship of Human
+Races
+
+We have to remember that human races can all interbreed freely and that
+they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds do.  Human races do not
+branch out like trees with branches that never come together again.  It
+is a thing we need to bear constantly in mind, this remingling of races
+at any opportunity.  It will save us from many cruel delusions and
+prejudices if we do so.  People will use such a word as race in the
+loosest manner, and base the most preposterous generalizations upon it.
+ They will speak of a “British” race or of a “European” race.  But
+nearly all the European nations are confused mixtures of brownish,
+dark-white, white and Mongolian elements.
+
+
+A MAYA STELE
+A MAYA STELE
+
+Showing a worshipper and a Serpent God.  Note the grotesque faces in
+the writing
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+
+It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that peoples of the
+Mongolian breed first made their way into America.  Apparently they
+came by way of Behring Straits and spread southward.  They found
+caribou, the American reindeer, in the north and great herds of bison
+in the south.  When they reached South America there were still living
+the Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and the Megatherium, a monstrous
+clumsy sloth as high as an elephant.  They probably exterminated the
+latter beast, which was as helpless as it was big.
+
+The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above a hunting
+nomadic Neolithic life.  They never discovered the use of iron, and
+their chief metal possessions were native gold and copper.  But in
+Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions existed favourable to settled
+cultivation, and here about 1000 B.C. or so arose very interesting
+civilizations of a parallel but different type from the old-world
+civilization.  Like the much earlier primitive civilizations of the old
+world these communities displayed a great development of human
+sacrifice about the processes of seed time and harvest; but while in
+the old world, as we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately
+mitigated, complicated and overlaid by others, in America they
+developed and were elaborated, to a very high degree of intensity. 
+These American civilized countries were essentially priest-ruled
+countries; their war chiefs and rulers were under a rigorous rule of
+law and omen.
+
+These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of accuracy.
+ They knew their year better than the Babylonians of whom we shall
+presently tell.  In Yucatan they had a kind of writing, the Maya
+writing, of the most curious and elaborate character.  So far as we
+have been able to decipher it, it was used mainly for keeping the exact
+and complicated calendars upon which the priests expended their
+intelligence. The art of the Maya civilization came to a climax about
+700 or 800 A.D.  The sculptured work of these people amazes the modern
+observer by its great plastic power and its frequent beauty, and
+perplexes him by a grotesqueness and by a sort of insane
+conventionality and intricacy outside the circle of his ideas.  There
+is nothing quite like it in the old world.  The nearest approach, and
+that is a remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings. Everywhere
+there are woven feathers and serpents twine in and out.  Many Maya
+inscriptions resemble a certain sort of elaborate drawing made by
+lunatics in European asylums, more than any other old-world work.  It
+is as if the Maya mind had developed upon a different line from the
+old-world mind, had a different twist to its ideas, was not, by
+old-world standards, a rational mind at all.
+
+This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the idea of a
+general mental aberration finds support in their extraordinary
+obsession by the shedding of human blood.  The Mexican civilization in
+particular ran blood; it offered thousands of human victims yearly. 
+The cutting open of living victims, the tearing out of the still
+beating heart, was an act that dominated the minds and lives of these
+strange priesthoods.  The public life, the national festivities all
+turned on this fantastically horrible act.
+
+
+NEOLITHIC WARRIOR
+NEOLITHIC WARRIOR
+
+Modelled from drawing by Prof. Rutot
+
+
+The ordinary existence of the common people in these communities was
+very like the ordinary existence of any other barbaric peasantry. 
+Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was very good.  The Maya writing was
+not only carven on stone but written and painted upon skins and the
+like.  The European and American museums contain many enigmatical Maya
+manuscripts of which at present little has been deciphered except the
+dates.  In Peru there were beginnings of a similar writing but they
+were superseded by a method of keeping records by knotting cords.  A
+similar method of mnemonics was in use in China thousands of years ago.
+
+In the old world before 4000 or 5000 B.C., that is to say three or four
+thousand years earlier, there were primitive civilizations not unlike
+these American civilizations; civilizations based upon a temple, having
+a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an intensely astronomical
+priesthood.  But in the old world the primitive civilizations reacted
+upon one another and developed towards the conditions of our own world.
+ In America these primitive civilizations never progressed beyond this
+primitive stage.  Each of them was in a little world of its own. 
+Mexico it seems knew little or nothing of Peru, until the Europeans
+came to America.  The potato, which was the principal food stuff in
+Peru, was unknown in Mexico.
+
+Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods and made
+their sacrifices and died.  Maya art rose to high levels of decorative
+beauty.  Men made love and tribes made war.  Drought and plenty,
+pestilence and health, followed one another.  The priests elaborated
+their calendar and their sacrificial ritual through long centuries, but
+made little progress in other directions.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+SUMERIA, EARLY EGYPT AND WRITING
+
+
+The old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new. By 6000 or
+7000 B.C. there were already quasi-civilized communities almost at the
+Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of Asia and in the
+Nile valley. At that time north Persia and western Turkestan and south
+Arabia were all more fertile than they are now, and there are traces of
+very early communities in these regions. It is in lower Mesopotamia
+however and in Egypt that there first appear cities, temples,
+systematic irrigation, and evidences of a social organization rising
+above the level of a mere barbaric village-town. In those days the
+Euphrates and Tigris flowed by separate mouths into the Persian Gulf,
+and it was in the country between them that the Sumerians built their
+first cities. About the same time, for chronology is still vague, the
+great history of Egypt was beginning.
+
+These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with prominent
+noses.  They employed a sort of writing that has been deciphered, and
+their language is now known.  They had discovered the use of bronze and
+they built great tower-like temples of sun-dried brick. The clay of
+this country is very fine; they used it to write upon, and so it is
+that their inscriptions have been preserved to us.  They had cattle,
+sheep, goats and asses, but no horses.  They fought on foot, in close
+formation, carrying spears and shields of skin. Their clothing was of
+wool and they shaved their heads.
+
+Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been an independent
+state with a god of its own and priests of its own.  But sometimes one
+city would establish an ascendancy over others and exact tribute from
+their population.  A very ancient inscription at Nippur records the
+“empire,” the first recorded empire, of the Sumerian city of Erech. 
+Its god and its priest-king claimed an authority from the Persian Gulf
+to the Red Sea.
+
+
+BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 B.C.
+BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 B.C.
+
+Note the cuneiform characters of the inscription, which records the
+building of a temple to a Sun God
+
+
+At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of pictorial record. 
+Even before Neolithic times men were beginning to write.  The Azilian
+rock pictures to which we have already referred show the beginning of
+the process. Many of them record hunts and expeditions, and in most of
+these the human figures are plainly drawn.  But in some the painter
+would not bother with head and limbs; he just indicated men by a
+vertical and one or two transverse strokes.  From this to a
+conventional condensed picture writing was an easy transition.  In
+Sumeria, where the writing was done on clay with a stick, the dabs of
+the characters soon became unrecognizably unlike the things they stood
+for, but in Egypt where men painted on walls and on strips of the
+papyrus reed (the first paper) the likeness to the thing imitated
+remained.  From the fact that the wooden styles used in Sumeria made
+wedge-shaped marks, the Sumerian writing is called cuneiform (=
+wedge-shaped).
+
+
+EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY
+EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY
+
+Recovered from the Tombs at Abydos in 1921 by the British School of
+Archæology.  They give evidence of early form of block printing
+
+
+An important step towards writing was made when pictures were used to
+indicate not the thing represented but some similar thing.  In the
+rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this is still done to-day. 
+We draw a camp with tents and a bell, and the child is delighted to
+guess that this is the Scotch name Campbell.  The Sumerian language was
+a language made up of accumulated syllables rather like some
+contemporary Amerindian languages, and it lent itself very readily to
+this syllabic method of writing words expressing ideas that could not
+be conveyed by pictures directly.  Egyptian writing underwent parallel
+developments.  Later on, when foreign peoples with less distinctly
+syllabled methods of speech were to learn and use these picture scripts
+they were to make those further modifications and simplifications that
+developed at last into alphabetical writing.  All the true alphabets of
+the later world derived from a mixture of the Sumerian cuneiform and
+the Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest writing).  Later in China there was
+to develop a conventionalized picture writing, but in China it never
+got to the alphabetical stage.
+
+The invention of writing was of very great importance in the
+development of human societies.  It put agreements, laws, commandments
+on record.  It made the growth of states larger than the old city
+states possible.  It made a continuous historical consciousness
+possible.  The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far
+beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death.  It is
+interesting to note that in ancient Sumeria seals were greatly used.  A
+king or a nobleman or a merchant would have his seal often very
+artistically carved, and would impress it on any clay document he
+wished to authorize.  So close had civilization got to printing six
+thousand years ago.  Then the clay was dried hard and became permanent.
+ For the reader must remember that in the land of Mesopotamia for
+countless years, letters, records and accounts were all written on
+comparatively indestructible tiles.  To that fact we owe a great wealth
+of recovered knowledge.
+
+
+THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS
+THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS
+
+The Pyramid to the right, the step Pyramid, is the oldest stone
+building in the world
+
+_Photo: F. Boyer_
+
+
+Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity, meteoric iron
+were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very early stage.
+
+
+VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS
+VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS
+
+Showing how these great monuments dominate the plain
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH
+THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+
+Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must have been
+very similar in both Egypt and Sumeria.  And except for the asses and
+cattle in the streets it must have been not unlike the life in the Maya
+cities of America three or four thousand years later.  Most of the
+people in peace time were busy with irrigation and cultivation—except
+on days of religious festivity. They had no money and no need for it. 
+They managed their small occasional trades by barter.  The princes and
+rulers who alone had more than a few possessions used gold and silver
+bars and precious stones for any incidental act of trade.  The temple
+dominated life; in Sumeria it was a great towering temple that went up
+to a roof from which the stars were observed; in Egypt it was a massive
+building with only a ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was the
+greatest, most splendid of beings.  In Egypt however there was one who
+was raised above the priests; he was the living incarnation of the
+chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god king.
+
+There were few changes in the world in those days; men’s days were
+sunny, toilsome and conventional.  Few strangers came into the land and
+such as did fared uncomfortably.  The priest directed life according to
+immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed time and marked the
+omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the warnings of dreams.  Men
+worked and loved and died, not unhappily, forgetful of the savage past
+of their race and heedless of its future.  Sometimes the ruler was
+benign. Such was Pepi II, who reigned in Egypt for ninety years.
+Sometimes he was ambitious and took men’s sons to be soldiers and sent
+them against neighbouring city states to war and plunder, or he made
+them toil to build great buildings.  Such were Cheops and Chephren and
+Mycerinus, who built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at
+Gizeh. The largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone in
+it is 4,883,000 tons.  All this was brought down the Nile in boats and
+lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.  Its erection must have
+exhausted Egypt more than a great war would have done.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+PRIMITIVE NOMADIC PEOPLES
+
+
+It was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were
+settling down to agriculture and the formation of city states in the
+centuries between 6000 and 8000 B.C. Wherever there were possibilities
+of irrigation and a steady all-the-year-round food supply men were
+exchanging the uncertainties and hardships of hunting and wandering for
+the routines of settlement. On the upper Tigris a people called the
+Assyrians were founding cities; in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the
+Mediterranean shores and islands, there were small communities growing
+up to civilization. Possibly parallel developments of human life were
+already going on in favourable regions of India, and China. In many
+parts of Europe where there were lakes well stocked with fish, little
+communities of men had long settled in dwellings built on piles over
+the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and hunting. But
+over much larger areas of the old world no such settlement was
+possible. The land was too harsh, too thickly wooded or too arid, or
+the seasons too uncertain for mankind, with only the implements and
+science of that age to take root.
+
+For settlement under the conditions of the primitive civilizations men
+needed a constant water supply and warmth and sunshine.  Where these
+needs were not satisfied, man could live as a transient, as a hunter
+following his game, as a herdsman following the seasonal grass, but he
+could not settle.  The transition from the hunting to the herding life
+may have been very gradual.  From following herds of wild cattle or (in
+Asia) wild horses, men may have come to an idea of property in them,
+have learnt to pen them into valleys, have fought for them against
+wolves, wild dogs and other predatory beasts.
+
+
+POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS
+POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE
+A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE
+
+These Borneo dwellings are practically counterparts of the homes of
+European neolithic communities 6000 B.C.
+
+
+So while the primitive civilizations of the cultivators were growing up
+chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of living, the
+nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and fro from winter
+pasture to summer pasture, was also growing up.  The nomadic peoples
+were on the whole hardier than the agriculturalists; they were less
+prolific and numerous, they had no permanent temples and no highly
+organized priesthood; they had less gear; but the reader must not
+suppose that theirs was necessarily a less highly developed way of
+living on that account.  In many ways this free life was a fuller life
+than that of the tillers of the soil.  The individual was more
+self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd.  The leader was more
+important; the medicine man perhaps less so.
+
+
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+NOMADS IN EGYPT
+
+Egyptian wall painting in a tomb near ancient Beni Hassan, middle
+Egypt.  It depicts the arrival of a tribe of Semitic Nomads in Egypt
+about the year of 1895 B.C.
+
+
+Moving over large stretches of country the nomad took a wider view of
+life.  He touched on the confines of this settled land and that.  He
+was used to the sight of strange faces.  He had to scheme and treat for
+pasture with competing tribes.  He knew more of minerals than the folk
+upon the plough lands because he went over mountain passes and into
+rocky places.  He may have been a better metallurgist.  Possibly bronze
+and much more probably iron smelting were nomadic discoveries.  Some of
+the earliest implements of iron reduced from its ores have been found
+in Central Europe far away from the early civilizations.
+
+
+FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C.
+FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C.
+
+Excavated 1922 by the British School of Archæology in Egypt from First
+Dynasty Tombs
+
+
+On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and their pottery
+and made many desirable things.  It was inevitable that as the two
+sorts of life, the agricultural and the nomadic differentiated, a
+certain amount of looting and trading should develop between the two. 
+In Sumeria particularly which had deserts and seasonal country on
+either hand it must have been usual to have the nomads camping close to
+the cultivated fields, trading and stealing and perhaps tinkering, as
+gipsies do to this day.  (But hens they would not steal, because the
+domestic fowl—an Indian jungle fowl originally was not domesticated by
+man until about 1000 B.C.)  They would bring precious stones and things
+of metal and leather.  If they were hunters they would bring skins. 
+They would get in exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments and
+suchlike manufactured things.
+
+
+EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK
+EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK
+
+From an ancient and curiously painted model in the British Museum
+
+
+Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and imperfectly
+settled people there were in those remote days of the first
+civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt.  Away in the forests of
+Europe were the blonde Nordic peoples, hunters and herdsmen, a lowly
+race.  The primitive civilizations saw very little of this race before
+1500 B.C.  Away on the steppes of eastern Asia various Mongolian
+tribes, the Hunnish peoples, were domesticating the horse and
+developing a very wide sweeping habit of seasonal movement between
+their summer and winter camping places. Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish
+peoples were still separated from one another by the swamps of Russia
+and the greater Caspian Sea of that time.  For very much of Russia
+there was swamp and lake.  In the deserts, which were growing more arid
+now, of Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish people,
+the Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and goats and asses
+from pasture to pasture.  It was these Semitic shepherds and certain
+more negroid people from southern Persia, the Elamites, who were the
+first nomads to come into close contact with the early civilizations. 
+They came as traders and as raiders.  Finally there arose leaders among
+them with bolder imaginations, and they became conquerors.
+
+
+STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD
+STELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD
+
+This monarch, son of Sargon I, was a great architecht as well as a
+famous conqueror.  Discovered in 1898 among the ruins of Susa, Persia
+
+
+About 2750 B.C. a great Semitic leader, Sargon, had conquered the whole
+Sumerian land and was master of all the world from the Persian Gulf to
+the Mediterranean Sea.  He was an illiterate barbarian and his people,
+the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian writing and adopted the Sumerian
+language as the speech of the officials and the learned.  The empire he
+founded decayed after two centuries, and after one inundation of
+Elamites a fresh Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established
+their rule over Sumeria.  They made their capital in what had hitherto
+been a small up-river town, Babylon, and their empire is called the
+first Babylonian Empire.  It was consolidated by a great king called
+Hammurabi (circa 2100 B.C.) who made the earliest code of laws yet
+known to history.
+
+The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic invasion than
+Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi occurred a successful
+Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of Pharaohs was set up, the Hyksos
+or “shepherd kings,” which lasted for several centuries.  These Semitic
+conquerors never assimilated themselves with the Egyptians; they were
+always regarded with hostility as foreigners and barbarians; and they
+were at last expelled by a popular uprising about 1600 B.C.
+
+But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the two races
+assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became Semitic in its language
+and character.
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+THE FIRST SEAGOING PEOPLES
+
+
+The earliest boats and ships must have come into use some twenty-five
+or thirty thousand years ago. Man was probably paddling about on the
+water with a log of wood or an inflated skin to assist him, at latest
+in the beginnings of the Neolithic period. A basketwork boat covered
+with skin and caulked was used in Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings
+of our knowledge. Such boats are still used there. They are used to
+this day in Ireland and Wales and in Alaska; sealskin boats still make
+the crossing of Behring Straits. The hollow log followed as tools
+improved. The building of boats and then ships came in a natural
+succession.
+
+Perhaps the legend of Noah’s Ark preserves the memory of some early
+exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of the Flood, so widely
+distributed among the peoples of the world, may be the tradition of the
+flooding of the Mediterranean basin.
+
+There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids were built,
+and there were ships on the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf by 7000 B.C.
+ Mostly these were the ships of fishermen, but some were already
+trading and pirate ships—for knowing what we do of mankind we may guess
+pretty safely that the first sailors plundered where they could and
+traded where they had to do so.
+
+The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland seas on
+which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at a dead calm for
+days together, so that sailing did not develop beyond an accessory use.
+ It is only in the last four hundred years that the well-rigged,
+ocean-going, sailing ship has developed.  The ships of the ancient
+world were essentially rowing ships which hugged the shore and went
+into harbour at the first sign of rough weather.  As ships grew into
+big galleys they caused a demand for war captives as galley slaves.
+
+We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as wanderers
+and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and how they conquered
+Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and then the first Babylonian
+Empire.  In the west these same Semitic peoples were taking to the sea.
+ They set up a string of harbour towns along the Eastern coast of the
+Mediterranean, of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief; and by the time
+of Hammurabi in Babylon, they had spread as traders, wanderers and
+colonizers over the whole Mediterranean basin. These sea Semites were
+called the Phœnicians, They settled largely in Spain, pushing back the
+old Iberian Basque population and sending coasting expeditions through
+the straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north coast
+of Africa.  Of Carthage, one of these Phœnician cities, we shall have
+much more to tell later.
+
+But the Phœnicians were not the first people to have galleys in the
+Mediterranean waters.  There was already a series of towns and cities
+among the islands and coasts of that sea belonging to a race or races
+apparently connected by blood and language with the Basques to the west
+and the Berbers and Egyptians to the south, the Ægean peoples. These
+peoples must not be confused with the Greeks, who come much later into
+our story; they were pre-Greek, but they had cities in Greece and Asia
+Minor; Mycenæ and Troy for example, and they had a great and prosperous
+establishment at Cnossos in Crete.
+
+It is only in the last half century that the industry of excavating
+archæologists has brought the extent and civilization of the Ægean
+peoples to our knowledge. Cnossos has been most thoroughly explored; it
+was happily not succeeded by any city big enough to destroy its ruins,
+and so it is our chief source of information about this once almost
+forgotten civilization.
+
+The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of Egypt; the
+two countries were trading actively across the sea by 4000 B.C.  By
+2500 B.C., that is between the time of Sargon I and Hammurabi, Cretan
+civilization was at its zenith.
+
+Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the Cretan monarch
+and his people.  It was not even fortified. It was only fortified later
+as the Phœnicians grew strong, and as a new and more terrible breed of
+pirates, the Greeks, came upon the sea from the north.
+
+
+THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ
+THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCENÆ
+
+_Photo: Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was called
+Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with running water,
+with bathrooms and the like conveniences such as we know of in no other
+ancient remains.  There he held great festivals and shows.  There was
+bull-fighting, singularly like the bull-fighting that still survives in
+Spain; there was resemblance even in the costumes of the bull-fighters;
+and there were gymnastic displays.  The women’s clothes were remarkably
+modern in spirit; they wore corsets and flounced dresses.  The pottery,
+the textile manufactures, the sculpture, painting, jewellery, ivory,
+metal and inlay work of these Cretans was often astonishingly
+beautiful.  And they had a system of writing, but that still remains to
+be deciphered.
+
+This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score of
+centuries.  About 2000 B.C. Cnossos and Babylon abounded in comfortable
+and cultivated people who probably led very pleasant lives.  They had
+shows and they had religious festivals, they had domestic slaves to
+look after them and industrial slaves to make a profit for them.  Life
+must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for such people, sunlit and
+girdled by the blue sea.  Egypt of course must have appeared rather a
+declining country in those days under the rule of her half-barbaric
+shepherd kings, and if one took an interest in politics one must have
+noticed how the Semitic people seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling
+Egypt, ruling distant Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper Tigris,
+sailing west to the Pillars of Hercules (the straits of Gibraltar) and
+setting up their colonies on those distant coasts.
+
+There were some active arid curious minds in Cnossos, because later on
+the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan artificer, Dædalus,
+who attempted to make some sort of flying machine, perhaps a glider,
+which collapsed and fell into the sea.
+
+It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as the
+resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own.  To a Cretan
+gentleman of 2500 B.C. iron was a rare metal which fell out of the sky
+and was curious rather than useful—for as yet only meteoric iron was
+known, iron had not been obtained from its ores.  Compare that with our
+modern state of affairs pervaded by iron everywhere.  The horse again
+would be a quite legendary creature to our Cretan, a sort of super-ass
+which lived in the bleak northern lands far away beyond the Black Sea.
+Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in Ægean Greece and Asia Minor,
+where Lydians and Carians and Trojans lived a life and probably spoke
+languages like his own.  There were Phœnicians and Ægeans settled in
+Spain and North Africa, but those were very remote regions to his
+imagination.  Italy was still a desolate land covered with dense
+forests; the brown-skinned Etruscans had not yet gone there from Asia
+Minor.  And one day perhaps this Cretan gentleman went down to the
+harbour and saw a captive who attracted his attention because he was
+very fair-complexioned and had blue eyes.  Perhaps our Cretan tried to
+talk to him and was answered in an unintelligible gibberish.  This
+creature came from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be an
+altogether benighted savage.  But indeed he was an Aryan tribesman, of
+a race and culture of which we shall soon have much to tell, and the
+strange gibberish he spoke was to differentiate some day into Sanskrit,
+Persian, Greek, Latin, German, English and most of the chief languages
+of the world.
+
+
+THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS
+THE PALACE AT CNOSSOS
+
+The painted walls of the Throne Room
+
+_Photo: Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+Such was Cnossos at its zenith, intelligent, enterprising, bright and
+happy.  But about 1400 B.C. disaster came perhaps very suddenly upon
+its prosperity.  The palace of Minos was destroyed, and its ruins have
+never been rebuilt or inhabited from that day to this. We do not know
+how this disaster occurred.  The excavators note what appears to be
+scattered plunder and the marks of the fire.  But the traces of a very
+destructive earthquake have also been found.  Nature alone may have
+destroyed Cnossos, or the Greeks may have finished what the earthquake
+began.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII
+EGYPT, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA
+
+
+The Egyptians had never submitted very willingly to the rule of their
+Semitic shepherd kings and about 1600 A.D. a vigorous patriotic
+movement expelled these foreigners. Followed a new phase or revival for
+Egypt, a period known to Egyptologists as the New Empire. Egypt, which
+had not been closely consolidated before the Hyksos invasion, was now a
+united country; and the phase of subjugation and insurrection left her
+full of military spirit. The Pharaohs became aggressive conquerors.
+They had now acquired the war horse and the war chariot, which the
+Hyksos had brought to them. Under Thothmes III and Amenophis III Egypt
+had extended her rule into Asia as far as the Euphrates.
+
+We are entering now upon a thousand years of warfare between the once
+quite separated civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Nile.  At first
+Egypt was ascendant.  The great dynasties, the Seventeenth Dynasty,
+which included Thothmes III and Amenophis III and IV and a great queen
+Hatasu, and the Nineteenth, when Rameses II, supposed by some to have
+been the Pharaoh of Moses, reigned for sixty-seven years, raised Egypt
+to high levels of prosperity.  In between there were phases of
+depression for Egypt, conquest by the Syrians and later conquest by the
+Ethiopians from the South.  In Mesopotamia Babylon ruled, then the
+Hittites and the Syrians of Damascus rose to a transitory predominance;
+at one time the Syrians conquered Egypt; the fortunes of the Assyrians
+of Nineveh ebbed and flowed; sometimes the city was a conquered city;
+sometimes the Assyrians ruled in Babylon and assailed Egypt.  Our space
+is too limited here to tell of the comings and goings of the armies of
+the Egyptians and of the various Semitic powers of Asia Minor, Syria
+and Mesopotamia.  They were armies now provided with vast droves of war
+chariots, for the horse—still used only for war and glory—had spread by
+this time into the old civilizations from Central Asia.
+
+
+TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL
+TEMPLE AT ABU SIMBEL
+
+Showing the statues of Rameses II at entrance
+
+
+Great conquerors appear in the dim light of that distant time and pass,
+Tushratta, King of Mitanni, who captured Nineveh, Tiglath Pileser I of
+Assyria who conquered Babylon.  At last the Assyrians became the
+greatest military power of the time. Tiglath Pileser III conquered
+Babylon in 745 B.C. and founded what historians call the New Assyrian
+Empire.  Iron had also come now into civilization out of the north; the
+Hittites, the precursors of the Armenians, had it first and
+communicated its use to the Assyrians, and an Assyrian usurper, Sargon
+II, armed his troops with it.  Assyria became the first power to
+expound the doctrine of blood and iron.  Sargon’s son Sennacherib led
+an army to the borders of Egypt, and was defeated not by military
+strength but by the plague. Sennacherib’s grandson Assurbanipal (who is
+also known in history by his Greek name of Sardanapalus) did actually
+conquer Egypt in 670 B.C.  But Egypt was already a conquered country
+then under an Ethiopian dynasty.  Sardanapalus simply replaced one
+conqueror by another.
+
+
+AVENUE OF SPHINXES
+AVENUE OF SPHINXES
+
+Leading from the Nile to the great Temple of Karnak
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+
+If one had a series of political maps of this long period of history,
+this interval of ten centuries, we should have Egypt expanding and
+contracting like an amœba under a microscope, and we should see these
+various Semitic states of the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Hittites
+and the Syrians coming and going, eating each other up and disgorging
+each other again.  To the west of Asia Minor there would be little
+Ægean states like Lydia, whose capital was Sardis, and Caria.  But
+after about 1200 B.C. and perhaps earlier, a new set of names would
+come into the map of the ancient world from the north-east and from the
+north- west.  These would be the names of certain barbaric tribes,
+armed with iron weapons and using horse-chariots, who were becoming a
+great affliction to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations on the northern
+borders.  They all spoke variants of what once must have been the same
+language, Aryan.
+
+
+THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK
+THE GREAT HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK
+
+_Photo: D. McLeish_
+
+
+Round the north-east of the Black and Caspian Seas were coming the
+Medes and Persians.  Confused with these in the records of the time
+were Scythians and Samatians.  From north-east or north-west came the
+Armenians, from the north- west of the sea-barrier through the Balkan
+peninsula came Cimmerians, Phrygians and the Hellenic tribes whom now
+we call the Greeks.  They were raiders and robbers and plunderers of
+cities, these Ayrans, east and west alike. They were all kindred and
+similar peoples, hardy herdsmen who had taken to plunder.  In the east
+they were still only borderers and raiders, but in the west they were
+taking cities and driving out the civilized Ægean populations. The
+Ægean peoples were so pressed that they were seeking new homes in lands
+beyond the Aryan range.  Some were seeking a settlement in the delta of
+the Nile and being repulsed by the Egyptians; some, the Etruscans, seem
+to have sailed from Asia Minor to found a state in the forest
+wildernesses of middle Italy; some built themselves cities upon the
+south- east coasts of the Mediterranean and became later that people
+known in history as the Philistines.
+
+Of these Aryans who came thus rudely upon the scene of the ancient
+civilizations we will tell more fully in a later section.  Here we note
+simply all this stir and emigration amidst the area of the ancient
+civilizations, that was set up by the swirl of the gradual and
+continuous advance of these Aryan barbarians out of the northern
+forests and wildernesses between 1600 and 600 B.C.
+
+And in a section to follow we must tell also of a little Semitic
+people, the Hebrews, in the hills behind the Phœnician and Philistine
+coasts, who began to be of significance in the world towards the end of
+this period. They produced a literature of very great importance in
+subsequent history, a collection of books, histories, poems, books of
+wisdom and prophetic works, the Hebrew Bible.
+
+In Mesopotamia and Egypt the coming of the Aryans did not cause
+fundamental changes until after 600 B.C.  The flight of the Ægeans
+before the Greeks and even the destruction of Cnossos must have seemed
+a very remote disturbance to both the citizens of Egypt and of Babylon.
+ Dynasties came and went in these cradle states of civilization, but
+the main tenor of human life went on, with a slow increase in
+refinement and complexity age by age.  In Egypt the accumulated
+monuments of more ancient times—the pyramids were already in their
+third thousand of years and a show for visitors just as they are to-
+day—were supplemented by fresh and splendid buildings, more
+particularly in the time of the seventeenth and nineteenth dynasties. 
+The great temples at Karnak and Luxor date from this time.  All the
+chief monuments of Nineveh, the great temples, the winged bulls with
+human heads, the reliefs of kings and chariots and lion hunts, were
+done in these centuries between 1600 and 600 B.C., and this period also
+covers most of the splendours of Babylon.
+
+
+FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS
+FRIEZE SHOWING EGYPTIAN FEMALE SLAVES CARRYING LUXURIOUS FOODS
+
+_Photo: Jacques Boyer_
+
+
+Both from Mesopotamia and Egypt we now have abundant public records,
+business accounts, stories, poetry and private correspondence.  We know
+that life, for prosperous and influential people in such cities as
+Babylon and the Egyptian Thebes, was already almost as refined and as
+luxurious as that of comfortable and prosperous people to-day.  Such
+people lived an orderly and ceremonious life in beautiful and
+beautifully furnished and decorated houses, wore richly decorated
+clothing and lovely jewels; they had feasts and festivals, entertained
+one another with music and dancing, were waited upon by highly trained
+servants, were cared for by doctors and dentists.  They did not travel
+very much or very far, but boating excursions were a common summer
+pleasure both on the Nile and on the Euphrates.  The beast of burthen
+was the ass; the horse was still used only in chariots for war and upon
+occasions of state.  The mule was still novel and the camel, though it
+was known in Mesopotamia, had not been brought into Egypt.  And there
+were few utensils of iron; copper and bronze remained the prevailing
+metals.  Fine linen and cotton fabrics were known as well as wool.  But
+there was no silk yet.  Glass was known and beautifully coloured, but
+glass things were usually small.  There was no clear glass and no
+optical use of glass. People had gold stoppings in their teeth but no
+spectacles on their noses.
+
+One odd contrast between the life of old Thebes or Babylon and modern
+life was the absence of coined money.  Most trade was still done by
+barter.  Babylon was financially far ahead of Egypt.  Gold and silver
+were used for exchange and kept in ingots; and there were bankers,
+before coinage, who stamped their names and the weight on these lumps
+of precious metal. A merchant or traveller would carry precious stones
+to sell to pay for his necessities.  Most servants and workers were
+slaves who were paid not money but in kind.  As money came in slavery
+declined.
+
+A modern visitor to these crowning cities of the ancient world would
+have missed two very important articles of diet; there were no hens and
+no eggs.  A French cook would have found small joy in Babylon.  These
+things came from the East somewhere about the time of the last Assyrian
+empire.
+
+Religion like everything else had undergone great refinement. Human
+sacrifice for instance had long since disappeared; animals or bread
+dummies had been substituted for the victim. (But the Phœnicians and
+especially the citizens of Carthage, their greatest settlement in
+Africa, were accused, later of immolating human beings.)  When a great
+chief had died in the ancient days it had been customary to sacrifice
+his wives and slaves and break spear and bow at his tomb so that he
+should not go unattended and unarmed in the spirit world.  In Egypt
+there survived of this dark tradition the pleasant custom of burying
+small models of house and shop and servants and cattle with the dead,
+models that give us to-day the liveliest realization of the safe and
+cultivated life of these ancient people, three thousand years and more
+ago.
+
+
+THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU
+THE TEMPLE OF HORUS AT EDFU
+
+
+Such was the ancient world before the coming of the Aryans out of the
+northern forests and plains.  In India and China there were parallel
+developments.  In the great valleys of both these regions agricultural
+city states of brownish peoples were growing up, but in India they do
+not seem to have advanced or coalesced so rapidly as the city states of
+Mesopotamia or Egypt.  They were nearer the level of the ancient
+Sumerians or of the Maya civilization of America.  Chinese history has
+still to be modernized by Chinese scholars and cleared of much
+legendary matter.  Probably China at this time was in advance of India.
+ Contemporary with the seventeenth dynasty in Egypt, there was a
+dynasty of emperors in China, the Shang dynasty, priest emperors over a
+loose-knit empire of subordinate kings.  The chief duty of these early
+emperors was to perform the seasonal sacrifices.  Beautiful bronze
+vessels from the time of the Shang dynasty still exist, and their
+beauty and workmanship compel us to recognize that many centuries of
+civilization must have preceded their manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+XIX
+THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS
+
+
+Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 B.C., central and
+south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer, moister and
+better wooded than they are now. In these regions of the earth wandered
+a group of tribes mainly of the fair and blue-eyed Nordic race,
+sufficiently in touch with one another to speak merely variations of
+one common language from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea. At that time
+they may not have been a very numerous people, and their existence was
+unsuspected by the Babylonians to whom Hammurabi was giving laws, or by
+the already ancient and cultivated land of Egypt which was tasting in
+those days for the first time the bitterness of foreign conquest.
+
+These Nordic people were destined to play a very important part indeed
+in the world’s history.  They were a people of the parklands and the
+forest clearings; they had no horses at first but they had cattle; when
+they wandered they put their tents and other gear on rough ox waggons;
+when they settled for a time they may have made huts of wattle and mud.
+They burnt their important dead; they did not bury them ceremoniously
+as the brunette peoples did.  They put the ashes of their greater
+leaders in urns and then made a great circular mound about them.  These
+mounds are the “round barrows” that occur all over north Europe.  The
+brunette people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead but buried
+them in a sitting position in elongated mounds; the “long barrows.”
+
+The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but they did not
+settle down by their crops; they would reap and move on.  They had
+bronze, and somewhen about 1500 B.C. they acquired iron.  They may have
+been the discoverers of iron smelting.  And somewhen vaguely about that
+time they also got the horse—which to begin with they used only for
+draught purposes.  Their social life did not centre upon a temple like
+that of the more settled people round the Mediterranean, and their
+chief men were leaders rather than priests.  They had an aristocratic
+social order rather than a divine and regal order; from a very early
+stage they distinguished certain families as leaderly and noble.
+
+
+A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA
+A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA
+
+Compare the horses and other animals with the Altamira drawing on p.
+54, and also with the Greek frieze, p. 140
+
+
+They were a very vocal people.  They enlivened their wanderings by
+feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and at which a special sort
+of man, the bards, would sing and recite.  They had no writing until
+they had come into contact with civilization, and the memories of these
+bards were their living literature.  This use of recited language as an
+entertainment did much to make it a fine and beautiful instrument of
+expression, and to that no doubt the subsequent predominance of the
+languages derived from Aryan is, in part, to be ascribed.  Every Aryan
+people had its legendary history crystallized in bardic recitations,
+epics, sagas and vedas, as they were variously called.
+
+The social life of these people centred about the households of their
+leading men.  The hall of the chief where they settled for a time was
+often a very capacious timber building.  There were no doubt huts for
+herds and outlying farm buildings; but with most of the Aryan peoples
+this hall was the general centre, everyone went there to feast and hear
+the bards and take part in games and discussions.  Cowsheds and
+stabling surrounded it.  The chief and his wife and so forth would
+sleep on a dais or in an upper gallery; the commoner sort slept about
+anywhere, as people still do in Indian households.  Except for weapons,
+ornaments, tools and suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of
+patriarchal communism in the tribe.  The chief owned the cattle and
+grazing lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were the wild.
+
+This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and multiplying
+over the great spaces of central Europe and west central Asia during
+the growth of the great civilization of Mesopotamia and the Nile, and
+whom we find pressing upon the heliolithic peoples everywhere in the
+second millennium before Christ.  They were coming into France and
+Britain and into Spain.  They pushed westward in two waves.  The first
+of these people who reached Britain and Ireland were armed with bronze
+weapons.  They exterminated or subjugated the people who had made the
+great stone monuments of Carnac in Brittany and Stonehenge and Avebury
+in England.  They reached Ireland. They are called the Goidelic Celts.
+The second wave of a closely kindred people, perhaps intermixed with
+other racial elements, brought iron with it into Great Britain, and is
+known as the wave of Brythonic Celts.  From them the Welsh derive their
+language.
+
+
+THE MOUND OF NIPPUR
+THE MOUND OF NIPPUR
+
+The site of a city which recent excavations have proved to date from at
+least as early as 5000 B.C., and probably 1000 years earlier
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and coming
+into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque people who still
+occupied the country but with the Semitic Phœnician colonies of the sea
+coast.  A closely allied series of tribes, the Italians, were making
+their way down the still wild and wooded Italian peninsula.  They did
+not always conquer.  In the eighth century B.C.  Rome appears in
+history, a trading town on the Tiber, inhabited by Aryan Latins but
+under the rule of Etruscan nobles and kings.
+
+At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar progress
+southward of similar tribes.  Aryan peoples, speaking Sanskrit, had
+come down through the western passes into North India long before 1000
+B.C.  There they came into contact with a primordial brunette
+civilization, the Dravidian civilization, and learnt much from it. 
+Other Aryan tribes seem to have spread over the mountain masses of
+Central Asia far to the east of the present range of such peoples.  In
+Eastern Turkestan there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but
+now they speak Mongolian tongues.
+
+Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had been
+submerged and “Aryanized” by the Armenians before 1000 B.C., and the
+Assyrians and Babylonians were already aware of a new and formidable
+fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a group of tribes
+amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians remain as
+outstanding names.
+
+But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes made their
+first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world civilization.  They
+were already coming southward and crossing into Asia Minor many
+centuries before 1000 B.C.  First came a group of tribes of whom the
+Phrygians were the most conspicuous, and then in succession the Æolic,
+the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks. By 1000 B.C. they had wiped out the
+ancient Ægean civilization both in the mainland of Greece and in most
+of the Greek islands; the cities of Mycenæ and Tiryns were obliterated
+and Cnossos was nearly forgotten.  The Greeks had taken to the sea
+before 1000 A.D., they had settled in Crete and Rhodes, and they were
+founding colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy after the fashion of
+the Phœnician trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean
+coasts.
+
+So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and Sardanapalus
+were ruling in Assyria and fighting with Babylonia and Syria and Egypt,
+the Aryan peoples were learning the methods of civilization and making
+it over for their own purposes in Italy and Greece and north Persia. 
+The theme of history from the ninth century B.C. A.D. onward for six
+centuries is the story of how these Aryan peoples grew to power and
+enterprise and how at last they subjugated the whole Ancient World,
+Semitic, Ægean and Egyptian alike.  In form the Aryan peoples were
+altogether victorious; but the struggle of Aryan, Semitic and Egyptian
+ideas and methods was continued long after the sceptre was in Aryan
+hands.  It is indeed a struggle that goes on through all the rest of
+history and still in a manner continues to this day.
+
+
+
+
+XX
+THE LAST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF DARIUS I
+
+
+We have already mentioned how Assyria became a great military power
+under Tiglath Pileser III and under the usurper Sargon II. Sargon was
+not this man’s original name; he adopted it to flatter the conquered
+Babylonians by reminding them of that ancient founder of the Akkadian
+Empire, Sargon I, two thousand years before his time. Babylon, for all
+that it was a conquered city, was of greater population and importance
+than Nineveh, and its great god Bel Marduk and its traders and priests
+had to be treated politely. In Mesopotamia in the eighth century B.C.
+A.D. we are already far beyond the barbaric days when the capture of a
+town meant loot and massacre. Conquerors sought to propitiate and win
+the conquered. For a century and a half after Sargon the new Assyrian
+empire endured and, as we have noted, Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus) held
+at least lower Egypt.
+
+But the power and solidarity of Assyria waned rapidly.  Egypt by an
+effort threw off the foreigner under a Pharoah Psammetichus I, and
+under Necho II attempted a war of conquest in Syria.  By that time
+Assyria was grappling with foes nearer at hand, and could make but a
+poor resistance.  A Semitic people from south-east Mesopotamia, the
+Chaldeans, combined with Aryan Medes and Persians from the north-east
+against Nineveh, and in 606 B.C.—for now we are coming down to exact
+chronology—took that city.
+
+There was a division of the spoils of Assyria.  A Median Empire was set
+up in the north under Cyaxares.   It included Nineveh, and its capital
+was Ecbatana.  Eastward it reached to the borders of India.  To the
+south of this in a great crescent was a new Chaldean Empire, the Second
+Babylonian Empire, which rose to a very great degree of wealth and
+power under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar the Great (the Nebuchadnezzar of
+the Bible). The last great days, the greatest days of all, for Babylon
+began.  For a time the two Empires remained at peace, and the daughter
+of Nebuchadnezzar was married to Cyaxares.
+
+Meanwhile Necho II was pursuing his easy conquests in Syria. He had
+defeated and slain King Josiah of Judah, a small country of which there
+is more to tell presently, at the battle of Megiddo in 608 B.C., and he
+pushed on to the Euphrates to encounter not a decadent Assyria but a
+renascent Babylonia.  The Chaldeans dealt very vigorously with the
+Egyptians.  Necho was routed and driven back to Egypt, and the
+Babylonian frontier pushed down to the ancient Egyptian boundaries.
+
+
+Map showing the relation of the Median and Second Babylonian (Chaldæan)
+Empires in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great
+
+From 606 until 589 B.C. the Second Babylonian Empire flourished
+insecurely.  It flourished so long as it kept the peace with the
+stronger, hardier Median Empire to the north.  And during these
+sixty-seven years not only life but learning flourished in the ancient
+city.
+
+
+Map: The Empire of Darius (tribute-paying countries) at its greatest
+extent
+
+Even under the Assyrian monarchs and especially under Sardanapalus,
+Babylon had been a scene of great intellectual activity.  Sardanapalus,
+though an Assyrian, had been quite Babylon-ized.  He made a library, a
+library not of paper but of the clay tablets that were used for writing
+in Mesopotamia since early Sumerian days.  His collection has been
+unearthed and is perhaps the most precious store of historical material
+in the world.  The last of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs,
+Nabonidus, had even keener literary tastes.  He patronized antiquarian
+researches, and when a date was worked out by his investigators for the
+accession of Sargon I he commemorated the fact by inscriptions.  But
+there were many signs of disunion in his empire, and he sought to
+centralize it by bringing a number of the various local gods to Babylon
+and setting up temples to them there.  This device was to be practised
+quite successfully by the Romans in later times, but in Babylon it
+roused the jealousy of the powerful priesthood of Bel Marduk, the
+dominant god of the Babylonians.  They cast about for a possible
+alternative to Nabonidus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler
+of the adjacent Median Empire.  Cyrus had already distinguished himself
+by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in Eastern Asia Minor. 
+He came up against Babylon, there was a battle outside the walls, and
+the gates of the city were opened to him (538 B.C.).  His soldiers
+entered the city without fighting.  The crown prince Belshazzar, the
+son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the Bible relates, when a hand appeared
+and wrote in letters of fire upon the wall these mystical words: 
+_“Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin,”_ which was interpreted by the prophet
+Daniel, whom he summoned to read the riddle, as “God has numbered thy
+kingdom and finished it; thou art weighed in the balance and found
+wanting and thy kingdom is given to the Medes and Persians.”  Possibly
+the priests of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the
+wall. Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible.  Nabonidus was
+taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was so peaceful that the
+services of Bel Marduk continued without intermission.
+
+
+PERSIAN MONARCH
+PERSIAN MONARCH
+
+From the ruins of Persepolis
+
+_Photo:  Miss F. Biggs_
+
+
+Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united. Cambyses,
+the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt.  Cambyses went mad and was
+accidentally killed, and was presently succeeded by Darius the Mede,
+Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of the chief councillors of Cyrus.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS
+THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS
+
+The capital city of the Persian Empire; burnt by Alexander the Great
+
+_Photo:  Major W. F. P. Rodd_
+
+
+THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS
+THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS
+
+_Photo:  Major W. F. P. Rodd_
+
+
+The Persian Empire of Darius I, the first of the new Aryan empires in
+the seat of the old civilizations, was the greatest empire the world
+had hitherto seen.  It included all Asia Minor and Syria, all the old
+Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, the Caucasus and Caspian
+regions, Media, Persia, and it extended into India as far as the Indus.
+ Such an empire was possible because the horse and rider and the
+chariot and the made-road had now been brought into the world. 
+Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert use had afforded the
+swiftest method of transport.  Great arterial roads were made by the
+Persian rulers to hold their new empire, and post horses were always in
+waiting for the imperial messenger or the traveller with an official
+permit.  Moreover the world was now beginning to use coined money,
+which greatly facilitated trade and intercourse.  But the capital of
+this vast empire was no longer Babylon.  In the long run the priesthood
+of Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason. Babylon though still
+important was now a declining city, and the great cities of the new
+empire were Persepolis and Susa and Ecbatana.  The capital was Susa. 
+Nineveh was already abandoned and sinking into ruins.
+
+
+
+
+XXI
+THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE JEWS
+
+
+And now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so important
+in their own time as in their influence upon the later history of the
+world. They were settled in Judea long before 1000 B.C., and their
+capital city after that time was Jerusalem. Their story is interwoven
+with that of the great empires on either side of them, Egypt to the
+south and the changing empires of Syria, Assyria and Babylon to the
+north. Their country was an inevitable high road between these latter
+powers and Egypt.
+
+Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they produced a
+written literature, a world history, a collection of laws, chronicles,
+psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and fiction and political utterances
+which became at last what Christians know as the Old Testament, the
+Hebrew Bible.  This literature appears in history in the fourth or
+fifth century B.C.
+
+Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon. We have
+already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the Assyrian Empire
+while Assyria was fighting for life against Medes, Persians and
+Chaldeans.  Josiah King of Judah opposed him, and was defeated and
+slain at Megiddo (608 B.C.).  Judah became a tributary to Egypt, and
+when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in Babylon, rolled
+back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage Judah by setting up
+puppet kings in Jerusalem.  The experiment failed, the people massacred
+his Babylonian officials, and he then determined to break up this
+little state altogether, which had long been playing off Egypt against
+the northern empire.  Jerusalem was sacked and burnt, and the remnant
+of the people was carried off captive to Babylon.
+
+There they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538 B.C.).  He then
+collected them together and sent them back to resettle their country
+and rebuild the walls and temple of Jerusalem.
+
+Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very civilized or
+united people.  Probably only a very few of them could read or write. 
+In their own history one never hears of the early books of the Bible
+being read; the first mention of a book is in the time of Josiah.  The
+Babylonian captivity civilized them and consolidated them.  They
+returned aware of their own literature, an acutely self-conscious and
+political people.
+
+Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the
+Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old Testament as
+we know it.  In addition, as separate books they already had many of
+the other books that have since been incorporated with the Pentateuch
+into the present Hebrew Bible, Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for
+example.
+
+The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve and of the
+Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely parallel with similar
+Babylonian legends; they seem to have been part of the common beliefs
+of all the Semitic peoples. So too the stories of Moses and of Samson
+have Sumerian and Babylonian parallels.  But with the story of Abraham
+and onward begins something more special to the Jewish race.
+
+Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in Babylon. 
+He was a patriarchal Semitic nomad.  To the book of Genesis the reader
+must go for the story of his wanderings and for the stories of his sons
+and grandchildren and how they became captive in the Land of Egypt.  He
+travelled through Canaan, and the God of Abraham, says the Bible story,
+promised this smiling land of prosperous cities to him and to his
+children.
+
+And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of wandering in
+the wilderness under the leadership of Moses, the children of Abraham,
+grown now to a host of twelve tribes, invaded the land of Canaan from
+the Arabian deserts to the East.  They may have done this somewhen
+between 1600 B.C. and 1300 B.C.; there are no Egyptian records of Moses
+nor of Canaan at this time to help out the story.  But at any rate they
+did not succeed in conquering any more than the hilly backgrounds of
+the promised land.  The coast was now in the hands, not of the
+Canaanites but of newcomers, those Ægean peoples, the Philistines; and
+their cities, Gaza, Gath, Ashdod, Ascalon and Joppa successfully
+withstood the Hebrew attack.  For many generations the children of
+Abraham remained an obscure people of the hilly back country engaged in
+incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the kindred tribes
+about them, the Moabites, the Midianites and so forth.  The reader will
+find in the book of Judges a record of their struggles and disasters
+during this period. For very largely it is a record of disasters and
+failures frankly told.
+
+
+Map: The Land of the Hebrews
+
+For most of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there was any
+rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the elders of the
+people, but at last somewhen towards 1000 B.C. they chose themselves a
+king, Saul, to lead them in battle.  But Saul’s leading was no great
+improvement upon the leading of the Judges; he perished under the hail
+of Philistine arrows at the battle of Mount Gilboa, his armour went
+into the temple of the Philistine Venus, and his body was nailed to the
+walls of Beth-shan.
+
+
+MOUND AT BABYLON
+THE MOUND AT BABYLON
+
+Beneath which are the remains of a great palace of Nebuchadnezzar
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+His successor David was more successful and more politic. With David
+dawned the only period of prosperity the Hebrew peoples were ever to
+know.  It was based on a close alliance with the Phœnician city of
+Tyre, whose King Hiram seems to have been a man of very great
+intelligence and enterprise. He wished to secure a trade route to the
+Red Sea through the Hebrew hill country.  Normally Phœnician trade went
+to the Red Sea by Egypt, but Egypt was in a state of profound disorder
+at this time; there may have been other obstructions to Phœnician trade
+along this line, and at any rate Hiram established the very closest
+relations both with David and with his son and successor Solomon. 
+Under Hiram’s auspices the walls, palace and temple of Jerusalem arose,
+and in return Hiram built and launched his ships on the Red Sea.  A
+very considerable trade passed northward and southward through
+Jerusalem.  And Solomon achieved a prosperity and magnificence
+unprecedented in the experience of his people.  He was even given a
+daughter of Pharaoh in marriage.
+
+But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind.  At the climax
+of his glories Solomon was only a little subordinate king in a little
+city.  His power was so transitory that within a few years of his
+death, Shishak the first Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty, had
+taken Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours.  The account of
+Solomon’s magnificence given in the books of Kings and Chronicles is
+questioned by many critics.  They say that it was added to and
+exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later writers.  But the Bible
+account read carefully is not so overwhelming as it appears at the
+first reading. Solomon’s temple, if one works out the measurements,
+would go inside a small suburban church, and his fourteen hundred
+chariots cease to impress us when we learn from an Assyrian monument
+that his successor Ahab sent a contingent of two thousand to the
+Assyrian army.  It is also plainly manifest from the Bible narrative
+that Solomon spent himself in display and overtaxed and overworked his
+people.  At his death the northern part of his kingdom broke off from
+Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel. Jerusalem
+remained the capital city of Judah.
+
+
+THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON
+THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON
+
+The bulls are in richly coloured enamel on baked brick
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived.  Hiram died, and
+the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem. Egypt grew strong
+again.  The history of the kings of Israel and the kings of Judah
+becomes a history of two little states ground between, first, Syria,
+then Assyria and then Babylon to the north and Egypt to the south.  It
+is a tale of disasters and of deliverances that only delayed disaster. 
+It is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a barbaric people. In 721 B.C.
+the kingdom of Israel was swept away into captivity by the Assyrians
+and its people utterly lost to history.  Judah struggled on until in
+604 B.C., as we have told, it shared the fate of Israel.  There may be
+details open to criticism in the Bible story of Hebrew history from the
+days of the Judges onward, but on the whole it is evidently a true
+story which squares with all that has been learnt in the excavation of
+Egypt and Assyria and Babylon during the past century.
+
+It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history together and
+evolved their tradition.  The people who came back to Jerusalem at the
+command of Cyrus were a very different people in spirit and knowledge
+from those who had gone into captivity.  They had learnt civilization. 
+In the development of their peculiar character a very great part was
+played by certain men, a new sort of men, the Prophets, to whom we must
+now direct our attention.  These Prophets mark the appearance of new
+and remarkable forces in the steady development of human society.
+
+
+
+
+XXII
+PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA
+
+
+The fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of
+disasters that were to happen to the Semitic peoples. In the seventh
+century B.C. it would have seemed as though the whole civilized world
+was to be dominated by Semitic rulers. They ruled the great Assyrian
+empire and they had conquered Egypt; Assyria, Babylon, Syria were all
+Semitic, speaking languages that were mutually intelligible. The trade
+of the world was in Semitic hands. Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities
+of the Phœnician coast, had thrown out colonies that grew at last to
+even greater proportion in Spain, Sicily and Africa. Carthage, founded
+before 800 B.C., had risen to a population of more than a million. It
+was for a time the greatest city on earth. Its ships went to Britain
+and out into the Atlantic. They may have reached Madeira. We have
+already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to build ships on the
+Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian trade. In the time
+of the Pharaoh Necho, a Phœnician expedition sailed completely round
+Africa.
+
+At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians.  Only the Greeks
+were reconstructing a new civilization of the ruins of the one they had
+destroyed, and the Medes were becoming “formidable,” as an Assyrian
+inscription calls them, in central Asia.  In 800 B.C. no one could have
+prophesied that before the third century B.C. every trace of Semitic
+dominion would be wiped out by Aryan-speaking conquerors, and that
+everywhere the Semitic peoples would be subjects or tributaries or
+scattered altogether.  Everywhere except in the northern deserts of
+Arabia, where the Bedouin adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life,
+the ancient way of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his
+Akkadians went down to conquer Sumeria.  But the Arab Bedouin were
+never conquered by Aryan masters.
+
+Now of all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in these
+five eventful centuries one people only held together and clung to its
+ancient traditions and that was this little people, the Jews, who were
+sent back to build their city of Jerusalem by Cyrus the Persian.  And
+they were able to do this, because they had got together this
+literature of theirs, their Bible, in Babylon.  It is not so much the
+Jews who made the Bible as the Bible which made the Jews.  Running
+through this Bible were certain ideas, different from the ideas of the
+people about them, very stimulating and sustaining ideas, to which they
+were destined to cling through five and twenty centuries of hardship,
+adventure and oppression.
+
+Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was invisible
+and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made with hands, a Lord of
+Righteousness throughout the earth. All other peoples had national gods
+embodied in images that lived in temples.  If the image was smashed and
+the temple razed, presently that god died out.  But this was a new
+idea, this God of the Jews, in the heavens, high above priests and
+sacrifices.  And this God of Abraham, the Jews believed, had chosen
+them to be his peculiar people, to restore Jerusalem and make it the
+capital of Righteousness in the World.  They were a people exalted by
+their sense of a common destiny. This belief saturated them all when
+they returned to Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon.
+
+Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and subjugation many
+Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and later on many Phœnicians,
+speaking practically the same language and having endless customs,
+habits, tastes and traditions in common, should be attracted by this
+inspiring cult and should seek to share in its fellowship and its
+promise?  After the fall of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage and the Spanish
+Phœnician cities, the Phœnicians suddenly vanish from history; and as
+suddenly we find, not simply in Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt,
+Arabia, the East, wherever the Phœnicians had set their feet,
+communities of Jews.  And they were all held together by the Bible and
+by the reading of the Bible.  Jerusalem was from the first only their
+nominal capital; their real city was this book of books.  This is a new
+sort of thing in history.  It is something of which the seeds were sown
+long before, when the Sumerians and Egyptians began to turn their
+hieroglyphics into writing.  The Jews were a new thing, a people
+without a king and presently without a temple (for as we shall tell
+Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70 A.D.), held together and
+consolidated out of heterogeneous elements by nothing but the power of
+the written word.
+
+And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor foreseen
+nor done by either priests or statesmen.  Not only a new kind of
+community but a new kind of man comes into history with the development
+of the Jews.  In the days of Solomon the Hebrews looked like becoming a
+little people just like any other little people of that time clustering
+around court and temple, ruled by the wisdom of the priest and led by
+the ambition of the king.  But already, the reader may learn from the
+Bible, this new sort of man of which we speak, the Prophet, was in
+evidence.
+
+As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance of these
+Prophets increases.
+
+
+THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II
+THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II
+
+This obelisk (in the British Museum) of the King of Assyria mentions,
+in cuneiform, “Jehu the son of Omri.”  Panel showing Jewish captives
+bringing tribute
+
+
+What were these Prophets?  They were men of the most diverse origins. 
+The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and the Prophet Amos wore
+the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but all had this in common, that
+they gave allegiance to no one but to the God of Righteousness and that
+they spoke directly to the people.  They came without licence or
+consecration.  “Now the word of the Lord came unto me;” that was the
+formula.  They were intensely political.  They exhorted the people
+against Egypt, “that broken reed,” or against Assyria or Babylon; they
+denounced the indolence of the priestly order or the flagrant sins of
+the King.  Some of them turned their attention to what we should now
+call “social reform.”  The rich were “grinding the faces of the poor,”
+the luxurious were consuming the children’s bread; wealthy people made
+friends with and imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners; and
+this was hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would certainly
+punish this land.
+
+
+ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK
+ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK
+
+Captive Princes making obeisance to Shalmaneser II
+
+
+These fulminations were written down and preserved and studied.  They
+went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they went they spread a new
+religious spirit.  They carried the common man past priest and temple,
+past court and king and brought him face to face with the Rule of
+Righteousness. That is their supreme importance in the history of
+mankind. In the great utterances of Isaiah the prophetic voice rises to
+a pitch of splendid anticipation and foreshadows the whole earth united
+and at peace under one God.  Therein the Jewish prophecies culminate.
+
+All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the intelligent
+reader of the prophetic books will find much hate in them, much
+prejudice, and much that will remind him of the propaganda pamphlets of
+the present time.  Nevertheless it is the Hebrew Prophets of the period
+round and about the Babylonian captivity who mark the appearance of a
+new power in the world, the power of individual moral appeal, of an
+appeal to the free conscience of mankind against the fetish sacrifices
+and slavish loyalties that had hitherto bridled and harnessed our race.
+
+
+
+
+XXIII
+THE GREEKS
+
+
+Now while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960 B.C.) the
+divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering destruction and
+deportation, and while the Jewish people were developing their
+tradition in captivity in Babylon, another great power over the human
+mind, the Greek tradition, was also arising. While the Hebrew prophets
+were working out a new sense of direct moral responsibility between the
+people and an eternal and universal God of Right, the Greek
+philosophers were training the human mind in a new method and spirit of
+intellectual adventure.
+
+The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the Aryan- speaking
+stem. They had come down among the Ægean cities and islands some
+centuries before 1000 B.C.  They were probably already in southward
+movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted his first elephants beyond
+the conquered Euphrates.  For in those days there were elephants in
+Mesopotamia and lions in Greece.
+
+It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos, but there
+are no Greek legends of such a victory though there are stories of
+Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of the skill of the Cretan
+artificers.
+
+
+STATUE OF MELEAGER
+STATUE OF MELEAGER
+
+Note the progress in plastic power from the earlier wooden statue on
+left
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters whose
+performances were an important social link, and these handed down from
+the barbaric beginnings of their people two great epics, the _Iliad_,
+telling how a league of Greek tribes besieged and took and sacked the
+town of Troy in Asia Minor, and the _Odyssey_, being a long adventure
+story of the return of the sage captain, Odysseus, from Troy to his own
+island.  These epics were written down somewhen in the eighth or
+seventh century B.C., when the Greeks had acquired the use of an
+alphabet from their more civilized neighbours, but they are supposed to
+have been in existence very much earlier.  Formerly they were ascribed
+to a particular blind bard, Homer, who was supposed to have sat down
+and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost. Whether there
+really was such a poet, whether he composed or only wrote down and
+polished these epics and so forth, is a favourite quarrelling ground
+for the erudite.  We need not concern ourselves with such bickerings
+here.  The thing that matters from our point of view is that the Greeks
+were in possession of their epics in the eighth century B.C., and that
+they were a common possession and a link between their various tribes,
+giving them a sense of fellowship as against the outer barbarians. 
+They were a group of kindred peoples linked by the spoken and
+afterwards by the written word, and sharing common ideals of courage
+and behaviour.
+
+The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron, without
+writing, and still not living in cities.  They seem to have lived at
+first in open villages of huts around the halls of their chiefs outside
+the ruins of the Ægean cities they had destroyed.  Then they began to
+wall their cities and to adopt the idea of temples from the people they
+had conquered.  It has been said that the cities of the primitive
+civilizations grew up about the altar of some tribal god, and that the
+wall was added; in the cities of the Greeks the wall preceded the
+temple.  They began to trade and send out colonies.  By the seventh
+century B.C. a new series of cities had grown up in the valleys and
+islands of Greece, forgetful of the Ægean cities and civilization that
+had preceded them; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus
+among the chief. There were already Greek settlements along the coast
+of the Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily.  The heel and toe of Italy
+was called Magna Græcia.  Marseilles was a Greek town established on
+the site of an earlier Phœnician colony.
+
+Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief means of
+transport some great river like the Euphrates or Nile tend to become
+united under some common rule.  The cities of Egypt and the cities of
+Sumeria, for example, ran together under one system of government. But
+the Greek peoples were cut up among islands and mountain valleys; both
+Greece and Magna Græcia are very mountainous; and the tendency was all
+the other way.  When the Greeks come into history they are divided up
+into a number of little states which showed no signs of coalescence. 
+They are different even in race.  Some consist chiefly of citizens of
+this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, Æolian or Doric; some have a mingled
+population of Greeks and descendants of the pre-Greek “Mediterranean”
+folk; some have an unmixed free citizenship of Greeks lording it over
+an enslaved conquered population like the “Helots” in Sparta.  In some
+the old leaderly Aryan families have become a close aristocracy; in
+some there is a democracy of all the Aryan citizens; in some there are
+elected or even hereditary kings, in some usurpers or tyrants.
+
+
+RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA
+RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek states divided
+and various, kept them small.  The largest states were smaller than
+many English counties, and it is doubtful if the population of any of
+their cities ever exceeded a third of a million.  Few came up even to
+50,000. There were unions of interest and sympathy but no coalescences.
+ Cities made leagues and alliances as trade increased, and small cities
+put themselves under the protection of great ones.  Yet all Greece was
+held together in a certain community of feeling by two things, by the
+epics and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in the
+athletic contests at Olympia.  This did not prevent wars and feuds, but
+it mitigated something of the savagery of war between them, and a truce
+protected all travellers to and from the games.  As time went on the
+sentiment of a common heritage grew and the number of states
+participating in the Olympic games increased until at last not only
+Greeks but competitors from the closely kindred countries of Epirus and
+Macedonia to the north were admitted.
+
+The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the quality of their
+civilization rose steadily in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. 
+Their social life differed in many interesting points from the social
+life of the Ægean and river valley civilizations. They had splendid
+temples but the priesthood was not the great traditional body it was in
+the cities of the older world, the-repository of all knowledge, the
+storehouse of ideas.  They had leaders and noble families, but no
+quasi- divine monarch surrounded by an elaborately organized court.
+Rather their organization was aristocratic, with leading families which
+kept each other in order.  Even their so- called “democracies” were
+aristocratic; every citizen had a share in public affairs and came to
+the assembly in a democracy, _but everybody was not a citizen_.  The
+Greek democracies were not like our modern “democracies” in which
+everyone has a vote.  Many of the Greek democracies had a few hundred
+or a few thousand citizens and then many thousands of slaves, freedmen
+and so forth, with no share in public affairs.  Generally in Greece
+affairs were in the hands of a community of substantial men. Their
+kings and their tyrants alike were just men set in front of other men
+or usurping a leadership; they were not quasi-divine overmen like
+Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of Mesopotamia.  Both thought and
+government therefore had a freedom under Greek conditions such as they
+had known in none of the older civilizations.  The Greeks had brought
+down into cities the individualism, the personal initiative of the
+wandering life of the northern parklands.  They were the first
+republicans of importance in history.
+
+
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PÆSTUM, SICILY
+
+_Photo:  Alinari_
+
+
+And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric warfare a
+new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life.  We find men who
+are not priests seeking and recording knowledge and enquiring into the
+mysteries of life and being, in a way that has hitherto been the
+sublime privilege of priesthood or the presumptuous amusement of kings.
+ We find already in the sixth century B.C.—perhaps while Isaiah was
+still prophesying in Babylon—such men as Thales and Anaximander of
+Miletus and Heraclitus of Ephesus, who were what we should now call
+independent gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings of the
+world in which we live, asking what its real nature was, whence it came
+and what its destiny might be, and refusing all ready-made or evasive
+answers.  Of these questionings of the universe by the Greek mind, we
+shall have more to say a little later in this history.  These Greek
+enquirers who begin to be remarkable in the sixth century B.C. are the
+first philosophers, the first “wisdom-lovers,” in the world.
+
+And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth century
+B.C. was in the history of humanity.  For not only were these Greek
+philosophers beginning the research for clear ideas about this universe
+and man’s place in it and Isaiah carrying Jewish prophecy to its
+sublimest levels, but as we shall tell later Gautama Buddha was then
+teaching in India and Confucius and Lao Tse in China. From Athens to
+the Pacific the human mind was astir.
+
+
+
+
+XXIV
+THE WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS
+
+
+While the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia Minor
+were embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in Babylon and
+Jerusalem the last of the Hebrew prophets were creating a free
+conscience for mankind, two adventurous Aryan peoples, the Medes and
+the Persians, were in possession of the civilization of the ancient
+world and were making a great empire, the Persian empire, which was far
+larger in extent than any empire the world had seen hitherto. Under
+Cyrus, Babylon and the rich and ancient civilization of Lydia had been
+added to the Persian rule; the Phœnician cities of the Levant and all
+the Greek cities in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had
+subjected Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian
+rulers (521 B.C.), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world.
+His couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the Indus
+and from Upper Egypt to Central Asia.
+
+The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and the
+Spanish Phœnician settlements, were not under the Persian Peace; but
+they treated it with respect and the only people who gave any serious
+trouble were the old parent hordes of Nordic people in South Russia and
+Central Asia, the Scythians, who raided the northern and north-eastern
+borders.
+
+Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not a
+population of Persians, The Persians were only the small conquering
+minority of this enormous realm.  The rest of the population was what
+it had been before the Persians came from time immemorial, only that
+Persian was the administrative language.  Trade and finance were still
+largely Semitic, Tyre and Sidon as of old were the great Mediterranean
+ports and Semitic shipping plied upon the seas.  But many of these
+Semitic merchants and business people as they went from place to place
+already found a sympathetic and convenient common history in the Hebrew
+tradition and the Hebrew scriptures.  A new element which was
+increasing rapidly in this empire was the Greek element.  The Greeks
+were becoming serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their
+detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and, unprejudiced
+officials.
+
+
+FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
+FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY
+
+Showing Greek merchant vesselswith sails and oars statue on left
+
+_Brit. Mus._
+
+
+It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded Europe.  He
+wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the Scythian horsemen. 
+He crossed the Bosphorus with a great army and marched through Bulgaria
+to the Danube, crossed this by a bridge of boats and pushed far
+northward.  His army suffered terribly.  It was largely an infantry
+force and the mounted Scythians rode all round it, cut off its
+supplies, destroyed any stragglers and never came to a pitched battle.
+Darius was forced into an inglorious retreat.
+
+He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and
+Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius.  Insurrections of the
+Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the European Greeks
+were drawn into the contest.  Darius resolved upon the subjugation of
+the Greeks in Europe.  With the Phœnician fleet at his disposal he was
+able to subdue one island after another, and finally in 490 B.C. he
+made his main attack upon Athens.  A considerable Armada sailed from
+the ports of Asia Minor and the eastern Mediterranean, and the
+expedition landed its troops at Marathon to the north of Athens.  There
+they were met and signally defeated by the Athenians.
+
+An extraordinary thing happened at this time.  The bitterest rival of
+Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed to Sparta, sending
+a herald, a swift runner, imploring the Spartans not to let Greeks
+become slaves to barbarians.  This runner (the prototype of all
+“Marathon” runners) did over a hundred miles of broken country in less
+than two days.  The Spartans responded promptly and generously; but
+when, in three days, the Spartan force reached Athens, there was
+nothing for it to do but to view the battlefield and the bodies of the
+defeated Persian soldiers.  The Persian fleet had returned to Asia.  So
+ended the first Persian attack on Greece.
+
+The next was much more impressive.  Darius died soon after the news of
+his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four years his son and
+successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush the Greeks.  For a time
+terror united all the Greeks.  The army of Xerxes was certainly the
+greatest that had hitherto been assembled in the world.  It was a huge
+assembly of discordant elements.  It crossed the Dardanelles, 480 B.C.,
+by a bridge of boats; and along the coast as it advanced moved an
+equally miscellaneous fleet carrying supplies.  At the narrow pass of
+Thermopylæ a small force of 1400 men under the Spartan Leonidas
+resisted this multitude, and after a fight of unsurpassed heroism was
+completely destroyed.  Every man was killed.  But the losses they
+inflicted upon the Persians were enormous, and the army of Xerxes
+pushed on to Thebes and Athens in a chastened mood. Thebes surrendered
+and made terms.  The Athenians abandoned their city and it was burnt.
+
+Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came victory
+against the odds and all expectations.  The Greek fleet, though not a
+third the size of the Persian, assailed it in the bay of Salamis and
+destroyed it.  Xerxes found himself and his immense army cut off from
+supplies and his heart failed him.  He retreated to Asia with one half
+of his army, leaving the rest to be defeated at Platea (479 B.C.) what
+time the remnants of the Persian fleet were hunted down by the Greeks
+and destroyed at Mycalæ in Asia Minor.
+
+
+ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH
+ALL THAT REMAINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF CORINTH
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+The Persian danger was at an end.  Most of the Greek cities in Asia
+became free.  All this is told in great detail and with much
+picturesqueness in the first of written histories, the _History_ of
+Herodotus.  This Herodotus was born about 484 B.C. in the Ionian city
+of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon and Egypt in his
+search for exact particulars.  From Mycalæ onward Persia sank into a
+confusion of dynastic troubles.  Xerxes was murdered in 465 B.C. and
+rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media broke up the brief order of that
+mighty realm.  The history of Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of
+Persia.  This history is indeed what we should now call
+propaganda—propaganda for Greece to unite and conquer Persia. 
+Herodotus makes one character, Aristagoras, go to the Spartans with a
+map of the known world and say to them: “These Barbarians are not
+valiant in fight.  You on the other hand have now attained the utmost
+skill in war .... No other nations in the world have what they possess:
+gold, silver, bronze, embroidered garments, beasts and slaves. _All
+this you might have for yourselves, if you so desired_.”
+
+
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM
+THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+
+
+XXV
+THE SPLENDOUR OF GREECE
+
+
+The century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one of
+very great splendour for the Greek civilization. True that Greece was
+torn by a desperate struggle for ascendancy between Athens, Sparta and
+other states (the Peloponnesian War 431 to 404 B.C.) and that in 338
+B.C. the Macedonians became virtually masters of Greece; nevertheless
+during this period the thought and the creative and artistic impulse of
+the Greeks rose to levels that made their achievement a lamp to mankind
+for all the rest of history.
+
+The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens.  For over
+thirty years (466 to 428 B.C.) Athens was dominated by a man of great
+vigour and liberality of mind, Pericles, who set himself to rebuild the
+city from the ashes to which the Persians had reduced it. The beautiful
+ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are chiefly the remains of this
+great effort.  And he did not simply rebuild a material Athens.  He
+rebuilt Athens intellectually.  He gathered about him not only
+architects and sculptors but poets, dramatists, philosophers and
+teachers.  Herodotus came to Athens to recite his history (438 B.C.).
+Anaxagoras came with the beginnings of a scientific description of the
+sun and stars.  Æschylus, Sophocles and Euripides one after the other
+carried the Greek drama to its highest levels or beauty and nobility.
+
+The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens lived on
+after his death, and in spite of the fact that the peace of Greece was
+now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a long and wasteful struggle
+for “ascendancy” was beginning.  Indeed the darkling of the political
+horizon seems for a time to have quickened rather than discouraged
+men’s minds.
+
+Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom of Greek
+institutions had given great importance to skill in discussion. 
+Decision rested neither with king nor with priest but in the assemblies
+of the people or of leading men.  Eloquence and able argument became
+very desirable accomplishments therefore, and a class of teachers
+arose, the Sophists, who undertook to strengthen young men in these
+arts.  But one cannot reason without matter, and knowledge followed in
+the wake of speech.  The activities and rivalries of these Sophists led
+very naturally to an acute examination of style, of methods of thought
+and of the validity of arguments.  When Pericles died a certain
+Socrates was becoming prominent as an able and destructive critic of
+bad argument—and much of the teaching of the Sophists was bad argument.
+ A group of brilliant young men gathered about Socrates.  In the end
+Socrates was executed for disturbing people’s minds (399 B.C.), he was
+condemned after the dignified fashion of the Athens of those days to
+drink in his own house and among his own friends a poisonous draught
+made from hemlock, but the disturbance of people’s minds went on in
+spite of his condemnation. His young men carried on his teaching.
+
+
+PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS
+PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS
+
+A specimen of Grecian sculpture in its finest expression. Compare the
+advance of art with that seen in the animals shown on p. 105
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS
+THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS
+
+The marvellous group of Temples and monuments built under the
+inspriration of Pericles
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE
+THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE
+
+A wonderfully preserved specimen showing the vast auditorium
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+
+Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347 B.C.) who presently
+began to teach philosophy in the grove of the Academy.  His teaching
+fell into two main divisions, an examination of the foundations and
+methods of human thinking and an examination of political institutions.
+He was the first man to write a Utopia, that is to say the plan of a
+community different from and better than any existing community.  This
+shows an altogether unprecedented boldness in the human mind which had
+hitherto accepted social traditions and usages with scarcely a
+question.  Plato said plainly to mankind: “Most of the social and
+political ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only
+the will and courage to change them.  You can live in another and a
+wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it out.  You are
+not awake to your own power.”  That is a high adventurous teaching that
+has still to soak in to the common intelligence of our race.  One of
+his earliest works was the Republic, a dream of a communist
+aristocracy; his last unfinished work was the Laws, a scheme of
+regulation for another such Utopian state.
+
+
+THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM
+THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM
+
+The ancient sanctuary on the Acropolis at Athens
+
+_Photo:  Fred Boissonnas_
+
+ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON
+ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON
+_Photo:  Alinart_
+
+
+The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of government was
+carried on after Plato’s death by Aristotle, who had been his pupil and
+who taught in the Lyceum.  Aristotle came from the city of Stagira in
+Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the Macedonian king. 
+For a time Aristotle was tutor to Alexander, the king’s son, who was
+destined to achieve very great things of which we shall soon be
+telling.  Aristotle’s work upon methods of thinking carried the science
+of Logic to a level at which it remained for fifteen hundred years or
+more, until the mediæval schoolmen took up the ancient questions again.
+ He made no Utopias.  Before man could really control his destiny as
+Plato taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more knowledge and
+far more accurate knowledge than he possessed. And so Aristotle began
+that systematic collection of knowledge which nowadays we call Science.
+ He sent out explorers to collect _facts_.  He was the father of
+natural history.  He was the founder of political science. His students
+at the Lyceum examined and compared the constitutions of 158 different
+states ....
+
+Here in the fourth century B.C. we find men who are practically “modern
+thinkers.” The child-like, dream-like methods of primitive thought had
+given way to a disciplined and critical attack upon the problems of
+life.  The weird and monstrous symbolism and imagery of the gods and
+god monsters, and all the taboos and awes and restraints that have
+hitherto encumbered thinking are here completely set aside.  Free,
+exact and systematic thinking has begun.  The fresh and unencumbered
+mind of these newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself
+into the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in.
+
+
+
+
+XXVI
+THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+
+
+From 431 to 404 B.C. the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece. Meanwhile to
+the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia was rising slowly
+to power and civilization. The Macedonians spoke a language closely
+akin to Greek, and on several occasions Macedonian competitors had
+taken part in the Olympic games. In 359 B.C. a man of very great
+abilities and ambition became king of this little country—Philip.
+Philip had previously been a hostage in Greece; he had had a thoroughly
+Greek education and he was probably aware of the ideas of
+Herodotus—which had also been developed by the philosopher Isocrates—of
+a possible conquest of Asia by a consolidated Greece.
+
+He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and to
+remodel his army.  For a thousand years now the charging horse-chariot
+had been the decisive factor in battles, that and the close-fighting
+infantry.  Mounted horsemen had also fought, but as a cloud of
+skirmishers, individually and without discipline.  Philip made his
+infantry fight in a closely packed mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he
+trained his mounted gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in
+formation and so invented cavalry.  The master move in most of his
+battles and in the battles of his son Alexander was a cavalry charge. 
+The phalanx _held_ the enemy infantry in front while the cavalry swept
+away the enemy horse on his wings and poured in on the flank and rear
+of his infantry. Chariots were disabled by bowmen, who shot the horses.
+
+With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through Thessaly to
+Greece; and the battle of Chæronia (338 B.C.), fought against Athens
+and her allies, put all Greece at his feet.  At last the dream of
+Herodotus was bearing fruit.  A congress of all the Greek states
+appointed Philip captain-general of the Græco- Macedonian confederacy
+against Persia, and in 336 B.C. his advanced guard crossed into Asia
+upon this long premeditated adventure.  But he never followed it.  He
+was assassinated; it is believed at the instigation of his queen
+Olympias, Alexander’s mother.  She was jealous because Philip had
+married a second wife.
+
+
+BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+_(As in the British Museum)_
+
+
+But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son’s education.  He had
+not only secured Aristotle, the greatest philosopher in the world, as
+this boy’s tutor, but he had shared his ideas with him and thrust
+military experience upon him.  At Chæronia Alexander, who was then only
+eighteen years old, had been in command of the cavalry.  And so it was
+possible for this young man, who was still only twenty years old at the
+time of his accession, to take up his father’s task at once and to
+proceed successfully with the Persian adventure.
+
+In 334 B.C.—for two years were needed to establish and confirm his
+position in Macedonia and Greece—he crossed into Asia, defeated a not
+very much bigger Persian army at the battle of the Granicus and
+captured a number of cities in Asia Minor.  He kept along the
+sea-coast.  It was necessary for him to reduce and garrison all the
+coast towns as he advanced because the Persians had control of the
+fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of the sea.  Had he left a
+hostile port in his rear the Persians might have landed forces to raid
+his communications and cut him off. At  Issus (333 B.C.) he met and
+smashed a vast conglomerate host under Darius III.  Like the host of
+Xerxes that had crossed the Dardanelles a century and a half before, it
+was an incoherent accumulation of contingents and it was encumbered
+with a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and many camp
+followers.  Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre resisted
+obstinately.  Finally that great city was stormed and plundered and
+destroyed.  Gaza also was stormed, and towards the end of 332 B.C. the
+conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the Persians.
+
+
+ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS
+ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS
+_(From the Pompeian Mosaic)_
+
+Alexander charges in on the left, Darius is in the chariot to the right
+
+
+At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great cities,
+accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt. To these the trade
+of the Phœnician cities was diverted. The Phœnicians of the western
+Mediterranean suddenly disappear from history—and as immediately the
+Jews of Alexandria and the other new trading cities created by
+Alexander appear.
+
+In 331 B.C. Alexander marched out of Egypt upon Babylon as Thothmes and
+Rameses and Necho had done before him.  But he marched by way of Tyre. 
+At Arbela near the ruins of Nineveh, which was already a forgotten
+city, he met Darius and fought the decisive battle of the war.  The
+Persian chariot charge failed, a Macedonian cavalry charge broke up the
+great composite host and the phalanx completed the victory.  Darius led
+the retreat.  He made no further attempt to resist the invader but fled
+northward into the country of the Medes.  Alexander marched on to
+Babylon, still prosperous and important, and then to Susa and
+Persepolis.  There after a drunken festival he burnt down the palace of
+Darius, the king of kings.
+
+
+THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+
+_(In the Vatican Museum)_
+
+
+Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central Asia,
+going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire.  At first he turned
+northward.  Darius was pursued; and he was overtaken at dawn dying in
+his chariot, having been murdered by his own people.  He was still
+living when the foremost Greeks reached him.  Alexander came up to find
+him dead. Alexander skirted the Caspian Sea, he went up into the
+mountains of western Turkestan, he came down by Herat (which he
+founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass into India.  He fought a great
+battle on the Indus with an Indian king, Porus, and here the Macedonian
+troops met elephants for the first time and defeated them.  Finally he
+built himself ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched
+back by the coast of Beluchistan, reaching Susa again in 324 B.C. after
+an absence of six years. He then prepared to consolidate and organize
+this vast empire he had won.  He sought to win over his new subjects. 
+He assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian monarch, and this roused
+the jealousy of his Macedonian commanders.  He had much trouble with
+them.  He arranged a number of marriages between these Macedonian
+officers and Persian and Babylonian women: the “Marriage of the East
+and West.”  He never lived to effect the consolidation he had planned. 
+A fever seized him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died in 323
+B.C.
+
+Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces.  One of his generals,
+Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire from the Indus to
+Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt, and Antigonus secured
+Macedonia.  The rest of the empire remained unstable, passing under the
+control of a succession of local adventurers.  Barbarian raids began
+from the north and grew in scope and intensity.  Until at last, as we
+shall tell, a new power, the power of the Roman republic, came out of
+the west to subjugate one fragment after another and weld them together
+into a new and more enduring empire.
+
+
+
+
+XXVII
+THE MUSEUM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+Before the time of Alexander Greeks had already been spreading as
+merchants, artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of the
+Persian dominions. In the dynastic disputes that followed the death of
+Xerxes, a band of ten thousand Greek mercenaries played a part under
+the leadership of Xenophon. Their return to Asiatic Greece from Babylon
+is described in his _Retreat of the Ten Thousand_, one of the first war
+stories that was ever written by a general in command. But the
+conquests of Alexander and the division of his brief empire among his
+subordinate generals, greatly stimulated this permeation of the ancient
+world by the Greeks and their language and fashions and culture. Traces
+of this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia
+and in north-west India. Their influence upon the development of Indian
+art was profound.
+
+For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre of art and
+culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 A.D., that is to say for
+nearly a thousand years; but the leadership in the intellectual
+activity of the world passed presently across the Mediterranean to
+Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander had founded. Here the
+Macedonian general Ptolemy had become Pharaoh, with a court that spoke
+Greek.  He had become an intimate of Alexander before he became king,
+and he was deeply saturated with the ideas of Aristotle.  He set
+himself, with great energy and capacity, to organize knowledge and
+investigation. He also wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns which,
+unhappily, is lost to the world.
+
+Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance the
+enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first person to make a
+permanent endowment of science.  He set up a foundation in Alexandria
+which was formerly dedicated to the Muses, the Museum of Alexandria. 
+For two or three generations the scientific work done at Alexandria was
+extraordinarily good.  Euclid, Eratosthenes who measured the size of
+the earth and came within fifty miles of its true diameter, Apollonius
+who wrote on conic sections, Hipparchus who made the first star map and
+catalogue, and Hero who devised the first steam engine are among the
+greater stars of an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers.
+Archimedes came from Syracuse to Alexandria to study, and was a
+frequent correspondent of the Museum.  Herophilus was one of the
+greatest of Greek anatomists, and is said to have practised
+vivisection.
+
+For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II
+there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery at Alexandria as the
+world was not to see again until the sixteenth century A.D.  But it did
+not continue.  There may have been several causes of this decline. 
+Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffy suggested, was the fact
+that the Museum was a “royal” college and all its professors and
+fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh.  This was all very well
+when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and friend of Aristotle.  But as
+the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on they became Egyptianized, they
+fell under the sway of Egyptian priests and Egyptian religious
+developments, they ceased to follow the work that was done, and their
+control stifled the spirit of enquiry altogether.  The Museum produced
+little good work after its first century of activity.
+
+Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to organize the
+finding of fresh knowledge.  He tried also to set up an encyclopædic
+storehouse of wisdom in the Library of Alexandria.  It was not simply a
+storehouse, it was also a book-copying and book-selling organization. 
+A great army of copyists was set to work perpetually multiplying copies
+of books.
+
+Here then we have the definite first opening up of the intellectual
+process in which we live to-day; here we have the systematic gathering
+and distribution of knowledge.  The foundation of this Museum and
+Library marks one of the great epochs in the history of mankind.  It is
+the true beginning of Modern History.
+
+
+ARISTOTLE
+ARISTOTLE
+From Herculaneum, probably Fourth Century B.C.
+
+_Photo:  Dr. Singer_
+
+
+Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went on under
+serious handicaps.  One of these was the great social gap that
+separated the philosopher, who was a gentleman, from the trader and the
+artisan.  There were glass workers and metal workers in abundance in
+those days, but they were not in mental contact with the thinkers.  The
+glass worker was making the most beautifully coloured beads and phials
+and so forth, but he never made a Florentine flask or a lens.  Clear
+glass does not seem to have interested him. The metal worker made
+weapons and jewellery but he never made a chemical balance.  The
+philosopher speculated loftily about atoms and the nature of things,
+but he had no practical experience of enamels and pigments and philters
+and so forth. He was not interested in substances.  So Alexandria in
+its brief day of opportunity produced no microscopes and no chemistry. 
+And though Hero invented a steam engine it was never set either to pump
+or drive a boat or do any useful thing.  There were few practical
+applications of science except in the realm of medicine, and the
+progress of science was not stimulated and sustained by the interest
+and excitement of practical applications.  There was nothing to keep
+the work going therefore when the intellectual curiosity of Ptolemy I
+and Ptolemy II was withdrawn.  The discoveries of the Museum went on
+record in obscure manuscripts and never, until the revival of
+scientific curiosity at the Renascence, reached out to the mass of
+mankind.
+
+Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making. That
+ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from rag pulp.  Paper
+was a Chinese invention and it did not reach the western world until
+the ninth century A.D.  The only book materials were parchment and
+strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge.  These strips were kept
+on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind to and fro and read, and very
+inconvenient for reference.  It was these things that prevented the
+development of paged and printed books.  Printing itself was known in
+the world it would seem as early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals
+in ancient Sumeria; but without abundant paper there was little
+advantage in printing books, an improvement that may further have been
+resisted by trades unionism on the part of the copyists employed. 
+Alexandria produced abundant books but not cheap books, and it never
+spread knowledge into the population of the ancient world below the
+level of a wealthy and influential class.
+
+
+STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME
+STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME
+A Græco-Buddhist sculpture of the Third Century A.D.
+
+_(From Malakand, N. W. Province, now in the India Museum)_
+
+
+So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never reached
+beyond a small circle of people in touch with the group of philosophers
+collected by the first two Ptolemies. It was like the light in a dark
+lantern which is shut off from the world at large.  Within the blaze
+may be blindingly bright, but nevertheless it is unseen.  The rest of
+the world went on its old ways unaware that the seed of scientific
+knowledge that was one day to revolutionize it altogether had been
+sown.  Presently a darkness of bigotry fell even upon Alexandria.
+Thereafter for a thousand years of darkness the seed that Aristotle had
+sown lay hidden.  Then it stirred and began to germinate.  In a few
+centuries it had become that widespread growth of knowledge and clear
+ideas that is now changing the whole of human life.
+
+
+THE DEATH OF BUDDHA
+THE DEATH OF BUDDHA
+Græco-Buddhist carving from Sivat Valley, N. W. Province, probably A.D.
+350
+
+_India Mus._
+
+
+Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual activity in
+the third century B.C. There were many other cities that displayed a
+brilliant intellectual life amidst the disintegrating fragments of the
+brief empire of Alexander.  There was, for example, the Greek city of
+Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and science flourished for two
+centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia Minor, which also had a great
+library.  But this brilliant Hellenic world was now stricken by
+invasion from the north. New Nordic barbarians, the Gauls, were
+striking down along the tracks that had once been followed by the
+ancestors of the Greeks and Phrygians and Macedonians.  They raided,
+shattered and destroyed.  And in the wake of the Gauls came a new
+conquering people out of Italy, the Romans, who gradually subjugated
+all the western half of the vast realm of Darius and Alexander.  They
+were an able but unimaginative people, preferring law and profit to
+either science or art.  New invaders were also coming down out of
+central Asia to shatter and subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off
+the western world again from India.  These were the Parthians, hosts of
+mounted bowmen, who treated the Græco-Persian empire of Persepolis and
+Susa in the third century B.C. in much the same fashion that the Medes
+and Persians had treated it in the seventh and sixth.  And there were
+now other nomadic peoples also coming out of the northeast, peoples who
+were not fair and Nordic and Aryan- speaking but yellow-skinned and
+black-haired and with a Mongolian speech.  But of these latter people
+we shall tell more in a subsequent chapter.
+
+
+
+
+XXVIII
+THE LIFE OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA
+
+
+But now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a great
+teacher who came near to revolutionizing the religious thought and
+feeling of all Asia. This was Gautama Buddha, who taught his disciples
+at Benares in India about the same time that Isaiah was prophesying
+among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus was carrying on his
+speculative enquiries into the nature of things at Ephesus. All these
+men were in the world at the same time, in the sixth century
+B.C.—unaware of one another.
+
+This sixth century B.C. was indeed one of the most remarkable in all
+history. Everywhere—for as we shall tell it was also the case in
+China—men’s minds were displaying a new boldness. Everywhere they were
+waking up out of the traditions of kingships and priests and blood
+sacrifices and asking the most penetrating questions.  It is as if the
+race had reached a stage of adolescence—after a childhood of twenty
+thousand years.
+
+The early history of India is still very obscure.  Somewhen perhaps
+about 2000 B.C., an Aryan- speaking people came down from the
+north-west into India either in one invasion or in a series of
+invasions; and was able to spread its language and traditions over most
+of north India.  Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the Sanskrit.
+ They found a brunette people with a more elaborate civilization and
+less vigour of will, in possession of the country of the Indus and
+Ganges.  But they do not seem to have mingled with their predecessors
+as freely as did the Greeks and Persians.  They remained aloof.  When
+the past of India becomes dimly visible to the historian, Indian
+society is already stratified into several layers, with a variable
+number of sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor intermarry nor
+associate freely.  And throughout history this stratification into
+castes continues.  This makes the Indian population something different
+from the simple, freely inter-breeding European or Mongolian
+communities.  It is really a community of communities.
+
+Siddhattha Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family which ruled a
+small district on the Himalayan slopes.  He was married at nineteen to
+a beautiful cousin.  He hunted and played and went about in his sunny
+world of gardens and groves and irrigated rice-fields.  And it was
+amidst this life that a great discontent fell upon him.  It was the
+unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks employment.  He felt that the
+existence he was leading was not the reality of life, but a holiday—a
+holiday that had gone on too long.
+
+The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the
+un-satisfactoriness of all happiness, descended upon the mind of
+Gautama.  While he was in this mood he met one of those wandering
+ascetics who already existed in great numbers in India.  These men
+lived under severe rules, spending much time in meditation and in
+religious discussion.  They were supposed to be seeking some deeper
+reality in life, and a passionate desire to do likewise took possession
+of Gautama.
+
+He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the news was
+brought to him that his wife had been delivered of his first-born son.
+“This is another tie to break,” said Gautama.
+
+He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his fellow
+clansmen.  There was a great feast and a Nautch dance to celebrate the
+birth of this new tie, and in the night Gautama awoke in a great agony
+of spirit, “like a man who is told that his house is on fire.”  He
+resolved to leave his happy aimless life forthwith.  He went softly to
+the threshold of his wife’s chamber, and saw her by the light of a
+little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by flowers, with his
+infant son in her arms.  He felt a great craving to take up the child
+in one first and last embrace before he departed, but the fear of
+waking his wife prevented him, and at last he turned away and went out
+into the bright Indian moonshine and mounted his horse and rode off
+into the world.
+
+
+TIBETAN BUDDHA
+TIBETAN BUDDHA
+Gilt Brass Casting in India Museum, showing Gautama Buddha in the
+“earth witness” attitude
+
+_India Mus._
+
+
+Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped outside the
+lands of his clan, and dismounted beside a sandy river.  There he cut
+off his flowing locks with his sword, removed all his ornaments and
+sent them and his horse and sword back to his house.  Going on he
+presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with him, and so
+having divested himself of all worldly entanglements he was free to
+pursue his search after wisdom. He made his way southward to a resort
+of hermits and teachers in a hilly spur of the Vindhya Mountains. 
+There lived a number of wise men in a warren of caves, going into the
+town for their simple supplies and imparting their knowledge by word of
+mouth to such as cared to come to them.  Gautama became versed in all
+the metaphysics of his age.  But his acute intelligence was
+dissatisfied with the solutions offered him.
+
+
+A BURMESE BUDDHA
+A BURMESE BUDDHA
+Marble Figure from Mandalay, eighteenth century work, now in the India
+Museum
+
+
+The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that power and
+knowledge may be obtained by extreme asceticism, by fasting,
+sleeplessness, and self-torment, and these ideas Gautama now put to the
+test.  He betook himself with five disciple companions to the jungle
+and there he gave himself up to fasting and terrible penances.  His
+fame spread, “like the sound of a great bell hung in the canopy of the
+skies.”  But it brought him no sense of truth achieved. One day he was
+walking up and down, trying to think in spite of his enfeebled state. 
+Suddenly he fell unconscious.  When he recovered, the preposterousness
+of these semi-magical ways to wisdom was plain to him.
+
+
+THE DHAMÊKH TOWER
+THE DHAMÊKH TOWER
+In the Deer Park at Sarnath.  Sixth Century A.D.
+
+_(From a Painting in the India Museum)_
+
+
+He horrified his companions by demanding ordinary food and refusing to
+continue his mortifications.  He had realized that whatever truth a man
+may reach is reached best by a nourished brain in a healthy body.  Such
+a conception was absolutely foreign to the ideas of the land and age. 
+His disciples deserted him, and went off in a melancholy state to
+Benares.  Gautama wandered alone.
+
+When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it makes its
+advances step by step, with but little realization of the gains it has
+made, until suddenly, with an effect of abrupt illumination, it
+realizes its victory.  So it happened to Gautama.  He had seated
+himself under a great tree by the side of a river to eat, when this
+sense of clear vision came to him.  It seemed to him that he saw life
+plain.  He is said to have sat all day and all night in profound
+thought, and then he rose up to impart his vision to the world.
+
+He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back his lost
+disciples to his new teaching.  In the King’s Deer Park at Benares they
+built themselves huts and set up a sort of school to which came many
+who were seeking after wisdom.
+
+The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a fortunate
+young man, “Why am I not completely happy?”  It was an introspective
+question. It was a question very different in quality from the frank
+and self-forgetful _externalized_ curiosity with which Thales and
+Heraclitus were attacking the problems of the universe, or the equally
+self-forgetful burthen of moral obligation that the culminating
+prophets were imposing upon the Hebrew mind.  The Indian teacher did
+not forget self, he concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it. 
+All suffering, he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the
+individual.  Until man has conquered his personal cravings his life is
+trouble and his end sorrow.  There were three principal forms that the
+craving for life took and they were all evil.  The first was the desire
+of the appetites, greed and all forms of sensuousness, the second was
+the desire for a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was the
+craving for personal success, worldliness, avarice and the like.  All
+these forms of desire had to be overcome to escape from the distresses
+and chagrins of life.  When they were overcome, when self had vanished
+altogether, then serenity of soul, Nirvana, the highest good was
+attained.
+
+This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and metaphysical
+teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to understand as the Greek
+injunction to see and know fearlessly and rightly and the Hebrew
+command to fear God and accomplish righteousness.  It was a teaching
+much beyond the understanding of even Gautama’s immediate disciples,
+and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal influence was
+withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened.  There was a widespread
+belief in India at that time that at long intervals Wisdom came to
+earth and was incarnate in some chosen person who was known as the
+Buddha.  Gautama’s disciples declared that he was a Buddha, the latest
+of the Buddhas, though there is no evidence that he himself ever
+accepted the title.  Before he was well dead, a cycle of fantastic
+legends began to be woven about him.  The human heart has always
+preferred a wonder story to a moral effort, and Gautama Buddha became
+very wonderful.
+
+Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world.  If Nirvana was too
+high and subtle for most men’s imaginations, if the myth-making impulse
+in the race was too strong for the simple facts of Gautama’s life, they
+could at least grasp something of the intention of what Gautama called
+the Eight-fold way, the Aryan or Noble Path in life.  In this there was
+an insistence upon mental uprightness, upon right aims and speech,
+right conduct and honest livelihood.  There was a quickening of the
+conscience and an appeal to generous and self-forgetful ends.
+
+
+
+
+XXIX
+KING ASOKA
+
+
+For some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and noble
+Buddhist teachings, this first plain teaching that the highest good for
+man is the subjugation of self, made comparatively little headway in
+the world. Then they conquered the imagination of one of the greatest
+monarchs the world has ever seen.
+
+We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down into India
+and fought with Porus upon the Indus.  It is related by the Greek
+historians that a certain Chandragupta Maurya came into Alexander’s
+camp and tried to persuade him to go on to the Ganges and conquer all
+India. Alexander could not do this because of the refusal of his
+Macedonians to go further into what was for them an unknown world, and
+later on (303 B.C.) Chandragupta was able to secure the help or various
+hill tribes and realize his dream without Greek help. He built up an
+empire in North India and was presently (303 B.C.) able to attack
+Seleucus I in the Punjab and drive the last vestige of Greek power out
+of India. His son extended this new empire. His grandson, Asoka, the
+monarch of whom we now have to tell, found himself in 264 B.C. ruling
+from Afghanistan to Madras.
+
+Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his father and
+grandfather and complete the conquest of the Indian peninsula.  He
+invaded Kalinga (255 B.C.), a country on the east coast of Madras, he
+was successful in his military operations and—alone among conquerors—he
+was so disgusted by the cruelty and horror of war that he renounced it.
+ He would have no more of it.  He adopted the peaceful doctrines of
+Buddhism and declared that henceforth his conquests should be the
+conquests of religion.
+
+
+A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)
+A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty)
+
+_(From the statue in the British Museum)_
+
+
+His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest
+interludes in the troubled history of mankind.  He organized a great
+digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for shade.  He
+founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens for the growing of
+medicinal herbs.  He created a ministry for the care of the aborigines
+and subject races of India. He made provision for the education of
+women.  He made vast benefactions to the Buddhist teaching orders, and
+tried to stimulate them to a better and more energetic criticism of
+their own accumulated literature.  For corruptions and superstitious
+accretions had accumulated very speedily upon the pure and simple
+teaching of the great Indian master. Missionaries went from Asoka to
+Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon and Alexandria.
+
+
+TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA
+TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA
+
+_India Mus._
+
+ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT
+ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUT
+
+_India Mus._
+
+
+Such was Asoka, greatest of kings.  He was far in advance of his age. 
+He left no prince and no organization of men to carry on his work, and
+within a century of his death the great days of his reign had become a
+glorious memory in a shattered and decaying India.  The priestly caste
+of the Brahmins, the highest and most privileged caste in the Indian
+social body, has always been opposed to the frank and open teaching of
+Buddha.  Gradually they undermined the Buddhist influence in the land. 
+The old monstrous gods, the innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed
+their sway.  Caste became more rigorous and complicated. For long
+centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by side, and then
+slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a multitude of forms replaced
+it.  But beyond the confines of India and the realms of caste Buddhism
+spread—until it had won China and Siam and Burma and Japan, countries
+in which it is predominant to this day.
+
+
+THE PILLAR OF LIONS
+THE PILLAR OF LIONS
+Capital of the Pillar (column lying on side) erected in Deer Park in
+the time of Asoka, where Buddha preached his first sermon
+
+_(From a print in the India Museum)_
+
+
+
+
+XXX
+CONFUCIUS AND LAO TSE
+
+
+We have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao Tse,
+who lived in that wonderful century which began the adolescence of
+mankind, the sixth century B.C. In this history thus far we have told
+very little of the early story of China. At present that early history
+is still very obscure, and we look to Chinese explorers and
+archæolologists in the new China that is now arising to work out their
+past as thoroughly as the European past has been worked out during the
+last century. Very long ago the first primitive Chinese civilizations
+arose in the great river valleys out of the primordial heliolithic
+culture. They had, like Egypt and Sumeria, the general characteristics
+of that culture, and they centred upon temples in which priests and
+priest kings offered the seasonal blood sacrifices. The life in those
+cities must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six
+or seven thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central
+America a thousand years ago.
+
+If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to animal
+sacrifices before the dawn of history.  And a form of picture writing
+was growing up long before a thousand years B.C.
+
+And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western Asia were
+in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the nomads of the north,
+so the primitive Chinese civilizations had a great cloud of nomadic
+peoples on their northern borders.  There was a number of tribes akin
+in language and ways of living, who are spoken of in history in
+succession as the Huns, the Mongols, the Turks and Tartars.  They
+changed and divided and combined and re-combined, just as the Nordic
+peoples in north Europe and central Asia changed and varied in name
+rather than in nature.  These Mongolian nomads had horses earlier than
+the Nordic peoples, and it may be that in the region of the Altai
+Mountains they made an independent discovery of iron somewhen after
+1000 B.C. And just as in the western case so ever and again these
+eastern nomads would achieve a sort of political unity, and become the
+conquerors and masters and revivers of this or that settled and
+civilized region.
+
+It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China was not
+Mongolian at all any more than the earliest civilization of Europe and
+western Asia was Nordic or Semitic.  It is quite possible that the
+earliest civilization of China was a brunette civilization and of a
+piece with the earliest Egyptian, Sumerian and Dravidian civilizations,
+and that when the first recorded history of China began there had
+already been conquests and intermixture.  At any rate we find that by
+1750 B.C. China was already a vast system of little kingdoms and city
+states, all acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less
+regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great priest
+emperor, the “Son of Heaven.”  The “Shang” dynasty came to an end in
+1125 B.C.  A “Chow” dynasty succeeded “Shang,” and maintained China in
+a relaxing unity until the days of Asoka in India and of the Ptolemies
+in Egypt.  Gradually China went to pieces during that long “Chow”
+period.  Hunnish peoples came down and set up principalities; local
+rulers discontinued their tribute and became independent.  There was in
+the sixth century B.C., says one Chinese authority, five or six
+thousand practically independent states in China.  It was what the
+Chinese call in their records an “Age of Confusion.”
+
+But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much intellectual
+activity and with the existence of many local centres of art and
+civilized living.  When we know more of Chinese history we shall find
+that China also had her Miletus and her Athens, her Pergamum and her
+Macedonia.  At present we must be vague and brief about this period of
+Chinese division simply because our knowledge is not sufficient for us
+to frame a coherent and consecutive story.
+
+
+CONFUCIUS
+CONFUCIUS
+Copy of stone carving in the Temple of Confucius at K’iu Fu
+
+_(From the records of the Archæological Mission to North China
+(Chavannes))_
+
+
+And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in shattered
+and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China there were
+philosophers and teachers at this time.  In all these cases insecurity
+and uncertainty seemed to have quickened the better sort of mind. 
+Confucius was a man of aristocratic origin and some official importance
+in a small state called Lu.  Here in a very parallel mood to the Greek
+impulse he set up a sort of Academy for discovering and teaching
+Wisdom.  The lawlessness and disorder of China distressed him
+profoundly.  He conceived an ideal of a better government and a better
+life, and travelled from state to state seeking a prince who would
+carry out his legislative and educational ideas.  He never found his
+prince; he found a prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence
+of the teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals.  It is
+interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek
+philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time adviser to
+the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syracuse in Sicily.
+
+Confucius died a disappointed man.  “No intelligent ruler arises to
+take me as his master,” he said, “and my time has come to die.”  But
+his teaching had more vitality than he imagined in his declining and
+hopeless years, and it became a great formative influence with the
+Chinese people.  It became one of what the Chinese call the Three
+Teachings, the other two being those of Buddha and of Lao Tse.
+
+The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the noble or
+aristocratic man.  He was concerned with personal conduct as much as
+Gautama was concerned with the peace of self-forgetfulness and the
+Greek with external knowledge and the Jew with righteousness.  He was
+the most public-minded of all great teachers.  He was supremely
+concerned by the confusion and miseries of the world, and he wanted to
+make men noble in order to bring about a noble world.  He sought to
+regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent; to provide sound rules for
+every occasion in life.  A polite, public- spirited gentleman, rather
+sternly self-disciplined, was the ideal he found already developing in
+the northern Chinese world and one to which he gave a permanent form.
+
+
+THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
+THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
+As it crosses the mountains in Manchuria
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of the
+imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more mystical and vague
+and elusive than that of Confucius.  He seems to have preached a
+stoical indifference to the pleasures and powers of the world and a
+return to an imaginary simple life of the past.  He left writings very
+contracted in style and very obscure.  He wrote in riddles.  After his
+death his teachings, like the teachings of Gautama Buddha, were
+corrupted and overlaid by legends and had the most complex and
+extraordinary observances and superstitious ideas grafted upon them. 
+In China just as in India primordial ideas of magic and monstrous
+legends out of the childish past of our race struggled against the new
+thinking in the world and succeeded in plastering it over with
+grotesque, irrational and antiquated observances.  Both Buddhism and
+Taoism (which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one finds them in
+China now, are religions of monk, temple, priest and offering of a type
+as ancient in form, if not in thought, as the sacrificial religions of
+ancient Sumeria and Egypt.  But the teaching of Confucius was not so
+overlaid because it was limited and plain and straightforward and lent
+itself to no such distortions.
+
+
+EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL
+EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL
+Inscribed in archaic characters: “made for use by the elder of Hing
+village in Ting district;” latter half of the Chou Dynasty, Sixth
+Century B.C.
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became Confucian in
+thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang China, became Taoist. 
+Since those days a conflict has always been traceable in Chinese
+affairs between these two spirits, the spirit of the north and the
+spirit of the south, between (in latter times) Pekin and Nankin,
+between the official- minded, upright and conservative north, and the
+sceptical, artistic, lax and experimental south.
+
+The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their worst
+stage in the sixth century B.C. The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled and
+so discredited that Lao Tse left the unhappy court and retired into
+private life.
+
+Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in those
+days, Ts’i and Ts’in, both northern powers, and Ch’u, which was an
+aggressive military power in the Yangtse valley.  At last Ts’i and
+Ts’in formed an alliance, subdued Ch’u and imposed a general treaty of
+disarmament and peace in China.  The power of Ts’in became predominant.
+ Finally about the time of Asoka in India the Ts’in monarch seized upon
+the sacrificial vessels of the Chow emperor and took over his
+sacrificial duties. His son, Shi-Hwang-ti (king in 246 B.C., emperor in
+220 B.C.), is called in the Chinese Chronicles “the First Universal
+Emperor.”
+
+More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for thirty-six
+years as king and emperor.  His energetic reign marks the beginning of
+a new era of unity and prosperity for the Chinese people.  He fought
+vigorously against the Hunnish invaders from the northern deserts, and
+he began that immense work, the Great Wall of China, to set a limit to
+their incursions.
+
+
+
+
+XXXI
+ROME COMES INTO HISTORY
+
+
+The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all these
+civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by the great
+barriers of the Indian north-west frontier and of the mountain masses
+of Central Asia and further India. First for thousands of years the
+heliolithic culture spread over all the warm and fertile river valleys
+of the old world and developed a temple system and priest rulers about
+its sacrificial traditions. Apparently its first makers were always
+those brunette peoples we have spoken of as the central race of
+mankind. Then the nomads came in from the regions of seasonal grass and
+seasonal migrations and superposed their own characteristics and often
+their own language on the primitive civilization. They subjugated and
+stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made it
+here one thing and here another. In Mesopotamia it was the Elamite and
+then the Semite, and at last the Nordic Medes and Persians and the
+Greeks who supplied the ferment; over the region of the Ægean peoples
+it was the Greeks; in India it was the Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there
+was a thinner infusion of conquerors into a more intensely saturated
+priestly civilization; in China, the Hun conquered and was absorbed and
+was followed by fresh Huns. China was Mongolized just as Greece and
+North India were Aryanized and Mesopotamia Semitized and Aryanized.
+Everywhere the nomads destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in a
+new spirit of free enquiry and moral innovation. They questioned the
+beliefs of immemorial ages. They let daylight into the temples. They
+set up kings who were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among
+their captains and companions.
+
+
+THE DYING GAUL
+THE DYING GAUL
+The statue in the National Museum, Rome, depicting a Gaul stabbing
+himself, after killing his wife, in the presence of his enemies
+
+_Photo: Anderson_
+
+In the centuries following the sixth century B.C. we find everywhere a
+great breaking down of ancient traditions and a new spirit of moral and
+intellectual enquiry awake, a spirit never more to be altogether
+stilled in the great progressive movement of mankind.  We find reading
+and writing becoming common and accessible accomplishments among the
+ruling and prosperous minority; they were no longer the jealously
+guarded secret of the priests.  Travel is increasing and transport
+growing easier by reason of horses and roads.  A new and easy device to
+facilitate trade has been found in coined money.
+
+Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the extreme east
+of the old world to the western half of the Mediterranean.  Here we
+have to note the appearance of a city which was destined to play at
+last a very great part indeed in human affairs, Rome.
+
+Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story. It was
+before 1000 B.C. a land of mountain and forest and thinly populated. 
+Aryan-speaking tribes had pressed down this peninsula and formed little
+towns and cities, and the southern extremity was studded with Greek
+settlements.  The noble ruins of Pæstum preserve for us to this day
+something of the dignity and splendour of these early Greek
+establishments.  A non-Aryan people, probably akin to the Ægean
+peoples, the Etruscans, had established themselves in the central part
+of the peninsula. They had reversed the usual process by subjugating
+various Aryan tribes.  Rome, when it comes into the light of history,
+is a little trading city at a ford on the Tiber, with a Latin-speaking
+population ruled over by Etruscan kings.  The old chronologies gave 753
+B.C. as the date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the
+founding of the great Phœnician city of Carthage and twenty-three years
+after the first Olympiad.  Etruscan tombs of a much earlier date than
+753 B.C. have, however, been excavated in the Roman Forum.
+
+In that red-letter century, the sixth century B.C., the Etruscan kings
+were expelled (510 B.C.) and Rome became an aristocratic republic with
+a lordly class of “patrician” families dominating a commonalty of
+“plebeians.” Except that it spoke Latin it was not unlike many
+aristocratic Greek republics.
+
+For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story of a long
+and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in the government on the
+part of the plebeians.  It would not be difficult to find Greek
+parallels to this conflict, which the Greeks would have called a
+conflict of aristocracy with democracy.  In the end the plebeians broke
+down most of the exclusive barriers of the old families and established
+a working equality with them.  They destroyed the old exclusiveness,
+and made it possible and acceptable for Rome to extend her citizenship
+by the inclusion of more and more “outsiders.”  For while she still
+struggled at home, she was extending her power abroad.
+
+
+REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE
+REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century B.C.  Until
+that time they had waged war, and generally unsuccessful war, with the
+Etruscans.  There was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a few miles from
+Rome which the Romans had never been able to capture.  In 474 B.C.,
+however, a great misfortune came to the Etruscans.  Their fleet was
+destroyed by the Greeks of Syracuse in Sicily.  At the same time a wave
+of Nordic invaders came down upon them from the north, the Gauls.
+Caught between Roman and Gaul, the Etruscans fell—and disappear from
+history.  Veii was captured by the Romans, The Gauls came through to
+Rome and sacked the city (390 B.C.A.D.) but could not capture the
+Capitol. An attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of
+some geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and retired to the
+north of Italy again.
+
+The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than weakened Rome. 
+The Romans conquered and assimilated the Etruscans, and extended their
+power over all central Italy from the Arno to Naples.  To this they had
+reached within a few years of 300 B.C.  Their conquests in Italy were
+going on simultaneously with the growth of Philip’s power in Macedonia
+and Greece, and the tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the
+Indus.  The Romans had become notable people in the civilized world to
+the east of them by the break-up of Alexander’s empire.
+
+To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south of them
+were the Greek settlements of Magna Græcia, that is to say of Sicily
+and of the toe and heel of Italy.  The Gauls were a hardy, warlike
+people and the Romans held that boundary by a line of forts and
+fortified settlements.  The Greek cities in the south headed by
+Tarentum (now Taranto) and by Syracuse in Sicily, did not so much
+threaten as fear the Romans.  They looked about for some help against
+these new conquerors.
+
+We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to pieces and was
+divided among his generals and companions. Among these adventurers was
+a kinsman of Alexander’s named Pyrrhus, who established himself in
+Epirus, which is across the Adriatic Sea over against the heel of
+Italy.  It was his ambition to play the part of Philip of Macedonia to
+Magna Græcia, and to become protector and master-general of Tarentum,
+Syracuse and the rest of that part of the world. He had what was then
+it very efficient modern army; he had an infantry phalanx, cavalry from
+Thessaly—which was now quite as good as the original Macedonian
+cavalry—and twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed the
+Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280 B.C.) and Ausculum
+(279 B.C.), and having driven them north, he turned his attention to
+the subjugation of Sicily.
+
+But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than were the
+Romans at that time, the Phœnician trading city of Carthage, which was
+probably then the greatest city in the world.  Sicily was too near
+Carthage for a new Alexander to be welcome there, and Carthage was
+mindful of the fate that had befallen her mother city Tyre half a
+century before.  So she sent a fleet to encourage or compel Rome to
+continue the struggle, and she cut the overseas communications of
+Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed by the Romans, and
+suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he had made upon their camp
+at Beneventum between Naples and Rome.
+
+And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus.  The Gauls were
+raiding south.  But this time they were not raiding down into Italy;
+the Roman frontier, fortified and guarded, had become too formidable
+for them.  They were raiding down through Illyria (which is now Serbia
+and Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus.  Repulsed by the Romans,
+endangered at sea by the Carthaginians, and threatened at home by the
+Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream of conquest and went home (275
+B.C.), and the power of Rome was extended to the Straits of Messina.
+
+On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of Messina, and
+this presently fell into the hands of a gang of pirates.  The
+Carthaginians, who were already practically overlords of Sicily and
+allies of Syracuse, suppressed these pirates (270 B.C.) and put in a
+Carthaginian garrison there.  The pirates appealed to Rome and Rome
+listened to their complaint.  And so across the Straits of Messina the
+great trading power of Carthage and this new conquering people, the
+Romans, found themselves in antagonism, face to face.
+
+
+
+
+XXXII
+ROME AND CARTHAGE
+
+
+It was in 264 B.C. that the great struggle between Rome and Carthage,
+the Punic Wars, began. In that year Asoka was beginning his reign in
+Behar and Shi- Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum in Alexandria
+was still doing good scientific work, and the barbaric Gauls were now
+in Asia Minor and exacting a tribute from Pergamum. The different
+regions of the world were still separated by insurmountable distances,
+and probably the rest of mankind heard only vague and remote rumours of
+the mortal fight that went on for a century and a half in Spain, Italy,
+North Africa and the western Mediterranean, between the last stronghold
+of Semitic power and Rome, this newcomer among Aryan-speaking peoples.
+
+That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the world. 
+Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of Aryan and Semite was
+to merge itself later on in the conflict of Gentile and Jew.  Our
+history now is coming to events whose consequences and distorted
+traditions still maintain a lingering and expiring vitality in, and
+exercise a complicating and confusing influence upon, the conflicts and
+controversies of to-day.
+
+The First Punic War began in 264 B.C. about the pirates of Messina.  It
+developed into a struggle for the possession of all Sicily except the
+dominions of the Greek king of Syracuse.  The advantage of the sea was
+at first with the Carthaginians.  They had great fighting ships of what
+was hitherto an unheard-of size, quinqueremes, galleys with five banks
+of oars and a huge ram.  At the battle of Salamis, two centuries
+before, the leading battleships had only been triremes with three
+banks.  But the Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the
+fact that they had little naval experience, set themselves to outbuild
+the Carthaginians.  They manned the new navy they created chiefly with
+Greek seamen, and they invented grappling and boarding to make up for
+the superior seamanship of the enemy. When the Carthaginian came up to
+ram or shear the oars of the Roman, huge grappling irons seized him and
+the Roman soldiers swarmed aboard him.  At Mylæ (260 B.C.) and at
+Ecnomus (256 B.C.) the Carthaginians were disastrously beaten. They
+repulsed a Roman landing near Carthage but were badly beaten at
+Palermo, losing one hundred and four elephants there—to grace such a
+triumphal procession through the Forum as Rome had never seen before. 
+But after that came two Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery.  The
+last naval forces of Carthage were defeated by it last Roman effort at
+the battle of the Ægatian Isles (241 B.C.) and Carthage sued for peace.
+ All Sicily except the dominions of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was ceded
+to the Romans.
+
+
+HANNIBAL
+HANNIBAL
+
+Bust in the National Museum at Naples
+
+_Photo:  Mansell_
+
+
+For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace.  Both had
+trouble enough at home.  In Italy the Gauls came south again,
+threatened Rome—_which in a state of panic offered human sacrifices to
+the Gods!_—and were routed at Telamon.  Rome pushed forward to the
+Alps, and even extended her dominions down the Adriatic coast to
+Illyria. Carthage suffered from domestic insurrections and from revolts
+in Corsica and Sardinia, and displayed far less recuperative power. 
+Finally, an act of intolerable aggression, Rome seized and annexed the
+two revolting islands.
+
+Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river Ebro.  To
+that boundary the Romans restricted them.  Any crossing of the Ebro by
+the Carthaginians was to be considered an act of war against the
+Romans.  At last in 218 B.C. the Carthaginians, provoked by new Roman
+aggressions, did cross this river under a young general named Hannibal,
+one of the most brilliant commanders in the whole of history.  He
+marched his army from Spain over the Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls
+against the Romans, and carried on the Second Punic War in Italy itself
+for fifteen years.  He inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at
+Lake Trasimere and at Cannæ, and throughout all his Italian campaigns
+no Roman army stood against him and escaped disaster.  But a Roman army
+had landed at Marseilles and cut his communications with Spain; he had
+no siege train, and he could never capture Rome.  Finally the
+Carthaginians, threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home, were
+forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a Roman army
+crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his first defeat under
+its walls at the battle of Zama (202 B.C. at the hands of Scipio
+Africanus the Elder.  The battle of Zama ended this Second Punic War.
+Carthage capitulated; she surrendered Spain and her war fleet; she paid
+an enormous indemnity and agreed to give up Hannibal to the vengeance
+of the Romans.  But Hannibal escaped and fled to Asia where later,
+being in danger of falling into the hands of his relentless enemies, he
+took poison and died.
+
+For fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at peace. 
+And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused and divided Greece,
+invaded Asia Minor, and defeated Antiochus III, the Seleucid monarch,
+at Magnesia in Lydia. She made Egypt, still under the Ptolemies, and
+Pergamum and most of the small states of Asia Minor into “Allies,” or,
+as we should call them now, “protected states.”
+
+Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly regaining
+something of her former prosperity.  Her recovery revived the hate and
+suspicion of the Romans.  She was attacked upon the most shallow and
+artificial of quarrels (149 B.C.), she made an obstinate and bitter
+resistance, stood a long siege and was stormed (146 B.C.). The street
+fighting, or massacre, lasted six days; it was extraordinarily bloody,
+and when the citadel capitulated only about fifty thousand of the
+Carthaginian population remained alive out of a quarter of a million. 
+They were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt and elaborately
+destroyed.  The blackened ruins were ploughed and sown as a sort of
+ceremonial effacement.
+
+
+Map: The Extent of the Roman Power & its Alliances about 150 B.C.
+
+So ended the Third Punic War.  Of all the Semitic states and cities
+that had flourished in the world five centuries before only one little
+country remained free under native rulers. This was Judea, which had
+liberated itself from the Seleucids and was under the rule of the
+native Maccabean princes. By this time it had its Bible almost
+complete, and was developing the distinctive traditions of the Jewish
+world as we know it now.  It was natural that the Carthaginians,
+Phoenicians and kindred peoples dispersed about the world should find a
+common link in their practically identical language and in this
+literature of hope and courage.  To a large extent they were still the
+traders and bankers of the world.  The Semitic world had been submerged
+rather than replaced.
+
+Jerusalem, which has always been rather the symbol than the centre of
+Judaism, was taken by the Romans in 65 B.C.; and after various
+vicissitudes of quasi- independence and revolt was besieged by them in
+70 A.D. and captured after a stubborn struggle. The Temple was
+destroyed.  A later rebellion in 132 A.D. completed its destruction,
+and the Jerusalem we know to-day was rebuilt later under Roman
+auspices.  A temple to the Roman god, Jupiter Capitolinus, stood in the
+place of the Temple, and Jews were forbidden to inhabit the city.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIII
+THE GROWTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Now this new Roman power which arose to dominate the western world in
+the second and first centuries B.C. was in several respects a different
+thing from any of the great empires that had hitherto prevailed in the
+civilized world. It was not at first a monarchy, and it was not the
+creation of any one great conqueror. It was not indeed the first of
+republican empires; Athens had dominated a group of Allies and
+dependents in the time of Pericles, and Carthage when she entered upon
+her fatal struggle with Rome was mistress of Sardinia and Corsica,
+Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and most of Spain and Sicily. But it was the
+first republican empire that escaped extinction and went on to fresh
+developments.
+
+The centre of this new system lay far to the west of the more ancient
+centres of empire, which had hitherto been the river valleys of
+Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This westward position enabled Rome to bring in
+to civilization quite fresh regions and peoples. The Roman power
+extended to Morocco and Spain, and was presently able to thrust
+north-westward over what is now France and Belgium to Britain and
+north-eastward into Hungary and South Russia.  But on the other hand it
+was never able to maintain itself in Central Asia or Persia because
+they were too far from its administrative centres.  It included
+therefore great masses of fresh Nordic Aryan- speaking peoples, it
+presently incorporated nearly all the Greek people in the world, and
+its population was less strongly Hamitic and Semitic than that of any
+preceding empire.
+
+For some centuries this Roman Empire did not fall into the grooves of
+precedent that had so speedily swallowed up Persian and Greek, and all
+that time it developed.  The rulers of the Medes and Persians became
+entirely Babylonized in a generation or so; they took over the tiara of
+the king of kings and the temples and priesthoods of his gods;
+Alexander and his successors followed in the same easy path of
+assimilation; the Seleucid monarchs had much the same court and
+administrative methods as Nebuchadnezzar; the Ptolemies became Pharaohs
+and altogether Egyptian.  They were assimilated just as before them the
+Semitic conquerors of the Sumerians had been assimilated.  But the
+Romans ruled in their own city, and for some centuries kept to the laws
+of their own nature.  The only people who exercised any great mental
+influence upon them before the second or third century A.D. were the
+kindred and similar Greeks.  So that the Roman Empire was essentially a
+first attempt to rule a great dominion upon mainly Aryan lines.  It was
+so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan republic. 
+The old pattern of a personal conqueror ruling over a capital city that
+had grown up round the temple of a harvest god did not apply to it. 
+The Romans had gods and temples, but like the gods of the Greeks their
+gods were quasi-human immortals, divine patricians.  The Romans also
+had blood sacrifices and even made human ones in times of stress,
+things they may have learnt to do from their dusky Etruscan teachers;
+but until Rome was long past its zenith neither priest nor temple
+played a large part in Roman history.
+
+The Roman Empire was a growth, an unplanned novel growth; the Roman
+people found themselves engaged almost unawares in a vast
+administrative experiment.  It cannot be called a successful
+experiment.  In the end their empire collapsed altogether.  And it
+changed enormously in form and method from century to century.  It
+changed more in a hundred years than Bengal or Mesopotamia or Egypt
+changed in a thousand. It was always changing.  It never attained to
+any fixity.
+
+In a sense the experiment failed.  In a sense the experiment remains
+unfinished, and Europe and America to-day are still working out the
+riddles of world-wide statescraft first confronted by the Roman people.
+
+It is well for the student of history to bear in mind the very great
+changes not only in political but in social and moral matters that went
+on throughout the period of Roman dominion.  There is much too strong a
+tendency in people’s minds to think of the Roman rule as something
+finished and stable, firm, rounded, noble and decisive.  Macaulay’s
+_Lays of Ancient Rome_, S.P.Q.R. the elder Cato, the Scipios, Julius
+Cæsar, Diocletian, Constantine the Great, triumphs, orations,
+gladiatorial combats and Christian martyrs are all mixed up together in
+a picture of something high and cruel and dignified.  The items of that
+picture have to be disentangled.  They are collected at different
+points from a process of change profounder than that which separates
+the London of William the Conqueror from the London of to-day.
+
+We may very conveniently divide the expansion of Rome into four stages.
+ The first stage began after the sack of Rome by the Goths in 390 B.C.
+and went on until the end of the First Punic War (240 B.C,).  We may
+call this stage the stage of the Assimilative Republic.  It was perhaps
+the finest, most characteristic stage in Roman history.  The age-long
+dissensions of patrician and plebeian were drawing to it close, the
+Etruscan threat had come to an end, no one was very rich yet nor very
+poor, and most men were public-spirited.  It was a republic like the
+republic of the South African Boers before 1900 or like the northern
+states of the American union between 1800 and 1850; a free- farmers
+republic.  At the outset of this stage Rome was a little state scarcely
+twenty miles square.  She fought the sturdy but kindred states about
+her, and sought not their destruction but coalescence.  Her centuries
+of civil dissension had trained her people in compromise and
+concessions.  Some of the defeated cities became altogether Roman with
+a voting share in the government, some became self-governing with the
+right to trade and marry in Rome; garrisons full of citizens were set
+up at strategic points and colonies of varied privileges founded among
+the freshly conquered people.  Great roads were made.  The rapid
+Latinization of all Italy was the inevitable consequence of such a
+policy.  In 89 B.C. all the free inhabitants of Italy became citizens
+of the city of Rome.  Formally the whole Roman Empire became at last an
+extended city.  In 212 A.D. every free man in the entire extent of the
+empire was given citizenship; the right, if he could get there, to vote
+in the town meeting in Rome.
+
+This extension of citizenship to tractable cities and to whole
+countries was the distinctive device of Roman expansion.  It reversed
+the old process of conquest and assimilation altogether.  By the Roman
+method the conquerors assimilated the conquered.
+
+
+THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY
+THE FORUM AT ROME AS IT IS TO-DAY
+
+
+But after the First Punic War and the annexation of Sicily, though the
+old process of assimilation still went on, another process arose by its
+side.  Sicily for instance was treated as a conquered prey.  It was
+declared an “estate” of the Roman people.  Its rich soil and
+industrious population was exploited to make Rome rich.  The patricians
+and the more influential among the plebeians secured the major share of
+that wealth.  And the war also brought in a large supply of slaves. 
+Before the First Punic War the population of the republic had been
+largely a population of citizen farmers.  Military service was their
+privilege and liability.  While they were on active service their farms
+fell into debt and a new large-scale slave agriculture grew up; when
+they returned they found their produce in competition with slave-grown
+produce from Sicily and from the new estates at home.  Times had
+changed.  The republic had altered its character.  Not only was Sicily
+in the hands of Rome, the common man was in the hands of the rich
+creditor and the rich competitor.  Rome had entered upon its second
+stage, the Republic of Adventurous Rich Men.
+
+For two hundred years the Roman soldier farmers had struggled for
+freedom and a share in the government of their state; for a hundred
+years they had enjoyed their privileges.  The First Punic War wasted
+them and robbed them of all they had won.
+
+
+RELICS OF ROMAN RULE
+RELICS OF ROMAN RULE
+
+Ruins of Coliseum in Tunis
+
+_Photo:  Jacques Boyer_
+
+
+The value of their electoral privileges had also evaporated. The
+governing bodies of the Roman republic were two in number.  The first
+and more important was the Senate.  This was a body originally of
+patricians and then of prominent men of all sorts, who were summoned to
+it first by certain powerful officials, the consuls and censors.  Like
+the British House of Lords it became a gathering of great landowners,
+prominent politicians, big business men and the like. It was much more
+like the British House of Lords than it was like the American Senate. 
+For three centuries, from the Punic Wars onward, it was the centre of
+Roman political thought and purpose.  The second body was the Popular
+Assembly.  This was supposed to be an assembly of _all_ the citizens of
+Rome.  When Rome was a little state twenty miles square this was a
+possible gathering.  When the citizenship of Rome had spread beyond the
+confines in Italy, it was an altogether impossible one.  Its meetings,
+proclaimed by horn-blowing from the Capitol and the city walls, became
+more and more a gathering of political hacks and city riff-raff.  In
+the fourth century B.C. the Popular Assembly was a considerable check
+upon the Senate, a competent representation of the claims and rights of
+the common man.  By the end of the Punic Wars it was an impotent relic
+of a vanquished popular control.  No effectual legal check remained
+upon the big men.
+
+
+THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD
+THE GREAT ROMAN ARCH AT CTESIPHON NEAR BAGDAD
+
+
+Nothing of the nature of representative government was ever introduced
+into the Roman republic.  No one thought of electing delegates to
+represent the will of the citizens. This is a very important point for
+the student to grasp.  The Popular Assembly never became the equivalent
+of the American House of Representatives or the British House of
+Commons.  In theory it was all the citizens; in practice it ceased to
+be anything at all worth consideration.
+
+The common citizen of the Roman Empire was therefore in a very poor
+case after the Second Punic War; he was impoverished, he had often lost
+his farm, he was ousted from profitable production by slaves, and he
+had no political power left to him to remedy these things.  The only
+methods of popular expression left to a people without any form of
+political expression are the strike and the revolt.  The story of the
+second and first centuries B.C., so far as internal politics go, is a
+story of futile revolutionary upheaval.  The scale of this history will
+not permit us to tell of the intricate struggles of that time, of the
+attempts to break up estates and restore the land to the free farmer,
+of proposals to abolish debts in whole or in part.  There was revolt
+and civil war.  In 73 B.C., the distresses of Italy were enhanced by a
+great insurrection, of the slaves under Spartacus.  The slaves of Italy
+revolted with some effect, for among them were the trained fighters of
+the gladiatorial shows.  For two years Spartacus held out in the crater
+of Vesuvius, which seemed at that time to be an extinct volcano. This
+insurrection was defeated at last and suppressed with frantic cruelty. 
+Six thousand captured Spartacists were crucified along the Appian Way,
+the great highway that runs southward out of Rome (71 B.C.).
+
+The common man never made head against the forces that were subjugating
+and degrading him.  But the big rich men who were overcoming him were
+even in his defeat preparing a new power in the Roman world over
+themselves and him, the power of the army.
+
+Before the Second Punic War the army of Rome was a levy of free
+farmers, who, according to their quality, rode or marched afoot to
+battle.  This was a very good force for wars close at hand, but not the
+sort of army that will go abroad and bear long campaigns with patience.
+ And moreover as the slaves multiplied and the estates grew, the supply
+of free- spirited fighting farmers declined.  It was a popular leader
+named Marius who introduced a new factor.  North Africa after the
+overthrow of the Carthaginian civilization had become a semi-barbaric
+kingdom, the kingdom of Numidia.  The Roman power fell into conflict
+with Jugurtha, king of this state, and experienced enormous
+difficulties in subduing him. Marius was made consul, in a phase of
+public indignation, to end this discreditable war.  This he did by
+raising _paid troops_ and drilling them hard.  Jugurtha was brought in
+chains to Rome (106 B.C.) and Marius, when his time of office had
+expired, held on to his consulship illegally with his newly created
+legions.  There was no power in Rome to restrain him.
+
+With Marius began the third phase in the development of the Roman
+power, the Republic of the Military Commanders.  For now began a period
+in which the leaders of the paid legions fought for the mastery of the
+Roman world.  Against Marius was pitted the aristocratic Sulla who had
+served under him in Africa.  Each in turn made a great massacre of his
+political opponents.  Men were proscribed and executed by the thousand,
+and their estates were sold.  After the bloody rivalry of these two and
+the horror of the revolt of Spartacus, came a phase in which Lucullus
+and Pompey the Great and Crassus and Julius Cæsar were the masters of
+armies and dominated affairs.  It was Crassus who defeated Spartacus. 
+Lucullus conquered Asia Minor and penetrated to Armenia, and retired
+with great wealth into private life.  Crassus thrusting further invaded
+Persia and was defeated and slain by the Parthians.  After a long
+rivalry Pompey was defeated by Julius Cæsar (48 B.C.) and murdered in
+Egypt, leaving Julius Cæsar sole master of the Roman world.
+
+The figure of Julius Cæsar is one that has stirred the human
+imagination out of all proportion to its merit or true importance.  He
+has become a legend and a symbol.  For us he is chiefly important as
+marking the transition from the phase of military adventurers to the
+beginning of the fourth stage in Roman expansion, the Early Empire. 
+For in spite of the profoundest economic and political convulsions, in
+spite of civil war and social degeneration, throughout all this time
+the boundaries of the Roman state crept outward and continued to creep
+outward to their maximum about 100 A.D.  There had been something like
+an ebb during the doubtful phases of the Second Punic War, and again a
+manifest loss of vigour before the reconstruction of the army by
+Marius. The revolt of Spartacus marked a third phase.  Julius Cæsar
+made his reputation as a military leader in Gaul, which is now France
+and Belgium.  (The chief tribes inhabiting this country belonged to the
+same Celtic people as the Gauls who had occupied north Italy for a
+time, and who had afterwards raided into Asia Minor and settled down as
+the Galatians.)  Cæsar drove back a German invasion of Gaul and added
+all that country to the empire, and he twice crossed the Straits of
+Dover into Britain (55 and 54 B.C.), where however he made no permanent
+conquest.  Meanwhile Pompey the Great was consolidating Roman conquests
+that reached in the east to the Caspian Sea.
+
+
+THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME
+THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN AT ROME
+
+Representing his conquests at Dacia and elsewhere
+
+
+At this time, the middle of the first century B.C., the Roman Senate
+was still the nominal centre of the Roman government, appointing
+consuls and other officials, granting powers and the like; and a number
+of politicians, among whom Cicero was an outstanding figure, were
+struggling to preserve the great traditions of republican Rome and to
+maintain respect for its laws.  But the spirit of citizenship had gone
+from Italy with the wasting away of the free farmers; it was a land now
+of slaves and impoverished men with neither the understanding nor the
+desire for freedom.  There was nothing whatever behind these republican
+leaders in the Senate, while behind the great adventurers they feared
+and desired to control were the legions.  Over the heads of the Senate
+Crassus and Pompey and Cæsar divided the rule of the Empire between
+them (The First Triumvirate).  When presently Crassus was killed at
+distant Carrhæ by the Parthians, Pompey and Cæsar fell out. Pompey took
+up the republican side, and laws were passed to bring Cæsar to trial
+for his breaches of law and his disobedience to the decrees of the
+Senate.
+
+It was illegal for a general to bring his troops out of the boundary of
+his command, and the boundary between Cæsar’s command and Italy was the
+Rubicon.  In 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon, saying “The die is cast”
+and marched upon Pompey and Rome.
+
+It had been the custom in Rome in the past, in periods of military
+extremity, to elect a “dictator” with practically unlimited powers to
+rule through the crisis. After his overthrow of Pompey, Cæsar was made
+dictator first for ten years and then (in 45 B.C.) for life.  In effect
+he was made monarch of the empire for life.  There was talk of a king,
+a word abhorrent to Rome since the expulsion of the Etruscans five
+centuries before.  Cæsar refused to be king, but adopted throne and
+sceptre.  After his defeat of Pompey, Cæsar had gone on into Egypt and
+had made love to Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, the goddess
+queen of Egypt.  She seems to have turned his head very completely.  He
+had brought back to Rome the Egyptian idea of a god-king.  His statue
+was set up in a temple with an inscription “To the Unconquerable God.” 
+The expiring republicanism of Rome flared up in a last protest, and
+Cæsar was stabbed to death in the Senate at the foot of the statue of
+his murdered rival, Pompey the Great.
+
+Thirteen years more of this conflict of ambitious personalities
+followed.  There was a second Triumvirate of Lepidus, Mark Antony and
+Octavian Cæsar, the latter the nephew of Julius Cæsar.  Octavian like
+his uncle took the poorer, hardier western provinces where the best
+legions were recruited.  In 31 B.C., he defeated Mark Antony, his only
+serious rival, at the naval battle of Actium, and made himself sole
+master of the Roman world.  But Octavian was a man of different quality
+altogether from Julius Cæsar.  He had no foolish craving to be God or
+King.  He had no queen-lover that he wished to dazzle.  He restored
+freedom to the Senate and people of Rome.  He declined to be dictator. 
+The grateful Senate in return gave him the reality instead of the forms
+of power. He was to be called not King indeed, but “Princeps” and
+“Augustus.”  He became Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Roman emperors
+(27 B.C. to 14 A.D.).
+
+He was followed by Tiberius Cæsar (14 to 37 A.D.) and he by others,
+Caligula, Claudius, Nero and so on up to Trajan (98 A.D.), Hadrian (117
+A.D.), Antonius Pius (138 A.D.) and Marcus Aurelius (161- 180 A.D.). 
+All these emperors were emperors of the legions.  The soldiers made
+them, and some the soldiers destroyed.  Gradually the Senate fades out
+of Roman-history, and the emperor and his administrative officials
+replace it.  The boundaries of the empire crept forward now to their
+utmost limits.  Most of Britain was added to the empire, Transylvania
+was brought in as a new province, Dacia; Trajan crossed the Euphrates. 
+Hadrian had an idea that reminds us at once of what had happened at the
+other end of the old world.  Like Shi-Hwang-ti he built walls against
+the northern barbarians; one across Britain and a palisade between the
+Rhine and the Danube.  He abandoned some of the acquisitions of Trajan.
+
+The expansion of the Roman Empire was at an end.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIV
+BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA
+
+
+The second and first centuries B.C. mark a new phase in the history of
+mankind. Mesopotamia and the eastern Mediterranean are no longer the
+centre of interest. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were still fertile,
+populous and fairly prosperous, but they were no longer the dominant
+regions of the world. Power had drifted to the west and to the east.
+Two great empires now dominated the world, this new Roman Empire and
+the renascent Empire of China. Rome extended its power to the
+Euphrates, but it was never able to get beyond that boundary. It was
+too remote. Beyond the Euphrates the former Persian and Indian
+dominions of the Seleucids fell under a number of new masters. China,
+now under the Han dynasty, which had replaced the Ts’in dynasty at the
+death of Shi-Hwang-ti, had extended its power across Tibet and over the
+high mountain passes of the Pamirs into western Turkestan. But there,
+too, it reached its extremes. Beyond was too far.
+
+China at this time was the greatest, best organized and most civilized
+political system in the world.  It was superior in area and population
+to the Roman Empire at its zenith.  It was possible then for these two
+vast systems to flourish in the same world at the same time in almost
+complete ignorance of each other.  The means of communication both by
+sea and land was not yet sufficiently developed and organized for them
+to come to a direct clash.
+
+Yet they reacted upon each other in a very remarkable way, and their
+influence upon the fate of the regions that lay between them, upon
+central Asia and India, was profound.  A certain amount of trade
+trickled through, by camel caravans across Persia, for example, and by
+coasting ships by way of India and the Red Sea.  In 66 B.C. Roman
+troops under Pompey followed in the footsteps of Alexander the Great,
+and marched up the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea.  In 102 A.D. a
+Chinese expeditionary force under Pan Chau reached the Caspian, and
+sent emissaries to report upon the power of Rome.  But many centuries
+were still to pass before definite knowledge and direct intercourse
+were to link the great parallel worlds of Europe and Eastern Asia.
+
+To the north of both these great empires were barbaric wildernesses. 
+What is now Germany was largely forest lands; the forests extended far
+into Russia and made a home for the gigantic aurochs, a bull of almost
+elephantine size.  Then to the north of the great mountain masses of
+Asia stretched a band of deserts, steppes and then forests and frozen
+lands. In the eastward lap of the elevated part of Asia was the great
+triangle of Manchuria.  Large parts of these regions, stretching
+between South Russia and Turkestan into Manchuria, were and are regions
+of exceptional climatic insecurity. Their rainfall has varied greatly
+in the course of a few centuries  They are lands treacherous to man. 
+For years they will carry pasture and sustain cultivation, and then
+will come an age of decline in humidity and a cycle of killing
+droughts.
+
+
+A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE
+A CHINESE COVERED JAR OF GREEN-GLAZED EARTHENWARE
+
+Han Dynasty (contemporary with the late Roman republic and early
+Empire)
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+The western part of this barbaric north from the German forests to
+South Russia and Turkestan and from Gothland to the Alps was the region
+of origin of the Nordic peoples and of the Aryan speech.  The eastern
+steppes and deserts of Mongolia was the region of origin of the Hunnish
+or Mongolian or Tartar or Turkish peoples—for all these several peoples
+were akin in language, race, and way of life.  And as the Nordic
+peoples seem to have been continually overflowing their own borders and
+pressing south upon the developing civilizations of Mesopotamia and the
+Mediterranean coast, so the Hunnish tribes sent their surplus as
+wanderers, raiders and conquerors into the settled regions of China. 
+Periods of plenty in the north would mean an increase in population
+there; a shortage of grass, a spell of cattle disease, would drive the
+hungry warlike tribesmen south.
+
+For a time there were simultaneously two fairly effective Empires in
+the world capable of holding back the barbarians and even forcing
+forward the frontiers of the imperial peace. The thrust of the Han
+empire from north China into Mongolia was strong and continuous.  The
+Chinese population welled up over the barrier of the Great Wall. 
+Behind the imperial frontier guards came the Chinese farmer with horse
+and plough, ploughing up the grass lands and enclosing the winter
+pasture.  The Hunnish peoples raided and murdered the settlers, but the
+Chinese punitive expeditions were too much for them.  The nomads were
+faced with the choice of settling down to the plough and becoming
+Chinese tax-payers or shifting in search of fresh summer pastures. 
+Some took the former course and were absorbed.  Some drifted
+north-eastward and eastward over the mountain passes down into western
+Turkestan.
+
+
+VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE
+VASE OF BRONZE FORM, UNGLAZED STONEWARE
+
+Han Dynasty (B.C. 206 - A.D. 220)
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+This westward drive of the Mongolian horsemen was going on from 200
+B.C. onward.  It was producing a westward pressure upon the Aryan
+tribes, and these again were pressing upon the Roman frontiers ready to
+break through directly there was any weakness apparent.  The Parthians,
+who were apparently a Scythian people with some Mongolian admixture,
+came down to the Euphrates by the first century B.C.  They fought
+against Pompey the Great in his eastern raid.  They defeated and killed
+Crassus.  They replaced the Seleucid monarchy in Persia by a dynasty of
+Parthian kings, the Arsacid dynasty.
+
+
+CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE
+CHINESE VESSEL IN BRONZE, IN FORM OF A GOOSE
+
+Dating from before the time of Shi-Hwang-ti.  Such a piece of work
+indicates a high level of comfort and humour
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+But for a time the line of least resistance for hungry nomads lay
+neither to the west nor the east but through central Asia and then
+south-eastward through the Khyber Pass into India. It was India which
+received the Mongolian drive in these centuries of Roman and Chinese
+strength.  A series of raiding conquerors poured down through the
+Punjab into the great plains to loot and destroy.  The empire of Asoka
+was broken up, and for a time the history of India passes into
+darkness. A certain Kushan dynasty founded by the “Indo- Scythians”—one
+of the raiding peoples—ruled for a time over North India and maintained
+a certain order. These invasions went on for several centuries.  For a
+large part of the fifth century A.D. India was afflicted by the
+Ephthalites or White Huns, who levied tribute on the small Indian
+princes and held India in terror. Every summer these Ephthalites
+pastured in western Turkestan, every autumn they came down through the
+passes to terrorize India.
+
+In the second century A.D. a great misfortune came upon the Roman and
+Chinese empires that probably weakened the resistance of both to
+barbarian pressure.  This was a pestilence of unexampled virulence.  It
+raged for eleven years in China and disorganized the social framework
+profoundly.  The Han dynasty fell, and a new age of division and
+confusion began from which China did not fairly recover until the
+seventh century A.D. with the coming of the great Tang dynasty.
+
+The infection spread through Asia to Europe.  It raged throughout the
+Roman Empire from 164 to 180 A.D.  It evidently weakened the Roman
+imperial fabric very seriously.  We begin to hear of depopulation in
+the Roman provinces after this, and there was a marked deterioration in
+the vigour and efficiency of government.  At any rate we presently find
+the frontier no longer invulnerable, but giving way first in this place
+and then in that.  A new Nordic people, the Goths, coming originally
+from Gothland in Sweden, had migrated across Russia to the Volga region
+and the shores of the Black Sea and taken to the sea and piracy.  By
+the end of the second century they may have begun to feel the westward
+thrust of the Huns.  In 247 they crossed the Danube in a great land
+raid, and defeated and killed the Emperor Decius in a battle in what is
+now Serbia. In 236 another Germanic people, the Franks, had broken
+bounds upon the lower Rhine, and the Alemanni had poured into Alsace. 
+The legions in Gaul beat back their invaders, but the Goths in the
+Balkan peninsula raided again and again. The province of Dacia vanished
+from Roman history.
+
+A chill had come to the pride and confidence of Rome.  In 270-275 Rome,
+which had been an open and secure city for three centuries, was
+fortified by the Emperor Aurelian.
+
+
+
+
+XXXV
+THE COMMON MAN’S LIFE UNDER THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+Before we tell of how this Roman empire which was built up in the two
+centuries B.C., and which flourished in peace and security from the
+days of Augustus Cæsar onward for two centuries, fell into disorder and
+was broken up, it may be as well to devote some attention to the life
+of the ordinary people throughout this great realm. Our history has
+come down now to within 2000 years of our own time; and the life of the
+civilized people, both under the Peace of Rome and the Peace of the Han
+dynasty, was beginning to resemble more and more clearly the life of
+their civilized successors to-day.
+
+In the western world coined money was now in common use; outside the
+priestly world there were many people of independent means who were
+neither officials of the government nor priests; people travelled about
+more freely than they had ever done before, and there were high roads
+and inns for them. Compared with the past, with the time before 500
+B.C., life had become much more loose. Before that date civilized men
+had been bound to a district or country, had been bound to a tradition
+and lived within a very limited horizon; only the nomads traded and
+travelled.
+
+But neither the Roman Peace nor the Peace of the Han dynasty meant a
+uniform civilization over the large areas they controlled.  There were
+very great local differences and great contrasts and inequalities of
+culture between one district and another, just as there are to-day
+under the British Peace in India.  The Roman garrisons and colonies
+were dotted here and there over this great space, worshipping Roman
+gods and speaking the Latin language; but where there had been towns
+and cities before the coming of the Romans, they went on, subordinated
+indeed but managing their own affairs, and, for a time at least,
+worshipping their own gods in their own fashion.  Over Greece, Asia
+Minor, Egypt and the Hellenized East generally, the Latin language
+never prevailed.  Greek ruled there invincibly.  Saul of Tarsus, who
+became the apostle Paul, was a Jew and a Roman citizen; but he spoke
+and wrote Greek and not Hebrew.  Even at the court of the Parthian
+dynasty, which had overthrown the Greek Seleucids in Persia, and was
+quite outside the Roman imperial boundaries, Greek was the fashionable
+language.  In some parts of Spain and in North Africa, the Carthaginian
+language also held on for a long time in spite of the destruction of
+Carthage.  Such a town as Seville, which had been a prosperous city
+long before the Roman name had been heard of, kept its Semitic goddess
+and preserved its Semitic speech for generations, in spite of a colony
+of Roman veterans at Italica a few miles away.  Septimius Severus, who
+was emperor from 193 to 211 A.D., spoke Carthaginian as his mother
+speech.  He learnt Latin later as a foreign tongue; and it is recorded
+that his sister never learnt Latin and conducted her Roman household in
+the Punic language.
+
+
+A Gladiator (contemporary representation)
+
+In such countries as Gaul and Britain and in provinces like Dacia (now
+roughly Roumania) and Pannonia (Hungary south of the Danube), where
+there were no pre-existing great cities and temples and cultures, the
+Roman empire did however “Latinize.”  It civilized these countries for
+the first time.  It created cities and towns where Latin was from the
+first the dominant speech, and where Roman gods were served and Roman
+customs and fashions followed.  The Roumanian, Italian, French and
+Spanish languages, all variations and modifications of Latin, remain to
+remind us of this extension of Latin speech and customs.  North-west
+Africa also became at last largely Latin-speaking.  Egypt, Greece and
+the rest of the empire to the east were never Latinized.  They remained
+Egyptian and Greek in culture and spirit.  And even in Rome, among
+educated men, Greek was learnt as the language of a gentleman and Greek
+literature and learning were very, properly preferred to Latin.
+
+In this miscellaneous empire the ways of doing work and business were
+naturally also very miscellaneous.  The chief industry of the settled
+world was still largely agriculture. We have told how in Italy the
+sturdy free farmers who were the backbone of the early Roman republic
+were replaced by estates worked by slave labour after the Punic wars. 
+The Greek world had had very various methods of cultivation, from the
+Arcadian plan, wherein every free citizen toiled with his own hands, to
+Sparta, wherein it was a dishonour to work and where agricultural work
+was done by a special slave class, the Helots.  But that was ancient
+history now, and over most of the Hellenized world the estate system
+and slave-gangs had spread.  The agricultural slaves were captives who
+spoke many different languages so that they could not understand each
+other, or they were born slaves; they had no solidarity to resist
+oppression, no tradition of rights, no knowledge, for they could not
+read nor write.  Although they came to form a majority of the country
+population they never made a successful insurrection.  The insurrection
+of Spartacus in the first century B.C. was an insurrection of the
+special slaves who were trained for the gladiatorial combats. The
+agricultural workers in Italy in the latter days of the Republic and
+the early Empire suffered frightful indignities; they would be chained
+at night to prevent escape or have half the head shaved to make it
+difficult.  They had no wives of their own; they could be outraged,
+mutilated and killed by their masters.  A master could sell his slave
+to fight beasts in the arena.  If a slave slew his master, all the
+slaves in his household and not merely the murderer were crucified.  In
+some parts of Greece, in Athens notably, the lot of the slave was never
+quite so frightful as this, but it was still detestable.  To such a
+population the barbarian invaders who presently broke through the
+defensive line of the legions, came not as enemies but as liberators.
+
+
+POMPEII
+POMPEII
+
+“Note the ruts in roadway worn by chariot wheels.”
+
+
+The slave system had spread to most industries and to every sort of
+work that could be done by gangs.  Mines and metallurgical operations,
+the rowing of galleys, road-making and big building operations were all
+largely slave occupations.  And almost all domestic service was
+performed by slaves.  There were poor free-men and there were freed-men
+in the cities and upon the country side, working for themselves or even
+working for wages.  They were artizans, supervisors and so forth,
+workers of a new money- paid class working in competition with slave
+workers; but we do not know what proportion they made of the general
+population.  It probably varied widely in different places and at
+different periods.  And there were also many modifications of slavery,
+from the slavery that was chained at night and driven with whips to the
+farm or quarry, to the slave whose master found it advantageous to
+leave him to cultivate his patch or work his craft and own his wife
+like a free-man, provided he paid in a satisfactory quittance to his
+owner.
+
+There were armed slaves.  At the opening of the period of the Punic
+wars, in 264 B.C., the Etruscan sport of setting slaves to fight for
+their lives was revived in Rome.  It grew rapidly fashionable; and soon
+every great Roman rich man kept a retinue of gladiators, who sometimes
+fought in the arena but whose real business it was to act as his
+bodyguard of bullies.  And also there were learned slaves.  The
+conquests of the later Republic were among the highly civilized cities
+of Greece, North Africa and Asia Minor; and they brought in many highly
+educated captives. The tutor of a young Roman of good family was
+usually a slave.  A rich man would have a Greek slave as librarian, and
+slave secretaries and learned men.  He would keep his poet as he would
+keep a performing dog.  In this atmosphere of slavery the traditions of
+modern literary criticism were evolved.  The slaves still boast and
+quarrel in our reviews. There were enterprising people who bought
+intelligent boy slaves and had them educated for sale.  Slaves were
+trained as book copyists, as jewellers, and for endless skilled
+callings.
+
+
+THE COLISEUM, ROME
+THE COLISEUM, ROME
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY
+INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AT IT APPEARS TO-DAY
+
+
+But there were very considerable changes in the position of a slave
+during the four hundred years between the opening days of conquest
+under the republic of rich men and the days of disintegration that
+followed the great pestilence.  In the second century B.C. war-captives
+were abundant, manners gross and brutal; the slave had no rights and
+there was scarcely an outrage the reader can imagine that was not
+practised upon slaves in those days.  But already in the first century
+A.D. there was a perceptible improvement in the attitude of the Roman
+civilization towards slavery.  Captives were not so abundant for one
+thing, and slaves were dearer.  And slave- owners began to realize that
+the profit and comfort they got from their slaves increased with the
+self-respect of these unfortunates.  But also the moral tone of the
+community was rising, and a sense of justice was becoming effective. 
+The higher mentality of Greece was qualifying the old Roman harshness. 
+Restrictions upon cruelty were made, a master might no longer sell his
+slave to fight beasts, a slave was given property rights in what was
+called his _peculium_, slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and
+stimulus, a form of slave marriage was recognized.  Very many forms of
+agriculture do not lend themselves to gang working, or require gang
+workers only at certain seasons.  In regions where such conditions
+prevailed the slave presently became a serf, paying his owner part of
+his produce or working for him at certain seasons.
+
+When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and
+Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries A.D. was a slave
+state and how small was the minority who had any pride or freedom in
+their lives, we lay our hands on the clues to its decay and collapse. 
+There was little of what we should call family life, few homes of
+temperate living and active thought and study; schools and colleges
+were few and far between.  The free will and the free mind were nowhere
+to be found.  The great roads, the ruins of splendid buildings, the
+tradition of law and power it left for the astonishment of succeeding
+generations must not conceal from us that all its outer splendour was
+built upon thwarted wills, stifled intelligence, and crippled and
+perverted desires.  And even the minority who lorded it over that wide
+realm of subjugation and of restraint and forced labour were uneasy and
+unhappy in their souls; art and literature, science and philosophy,
+which are the fruits of free and happy minds, waned in that atmosphere.
+ There was much copying and imitation, an abundance of artistic
+artificers, much slavish pedantry among the servile men of learning,
+but the whole Roman empire in four centuries produced nothing to set
+beside the bold and noble intellectual activities of the comparatively
+little city of Athens during its one century of greatness.  Athens
+decayed under the Roman sceptre.  The science of Alexandria decayed.
+The spirit of man, it seemed, was decaying in those days.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVI
+RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+
+The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two
+centuries of the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul.
+Compulsion and cruelty reigned; there were pride and display but little
+honour; little serenity or steadfast happiness. The unfortunate were
+despised and wretched; the fortunate were insecure and feverishly eager
+for gratifications. In a great number of cities life centred on the red
+excitement of the arena, where men and beasts fought and were tormented
+and slain. Amphitheatres are the most characteristic of Roman ruins.
+Life went on in that key. The uneasiness of men’s hearts manifested
+itself in profound religious unrest.
+
+From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the ancient
+civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of the temples and
+priesthoods should suffer great adaptations or disappear.  In the
+course of hundreds of generations the agricultural peoples of the
+brunette civilizations had shaped their lives and thoughts to the
+temple-centred life. Observances and the fear of disturbed routines,
+sacrifices and mysteries, dominated their minds.  Their gods seem
+monstrous and illogical to our modern minds because we belong to an
+Aryanized world, but to these older peoples these deities had the
+immediate conviction and vividness of things seen in an intense dream. 
+The conquest of one city state by another in Sumeria or early Egypt
+meant a change or a renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape
+and spirit of the worship intact.  There was no change in its general
+character.  The figures in the dream changed, but the dream went on and
+it was the same sort of dream.  And the early Semitic conquerors were
+sufficiently akin in spirit to the Sumerians to take over the religion
+of the Mesopotamian civilization they subjugated without any profound
+alteration. Egypt was never indeed subjugated to the extent of a
+religious revolution.  Under the Ptolemies and under the Cæsars, her
+temples and altars and priesthoods remained essentially Egyptian.
+
+So long as conquests went on between people of similar social and
+religious habits it was possible to get over the clash between the god
+of this temple and region and the god of that by a process of grouping
+or assimilation.  If the two gods were alike in character they were
+identified.  It was really the same god under another name, said the
+priests and the people.  This fusion of gods is called theocrasia; and
+the age of the great conquests of the thousand years B.C. was an age of
+theocrasia.  Over wide areas the local gods were displaced by, or
+rather they were swallowed up in, a general god.  So that when at last
+Hebrew prophets in Babylon proclaimed one God of Righteousness in all
+the earth men’s minds were fully prepared for that idea.
+
+But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an assimilation, and
+then they were grouped together in some plausible relationship.  A
+female god - and the Ægean world before the coming of the Greek was
+much addicted to Mother Gods—would be married to a male god, and an
+animal god or a star god would be humanized and the animal or
+astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the star, made into an
+ornament or a symbol.  Or the god of a defeated people would become a
+malignant antagonist to the brighter gods.  The history of theology is
+full of such adaptations, compromises and rationalizations of once
+local gods.
+
+As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom there was
+much of this theocrasia.  The chief god so to speak was Osiris, a
+sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was supposed to be the earthly
+incarnation.  Osiris was represented as repeatedly dying and rising
+again; he was not only the seed and the harvest but also by a natural
+extension of thought the means of human immortality.  Among his symbols
+was the wide-winged scarabeus beetle which buries its eggs to rise
+again, and also the effulgent sun which sets to rise. Later on he was
+to be identified with Apis, the sacred bull. Associated with him was
+the goddess Isis.  Isis was also Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the
+crescent moon and the Star of the sea.  Osiris dies and she bears a
+child, Horus, who is also a hawk-god and the dawn, and who grows to
+become Osiris again.  The effigies of Isis represent her as bearing the
+infant Horus in her arms and standing on the crescent moon.  These are
+not logical relationships, but they were devised by the human mind
+before the development of hard and systematic thinking and they have a
+dream-like coherence.  Beneath this triple group there are other and
+darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis, black night and
+the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and man.
+
+
+MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN
+MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN
+
+_(In the British Museum)_
+
+
+Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself to the
+shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt that out of these
+illogical and even uncouth symbols, Egyptian people were able to
+fashion for themselves ways of genuine devotion and consolation.  The
+desire for immortality was very strong in the Egyptian mind, and the
+religious life of Egypt turned on that desire. The Egyptian religion
+was an immortality religion as no other religion had ever been. As
+Egypt went down under foreign conquerors and the Egyptian gods ceased
+to have any satisfactory political significance, this craving for a
+life of compensations here-after, intensified.
+
+
+ISIS AND HORUS
+ISIS AND HORUS
+
+
+After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became the centre
+of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the religious life of the
+whole Hellenic world.  A great temple, the Serapeum, was set up by
+Ptolemy I at which a sort of trinity of gods was worshipped. These were
+Serapis (who was Osiris-Apis rechristened), Isis and Horus. These were
+not regarded as separate gods but as three aspects of one god, and
+Serapis was identified with the Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter and the
+Persian sun-god.  This worship spread wherever the Hellenic influence
+extended, even into North India and Western China.  The idea of
+immortality, an immortality of compensations and consolation, was
+eagerly received by a world in which the common life was hopelessly
+wretched.  Serapis was called “the saviour of souls.”  “After death,”
+said the hymns of that time, “we are still in the care of his
+providence.”  Isis attracted many devotees.  Her images stood in her
+temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant Horus in her arms. 
+Candles were burnt before her, votive offerings were made to her,
+shaven priests consecrated to celibacy waited on her altar.
+
+The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European world to this
+growing cult.  The temples of Serapis-Isis, the chanting of the priests
+and the hope of immortal life, followed the Roman standards to Scotland
+and Holland.  But there were many rivals to the Serapis-Isis religion.
+Prominent among these was Mithraism.  This was a religion of Persian
+origin, and it centred upon some now forgotten mysteries about Mithras
+sacrificing a sacred and benevolent bull.  Here we seem to have
+something more primordial than the complicated and sophisticated
+Serapis-Isis beliefs.  We are carried back directly to the blood
+sacrifices of the heliolithic stage in human culture.  The bull upon
+the Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in its
+side, and from this blood springs new life.  The votary to Mithraism
+actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial bull.  At his
+initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon which a bull was killed
+so that the blood could actually run down on him.
+
+Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of the
+numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the slaves and
+citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are personal religions. 
+They aim at personal salvation and personal immortality.  The older
+religions were not personal like that; they were social.  The older
+fashion of divinity was god or goddess of the city first or of the
+state, and only secondarily of the individual.  The sacrifices were a
+public and not a private function.  They concerned collective practical
+needs in this world in which we live.  But the Greeks first and now the
+Romans had pushed religion out of politics.  Guided by the Egyptian
+tradition religion had retreated to the other world.
+
+
+BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192
+BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192
+
+Represented as the God Mithras, Roman, Circa A.D. 190
+
+_(In the British Museum)_
+
+
+These new private immortality religions took all the heart and emotion
+out of the old state religions, but they did not actually replace them.
+ A typical city under the earlier Roman emperors would have a number of
+temples to all sorts of gods.  There might be a temple to Jupiter of
+the Capitol, the great god of Rome, and there would probably be one to
+the reigning Cæsar.  For the Cæsars had learnt from the Pharaohs the
+possibility of being gods.  In such temples a cold and stately
+political worship went on; one would go and make an offering and burn a
+pinch of incense to show one’s loyalty.  But it would be to the temple
+of Isis, the dear Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen of
+one’s private troubles for advice and relief.  There might be local and
+eccentric gods.  Seville, for example, long affected the worship of the
+old Carthaginian Venus.  In a cave or an underground temple there would
+certainly be an altar to Mithras, attended by legionaries and slaves. 
+And probably also there would be a synagogue where the Jews gathered to
+read their Bible and uphold their faith in the unseen God of all the
+Earth.
+
+Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the political side
+of the state religion.  They held that their God was a jealous God
+intolerant of idolatry, and they would refuse to take part in the
+public sacrifices to Cæsar. They would not even salute the Roman
+standards for fear of idolatry.
+
+In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been ascetics, men
+and women who gave up most of the delights of life, who repudiated
+marriage and property and sought spiritual powers and an escape from
+the stresses and mortifications of the world in abstinence, pain and
+solitude. Buddha himself set his face against ascetic extravagances,
+but many of his disciples followed a monkish life of great severity. 
+Obscure Greek cults practised similar disciplines even to the extent of
+self-mutilation.  Asceticism appeared in the Jewish communities of
+Judea and Alexandria also in the first century B.C.  Communities of men
+abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities and mystical
+contemplation.  Such was the sect of the Essenes.  Throughout the first
+and second centuries A.D. there was an almost world-wide resort to such
+repudiations of life, a universal search for “salvation” from the
+distresses of the time.  The old sense of an established order, the old
+confidence in priest and temple and law and custom, had gone.  Amidst
+the prevailing slavery, cruelty, fear, anxiety, waste, display and
+hectic self-indulgence, went this epidemic of self- disgust and mental
+insecurity, this agonized search for peace even at the price of
+renunciation and voluntary suffering. This it was that filled the
+Serapeum with weeping penitents and brought the converts into the gloom
+and gore of the Mithraic cave.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVII
+THE TEACHING OF JESUS
+
+
+It was while Augustus Cæsar, the first of the Emperors, was reigning in
+Rome that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was born in Judea. In
+his name a religion was to arise which was destined to become the
+official religion of the entire Roman Empire.
+
+Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and theology
+apart.  A large proportion of the Christian world believes that Jesus
+was an incarnation of that God of all the Earth whom the Jews first
+recognized.  The historian, if he is to remain historian, can neither
+accept nor deny that interpretation.  Materially Jesus appeared in the
+likeness of a man, and it is as a man that the historian must deal with
+him.
+
+He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar.  He was a prophet.
+ He preached after the fashion of the preceding Jewish prophets.  He
+was a man of about thirty, and we are in the profoundest ignorance of
+his manner of life before his preaching began.
+
+Our only direct sources of information about the life and teaching of
+Jesus are the four Gospels.  All four agree in giving us a picture of a
+very definite personality.  One is obliged to say, “Here was a man. 
+This could not have been invented.”
+
+But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been distorted and
+obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the gilded idol of later
+Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and strenuous personality of Jesus
+is much wronged by the unreality and conventionality that a mistaken
+reverence has imposed upon his figure in modern Christian art.  Jesus
+was a penniless teacher, who wandered about the dusty sun-bit country
+of Judea, living upon casual gifts of food; yet he is always
+represented clean, combed and sleek, in spotless raiment, erect and
+with something motionless about him as though he was gliding through
+the air. This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people
+who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the ornamental and
+unwise additions of the unintelligently devout.
+
+We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult accessories,
+with the figure of a being, very human, very earnest and passionate,
+capable of swift anger, and teaching a new and simple and profound
+doctrine—namely, the universal loving Fatherhood of God and the coming
+of the Kingdom of Heaven.  He was clearly a person—to use a common
+phrase—of intense personal magnetism.  He attracted followers and
+filled them with love and courage. Weak and ailing people were
+heartened and healed by his presence.  Yet he was probably of a
+delicate physique, because of the swiftness with which he died under
+the pains of crucifixion.  There is a tradition that he fainted when,
+according to the custom, he was made to bear his cross to the place of
+execution.  He went about the country for three years spreading his
+doctrine and then he came to Jerusalem and was accused of trying to set
+up a strange kingdom in Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and
+crucified together with two thieves.  Long before these two were dead
+his sufferings were over.
+
+The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main teaching of
+Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary doctrines that ever
+stirred and changed human thought.  It is small wonder if the world of
+that time failed to grasp its full significance, and recoiled in dismay
+from even a half apprehension of its tremendous challenges to the
+established habits and institutions of mankind.  For the doctrine of
+the Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus seems to have preached it, was no less
+than a bold and uncompromising demand for a complete change and
+cleansing of the life of our struggling race, an utter cleansing,
+without and within.  To the gospels the reader must go for all that is
+preserved of this tremendous teaching; here we are only concerned with
+the jar of its impact upon established ideas.
+
+The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole world, was a
+righteous god, but they also thought of him as a trading god who had
+made a bargain with their Father Abraham about them, a very good
+bargain indeed for them, to bring them at last to predominance in the
+earth. With dismay and anger they heard Jesus sweeping away their dear
+securities.  God, he taught, was no bargainer; there were no chosen
+people and no favourites in the Kingdom of Heaven.  God was the loving
+father of all life, as incapable of showing favour as the universal
+sun.  And all men were brothers—sinners alike and beloved sons alike—of
+this divine father.  In the parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast
+scorn upon that natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own people
+and to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other races.  In
+the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the obstinate claim of the
+Jews to have a special claim upon God. All whom God takes into the
+kingdom, he taught, God serves alike; there is no distinction in his
+treatment, because there is no measure to his bounty.  From all
+moreover, as the parable of the buried talent witnesses, and as the
+incident of the widow’s mite enforces, he demands the utmost. There are
+no privileges, no rebates and no excuses in the Kingdom of Heaven.
+
+
+EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH THE
+TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN
+EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH THE
+TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN
+
+
+But it is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that Jesus
+outraged.  They were a people of intense family loyalty, and he would
+have swept away all the narrow and restrictive family affections in the
+great flood of the love of God.  The whole kingdom of Heaven was to be
+the family of his followers.  We are told that, “While he yet talked to
+the people, behold, his mother and his brethren stood without, desiring
+to speak with him.  Then one said unto him, Behold, thy mother and thy
+brethren stand without, desiring to speak with thee.  But he answered
+and said unto him that told him, Who is my mother? and who are my
+brethren? And he stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and
+said, Behold my mother and my brethren!  For whosoever shall do the
+will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and
+sister, and mother.?  [1]
+
+
+THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS
+THE ROAD FROM NAZARETH TO TIBERIAS
+
+_Photo:  Fannaway_
+
+
+And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of family
+loyalty in the name of God’s universal fatherhood and brotherhood of
+all mankind, but it is clear that his teaching condemned all the
+gradations of the economic system, all private wealth, and personal
+advantages.  All men belonged to the kingdom; all their possessions
+belonged to the kingdom; the righteous life for all men, the only
+righteous life, was the service of God’s will with all that we had,
+with all that we were. Again and again he denounced private riches and
+the reservation of any private life.
+
+
+DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM
+DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM
+
+_Photo:  Fannaway_
+
+
+“And when he was gone forth into the way, there came one running, and
+kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master, what shall I do that I may
+inherit eternal life?  And Jesus said to him, Why callest thou me good?
+there is none good but one, that is God.  Thou knowest the
+commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not
+bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and mother.  And he
+answered and said unto him, Master, all these things have I observed
+from my youth.  Then Jesus beholding him loved him, and said unto him,
+One thing thou lackest; go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give
+to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come, take up
+the cross, and follow me.  And he was sad at that saying, and went away
+grieved; for he had great possessions.
+
+
+A STREET IN JERUSALEM
+A STREET IN JERUSALEM
+
+Along such a thoroughfare Christ carried his cross to the place of
+execution
+
+_Photo:  Fannaway_
+
+
+“And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his disciples, How hardly
+shall they that have riches enter into the Kingdom of God!  And the
+disciples were astonished at his words.  But Jesus answered again, and
+saith unto them, Children, how hard is it for them that trust in riches
+to enter into the Kingdom of God!  It is easier for a camel to go
+through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the
+Kingdom of God.”  [2]
+
+Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which was to make
+all men one together in God, Jesus had small patience for the
+bargaining righteousness of formal religion. Another large part of his
+recorded utterances is aimed against the meticulous observance of the
+rules of the pious career.  “Then the Pharisees and scribes asked him,
+Why walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the elders,
+but eat bread with unwashen hands?  He answered and said unto them,
+Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you hypocrites, as it is written,
+
+“This people honoureth me with their lips,
+
+“But their heart is far from me.
+
+“Howbeit in vain do they worship me,
+
+“Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.
+
+“For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the tradition of men,
+as the washing of pots and cups: and many other such things ye do.  And
+he said unto them, Full well ye reject the commandment of God, that ye
+may keep your own tradition.”  [3]
+
+It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus
+proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his teaching
+had a political bent of the plainest sort.  It is true that he said his
+kingdom was not of this world, that it was in the hearts of men and not
+upon a throne; but it is equally clear that wherever and in what
+measure his kingdom was set up in the hearts of men, the outer world
+would be in that measure revolutionized and made new.
+
+Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may have missed
+in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss his resolve to
+revolutionize the world.  The whole tenor of the opposition to him and
+the circumstances of his trial and execution show clearly that to his
+contemporaries he seemed to propose plainly, and did propose plainly,
+to change and fuse and enlarge all human life.
+
+In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all who were
+rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things, a swimming of
+their world at his teaching?  He was dragging out all the little
+private reservations they had made from social service into the light
+of a universal religious life.  He was like some terrible moral
+huntsman digging mankind out of the snug burrows in which they had
+lived hitherto.  In the white blaze of this kingdom of his there was to
+be no property, no privilege, no pride and precedence; no motive indeed
+and no reward but love.  Is it any wonder that men were dazzled and
+blinded and cried out against him?  Even his disciples cried out when
+he would not spare them the light. Is it any wonder that the priests
+realized that between this man and themselves there was no choice but
+that he or priestcraft should perish?  Is it any wonder that the Roman
+soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over their
+comprehension and threatening all their disciplines, should take refuge
+in wild laughter, and crown him with thorns and robe him in purple and
+make a mock Cæsar of him?  For to take him seriously was to enter upon
+a strange and alarming life, to abandon habits, to control instincts
+and impulses, to essay an incredible happiness. . . .
+
+
+[1] Matt. xii, 46-50.
+
+
+[2] Mark x, 17-25.
+
+
+[3] Mark vii, 1-9.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVIII
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+In the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus but
+very little of the dogmas of the Christian church. It is in the
+epistles, a series of writings by the immediate followers of Jesus,
+that the broad lines of Christian belief are laid down.
+
+Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul. He had never
+seen Jesus nor heard him preach.  Paul’s name was originally Saul, and
+he was conspicuous at first as an active persecutor of the little band
+of disciples after the crucifixion.  Then he was suddenly converted to
+Christianity, and he changed his name to Paul.  He was a man of great
+intellectual vigour and deeply and passionately interested in the
+religious movements of the time.  He was well versed in Judaism and in
+the Mithraism and Alexandrian religion of the day.  He carried over
+many of their ideas and terms of expression into Christianity.  He did
+very little to enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the
+teaching of the Kingdom of Heaven.  But he taught that Jesus was not
+only the promised Christ, the promised leader of the Jews, but also
+that his death was a sacrifice, like the deaths of the ancient
+sacrificial victims of the primordial civilizations, for the redemption
+of mankind.
+
+When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up each other’s
+ceremonial and other outward peculiarities.  Buddhism, for example, in
+China has now almost the same sort of temples and priests and uses as
+Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao Tse.  Yet the original
+teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were almost flatly opposed.  And it
+reflects no doubt or discredit upon the essentials of Christian
+teaching that it took over not merely such formal things as the shaven
+priest, the votive offering, the altars, candles, chanting and images
+of the Alexandrian and Mithraic faiths, but adopted even their
+devotional phrases and their theological ideas.  All these religions
+were flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults. Each was
+seeking adherents, and there must have been a constant going and coming
+of converts between them. Sometimes one or other would be in favour
+with the government.  But Christianity was regarded with more suspicion
+than its rivals because, like the Jews, its adherents would not perform
+acts of worship to the God Cæsar.  This made it a seditious religion,
+quite apart from the revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus
+himself.
+
+
+MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD BACKGROUND
+MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD BACKGROUND
+
+From the Ninth Century original, in the Church of Sta. Prassede, Rome
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus, like
+Osiris, was a god who died to rise again and give men immortality.  And
+presently the spreading Christian community was greatly torn by
+complicated theological disputes about the relationship of this God
+Jesus to God the Father of Mankind.  The Arians taught that Jesus was
+divine, but distant from and inferior to the Father.  The Sabellians
+taught that Jesus was merely an aspect of the Father, and that God was
+Jesus and Father at the same time just as a man may be a father and an
+artificer at the same time; and the Trinitarians taught a more subtle
+doctrine that God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. 
+For a time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals, and
+then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian formula became
+the accepted formula of all Christendom.  It may be found in its
+completest expression in the Athanasian Creed.
+
+We offer no comment on these controversies here.  They do not sway
+history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history. The personal
+teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase in the moral and
+spiritual life of our race.  Its insistence upon the universal
+Fatherhood of God and the implicit brotherhood of all men, its
+insistence upon the sacredness of every human personality as a living
+temple of God, was to have the profoundest effect upon all the
+subsequent social and political life of mankind.  With Christianity,
+with the spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect appears in the
+world for man as man.  It may be true, as hostile critics of
+Christianity have urged, that St.. Paul preached obedience to slaves,
+but it is equally true that the whole spirit of the teachings of Jesus
+preserved in the gospels was against the subjugation of man by man. 
+And still more distinctly was Christianity opposed to such outrages
+upon human dignity as the gladiatorial combats in the arena.
+
+
+THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST
+THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST
+
+_(Sixth Century Ivory Panel in the British Museum)_
+
+
+Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the Christian religion
+spread throughout the Roman Empire, weaving together an ever-growing
+multitude of converts into a new community of ideas and will.  The
+attitude of the emperors varied between hostility and toleration. 
+There were attempts to suppress this new faith in both the second and
+third centuries; and finally in 303 and the following years a great
+persecution under the Emperor Diocletian.  The considerable
+accumulations of Church property were seized, all bibles and religious
+writings were confiscated and destroyed, Christians were put out of the
+protection of the law and many executed.  The destruction of the books
+is particularly notable.  It shows how the power of the written word in
+holding together the new faith was appreciated by the authorities. 
+These “book religions,” Christianity and Judaism, were religions that
+educated. Their continued existence depended very largely on people
+being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas.  The older
+religions had made no such appeal to the personal intelligence.  In the
+ages of barbaric confusion that were now at hand in western Europe it
+was the Christian church that was mainly instrumental in preserving the
+tradition of learning.
+
+The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress the growing
+Christian community.  In many provinces it was ineffective because the
+bulk of the population and many of the officials were Christian.  In
+317 an edict of toleration was issued by the associated Emperor
+Galerius, and in 324 Constantine the Great, a friend and on his
+deathbed a baptized convert to Christianity, became sole ruler of the
+Roman world.  He abandoned all divine pretensions and put Christian
+symbols on the shields and banners of his troops.
+
+In a few years Christianity was securely established as the official
+religion of the empire.  The competing religions disappeared or were
+absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and in 300 Theodosius the Great
+caused the great statue of Jupiter Serapis at Alexandria to be
+destroyed.  From the outset of the fifth century onward the only
+priests or temples in the Roman Empire were Christian priests and
+temples.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIX
+THE BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEST
+
+
+Throughout the third century the Roman Empire, decaying socially and
+disintegrating morally, faced the barbarians. The emperors of this
+period were fighting military autocrats, and the capital of the empire
+shifted with the necessities of their military policy. Now the imperial
+headquarters would be at Milan in north Italy, now in what is now
+Serbia at Sirmium or Nish, now in Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Rome halfway
+down Italy was too far from the centre of interest to be a convenient
+imperial seat. It was a declining city. Over most of the empire peace
+still prevailed and men went about without arms. The armies continued
+to be the sole repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on their
+legions, became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and
+their state more and more like that of the Persian and other oriental
+monarchs. Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental robes.
+
+All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the Rhine and
+Danube, enemies were now pressing.  The Franks and other German tribes
+had come up to the Rhine.  In north Hungary were the Vandals; in what
+was once Dacia and is now Roumania, the Visigoths or West Goths. 
+Behind these in south Russia were the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and
+beyond these again in the Volga region the Alans.  But now Mongolian
+peoples were forcing their way towards Europe.  The Huns were already
+exacting tribute from the Alans and Ostrogoths and pushing them to the
+west.
+
+In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the push of a
+renascent Persia.  This new Persia, the Persia of the Sassenid kings,
+was to be a vigorous and on the whole a successful rival of the Roman
+Empire in Asia for the next three centuries.
+
+A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the peculiar
+weakness of the empire.  The river Danube comes down to within a couple
+of hundred miles of the Adriatic Sea in the region of what is now
+Bosnia and Serbia. It makes a square re-entrant angle there.  The
+Romans never kept their sea communications in good order, and this two
+hundred mile strip of land was their line of communication between the
+western Latin-speaking part of the empire and the eastern
+Greek-speaking portion.  Against this square angle of the Danube the
+barbarian pressure was greatest.  When they broke through there it was
+inevitable that the empire should fall into two parts.
+
+
+Map: The Empire and the Barbarians
+
+A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and reconquered Dacia,
+but the Roman Empire lacked any such vigour.  Constantine the Great was
+certainly a monarch of great devotion and intelligence.  He beat back a
+raid of the Goths from just these vital Balkan regions, but he had no
+force to carry the frontier across the Danube.  He was too pre-occupied
+with the internal weaknesses of the empire.  He brought the solidarity
+and moral force of Christianity to revive the spirit of the declining
+empire, and he decided to create a new permanent capital at Byzantium
+upon the Hellespont.  This new-made Byzantium, which was re-christened
+Constantinople in his honour, was still building when he died.  Towards
+the end of his reign occurred a remarkable transaction.  The Vandals,
+being pressed by the Goths, asked to be received into the Roman Empire.
+ They were assigned lands in Pannonia, which is now that part of
+Hungary west of the Danube, and their fighting men became nominally
+legionaries.  But these new legionaries remained under their own
+chiefs.  Rome failed to digest them.
+
+Constantine died working to reorganize his great realm, and soon the
+frontiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came almost to
+Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at Adrianople and made
+a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, similar to the settlement of the
+Vandals in Pannonia. Nominally they were subjects of the emperor,
+practically they were conquerors.
+
+
+CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
+CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+From 379 to 395 A.D. reigned the Emperor Theodosius the Great, and
+while he reigned the empire was still formally intact.  Over the armies
+of Italy and Pannonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the armies in
+the Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth.  When Theodosius died at the
+close of the fourth century he left two sons. Alaric supported one of
+these, Arcadius, in Constantinople, and Stilicho the other, Honorius,
+in Italy.  In other words Alaric and Stilicho fought for the empire
+with the princes as puppets.  In the course of their struggle Alaric
+marched into Italy and after a short siege took Rome (410 A.D.).
+
+The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the Roman Empire
+in Europe the prey of robber armies of barbarians.  It is difficult to
+visualize the state of affairs in the world at that time.  Over France,
+Spain, Italy and the Balkan peninsula, the great cities that had
+flourished under the early empire still stood, impoverished, partly
+depopulated and falling into decay.  Life in them must have been
+shallow, mean and full of uncertainty.  Local officials asserted their
+authority and went on with their work with such conscience as they had,
+no doubt in the name of a now remote and inaccessible emperor.  The
+churches went on, but usually with illiterate priests.  There was
+little reading and much superstition and fear.  But everywhere except
+where looters had destroyed them, books and pictures and statuary and
+such-like works of art were still to be found.
+
+The life of the countryside had also degenerated.  Everywhere this
+Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had been.  In some
+regions war and pestilence had brought the land down to the level of a
+waste.  Roads and forests were infested with robbers.  Into such
+regions the barbarians marched, with little or no opposition, and set
+up their chiefs as rulers, often with Roman official titles.  If they
+were half civilized barbarians they would give the conquered districts
+tolerable terms, they would take possession of the towns, associate and
+intermarry, and acquire (with an accent) the Latin speech; but the
+Jutes, the Angles and Saxons who submerged the Roman province of
+Britain were agriculturalists and had no use for towns, they seem to
+have swept south Britain clear of the Romanized population and they
+replaced the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at
+last English.
+
+
+BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE
+BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE
+
+The obelisk of Thothmes, taken from Egypt to Constantinople by
+Theodosius and placed upon the pedestal her shown; an interesting
+example of early Byzantine art.  The complete obelisk is seen on page
+239.
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the movements of
+all the various German and Slavonic tribes as they went to and fro in
+the disorganized empire in search of plunder and a pleasant home.  But
+let the Vandals serve as an example.  They came into history in east
+Germany.  They settled as we have told in Pannonia.  Thence they moved
+somewhen about 425 A.D. through the intervening provinces to Spain. 
+There they found Visigoths from South Russia and other German tribes
+setting up dukes and kings.  From Spain the Vandals under Genseric
+sailed for North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a
+fleet.  They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and pillaged
+Rome (455), which had recovered very imperfectly from her capture and
+looting by Alaric half a century earlier.  Then the Vandals made
+themselves masters of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and most of the other
+islands of the western Mediterranean.  They made, in fact, a sea empire
+very similar in its extent to the sea empire of Carthage seven hundred
+odd years before.  They were at the climax of their power about 477. 
+They were a mere handful of conquerors holding all this country.  In
+the next century almost all their territory had been reconquered for
+the empire of Constantinople during a transitory blaze of energy under
+Justinian I.
+
+The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of similar
+adventures.  But now there was coming into the European world the least
+kindred and most redoubtable of all these devastators, the Mongolian
+Huns or Tartars, a yellow people active and able, such as the western
+world had never before encountered.
+
+
+
+
+XL
+THE HUNS AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE
+
+
+This appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be taken
+to mark a new stage in human history. Until the last century or so
+before the Christian era, the Mongol and the Nordic peoples had not
+been in close touch. Far away in the frozen lands beyond the northern
+forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had drifted westward as far as
+Lapland, but they played no part in the main current of history. For
+thousands of years the western world carried on the dramatic interplay
+of the Aryan, Semitic and fundamental brunette peoples with very little
+interference (except for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either
+from the black peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the
+far East.
+
+It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new westward
+drift of the nomadic Mongolians.  One was the consolidation of the
+great empire of China, its extension northward and the increase of its
+population during the prosperous period of the Han dynasty.  The other
+was some process of climatic change; a lesser rainfall that abolished
+swamps and forests perhaps, or a greater rainfall that extended grazing
+over desert steppes, or even perhaps both these processes going on in
+different regions but which anyhow facilitated a westward migration.  A
+third contributary cause was the economic wretchedness, internal decay
+and falling population of the Roman Empire.  The rich men of the later
+Roman Republic, and then the tax-gatherers of the military emperors had
+utterly consumed its vitality. So we have the factors of thrust, means
+and opportunity. There was pressure from the east, rot in the west and
+an open road.
+
+The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia by the
+first century A.D., but it was not until the fourth and fifth centuries
+A.D. that these horsemen rose to predominance upon the steppes.  The
+fifth century was the Hun’s century. The first Huns to come into Italy
+were mercenary bands in the pay of Stilicho the Vandal, the master of
+Honorius. Presently they were in possession of Pannonia, the empty nest
+of the Vandals.
+
+By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief had arisen
+among the Huns, Attila.  We have only vague and tantalizing glimpses of
+his power.  He ruled not only over the Huns but over a conglomerate of
+tributary Germanic tribes; his empire extended from the Rhine cross the
+plains into Central Asia.  He exchanged ambassadors with China.  His
+head camp was in the plain of Hungary east of the Danube. There he was
+visited by an envoy from Constantinople, Priscus, who has left us an
+account of his state.  The way of living of these Mongols was very like
+the way of living of the primitive Aryans they had replaced.  The
+common folk were in huts and tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded
+timber halls.  There were feasts and drinking and singing by the bards.
+ The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions of Alexander
+would probably have felt more at home in the camp-capital of Attila
+than they would have done in the cultivated and decadent court of
+Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius, who was then reigning in
+Constantinople.
+
+For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the leadership of the
+Huns and Attila would play the same part towards the Græco-Roman
+civilization of the Mediterranean countries that the barbaric Greeks
+had played long ago to the Ægean civilization.  It looked like history
+repeating itself upon a larger stage.  But the Huns were much more
+wedded to the nomadic life than the early Greeks, who were rather
+migratory cattle farmers than true nomads.  The Huns raided and
+plundered but did not settle.
+
+For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose.  His armies
+devastated and looted right down to the walls of Constantinople, Gibbon
+says that he totally destroyed no less than seventy cities in the
+Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius bought him off by payments of tribute
+and tried to get rid of him for good by sending secret agents to
+assassinate him.  In 451 Attila turned his attention to the remains of
+the Latin- speaking half of the empire and invaded Gaul.  Nearly every
+town in northern Gaul was sacked.  Franks, Visigoths and the imperial
+forces united against him and he was defeated at Troyes in a vast
+dispersed battle in which a multitude of men, variously estimated as
+between 150,000 and 300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but
+it did not exhaust his enormous military resources.  Next year he came
+into Italy by way of Venetia, burnt Aquileia and Padua and looted
+Milan.
+
+
+HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF
+HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF
+
+_(In the British Museum)_
+
+
+Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and particularly
+from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the head of the Adriatic
+and laid there the foundations of the city state of Venice, which was
+to become one of the greatest or the trading centres in the middle
+ages.
+
+In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate his
+marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder confederation
+of his fell to pieces.  The actual Huns disappear from history, mixed
+into the surrounding more numerous Aryan-speaking populations.  But
+these great Hun raids practically consummated the end of the Latin
+Roman Empire.  After his death ten different emperors ruled in Rome in
+twenty years, set up by Vandal and other mercenary troops.  The Vandals
+from Carthage took and sacked Rome in 455.  Finally in 476 Odoacer, the
+chief of the barbarian troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was figuring
+as emperor under the impressive name of Romulus Augustulus, and
+informed the Court of Constantinople that there was no longer an
+emperor in the west.  So ingloriously the Latin Roman Empire came to an
+end.  In 493 Theodoric the Goth became King of Rome.
+
+All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were reigning
+as kings, dukes and the like, practically independent but for the most
+part professing some sort of shadowy allegiance to the emperor.  There
+were hundreds and perhaps thousands of such practically independent
+brigand rulers.  In Gaul, Spain and Italy and in Dacia the Latin speech
+still prevailed in locally distorted forms, but in Britain and east of
+the Rhine languages of the German group (or in Bohemia a Slavonic
+language, Czech) were the common speech.  The superior clergy and a
+small remnant of other educated men read and wrote Latin.  Everywhere
+life was insecure and property was held by the strong arm.  Castles
+multiplied and roads fell into decay.  The dawn of the sixth century
+was an age of division and of intellectual darkness throughout the
+western world.  Had it not been for the monks and Christian
+missionaries Latin learning might have perished altogether.
+
+Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely decayed? 
+It grew because at first the idea of citizenship held it together. 
+Throughout the days of the expanding republic, and even into the days
+of the early empire there remained a great number of men conscious of
+Roman citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an obligation to be a
+Roman citizen, confident of their rights under the Roman law and
+willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome.  The prestige of Rome
+as of something just and great and law- upholding spread far beyond the
+Roman boundaries.  But even as early as the Punic wars the sense of
+citizenship was being undermined by the growth of wealth and slavery. 
+Citizenship spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship.
+
+The Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization; it did
+not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing multitudes of
+citizens, did not invite their co-operation in its decisions.  There
+was no network of schools to ensure a common understanding, no
+distribution of news to sustain collective activity.  The adventurers
+who struggled for power from the days of Marius and Sulla onward had no
+idea of creating and calling in public opinion upon the imperial
+affairs.  The spirit of citizenship died of starvation and no one
+observed it die.  All empires, all states, all organizations of human
+society are, in the ultimate, things of understanding and will.  There
+remained no will for the Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an
+end.
+
+But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth century,
+something else had been born within it that was to avail itself
+enormously of its prestige and tradition, and that was the
+Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church. This lived while the empire
+died because it appealed to the minds and wills of men, because it had
+books and a great system of teachers and missionaries to hold it
+together, things stronger than any law or legions.  Throughout the
+fourth and fifth centuries A.D. while the empire was decaying,
+Christianity was spreading to a universal dominion in Europe.  It
+conquered its conquerors, the barbarians.  When Attila seemed disposed
+to march on Rome, the patriarch of Rome intercepted him and did what no
+armies could do, turning him back by sheer moral force.
+
+The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the entire
+Christian church.  Now that there were no more emperors, he began to
+annex imperial titles and claims.  He took the title of _pontifex
+maximus_, head sacrificial priest of the Roman dominion, the most
+ancient of all the titles that the emperors had enjoyed.
+
+
+
+
+XLI
+THE BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES
+
+
+The Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much more
+political tenacity than the western half. It weathered the disasters of
+the fifth century A.D., which saw a complete and final breaking up of
+the original Latin Roman power. Attila bullied the Emperor Theodosius
+II and sacked and raided almost to the walls of Constantinople, but
+that city remained intact. The Nubians came down the Nile and looted
+Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt and Alexandria were left still fairly
+prosperous. Most of Asia Minor was held against the Sassanid Persians.
+
+The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for the West,
+saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek power.  Justinian I
+(527-565) was a ruler of very great ambition and energy, and he was
+married to the Empress Theodora, a woman of quite equal capacity who
+had begun life as an actress.  Justinian reconquered North Africa from
+the Vandals and most of Italy from the Goths.  He even regained the
+south of Spain.  He did not limit his energies to naval and military
+enterprises.  He founded a university, built the great church of Sta.
+Sophia in Constantinople and codified the Roman law.  But in order to
+destroy a rival to his university foundation he closed the schools of
+philosophy in Athens, which had been going on in unbroken continuity
+from the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a thousand years.
+
+From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been the
+steadfast rival of the Byzantine.  The two empires kept Asia Minor,
+Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest and waste.  In the first
+century A.D., these lands were still at a high level of civilization,
+wealthy and with an abundant population, but the continual coming and
+going of armies, massacres, looting and war taxation wore them down
+steadily until only shattered and ruinous cities remained upon a
+countryside of scattered peasants.  In this melancholy process of
+impoverishment and disorder lower Egypt fared perhaps less badly than
+the rest of the world.  Alexandria, like Constantinople, continued a
+dwindling trade between the east and the west.
+
+
+THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
+THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
+
+The obelisk of Theodosius in in the foreground statue on left
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both these warring
+and decaying empires.  The last philosophers of Athens, until their
+suppression, preserved the texts of the great literature of the past
+with an infinite reverence and want of understanding.  But there
+remained no class of men in the world, no free gentlemen with bold and
+independent habits of thought, to carry on the tradition of frank
+statement and enquiry embodied in these writings.  The social and
+political chaos accounts largely for the disappearance of this class,
+but there was also another reason why the human intelligence was
+sterile and feverish during this age.  In both Persia and Byzantium it
+was all age of intolerance.  Both empires were religious empires in a
+new way, in a way that greatly hampered the free activities of the
+human mind.
+
+
+THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA
+THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIA
+
+_Photo:  Sebah & Foaillier_
+
+
+Of course the oldest empires in the world were religious empires,
+centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king. Alexander was
+treated as a divinity and the Cæsars were gods in so much as they had
+altars and temples devoted to them and the offering of incense was made
+a test of loyalty to the Roman state.  But these older religions were
+essentially religions of act and fact.  They did not invade the mind. 
+If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed to the god, he was left not
+only to think but to say practically whatever he liked about the
+affair.  But the new sort of religions that had come into the world,
+and particularly Christianity, turned inward.  These new faiths
+demanded not simply conformity but understanding belief.  Naturally
+fierce controversy ensued upon the exact meaning of the things
+believed.  These new religions were creed religions.  The world was
+confronted with a new word, Orthodoxy, and with a stern resolve to keep
+not only acts but speech and private thought within the limits of a set
+teaching.  For to hold a wrong opinion, much more to convey it to other
+people, was no longer regarded as an intellectual defect but a moral
+fault that might condemn a soul to everlasting destruction.
+
+
+THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT
+THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURT
+
+_Photo:  Alinari_
+
+THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA
+THE ROCK HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third century
+A.D., and Constantine the Great who reconstructed the Roman Empire in
+the fourth, turned to religious organizations for help, because in
+these organizations they saw a new means of using and controlling the
+wills of men.  And already before the end of the fourth century both
+empires were persecuting free talk and religious innovation.  In Persia
+Ardashir found the ancient Persian religion of Zoroaster (or
+Zarathushtra) with its priests and temples and a sacred fire that burnt
+upon its altars, ready for his purpose as a state religion.  Before the
+end of the third century Zoroastrianism was persecuting Christianity,
+and in 277 A.D. Mani, the founder of a new faith, the Manichæans, was
+crucified and his body flayed. Constantinople, on its side, was busy
+hunting out Christian heresies.  Manichæan ideas infected Christianity
+and had to be fought with the fiercest methods; in return ideas from
+Christianity affected the purity of the Zoroastrian doctrine. All ideas
+became suspect.  Science, which demands before all things the free
+action of an untroubled mind, suffered a complete eclipse throughout
+this phase of intolerance.
+
+War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind constituted
+Byzantine life of those days.  It was picturesque, it was romantic; it
+had little sweetness or light.  When Byzantium and Persia were not
+fighting the barbarians from the north, they wasted Asia Minor and
+Syria in dreary and destructive hostilities.  Even in close alliance
+these two empires would have found it a hard task to turn back the
+barbarians and recover their prosperity.  The Turks or Tartars first
+come into history as the allies first of one power and then of another.
+ In the sixth century the two chief antagonists were Justinian and
+Chosroes I; in the opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was
+pitted against Chosroes II (580).
+
+At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610) Chosroes II
+carried all before him.  He took Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem and
+his armies reached Chalcedon, which is in Asia Minor over against
+Constantinople.  In 619 he conquered Egypt.  Then Heraclius pressed a
+counter attack home and routed a Persian army at Nineveh (627),
+although at that time there were still Persian troops at Chalcedon.  In
+628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered by his son, Kavadh, and an
+inconclusive peace was made between the two exhausted empires.
+
+Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war.  But few people as yet
+dreamt of the storm that was even then gathering in the deserts to put
+an end for ever to this aimless, chronic struggle.
+
+While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message reached him.  It
+had been brought in to the imperial outpost at Bostra south of
+Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure Semitic desert language, and it
+was read to the Emperor, if it reached him at all, by an interpreter. 
+It was from someone who called himself “Muhammad the Prophet of God.” 
+It called upon the Emperor to acknowledge the One True God and to serve
+him.  What the Emperor said is not recorded.
+
+A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon.  He was annoyed, tore up
+the letter, and bade the messenger begone.
+
+This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose headquarters
+were in the mean little desert town of Medina. He was preaching a new
+religion of faith in the One True God.
+
+“Even so, O Lord!” he said; “rend thou his Kingdom from Kavadh.”
+
+
+
+
+XLII
+THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA
+
+
+Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there was a
+steady drift of Mongolian peoples westward. The Huns of Attila were
+merely precursors of this advance, which led at last to the
+establishment of Mongolian peoples in Finland, Esthonia, Hungary and
+Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking languages akin to Turkish,
+survive to this day. The Mongolian nomads were, in fact, playing a role
+towards the Aryanized civilizations of Europe and Persia and India that
+the Aryans had played to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations ten or
+fifteen centuries before.
+
+In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is now
+Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many Turkish officials
+and Turkish mercenaries.  The Parthians had gone out of history,
+absorbed into the general population of Persia.  There were no more
+Aryan nomads in the history of Central Asia; Mongolian people had
+replaced them.  The Turks became masters of Asia from China to the
+Caspian.
+
+The same great pestilence at the end of the second century A.D. that
+had shattered the Roman Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty in China.
+ Then came a period of division and of Hunnish conquests from which
+China arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely than Europe was
+destined to do.  Before the end of the sixth century China was reunited
+under the Suy dynasty, and this by the time of Heraclius gave place to
+the Tang dynasty, whose reign marks another great period of prosperity
+for China.
+
+
+CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906
+CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906
+
+Specimens in glazed earthenware, in brown, green and buff, discovered
+in tombs in China
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was the most
+secure and civilized country in the world.  The Han dynasty had
+extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and Tang dynasties now
+spread her civilization to the south, and China began to assume the
+proportions she has to-day.  In Central Asia indeed she reached much
+further, extending at last, through tributary Turkish tribes, to Persia
+and the Caspian Sea.
+
+The new China that had arisen was a very different land from the old
+China of the Hans.  A new and more vigorous literary school appeared,
+there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism had revolutionized
+philosophical and religious thought. There were great advances in
+artistic work, in technical skill and in all the amenities of life. 
+Tea was first used, paper manufactured and wood-block printing began. 
+Millions of people indeed were leading orderly, graceful and kindly
+lives in China during these centuries when the attenuated populations
+of Europe and Western Asia were living either in hovels, small walled
+cities or grim robber fortresses.  While the mind of the west was black
+with theological obsessions, the mind of China was open and tolerant
+and enquiring.
+
+One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai- tsung, who
+began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of Heraclius at Nineveh.
+ He received an embassy from Heraclius, who was probably seeking an
+ally in the rear of Persia.  From Persia itself came a party of
+Christian missionaries (635). They were allowed to explain their creed
+to Tai-tsung and he examined a Chinese translation of their Scriptures.
+ He pronounced this strange religion acceptable, and gave permission
+for the foundation of a church and monastery.
+
+To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad. They came
+to Canton on a trading ship.  They had sailed the whole way from Arabia
+along the Indian coasts.  Unlike Heraclius and Kavadh, Tai-Tsung gave
+these envoys a courteous hearing.  He expressed his interest in their
+theological ideas and assisted them to build a mosque in Canton, a
+mosque which survives, it is said, to this day, the oldest mosque in
+the world.
+
+
+
+
+XLIII
+MUHAMMAD AND ISLAM
+
+
+A prophetic amateur of history surveying the world in the opening of
+the seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that it was
+only a question of a few centuries before the whole of Europe and Asia
+fell under Mongolian domination. There were no signs of order or union
+in Western Europe, and the Byzantine and Persian Empires were
+manifestly bent upon a mutual destruction. India also was divided and
+wasted. On the other hand China was a steadily expanding empire which
+probably at that time exceeded all Europe in population, and the
+Turkish people who were growing to power in Central Asia were disposed
+to work in accord with China. And such a prophecy would not have been
+an altogether vain one. A time was to come in the thirteenth century
+when a Mongolian overlord would rule from the Danube to the Pacific,
+and Turkish dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine
+and Persian Empires, over Egypt and most of India.
+
+Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred would have
+been in under-estimating the recuperative power of the Latin end of
+Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of the Arabian desert.  Arabia
+would have seemed what it had been for times immemorial, the refuge of
+small and bickering nomadic tribes.  No Semitic people had founded an
+empire now for more than a thousand years.
+
+Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of splendour. 
+They spread their rule and language from Spain to the boundaries of
+China.  They gave the world a new culture. They created a religion that
+is still to this day one of the most vital forces in the world.
+
+The man who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the young
+husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of Mecca, named
+Muhammad.  Until he was forty he did very little to distinguish himself
+in the world.  He seems to have taken considerable interest in
+religious discussion.  Mecca was a pagan city at that time worshipping
+in particular a black stone, the Kaaba, of great repute throughout all
+Arabia and a centre of pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of
+Jews in the country—indeed all the southern portion of Arabia professed
+the Jewish faith—and there were Christian churches in Syria.
+
+About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic characteristics like
+those of the Hebrew prophets twelve hundred years before him.  He
+talked first to his wife of the One True God, and of the rewards and
+punishments of virtue and wickedness.  There can be no doubt that his
+thoughts were very strongly influenced by Jewish and Christian ideas. 
+He gathered about him a small circle of believers and presently began
+to preach in the town against the prevalent idolatry. This made him
+extremely unpopular with his fellow townsmen because the pilgrimages to
+the Kaaba were the chief source of such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed. 
+He became bolder and more definite in his teaching, declaring himself
+to be the last chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to
+perfect religion.  Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his
+forerunners.  He had been chosen to complete and perfect the revelation
+of God’s will.
+
+He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him by an
+angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was taken up through the
+Heavens to God and instructed in his mission.
+
+
+AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT
+AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his fellow townsmen
+increased also.  At last a plot was made to kill him; but he escaped
+with his faithful friend and disciple, Abu Bekr, to the friendly town
+of Medina which adopted his doctrine.  Hostilities followed between
+Mecca and Medina which ended at last in a treaty.  Mecca was to adopt
+the worship of the One True God and accept Muhammad as his prophet,
+_but the adherents of the new faith were still to make the pilgrimage
+to Mecca_ just as they had done when they were pagans.  So Muhammad
+established the One True God in Mecca without injuring its pilgrim
+traffic.  In 629 Muhammad returned to Mecca as its master, a year after
+he had sent out these envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and
+all the rulers of the earth.
+
+
+LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND
+LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad spread his
+power over the rest of Arabia.  He married a number of wives in his
+declining years, and his life on the whole was by modern standards
+unedifying.  He seems to have been a man compounded of very
+considerable vanity, greed, cunning, self-deception and quite sincere
+religious passion. He dictated a book of injunctions and expositions,
+the Koran, which he declared was communicated to him from God. 
+Regarded as literature or philosophy the Koran is certainly unworthy of
+its alleged Divine authorship.
+
+Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad’s life and writings have been
+allowed for, there remains in Islam, this faith he imposed upon the
+Arabs, much power and inspiration. One is its uncompromising
+monotheism; its simple enthusiastic faith in the rule and fatherhood of
+God and its freedom from theological complications.  Another is its
+complete detachment from the sacrificial priest and the temple.  It is
+an entirely prophetic religion, proof against any possibility of
+relapse towards blood sacrifices.  In the Koran the limited and
+ceremonial nature of the pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the
+possibility of dispute, and every precaution was taken by Muhammad to
+prevent the deification of himself after his death.  And a third
+element of strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon the perfect
+brotherhood and equality before God of all believers, whatever their
+colour, origin or status.
+
+These are the things that made Islam a power in human affairs.  It has
+been said that the true founder of the Empire of Islam was not so much
+Muhammad as his friend and helper, Abu Bekr.  If Muhammad, with his
+shifty character, was the mind and imagination of primitive Islam, Abu
+Bekr was its conscience and its will.  Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu
+Bekr sustained him.  And when Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became Caliph (=
+successor), and with that faith that moves mountains, he set himself
+simply and sanely to organize the subjugation of the whole world to
+Allah—with little armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs—according to those
+letters the prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the monarchs
+of the world.
+
+
+
+
+XLIV
+THE GREAT DAYS OF THE ARABS
+
+
+There follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole history
+of our race. The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle of the Yarmuk
+(a tributary of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor Heraclius, his
+energy sapped by dropsy and his resources exhausted by the Persian war,
+saw his new conquests in Syria, Damascus, Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem
+and the rest fall almost without resistance to the Moslim. Large
+elements in the population went over to Islam. Then the Moslim turned
+east. The Persians had found an able general in Rustam; they had a
+great host with a force of elephants; and for three days they fought
+the Arabs at Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout.
+
+The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire pushed far
+into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met the Chinese.  Egypt
+fell almost without resistance to the new conquerors, who full of a
+fanatical belief in the sufficiency of the Koran, wiped out the
+vestiges of the book-copying industry of the Alexandria Library.  The
+tide of conquest poured along the north coast of Africa to the Straits
+of Gibraltar and Spain.  Spain was invaded in 710 and the Pyrenees
+Mountains were reached in 720.  In 732 the Arab advance had reached the
+centre of France, but here it was stopped for good at the battle of
+Poitiers and thrust back as far as the Pyrenees again.  The conquest of
+Egypt had given the Moslim a fleet, and for a time it looked as though
+they would take Constantinople.  They made repeated sea attacks between
+672 and 718 but the great city held out against them.
+
+
+Map: The Growth of the Moslem Power in 25 Years
+
+
+Map: The Moslem Empire, 750 A.D.
+
+The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political experience,
+and this great empire with its capital now at Damascus, which stretched
+from Spain to China, was destined to break up very speedily. From the
+very beginning doctrinal differences undermined its unity.  But our
+interest here lies not with the story of its political disintegration
+but with its effect upon the human mind and upon the general destinies
+of our race.  The Arab intelligence had been flung across the world
+even more swiftly and dramatically than had the Greek a thousand years
+before.  The intellectual stimulation of the whole world west of China,
+the break-up of old ideas and development of new ones, was enormous.
+
+In Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not only
+with Manichæan, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine, but with the
+scientific Greek literature, preserved not only in Greek but in Syrian
+translations.  It found Greek learning in Egypt also. Every-where, and
+particularly in Spain, it discovered an active Jewish tradition of
+speculation and discussion.  In Central Asia it met Buddhism and the
+material achievements of Chinese civilization.  It learnt the
+manufacture of paper—which made printed books possible—from the
+Chinese.  And finally it came into touch with Indian mathematics and
+philosophy.
+
+
+JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR
+JERUSALEM, SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early days of
+faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible book, was dropped.
+Learning sprang up everywhere in the footsteps of the Arab conquerors. 
+By the eighth century there was an educational organization throughout
+the whole “Arabized” world.  In the ninth learned men in the schools of
+Cordoba in Spain were corresponding with learned men in Cairo, Bagdad,
+Bokhara and Samarkand.  The Jewish mind assimilated very readily with
+the Arab, and for a time the two Semitic races worked together through
+the medium of Arabic.  Long after the political break-up and
+enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the
+Arab-speaking world endured.  It was still producing very considerable
+results in the thirteenth century.
+
+
+VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES
+VIEW OF CAIRO MOSQUES
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of facts which
+was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this astonishing
+renascence of the Semitic world.  The seed of Aristotle and the museum
+of Alexandria that had lain so long inactive and neglected now
+germinated and began to grow towards fruition.  Very great advances
+were made in mathematical, medical and physical science.  The clumsy
+Roman numerals were ousted by the Arabic figures we use to this day and
+the zero sign was first employed.  The very name algebra is Arabic.  So
+is the word chemistry.  The names of such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and
+Boötes preserve the traces of Arab conquests in the sky.  Their
+philosophy was destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of France
+and Italy and the whole Christian world.
+
+The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and they were
+still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their methods and results
+secret as far as possible.  They realized from the very beginning what
+enormous advantages their possible discoveries might give them, and
+what far-reaching consequences they might have on human life.  They
+came upon many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost value,
+alloys and dyes, distilling, tinctures and essences, optical glass; but
+the two chief ends they sought, they sought in vain.  One was “the
+philosopher’s stone”—a means of changing the metallic elements one into
+another and so getting a control of artificial gold, and the other was
+the _elixir vitœ_, a stimulant that would revivify age and prolong life
+indefinitely.  The crabbed patient experimenting of these Arab
+alchemists spread into the Christian world.  The fascination of their
+enquiries spread.  Very gradually the activities of these alchemists
+became more social and co-operative.  They found it profitable to
+exchange and compare ideas.  By insensible gradations the last of the
+alchemists became the first of the experimental philosophers.
+
+The old alchemists sought the philosopher’s stone which was to
+transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of immortality; they found
+the methods of modern experimental science which promise in the end to
+give man illimitable power over the world and over his own destiny.
+
+
+
+
+XLV
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM
+
+
+It is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the
+share of the world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh and
+eighth centuries. A thousand years before, the Aryan-speaking races
+were triumphant over all the civilized world west of China. Now the
+Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary, nothing of Asia remained under
+Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in Asia Minor, and all Africa
+was lost and nearly all Spain. The great Hellenic world had shrunken to
+a few possessions round the nucleus of the trading city of
+Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman world was kept alive by the
+Latin of the western Christian priests. In vivid contrast to this tale
+of retrogression, the Semitic tradition had risen again from
+subjugation and obscurity after a thousand years of darkness.
+
+Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted. Confined now
+to Central and North-Western Europe and terribly muddled in their
+social and political ideas, they were nevertheless building up
+gradually and steadily a new social order and preparing unconsciously
+for the recovery of a power even more extensive than that they had
+previously enjoyed.
+
+We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there remained
+no central government in Western Europe at all. That world was divided
+up among numbers of local rulers holding their own as they could.  This
+was too insecure a state of affairs to last; a system of co-operation
+and association grew up in this disorder, the feudal system, which has
+left its traces upon European life up to the present time.  This feudal
+system was a sort of crystallization of society about power. 
+Everywhere the lone man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a
+certain amount of his liberty for help and protection.  He sought a
+stronger man as his lord and protector; he gave him military services
+and paid him dues, and in return he was confirmed in his possession of
+what was his.  His lord again found safety in vassalage to a still
+greater lord.  Cities also found it convenient to have feudal
+protectors, and monasteries and church estates bound themselves by
+similar ties.  No doubt in many cases allegiance was claimed before it
+was offered; the system grew downward as well as upward.  So a sort of
+pyramidal system grew up, varying widely in different localities,
+permitting at first a considerable play of violence and private warfare
+but making steadily for order and a new reign of law.  The pyramids
+grew up until some became recognizable as kingdoms.  Already by the
+early sixth century a Frankish kingdom existed under its founder Clovis
+in what is now France and the Netherlands, and presently Visigothic and
+Lombard and Gothic kingdoms were in existence.
+
+The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this Frankish
+kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, the Mayor of the
+Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, and experienced the
+decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his hands.  This Charles Martel
+was practically overlord of Europe north of the Alps from the Pyrenees
+to Hungary.  He ruled over a multitude of subordinate lords speaking
+French- Latin, and High and Low German languages.  His son Pepin
+extinguished the last descendants of Clovis and took the kingly state
+and title.  His grandson Charlemagne, who began to reign in 768, found
+himself lord of a realm so large that he could think of reviving the
+title of Latin Emperor.  He conquered North Italy and made himself
+master of Rome.
+
+
+Map: Area more or less under Frankish dominion in the time of Charles
+Martel
+
+Approaching the story of Europe as we do from the wider horizons of a
+world history we can see much more distinctly than the mere nationalist
+historian how cramping and disastrous this tradition of the Latin Roman
+Empire was.  A narrow intense struggle for this phantom predominance
+was to consume European energy for more than a thousand years. Through
+all that period it is possible to trace certain unquenchable
+antagonisms; they run through the wits of Europe like the obsessions of
+a demented mind.  One driving force was this ambition of successful
+rulers, which Charlemagne (Charles the Great) embodied, to become
+Cæsar.  The realm of Charlemagne consisted of a complex of feudal
+German states at various stages of barbarism.  West of the Rhine, most
+of these German peoples had learnt to speak various Latinized dialects
+which fused at last to form French.  East of the Rhine, the racially
+similar German peoples did not lose their German speech.  On account of
+this, communication was difficult between these two groups of barbarian
+conquerors and a split easily brought about.  The split was made the
+more easy by the fact that the Frankish usage made it seem natural to
+divide the empire of Charlemagne among his sons at his death.  So one
+aspect of the history of Europe from the days of Charlemagne onwards is
+a history of first this monarch and his family and then that,
+struggling to a precarious headship of the kings, princes, dukes,
+bishops and cities of Europe, while a steadily deepening antagonism
+between the French and German speaking elements develops in the medley.
+ There was a formality of election for each emperor; and the climax of
+his ambition was to struggle to the possession of that worn-out,
+misplaced capital Rome and to a coronation there.
+
+The next factor in the European political disorder was the resolve of
+the Church at Rome to make no temporal prince but the Pope of Rome
+himself emperor in effect.  He was already pontifex maximus; for all
+practical purposes he held the decaying city; if he had no armies he
+had at least a vast propaganda organization in his priests throughout
+the whole Latin world; if he had little power over men’s bodies he held
+the keys of heaven and hell in their imaginations and could exercise
+much influence upon their souls.  So throughout the middle ages while
+one prince manœuvred against another first for equality, then for
+ascendancy, and at last for the supreme prize, the Pope of Rome,
+sometimes boldly, sometimes craftily, sometimes feebly—for the Popes
+were a succession of oldish men and the average reign of a Pope was not
+more than two years—manœuvred for the submission of all the princes to
+himself as the ultimate overlord of Christendom.
+
+But these antagonisms of prince against prince and of Emperor against
+Pope do not by any means exhaust the factors of the European confusion.
+ There was still an Emperor in Constantinople speaking Greek and
+claiming the allegiance of all Europe.  When Charlemagne sought to
+revive the empire, it was merely the Latin end of the empire he
+revived.  It was natural that a sense of rivalry between Latin Empire
+and Greek Empire should develop very readily.  And still more readily
+did the rivalry of Greek-speaking Christianity and the newer
+Latin-speaking version develop.  The Pope of Rome claimed to be the
+successor of St. Peter, the chief of the apostles of Christ, and the
+head of the Christian community everywhere.  Neither the emperor nor
+the patriarch in Constantinople were disposed to acknowledge this
+claim.  A dispute about a fine point in the doctrine of the Holy
+Trinity consummated a long series of dissensions in a final rupture in
+1054.  The Latin Church and the Greek Church became and remained
+thereafter distinct and frankly antagonistic. This antagonism must be
+added to the others in our estimate of the conflicts that wasted Latin
+Christendom in the middle ages.
+
+
+STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS
+STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE IN FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS
+The figure is entirely imaginary and romantic.  There is no
+contemporary portrait of Charlemagne
+
+_Photo:  Rischgitz_
+
+
+Upon this divided world of Christendom rained the blows of three sets
+of antagonists.  About the Baltic and North Seas remained a series of
+Nordic tribes who were only very slowly and reluctantly Christianized;
+these were the Northmen.  They had taken to the sea and piracy, and
+were raiding all the Christian coasts down to Spain.  They had pushed
+up the Russian rivers to the desolate central lands and brought their
+shipping over into the south-flowing rivers.  They had come out upon
+the Caspian and Black Seas as pirates also.  They set up principalities
+in Russia; they were the first people to be called Russians.  These
+Northmen Russians came near to taking Constantinople.  England in the
+early ninth century was a Christianized Low German country under a
+king, Egbert, a protégé and pupil of Charlemagne.  The Northmen wrested
+half the kingdom from his successor Alfred the Great (886), and finally
+under Canute (1016) made themselves masters of the whole land.  Under
+Rolph the Ganger (912) another band of Northmen conquered the north of
+France, which became Normandy.
+
+Canute ruled not only over England but over Norway and Denmark, but his
+brief empire fell to pieces at his death through that political
+weakness of the barbaric peoples—division among a ruler’s sons.  It is
+interesting to speculate what might have happened if this temporary
+union of the Northmen had endured.  They were a race of astonishing
+boldness and energy.  They sailed in their galleys even to Iceland and
+Greenland.  They were the first Europeans to land on American soil. 
+Later on Norman adventurers were to recover Sicily from the Saracens
+and sack Rome.  It is a fascinating thing to imagine what a great
+northern sea-faring power might have grown out of Canute’s kingdom,
+reaching from America to Russia.
+
+To the east of the Germans and Latinized Europeans was a medley of Slav
+tribes and Turkish peoples.  Prominent among these were the Magyars or
+Hungarians who were coming westward throughout the eighth and ninth
+centuries.  Charlemagne held them for a time, but after his death they
+established themselves in what is now Hungary; and after the fashion of
+their kindred predecessors, the Huns, raided every summer into the
+settled parts of Europe.  In 938 they went through Germany into France,
+crossed the Alps into North Italy, and so came home, burning, robbing
+and destroying.
+
+Finally pounding away from the south at the vestiges of the Roman
+Empire were the Saracens.  They had made themselves largely masters of
+the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon the water were the
+Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the Black Sea and the Northmen of
+the west.
+
+
+Map: Europe at the death of Charlemagne—814
+
+Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples, amidst forces
+they did not understand and dangers they could not estimate,
+Charlemagne and after him a series of other ambitious spirits took up
+the futile drama of restoring the Western Empire under the name of the
+Holy Roman Empire.  From the time of Charlemagne onward this idea
+obsessed the political life of Western Europe, while in the East the
+Greek half of the Roman power decayed and dwindled until at last
+nothing remained of it at all but the corrupt trading city of
+Constantinople and a few miles of territory about it. Politically the
+continent of Europe remained traditional and uncreative from the time
+of Charlemagne onward for a thousand years.
+
+The name of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his
+personality is but indistinctly seen.  He could not read nor write, but
+he had a considerable respect for learning; he liked to be read aloud
+to at meals and he had a weakness for theological discussion.  At his
+winter quarters at Aix-la- Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a
+number of learned men and picked up much from their conversation.  In
+the summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the Slavs
+and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still heathen German tribes.
+ It is doubtful whether the idea of becoming Cæsar in succession to
+Romulus Augustulus occurred to him before his acquisition of North
+Italy, or whether it was suggested to him by Pope Leo III, who was
+anxious to make the Latin Church independent of Constantinople.
+
+There were the most extraordinary manœuvres at Rome between the Pope
+and the prospective emperor in order to make it appear or not appear as
+if the Pope gave him the imperial crown.  The Pope succeeded in
+crowning his visitor and conqueror by surprise in St. Peter’s on
+Christmas Day 800 A.D.  He produced a crown, put it on the head of
+Charlemagne and hailed him Cæsar and Augustus.  There was great
+applause among the people. Charlemagne was by no means pleased at the
+way in which the thing was done, it rankled in his mind as a defeat;
+and he left the most careful instructions to his son that he was not to
+let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to seize the crown into his own
+hands and put it on his own head himself.  So at the very outset of
+this imperial revival we see beginning the age-long dispute of Pope and
+Emperor for priority.  But Louis the Pious, the son of Charlemagne,
+disregarded his father’s instructions and was entirely submissive to
+the Pope.
+
+The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis the Pious
+and the split between the French-speaking Franks and the
+German-speaking Franks widened.  The next emperor to arise was Otto,
+the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a Saxon, who had been elected
+King of Germany by an assembly of German princes and prelates in 919. 
+Otto descended upon Rome and was crowned emperor there in 962.  This
+Saxon line came to an end early in the eleventh century and gave place
+to other German rulers.  The feudal princes and nobles to the west who
+spoke various French dialects did not fall under the sway of these
+German emperors after the Carlovingian line, the line that is descended
+from Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever came
+into the Holy Roman Empire.  The Duke of Normandy, the King of France
+and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained outside.  In 987 the
+Kingdom of France passed out of the possession of the Carlovingian line
+into the hands of Hugh Capet, whose descendants were still reigning in
+the eighteenth century.  At the time of Hugh Capet the King of France
+ruled only a comparatively small territory round Paris.
+
+In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an invasion of
+the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada and by the Latinized
+Northmen under the Duke of Normandy. Harold King of England defeated
+the former at the battle of Stamford Bridge, and was defeated by the
+latter at Hastings. England was conquered by the Normans, and so cut
+off from Scandinavian, Teutonic and Russian affairs, and brought into
+the most intimate relations and conflicts with the French. For the next
+four centuries the English were entangled in the conflicts of the
+French feudal princes and wasted upon the fields of France.
+
+
+
+
+XLVI
+THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION
+
+
+It is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the Caliph
+Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the _Arabian Nights_. It is
+recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors from Bagdad—which had
+now replaced Damascus as the Moslem capital—with a splendid tent, a
+water clock, an elephant and the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. This
+latter present was admirably calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and
+this new Holy Roman Empire by the ears as to which was the proper
+protector of the Christians in Jerusalem.
+
+These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth century was
+still a weltering disorder of war and pillage, there flourished a great
+Arab Empire in Egypt and Mesopotamia, far more civilized than anything
+Europe could show.  Here literature and science still lived; the arts
+flourished, and the mind of man could move without fear or
+superstition.  And even in Spain and North Africa where the Saracenic
+dominions were falling into political confusion there was a vigorous
+intellectual life.  Aristotle was read and discussed by these Jews and
+Arabs during these centuries of European darkness.  They guarded the
+neglected seeds of science and philosophy.
+
+North-east of the Caliph’s dominions was a number of Turkish tribes. 
+They had been converted to Islam, and they held the faith much more
+simply and fiercely than the actively intellectual Arabs and Persians
+to the south.  In the tenth century the Turks were growing strong and
+vigorous while the Arab power was divided and decaying.  The relations
+of the Turks to the Empire of the Caliphate became very similar to the
+relations of the Medes to the last Babylonian Empire fourteen centuries
+before.  In the eleventh century a group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk
+Turks, came down into Mesopotamia and made the Caliph their nominal
+ruler but really their captive and tool.  They conquered Armenia.  Then
+they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine power in Asia Minor.  In
+1071 the Byzantine army was utterly smashed at the battle of Melasgird,
+and the Turks swept forward until not a trace of Byzantine rule
+remained in Asia. They took the fortress of Nicæa over against
+Constantinople, and prepared to attempt that city.
+
+The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror. He was
+already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of Norman adventurers
+who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce Turkish people, the
+Petschenegs, who were raiding over the Danube.  In his extremity he
+sought help where he could, and it is notable that he did not appeal to
+the western emperor but to the Pope of Rome as the head of Latin
+Christendom.  He wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and his successor Alexius
+Comnenus wrote still more urgently to Urban II.
+
+
+CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL
+CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRAL
+
+_Photo:  Mansell_
+
+
+This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the Latin and
+Greek churches.  That controversy was still vividly alive in men’s
+minds, and this disaster to Byzantium must have presented itself to the
+Pope as a supreme opportunity for reasserting the supremacy of the
+Latin Church over the dissentient Greeks.  Moreover this occasion gave
+the Pope a chance to deal with two other matters that troubled western
+Christendom very greatly.  One was the custom of “private war” which
+disordered social life, and the other was the superabundant fighting
+energy of the Low Germans and Christianized Northmen and particularly
+of the Franks and Normans.  A religious war, the Crusade, the War of
+the Cross, was preached against the Turkish captors of Jerusalem, and a
+truce to all warfare amongst Christians (1095).  The declared object of
+this war was the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the unbelievers. 
+A man called Peter the Hermit carried on a popular propaganda
+throughout France and Germany on broadly democratic lines. He went clad
+in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he carried a huge cross and
+harangued the crowd in street or market-place or church.  He denounced
+the cruelties practised upon the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and
+the shame of the Holy Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands.  The
+fruits of centuries of Christian teaching became apparent in the
+response.  A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western world, and
+popular Christendom discovered itself.
+
+
+VIEW OF CAIRO
+VIEW OF CAIRO
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation to a single
+idea as now occurred was a new thing in the history of our race.  There
+is nothing to parallel it in the previous history of the Roman Empire
+or of India or China. On a smaller scale, however, there had been
+similar movements among the Jewish people after their liberation from
+the Babylonian captivity, and later on Islam was to display a parallel
+susceptibility to collective feeling.  Such movements were certainly
+connected with the new spirit that had come into life with the
+development of the missionary- teaching religions.  The Hebrew
+prophets, Jesus and his disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters
+of men’s individual souls.  They brought the personal conscience face
+to face with God.  Before that time religion had been much more a
+business of fetish, of pseudoscience, than of conscience.  The old kind
+of religion turned upon temple, initiated priest and mystical
+sacrifice, and ruled the common man like a slave by fear.  The new kind
+of religion made a man of him.
+
+The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of the common
+people in European history.  It may be too much to call it the birth of
+modern democracy, but certainly at that time modern democracy stirred. 
+Before very long we shall find it stirring again, and raising the most
+disturbing social and religious questions.
+
+Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very pitifully and
+lamentably.  Considerable bodies of common people, crowds rather than
+armies, set out eastward from France and the Rhineland and Central
+Europe without waiting for leaders or proper equipment to rescue the
+Holy Sepulchre. This was the “people’s crusade.”  Two great mobs
+blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently converted Magyars for
+pagans, committed atrocities and were massacred. A third multitude with
+a similarly confused mind, after a great pogrom of the Jews in the
+Rhineland, marched eastward, and was also destroyed in Hungary.  Two
+other huge crowds, under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself,
+reached Constantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred
+rather than defeated by the Seljuk Turks.  So began and ended this
+first movement of the European people, as people.
+
+Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the Bosphorus. 
+Essentially they were Norman in leadership and spirit.  They stormed
+Nicæa, marched by much the same route as Alexander had followed
+fourteen centuries before, to Antioch.  The siege of Antioch kept them
+a year, and in June 1099 they invested Jerusalem.  It was stormed after
+a month’s siege.  The slaughter was terrible.  Men riding on horseback
+were splashed by the blood in the streets.  At nightfall on July 15th
+the Crusaders had fought their way into the Church of the Holy
+Sepulchre and overcome all opposition there: blood-stained, weary and
+“sobbing from excess of joy” they knelt down in prayer.
+
+
+THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE
+THE HORSES OF S. MARK, VENICE
+Originally on the arch of Trajan at Constantinople, the Doge Dandalo V
+took them after the Fourth Crusade, to Venice, whence Napoleon I
+removed them to Paris, but in 1815 they were returned to Venice. 
+During the Great War of 1914-18 they were hidden away for fear of air
+raids.
+
+_Photo:  D. McLeish_
+
+
+Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again. The
+Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the Greek
+patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse case under the
+triumphant Latins than under the Turks.  The Crusaders discovered
+themselves between Byzantine and Turk and fighting both.  Much of Asia
+Minor was recovered by the Byzantine Empire, and the Latin princes were
+left, a buffer between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem and a few small
+principalities, of which Edessa was one of the chief, in Syria.  Their
+grip even on these possessions was precarious, and in 1144 Edessa fell
+to the Moslim, leading to an ineffective Second Crusade, which failed
+to recover Edessa but saved Antioch from a similar fate.
+
+In 1169 the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish adventurer
+named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt.  He preached a Holy
+War against the Christians, recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, and so
+provoked the Third Crusade.  This failed to recover Jerusalem.  In the
+Fourth Crusade (1202-4) the Latin Church turned frankly upon the Greek
+Empire, and there was not even a pretence of fighting the Turks.  It
+started from Venice and in 1204 it stormed Constantinople. The great
+rising trading city of Venice was the leader in this adventure, and
+most of the coasts and islands of the Byzantine Empire were annexed by
+the Venetians.  A “Latin” emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up in
+Constantinople and the Latin and Greek Church were declared to be
+reunited.  The Latin emperors ruled in Constantinople from 1204 to 1261
+when the Greek world shook itself free again from Roman predominance.
+
+The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth was the age
+of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the age of the ascendancy
+of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the age of the Northmen.  A united
+Christendom under the rule of the Pope came nearer to being a working
+reality than it ever was before or after that time.
+
+
+A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+
+_Photo:  Lehnert & Landrock_
+
+
+In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and widespread
+over great areas of Europe.  Rome itself had passed through some dark
+and discreditable phases; few writers can be found to excuse the lives
+of Popes John XI and John XII in the tenth century; they were
+abominable creatures; but the heart and body of Latin Christendom had
+remained earnest and simple; the generality of the common priests and
+monks and nuns had lived exemplary and faithful lives.  Upon the wealth
+of confidence such lives created rested the power of the church.  Among
+the great Popes of the past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I
+(590-604) and Leo III (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be Cæsar and
+crowned him in spite of himself.  Towards the close of the eleventh
+century there arose a great clerical statesman, Hildebrand, who ended
+his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073- 1085).  Next but one after him came
+Urban II (1087-1099), the Pope of the First Crusade.  These two were
+the founders of this period of papal greatness during which the Popes
+lorded it over the Emperors.  From Bulgaria to Ireland and from Norway
+to Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme.  Gregory VII obliged the
+Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at Canossa and to await
+forgiveness for three days and nights in the courtyard of the castle,
+clad in sackcloth and barefooted to the snow.  In 1176 at Venice the
+Emperor Frederick (Frederick Barbarossa), knelt to Pope Alexander III
+and swore fealty to him.
+
+The great power of the church in the beginning of the eleventh century
+lay in the wills and consciences of men.  It failed to retain the moral
+prestige on which its power was based.  In the opening decades of the
+fourteenth century it was discovered that the power of the Pope had
+evaporated. What was it that destroyed the naive confidence of the
+common people of Christendom in the church so that they would no longer
+rally to its appeal and serve its purposes?
+
+The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by the
+church.  The church never died, and there was a frequent disposition on
+the part of dying childless people to leave lands to the church. 
+Penitent sinners were exhorted to do so.  Accordingly in many European
+countries as much as a fourth of the land became church property.  The
+appetite for property grows with what it feeds upon.  Already in the
+thirteenth century it was being said everywhere that the priests were
+not good men, that they were always hunting for money and legacies.
+
+The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property very
+greatly.  In the place of feudal lords capable of military support,
+they found their land supporting abbeys and monks and nuns.  And these
+lands were really under foreign dominion.  Even before the time of Pope
+Gregory VII there had been a struggle between the princes and the
+papacy over the question of “investitures,” the question that is of who
+should appoint the bishops.  If that power rested with the Pope and not
+the King, then the latter lost control not only of the consciences of
+his subjects but of a considerable part of his dominions.  For also the
+clergy claimed exemption from taxation.  They paid their taxes to Rome.
+ And not only that, but the church also claimed the right to levy a tax
+of one-tenth upon the property of the layman in addition to the taxes
+he paid his prince.
+
+The history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of the
+same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle between monarch
+and Pope on the issue of investitures and generally it tells of a
+victory for the Pope.  He claimed to be able to excommunicate the
+prince, to absolve his subjects from their allegiance to him, to
+recognize a successor.  He claimed to be able to put a nation under an
+interdict, and then nearly all priestly functions ceased except the
+sacraments of baptism, confirmation and penance; the priests could
+neither hold the ordinary services, marry people, nor bury the dead. 
+With these two weapons it was possible for the twelfth century Popes to
+curb the most recalcitrant princes and overawe the most restive
+peoples.  These were enormous powers, and enormous powers are only to
+be used on extraordinary occasions.  The Popes used them at last with a
+frequency that staled their effect.  Within thirty years at the end of
+the twelfth century we find Scotland, France and England in turn under
+an interdict.  And also the Popes could not resist the temptation to
+preach crusades against offending princes—until the crusading spirit
+was extinct.
+
+It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled simply against
+the princes and had had a care to keep its hold upon the general mind,
+it might have achieved a permanent dominion over all Christendom.  But
+the high claims of the Pope were reflected as arrogance in the conduct
+of the clergy.  Before the eleventh century the Roman priests could
+marry; they had close ties with the people among whom they lived; they
+were indeed a part of the people.  Gregory VII made them celibates; he
+cut the priests off from too great an intimacy with the laymen in order
+to bind them more closely to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure
+between the church and the commonalty.  The church had its own law
+courts. Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students,
+crusaders, widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for the
+clerical courts, and so were all matters relating to wills, marriages
+and oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy and blasphemy.  Whenever the
+layman found himself in conflict with the priest he had to go to a
+clerical court.  The obligations of peace and war fell upon his
+shoulders alone and left the priest free.  It is no great wonder that
+jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the Christian world.
+
+Never did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the consciences of
+common men.  It fought against religious enthusiasm, which should have
+been its ally, and it forced doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and
+aberrant opinion. When the church interfered in matters of morality it
+had the common man with it, but not when it interfered in matters of
+doctrine.  When in the south of France Waldo taught a return to the
+simplicity of Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III preached a crusade
+against the Waldenses, Waldo’s followers, and permitted them to be
+suppressed with fire, sword, rape and the most abominable cruelties. 
+When again St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) taught the imitation of
+Christ and a life of poverty and service, his followers, the
+Franciscans, were persecuted, scourged, imprisoned and dispersed.  In
+1318 four of them were burnt alive at Marseilles.  On the other hand
+the fiercely orthodox order of the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic
+(1170-1221) was strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its
+assistance set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the hunting of
+heresy and the affliction of free thought.
+
+So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous
+privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that free faith
+of the common man which was the final source of all its power.  The
+story of its decline tells of no adequate foemen from without but
+continually of decay from within.
+
+
+
+
+XLVII
+RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM
+
+
+One very great weakness of the Roman Church in its struggle to secure
+the headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the Pope was
+chosen.
+
+If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and establish
+one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then it was vitally
+necessary that it should have a strong, steady and continuous
+direction.  In those great days of its opportunity it needed before all
+things that the Popes when they took office should be able men in the
+prime of life, that each should have his successor-designate with whom
+he could discuss the policy of the church, and that the forms and
+processes of election should be clear, definite, unalterable and
+unassailable.  Unhappily none of these things obtained.  It was not
+even clear who could vote in the election of a Pope, nor whether the
+Byzantine or Holy Roman Emperor had a voice in the matter.  That very
+great papal statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much
+to regularize the election.  He confined the votes to the Roman
+cardinals and he reduced the Emperor’s share to a formula of assent
+conceded to him by the church, but he made no provision for a
+successor-designate and he left it possible for the disputes of the
+cardinals to keep the See vacant, as in some cases it was kept vacant,
+for a year or more.
+
+
+MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+MILAN CATHEDRALA COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRA
+View showing the exquisite carvings characteristic of the 98 spires of
+the edifice
+
+
+The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be seen in the
+whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth century.  From quite
+early times onward there were disputed elections and two or more men
+each claiming to be Pope.  The church would then be subjected to the
+indignity of going to the Emperor or some other outside arbiter to
+settle the dispute.  And the career of everyone of the great Popes
+ended in a note of interrogation.  At his death the church might be
+left headless and as ineffective as a decapitated body.  Or he might be
+replaced by some old rival eager only to discredit and undo his work. 
+Or some enfeebled old man tottering on the brink of the grave might
+succeed him.
+
+It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal organization
+should attract the interference of the various German princes, the
+French King, and the Norman and French Kings who ruled in England; that
+they should all try to influence the elections, and have a Pope in
+their own interest established in the Lateran Palace at Rome.  And the
+more powerful and important the Pope became in European affairs, the
+more urgent did these interventions become. Under the circumstances it
+is no great wonder that many of the Popes were weak and futile.  The
+astonishing thing is that many of them were able and courageous men.
+
+One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this great
+period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so fortunate as to become
+Pope before he was thirty-eight.  He and his successors were pitted
+against an even more interesting personality, the Emperor Frederick II;
+_Stupor mundi_ he was called, the Wonder of the world.  The struggle of
+this monarch against Rome is a turning place in history.  In the end
+Rome defeated him and destroyed his dynasty, but he left the prestige
+of the church and Pope so badly wounded that its wounds festered and
+led to its decay.
+
+Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother was the
+daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily.  He inherited this
+kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four years.  Innocent III had
+been made his guardian.  Sicily in those days had been but recently
+conquered by the Normans; the Court was half oriental and full of
+highly educated Arabs; and some of these were associated in the
+education of the young king.  No doubt they were at some pains to make
+their point of view clear to him.  He got a Moslem view of Christianity
+as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the unhappy result of this
+double system of instruction was a view, exceptional in that age of
+faith, that all religions were impostures.  He talked freely on the
+subject; his heresies and blasphemies are on record.
+
+As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with his
+guardian.  Innocent III wanted altogether too much from his ward.  When
+the opportunity came for Frederick to succeed as Emperor, the Pope
+intervened with conditions.  Frederick must promise to put down heresy
+in Germany with a strong hand. Moreover he must relinquish his crown in
+Sicily and South Italy, because otherwise he would be too strong for
+the Pope.  And the German clergy were to be freed from all taxation. 
+Frederick agreed but with no intention of keeping his word.  The Pope
+had already induced the French King to make war upon his own subjects
+in France, the cruel and bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he
+wanted Frederick to do the same thing in Germany.  But Frederick being
+far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists who had incurred
+the Pope’s animosity, lacked the crusading impulse.  And when Innocent
+urged him to crusade against the Moslim and recover Jerusalem he was
+equally ready to promise and equally slack in his performance.
+
+
+A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS
+A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS
+From the Church of S. Pedro at Ocana, Spain
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in Sicily, which
+he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence, and did nothing to
+redeem any of his promises to Innocent III, who died baffled in 1216.
+
+Honorius III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with
+Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne evidently
+resolved to settle accounts with this young man at any cost.  He
+excommunicated him.  Frederick II was denied all the comforts of
+religion.  In the half-Arab Court of Sicily this produced singularly
+little discomfort.  And also the Pope addressed a public letter to the
+Emperor reciting his vices (which were indisputable), his heresies, and
+his general misconduct.  To this Frederick replied in a document of
+diabolical ability.  It was addressed to all the princes of Europe, and
+it made the first clear statement of the issue between the Pope and the
+princes.  He made a shattering attack upon the manifest ambition of the
+Pope to become the absolute ruler of all Europe.  He suggested a union
+of princes against this usurpation.   He directed the attention of the
+princes specifically to the wealth of the church.
+
+Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to perform his
+twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade. This was the Sixth
+Crusade (1228).  It was as a crusade, farcical.  Frederick II went to
+Egypt and met and discussed affairs with the Sultan.  These two
+gentlemen, both of sceptical opinions, exchanged congenial views, made
+a commercial convention to their mutual advantage, and agreed to
+transfer Jerusalem to Frederick.  This indeed was a new sort of
+crusade, a crusade by private treaty.  Here was no blood splashing the
+conqueror, no “weeping with excess of joy.”  As this astonishing
+crusader was an excommunicated man, he had to be content with a purely
+secular coronation as King of Jerusalem, taking the crown from the
+altar with his own hand—for all the clergy were bound to shun him.  He
+then returned to Italy, chased the papal armies which had invaded his
+dominions back to their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant
+him absolution from his excommunication.  So a prince might treat the
+Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no storm of popular
+indignation to avenge him.  Those days were past.
+
+In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick, excommunicated
+him for a second time, and renewed that warfare of public abuse in
+which the papacy had already suffered severely.  The controversy was
+revived after Gregory IX was dead, when Innocent IV was Pope; and again
+a devastating letter, which men were bound to remember, was written by
+Frederick against the church.  He denounced the pride and irreligion of
+the clergy, and ascribed all the corruptions of the time to their pride
+and wealth.  He proposed to his fellow princes a general confiscation
+of church property—for the good of the church.  It was a suggestion
+that never afterwards left the imagination of the European princes.
+
+We will not go on to tell of his last years.  The particular events of
+his life are far less significant than its general atmosphere.  It is
+possible to piece together something of his court life in Sicily.  He
+was luxurious in his way of living, and fond of beautiful things.  He
+is described as licentious.  But it is clear that he was a man of very
+effectual curiosity and inquiry.  He gathered Jewish and Moslem as well
+as Christian philosophers at his court, and he did much to irrigate the
+Italian mind with Saracenic influences.  Through him the Arabic
+numerals and algebra were introduced to Christian students, and among
+other philosophers at his court was Michael Scott, who translated
+portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the great Arab
+philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba).  In 1224 Frederick founded the
+University of Naples, and he enlarged and enriched the great medical
+school at Salerno University. He also founded a zoological garden.  He
+left a book on hawking, which shows him to have been an acute observer
+of the habits of birds, and he was one of the first Italians to write
+Italian verse.  Italian poetry was indeed born at his court.  He has
+been called by an able writer, “the first of the moderns,” and the
+phrase expresses aptly the unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual
+side.
+
+A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living and
+sustaining forces of the papacy appeared when presently the Popes came
+into conflict with the growing power of the French King.  During the
+lifetime of the Emperor Frederick II, Germany fell into disunion, and
+the French King began to play the rôle of guard, supporter and rival to
+the Pope that had hitherto fallen to the Hohenstaufen Emperors.  A
+series of Popes pursued the policy of supporting the French monarchs. 
+French princes were established in the kingdom of Sicily and Naples,
+with the support and approval of Rome, and the French Kings saw before
+them the possibility of restoring and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne.
+ When, however, the German interregnum after the death of Frederick II,
+the last of the Hohenstaufens, came to all end and Rudolf of Habsburg
+was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of Rome began to
+fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about with the sympathies
+of each successive Pope.  In the East in 1261 the Greeks recaptured
+Constantinople from the Latin emperors, and the founder of the new
+Greek dynasty, Michael Palæologus, Michael VIII, after some unreal
+tentatives of reconciliation with the Pope, broke away from the Roman
+communion altogether, and with that, and the fall of the Latin kingdoms
+in Asia, the eastward ascendancy of the Popes came to an end.
+
+
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+
+
+In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope.  He was an Italian, hostile to the
+French, and full of a sense of the great traditions and mission of
+Rome.  For a time he carried things with a high hand.  In 1300 he held
+a jubilee, and a vast multitude of pilgrims assembled in Rome.  “So
+great was the influx of money into the papal treasury, that two
+assistants were kept busy with the rakes collecting the offerings that
+were deposited at the tomb of St. Peter.” [1] But this festival was a
+delusive triumph.  Boniface came into conflict with the French King in
+1302, and in 1303, as he was about to pronounce sentence of
+excommunication against that monarch, he was surprised and arrested in
+his own ancestral palace at Anagni, by Guillaume de Nogaret.  This
+agent from the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his
+way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope—he was lying in bed with a
+cross in his hands—and heaped threats and insults upon him.  The Pope
+was liberated a day or so later by the townspeople, and returned to
+Rome; but there he was seized upon and again made prisoner by the
+Orsini family, and in a few weeks’ time the shocked and disillusioned
+old man died a prisoner in their hands.
+
+
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY
+This series is from casts in the Victoria and Albert Museum of the
+original brass statuettes in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam
+
+
+The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose against
+Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the Pope’s native
+town.  The important point to note is that the French King in this
+rough treatment of the head of Christendom was acting with the full
+approval of his people; he had summoned a council of the Three Estates
+of France (lords, church and commons) and gained their consent before
+proceeding to extremities.  Neither in Italy, Germany nor England was
+there the slightest general manifestation of disapproval at this free
+handling of the sovereign pontiff. The idea of Christendom had decayed
+until its power over the minds of men had gone.
+
+Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to recover its
+moral sway.  The next Pope elected, Clement V, was a Frenchman, the
+choice of King Philip of France.  He never came to Rome.  He set up his
+court in the town of Avignon, which then belonged not to France but to
+the papal See, though embedded in French territory, and there his
+successors remained until 1377, when Pope Gregory XI returned to the
+Vatican palace in Rome.  But Gregory XI did not take the sympathies of
+the whole church with him.  Many of the cardinals were of French origin
+and their habits and associations were rooted deep at Avignon.  When in
+1378 Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these
+dissentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and elected
+another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII.  This split is called the
+Great Schism.  The Popes remained in Rome, and all the anti-French
+powers, the Emperor, the King of England, Hungary, Poland and the North
+of Europe were loyal to them. The anti-Popes, on the other hand,
+continued in Avignon, and were supported by the King of France, his
+ally the King of Scotland, Spain, Portugal and various German princes. 
+Each Pope excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival
+(1378-1417).
+
+Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began to think
+for themselves in matters of religion?
+
+The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which we have
+noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among many of the new
+forces that were arising in Christendom, either to hold or shatter the
+church as its own wisdom might decide. Those two orders the church did
+assimilate and use, though with a little violence in the case of the
+former.  But other forces were more frankly disobedient and critical. 
+A century and a half later came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was a learned
+Doctor at Oxford.  Quite late in his life he began a series of
+outspoken criticisms of the corruption of the clergy and the unwisdom
+of the church.  He organized a number of poor priests, the Wycliffites,
+to spread his ideas throughout England; and in order that people should
+judge between the church and himself, he translated the Bible into
+English.  He was a more learned and far abler man than either St.
+Francis or St. Dominic.  He had supporters in high places and a great
+following among the people; and though Rome raged against him, and
+ordered his imprisonment, he died a free man.  But the black and
+ancient spirit that was leading the Catholic Church to its destruction
+would not let his bones rest in the grave.  By a decree of the Council
+of Constance in 1415, his remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt,
+an order which was carried out at the command of Pope Martin V by
+Bishop Fleming in 1428.  This desecration was not the act of some
+isolated fanatic; it was the official act of the church.
+
+
+[1] J. H. Robinson.
+
+
+
+
+XLVIII
+THE MONGOL CONQUESTS
+
+
+But in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally
+ineffectual struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the Pope
+was going on in Europe, far more momentous events were afoot upon the
+larger stage of Asia. A Turkish people from the country to the north of
+China rose suddenly to prominence in the world’s affairs, and achieved
+such a series of conquests as has no parallel in history. These were
+the Mongols. At the opening of the thirteenth century they were a horde
+of nomadic horsemen, living very much as their predecessors, the Huns,
+had done, subsisting chiefly upon meat and mare’s milk and living in
+tents of skin. They had shaken themselves free from Chinese dominion,
+and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a military
+confederacy. Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia.
+
+At this time China was in a state of division.  The great dynasty of
+Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century, and after a phase of
+division into warring states, three main empires, that of Kin in the
+north with Pekin as its capital and that of Sung in the south with a
+capital at Nankin, and Hsia in the centre, remain.  In 1214 Jengis
+Khan, the leader of the Mongol confederates, made war on the Kin Empire
+and captured Pekin (1214).  He then turned westward and conquered
+Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India down to Lahore, and South
+Russia as far as Kieff.  He died master of a vast empire that reached
+from the Pacific to the Dnieper.
+
+His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career of
+conquest.  His armies were organized to a very high level of
+efficiency; and they had with them a new Chinese invention, gunpowder,
+which they used in small field guns. He completed the conquest of the
+Kin Empire and then swept his hosts right across Asia to Russia (1235),
+an altogether amazing march.  Kieff was destroyed in 1240, and nearly
+all Russia became tributary to the Mongols.  Poland was ravaged, and a
+mixed army of Poles and Germans was annihilated at the battle of
+Liegnitz in Lower Silesia in 1241.  The Emperor Frederick II does not
+seem to have made any great efforts to stay the advancing tide.
+
+
+Map: The Ottoman Empire before 1453
+
+“It is only recently,” says Bury in his notes to Gibbon’s _Decline and
+Fall of the Roman Empire_, “that European history has begun to
+understand that the successes of the Mongol army which overran Poland
+and occupied Hungary in the spring of A.D. 1241 were won by consummate
+strategy and were not due to a mere overwhelming superiority of
+numbers.  But this fact has not yet become a matter of common
+knowledge; the vulgar opinion which represents the Tartars as a wild
+horde carrying all before them solely by their multitude, and galloping
+through Eastern Europe without a strategic plan, rushing at all
+obstacles and overcoming them by mere weight, still prevails. . . .
+
+“It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the arrangements were
+carried out in operations extending from the Lower Vistula to
+Transylvania.  Such a campaign was quite beyond the power of any
+European army of the time, and it was beyond the vision of any European
+commander. There was no general in Europe, from Frederick II downward,
+who was not a tyro in strategy compared to Subutai.  It should also be
+noticed that the Mongols embarked upon the enterprise with full
+knowledge of the political situation of Hungary and the condition of
+Poland—they had taken care to inform themselves by a well-organized
+system of spies; on the other hand, the Hungarians and the Christian
+powers, like childish barbarians, knew hardly anything about their
+enemies.”
+
+
+Map: The Empire of Jengis Khan at his death (1227)
+
+But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did not
+continue their drive westward.  They were getting into woodlands and
+hilly country, which did not suit their tactics; and so they turned
+southward and prepared to settle in Hungary, massacring or assimilating
+the kindred Magyar, even as these had previously massacred and
+assimilated the mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns before them.  From
+the Hungarian plain they would probably have made raids west and south
+as the Hungarians had done in the ninth century, the Avars in the
+seventh and eighth and the Huns in the fifth. But Ogdai died suddenly,
+and in 1242 there was trouble about the succession, and recalled by
+this, the undefeated hosts of Mongols began to pour back across Hungary
+and Roumania towards the east.
+
+Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon their Asiatic
+conquests.  By the middle of the thirteenth century they had conquered
+the Sung Empire.  Mangu Khan succeeded Ogdai Khan as Great Khan in
+1251, and made his brother Kublai Khan governor of China.  In 1280
+Kublai Khan had been formally recognized Emperor of China, and so
+founded the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368.  While the last ruins
+of the Sung rule were going down in China, another brother of Mangu,
+Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria. The Mongols displayed a bitter
+animosity to Islam at this time, and not only massacred the population
+of Bagdad when they captured that city, but set to work to destroy the
+immemorial irrigation system which had kept Mesopotamia incessantly
+prosperous and populous from the early days of Sumeria.  From that time
+until our own Mesopotamia has been a desert of ruins, sustaining only a
+scanty population.  Into Egypt the Mongols never penetrated; the Sultan
+of Egypt completely defeated an army of Hulagu’s in Palestine in 1260.
+
+After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed.  The dominions of
+the Great Khan fell into a number of separate states.  The eastern
+Mongols became Buddhists, like the Chinese; the western became Moslim. 
+The Chinese threw off the rule of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, and set up
+the native Ming dynasty which flourished from 1368 to 1644.  The
+Russians remained tributary to the Tartar hordes upon the south-east
+steppes until 1480, when the Grand Duke of Moscow repudiated his
+allegiance and laid the foundation of modern Russia.
+
+
+TARTAR HORSEMEN
+TARTAR HORSEMEN
+_(From a Chinese Print in the British Museum) _
+
+
+In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol vigour
+under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan.  He established himself
+in Western Turkestan, assumed the title of Grand Khan in 1369, and
+conquered from Syria to Delhi.  He was the most savage and destructive
+of all the Mongol conquerors.  He established an empire of desolation
+that did not survive his death.  In 1505, however, a descendant of this
+Timur, an adventurer named Baber, got together an army with guns and
+swept down upon the plains of India.  His grandson Akbar (1556-1605)
+completed his conquests, and this Mongol (or “Mogul” as the Arabs
+called it) dynasty ruled in Delhi over the greater part of India until
+the eighteenth century.
+
+
+Map: The Ottoman Empire at the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1566
+A.D.
+
+One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol conquest in
+the thirteenth century was to drive a certain tribe of Turks, the
+Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia Minor.  They extended and
+consolidated their power in Asia Minor, crossed the Dardanelles and
+conquered Macedonia, Serbia and Bulgaria, until at last Constantinople
+remained like an island amongst the Ottoman dominions.  In 1453 the
+Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took Constantinople, attacking it from the
+European side with a great number of guns.  This event caused intense
+excitement in Europe and there was talk of a crusade, but the day of
+the crusades was past.
+
+In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans conquered
+Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa, and their fleet made
+them masters of the Mediterranean.  They very nearly took Vienna, and
+they exacted it tribute from the Emperor.  There were but two items to
+offset the general ebb of Christian dominion in the fifteenth century. 
+One was the restoration of the independence of Moscow (1480); the other
+was the gradual reconquest of Spain by the Christians. In 1492,
+Granada, the last Moslem state in the peninsula, fell to King Ferdinand
+of Aragon and his Queen Isabella of Castile.
+
+But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of Lepanto
+broke the prick of the Ottomans, and restored the Mediterranean waters
+to Christian ascendancy.
+
+
+
+
+XLIX
+THE INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS
+
+
+Throughout the twelfth century there were many signs that the European
+intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and preparing to take
+up again the intellectual enterprises of the first Greek scientific
+enquiries and such speculations as those of the Italian Lucretius. The
+causes of this revival were many and complex. The suppression of
+private war, the higher standards of comfort and security that followed
+the crusades, and the stimulation of men’s minds by the experiences of
+these expeditions were no doubt necessary preliminary conditions. Trade
+was reviving; cities were recovering ease and safety; the standard of
+education was arising in the church and spreading among laymen. The
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period of growing,
+independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa,
+Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Novgorod,
+Wisby and Bergen for example. They were all trading cities with many
+travellers, and where men trade and travel they talk and think. The
+polemics of the Popes and princes, the conspicuous savagery and
+wickedness of the persecution of heretics, were exciting men to doubt
+the authority of the church and question and discuss fundamental
+things.
+
+We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring Aristotle to
+Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II acted as a channel
+through which Arabic philosophy and science played upon the renascent
+European mind.  Still more influential in the stirring up of men’s
+ideas were the Jews.  Their very existence was a note of interrogation
+to the claims of the church.  And finally the secret, fascinating
+enquiries of the alchemists were spreading far and wide and setting men
+to the petty, furtive and yet fruitful resumption of experimental
+science.
+
+And the stir in men’s minds was by no means confined now to the
+independent and well educated.  The mind of the common man was awake in
+the world as it had never been before in all the experience of mankind.
+ In spite of priest and persecution, Christianity does seem to have
+carried a mental ferment wherever its teaching reached.  It established
+a direct relation between the conscience of the individual man and the
+God of Righteousness, so that now if need arose he had the courage to
+form his own judgment upon prince or prelate or creed.
+
+As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had begun
+again in Europe, and there were great and growing universities at
+Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres. There medieval “schoolmen”
+took up again and thrashed out a series of questions upon the value and
+meaning of words that were a necessary preliminary to clear thinking in
+the scientific age that was to follow.  And standing by himself because
+of his distinctive genius was Roger Bacon (circa 1210 to circa 1293), a
+Franciscan of Oxford, the father of modern experimental science.  His
+name deserves a prominence in our history second only to that of
+Aristotle.
+
+His writings are one long tirade against ignorance.  He told his age it
+was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do. Nowadays a man may tell
+the world it is as silly as it is solemn, that all its methods are
+still infantile and clumsy and its dogmas childish assumptions, without
+much physical danger; but these peoples of the middle ages when they
+were not actually being massacred or starving or dying of pestilence,
+were passionately convinced of the wisdom, the completeness and
+finality of their beliefs, and disposed to resent any reflections upon
+them very bitterly.  Roger Bacon’s writings were like a flash of light
+in a profound darkness.  He combined his attack upon the ignorance of
+his times with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of knowledge. 
+In his passionate insistence upon the need of experiment and of
+collecting knowledge, the spirit of Aristotle lives again in him. 
+“Experiment, experiment,” that is the burthen of Roger Bacon.
+
+Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul.  He fell foul of him
+because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in rooms and pored
+over the bad Latin translations which were then all that was available
+of the master. “If I had my way,” he wrote, in his intemperate fashion,
+“I should burn all the books of Aristotle, for the study of them can
+only lead to a loss of time, produce error, and increase ignorance,” a
+sentiment that Aristotle would probably have echoed could he have
+returned to a world in which his works were not so much read as
+worshipped—and that, as Roger Bacon showed, in these most abominable
+translations.
+
+
+AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS
+AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS
+_(From an old print) _
+
+
+Throughout his books, a little disguised by the necessity of seeming to
+square it all with orthodoxy for fear of the prison and worse, Roger
+Bacon shouted to mankind, “Cease to be ruled by dogmas and authorities;
+_look at the world!_” Four chief sources of ignorance he denounced;
+respect for authority, custom, the sense of the ignorant crowd, and the
+vain, proud unteachableness of our dispositions.  Overcome but these,
+and a world of power would open to men: —
+
+“Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that great
+ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be borne with
+greater speed than if they were full of men.  Likewise cars may be made
+so that without a draught animal they may be moved _cum impetu
+inœstimable_, as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which
+antiquity fought.  And flying machines are possible, so that a man may
+sit in the middle turning some device by which artificial wings may
+beat the air in the manner of a flying bird.”
+
+So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse before
+men began any systematic attempts to explore the hidden stores of power
+and interest he realized so clearly existed beneath the dull surface of
+human affairs.
+
+But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the stimulus of its
+philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it paper.  It is scarcely too
+much to say that paper made the intellectual revival of Europe
+possible.  Paper originated in China, where its use probably goes back
+to the second century B.C.  In 751 the Chinese made an attack upon the
+Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were repulsed, and among the prisoners
+taken from them were some skilled papermakers, from whom the art was
+learnt.  Arabic paper manuscripts from the ninth century onward still
+exist. The manufacture entered Christendom either through Greece or by
+the capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian reconquest of
+Spain.  But under the Christian Spanish the product deteriorated sadly.
+ Good paper was not made in Christian Europe until the end of the
+thirteenth century, and then it was Italy which led the world.  Only by
+the fourteenth century did the manufacture reach Germany, and not until
+the end of that century was it abundant and cheap enough for the
+printing of books to be a practicable business proposition.  Thereupon
+printing followed naturally and necessarily, for printing is the most
+obvious of inventions, and the intellectual life of the world entered
+upon a new and far more vigorous phase.  It ceased to be a little
+trickle from mind to mind; it became a broad flood, in which thousands
+and presently scores and hundreds of thousands of minds participated.
+
+One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the appearance
+of an abundance of Bibles in the world.  Another was a cheapening of
+school-books.  The knowledge of reading spread swiftly.  There was not
+only a great increase of books in the world, but the books that were
+now made were plainer to read and so easier to understand.  Instead of
+toiling at a crabbed text arid then thinking over its significance,
+readers now could think unimpeded as they read.  With this increase in
+the facility of reading, the reading public grew. The book ceased to be
+a highly decorated toy or a scholar’s mystery.  People began to write
+books to be read as well as looked at by ordinary people.  They wrote
+in the ordinary language and not in Latin.  With the fourteenth century
+the real history of the European literature begins.
+
+So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in the
+European revival.  Let us turn now to the influence of the Mongol
+conquests.  They stimulated the geographical imagination of Europe
+enormously.  For a time under the Great Khan, all Asia and Western
+Europe enjoyed an open intercourse; all the roads were temporarily
+open, and representatives of every nation appeared at the court of
+Karakorum.  The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by the
+religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered. Great hopes were
+entertained by the papacy for the conversion of the Mongols to
+Christianity.  Their only religion so far had been Shumanism, a
+primitive paganism.  Envoys of the Pope, Buddhist priests from India,
+Parisian and Italian and Chinese artificers, Byzantine and Armenian
+merchants, mingled with Arab officials and Persian and Indian
+astronomers and mathematicians at the Mongol court.  We hear too much
+in history of the campaigns and massacres of the Mongols, and not
+enough of their curiosity and desire for learning.  Not perhaps as an
+originative people, but as transmitters of knowledge and method their
+influence upon the world’s history has been very great.  And everything
+one can learn of the vague and romantic personalities of Jengis or
+Kublai tends to confirm the impression that these men were at least as
+understanding and creative monarchs as either that flamboyant but
+egotistical figure Alexander the Great or that raiser of political
+ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian Charlemagne.
+
+One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol Court was a
+certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set down his story in a
+book.  He went to China about 1272 with his father and uncle, who had
+already once made the journey. The Great Khan had been deeply impressed
+by the elder Polos; they were the first men of the “Latin” peoples he
+had seen; and he sent them back with enquiries for teachers and learned
+men who could explain Christianity to him, and for various other
+European things that had aroused his curiosity.  Their visit with Marco
+was their second visit.
+
+
+ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA
+ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA
+Note evidence in attire of knowledge of early European explorers
+
+_(In the British Museum) _
+
+
+The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the Crimea, as
+in their previous expedition.  They had with them a gold tablet and
+other indications from the Great Khan that must have greatly
+facilitated their journey.  The Great Khan had asked for some oil from
+the lamp that burns in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and so thither
+they first went, and then by way of Cilicia into Armenia.  They went
+thus far north because the Sultan of Egypt was raiding the Mongol
+domains at this time.  Thence they came by way of Mesopotamia to Ormuz
+on the Persian Gulf, as if they contemplated a sea voyage.  At Ormuz
+they met merchants from India.  For some reason they did not take ship,
+but instead turned northward through the Persian deserts, and so by way
+of Balkh over the Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor
+into the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin.  At Pekin was the Great Khan,
+and they were hospitably entertained.
+
+
+ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN
+ANOTHER ANCIENT NEGRO BRONZE OF A EUROPEAN
+
+_(In the British Museum) _
+
+
+Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever, and it is
+clear he had mastered the Tartar language very thoroughly.  He was
+given an official position and sent on several missions, chiefly in
+south-west China.  The tale he had to tell of vast stretches of smiling
+and prosperous country, “all the way excellent hostelries for
+travellers,” and “fine vineyards, fields, and gardens,” of “many
+abbeys” of Buddhist monks, of manufactures of “cloth of silk and gold
+and many fine taffetas,” a “constant succession of cities and
+boroughs,” and so on, first roused the incredulity and then fired the
+imagination of all Europe.  He told of Burmah, and of its great armies
+with hundreds of elephants, and how these animals were defeated by the
+Mongol bowmen, and also of the Mongol conquest of Pegu.  He told of
+Japan, and greatly exaggerated the amount of gold in that country.  For
+three years Marco ruled the city of Yang-chow as governor, and he
+probably impressed the Chinese inhabitants as being little more of a
+foreigner than any Tartar would have been.  He may also have been sent
+on a mission to India.  Chinese records mention a certain Polo attached
+to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable confirmation of the
+general truth of the Polo story.
+
+The publication of Marco Polo’s travels produced a profound effect upon
+the European imagination.  The European literature, and especially the
+European romance of the fifteenth century, echoes with the names in
+Marco Polo’s story, with Cathay (North China) and Cambulac (Pekin) and
+the like.
+
+
+EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP
+EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP
+
+_(In the British Museum) _
+
+
+Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of Marco Polo was
+a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, who conceived the
+brilliant idea of sailing westward round the world to China.  In
+Seville there is a copy of the Travels with marginal notes by Columbus.
+There were many reasons why the thought of a Genoese should be turned
+in this direction.  Until its capture by the Turks in 1453
+Constantinople had been an impartial trading mart between the Western
+world and the East, and the Genoese had traded there freely.  But the
+“Latin” Venetians, the bitter rivals of the Genoese, had been the
+allies and helpers of the Turks against the Greeks, and with the coming
+of the Turks Constantinople turned an unfriendly face upon Genoese
+trade.  The long forgotten discovery that the world was round had
+gradually resumed its sway over men’s minds.  The idea of going
+westward to China was therefore a fairly obvious one.  It was
+encouraged by two things.  The mariner’s compass had now been invented
+and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night and the stars
+to determine the direction in which they were sailing, and the Normans,
+Catalonians and Genoese and Portuguese had already pushed out into the
+Atlantic as far as the Canary Isles, Madeira and the Azores.
+
+Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get ships to put
+his idea to the test.  He went from one European Court to another. 
+Finally at Granada, just won from the Moors, he secured the patronage
+of Ferdinand and Isabella, and was able to set out across the unknown
+ocean in three small ships.  After a voyage of two months and nine days
+he came to a land which he believed to be India, but which was really a
+new continent, whose distinct existence the old world had never
+hitherto suspected.  He returned to Spain with gold, cotton, strange
+beasts and birds, and two wild- eyed painted Indians to be baptized. 
+They were called Indians because, to the end of his days, he believed
+that this land he had found was India.  Only in the course of several
+years did men begin to realize that the whole new continent of America
+was added to the world’s resources.
+
+The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise enormously.  In
+1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to India, and in 1515 there
+were Portuguese ships in Java.  In 1519 Magellan, a Portuguese sailor
+in Spanish employment, sailed out of Seville westward with five ships,
+of which one, the _Vittoria_, came back up the river to Seville in
+1522, the first ship that had ever circumnavigated the world.
+Thirty-one men were aboard her, survivors of two-hundred-and- eighty
+who had started.  Magellan himself had been killed in the Philippine
+Isles.
+
+Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as a thing
+altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands, strange animals
+and plants, strange manners and customs, discoveries overseas and in
+the skies and in the ways and materials of life burst upon the European
+mind. The Greek classics, buried and forgotten for so long, were
+speedily being printed and studied, and were colouring men’s thoughts
+with the dreams of Plato and the traditions of an age of republican
+freedom and dignity.  The Roman dominion had first brought law and
+order to Western Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it; but
+under both Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were
+subordinate to and restrained by organization.  The reign of the Latin
+mind was now drawing to an end.  Between the thirteenth and the
+sixteenth century the European Aryans, thanks to the stimulating
+influence of Semite and Mongol and the rediscovery of the Greek
+classics, broke away from the Latin tradition and rose again to the
+intellectual and material leadership of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+L
+THE REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH
+
+
+The Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental rebirth.
+It was dismembered; and even the portion that survived was extensively
+renewed.
+
+We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic leadership of
+all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and how in the
+fourteenth and fifteenth its power over men’s minds and affairs
+declined.  We have described how popular religious enthusiasm which had
+in earlier ages been its support and power was turned against it by its
+pride, persecutions and centralization, and how the insidious
+scepticism of Frederick II bore fruit in a growing insubordination of
+the princes.  The Great Schism had reduced its religious and political
+prestige to negligible proportions.  The forces of insurrection struck
+it now from both sides.
+
+The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely throughout
+Europe.  In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss, delivered a series of
+lectures upon Wycliffe’s teachings in the university of Prague.  This
+teaching spread rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused great
+popular enthusiasm.  In 1414-18 a Council of the whole church was held
+at Constance to settle the Great Schism.  Huss was invited to this
+Council under promise of a safe conduct from the emperor, seized, put
+on trial for heresy and burnt alive (1415).  So far from tranquillizing
+the Bohemian people, this led to an insurrection of the Hussites in
+that country, the first of a series of religious wars that inaugurated
+the break-up of Latin Christendom.  Against this insurrection Pope
+Martin V, the Pope specially elected at Constance as the head of a
+reunited Christendom, preached a Crusade.
+
+Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little people and
+all of them failed.  All the unemployed ruffianism of Europe was turned
+upon Bohemia in the fifteenth century, just as in the thirteenth it had
+been turned upon the Waldenses.  But the Bohemian Czechs, unlike the
+Waldenses, believed in armed resistance.  The Bohemian Crusade
+dissolved and streamed away from the battlefield at the sound of the
+Hussites’ waggons and the distant chanting of their troops; it did not
+even wait to fight (battle of Domazlice, 1431).  In 1436 an agreement
+was patched up with the Hussites by a new Council of the church at
+Basle in which many of the special objections to Latin practice were
+conceded.
+
+
+PORTRAIT OF LUTHER
+PORTRAIT OF LUTHER
+
+_(From an early German engraving in the British Museum) _
+
+
+In the fifteenth century a great pestilence had produced much social
+disorganization throughout Europe.  There had been extreme misery and
+discontent among the common people, and peasant risings against the
+landlords and the wealthy in England and France.  After the Hussite
+Wars these peasant insurrections increased in gravity in Germany and
+took on a religious character.  Printing came in as an influence upon
+this development.  By the middle of the fifteenth century there were
+printers at work with movable type in Holland and the Rhineland.  The
+art spread to Italy and England, where Caxton was printing in
+Westminster in 1477.  The immediate consequence was a great increase
+and distribution of Bibles, and greatly increased facilities for
+widespread popular controversies.  The European world became a world of
+readers, to an extent that had never happened to any community in the
+past.  And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with clearer
+ideas and more accessible information occurred just at a time when the
+church was confused and divided and not in a position to defend itself
+effectively, and when many princes were looking for means to weaken its
+hold upon the vast wealth it claimed in their dominions.
+
+In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the personality of
+an ex-monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), who appeared in Wittenberg in
+1517 offering disputations against various orthodox doctrines and
+practices.  At first he disputed in Latin in the fashion of the
+Schoolmen.  Then he took up the new weapon of the printed word and
+scattered his views far and wide in German addressed to the ordinary
+people.  An attempt was made to suppress him as Huss had been
+suppressed, but the printing press had changed conditions and he had
+too many open and secret friends among the German princes for this fate
+to overtake him.
+
+For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith there were
+many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking the religious ties
+between their people and Rome.  They sought to make themselves in
+person the heads of a more nationalized religion.  England, Scotland,
+Sweden, Norway, Denmark, North Germany and Bohemia, one after another,
+separated themselves from the Roman Communion.  They have remained
+separated ever since.
+
+
+A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS
+A MAJOLICA DISH PAINED IN COLOURS
+An allegory of the Church triumphant over heretics and infidels. 
+Italian (Urbino), dated 1543
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral and
+intellectual freedom of their subjects.  They used the religious doubts
+and insurgence of their peoples to strengthen them against Rome, but
+they tried to keep a grip upon the popular movement as soon as that
+rupture was achieved and a national church set up under the control of
+the crown.  But there has always been a curious vitality in the
+teaching of Jesus, a direct appeal to righteousness and a man’s
+self-respect over every loyalty and every subordination, lay or
+ecclesiastical.  None of these princely churches broke off without also
+breaking off a number of fragmentary sects that would admit the
+intervention of neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God.  In
+England and Scotland, for example, there was a number of sects who now
+held firmly to the Bible as their one guide in life and belief.  They
+refused the disciplines of a state church.  In England these
+dissentients were the Non- conformists, who played a very large part in
+the polities of that country in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.  In England they carried their objection to a princely head
+to the church so far as to decapitate King Charles I (1649), and for
+eleven prosperous years England was a republic under Non- conformist
+rule.
+
+The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe from Latin
+Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the Reformation.  But the
+shock and stress of these losses produced changes perhaps as profound
+in the Roman Church itself.  The church was reorganized and a new
+spirit came into its life.  One of the dominant figures in this revival
+was a young Spanish soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better known to
+the world as St. Ignatius of Loyola.  After some romantic beginnings he
+became a priest (1538) and was permitted to found the Society of Jesus,
+a direct attempt to bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of
+military discipline into the service of religion.  This Society of
+Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and missionary
+societies the world has ever seen.  It carried Christianity to India,
+China and America.  It arrested the rapid disintegration of the Roman
+Church.  It raised the standard of education throughout the whole
+Catholic world; it raised the level of Catholic intelligence and
+quickened the Catholic conscience everywhere; it stimulated Protestant
+Europe to competitive educational efforts.  The vigorous and aggressive
+Roman Catholic Church we know to-day is largely the product of this
+Jesuit revival.
+
+
+
+
+LI
+THE EMPEROR CHARLES V
+
+
+The Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the
+Emperor Charles V. He was one of the most extraordinary monarchs that
+Europe has ever seen. For a time he had the air of being the greatest
+monarch since Charlemagne.
+
+His greatness was not of his own making.  It was largely the creation
+of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I (1459- 1519).  Some
+families have fought, others have intrigued their way to world power;
+the Habsburgs married their way. Maximilian began his career with
+Austria, Styria, part of Alsace and other districts, the original
+Habsburg patrimony; he married—the lady’s name scarcely matters to
+us—the Netherlands and Burgundy.  Most of Burgundy slipped from him
+after his first wife’s death, but the Netherlands he held.  Then he
+tried unsuccessfully to marry Brittany.  He became Emperor in
+succession to his father, Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy
+of Milan. Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of Columbus, who not
+only reigned over a freshly united Spain and over Sardinia and the
+kingdom of the two Sicilies, but over all America west of Brazil.  So
+it was that this Charles V, his grandson, inherited most of the
+American continent and between a third and a half of what the Turks had
+left of Europe.  He succeeded to the Netherlands in 1506.  When his
+grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516, he became practically king of the
+Spanish dominions, his mother being imbecile; and his grandfather
+Maximilian dying in 1519, he was in 1520 elected Emperor at the still
+comparatively tender age of twenty.
+
+He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a thick upper
+lip and a long clumsy chin.  He found himself in a world of young and
+vigorous personalities.  It was an age of brilliant young monarchs. 
+Francis I had succeeded to the French throne in 1515 at the age of
+twenty-one, Henry VIII had become King of England in 1509 at eighteen. 
+It was the age of Baber in India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the
+Magnificent in Turkey (1520), both exceptionally capable monarchs, and
+the Pope Leo X (1513) was also a very distinguished Pope.  The Pope and
+Francis I attempted to prevent the election of Charles as Emperor
+because they dreaded the concentration of so much power in the hands of
+one man.  Both Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to the
+imperial electors.  But there was now a long established tradition of
+Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some energetic bribery secured the
+election for Charles.
+
+At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in the hands
+of his ministers.  Then slowly he began to assert himself and take
+control.  He began to realize something of the threatening complexities
+of his exalted position.  It was a position as unsound as it was
+splendid.
+
+From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the situation created
+by Luther’s agitations in Germany. The Emperor had one reason for
+siding with the reformers in the opposition of the Pope to his
+election.  But he had been brought up in Spain, that most Catholic of
+countries, and he decided against Luther.  So he came into conflict
+with the Protestant princes and particularly the Elector of Saxony. He
+found himself in the presence of an opening rift that was to split the
+outworn fabric of Christendom into two contending camps.  His attempts
+to close that rift were strenuous and honest and ineffective.  There
+was an extensive peasant revolt in Germany which interwove with the
+general political and religious disturbance.  And these internal
+troubles were complicated by attacks upon the Empire from east and west
+alike.  On the west of Charles was his spirited rival, Francis I; to
+the east was the ever advancing Turk, who was now in Hungary, in
+alliance with Francis and clamouring for certain arrears of tribute
+from the Austrian dominions.  Charles had the money and army of Spain
+at his disposal, but it was extremely difficult to get any effective
+support in money from Germany.  His social and political troubles were
+complicated by financial distresses.  He was forced to ruinous
+borrowing.
+
+
+THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN
+THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN
+
+_(In the Gallery del Prado, Madrid)
+
+Photo:  Anderson_
+
+
+On the whole, Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was successful
+against Francis I and the Turk.  Their chief battlefield was North
+Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances and
+retreats depended mainly on the arrival of reinforcements.  The German
+army invaded France, failed to take Marseilles, fell back into Italy,
+lost Milan, and was besieged in Pavia.  Francis I made a long and
+unsuccessful siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German forces,
+defeated, wounded and taken prisoner.  But thereupon the Pope and Henry
+VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining excessive power,
+turned against Charles.  The German troops in Milan, under the
+Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather than followed their
+commander into a raid upon Rome.  They stormed the city and pillaged it
+(1527).  The Pope took refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo while the
+looting and slaughter went on.  He bought off the German troops at last
+by the payment of four hundred thousand ducats.  Ten years of such
+confused fighting impoverished all Europe.  At last the Emperor found
+himself triumphant in Italy.  In 1530, he was crowned by the Pope—he
+was the last German Emperor to be so crowned—at Bologna.
+
+Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary. They had
+defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526, they held Buda-Pesth,
+and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent very nearly took Vienna.  The
+Emperor was greatly concerned by these advances, and did his utmost to
+drive back the Turks, but he found the greatest difficulty in getting
+the German princes to unite even with this formidable enemy upon their
+very borders.  Francis I remained implacable for a time, and there was
+a new French war; but in 1538 Charles won his rival over to a more
+friendly attitude after ravaging the south of France.  Francis and
+Charles then formed an alliance against the Turk.  But the Protestant
+princes, the German princes who were resolved to break away from Rome,
+had formed a league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and
+in the place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for Christendom
+Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering internal struggle in
+Germany.  Of that struggle he saw only the opening war.  It was a
+struggle, a sanguinary irrational bickering of princes, for ascendancy,
+now flaming into war and destruction, now sinking back to intrigues and
+diplomacies; it was a snake’s sack of princely policies that was to go
+on writhing incurably right into the nineteenth century and to waste
+and desolate Central Europe again and again.
+
+The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at work in
+these gathering troubles.  He was for his time and station an
+exceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have taken the religious
+dissensions that were tearing Europe into warring fragments as genuine
+theological differences.  He gathered diets and councils in futile
+attempts at reconciliation.  Formulæ and confessions were tried over. 
+The student of German history must struggle with the details of the
+Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement at the Diet of Ratisbon,
+the Interim of Augsburg, and the like.  Here we do but mention them as
+details in the worried life of this culminating Emperor.  As a matter
+of fact, hardly one of the multifarious princes and rulers in Europe
+seems to have been acting in good faith.  The widespread religious
+trouble of the world, the desire of the common people for truth and
+social righteousness, the spreading knowledge of the time, all those
+things were merely counters in the imaginations of princely diplomacy. 
+Henry VIII of England, who had begun his career with a book against
+heresy, and who had been rewarded by the Pope with the title of
+“Defender of the Faith,” being anxious to divorce his first wife in
+favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn, and wishing also to loot the
+vast wealth of the church in England, joined the company of Protestant
+princes in 1530. Sweden, Denmark and Norway had already gone over to
+the Protestant side.
+
+The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after the death of
+Martin Luther.  We need not trouble about the incidents of the
+campaign.  The Protestant Saxon army was badly beaten at Lochau.  By
+something very like a breach of faith Philip of Hesse, the Emperor’s
+chief remaining antagonist, was caught and imprisoned, and the Turks
+were bought off by the promise of an annual tribute.  In 1547, to the
+great relief of the Emperor, Francis I died.  So by 1547 Charles got to
+a kind of settlement, and made his last efforts to effect peace where
+there was no peace.  In 1552 all Germany was at war again, only a
+precipitate flight from Innsbruck saved Charles from capture, and in
+1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable equilibrium ....
+
+Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for thirty-two
+years.  It is interesting to note how entirely the European mind was
+concentrated upon the struggle for European ascendancy.  Neither Turks,
+French, English nor Germans had yet discovered any political interest
+in the great continent of America, nor any significance in the new sea
+routes to Asia.  Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a
+mere handful of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire of Mexico
+for Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of Panama (1530) and
+subjugated another wonder-land, Peru.  But as yet these events meant no
+more to Europe than a useful and stimulating influx of silver to the
+Spanish treasury.
+
+It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to display his
+distinctive originality of mind.  He was now entirely bored and
+disillusioned by his imperial greatness. A sense of the intolerable
+futility of these European rivalries came upon him.  He had never been
+of a very sound constitution, he was naturally indolent and he was
+suffering greatly from gout.  He abdicated.  He made over all his
+sovereign rights in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the
+Netherlands he resigned to his son Philip. Then in a sort of
+magnificent dudgeon he retired to a monastery at Yuste, among the oak
+and chestnut forests in the hills to the north of the Tagus valley. 
+There he died in 1558.
+
+Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this retirement, this
+renunciation of the world by this tired majestic Titan, world-weary,
+seeking in an austere solitude his peace with God.  But his retreat was
+neither solitary nor austere; he had with him nearly a hundred and
+fifty attendants: his establishment had all the splendour and
+indulgences without the fatigues or a court, and Philip II was a
+dutiful son to whom his father’s advice was a command.
+
+
+INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR
+INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR
+
+_Photo:  Alinari_
+
+
+And if Charles had lost his living interest in the administration of
+European affairs, there were other motives of a more immediate sort to
+stir him.  Says Prescott: “In the almost daily correspondence between
+Quixada, or Gaztelu, and the Secretary of State at Valladolid, there is
+scarcely a letter that does not turn more or less on the Emperor’s
+eating or his illness.  The one seems naturally to follow, like a
+running commentary, on the other.  It is rare that such topics have
+formed the burden of communications with the department of state.  It
+must have been no easy matter for the secretary to preserve his gravity
+in the perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy were so
+strangely mixed together.  The courier from Valladolid to Lisbon was
+ordered to make a detour, so as to take Jarandilla in his route, and
+bring supplies to the royal table.  On Thursdays he was to bring fish
+to serve for the jour maigre that was to follow.  The trout in the
+neighbourhood Charles thought too small, so others of a larger size
+were to be sent from Valladolid.  Fish of every kind was to his taste,
+as, indeed, was anything that in its nature or habits at all approached
+to fish.  Eels, frogs, oysters, occupied an important place in the
+royal bill of fare.  Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great
+favour with him; and he regretted that he had not brought a better
+supply of these from the Low Countries.  On an eel-pasty he
+particularly doted.” ... [1]
+
+In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III granting him a
+dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to break his fast early in
+the morning even when he was to take the sacrament.
+
+Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things. He had never
+acquired the habit of reading, but he would be read aloud to at meals
+after the fashion of Charlemagne, and would make what one narrator
+describes as a “sweet and heavenly commentary.”  He also amused himself
+with mechanical toys, by listening to music or sermons, and by
+attending to the imperial business that still came drifting in to him. 
+The death of the Empress, to whom he was greatly attached, had turned
+his mind towards religion, which in his case took a punctilious and
+ceremonial form; every Friday in Lent he scourged himself with the rest
+of the monks with such good will as to draw blood.  These exercises and
+the gout released a bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been
+restrained by considerations of policy.  The appearance of Protestant
+teaching close at hand in Valladolid roused him to fury.  “Tell the
+grand inquisitor and his council from me to be at their posts, and to
+lay the axe at the root of the evil before it spreads further.” . .. He
+expressed a doubt whether it would not be well, in so black an affair,
+to dispense with the ordinary course of justice, and to show no mercy;
+“lest the criminal, if pardoned, should have the opportunity of
+repeating his crime.”  He recommended, as an example, his own mode or
+proceeding in the Netherlands, “where all who remained obstinate in
+their errors were burned alive, and those who were admitted to
+penitence were beheaded.”
+
+And almost symbolical of his place and role in history was his
+preoccupation with funerals.  He seems to have had an intuition that
+something great was dead in Europe and sorely needed burial, that there
+was a need to write Finis, overdue.  He not only attended every actual
+funeral that was celebrated at Yuste, but he had services conducted for
+the absent dead, he held a funeral service in memory of his wife on the
+anniversary of her death, and finally he celebrated his own obsequies.
+
+“The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of hundreds of
+wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the darkness.  The
+brethren in their conventual dress, and all the Emperor’s household
+clad in deep mourning, gathered round a huge catafalque, shrouded also
+in black, which had been raised in the centre of the chapel.  The
+service for the burial of the dead was then performed; and, amidst the
+dismal wail of the monks, the prayers ascended for the departed spirit,
+that it might be received into the mansions of the blessed.  The
+sorrowful attendants were melted to tears, as the image of their
+master’s death was presented to their minds—or they were touched, it
+may be, with compassion by this pitiable display of weakness.  Charles,
+muffled in a dark mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his hand,
+mingled with his household, the spectator of his own obsequies; and the
+doleful ceremony was concluded by his placing the taper in the hands of
+the priest, in sign of his surrendering up his soul to the Almighty.”
+
+Within two months of this masquerade he was dead.  And the brief
+greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him.  His realm was
+already divided between his brother and his son. The Holy Roman Empire
+struggled on indeed to the days of Napoleon I but as an invalid and
+dying thing.  To this day its unburied tradition still poisons the
+political air.
+
+
+[1] Prescott’s Appendix to Robertson’s _History of Charles V_.
+
+
+
+
+LII
+THE AGE OF POLITICAL EXPERIMENTS; OF GRAND MONARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND
+REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE
+
+
+The Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme
+decay; the history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth century
+onward is a story of peoples feeling their way darkly to some new
+method of government, better adapted to the new conditions that were
+arising. In the Ancient World, over long periods of time, there had
+been changes of dynasty and even changes of ruling race and language,
+but the form of government through monarch and temple remained fairly
+stable, and still more stable was the ordinary way of living. In this
+modern Europe since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are
+unimportant, and the interest of history lies in the wide and
+increasing variety of experiments in political and social organization.
+
+The political history of the world from the sixteenth century onward
+was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious effort, of mankind
+to adapt its political and social methods to certain new conditions
+that had now arisen.  The effort to adapt was complicated by the fad
+that the conditions themselves were changing with a steadily increasing
+rapidity. The adaptation, mainly unconscious and almost always
+unwilling (for man in general hates voluntary change), has lagged more
+and more behind the alterations in conditions. From the sixteenth
+century onward the history of mankind is a story of political and
+social institutions becoming more and more plainly misfits, less
+comfortable and more vexatious, and of the slow reluctant realization
+of the need for a conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole
+scheme of human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new to
+all the former experiences of life.
+
+What are these changes in the conditions of human life that have
+disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and trader, with
+periodic refreshment by barbaric conquest, that has held human affairs
+in the Old World in a sort of working rhythm for more than a hundred
+centuries?
+
+They are manifold and various, for human affairs are multitudinously
+complex; but the main changes seem all to turn upon one cause, namely
+the growth and extension of a knowledge of the nature of things,
+beginning first of all in small groups of intelligent people and
+spreading at first slowly, and in the last five hundred years very
+rapidly, to larger and larger proportions of the general population.
+
+But there has also been a great change in human conditions due to a
+change in the spirit of human life.  This change has gone on side by
+side with the increase and extension of knowledge, and is subtly
+connected with it.  There has been an increasing disposition to treat a
+life based on the common and more elementary desires and gratifications
+as unsatisfactory, and to seek relationship with and service and
+participation in a larger life.  This is the common characteristic of
+all the great religions that have spread throughout the world in the
+last twenty odd centuries, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike. 
+They have had to do with the spirit of man in a way that the older
+religions did not have to do.  They are forces quite different in their
+nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood-sacrifice religions of
+priest and temple that they have in part modified and in part replaced.
+ They have gradually evolved a self-respect in the individual and a
+sense of participation and responsibility in the common concerns of
+mankind that did not exist among the populations of the earlier
+civilizations.
+
+The first considerable change in the conditions of political and social
+life was the simplification and extended use of writing in the ancient
+civilizations which made larger empires and wider political
+understandings practicable and inevitable.  The next movement forward
+came with the introduction of the horse, and later on of the camel as a
+means of transport, the use of wheeled vehicles, the extension of roads
+and the increased military efficiency due to the discovery of
+terrestrial iron.  Then followed the profound economic disturbances due
+to the device of coined money and the change in the nature of debt,
+proprietorship and trade due to this convenient but dangerous
+convention. The empires grew in size and range, and men’s ideas grew
+likewise to correspond with these things.  Came the disappearance of
+local gods, the age of theocrasia, and the teaching of the great world
+religions.  Came also the beginnings of reasoned and recorded history
+and geography, the first realization by man of his profound ignorance,
+and the first systematic search for knowledge.
+
+For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly in Greece
+and Alexandria was interrupted.  The raids of the Teutonic barbarians,
+the westward drive of the Mongolian peoples, convulsive religious
+reconstruction and great pestilences put enormous strains upon
+political and social order.  When civilization emerged again from this
+phase of conflict and confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of
+economic life; and the first paper-mills were preparing a new medium
+for collective information and co-operation in printed matter. 
+Gradually at this point and that, the search for knowledge, the
+systematic scientific process, was resumed.
+
+And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable by-product
+of systematic thought, appeared a steadily increasing series of
+inventions and devices affecting the intercommunication and interaction
+of men with one another. They all tended towards wider range of action,
+greater mutual benefits or injuries, and increased co-operation, and
+they came faster and faster.  Men’s minds had not been prepared for
+anything of the sort, and until the great catastrophes at the beginning
+of the twentieth century quickened men’s minds, the historian has very
+little to tell of any intelligently planned attempts to meet the new
+conditions this increasing flow of inventions was creating. The history
+of mankind for the last four centuries is rather like that of an
+imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and uneasily while the prison
+that restrains and shelters him catches fire, not waking but
+incorporating the crackling and warmth of the fire with ancient and
+incongruous dreams, than like that of a man consciously awake to danger
+and opportunity.
+
+Since history is the story not of individual lives but of communities,
+it is inevitable that the inventions that figure most in the historical
+record are inventions affecting communications.  In the sixteenth
+century the chief new things that we have to note are the appearance of
+printed paper and the sea-worthy, ocean-going sailing ship using the
+new device of the mariner’s compass.  The former cheapened, spread, and
+revolutionized teaching, public information and discussion, and the
+fundamental operations of political activity.  The latter made the
+round world one.  But almost equally important was the increased
+utilization and improvement of guns and gunpowder which the Mongols had
+first brought westward in the thirteenth century.  This destroyed the
+practical immunity of barons in their castles and of walled cities. 
+Guns swept away feudalism.  Constantinople fell to guns. Mexico and
+Peru fell before the terror of the Spanish guns.
+
+
+CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE
+ENGLISH REPUBLIC
+CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE
+ENGLISH REPUBLIC
+
+_(From a contemporary satirical print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic scientific
+publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far more pregnant
+innovation.  Conspicuous among the leaders in this great forward step
+was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) afterwards Lord Verulam, Lord
+Chancellor of England.  He was the pupil and perhaps the mouthpiece of
+another Englishman; Dr. Gilbert, the experimental philosopher of
+Colchester (1540-1603).  This second Bacon, like the first, preached
+observation and experiment, and he used the inspiring and fruitful form
+of a Utopian story, _The New Atlantis_, to express his dream of a great
+service of scientific research.
+
+Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine Society,
+and later other national bodies for the encouragement of research and
+the publication and exchange of knowledge.  These European scientific
+societies became fountains not only of countless inventions but also of
+a destructive criticism of the grotesque theological history of the
+world that had dominated and crippled human thought for many centuries.
+
+Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed any
+innovations so immediately revolutionary in human conditions as printed
+paper and the ocean-going ship, but there was a steady accumulation of
+knowledge and scientific energy that was to bear its full fruits in the
+nineteenth century.  The exploration and mapping of the world went on.
+Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand appeared on the map.  In Great Britain
+in the eighteenth century coal coke began to be used for metallurgical
+purposes, leading to a considerable cheapening of iron and to the
+possibility of casting and using it in larger pieces than had been
+possible before, when it had been smelted with wood charcoal.  Modern
+machinery dawned.
+
+Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and flower and
+fruit at the same time and continuously.  With the onset of the
+nineteenth century the real fruition of science—which indeed henceforth
+may never cease—began.  First came steam and steel, the railway, the
+great liner, vast bridges and buildings, machinery of almost limitless
+power, the possibility of a bountiful satisfaction of every material
+human need, and then, still more wonderful, the hidden treasures of
+electrical science were opened to men ....
+
+We have compared the political and social life of man from the
+sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner who lies and
+dreams while his prison burns about him.  In the sixteenth century the
+European mind was still going on with its Latin Imperial dream, its
+dream of a Holy Roman Empire, united under a Catholic Church.  But just
+as some uncontrollable element in our composition will insist at times
+upon introducing into our dreams the most absurd and destructive
+comments, so thrust into this dream we find the sleeping face and
+craving stomach of the Emperor Charles V, while Henry VIII of England
+and Luther tear the unity of Catholicism to shreds.
+
+
+THE COURT AT VERSAILLES
+THE COURT AT VERSAILLES
+
+_(From the print after Watteau in the British Museum)_
+
+
+In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned to
+personal monarchy.  The history of nearly all Europe during this period
+tells with variations the story of an attempt to consolidate a
+monarchy, to make it absolute and to extend its power over weaker
+adjacent regions, and of the steady resistance, first of the landowners
+and then with the increase of foreign trade and home industry, of the
+growing trading and moneyed class, to the exaction and interference of
+the crown.  There is no universal victory of either side; here it is
+the King who gets the upper hand while there it is the man of private
+property who beats the King.  In one case we find a King becoming the
+sun and centre of his national world, while just over his borders a
+sturdy mercantile class maintains a republic.  So wide a range of
+variation shows how entirely experimental, what local accidents, were
+all the various governments of this period.
+
+A very common figure in these national dramas is the King’s minister,
+often in the still Catholic countries a prelate, who stands behind the
+King, serves him and dominates him by his indispensable services.
+
+Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these various
+national dramas in detail.  The trading folk of Holland went Protestant
+and republican, and cast off the rule of Philip II of Spain, the son of
+the Emperor Charles V.  In England Henry VIII and his minister Wolsey,
+Queen Elizabeth and her minister Burleigh, prepared the foundations of
+an absolutism that was wrecked by the folly of James I and Charles I. 
+Charles I was beheaded for treason to his people (1649), a new turn in
+the political thought of Europe.  For a dozen years (until 1660)
+Britain was a republic; and the crown was an unstable power, much
+overshadowed by Parliament, until George III (1760-1820) made a
+strenuous and partly successful effort to restore its predominance. 
+The King of France, on the other hand, was the most successful of all
+the European Kings in perfecting monarchy.  Two great ministers,
+Richelieu (1585-1642) and Mazarin (1602-1661), built up the power of
+the crown in that country, and the process was aided by the long reign
+and very considerable abilities of King Louis XIV, “the Grand Monarque”
+(1643-1715).
+
+Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe.  He was, within his
+limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his ambition was stronger
+than his baser passions, and he guided his country towards bankruptcy
+through the complication of a spirited foreign policy with an elaborate
+dignity that still extorts our admiration.  His immediate desire was to
+consolidate and extend France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and to absorb
+the Spanish Netherlands; his remoter view saw the French Kings as the
+possible successors of Charlemagne in a recast Holy Roman Empire.  He
+made bribery a state method almost more important than warfare. 
+Charles II of England was in his pay, and so were most of the Polish
+nobility, presently to be described.  His money, or rather the money of
+the tax- paying classes in France, went everywhere.  But his prevailing
+occupation was splendour.  His great palace at Versailles with its
+salons, its corridors, its mirrors, its terraces and fountains and
+parks and prospects, was the envy and admiration of the world.
+
+
+THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+
+_(From Callot’s “Miseres de la Guerre”) _
+
+
+He provoked a universal imitation.  Every king and princelet in Europe
+was building his own Versailles as much beyond his means as his
+subjects and credits would permit.  Everywhere the nobility rebuilt or
+extended their chateaux to the new pattern.  A great industry of
+beautiful and elaborate fabrics and furnishings developed.  The
+luxurious arts flourished everywhere; sculpture in alabaster, faience,
+gilt woodwork, metal work, stamped leather, much music, magnificent
+painting, beautiful printing and bindings, fine crockery, fine
+vintages.  Amidst the mirrors and fine furniture went a strange race of
+“gentlemen” in tall powdered wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high
+red heels, supported by amazing canes; and still more wonderful
+“ladies,” under towers of powdered hair and wearing vast expansions of
+silk and satin sustained on wire. Through it all postured the great
+Louis, the sun of his world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter
+faces that watched him from those lower darknesses to which his
+sunshine did not penetrate.
+
+
+Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
+
+The German people remained politically divided throughout this period
+of the monarchies and experimental governments, and a considerable
+number of ducal and princely courts aped the splendours of Versailles
+on varying scales. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), a devastating
+scramble among the Germans, Swedes and Bohemians for fluctuating
+political advantages, sapped the energies of Germany for a century.  A
+map must show the crazy patchwork in which this struggle ended, a map
+of Europe according to the peace of Westphalia (1648).  One sees a
+tangle of principalities, dukedoms, free states and the like, some
+partly in and partly out of the Empire.  Sweden’s arm, the reader will
+note, reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of
+territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far from the
+Rhine.  Amidst this patchwork the Kingdom of Prussia—it became a
+Kingdom in 1701—rose steadily to prominence and sustained a series of
+successful wars. Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86) had his
+Versailles at Potsdam, where his court spoke French, read French
+literature and rivalled the culture of the French King.
+
+In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding one more
+to the list of monarchies half in and half out of the empire.
+
+The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained the title
+of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain.  But now there was also
+an Emperor of the East again.  After the fall of Constantinople (1453),
+the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan the Great (1462-1505), claimed to be
+heir to the Byzantine throne and adopted the Byzantine double-headed
+eagle upon his arms.  His grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible
+(1533-1584), assumed the imperial title of Cæsar (Tsar).  But only in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century did Russia cease to seem
+remote and Asiatic to the European mind.  The Tsar Peter the Great
+(1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of Western affairs.  He built
+a new capital for his empire, Petersburg upon the Neva, that played the
+part of a window between Russia and Europe, and he set up his
+Versailles at Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a French
+architect who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades, picture gallery,
+park and all the recognized appointments of Grand Monarchy. In Russia
+as in Prussia French became the language of the court.
+
+Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the Polish
+kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed proprietors too jealous
+of their own individual grandeur to permit more than a nominal kingship
+to the monarch they elected.  Her fate was division among these three
+neighbours, in spite of the efforts of France to retain her as an
+independent ally.  Switzerland at this time was a group of republican
+cantons; Venice was a republic; Italy like so much of Germany was
+divided among minor dukes and princes.  The Pope ruled like a prince in
+the papal states, too fearful now of losing the allegiance of the
+remaining Catholic princes to interfere between them and their subjects
+or to remind the world of the commonweal of Christendom. There remained
+indeed no common political idea in Europe at all; Europe was given over
+altogether to division and diversity.
+
+All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes of
+aggrandizement against each other.  Each one of them pursued a “foreign
+policy” of aggression against its neighbours and of aggressive
+alliances.  We Europeans still live to-day in the last phase of this
+age of the multifarious sovereign states, and still suffer from the
+hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered.  The history of this
+time becomes more and more manifestly “gossip,” more and more unmeaning
+and wearisome to a modern intelligence.  You are told of how this war
+was caused by this King’s mistress, and how the jealousy of one
+minister for another caused that.  A tittle-tattle of bribes and
+rivalries disgusts the intelligent student.  The more permanently
+significant fact is that in spite of the obstruction of a score of
+frontiers, reading and thought still spread and increased and
+inventions multiplied.  The eighteenth century saw the appearance of a
+literature profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies
+of the time.  In such a book as Voltaire’s _Candide_ we have the
+expression of an infinite weariness with the planless confusion of the
+European world.
+
+
+
+
+LIII
+THE NEW EMPIRES OF THE EUROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS
+
+
+While Central Europe thus remained divided and confused, the Western
+Europeans and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians, the Spanish,
+the Portuguese, the French and the British were extending the area of
+their struggles across the seas of all the world. The printing press
+had dissolved the political ideas of Europe into a vast and at first
+indeterminate fermentation, but that other great innovation, the
+ocean-going sailing ship, was inexorably extending the range of
+European experience to the furthermost limits of salt water.
+
+The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern Atlantic
+Europeans were not for colonization but for trade and mining.  The
+Spaniards were first in the field; they claimed dominion over the whole
+of this new world of America. Very soon however the Portuguese asked
+for a share.  The Pope—it was one of the last acts of Rome as mistress
+of the world—divided the new continent between these two first-comers,
+giving Portugal Brazil and everything else east of a line 370 leagues
+west of the Cape Verde islands, and all the rest to Spain (1494).  The
+Portuguese at this time were also pushing overseas enterprise southward
+and eastward.  In 1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the
+Cape to Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India.  In 1515 there were
+Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese were
+setting up and fortifying trading stations round and about the coasts
+of the Indian Ocean.  Mozambique, Goa, and two smaller possessions in
+India, Macao in China and a part of Timor are to this day Portuguese
+possessions.
+
+The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement paid little
+heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal.  The English, the Danes and
+Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were soon staking out claims in North
+America and the West Indies, and his Most Catholic Majesty of France
+heeded the papal settlement as little as any Protestant.  The wars of
+Europe extended themselves to these claims and possessions.
+
+
+Map: Central Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
+
+In the long run the English were the most successful in this scramble
+for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were too deeply
+entangled in the complicated affairs of Germany to sustain effective
+expeditions abroad.  Sweden was wasted upon the German battlefields by
+a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestant “Lion of the
+North.”  The Dutch were the heirs of such small settlements as Sweden
+made in America, and the Dutch were too near French aggressions to hold
+their own against the British.  In the far East the chief rivals for
+empire were the British, Dutch and French, and in America the British,
+French and Spanish.  The British had the supreme advantage of a water
+frontier, the “silver streak” of the English Channel, against Europe. 
+The tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them least.
+
+
+EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA
+EUROPEANS TIGER HUNTING IN INDIA
+
+_(From the engraving of the picture by Zoffany in the British Museum)_
+
+
+France has always thought too much in terms of Europe. Throughout the
+eighteenth century she was wasting her opportunities of expansion in
+West and East alike in order to dominate Spain, Italy and the German
+confusion.  The religious and political dissensions of Britain in the
+seventeenth century had driven many of the English to seek a permanent
+home in America.  They struck root and increased and multiplied, giving
+the British a great advantage in the American struggle.  In 1756 and
+1760 the French lost Canada to the British and their American
+colonists, and a few years later the British trading company found
+itself completely dominant over French, Dutch and Portuguese in the
+peninsula of India.  The great Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their
+successors had now far gone in decay, and the story of its practical
+capture by a London trading company, the British East India Company, is
+one of the most extraordinary episodes in the whole history of
+conquest.
+
+
+THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN
+THE LAST EFFORT AND FALL OF TIPPOO SULTAN
+
+_(From the engraving of the picture by Singleton in the British
+Museum)_
+
+
+This East India Company had been originally at the time of its
+incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a company of sea
+adventurers.  Step by step they had been forced to raise troops and arm
+their ships.  And now this trading company, with its tradition of gain,
+found itself dealing not merely in spices and dyes and tea and jewels,
+but in the revenues and territories of princes and the destinies of
+India.  It had come to buy and sell, and it found itself achieving a
+tremendous piracy.  There was no one to challenge its proceedings.  Is
+it any wonder that its captains and commanders and officials, nay, even
+its clerks and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with
+spoils?
+
+Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land at their
+mercy, could not determine what they might or might not do.  It was a
+strange land to them, with a strange sunlight; its brown people seemed
+a different race, outside their range of sympathy; its mysterious
+temples sustained fantastic standards of behaviour.  Englishmen at home
+were perplexed when presently these generals and officials came back to
+make dark accusations against each other of extortions and cruelties. 
+Upon Clive Parliament passed a vote of censure.  He committed suicide
+in 1774.  In 1788 Warren Hastings, a second great Indian administrator,
+was impeached and acquitted (1792).  It was a strange and unprecedented
+situation in the world’s history.  The English Parliament found itself
+ruling over a London trading company, which in its turn was dominating
+an empire far greater and more populous than all the domains of the
+British crown.  To the bulk of the English people India was a remote,
+fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous poor young
+men went out, to return after many years very rich and very choleric
+old gentlemen.  It was difficult for the English to conceive what the
+life of these countless brown millions in the eastern sunshine could
+be.  Their imaginations declined the task.  India remained romantically
+unreal.  It was impossible for the English, therefore, to exert any
+effective supervision and control over the company’s proceedings.
+
+And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for these
+fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the world, two great
+land conquests were in progress in Asia. China had thrown off the
+Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished under the great native dynasty of
+the Mings until 1644.  Then the Manchus, another Mongol people,
+reconquered China and remained masters of China until 1912.  Meanwhile
+Russia was pushing East and growing to greatness in the world’s
+affairs.  The rise of this great central power of the old world, which
+is neither altogether of the East nor altogether of the West, is one of
+the utmost importance to our human destiny.  Its expansion is very
+largely due to the appearance of a Christian steppe people, the
+Cossacks, who formed a barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland
+and Hungary to the west and the Tartar to the east.  The Cossacks were
+the wild east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild west of
+the United States in the middle nineteenth century. All who had made
+Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as well as the persecuted
+innocent, rebellious serfs, religious secretaries, thieves, vagabonds,
+murderers, sought asylum in the southern steppes and there made a fresh
+start and fought for life and freedom against Pole, Russian and Tartar
+alike. Doubtless fugitives from the Tartars to the east also
+contributed to the Cossack mixture.  Slowly these border folk were
+incorporated in the Russian imperial service, much as the highland
+clans of Scotland were converted into regiments by the British
+government.  New lands were offered them in Asia.  They became a weapon
+against the dwindling power of the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan
+and then across Siberia as far as the Amur.
+
+The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+is very difficult to explain.  Within two or three centuries from the
+days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia had relapsed from a period of
+world ascendancy to extreme political impotence.  Changes of climate,
+unrecorded pestilences, infections of a malarial type, may have played
+their part in this recession—which may be only a temporary recession
+measured by the scale of universal history—of the Central Asian
+peoples.  Some authorities think that the spread of Buddhist teaching
+from China also had a pacifying influence upon them.  At any rate, by
+the sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were no
+longer pressing outward, but were being invaded, subjugated and pushed
+back both by Christian Russia in the west and by China in the east.
+
+All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were spreading
+eastward from European Russia, and settling wherever they found
+agricultural conditions.  Cordons of forts and stations formed a moving
+frontier to these settlements to the south, where the Turkomans were
+still strong and active; to the north-east, however, Russia had no
+frontier until she reached right to the Pacific....
+
+
+
+
+LIV
+THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+The third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the remarkable and
+unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against itself, and no longer
+with any unifying political or religious idea, yet through the immense
+stimulation of men’s imaginations by the printed book, the printed map,
+and the opportunity of the new ocean-going shipping, able in a
+disorganized and contentious manner to dominate all the coasts of the
+world. It was a planless, incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to
+temporary and almost accidental advantages over the rest of mankind. By
+virtue of these advantages this new and still largely empty continent
+of America was peopled mainly from Western European sources, and South
+Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as prospective homes
+for a European population.
+
+The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da Gama to India
+was the perennial first motive of all sailors since the beginning of
+things—trade.  But while in the already populous and productive East
+the trade motive remained dominant, and the European settlements
+remained trading settlements from which the European inhabitants hoped
+to return home to spend their money, the Europeans in America, dealing
+with communities at a very much lower level of productive activity,
+found a new inducement for persistence in the search for gold and
+silver.  Particularly did the mines of Spanish America yield silver. 
+The Europeans had to go to America not simply as armed merchants but as
+prospectors, miners, searchers after natural products, and presently as
+planters.  In the north they sought furs.  Mines and plantations
+necessitated settlements.  They obliged people to set up permanent
+overseas homes.  Finally in some cases, as when the English Puritans
+went to New England in the early seventeenth 336}century to escape
+religious persecution, when in the eighteenth Oglethorpe sent people
+from the English debtors’ prisons to Georgia, and when in the end of
+the eighteenth the Dutch sent orphans to the Cape of Good Hope, the
+Europeans frankly crossed the seas to find new homes for good.  In the
+nineteenth century, and especially after the coming of the steamship,
+the stream of European emigration to the new empty lands of America and
+Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great migration.
+
+So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans, and the
+European culture was transplanted to much larger areas than those in
+which it had been developed.  These new communities bringing a
+ready-made civilization with them to these new lands grew up, as it
+were, unplanned and unperceived; the statecraft of Europe did not
+foresee them, and was unprepared with any ideas about their treatment. 
+The politicians and ministers of Europe continued to regard them as
+essentially expeditionary establishments, sources of revenue,
+“possessions” and “dependencies,” long after their peoples had
+developed a keen sense of their separate social life.  And also they
+continued to treat them as helplessly subject to the mother country
+long after the population had spread inland out of reach of any
+effectual punitive operations from the sea.
+
+Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be remembered,
+the link of all these overseas empires was the oceangoing sailing ship.
+ On land the swiftest thing was still the horse, and the cohesion and
+unity of political systems on land was still limited by the limitations
+of horse communications.
+
+Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century the
+northern two-thirds of North America was under the British crown. 
+France had abandoned America.  Except for Brazil, which was Portuguese,
+and one or two small islands and areas in French, British, Danish and
+Dutch hands, Florida, Louisiana, California and all America to the
+south was Spanish.  It was the British colonies south of Maine and Lake
+Ontario that first demonstrated the inadequacy of the sailing ship to
+hold overseas populations together in one political system.
+
+These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their origin and
+character.  There were French, Swedish and Dutch settlements as well as
+British; there were British Catholics in Maryland and British
+ultra-Protestants in New England, and while the New Englanders farmed
+their own land and denounced slavery, the British in Virginia and the
+south were planters employing a swelling multitude of imported negro
+slaves.  There was no natural common unity in such states.  To get from
+one to the other might mean a coasting voyage hardly less tedious than
+the transatlantic crossing.  But the union that diverse origin and
+natural conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them by
+the selfishness and stupidity of the British government in London. 
+They were taxed without any voice in the spending of the taxes; their
+trade was sacrificed to British interests; the highly profitable slave
+trade was maintained by the British government in spite of the
+opposition of the Virginians who—though quite willing to hold and use
+slaves—feared to be swamped by an ever-growing barbaric black
+population.
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+_(From a painting by Gilbert Stuart)_
+
+
+Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of monarchy,
+and the obstinate personality of George III (1760- 1820) did much to
+force on a struggle between the home and the colonial governments.
+
+The conflict was precipitated by legislation which favoured the London
+East India Company at the expense of the American shipper.  Three
+cargoes of tea which were imported under the new conditions were thrown
+overboard in Boston harbour by a band of men disguised as Indians
+(1773).  Fighting only began in 1775 when the British government
+attempted to arrest two of the American leaders at Lexington near
+Boston.  The first shots were fired in Lexington by the British; the
+first fighting occurred at Concord.
+
+
+THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON
+THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON
+
+_(From the engraving of the picture by John Trumbull in the British
+Museum)_
+
+
+So the American War of Independence began, though for more than a year
+the colonists showed themselves extremely unwilling to sever their
+links with the mother land.  It was not until the middle of 1776 that
+the Congress of the insurgent states issued “The Declaration of
+Independence.”  George Washington, who like many of the leading
+colonists of the time had had a military training in the wars against
+the French, was made commander-in-chief.  In 1777 a British general,
+General Burgoyne, in an attempt to reach New York from Canada, was
+defeated at Freemans Farm and obliged to surrender at Saratoga.  In the
+same year the French and Spanish declared war upon Great Britain,
+greatly hampering her sea communications.  A second British army under
+General Cornwallis was caught in the Yorktown peninsula in Virginia and
+obliged to capitulate in 1781.  In 1783 peace was made in Paris, and
+the Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia became a union of
+independent sovereign States.  So the United States of America came
+into existence.  Canada remained loyal to the British flag.
+
+
+Map: The United States, showing extent of settlement in 1790
+
+For four years these States had only a very feeble central government
+under certain Articles of Confederation, and they seemed destined to
+break up into separate independent communities.  Their immediate
+separation was delayed by the hostility of the British and a certain
+aggressiveness on the part of the French which brought home to them the
+immediate dangers of division.  A Constitution was drawn up and
+ratified in 1788 establishing a more efficient Federal government with
+a President holding very considerable powers, and the weak sense of
+national unity was invigorated by a second war with Britain in 1812. 
+Nevertheless the area covered by the States was so wide and their
+interests so diverse at that time, that—given only the means of
+communication then available—a disintegration of the Union into
+separate states on the European scale of size was merely a question of
+time.  Attendance at Washington meant a long, tedious and insecure
+journey for the senators and congressmen of the remoter districts, and
+the mechanical impediments to the diffusion of a common education and a
+common literature and intelligence were practically insurmountable. 
+Forces were at work in the world however that were to arrest the
+process of differentiation altogether.  Presently came the river
+steamboat and then the railway and the telegraph to save the United
+States from fragmentation, and weave its dispersed people together
+again into the first of great modern nations.
+
+Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were to follow
+the example of the Thirteen and break their connection with Europe. 
+But being more dispersed over the continent and separated by great
+mountainous chains and deserts and forests and by the Portuguese Empire
+of Brazil, they did not achieve a union among themselves.  They became
+a constellation of republican states, very prone at first to wars among
+themselves and to revolutions.
+
+Brazil followed a rather different line towards the inevitable
+separation.  In 1807 the French armies under Napoleon had occupied the
+mother country of Portugal, and the monarchy had fled to Brazil.  From
+that time on until they separated, Portugal was rather a dependency of
+Brazil than Brazil of Portugal.  In 1822 Brazil declared itself a
+separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of the Portuguese King. But the
+new world has never been very favourable to monarchy. In 1889 the
+Emperor of Brazil was shipped off quietly to Europe, and the United
+States of Brazil fell into line with the rest of republican America.
+
+
+
+
+LV
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE
+
+
+Britain had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a
+profound social and political convulsion at the very heart of Grand
+Monarchy was to remind Europe still more vividly of the essentially
+temporary nature of the political arrangements of the world.
+
+We have said that the French monarchy was the most successful of the
+personal monarchies in Europe.  It was the envy and model of a
+multitude of competing and minor courts.  But it flourished on a basis
+of injustice that led to its dramatic collapse.  It was brilliant and
+aggressive, but it was wasteful of the life and substance of its common
+people.  The clergy and nobility were protected from taxation by a
+system of exemption that threw the whole burden of the state upon the
+middle and lower classes.  The peasants were ground down by taxation;
+the middle classes were dominated and humiliated by the nobility.
+
+In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and obliged to call
+representatives of the different classes of the realm into consultation
+upon the perplexities of defective income and excessive expenditure. 
+In 1789 the States General, a gathering of the nobles, clergy and
+commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier form of the British
+Parliament, was called together at Versailles.  It had not assembled
+since 1610.  For all that time France had been an absolute monarchy. 
+Now the people found a means of expressing their long fermenting
+discontent.  Disputes immediately broke out between the three estates,
+due to the resolve of the Third Estate, the Commons, to control the
+Assembly.  The Commons got the better of these disputes and the States
+General became a National Assembly, clearly resolved to keep the crown
+in order, as the British Parliament kept the British crown in order. 
+The king (Louis XVI) prepared for a struggle and brought up troops from
+the provinces.  Whereupon Paris and France revolted.
+
+The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift.  The grim-looking
+prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people of Paris, and the
+insurrection spread rapidly throughout France.  In the east and
+north-west provinces many chateaux belonging to the nobility were burnt
+by the peasants, their title-deeds carefully destroyed, and the owners
+murdered or driven away.  In a month the ancient and decayed system of
+the aristocratic order had collapsed.  Many of the leading princes and
+courtiers of the queen’s party fled abroad. A provisional city
+government was set up in Paris and in most of the other large cities,
+and a new armed force, the National Guard, a force designed primarily
+and plainly to resist the forces of the crown, was brought into
+existence by these municipal bodies.  The National Assembly found
+itself called upon to create a new political and social system for a
+new age.
+
+It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the utmost. 
+It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the absolutist regime;
+it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom, aristocratic titles and
+privileges and sought to establish a constitutional monarchy in Paris. 
+The king abandoned Versailles and its splendours and kept a diminished
+state in the palace of the Tuileries in Paris.
+
+For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might struggle
+through to an effective modernized government.  Much of its work was
+sound and still endures, if much was experimental and had to be undone.
+ Much was ineffective. There was a clearing up of the penal code;
+torture, arbitrary imprisonment and persecutions for heresy were
+abolished.  The ancient provinces of France, Normandy, Burgundy and the
+like gave place to eighty departments.  Promotion to the highest ranks
+in the army was laid open to men of every class.  An excellent and
+simple system of law courts was set up, but its value was much vitiated
+by having the judges appointed by popular election for short periods of
+time.  This made the crowd a sort of final court of appeal, and the
+judges, like the members of the Assembly, were forced to play to the
+gallery.  And the whole vast property of the church was seized and
+administered by the state; religious establishments not engaged in
+education or works of charity were broken up, and the salaries of the
+clergy made a charge upon the nation.  This in itself was not a bad
+thing for the lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously
+underpaid in comparison with the richer dignitaries.  But in addition
+the choice of priests and bishops was made elective, which struck at
+the very root idea of the Roman Church, which centred everything upon
+the Pope, and in which all authority is from above downward. 
+Practically the National Assembly wanted at one blow to make the church
+in France Protestant, in organization if not in doctrine.  Everywhere
+there were disputes and conflicts between the state priests created by
+the National Assembly and the recalcitrant (non-juring) priests who
+were loyal to Rome.
+
+In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France was brought
+to an abrupt end by the action of the king and queen, working in
+concert with their aristocratic and monarchist friends abroad.  Foreign
+armies gathered on the Eastern frontier and one night in June the king
+and queen and their children slipped away from the Tuileries and fled
+to join the foreigners and the aristocratic exiles.  They were caught
+at Varennes and brought back to Paris, and an France flamed up into a
+passion of patriotic republicanism.  A Republic was proclaimed, open
+war with Austria and Prussia ensued, and the king was tried and
+executed (January, 1793) on the model already set by England, for
+treason to his people.
+
+And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French people. 
+There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France and the Republic. 
+There was to be an end to compromise at home and abroad; at home
+royalists and every form of disloyalty were to be stamped out; abroad
+France was to be the protector and helper of all revolutionaries.  All
+Europe, all the world, was to become Republican.  The youth of France
+poured into the Republican armies; a new and wonderful song spread
+through the land, a song that still warms the blood like wine, the
+Marseillaise.  Before that chant and the leaping columns of French
+bayonets and their enthusiastically served guns the foreign armies
+rolled back; before the end of 1792 the French armies had gone far
+beyond the utmost achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on
+foreign soil. They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they had
+raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland. Then the
+French Government did an unwise thing.  It had been exasperated by the
+expulsion of its representative from England upon the execution of
+Louis, and it declared war against England.  It was an unwise thing to
+do, because the revolution which had given France a new enthusiastic
+infantry and a brilliant artillery released from its aristocratic
+officers and many cramping conditions had destroyed the discipline of
+the navy, and the English were supreme upon the sea.  And this
+provocation united all England against France, whereas there had been
+at first a very considerable liberal movement in Great Britain in
+sympathy with the revolution.
+
+
+THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI
+THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI
+
+_(From a print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a European
+coalition we cannot tell in any detail.  She drove the Austrians for
+ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a republic.  The Dutch fleet,
+frozen in the Texel, surrendered to a handful of cavalry without firing
+its guns. For some time the French thrust towards Italy was hung up,
+and it was only in 1796 that a new general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led the
+ragged and hungry republican armies in triumph across Piedmont to
+Mantua and Verona.  Says C. F. Atkinson,  [1] “What astonished the
+Allies most of all was the number and the velocity of the Republicans. 
+These improvised armies had in fact nothing to delay them.  Tents were
+unprocurable for want of money, untransportable for want of the
+enormous number of wagons that would have been required, and also
+unnecessary, for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
+desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of
+1793- 94.   Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not be
+carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar with ‘living on
+the country.’  Thus 1793 saw the birth of the modern system of
+war—rapidity of movement, full development of national strength,
+bivouacs, requisitions and force as against cautious manœuvring, small
+professional armies, tents and full rations, and chicane. The first
+represented the decision-compelling spirit, the second the spirit of
+risking little to gain a little ... .”
+
+And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the
+Marseillaise and fighting for _la France_, manifestly never quite clear
+in their minds whether they were looting or liberating the countries
+into which they poured, the republican enthusiasm in Paris was spending
+itself in a far less glorious fashion.  The revolution was now under
+the sway of a fanatical leader, Robespierre.  This man is difficult to
+judge; he was a man of poor physique, naturally timid, and a prig.  But
+he had that most necessary gift for power, faith. He set himself to
+save the Republic as he conceived it, and he imagined it could be saved
+by no other man than he.  So that to keep in power was to save the
+Republic.  The living spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had sprung
+from a slaughter of royalists and the execution of the king.  There
+were insurrections; one in the west, in the district of La Vendée,
+where the people rose against the conscription and against the
+dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and were led by noblemen and
+priests; one in the south, where Lyons and Marseilles had risen and the
+royalists of Toulon had admitted an English and Spanish garrison.  To
+which there seemed no more effectual reply than to go on killing
+royalists.
+
+The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady slaughtering
+began.  The invention of the guillotine was opportune to this mood. 
+The queen was guillotined, most of Robespierre’s antagonists were
+guillotined, atheists who argued that there was no Supreme Being were
+guillotined; day by day, week by week, this infernal new machine
+chopped off heads and more heads and more.  The reign of Robespierre
+lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed more and more, as an opium-taker
+needs more and more opium.
+
+
+THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, OCTOBER 16, 1793
+THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, OCTOBER 16, 1793
+
+_(From a print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was overthrown and
+guillotined.  He was succeeded by a Directory of five men which carried
+on the war of defence abroad and held France together at home for five
+years.  Their reign formed a curious interlude in this history of
+violent changes.  They took things as they found them.  The
+propagandist zeal of the revolution carried the French armies into
+Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, south Germany and north Italy. 
+Everywhere kings were expelled and republics set up. But such
+propagandist zeal as animated the Directorate did not prevent the
+looting of the treasures of the liberated peoples to relieve the
+financial embarrassment of the French Government.  Their wars became
+less and less the holy wars of freedom, and more and more like the
+aggressive wars of the ancient regime.  The last feature of Grand
+Monarchy that France was disposed to discard was her tradition of
+foreign policy.  One discovers it still as vigorous under the
+Directorate as if there had been no revolution.
+
+Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied in its
+intensest form this national egotism of the French. He gave that
+country ten years of glory and the humiliation of a final defeat.  This
+was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who had led the armies of the
+Directory to victory in Italy.
+
+Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been scheming and
+working for self-advancement.  Gradually he clambered to supreme power.
+ He was a man of severely limited understanding but of ruthless
+directness and great energy. He had begun life as an extremist of the
+school of Robespierre; he owed his first promotion to that side; but he
+had no real grasp of the new forces that were working in Europe.  His
+utmost political imagination carried him to a belated and tawdry
+attempt to restore the Western Empire.  He tried to destroy the remains
+of the old Holy Roman Empire, intending to replace it by a new one
+centring upon Paris. The Emperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman
+Emperor and became simply Emperor of Austria.  Napoleon divorced his
+French wife in order to marry an Austrian princess.
+
+He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in 1799, and he
+made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct imitation of
+Charlemagne.  He was crowned by the Pope in Paris, taking the crown
+from the Pope and putting it upon his own head himself as Charlemagne
+had directed.  His son was crowned King of Rome.
+
+For some years Napoleon’s reign was a career of victory.  He conquered
+most of Italy and Spain, defeated Prussia and Austria, and dominated
+all Europe west of Russia.  But he never won the command of the sea
+from the British and his fleets sustained a conclusive defeat inflicted
+by the British Admiral Nelson at Trafalgar (1805). Spain rose against
+him in 1808 and a British army under Wellington thrust the French
+armies slowly northward out of the peninsula.  In 1811 Napoleon came
+into conflict with the Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia
+with a great conglomerate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and
+largely destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter. Germany rose
+against him, Sweden turned against him.  The French armies were beaten
+back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon abdicated (1814).  He was exiled to
+Elba, returned to France for one last effort in 1815 and was defeated
+by the allied British, Belgians and Prussians at Waterloo.  He died a
+British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821.
+
+The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and finished. 
+A great Congress of the victorious allies met at Vienna to restore as
+far as possible the state of affairs that the great storm had rent to
+pieces.  For nearly forty years a sort of peace, a peace of exhausted
+effort, was maintained in Europe.
+
+
+[1] In his article, “French Revolutionary Wars,” in the Encyclopædia
+Britannica.
+
+
+
+
+LVI
+THE UNEASY PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON
+
+
+Two main causes prevented that period from being a complete social and
+international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of wars between
+1854 and 1871. The first of these was the tendency of the royal courts
+concerned, towards the restoration of unfair privilege and interference
+with freedom of thought and writing and teaching. The second was the
+impossible system of boundaries drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna.
+
+The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards past
+conditions was first and most particularly manifest in Spain.  Here
+even the Inquisition was restored.  Across the Atlantic the Spanish
+colonies had followed the example of the United States and revolted
+against the European Great Power System, when Napoleon set his brother
+Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1810.  The George Washington of South
+America was General Bolivar.  Spain was unable to suppress this revolt,
+it dragged on much as the United States War of Independence had dragged
+on, and at last the suggestion was made by Austria, in accordance with
+the spirit of the Holy Alliance, that the European monarch should
+assist Spain in this struggle.  This was opposed by Britain in Europe,
+but it was the prompt action of President Monroe of the United States
+in 1823 which conclusively warned off this projected monarchist
+restoration.  He announced that the United States would regard any
+extension of the European system in the Western Hemisphere as a hostile
+act.  Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine, the doctrine that there must be
+no extension of extra- American government in America, which has kept
+the Great Power system out of America for nearly a hundred years and
+permitted the new states of Spanish America to work out their destinies
+along their own lines.
+
+But if Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least, under
+the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it chose in Europe.  A
+popular insurrection in Spain was crushed by a French army in 1823,
+with a mandate from a European congress, and simultaneously Austria
+suppressed a revolution in Naples.
+
+In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X. Charles set
+himself to destroy the liberty of the press and universities, and to
+restore absolute government; the sum of a billion francs was voted to
+compensate the nobles for the chateau burnings and sequestrations of
+1789.  In 1830 Paris rose against this embodiment of the ancient
+regime, and replaced him by Louis Philippe, the son of that Philip,
+Duke of Orleans, who was executed during the Terror.  The other
+continental monarchies, in face of the open approval of the revolution
+by Great Britain and a strong liberal ferment in Germany and Austria,
+did not interfere in this affair.  After all, France was still a
+monarchy.  This man Louis Philippe (1830-48) remained the
+constitutional King of France for eighteen years.
+
+Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of Vienna,
+which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of the monarchists. 
+The stresses that arose from the unscientific boundaries planned by the
+diplomatists at Vienna gathered force more deliberately, but they were
+even more dangerous to the peace of mankind.  It is extraordinarily
+inconvenient to administer together the affairs of peoples speaking
+different languages and so reading different literatures and having
+different general ideas, especially if those differences are
+exacerbated by religious disputes. Only some strong mutual interest,
+such as the common defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can
+justify a close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths;
+and even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy. When, as in
+Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork of villages and
+districts, the cantonal system is imperatively needed.  But if the
+reader will look at the map of Europe as the Congress of Vienna drew
+it, he will see that this gathering seems almost as if it had planned
+the maximum of local exasperation.
+
+It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumped together
+the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics of the old
+Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom of the
+Netherlands.  It handed over not merely the old republic of Venice, but
+all of North Italy as far as Milan to the German-speaking Austrians. 
+French-speaking Savoy it combined with pieces of Italy to restore the
+kingdom of Sardinia.  Austria and Hungary, already a sufficiently
+explosive mixture of discordant nationalities, Germans, Hungarians,
+Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs, Roumanians, and now Italians, was made
+still more impossible by confirming Austria’s Polish acquisitions of
+1772 and 1795.  The Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were
+chiefly given over to the less civilized rule of the Greek-orthodox
+Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant Prussia. The Tsar was
+also confirmed in his acquisition of the entirely alien Finns.  The
+very dissimilar Norwegian and Swedish peoples were bound together under
+one king.  Germany, the reader will see, was left in a particularly
+dangerous state of muddle.  Prussia and Austria were both partly in and
+partly out of a German confederation, which included a multitude of
+minor states.  The King of Denmark came into the German confederation
+by virtue of certain German-speaking possessions in Holstein. 
+Luxembourg was included in the German confederation, though its ruler
+was also King of the Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked
+French.
+
+Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who talk
+German and base their ideas on German literature, the people who talk
+Italian and base their ideas on Italian literature, and the people who
+talk Polish and base their ideas on Polish literature, will all be far
+better off and most helpful and least obnoxious to the rest of mankind
+if they conduct their own affairs in their own idiom within the
+ring-fence of their own speech.  Is it any wonder that one of the most
+popular songs in Germany during this period declared that wherever the
+German tongue was spoken, there was the German Fatherland!
+
+
+PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)
+PORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION)
+
+_(From a print in the British Museum)_
+
+
+In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current revolution
+in France, revolted against its Dutch association in the kingdom of the
+Netherlands.  The powers, terrified at the possibilities of a republic
+or of annexation to France, hurried in to pacify this situation, and
+gave the Belgians a monarch, Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg Gotha.  There
+were also ineffectual revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830, and a much
+more serious one in Russian Poland.  A republican government held out
+in Warsaw for a year against Nicholas I (who succeeded Alexander in
+1825), and was then stamped out of existence with great violence and
+cruelty.  The Polish language was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church
+was substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion ....
+
+
+Map: Europe after the Congress of Vienna
+
+In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the Turks.  For
+six years they fought a desperate war, while the governments of Europe
+looked on.  Liberal opinion protested against this inactivity;
+volunteers from every European country joined the insurgents, and at
+last Britain, France and Russia took joint action.  The Turkish fleet
+was destroyed by the French and English at the battle of Navarino
+(1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey.  By the treaty of Adrianople
+(1829) Greece was declared free, but she was not permitted to resume
+her ancient republican traditions.  A German king was found for Greece,
+one Prince Otto of Bavaria, and Christian governors were set up in the
+Danubian provinces (which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the
+Jugo-Slav region).  Much blood had still to run however before the Turk
+was altogether expelled from these lands.
+
+
+
+
+LVII
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the opening
+years of the nineteenth century, while these conflicts of the powers
+and princes were going on in Europe, and the patchwork of the treaty of
+Westphalia (1648) was changing kaleidoscopically into the patchwork of
+the treaty of Vienna (1815), and while the sailing ship was spreading
+European influence throughout the world, a steady growth of knowledge
+and a general clearing up of men’s ideas about the world in which they
+lived was in progress in the European and Europeanized world.
+
+It went on disconnected from political life, and producing throughout
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no striking immediate results
+in political life.  Nor was it affecting popular thought very
+profoundly during this period. These reactions were to come later, and
+only in their full force in the latter half of the nineteenth century. 
+It was a process that went on chiefly in a small world of prosperous
+and independent-spirited people.  Without what the English call the
+“private gentleman,” the scientific process could not have begun in
+Greece, and could not have been renewed in Europe.  The universities
+played a part but not a leading part in the philosophical and
+scientific thought of this period.  Endowed learning is apt to be timid
+and conservative learning, lacking in initiative and resistent to
+innovation, unless it has the spur of contact with independent minds.
+
+We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in 1662 and
+its work in realizing the dream of Bacon’s _New Atlantis_.  Throughout
+the eighteenth century there was much clearing up of general ideas
+about matter and motion, much mathematical advance, a systematic
+development of the use of optical glass in microscope and telescope, a
+renewed energy in classificatory natural history, a great revival of
+anatomical science.  The science of geology—foreshadowed by Aristotle
+and anticipated by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)—began its great task
+of interpreting the Record of the Rocks.
+
+
+EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN THE
+FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY
+EARLY ROLLING STOCK ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY IN THE
+FIRST DAYS OF THE RAILWAY
+
+
+The progress of physical science reacted upon metallurgy. Improved
+metallurgy, affording the possibility of a larger and bolder handling
+of masses of metal and other materials, reacted upon practical
+inventions.  Machinery on a new scale and in a new abundance appeared
+to revolutionize industry.
+
+In 1804 Trevithick adapted the Watt engine to transport and made the
+first locomotive.  In 1825 the first railway, between Stockton and
+Darlington, was opened, and Stephenson’s “Rocket,” with a thirteen-ton
+train, got up to a speed of forty-four miles per hour.  From 1830
+onward railways multiplied.  By the middle of the century a network of
+railways had spread all over Europe.
+
+
+EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833
+EARLY TRAVELLING ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, 1833
+
+
+Here was a sudden change in what had long been a fixed condition of
+human life, the maximum rate of land transport. After the Russian
+disaster, Napoleon travelled from near Vilna to Paris in 312 hours. 
+This was a journey of about 1,400 miles.  He was travelling with every
+conceivable advantage, and he averaged under 5 miles an hour.  An
+ordinary traveller could not have done this distance in twice the time.
+ These were about the same maximum rates of travel as held good between
+Rome and Gaul in the first century A.D.  Then suddenly came this
+tremendous change.  The railways reduced this journey for any ordinary
+traveller to less than forty-eight hours.  That is to say, they reduced
+the chief European distances to about a tenth of what they had been. 
+They made it possible to carry out administrative work in areas ten
+times as great as any that had hitherto been workable under one
+administration.  The full significance of that possibility in Europe
+still remains to be realized.  Europe is still netted in boundaries
+drawn in the horse and road era.  In America the effects were
+immediate.  To the United States of America, sprawling westward, it
+meant the possibility of a continuous access to Washington, however far
+the frontier travelled across the continent.  It meant unity, sustained
+on a scale that would otherwise have been impossible.
+
+
+THE STEAMBOAT: CLERMONT, 1807, U.S.A.
+THE STEAMBOAT: _CLERMONT_, 1807, U.S.A.
+
+
+The steamboat was, if anything, a little ahead of the steam engine in
+its earlier phases.  There was a steamboat, the _Charlotte Dundas_, on
+the Firth of Clyde Canal in 1802, and in 1807 an American named Fulton
+had a steamer, the Clermont, with British-built engines, upon the
+Hudson River above New York.  The first steamship to put to sea was
+also an American, the Phœnix, which went from New York (Hoboken) to
+Philadelphia.  So, too, was the first ship using steam (she also had
+sails) to cross the Atlantic, the Savannah (1819).  All these were
+paddle-wheel boats and paddle-wheel boats are not adapted to work in
+heavy seas. The paddles smash too easily, and the boat is then
+disabled. The screw steamship followed rather slowly.  Many
+difficulties had to be surmounted before the screw was a practicable
+thing.  Not until the middle of the century did the tonnage of
+steamships upon the sea begin to overhaul that of sailing ships.  After
+that the evolution in sea transport was rapid.  For the first time men
+began to cross the seas and oceans with some certainty as to the date
+of their arrival.  The transatlantic crossing, which had been an
+uncertain adventure of several weeks—which might stretch to months—was
+accelerated, until in 1910 it was brought down, in the case of the
+fastest boats, to under five days, with a practically notifiable hour
+of arrival.
+
+Concurrently with the development of steam transport upon land and sea
+a new and striking addition to the facilities of human intercourse
+arose out of the investigations of Volta, Galvani and Faraday into
+various electrical phenomena.  The electric telegraph came into
+existence in 1835.  The first underseas cable was laid in 1851 between
+France and England. In a few years the telegraph system had spread over
+the civilized world, and news which had hitherto travelled slowly from
+point to point became practically simultaneous throughout the earth.
+
+These things, the steam railway and the electric telegraph, were to the
+popular imagination of the middle nineteenth century the most striking
+and revolutionary of inventions, but they were only the most
+conspicuous and clumsy first fruits of a far more extensive process. 
+Technical knowledge and skill were developing with an extraordinary
+rapidity, and to an extraordinary extent measured by the progress of
+any previous age.  Far less conspicuous at first in everyday life, but
+finally far more important, was the extension of man’s power over
+various structural materials.  Before the middle of the eighteenth
+century iron was reduced from its ores by means of wood charcoal, was
+handled in small pieces, and hammered and wrought into shape. It was
+material for a craftsman.  Quality and treatment were enormously
+dependent upon the experience and sagacity of the individual
+iron-worker.  The largest masses of iron that could be dealt with under
+those conditions amounted at most (in the sixteenth century) to two or
+three tons.  (There was a very definite upward limit, therefore, to the
+size of cannon.)  The blast-furnace rose in the eighteenth century and
+developed with the use of coke.  Not before the eighteenth century do
+we find rolled sheet iron (1728) and rolled rods and bars (1783). 
+Nasmyth’s steam hammer came as late as 1838.
+
+The ancient world, because of its metallurgical inferiority, could not
+use steam.  The steam engine, even the primitive pumping engine, could
+not develop before sheet iron was available.  The early engines seem to
+the modern eye very pitiful and clumsy bits of ironmongery, but they
+were the utmost that the metallurgical science of the time could do. As
+late as 1856 came the Bessemer process, and presently (1864) the
+open-hearth process, in which steel and every sort of iron could be
+melted, purified and cast in a manner and upon a scale hitherto unheard
+of.  To-day in the electric furnace one may see tons of incandescent
+steel swirling about like boiling milk in a saucepan.  Nothing in the
+previous practical advances of mankind is comparable in its
+consequences to the complete mastery over enormous masses of steel and
+iron and over their texture and quality which man has now achieved. 
+The railways and early engines of all sorts were the mere first
+triumphs of the new metallurgical methods.  Presently came ships of
+iron and steel, vast bridges, and a new way of building with steel upon
+a gigantic scale.  Men realized too late that they had planned their
+railways with far too timid a gauge, that they could have organized
+their travelling with far more steadiness and comfort upon a much
+bigger scale.
+
+Before the nineteenth century there were no ships in the world much
+over 2,000 tons burthen; now there is nothing wonderful about a
+50,000-ton liner.  There are people who sneer at this kind of progress
+as being a progress in “mere size,” but that sort of sneering merely
+marks the intellectual limitations of those who indulge in it.  The
+great ship or the steel-frame building is not, as they imagine, a
+magnified version of the small ship or building of the past; it is a
+thing different in kind, more lightly and strongly built, of finer and
+stronger materials; instead of being a thing of precedent and
+rule-of-thumb, it is a thing of subtle and intricate calculation.  In
+the old house or ship, matter was dominant—the material and its needs
+had to be slavishly obeyed; in the new, matter had been captured,
+changed, coerced.  Think of the coal and iron and sand dragged out of
+the banks and pits, wrenched, wrought, molten and cast, to be flung at
+last, a slender glittering pinnacle of steel and glass, six hundred
+feet above the crowded city!
+
+We have given these particulars of the advance in man’s knowledge of
+the metallurgy of steel and its results by way of illustration.  A
+parallel story could be told of the metallurgy of copper and tin, and
+of a multitude of metals, nickel and aluminium to name but two, unknown
+before the nineteenth century dawned.  It is in this great and growing
+mastery over substances, over different sorts of glass, over rocks and
+plasters and the like, over colours and textures, that the main
+triumphs of the mechanical revolution have thus far been achieved.  Yet
+we are still in the stage of the first fruits in the matter.  We have
+the power, but we have still to learn how to use our power.  Many of
+the first employments of these gifts of science have been vulgar,
+tawdry, stupid or horrible.  The artist and the adaptor have still
+hardly begun to work with the endless variety of substances now at
+their disposal.
+
+Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities the new
+science of electricity grew up.  It was only in the eighties of the
+nineteenth century that this body of enquiry began to yield results to
+impress the vulgar mind.  Then suddenly came electric light and
+electric traction, and the transmutation of forces, the possibility of
+sending power, that could be changed into mechanical motion or light or
+heat as one chose, along a copper wire, as water is sent along a pipe,
+began to come through to the ideas of ordinary people....
+
+The British and French were at first the leading peoples in this great
+proliferation of knowledge; but presently the Germans, who had learnt
+humility under Napoleon, showed such zeal and pertinacity in scientific
+enquiry as to overhaul these leaders.  British science was largely the
+creation of Englishmen and Scotchmen working outside the ordinary
+centres of erudition.
+
+
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL
+EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL
+
+_In the Ipswich Museum_
+
+MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT’S SPINNING JENNY, 1769
+MODEL OF ARKWRIGHT’S SPINNING JENNY, 1769
+
+_From the specifications in the Patent Office_
+
+
+The universities of Britain were at this time in a state of educational
+retrogression, largely given over to a pedantic conning of the Latin
+and Greek classics.  French education, too, was dominated by the
+classical tradition of the Jesuit schools, and consequently it was not
+difficult for the Germans to organize a body of investigators, small
+indeed in relation to the possibilities of the case, but large in
+proportion to the little band of British and French inventors and
+experimentalists.  And though this work of research and experiment was
+making Britain and France the most rich and powerful countries in the
+world, it was not making scientific and inventive men rich and
+powerful.  There is a necessary unworldliness about a sincere
+scientific man; he is too preoccupied with his research to plan and
+scheme how to make money out of it.  The economic exploitation of his
+discoveries falls very easily and naturally, therefore, into the hands
+of a more acquisitive type; and so we find that the crops of rich men
+which every fresh phase of scientific and technical progress has
+produced in Great Britain, though they have not displayed quite the
+same passionate desire to insult and kill the goose that laid the
+national golden eggs as the scholastic and clerical professions, have
+been quite content to let that profitable creature starve.  Inventors
+and discoverers came by nature, they thought, for cleverer people to
+profit by.
+
+In this matter the Germans were a little wiser.  The German “learned”
+did not display the same vehement hatred of the new learning.  They
+permitted its development. The German business man and manufacturer
+again had not quite the same contempt for the man of science as had his
+British competitor.  Knowledge, these Germans believed, might be a
+cultivated crop, responsive to fertilizers.  They did concede,
+therefore, a certain amount of opportunity to the scientific mind;
+their public expenditure on scientific work was relatively greater, and
+this expenditure was abundantly rewarded.  By the latter half of the
+nineteenth century the German scientific worker had made German a
+necessary language for every science student who wished to keep abreast
+with the latest work in his department, and in certain branches, and
+particularly in chemistry, Germany acquired a very great superiority
+over her western neighbours.  The scientific effort of the sixties and
+seventies in Germany began to tell after the eighties, and the German
+gained steadily upon Britain and France in technical and industrial
+prosperity.
+
+A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the eighties a
+new type of engine came into use, an engine in which the expansive
+force of an explosive mixture replaced the expansive force of steam. 
+The light, highly efficient engines that were thus made possible were
+applied to the automobile, and developed at last to reach such a pitch
+of lightness and efficiency as to render flight—long known to be
+possible—a practical achievement.  A successful flying machine—but not
+a machine large enough to take up a human body—was made by Professor
+Langley of the Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as 1897. 
+By 1909 the aeroplane was available for human locomotion.  There had
+seemed to be a pause in the increase of human speed with the perfection
+of railways and automobile road traction, but with the flying machine
+came fresh reductions in the effective distance between one point of
+the earth’s surface and another.  In the eighteenth century the
+distance from London to Edinburgh was an eight days’ journey; in 1918
+the British Civil Air Transport Commission reported that the journey
+from London to Melbourne, halfway round the earth, would probably in a
+few years’ time be accomplished in that same period of eight days.
+
+
+AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE
+AN EARLY WEAVING MACHINE
+
+_From an engraving by W. Hincks in the British Museum_
+
+
+Too much stress must not be laid upon these striking reductions in the
+time distances of one place from another. They are merely one aspect of
+a much profounder and more momentous enlargement of human possibility. 
+The science of agriculture and agricultural chemistry, for instance,
+made quite parallel advances during the nineteenth century.  Men learnt
+so to fertilize the soil as to produce quadruple and quintuple the
+crops got from the same area in the seventeenth century.  There was a
+still more extraordinary advance in medical science; the average
+duration of life rose, the daily efficiency increased, the waste of
+life through ill-health diminished.
+
+Now here altogether we have such a change in human life as to
+constitute a fresh phase of history.  In a little more than a century
+this mechanical revolution has been brought about. In that time man
+made a stride in the material conditions of his life vaster than he had
+done during the whole long interval between the palæolithic stage and
+the age of cultivation, or between the days of Pepi in Egypt and those
+of George III.  A new gigantic material framework for human affairs has
+come into existence.  Clearly it demands great readjustments of our
+social, economical and political methods.  But these readjustments have
+necessarily waited upon the development of the mechanical revolution,
+and they are still only in their opening stage to-day.
+
+
+
+
+LVIII
+THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
+
+
+There is a tendency in many histories to confuse together what we have
+here called the mechanical revolution, which was an entirely new thing
+in human experience arising out of the development of organized
+science, a new step like the invention of agriculture or the discovery
+of metals, with something else, quite different in its origins,
+something for which there was already an historical precedent, the
+social and financial development which is called the _industrial
+revolution_. The two processes were going on together, they were
+constantly reacting upon each other, but they were in root and essence
+different. There would have been an industrial revolution of sorts if
+there had been no coal, no steam, no machinery; but in that case it
+would probably have followed far more closely upon the lines of the
+social and financial developments of the later years of the Roman
+Republic. It would have repeated the story of dispossessed free
+cultivators, gang labour, great estates, great financial fortunes, and
+a socially destructive financial process. Even the factory method came
+before power and machinery. Factories were the product not of
+machinery, but of the “division of labour.” Drilled and sweated workers
+were making such things as millinery cardboard boxes and furniture, and
+colouring maps and book illustrations and so forth, before even
+water-wheels had been used for industrial purposes. There were
+factories in Rome in the days of Augustus. New books, for instance,
+were dictated to rows of copyists in the factories of the book-sellers.
+The attentive student of Defoe and of the political pamphlets of
+Fielding will realize that the idea of herding poor people into
+establishments to work collectively for their living was already
+current in Britain before the close of the seventeenth century. There
+are intimations of it even as early as More’s _Utopia_ (1516). It was a
+social and not a mechanical development.
+
+Up to past the middle of the eighteenth century the social and economic
+history of western Europe was in fact retreading the path along which
+the Roman state had gone in the last three centuries B.C.  But the
+political disunions of Europe, the political convulsions against
+monarchy, the recalcitrance of the common folk and perhaps also the
+greater accessibility of the western European intelligence to
+mechanical ideas and inventions, turned the process into quite novel
+directions.  Ideas of human solidarity, thanks to Christianity, were
+far more widely diffused in the newer European world, political power
+was not so concentrated, and the man of energy anxious to get rich
+turned his mind, therefore, very willingly from the ideas of the slave
+and of gang labour to the idea of mechanical power and the machine.
+
+The mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical invention and
+discovery, was a new thing in human experience and it went on
+regardless of the social, political, economic and industrial
+consequences it might produce.  The industrial revolution, on the other
+hand, like most other human affairs, was and is more and more
+profoundly changed and deflected by the constant variation in human
+conditions caused by the mechanical revolution.  And the essential
+difference between the amassing of riches, the extinction of small
+farmers and small business men, and the phase of big finance in the
+latter centuries of the Roman Republic on the one hand, and the very
+similar concentration of capital in the eighteenth and nineteenth
+centuries on the other, lies in the profound difference in the
+character of labour that the mechanical revolution was bringing about. 
+The power of the old world was human power; everything depended
+ultimately upon the driving power of human muscle, the muscle of
+ignorant and subjugated men.  A little animal muscle, supplied by draft
+oxen, horse traction and the like, contributed.  Where a weight had to
+be lifted, men lifted it; where a rock had to be quarried, men chipped
+it out; where a field had to be ploughed, men and oxen ploughed it; the
+Roman equivalent of the steamship was the galley with its bank of
+sweating rowers.  A vast proportion of mankind in the early
+civilizations were employed in purely mechanical drudgery. At its
+onset, power-driven machinery did not seem to promise any release from
+such unintelligent toil.  Great gangs of men were employed in
+excavating canals, in making railway cuttings and embankments, and the
+like.  The number of miners increased enormously.  But the extension of
+facilities and the output of commodities increased much more.  And as
+the nineteenth century went on, the plain logic of the new situation
+asserted itself more clearly.  Human beings were no longer wanted as a
+source of mere indiscriminated power.  What could be done mechanically
+by a human being could be done faster and better by a machine.  The
+human being was needed now only where choice and intelligence had to be
+exercised.  Human beings were wanted only as human beings.  The drudge,
+on whom all the previous civilizations had rested, the creature of mere
+obedience, the man whose brains were superfluous, had become
+unnecessary to the welfare of mankind.
+
+
+INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE
+INCIDENT IN THE DAYS OF THE SLAVE TRADE
+
+_From a print after Morland in the British Museum_
+
+
+This was as true of such ancient industries as agriculture and mining
+as it was of the newest metallurgical processes. For ploughing, sowing
+and harvesting, swift machines came forward to do the work of scores of
+men.  The Roman civilization was built upon cheap and degraded human
+beings; modern civilization is being rebuilt upon cheap mechanical
+power.  For a hundred years power has been getting cheaper and labour
+dearer.  If for a generation or so machinery has had to wait its turn
+in the mine, it is simply because for a time men were cheaper than
+machinery.
+
+
+EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE
+EARLY FACTORY, IN COLEBROOKDALE
+
+_From a print the British Museum_
+
+
+Now here was a change-over of quite primary importance in human
+affairs.  The chief solicitude of the rich and of the ruler in the old
+civilization had been to keep up a supply of drudges.  As the
+nineteenth century went on, it became more and more plain to the
+intelligent directive people that the common man had now to be
+something better than a drudge.  He had to be educated—if only to
+secure “industrial efficiency.”  He had to understand what he was
+about. From the days of the first Christian propaganda, popular
+education had been smouldering in Europe, just as it had smouldered in
+Asia wherever Islam has set its foot, because of the necessity of
+making the believer understand a little of the belief by which he is
+saved, and of enabling him to read a little in the sacred books by
+which his belief is conveyed. Christian controversies, with their
+competition for adherents, ploughed the ground for the harvest of
+popular education.  In England, for instance, by the thirties and
+forties of the nineteenth century, the disputes of the sects and the
+necessity of catching adherents young had produced a series of
+competing educational organizations for children, the church “National”
+schools, the dissenting “British” schools, and even Roman Catholic
+elementary schools.  The second half of the nineteenth century was a
+period of rapid advance in popular education throughout all the
+Westernized world.  There was no parallel advance in the education of
+the upper classes—some advance, no doubt, but nothing to correspond—and
+so the great gulf that had divided that world hitherto into the readers
+and the non-reading mass became little more than a slightly perceptible
+difference in educational level.  At the back of this process was the
+mechanical revolution, apparently regardless of social conditions, but
+really insisting inexorably upon the complete abolition of a totally
+illiterate class throughout the world.
+
+The economic revolution of the Roman Republic had never been clearly
+apprehended by the common people of Rome.  The ordinary Roman citizen
+never saw the changes through which he lived, clearly and
+comprehensively as we see them.  But the industrial revolution, as it
+went on towards the end of the nineteenth century, was more and more
+distinctly _seen_ as one whole process by the common people it was
+affecting, because presently they could read and discuss and
+communicate, and because they went about and saw things as no
+commonalty had ever done before.
+
+
+
+
+LIX
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS
+
+
+The institutions and customs and political ideas of the ancient
+civilizations grew up slowly, age by age, no man designing and no man
+foreseeing. It was only in that great century of human adolescence, the
+sixth century B.C., that men began to think clearly about their
+relations to one another, and first to question and first propose to
+alter and rearrange the established beliefs and laws and methods of
+human government.
+
+We have told of the glorious intellectual dawn of Greece and
+Alexandria, and how presently the collapse of the slave- holding
+civilizations and the clouds of religious intolerance and absolutist
+government darkened the promise of that beginning.  The light of
+fearless thinking did not break through the European obscurity again
+effectually until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.  We have tried
+to show something of the share of the great winds of Arab curiosity and
+Mongol conquest in this gradual clearing of the mental skies of Europe.
+ And at first it was chiefly material knowledge that increased.  The
+first fruits of the recovered manhood of the race were material
+achievements and material power.  The science of human relationship, of
+individual and social psychology, of education and of economics, are
+not only more subtle and intricate in themselves but also bound up
+inextricably with much emotional matter.  The advances made in them
+have been slower and made against greater opposition.  Men will listen
+dispassionately to the most diverse suggestions about stars or
+molecules, but ideas about our ways of life touch and reflect upon
+everyone about us.
+
+And just as in Greece the bold speculations of Plato came before
+Aristotle’s hard search for fact, so in Europe the first political
+enquiries of the new phase were put in the form of “Utopian” stories,
+directly imitated from Plato’s _Republic_ and his _Laws_.  Sir Thomas
+More’s _Utopia_ is a curious imitation of Plato that bore fruit in a
+new English poor law.  The Neapolitan Campanella’s _City of the Sun_
+was more fantastic and less fruitful.
+
+By the end of the seventeenth century we find a considerable and
+growing literature of political and social science was being produced. 
+Among the pioneers in this discussion was John Locke, the son of an
+English republican, an Oxford scholar who first directed his attention
+to chemistry and medicine.  His treatises on government, toleration and
+education show a mind fully awake to the possibilities of social
+reconstruction.  Parallel with and a little later than John Locke in
+England, Montesquieu (1689-1755) in France subjected social, political
+and religious institutions to a searching and fundamental analysis.  He
+stripped the magical prestige from the absolutist monarchy in France. 
+He shares with Locke the credit for clearing away many of the false
+ideas that had hitherto prevented deliberate and conscious attempts to
+reconstruct human society.
+
+The generation that followed him in the middle and later decades of the
+eighteenth century was boldly speculative upon the moral and
+intellectual clearings he had made.  A group of brilliant writers, the
+“Encyclopædists,” mostly rebel spirits from the excellent schools of
+the Jesuits, set themselves to scheme out a new world (1766). Side by
+side with the Encyclopædists were the Economists or Physiocrats, who
+were making bold and crude enquiries into the production and
+distribution of food and goods.  Morelly, the author of the _Code de La
+Nature_, denounced the institution of private property and proposed a
+communistic organization of society.  He was the precursor of that
+large and various school of collectivist thinkers in the nineteenth
+century who are lumped together as Socialists.
+
+What is Socialism?  There are a hundred definitions of Socialism and a
+thousand sects of Socialists.  Essentially Socialism is no more and no
+less than a criticism of the idea of property in the light of the
+public good.  We may review the history of that idea through the ages
+very briefly.  That and the idea of internationalism are the two
+cardinal ideas upon which most of our political life is turning.
+
+
+CARL MARX
+CARL MARX
+
+_Photo:  Linde & Co._
+
+
+The idea of property arises out of the combative instincts of the
+species.  Long before men were men, the ancestral ape was a proprietor.
+ Primitive property is what a beast will fight for.  The dog and his
+bone, the tigress and her lair, the roaring stag and his herd, these
+are proprietorship blazing. No more nonsensical expression is
+conceivable in sociology than the term “primitive communism.”  The Old
+Man of the family tribe of early palæolithic times insisted upon his
+proprietorship in his wives and daughters, in his tools, in his visible
+universe.  If any other man wandered into his visible universe he
+fought him, and if he could he slew him. The tribe grew in the course
+of ages, as Atkinson showed convincingly in his _Primal Law_, by the
+gradual toleration by the Old Man of the existence of the younger men,
+and of their proprietorship in the wives they captured from outside the
+tribe, and in the tools and ornaments they made and the game they slew.
+ Human society grew by a compromise between this one’s property and
+that.  It was a compromise with instinct which was forced upon men by
+the necessity of driving some other tribe out of its visible universe. 
+If the hills and forests and streams were not _your_ land or _my_ land,
+it was because they had to be our land.  Each of us would have
+preferred to have it _my_ land, but that would not work.  In that case
+the other fellows would have destroyed us.  Society, therefore, is from
+its beginning a _mitigation of ownership_. Ownership in the beast and
+in the primitive savage was far more intense a thing than it is in the
+civilized world to- day.  It is rooted more strongly in our instincts
+than in our reason.
+
+In the natural savage and in the untutored man to-day there is no
+limitation to the sphere of ownership.  Whatever you can fight for, you
+can own; women-folk, spared captive, captured beast, forest glade,
+stone-pit or what not.  As the community grew, a sort of law came to
+restrain internecine fighting, men developed rough-and-ready methods of
+settling proprietorship.  Men could own what they were the first to
+make or capture or claim.  It seemed natural that a debtor who could
+not pay should become the property of his creditor. Equally natural was
+it that after claiming a patch of land a man should exact payments from
+anyone who wanted to use it. It was only slowly, as the possibilities
+of organized life dawned on men, that this unlimited property in
+anything whatever began to be recognized as a nuisance.  Men found
+themselves born into a universe all owned and claimed, nay! they found
+themselves born owned and claimed.  The social struggles of the earlier
+civilization are difficult to trace now, but the history we have told
+of the Roman Republic shows a community waking up to the idea that
+debts may become a public inconvenience and should then be repudiated,
+and that the unlimited ownership of land is also an inconvenience.  We
+find that later Babylonia severely limited the rights of property in
+slaves.  Finally, we find in the teaching of that great revolutionist,
+Jesus of Nazareth, such an attack upon property as had never been
+before.  Easier it was, he said, for a camel to go through the eye of a
+needle than for the owner of great possessions to enter the kingdom of
+heaven.  A steady, continuous criticism of the permissible scope of
+property seems to have been going on in the world for the last
+twenty-five or thirty centuries.  Nineteen hundred years after Jesus of
+Nazareth we find all the world that has come under the Christian
+teaching persuaded that there could be no property in human beings. 
+And also the idea that a man may “do what he likes with his own” was
+very much shaken in relation to other sorts of property.
+
+But this world of the closing eighteenth century was still only in the
+interrogative stage in this matter.  It had got nothing clear enough,
+much less settled enough, to act upon. One of its primary impulses was
+to protect property against the greed and waste of kings and the
+exploitation of noble adventurers.  It was largely to protect private
+property from taxation that the French Revolution began.  But the
+equalitarian formulæ of the Revolution carried it into a criticism of
+the very property it had risen to protect.  How can men be free and
+equal when numbers of them have no ground to stand upon and nothing to
+eat, and the owners will neither feed nor lodge them unless they toil? 
+Excessively—the poor complained.
+
+To which riddle the reply of one important political group was to set
+about “dividing up.”  They wanted to intensify and universalize
+property.  Aiming at the same end by another route, there were the
+primitive socialists—or, to be more exact, communists—who wanted to
+“abolish” private property altogether. The state (a democratic state
+was of course understood) was to own all property.
+
+It is paradoxical that different men seeking the same ends of liberty
+and happiness should propose on the one hand to make property as
+absolute as possible, and on the other to put an end to it altogether. 
+But so it was.  And the clue to this paradox is to be found in the fact
+that ownership is not one thing but a multitude of different things.
+
+It was only as the nineteenth century developed that men began to
+realize that property was not one simple thing, but a great complex of
+ownerships of different values and consequences, that many things (such
+as one’s body, the implements of an artist, clothing, toothbrushes) are
+very profoundly and incurably one’s personal property, and that there
+is a very great range of things, railways, machinery of various sorts,
+homes, cultivated gardens, pleasure boats, for example, which need each
+to be considered very particularly to determine how far and under what
+limitations it may come under private ownership, and how far it falls
+into the public domain and may be administered and let out by the state
+in the collective interest.  On the practical side these questions pass
+into politics, and the problem of making and sustaining efficient state
+administration.  They open up issues in social psychology, and interact
+with the enquiries of educational science.  The criticism of property
+is still a vast and passionate ferment rather than a science.  On the
+one hand are the Individualists, who would protect and enlarge our
+present freedoms with what we possess, and on the other the Socialists
+who would in many directions pool our ownerships and restrain our
+proprietory acts.  In practice one will find every gradation between
+the extreme individualist, who will scarcely tolerate a tax of any sort
+to support a government, and the communist who would deny any
+possessions at all.  The ordinary socialist of to-day is what is called
+a collectivist; he would allow a considerable amount of private
+property but put such affairs as education, transport, mines,
+land-owning, most mass productions of staple articles, and the like,
+into the hands of a highly organized state.  Nowadays there does seem
+to be a gradual convergence of reasonable men towards a moderate
+socialism scientifically studied and planned.  It is realized more and
+more clearly that the untutored man does not co-operate easily and
+successfully in large undertakings, and that every step towards a more
+complex state and every function that the state takes over from private
+enterprise, necessitates a corresponding educational advance and the
+organization of a proper criticism and control.  Both the press and the
+political methods of the contemporary state are far too crude for any
+large extension of collective activities.
+
+But for a time the stresses between employer and employed and
+particularly between selfish employers and reluctant workers, led to a
+world-wide dissemination of the very harsh and elementary form of
+communism which is associated with the name of Marx.  Marx based his
+theories on a belief that men’s minds are limited by their economic
+necessities, and that there is a necessary conflict of interests in our
+present civilization between the prosperous and employing classes of
+people and the employed mass.  With the advance in education
+necessitated by the mechanical revolution, this great employed majority
+will become more and more class-conscious and more and more solid in
+antagonism to the (class- conscious) ruling minority.  In some way the
+class-conscious workers would seize power, he prophesied, and
+inaugurate a new social state.  The antagonism, the insurrection, the
+possible revolution are understandable enough, but it does not follow
+that a new social state or anything but a socially destructive process
+will ensue.  Put to the test in Russia, Marxism, as we shall note
+later, has proved singularly uncreative.
+
+
+SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE
+SCIENCE IN THE COAL MINE
+
+Portable Electric Loading Conveyor
+_Photo:  Jeffrey Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ohio_
+
+
+Marx sought to replace national antagonism by class antagonisms;
+Marxism has produced in succession a First, a Second and a Third
+Workers’ International.  But from the starting point of modern
+individualistic thought it is also possible to reach international
+ideas.  From the days of that great English economist, Adam Smith,
+onward there has been an increasing realization that for world-wide
+prosperity free and unencumbered trade about the earth is needed.  The
+individualist with his hostility to the state is hostile also to
+tariffs and boundaries and all the restraints upon free act and
+movement that national boundaries seem to justify. It is interesting to
+see two lines of thought, so diverse in spirit, so different in
+substance as this class-war socialism of the Marxists and the
+individualistic free-trading philosophy of the British business men of
+the Victorian age heading at last, in spite of these primary
+differences, towards the same intimations of a new world-wide treatment
+of human affairs outside the boundaries and limitations of any existing
+state.  The logic of reality triumphs over the logic of theory.  We
+begin to perceive that from widely divergent starting points
+individualist theory and socialist theory are part of a common search,
+a search for more spacious social and political ideas and
+interpretations, upon which men may contrive to work together, a search
+that began again in Europe and has intensified as men’s confidence in
+the ideas of the Holy Roman Empire and in Christendom decayed, and as
+the age of discovery broadened their horizons from the world of the
+Mediterranean to the whole wide world.
+
+To bring this description of the elaboration and development of social,
+economic and political ideas right down to the discussions of the
+present day, would be to introduce issues altogether too controversial
+for the scope and intentions of this book.  But regarding these things,
+as we do here, from the vast perspectives of the student of world
+history, we are bound to recognize that this reconstruction of these
+directive ideas in the human mind is still an unfinished task—we cannot
+even estimate yet how unfinished the task may be.  Certain common
+beliefs do seem to be emerging, and their influence is very perceptible
+upon the political events and public acts of to-day; but at present
+they are not clear enough nor convincing enough to compel men
+definitely and systematically towards their realization.  Men’s acts
+waver between tradition and the new, and on the whole they rather
+gravitate towards the traditional.  Yet, compared with the thought of
+even a brief lifetime ago, there does seem to be an outline shaping
+itself of a new order in human affairs.  It is a sketchy outline,
+vanishing into vagueness at this point and that, and fluctuating in
+detail and formulæ, yet it grows steadfastly clearer, and its main
+lines change less and less.
+
+
+CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE
+CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAIL OF THE FORTH BRIDGE
+
+_Photo:  Baker & Hurtzig_
+
+
+It is becoming plainer and plainer each year that in many respects and
+in an increasing range of affairs, mankind is becoming one community,
+and that it is more and more necessary that in such matters there
+should be a common world-wide control.  For example, it is steadily
+truer that the whole planet is now one economic community, that the
+proper exploitation of its natural resources demands one comprehensive
+direction, and that the greater power and range that discovery has
+given human effort makes the present fragmentary and contentious
+administration of such affairs more and more wasteful and dangerous. 
+Financial and monetary expedients also become world-wide interests to
+be dealt with successfully only on world-wide lines.  Infectious
+diseases and the increase and migrations of population are also now
+plainly seen to be world-wide concerns.  The greater power and range of
+human activities has also made war disproportionately destructive and
+disorganizing, and, even as a clumsy way of settling issues between
+government and government and people and people, ineffective.  All
+these things clamour for controls and authorities of a greater range
+and greater comprehensiveness than any government that has hitherto
+existed.
+
+But it does not follow that the solution of these problems lies in some
+super-government of all the world arising by conquest or by the
+coalescence of existing governments.  By analogy with existing
+institutions men have thought of the Parliament of Mankind, of a World
+Congress, of a President or Emperor of the Earth.  Our first natural
+reaction is towards some such conclusion, but the discussion and
+experiences of half a century of suggestions and attempts has on the
+whole discouraged belief in that first obvious idea.  Along that line
+to world unity the resistances are too great.  The drift of thought
+seems now to be in the direction of a number of special committees or
+organizations, with world-wide power delegated to them by existing
+governments in this group of matters or that, bodies concerned with the
+waste or development of natural wealth, with the equalization of labour
+conditions, with world peace, with currency, population and health, and
+so forth.
+
+The world may discover that all its common interests are being managed
+as one concern, while it still fails to realize that a world government
+exists.  But before even so much human unity is attained, before such
+international arrangements can be put above patriotic suspicions and
+jealousies, it is necessary that the common mind of the race should be
+possessed of that idea of human unity, and that the idea of mankind as
+one family should be a matter of universal instruction and
+understanding.
+
+For a score of centuries or more the spirit of the great universal
+religions has been struggling to maintain and extend that idea of a
+universal human brotherhood, but to this day the spites, angers and
+distrusts of tribal, national and racial friction obstruct, and
+successfully obstruct, the broader views and more generous impulses
+which would make every man the servant of all mankind.  The idea of
+human brotherhood struggles now to possess the human soul, just as the
+idea of Christendom struggled to possess the soul of Europe in the
+confusion and disorder of the sixth and seventh centuries of the
+Christian era.  The dissemination and triumph of such ideas must be the
+work of a multitude of devoted and undistinguished missionaries, and no
+contemporary writer can presume to guess how far such work has gone or
+what harvest it may be preparing.
+
+Social and economic questions seem to be inseparably mingled with
+international ones.  The solution in each case lies in an appeal to
+that same spirit of service which can enter and inspire the human
+heart.  The distrust, intractability and egotism of nations reflects
+and is reflected by the distrust, intractability and egotism of the
+individual owner and worker in the face of the common good. 
+Exaggerations of possessiveness in the individual are parallel and of a
+piece with the clutching greed of nations and emperors.  They are
+products of the same instinctive tendencies, and the same ignorances
+and traditions.  Internationalism is the socialism of nations.  No one
+who has wrestled with these problems can feel that there yet exists a
+sufficient depth and strength of psychological science and a
+sufficiently planned-out educational method and organization for any
+real and final solution of these riddles of human intercourse and
+cooperation.  We are as incapable of planning a really effective peace
+organization of the world to-day as were men in 1820 to plan an
+electric railway system, but for all we know the thing is equally
+practicable and may be as nearly at hand.
+
+No man can go beyond his own knowledge, no thought can reach beyond
+contemporary thought, and it is impossible for us to guess or foretell
+how many generations of humanity may have to live in war and waste and
+insecurity and misery before the dawn of the great peace to which all
+history seems to be pointing, peace in the heart and peace in the
+world, ends our night of wasteful and aimless living.  Our proposed
+solutions are still vague and crude.  Passion and suspicion surround
+them.  A great task of intellectual reconstruction is going on, it is
+still incomplete, and our conceptions grow clearer and more
+exact—slowly, rapidly, it is hard to tell which.  But as they grow
+clearer they will gather power over the minds and imaginations of men. 
+Their present lack of grip is due to their lack of assurance and exact
+rightness. They are misunderstood because they are variously and
+confusingly presented.  But with precision and certainty the new vision
+of the world will gain compelling power.  It may presently gain power
+very rapidly.  And a great work of educational reconstruction will
+follow logically and necessarily upon that clearer understanding.
+
+
+
+
+LX
+THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+The region of the world that displayed the most immediate and striking
+results from the new inventions in transport was North America.
+Politically the United States embodied, and its constitution
+crystallized, the liberal ideas of the middle eighteenth century. It
+dispensed with state-church or crown, it would have no titles, it
+protected property very jealously as a method of freedom, and—the exact
+practice varied at first in the different states—it gave nearly every
+adult male citizen a vote. Its method of voting was barbarically crude,
+and as a consequence its political life fell very soon under the
+control of highly organized party machines, but that did not prevent
+the newly emancipated population developing an energy, enterprise and
+public spirit far beyond that of any other contemporary population.
+
+Then came that acceleration of locomotion to which we have already
+called attention.  It is a curious thing that America, which owes most
+to this acceleration in locomotion, has felt it least.  The United
+States have taken the railway, the river steamboat, the telegraph and
+so forth as though they were a natural part of their growth.  They were
+not. These things happened to come along just in time to save American
+unity.  The United States of to-day were made first by the river
+steamboat, and then by the railway.  Without these things, the present
+United States, this vast continental nation, would have been altogether
+impossible. The westward flow of population would have been far more
+sluggish.  It might never have crossed the great central plains.  It
+took nearly two hundred years for effective settlement to reach from
+the coast to Missouri, much less than halfway across the continent. 
+The first state established beyond the river was the steamboat state of
+Missouri in 1821.  But the rest of the distance to the Pacific was done
+in a few decades.
+
+If we had the resources of the cinema it would be interesting to show a
+map of North America year by year from 1600 onward, with little dots to
+represent hundreds of people, each dot a hundred, and stars to
+represent cities of a hundred thousand people.
+
+For two hundred years the reader would see that stippling creeping
+slowly along the coastal districts and navigable waters, spreading
+still more gradually into Indiana, Kentucky and so forth.  Then
+somewhere about 1810 would come a change. Things would get more lively
+along the river courses.  The dots would be multiplying and spreading. 
+That would be the steamboat.  The pioneer dots would be spreading soon
+over Kansas and Nebraska from a number of jumping-off places along the
+great rivers.
+
+Then from about 1850 onward would come the black lines of the railways,
+and after that the little black dots would not simply creep but run. 
+They would appear now so rapidly, it would be almost as though they
+were being put on by some sort of spraying machine.  And suddenly here
+and then there would appear the first stars to indicate the first great
+cities of a hundred thousand people.  First one or two and then a
+multitude of cities—each like a knot in the growing net of the
+railways.
+
+The growth of the United States is a process that has no precedent in
+the world’s history; it is a new kind of occurrence.  Such a community
+could not have come into existence before, and if it had, without
+railways it would certainly have dropped to pieces long before now. 
+Without railways or telegraph it would be far easier to administer
+California from Pekin than from Washington.  But this great population
+of the United States of America has not only grown outrageously; it has
+kept uniform.  Nay, it has become more uniform.  The man of San
+Francisco is more like the man of New York to-day than the man of
+Virginia was like the man of New England a century ago.  And the
+process of assimilation goes on unimpeded.  The United States is being
+woven by railway, by telegraph, more and more into one vast unity,
+speaking, thinking and acting harmoniously with itself.  Soon aviation
+will be helping in the work.
+
+This great community of the United States is an altogether new thing in
+history.  There have been great empires before with populations
+exceeding 100 millions, but these were associations of divergent
+peoples; there has never been one single people on this scale before. 
+We want a new term for this new thing.  We call the United States a
+country just as we call France or Holland a country.  But the two
+things are as different as an automobile and a one-horse shay.  They
+are the creations of different periods and different conditions; they
+are going to work at a different pace and in an entirely different way.
+ The United States in scale and possibility is halfway between a
+European state and a United States of all the world.
+
+But on the way to this present greatness and security the American
+people passed through one phase of dire conflict. The river steamboats,
+the railways, the telegraph, and their associate facilities, did not
+come soon enough to avert a deepening conflict of interests and ideas
+between the southern and northern states of the Union.  The former were
+slave-holding states; the latter, states in which all men were free. 
+The railways and steamboats at first did but bring into sharper
+conflict an already established difference between the two sections of
+the United States.  The increasing unification due to the new means of
+transport made the question whether the southern spirit or the northern
+should prevail an ever more urgent one.  There was little possibility
+of compromise.  The northern spirit was free and individualistic; the
+southern made for great estates and a conscious gentility ruling over a
+dusky subject multitude.
+
+Every new territory that was organized into a state as the tide of
+population swept westward, every new incorporation into the fast
+growing American system, became a field of conflict between the two
+ideas, whether it should become a state of free citizens, or whether
+the estate and slavery system should prevail.  From 1833 an American
+anti-slavery society was not merely resisting the extension of the
+institution but agitating the whole country for its complete abolition.
+ The issue flamed up into open conflict over the admission of Texas to
+the Union.  Texas had originally been a part of the republic of Mexico,
+but it was largely colonized by Americans from the slave-holding
+states, and it seceded from Mexico, established its independence in
+1835, and was annexed to the United States in 1844.  Under the Mexican
+law slavery had been forbidden in Texas, but now the South claimed
+Texas for slavery and got it.
+
+Meanwhile the development of ocean navigation was bringing a growing
+swarm of immigrants from Europe to swell the spreading population of
+the northern states, and the raising of Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota and
+Oregon, all northern farm lands, to state level, gave the anti-slavery
+North the possibility of predominance both in the Senate and the House
+of Representatives.  The cotton- growing South, irritated by the
+growing threat of the Abolitionist movement, and fearing this
+predominance in Congress, began to talk of secession from the Union.
+Southerners began to dream of annexations to the south of them in
+Mexico and the West Indies, and of great slave state, detached from the
+North and reaching to Panama.
+
+The return of Abraham Lincoln as an anti-extension President in 1860
+decided the South to split the Union.  South Carolina passed an
+“ordinance of secession” and prepared for war.  Mississippi, Florida,
+Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas joined her, and a convention met
+at Montgomery in Alabama, elected Jefferson Davis president of the
+“Confederated States” of America, and adopted a constitution
+specifically upholding “the institution of negro slavery.”
+
+
+ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS
+ONE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN RIVER STEAMERS
+
+
+Abraham Lincoln was, it chanced, a man entirely typical of the new
+people that had grown up after the War of Independence.  His early
+years had been spent as a drifting particle in the general westward
+flow of the population.  He was born in Kentucky (1809), was taken to
+Indiana as a boy and later on to Illinois.  Life was rough in the
+backwoods of Indiana in those days; the house was a mere log cabin in
+the wilderness, and his schooling was poor and casual.  But his mother
+taught him to read early, and he became a voracious reader.  At
+seventeen he was a big athletic youth, a great wrestler and runner.  He
+worked for a time as clerk in a store, went into business as a
+storekeeper with a drunken partner, and contracted debts that he did
+not fully pay off for fifteen years.  In 1834, when he was still only
+five and twenty, he was elected member of the House of Representatives
+for the State of Illinois.  In Illinois particularly the question of
+slavery flamed because the great leader of the party for the extension
+of slavery in the national Congress was Senator Douglas of Illinois. 
+Douglas was a man of great ability and prestige, and for some years
+Lincoln fought against him by speech and pamphlet, rising steadily to
+the position of his most formidable and finally victorious antagonist. 
+Their culminating struggle was the presidential campaign of 1860, and
+on the fourth of March, 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated President, with
+the southern states already in active secession from the rule of the
+federal government at Washington, and committing acts of war.
+
+This civil war in America was fought by improvised armies that grew
+steadily from a few score thousands to hundreds of thousands—until at
+last the Federal forces exceeded a million men; it was fought over a
+vast area between New Mexico and the eastern sea, Washington and
+Richmond were the chief objectives.  It is beyond our scope here to
+tell of the mounting energy of that epic struggle that rolled to and
+fro across the hills and woods of Tennessee and Virginia and down the
+Mississippi.  There was a terrible waste and killing of men.  Thrust
+was followed by counter thrust; hope gave way to despondency, and
+returned and was again disappointed. Sometimes Washington seemed within
+the Confederate grasp; again the Federal armies were driving towards
+Richmond.  The Confederates, outnumbered and far poorer in resources,
+fought under a general of supreme ability, General Lee.  The
+generalship of the Union was far inferior.  Generals were dismissed,
+new generals appointed; until at last, under Sherman and Grant, came
+victory over the ragged and depleted South.  In October, 1864, a
+Federal army under Sherman broke through the Confederate left and
+marched down from Tennessee through Georgia to the coast, right across
+the Confederate country, and then turned up through the Carolinas,
+coming in upon the rear of the Confederate armies.  Meanwhile Grant
+held Lee before Richmond until Sherman closed on him.  On April 9th,
+1865, Lee and his army surrendered at Appomattox Court House, and
+within a month all the remaining secessionist armies had laid down
+their arms and the Confederacy was at an end.
+
+
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN
+
+
+This four years’ struggle had meant an enormous physical and moral
+strain for the people of the United States.  The principle of state
+autonomy was very dear to many minds, and the North seemed in effect to
+be forcing abolition upon the South.  In the border states brothers and
+cousins, even fathers and sons, would take opposite sides and find
+themselves in antagonistic armies.  The North felt its cause a
+righteous one, but for great numbers of people it was not a full-bodied
+and unchallenged righteousness.  But for Lincoln there was no doubt. 
+He was a clear-minded man in the midst of much confusion.  He stood for
+union; he stood for the wide peace of America.  He was opposed to
+slavery, but slavery he held to be a secondary issue; his primary
+purpose was that the United States should not be torn into two
+contrasted and jarring fragments.
+
+When in the opening stages of the war Congress and the Federal generals
+embarked upon a precipitate emancipation, Lincoln opposed and mitigated
+their enthusiasm.  He was for emancipation by stages and with
+compensation.  It was only in January, 1865, that the situation had
+ripened to a point when Congress could propose to abolish slavery for
+ever by a constitutional amendment, and the war was already over before
+this amendment was ratified by the states.
+
+As the war dragged on through 1862 and 1863, the first passions and
+enthusiasms waned, and America learnt all the phases of war weariness
+and war disgust.  The President found himself with defeatists,
+traitors, dismissed generals, tortuous party politicians, and a
+doubting and fatigued people behind him and uninspired generals and
+depressed troops before him; his chief consolation must have been that
+Jefferson Davis at Richmond could be in little better case. The English
+government misbehaved, and permitted the Confederate agents in England
+to launch and man three swift privateer ships—the _Alabama_ is the best
+remembered of them—which chased United States shipping from the seas. 
+The French army in Mexico was trampling the Monroe Doctrine in the
+dirt.  Came subtle proposals from Richmond to drop the war, leave the
+issues of the war for subsequent discussion, and turn, Federal and
+Confederate in alliance, upon the French in Mexico.  But Lincoln would
+not listen to such proposals unless the supremacy of the Union was
+maintained.  The Americans might do such things as one people but not
+as two.
+
+He held the United States together through long weary months of
+reverses and ineffective effort, through black phases of division and
+failing courage; and there is no record that he ever faltered from his
+purpose.  There were times when there was nothing to be done, when he
+sat in the White House silent and motionless, a grim monument of
+resolve; times when he relaxed his mind by jesting and broad anecdotes.
+
+He saw the Union triumphant.  He entered Richmond the day after its
+surrender, and heard of Lee’s capitulation. He returned to Washington,
+and on April 11th made his last public address.  His theme was
+reconciliation and the reconstruction of loyal government in the
+defeated states. On the evening of April 14th he went to Ford’s theatre
+in Washington, and as he sat looking at the stage, he was shot in the
+back of the head and killed by an actor named Booth who had some sort
+of grievance against him, and who had crept into the box unobserved. 
+But Lincoln’s work was done; the Union was saved.
+
+At the beginning of the war there was no railway to the Pacific coast;
+after it the railways spread like a swiftly growing plant until now
+they have clutched and held and woven all the vast territory of the
+United States into one indissoluble mental and material unity—the
+greatest real community—until the common folk of China have learnt to
+read—in the world.
+
+
+
+
+LXI
+THE RISE OF GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE
+
+
+WE have told how after the convulsion of the French Revolution and the
+Napoleonic adventure, Europe settled down again for a time to an
+insecure peace and a sort of modernized revival of the political
+conditions of fifty years before.  Until the middle of the century the
+new facilities in the handling of steel and the railway and steamship
+produced no marked political consequences.  But the social tension due
+to the development of urban industrialism grew. France remained a
+conspicuously uneasy country.  The revolution of 1830 was followed by
+another in 1848.  Then Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte,
+became first President, and then (in 1852) Emperor.
+
+He set about rebuilding Paris, and changed it from a picturesque
+seventeenth century insanitary city into the spacious Latinized city of
+marble it is to-day.  He set about rebuilding France, and made it into
+a brilliant-looking modernized imperialism.  He displayed a disposition
+to revive that competitiveness of the Great Powers which had kept
+Europe busy with futile wars during the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries.  The Tsar Nicholas I of Russia (1825- 1856) was also
+becoming aggressive and pressing southward upon the Turkish Empire with
+his eyes on Constantinople.
+
+After the turn of the century Europe broke out into a fresh cycle of
+wars.  They were chiefly “balance-of- power” and ascendancy wars. 
+England, France and Sardinia assailed Russia in the Crimean war in
+defence of Turkey; Prussia (with Italy as an ally) and Austria fought
+for the leadership of Germany, France liberated North Italy from
+Austria at the price of Savoy, and Italy gradually unified itself into
+one kingdom.  Then Napoleon III was so ill advised as to attempt
+adventures in Mexico, during the American Civil War; he set up an
+Emperor Maximilian there and abandoned him hastily to his fate—he was
+shot by the Mexicans—when the victorious Federal Government showed its
+teeth.
+
+
+Map of Europe, 1848-1871
+
+In 1870 came a long-pending struggle for predominance in Europe between
+France and Prussia.  Prussia had long foreseen and prepared for this
+struggle, and France was rotten with financial corruption.  Her defeat
+was swift and dramatic. The Germans invaded France in August, one great
+French army under the Emperor capitulated at Sedan in September,
+another surrendered in October at Metz, and in January 1871, Paris,
+after a siege and bombardment, fell into German hands.  Peace was
+signed at Frankfort surrendering the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
+to the Germans.  Germany, excluding Austria, was unified as an empire,
+and the King of Prussia was added to the galaxy of European Cæsars, as
+the German Emperor.
+
+For the next forty-three years Germany was the leading power upon the
+European continent.  There was a Russo-Turkish war in 1877-8, but
+thereafter, except for certain readjustments in the Balkans, European
+frontiers remained uneasily stable for thirty years.
+
+
+
+
+LXII
+THE NEW OVERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND RAILWAY
+
+
+The end of the eighteenth century was a period of disrupting empires
+and disillusioned expansionists. The long and tedious journey between
+Britain and Spain and their colonies in America prevented any really
+free coming and going between the home land and the daughter lands, and
+so the colonies separated into new and distinct communities, with
+distinctive ideas and interests and even modes of speech. As they grew
+they strained more and more at the feeble and uncertain link of
+shipping that had joined them. Weak trading-posts in the wilderness,
+like those of France in Canada, or trading establishments in great
+alien communities, like those of Britain in India, might well cling for
+bare existence to the nation which gave them support and a reason for
+their existence. That much and no more seemed to many thinkers in the
+early part of the nineteenth century to be the limit set to overseas
+rule. In 1820 the sketchy great European “empires” outside of Europe
+that had figured so bravely in the maps of the middle eighteenth
+century, had shrunken to very small dimensions. Only the Russian
+sprawled as large as ever across Asia.
+
+The British Empire in 1815 consisted of the thinly populated coastal
+river and lake regions of Canada, and a great hinterland of wilderness
+in which the only settlements as yet were the fur-trading stations of
+the Hudson Bay Company, about a third of the Indian peninsula, under
+the rule of the East India Company, the coast districts of the Cape of
+Good Hope inhabited by blacks and rebellious-spirited Dutch settlers; a
+few trading stations on the coast of West Africa, the rock of
+Gibraltar, the island of Malta, Jamaica, a few minor slave-labour
+possessions in the West Indies, British Guiana in South America, and,
+on the other side of the world, two dumps for convicts at Botany Bay in
+Australia and in Tasmania.  Spain retained Cuba and a few settlements
+in the Philippine Islands.  Portugal had in Africa some vestiges of her
+ancient claims.  Holland had various islands and possessions in the
+East Indies and Dutch Guiana, and Denmark an island or so in the West
+Indies.  France had one or two West Indian islands and French Guiana. 
+This seemed to be as much as the European powers needed, or were likely
+to acquire of the rest of the world.  Only the East India Company
+showed any spirit of expansion.
+
+While Europe was busy with the Napoleonic wars the East India Company,
+under a succession of Governors-General, was playing much the same role
+in India that had been played before by Turkoman and such-like invaders
+from the north.  And after the peace of Vienna it went on, levying its
+revenues, making wars, sending ambassadors to Asiatic powers, a quasi-
+independent state, however, with a marked disposition to send wealth
+westward.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how the British Company made its way
+to supremacy sometimes as the ally of this power, sometimes as that,
+and finally as the conqueror of all.  Its power spread to Assam, Sind,
+Oudh.  The map of India began to take on the outlines familiar to the
+English schoolboy of to-day, a patchwork of native states embraced and
+held together by the great provinces under direct British rule. . . .
+
+In 1859, following upon a serious mutiny of the native troops in India,
+this empire of the East India Company was annexed to the British Crown.
+ By an Act entitled _An Act for the Better Government of India_, the
+Governor-General became a Viceroy representing the Sovereign, and the
+place of the Company was taken by a Secretary of State for India
+responsible to the British Parliament.  In 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, to
+complete the work, caused Queen Victoria to be proclaimed Empress of
+India.
+
+Upon these extraordinary lines India and Britain are linked at the
+present time.  India is still the empire of the Great Mogul, but the
+Great Mogul has been replaced by the “crowned republic” of Great
+Britain.  India is an autocracy without an autocrat.  Its rule combines
+the disadvantage of absolute monarchy with the impersonality and
+irresponsibility of democratic officialdom.  The Indian with a
+complaint to make has no visible monarch to go to; his Emperor is a
+golden symbol; he must circulate pamphlets in England or inspire a
+question in the British House of Commons.  The more occupied Parliament
+is with British affairs, the less attention India will receive, and the
+more she will be at the mercy of her small group of higher officials.
+
+
+RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI, SOUTHERN
+RHODESIA
+RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE GORGE, VICTORIA FALLS, OF THE ZAMBESI, SOUTHERN
+RHODESIA
+
+_Photo:  British South African Co._
+
+
+Apart from India, there was no great expansion of any European Empire
+until the railways and the steamships were in effective action.  A
+considerable school of political thinkers in Britain was disposed to
+regard overseas possessions as a source of weakness to the kingdom. 
+The Australian settlements developed slowly until in 1842 the discovery
+of valuable copper mines, and in 1851 of gold, gave them a new
+importance.  Improvements in transport were also making Australian wool
+an increasingly marketable commodity in Europe.  Canada, too, was not
+remarkably progressive until 1849; it was troubled by dissensions
+between its French and British inhabitants, there were several serious
+revolts, and it was only in 1867 that a new constitution creating a
+Federal Dominion of Canada relieved its internal strains.  It was the
+railway that altered the Canadian outlook.  It enabled Canada, just as
+it enabled the United States, to expand westward, to market its corn
+and other produce in Europe, and in spite of its swift and extensive
+growth, to remain in language and sympathy and interests one community.
+ The railway, the steamship and the telegraph cable were indeed
+changing all the conditions of colonial development.
+
+Before 1840, English settlements had already begun in New Zealand, and
+a New Zealand Land Company had been formed to exploit the possibilities
+of the island.  In 1840 New Zealand also was added to the colonial
+possessions of the British Crown.
+
+Canada, as we have noted, was the first of the British possessions to
+respond richly to the new economic possibilities that the new methods
+of transport were opening. Presently the republics of South America,
+and particularly the Argentine Republic, began to feel in their cattle
+trade and coffee growing the increased nearness of the European market.
+ Hitherto the chief commodities that had attracted the European powers
+into unsettled and barbaric regions had been gold or other metals,
+spices, ivory, or slaves.  But in the latter quarter of the nineteenth
+century the increase of the European populations was obliging their
+governments to look abroad for staple foods; and the growth of
+scientific industrialism was creating a demand for new raw materials,
+fats and greases of every kind, rubber, and other hitherto disregarded
+substances.  It was plain that Great Britain and Holland and Portugal
+were reaping a great and growing commercial advantage from their very
+considerable control of tropical and sub-tropical products.  After 1871
+Germany, and presently France and later Italy, began to look for
+unannexed raw-material areas, or for Oriental countries capable of
+profitable modernization.
+
+So began a fresh scramble all over the world, except in the American
+region where the Monroe Doctrine now barred such adventures, for
+politically unprotected lands.
+
+Close to Europe was the continent of Africa, full of vaguely known
+possibilities.  In 1850 it was a continent of black mystery; only Egypt
+and the coast were known.  Here we have no space to tell the amazing
+story of the explorers and adventurers who first pierced the African
+darkness, and of the political agents, administrators, traders,
+settlers and scientific men who followed in their track.  Wonderful
+races of men like the pygmies, strange beasts like the okapi,
+marvellous fruits and flowers and insects, terrible diseases,
+astounding scenery of forest and mountain, enormous inland seas and
+gigantic rivers and cascades were revealed; a whole new world.  Even
+remains (at Zimbabwe) of some unrecorded and vanished civilization, the
+southward enterprise of an early people, were discovered. Into this new
+world came the Europeans, and found the rifle already there in the
+hands of the Arab slave-traders, and negro life in disorder.
+
+
+Map: The British Empire in 1815
+
+By 1900, in half a century, all Africa was mapped, explored, estimated
+and divided between the European powers.  Little heed was given to the
+welfare of the natives in this scramble.  The Arab slaver was indeed
+curbed rather than expelled, but the greed for rubber, which was a wild
+product collected under compulsion by the natives in the Belgian Congo,
+a greed exacerbated by the clash of inexperienced European
+administrators with the native population, led to horrible atrocities. 
+No European power has perfectly clean hands in this matter.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail how Great Britain got possession of
+Egypt in 1883 and remained there in spite of the fact that Egypt was
+technically a part of the Turkish Empire, nor how nearly this scramble
+led to war between France and Great Britain in 1898, when a certain
+Colonel Marchand, crossing Central Africa from the west coast, tried at
+Fashoda to seize the Upper Nile.
+
+Nor can we tell how the British Government first let the Boers, or
+Dutch settlers, of the Orange River district and the Transvaal set up
+independent republics in the inland parts of South Africa, and then
+repented and annexed the Transvaal Republic in 1877; nor how the
+Transvaal Boers fought for freedom and won it after the battle of
+Majuba Hill (1881).  Majuba Hill was made to rankle in the memory of
+the English people by a persistent press campaign.  A war with both
+republics broke out in 1899, a three years’ war enormously costly to
+the British people, which ended at last in the surrender of the two
+republics.
+
+Their period of subjugation was a brief one.  In 1907, after the
+downfall of the imperialist government which had conquered them, the
+Liberals took the South African problem in hand, and these former
+republics became free and fairly willing associates with Cape Colony
+and  Natal in a Confederation of all the states of South Africa as one
+self- governing republic under the British Crown.
+
+In a quarter of a century the partition of Africa was completed.  There
+remained unannexed three comparatively small countries: Liberia, a
+settlement of liberated negro slaves on the west coast; Morocco, under
+a Moslem Sultan; and Abyssinia, a barbaric country, with an ancient and
+peculiar form of Christianity, which had successfully maintained its
+independence against Italy at the battle of Adowa in 1896.
+
+
+
+
+LXIII
+EUROPEAN AGGRESSION IN ASIA AND THE RISE OF JAPAN
+
+
+It is difficult to believe that any large number of people really
+accepted this headlong painting of the map of Africa in European
+colours as a permanent new settlement of the worlds affairs, but it is
+the duty of the historian to record that it was so accepted. There was
+but a shallow historical background to the European mind in the
+nineteenth century, and no habit of penetrating criticism. The quite
+temporary advantages that the mechanical revolution in the west had
+given the Europeans over the rest of the old world were regarded by
+people, blankly ignorant of such events as the great Mongol conquests,
+as evidences of a permanent and assured European leadership of mankind.
+They had no sense of the transferability of science and its fruits.
+They did not realize that Chinamen and Indians could carry on the work
+of research as ably as Frenchmen or Englishmen. They believed that
+there was some innate intellectual drive in the west, and some innate
+indolence and conservatism in the east, that assured the Europeans a
+world predominance for ever.
+
+The consequence of this infatuation was that the various European
+foreign offices set themselves not merely to scramble with the British
+for the savage and undeveloped regions of the world’s surface, but also
+to carve up the populous and civilized countries of Asia as though
+these people also were no more than raw material for exploitation. The
+inwardly precarious but outwardly splendid imperialism of the British
+ruling class in India, and the extensive and profitable possessions of
+the Dutch in the East Indies, filled the rival Great Powers with dreams
+of similar glories in Persia, in the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, and
+in Further India, China and Japan.
+
+In 1898 Germany seized Kiau Chau in China.  Britain responded by
+seizing Wei-hai-wei, and the next year the Russians took possession of
+Port Arthur.  A flame of hatred for the Europeans swept through China. 
+There were massacres of Europeans and Christian converts, and in 1900
+an attack upon and siege of the European legations in Pekin.  A
+combined force of Europeans made a punitive expedition to Pekin,
+rescued the legations, and stole an enormous amount of valuable
+property.  The Russians then seized Manchuria, and in 1904, the British
+invaded Tibet....
+
+But now a new Power appeared in the struggle of the Great Powers,
+Japan.  Hitherto Japan has played but a small part in this history; her
+secluded civilization has not contributed very largely to the general
+shaping of human destinies; she has received much, but she has given
+little.  The Japanese proper are of the Mongolian race.  Their
+civilization, their writing and their literary and artistic traditions
+are derived from the Chinese.  Their history is an interesting and
+romantic one; they developed a feudal system and a system of chivalry
+in the earlier centuries of the Christian era; their attacks upon Korea
+and China are an Eastern equivalent of the English wars in France. 
+Japan was first brought into contact with Europe in the sixteenth
+century; in 1542 some Portuguese reached it in a Chinese junk, and in
+1549 a Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, began his teaching there. 
+For a time Japan welcomed European intercourse, and the Christian
+missionaries made a great number of converts.  A certain William Adams
+became the most trusted European adviser of the Japanese, and showed
+them how to build big ships.  There were voyages in Japanese-built
+ships to India and Peru.  Then arose complicated quarrels between the
+Spanish Dominicans, the Portuguese Jesuits, and the English and Dutch
+Protestants, each warning the Japanese against the political designs of
+the others.  The Jesuits, in a phase of ascendancy, persecuted and
+insulted the Buddhists with great acrimony.  In the end the Japanese
+came to the conclusion that the Europeans were an intolerable nuisance,
+and that Catholic Christianity in particular was a mere cloak for the
+political dreams of the Pope and the Spanish monarchy—already in
+possession of the Philippine Islands; there was a great persecution of
+the Christians, and in 1638 Japan was absolutely closed to Europeans,
+and remained closed for over 200 years.  During those two centuries the
+Japanese were as completely cut off from the rest of the world as
+though they lived upon another planet.  It was forbidden to build any
+ship larger than a mere coasting boat. No Japanese could go abroad, and
+no European enter the country.
+
+
+JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+JAPANESE SOLDIER ON THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+_(In the Victoria and Albert Museum)_
+
+
+For two centuries Japan remained outside the main current of history. 
+She lived on in a state of picturesque feudalism in which about five
+per cent of the population, the _samurai_, or fighting men, and the
+nobles and their families, tyrannized without restraint over the rest
+of the population.  Meanwhile the great world outside went on to wider
+visions and new powers.  Strange shipping became more frequent, passing
+the Japanese headlands; sometimes ships were wrecked and sailors
+brought ashore.  Through the Dutch settlement in the island of Deshima,
+their one link with the outer universe, came warnings that Japan was
+not keeping pace with the power of the Western world.  In 1837 a ship
+sailed into Yedo Bay flying a strange flag of stripes and stars, and
+carrying some Japanese sailors she had picked up far adrift in the
+Pacific.  She was driven off by cannon shot.  This flag presently
+reappeared on other ships.  One in 1849 came to demand the liberation
+of eighteen shipwrecked American sailors.  Then in 1853 came four
+American warships under Commodore Perry, and refused to be driven away.
+ He lay at anchor in forbidden waters, and sent messages to the two
+rulers who at that time shared the control of Japan.  In 1854 he
+returned with ten ships, amazing ships propelled by steam, and equipped
+with big guns, and he made proposals for trade and intercourse that the
+Japanese had no power to resist.  He landed with a guard of 500 men to
+sign the treaty. Incredulous crowds watched this visitation from the
+outer world, marching through the streets.
+
+Russia, Holland and Britain followed in the wake of America. A great
+nobleman whose estates commanded the Straits of Shimonoseki saw fit to
+fire on foreign vessels, and a bombardment by a fleet of British,
+French, Dutch and American warships destroyed his batteries and
+scattered his swordsmen. Finally an allied squadron (1865), at anchor
+off Kioto, imposed a ratification of the treaties which opened Japan to
+the world.
+
+The humiliation of the Japanese by these events was intense. With
+astonishing energy and intelligence they set themselves to bring their
+culture and organization to the level of the European Powers.  Never in
+all the history of mankind did a nation make such a stride as Japan
+then did.  In 1866 she was a medieval people, a fantastic caricature of
+the extremest romantic feudalism; in 1899 hers was a completely
+Westernized people, on a level with the most advanced European Powers.
+She completely dispelled the persuasion that Asia was in some
+irrevocable way hopelessly behind Europe.  She made all European
+progress seem sluggish by comparison.
+
+We cannot tell here in any detail of Japan’s war with China in 1894-95.
+ It demonstrated the extent of her Westernization.  She had an
+efficient Westernized army and a small but sound fleet.  But the
+significance of her renascence, though it was appreciated by Britain
+and the United States, who were already treating her as if she were a
+European state, was not understood by the other Great Powers engaged in
+the pursuit of new Indias in Asia.  Russia was pushing down through
+Manchuria to Korea.  France was already established far to the south in
+Tonkin and Annam, Germany was prowling hungrily on the look-out for
+some settlement.  The three Powers combined to prevent Japan reaping
+any fruits from the Chinese war.  She was exhausted by the struggle,
+and they threatened her with war.
+
+
+A STREET IN TOKIO
+A STREET IN TOKIO
+
+
+Japan submitted for a time and gathered her forces.  Within ten years
+she was ready for a struggle with Russia, which marks an epoch in the
+history of Asia, the close of the period of European arrogance.  The
+Russian people were, of course, innocent and ignorant of this trouble
+that was being made for them halfway round the world, and the wiser
+Russian statesmen were against these foolish thrusts; but a gang of
+financial adventurers, including the Grand Dukes, his cousins,
+surrounded the Tsar.  They had gambled deeply in the prospective
+looting of Manchuria and China, and they would suffer no withdrawal. 
+So there began a transportation of great armies of Japanese soldiers
+across the sea to Port Arthur and Korea, and the sending of endless
+trainloads of Russian peasants along the Siberian railway to die in
+those distant battlefields.
+
+The Russians, badly led and dishonestly provided, were beaten on sea
+and land alike.  The Russian Baltic Fleet sailed round Africa to be
+utterly destroyed in the Straits of Tshushima. A revolutionary movement
+among the common people of Russia, infuriated by this remote and
+reasonless slaughter, obliged the Tsar to end the war (1905); he
+returned the southern half of Saghalien, which had been seized by
+Russia in 1875, evacuated Manchuria, resigned Korea to Japan.  The
+European invasion of Asia was coming to an end and the retraction of
+Europe’s tentacles was beginning.
+
+
+
+
+LXIV
+THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1914
+
+
+We may note here briefly the varied nature of the constituents of the
+British Empire in 1914 which the steamship and railway had brought
+together. It was and is a quite unique political combination; nothing
+of the sort has ever existed before.
+
+First and central to the whole system was the “crowned republic” of the
+United British Kingdom, including (against the will of a considerable
+part of the Irish people) Ireland.  The majority of the British
+Parliament, made up of the three united parliaments of England and
+Wales, Scotland and Ireland, determines the headship, the quality and
+policy of the ministry, and determines it largely on considerations
+arising out of British domestic politics.  It is this ministry which is
+the effective supreme government, with powers of peace and war, over
+all the rest of the empire.
+
+Next in order of political importance to the British States were the
+“crowned republics” of Australia, Canada, Newfoundland (the oldest
+British possession, 1583), New Zealand and South Africa, all
+practically independent and self-governing states in alliance with
+Great Britain, but each with a representative of the Crown appointed by
+the Government in office;
+
+Next the Indian Empire, an extension of the Empire of the Great Mogul
+with its dependent and “protected” states reaching now from Beluchistan
+to Burma, and including Aden, in all of which empire the British Crown
+and the India Office (under Parliamentary control) played the role of
+the original Turkoman dynasty;
+
+Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a part of the
+Turkish Empire and still retaining its own monarch, the Khedive, but
+under almost despotic British official rule;
+
+
+Map: OVERSEAS EMPIRES of EUROPEAN POWERS, January 1914
+
+Then the still more ambiguous “Anglo-Egyptian” Sudan province, occupied
+and administered jointly by the British and by the (British controlled)
+Egyptian Government;
+
+Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some British in
+origin and some not, with elected legislatures and an appointed
+executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas and Bermuda;
+
+Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British Home
+Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on autocracy, as in
+Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was an appointed council), and
+Gibraltar and St. Helena (where there was a governor);
+
+
+GIBRALTAR
+GIBRALTAR
+
+_Photo:  C. Sinclair_
+
+
+Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product areas, with
+politically weak and under-civilized native communities which were
+nominally protectorates, and administered either by a High Commissioner
+set over native chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a chartered company
+(as in Rhodesia).  In some cases the Foreign Office, in some cases the
+Colonial Office, and in some cases the India Office, has been concerned
+in acquiring the possessions that fell into this last and least
+definite class of all, but for the most part the Colonial Office was
+now responsible for them.
+
+It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no single
+brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a whole.  It was a
+mixture of growths and accumulations entirely different from anything
+that has ever been called an empire before.  It guaranteed a wide peace
+and security; that is why it was endured and sustained by many men of
+the “subject” races—in spite of official tyrannies and insufficiencies,
+and of much negligence on the part of the “home” public. Like the
+Athenian Empire, it was an overseas empire; its ways were sea ways, and
+its common link was the British Navy. Like all empires, its cohesion
+was dependent physically upon a method of communication; the
+development of seamanship, ship-building and steamships between the
+sixteenth and nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and
+convenient Pax—the “Pax Britannica,” and fresh developments of air or
+swift land transport might at any time make it inconvenient.
+
+
+STREET IN HONG KONG
+STREET IN HONG KONG
+
+_Photo:  Underwood & Underwood_
+
+
+
+
+LXV
+THE AGE OF ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT WAR OF 1914-18
+
+
+The progress in material science that created this vast
+steamboat-and-railway republic of America and spread this precarious
+British steamship empire over the world, produced quite other effects
+upon the congested nations upon the continent of Europe. They found
+themselves confined within boundaries fixed during the
+horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their expansion overseas
+had been very largely anticipated by Great Britain. Only Russia had any
+freedom to expand eastward; and she drove a great railway across
+Siberia until she entangled herself in a conflict with Japan, and
+pushed south-eastwardly towards the borders of Persia and India to the
+annoyance of Britain. The rest of the European Powers were in a state
+of intensifying congestion. In order to realize the full possibilities
+of the new apparatus of human life they had to rearrange their affairs
+upon a broader basis, either by some sort of voluntary union or by a
+union imposed upon them by some predominant power. The tendency of
+modern thought was in the direction of the former alternative, but all
+the force of political tradition drove Europe towards the latter.
+
+The downfall of the “empire” of Napoleon III, the establishment of the
+new German Empire, pointed men’s hopes and fears towards the idea of a
+Europe consolidated under German auspices.  For thirty-six years of
+uneasy peace the polities of Europe centred upon that possibility.
+France, the steadfast rival of Germany for European ascendancy since
+the division of the empire of Charlemagne, sought to correct her own
+weakness by a close alliance with Russia, and Germany linked herself
+closely with the Austrian Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman
+Empire in the days of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new
+kingdom of Italy.  At first Great Britain stood as usual half in and
+half out of continental affairs.  But she was gradually forced into a
+close association with the Franco-Russian group by the aggressive
+development of a great German navy.  The grandiose imagination of the
+Emperor William II (1888-1918) thrust Germany into premature overseas
+enterprise that ultimately brought not only Great Britain but Japan and
+the United States into the circle of her enemies.
+
+
+BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD
+BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD
+The crew came out for a breath of fresh air during a lull
+
+_Photo:  British Official_
+
+
+All these nations armed.  Year after year the proportion of national
+production devoted to the making of guns, equipment, battleships and
+the like, increased. Year after year the balance of things seemed
+trembling towards war, and then war would be averted.  At last it came.
+Germany and Austria struck at France and Russia and Serbia; the German
+armies marching through Belgium, Britain immediately came into the war
+on the side of Belgium, bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon
+Turkey followed on the German side.  Italy entered the war against
+Austria in 1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the October
+of that year.  In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United States and China
+were forced into war against Germany.  It is not within the scope of
+this history to define the exact share of blame for this vast
+catastrophe.  The more interesting question is not why the Great War
+was begun but why the Great War was not anticipated and prevented.  It
+is a far graver thing for mankind that scores of millions of people
+were too “patriotic,” stupid, or apathetic to prevent this disaster by
+a movement towards European unity upon frank and generous lines, than
+that a small number of people may have been active in bringing it
+about.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)
+THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN)
+To show the complete destructiveness of modern war
+
+_Photo:  Topical_
+
+
+THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR
+THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR
+Wire entanglements in the foreground
+
+_Photo:  Photopress_
+
+
+It is impossible within the space at our command here to trace the
+intricate details of the war.  Within a few months it became apparent
+that the progress of modern technical science had changed the nature of
+warfare very profoundly.  Physical science gives power, power over
+steel, over distance, over disease; whether that power is used well or
+ill depends upon the moral and political intelligence of the world. 
+The governments of Europe, inspired by antiquated policies of hate and
+suspicion, found themselves with unexampled powers both of destruction
+and resistance in their hands.  The war became a consuming fire round
+and about the world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished out
+of all proportion to the issues involved.  The first phase of the war
+was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and an invasion of East
+Prussia by the Russians.  Both attacks were held and turned.  Then the
+power of the defensive developed; there was a rapid elaboration of
+trench warfare until for a time the opposing armies lay entrenched in
+long lines right across Europe, unable to make any advance without
+enormous losses.  The armies were millions strong, and behind them
+entire populations were organized for the supply of food and munitions
+to the front.  Then was a cessation of nearly every sort of productive
+activity except such as contributed to military operations.  All the
+able-bodied manhood of Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or
+into the improvised factories that served them.  There was an enormous
+replacement of men by women in industry. Probably more than half the
+people in the belligerent countries of Europe changed their employment
+altogether during this stupendous struggle.  They were socially
+uprooted and transplanted.  Education and normal scientific work were
+restricted or diverted to immediate military ends, and the distribution
+of news was crippled and corrupted by military control and “propaganda”
+activities.
+
+The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of aggression
+upon the combatant populations behind the fronts by the destruction of
+food supplies and by attacks through the air.  And also there was a
+steady improvement in the size and range of the guns employed and of
+such ingenious devices as poison-gas shells and the small mobile forts
+known as tanks, to break down the resistance of troops in the trenches.
+ The air offensive was the most revolutionary of all the new methods. 
+It carried warfare from two dimensions into three.  Hitherto in the
+history of mankind war had gone on only where the armies marched and
+met.  Now it went on everywhere.  First the Zeppelin and then the
+bombing aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an ever-
+increasing area of civilian activities beyond.  The old distinction
+maintained in civilized warfare between the civilian and combatant
+population disappeared.  Everyone who grew food, or who sewed a
+garment, everyone who felled a tree or repaired a house, every railway
+station and every warehouse was held to be fair game for destruction. 
+The air offensive increased in range and terror with every month in the
+war.  At last great areas of Europe were in a state of siege and
+subject to nightly raids.  Such exposed cities as London and Paris
+passed sleepless night after sleepless night while the bombs burst, the
+anti-aircraft guns maintained an intolerable racket, and the fire
+engines and ambulances rattled headlong through the darkened and
+deserted streets. The effects upon the minds and health of old people
+and of young children were particularly distressing and destructive.
+
+Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive until the very
+end of the fighting in 1918.  For four years medical science staved off
+any general epidemic; then came a great outbreak of influenza about the
+world which destroyed many millions of people.  Famine also was staved
+off for some time.  By the beginning of 1918 however most of Europe was
+in a state of mitigated and regulated famine.  The production of food
+throughout the world had fallen very greatly through the calling off of
+peasant mankind to the fronts, and the distribution of such food as was
+produced was impeded by the havoc wrought by the submarine, by the
+rupture of customary routes through the closing of frontiers, and by
+the disorganization of the transport system of the world. The various
+governments took possession of the dwindling food supplies, and, with
+more or less success, rationed their populations.  By the fourth year
+the whole world was suffering from shortages of clothing and housing
+and of most of the normal gear of life as well as of food.  Business
+and economic life were profoundly disorganized.  Every-one was worried,
+and most people were leading lives of unwonted discomfort.
+
+The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918.  After a supreme effort in
+the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans to Paris, the
+Central Powers collapsed.  They had come to an end of their spirit and
+resources.
+
+
+
+
+LXVI
+THE REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN RUSSIA
+
+
+But a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers the
+half oriental monarchy of Russia, which had professed to be the
+continuation of the Byzantine Empire, had collapsed. The Tsardom had
+been showing signs of profound rottenness for some years before the
+war; the court was under the sway of a fantastic religious impostor,
+Rasputin, and the public administration, civil and military, was in a
+state of extreme inefficiency and corruption. At the outset of the war
+there was a great flare of patriotic enthusiasm in Russia. A vast
+conscript army was called up, for which there was neither adequate
+military equipment nor a proper supply of competent officers, and this
+great host, ill supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the
+German and Austrian frontiers.
+
+There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies in
+East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and attention of
+the Germans from their first victorious drive upon Paris.  The
+sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of ill-led Russian
+peasants saved France from complete overthrow in that momentous opening
+campaign, and made all western Europe the debtors of that great and
+tragic people.  But the strain of the war upon this sprawling,
+ill-organized empire was too heavy for its strength.  The Russian
+common soldiers were sent into battle without guns to support them,
+without even rifle ammunition; they were wasted by their officers and
+generals in a delirium of militarist enthusiasm.  For a time they
+seemed to be suffering mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a
+limit to the endurance even of the most ignorant.  A profound disgust
+for Tsardom was creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted
+men.  From the close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening
+anxiety to her Western Allies.  Throughout 1916 she remained largely on
+the defensive, and there were rumours of a separate peace with Germany.
+
+On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner
+party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the Tsardom
+in order.  By March things were moving rapidly; food riots in Petrograd
+developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there was an attempted
+suppression of the Duma, the representative body, there were attempted
+arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of a provisional government
+under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication (March 15th) by the Tsar.  For a
+time it seemed that a moderate and controlled revolution might be
+possible—perhaps under a new Tsar.  Then it became evident that the
+destruction of popular confidence in Russia had gone too far for any
+such adjustments. The Russian people were sick to death of the old
+order of things in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it
+wanted relief, and that speedily, from unendurable miseries.  The
+Allies had no understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists
+were ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed
+to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered steadily
+with the new situation.  There was little goodwill among these
+diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition to embarrass
+the new government as much as possible.  At the head of the Russian
+republican government was an eloquent and picturesque leader, Kerensky,
+who found himself assailed by the forces of a profounder revolutionary
+movement, the “social revolution,” at home and cold-shouldered by the
+Allied governments abroad.  His Allies would neither let him give the
+Russian peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond their
+frontiers.  The French and the British press pestered their exhausted
+ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the Germans made a
+strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the British Admiralty quailed
+before the prospect of a Baltic expedition in relief.  The new Russian
+Republic had to fight unsupported.  In spite of their naval
+predominance and the bitter protests of the great English admiral, Lord
+Fisher (1841-1920), it is to be noted that the British and their
+Allies, except for some submarine attacks, left the Germans the
+complete mastery of the Baltic throughout the war.
+
+The Russian masses, however, were resolute to end the war.  At any
+cost.  There had come into existence in Petrograd a body representing
+the workers and common soldiers, the Soviet, and this body clamoured
+for an international conference of socialists at Stockholm.  Food riots
+were occurring in Berlin at this time, war weariness in Austria and
+Germany was profound, and there can be little doubt, in the light of
+subsequent events, that such a conference would have precipitated a
+reasonable peace on democratic lines in 1917 and a German revolution. 
+Kerensky implored his Western allies to allow this conference to take
+place, but, fearful of a worldwide outbreak of socialism and
+republicanism, they refused, in spite of the favourable response of a
+small majority of the British Labour Party.  Without either moral or
+physical help from the Allies, the unhappy “moderate” Russian Republic
+still fought on and made a last desperate offensive effort in July.  It
+failed after some preliminary successes, and there came another great
+slaughtering of Russians.
+
+The limit of Russian endurance was reached.  Mutinies broke out in the
+Russian armies, and particularly upon the northern front, and on
+November 7th, 1917, Kerensky’s government was overthrown and power was
+seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik socialists under
+Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of the Western powers.  On
+March 2nd, 1918, a separate peace between Russia and Germany was signed
+at Brest-Litovsk.
+
+
+A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE
+A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE
+A wooden house has been demolished for firewood
+
+_By courtesy of Messrs. Hodder & Stoughton_
+
+
+It speedily became evident that these Bolshevik socialists were men of
+a very different quality from the rhetorical constitutionalists and
+revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase.  They were fanatical Marxist
+communists.  They believed that their accession to power in Russia was
+only the opening of a world-wide social revolution, and they set about
+changing the social and economic order with the thoroughness of perfect
+faith and absolute inexperience.  The western European and the American
+governments were themselves much too ill-informed and incapable to
+guide or help this extraordinary experiment, and the press set itself
+to discredit and the ruling classes to wreck these usurpers upon any
+terms and at any cost to themselves or to Russia.  A propaganda of
+abominable and disgusting inventions went on unchecked in the press of
+the world; the Bolshevik leaders were represented as incredible
+monsters glutted with blood and plunder and living lives of sensuality
+before which the realities of the Tsarist court during the Rasputin
+regime paled to a white purity.  Expeditions were launched at the
+exhausted country, insurgents and raiders were encouraged, armed and
+subsidized, and no method of attack was too mean or too monstrous for
+the frightened enemies of the Bolshevik regime.  In 1919, the Russian
+Bolsheviks, ruling a country already exhausted and disorganized by five
+years of intensive warfare, were fighting a British Expedition at
+Archangel, Japanese invaders in Eastern Siberia, Roumanians with French
+and Greek contingents in the south, the Russian Admiral Koltchak in
+Siberia and General Deniken, supported by the French fleet, in the
+Crimea.  In July of that year an Esthonian army, under General
+Yudenitch, almost got to Petersburg.  In 1920 the Poles, incited by the
+French, made a new attack on Russia; and a new reactionary raider,
+General Wrangel, took over the task of General Deniken in invading and
+devastating his own country.  In March, 1921, the sailors at Cronstadt
+revolted.  The Russian Government under its president, Lenin, survived
+all these various attacks.  It showed an amazing tenacity, and the
+common people of Russia sustained it unswervingly under conditions of
+extreme hardship.  By the end of 1921 both Britain and Italy had made a
+sort of recognition of the communist rule.
+
+But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle against
+foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less happy in its
+attempts to set up a new social order based upon communist ideas in
+Russia.  The Russian peasant is a small land-hungry proprietor, as far
+from communism in his thoughts and methods as a whale is from flying;
+the revolution gave him the land of the great landowners but could not
+make him grow food for anything but negotiable money, and the
+revolution, among other things, had practically destroyed the value of
+money. Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the
+collapse of the railways through war-strain, shrank to a mere
+cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption.  The
+towns starved.  Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over industrial
+production in accordance with communist ideas were equally
+unsuccessful.  By 1920 Russia presented the unprecedented spectacle of
+a modern civilization in complete collapse.  Railways were rusting and
+passing out of use, towns were falling into ruin, everywhere there was
+an immense mortality.  Yet the country still fought with its enemies at
+its gates.  In 1921 came a drought and a great famine among the peasant
+cultivators in the war-devastated south-east provinces.  Millions of
+people starved.
+
+But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation of
+Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be discussed
+here.
+
+
+
+
+LXVII
+THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WORLD
+
+
+The scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not permit
+us to enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes that centre
+about the treaties, and particularly of the treaty of Versailles, which
+concluded the Great War. We are beginning to realize that that
+conflict, terrible and enormous as it was, ended nothing, began nothing
+and settled nothing. It killed millions of people; it wasted and
+impoverished the world. It smashed Russia altogether. It was at best an
+acute and frightful reminder that we were living foolishly and
+confusedly without much plan or foresight in a dangerous and
+unsympathetic universe. The crudely organized egotisms and passions of
+national and imperial greed that carried mankind into that tragedy,
+emerged from it sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar
+disaster highly probable so soon as the world has a little recovered
+from its war exhaustion and fatigue. Wars and revolutions make nothing;
+their utmost service to mankind is that, in a very rough and painful
+way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive things. The great war
+lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and shattered the
+imperialism of Russia. It cleared away a number of monarchies. But a
+multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the frontiers still
+exasperate, great armies accumulate fresh stores of equipment.
+
+The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill adapted to
+do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the war to their
+logical conclusions.  The Germans, Austrians, Turks and Bulgarians were
+permitted no share in its deliberations; they were only to accept the
+decisions it dictated to them.  From the point of view of human welfare
+the choice of the place of meeting was particularly unfortunate.  It
+was at Versailles in 1871 that, with every circumstance of triumphant
+vulgarity, the new German Empire had been proclaimed.  The suggestion
+of a melodramatic reversal of that scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors,
+was overpowering.
+
+Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the Great
+War had long been exhausted.  The populations of the victorious
+countries were acutely aware of their own losses and sufferings, and
+entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated had paid in the like
+manner.  The war had arisen as a natural and inevitable consequence of
+the competitive nationalisms of Europe and the absence of any Federal
+adjustment of these competitive forces; war is the necessary logical
+consummation of independent sovereign nationalities living in too small
+an area with too powerful an armament; and if the great war had not
+come in the form it did it would have come in some similar form—just as
+it will certainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty
+or thirty years’ time if no political unification anticipates and
+prevents it.  States organized for war will make wars as surely as hens
+will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and war-worn
+countries disregarded this fact, and the whole of the defeated peoples
+were treated as morally and materially responsible for all the damage,
+as they would no doubt have treated the victor peoples had the issue of
+war been different.  The French and English thought the Germans were to
+blame, the Germans thought the Russians, French and English were to
+blame, and only an intelligent minority thought that there was anything
+to blame in the fragmentary political constitution of Europe.  The
+treaty of Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive; it
+provided tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to provide
+compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by imposing
+enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its attempts to
+reconstitute international relations by the establishment of a League
+of Nations against war were manifestly insincere and inadequate.
+
+
+PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT
+PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT
+
+_(Photo taken by another ’plane by the Central Aerophoto Co.)_
+
+
+So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have been
+any attempt whatever to organize international relations for a
+permanent peace.  The proposal of the League of Nations was brought
+into practical politics by the President of the United States of
+America, President Wilson.  Its chief support was in America.  So far
+the United States, this new modern state, had developed no distinctive
+ideas of international relationship beyond the Monroe Doctrine, which
+protected the new world from European interference. Now suddenly it was
+called upon for its mental contribution to the vast problem of the
+time.  It had none.  The natural disposition of the American people was
+towards a permanent world peace.  With this however was linked a strong
+traditional distrust of old-world polities and a habit of isolation
+from old-world entanglements. The Americans had hardly begun to think
+out an American solution of world problems when the submarine campaign
+of the Germans dragged them into the war on the side of the anti-German
+allies. President Wilson’s scheme of a League of Nations was an attempt
+at short notice to create a distinctively American world project.  It
+was a sketchy, inadequate and dangerous scheme.  In Europe however it
+was taken as a matured American point of view. The generality of
+mankind in 1918-19 was intensely weary of war and anxious at almost any
+sacrifice to erect barriers against its recurrence, but there was not a
+single government in the old world willing to waive one iota of its
+sovereign independence to attain any such end.  The public utterances
+of President Wilson leading up to the project of a World League of
+Nations seemed for a time to appeal right over the heads of the
+governments to the peoples of the world; they were taken as expressing
+the ripe intentions of America, and the response was enormous. 
+Unhappily President Wilson had to deal with governments and not with
+peoples; he was a man capable of tremendous flashes of vision and yet
+when put to the test egotistical and limited, and the great wave of
+enthusiasm he evoked passed and was wasted.
+
+Says Dr. Dillon in his book, _The Peace Conference:_ “Europe, when the
+President touched its shores, was as clay ready for the creative
+potter.  Never before were the nations so eager to follow a Moses who
+would take them to the long-promised land where wars are prohibited and
+blockades unknown.  And to their thinking he was just that great
+leader.  In France men bowed down before him with awe and affection. 
+Labour leaders in Paris told me that they shed tears of joy in his
+presence, and that their comrades would go through fire and water to
+help him to realize his noble schemes.  To the working classes in Italy
+his name was a heavenly clarion at the sound of which the earth would
+be renewed. The Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their
+sheet-anchor of safety.  The fearless Herr Muehlon said: ‘If President
+Wilson were to address the Germans and pronounce a severe sentence upon
+them, they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur and
+set to work at once.’  In German-Austria his fame was that of a
+saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to the suffering
+and surcease of sorrow to the afflicted ... .”
+
+Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson raised.
+How completely he disappointed them and how weak and futile was the
+League of Nations he made is too long and too distressful a story to
+tell here. He exaggerated in his person our common human tragedy, he
+was so very great in his dreams and so incapable in his performance.
+America dissented from the acts of its President and would not join the
+League Europe accepted from him. There was a slow realization on the
+part of the American people that it had been rushed into something for
+which it was totally unprepared. There was a corresponding realization
+on the part of Europe that America had nothing ready to give to the old
+world in its extremity. Born prematurely and crippled at its birth,
+that League has become indeed, with its elaborate and unpractical
+constitution and its manifest limitations of power, a serious obstacle
+in the way of any effective reorganization of international
+relationships. The problem would be a clearer one if the League did not
+yet exist. Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm that first welcomed
+the project, that readiness of men everywhere round and about the
+earth, of men, that is, as distinguished from governments, for a world
+control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in any history.
+Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and mismanage human
+affairs, a real force for world unity and world order exists and grows.
+
+From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences.  Of
+these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding (1921)
+has been the most successful and suggestive.  Notable, too, is the
+Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and Russian
+delegates at its deliberations.  We will not discuss this long
+procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail.  It becomes
+more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of reconstruction has
+to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such convulsions and world
+massacres as that of the great war is to be averted.  No such hasty
+improvisation as the League of Nations, no patched-up system of
+Conferences between this group of states and that, which change nothing
+with an air of settling everything, will meet the complex political
+needs of the new age that lies before us.  A systematic development and
+a systematic application of the sciences of human relationship, of
+personal and group psychology, of financial and economic science and of
+education, sciences still only in their infancy, is required.  Narrow
+and obsolete, dead and dying moral and political ideas have to be
+replaced by a clearer and a simpler conception of the common origins
+and destinies of our kind.
+
+
+A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND
+A PEACEFUL GARDEN IN ENGLAND
+Given wisdom, all mankind might live in such gardens
+
+
+But if the dangers, confusions and disasters that crowd upon man in
+these days are enormous beyond any experience of the past, it is
+because science has brought him such powers as he never had before. And
+the scientific method of fearless thought, exhaustively lucid
+statement, and exhaustively criticized planning, which has given him
+these as yet uncontrollable powers, gives him also the hope of
+controlling these powers.  Man is still only adolescent.  His troubles
+are not the troubles of senility and exhaustion but of increasing and
+still undisciplined strength.  When we look at all history as one
+process, as we have been doing in this book, when we see the steadfast
+upward struggle of life towards vision and control, then we see in
+their true proportions the hopes and dangers of the present time.  As
+yet we are hardly in the earliest dawn of human greatness.  But in the
+beauty of flower and sunset, in the happy and perfect movement of young
+animals and in the delight of ten thousand various landscapes, we have
+some intimations of what life can do for us, and in some few works of
+plastic and pictorial art, in some great music, in a few noble
+buildings and happy gardens, we have an intimation of what the human
+will can do with material possibilities.  We have dreams; we have at
+present undisciplined but ever increasing power.  Can we doubt that
+presently our race will more than realize our boldest imaginations,
+that it will achieve unity and peace, that it will live, the children
+of our blood and lives will live, in a world made more splendid and
+lovely than any palace or garden that we know, going on from strength
+to strength in an ever widening circle of adventure and achievement?
+What man has done, the little triumphs of his present state, and all
+this history we have told, form but the prelude to the things that man
+has got to do.
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
+
+About the year 1000 B.C. the Aryan peoples were establishing themselves
+in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy and the Balkans, and they were
+established in North India; Cnossos was already destroyed and the
+spacious times of Egypt, of Thothmes III, Amenophis III and Rameses II
+were three or four centuries away. Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty
+were ruling in the Nile Valley. Israel was united under her early
+kings; Saul or David or possibly even Solomon may have been reigning.
+Sargon I (2750 B.C.) of the Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote
+memory in Babylonian history, more remote than is Constantine the Great
+from the world of the present day. Hammurabi had been dead a thousand
+years. The Assyrians were already dominating the less military
+Babylonians. In 1100 B.C. Tiglath Pileser I had taken Babylon. But
+there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were still
+separate empires. In China the new Chow dynasty was flourishing.
+Stonehenge in England was already some hundreds of years old.
+
+The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd
+Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of
+Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy and
+Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central Italy.  We
+begin our list of ascertainable dates with
+
+B.C. 800. The building of Carthage.
+
+ 790. The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty).
+
+  776. First Olympiad.
+
+  753. Rome built.
+
+  745. Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New
+  Assyrian Empire.
+
+  722. Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.
+
+  721. He deported the Israelites.
+
+  680. Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian
+  XXVth Dynasty).
+
+  664. Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the
+  XXVIth Dynasty (to 610).
+
+  608. Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the battle of
+  Megiddo.
+
+  606. Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes.
+
+Foundation of the Chaldean Empire.
+
+  604. Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by
+  Nebuchadnezzar II.
+
+ (Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon.)
+
+  550. Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede.
+
+Cyrus conquered Crœsus.
+
+Buddha lived about this time.
+
+ So also did Confucius and Lao Tse.
+
+  539. Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.
+
+  521. Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont to the
+  Indus.
+
+His expedition to Scythia.
+
+  490. Battle of Marathon.
+
+  480. Battles of Thermopylï and Salamis.
+
+  479. The battles of Platea and Mycale completed the repulse of
+  Persia.
+
+  474. Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.
+
+  431. Peloponnesian War began (to 404)
+
+  401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
+
+  359. Philip became king of Macedonia.
+
+  338. Battle of Chïronia.
+
+  336. Macedonian troops crossed into Asia.  Philip murdered.
+
+  334. Battle of the Granicus.
+
+  333. Battle of Issus.
+
+  331. Battle of Arbela.
+
+  330. Darius III killed.
+
+  323. Death of Alexander the Great.
+
+  321. Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab.
+
+The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of the
+Caudine Forks.
+
+  281. Pyrrhus invaded Italy.
+
+    280. Battle of Heraclea.
+
+    279. Battle of Ausculum.
+
+    278. Gauls raided into Asia Minor and settled in Galatia.
+
+    275. Pyrrhus left Italy.
+
+    264. First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar—to 227.)
+
+    260. Battle of Mylï.
+
+    256. Battle of Ecnomus.
+
+    246. Shi-Hwang-ti became King of Ts’in.
+
+    220. Shi-Hwang-ti became Emperor of China.
+
+    214. Great Wall of China begun.
+
+    210. Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.
+
+    202. Battle of Zama.
+
+    146. Carthage destroyed.
+
+    133. Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome.
+
+    102. Marius drove back Germans.
+
+    100. Triumph of Marius. (Chinese conquering the Tarim valley.)
+
+    89. All Italians became Roman citizens.
+
+    73. The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.
+
+    71. Defeat and end of Spartacus.
+
+    66. Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates.  He
+    encountered the Alani.
+
+    48. Julius Cïsar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.
+
+    44. Julius Cïsar assassinated.
+
+    27. Augustus Cïsar princeps (until 14 A.D.).
+
+    4. True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+    A.D. Christian Era began.
+
+    14. Augustus died.  Tiberius emperor.
+
+    30. Jesus of Nazareth crucified.
+
+    41. Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by
+    pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.
+
+    68. Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in
+    succession.)
+
+    69. Vespasian.
+
+    102. Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea.
+
+    117. Hadrian succeeded Trajan.  Roman Empire at its greatest
+    extent.
+
+    138. (The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last
+    traces of Hellenic rule in India.)
+
+    161. Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.
+
+    164. Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius
+    (180). This also devastated all Asia.
+
+(Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman Empire.)
+
+    220. End of the Han dynasty.  Beginning of four hundred years of
+    division in China.
+
+    227. Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line in
+    Persia.
+
+    242. Mani began his teaching.
+
+    247. Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.
+
+    251. Great victory of Goths.  Emperor Decius killed.
+
+    260. Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the
+    Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia Minor by
+    Odenathus of Palmyra.
+
+    277. Mani crucified in Persia.
+
+  284. Diocletian became emperor.
+
+  303. Diocletian persecuted the Christians.
+
+  311. Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.
+
+  312. Constantine the Great became emperor.
+
+  323. Constantine presided over the Council of Nicïa.
+
+  337. Constantine baptized on his deathbed.
+
+  361-3. Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for
+  Christianity.
+
+  392. Theodosius the Great emperor of east and west.
+
+  395. Theodosius the Great died.  Honorius and Arcadius redivided the
+  empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and protectors.
+
+  410. The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.
+
+  425. Vandals settling in south of Spain.  Huns in Pannonia, Goths in
+  Dalmatia.  Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain. English
+  invading Britain.
+
+  439. Vandals took Carthage.
+
+  451. Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni and
+  Romans at Troyes.
+
+  453. Death of Attila.
+
+  455. Vandals sacked Rome.
+
+  470. Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed
+  Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West.  End of the
+  Western Empire.
+
+  493. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of
+  Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople.  (Gothic kings in
+  Italy.  Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a garrison.)
+
+  527. Justinian emperor.
+
+  529. Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished
+  nearly a thousand years.  Belisarius (Justinian’s general) took
+  Naples.
+
+  531. Chosroes I began to reign.
+
+  543. Great plague in Constantinople.
+
+  553. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian.  Justinian died.  The
+  Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome
+  Byzantine).
+
+  570. Muhammad born.
+
+  579. Chosroes I died.
+
+(The Lombards dominant in Italy.)
+
+  590. Plague raged in Rome.  Chosroes II began to reign.
+
+  610. Heraclius began to reign.
+
+  619. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and armies on
+  Hellespont.  Tang dynasty began in China.
+
+  622. The Hegira.
+
+  627. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius.  Tai-tsung became
+  Emperor of China.
+
+  628. Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II.
+
+Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.
+
+  629. Muhammad returned to Mecca.
+
+  632. Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.
+
+  634. Battle of the Yarmuk.  Moslems took Syria.  Omar second Caliph.
+
+  635. Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.
+
+  637. Battle of Kadessia.
+
+  638. Jerusalem surrendered to the Caliph Omar.
+
+  642. Heraclius died.
+
+  643. Othman third Caliph.
+
+  655. Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.
+
+  668. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea.
+
+  687. Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia and
+  Neustria.
+
+  711. Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.
+
+  715. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees to
+  China.
+
+  717-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take
+  Constantinople.
+
+  732. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.
+
+  751. Pepin crowned King of the French.
+
+  768. Pepin died.
+
+  771. Charlemagne sole king.
+
+  774. Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.
+
+  786. Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).
+
+  795. Leo III became Pope (to 816).
+
+  800. Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.
+
+  802. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charlemagne,
+  established himself as King of Wessex.
+
+  810. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.
+
+  814. Charlemagne died.
+
+  828. Egbert became first King of England.
+
+  843. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to
+  pieces. Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman
+  Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently.
+
+  850. About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod and
+  Kieff.
+
+  852. Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).
+
+  865. The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened Constantinople.
+
+  904. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.
+
+  912. Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.
+
+  919. Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.
+
+  936. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father, Henry
+  the Fowler.
+
+  941. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.
+
+  962. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon Emperor)
+  by John XII.
+
+  987. Hugh Capet became King of France.  End of the Carlovingian line
+  of French kings.
+
+  1016. Canute became King of England, Denmark and Norway.
+
+  1043. Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.
+
+  1066. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.
+
+  1071. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks.  Battle of Melasgird.
+
+  1073. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.
+
+  1084. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome.
+
+  1087-99. Urban II Pope.
+
+  1095. Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.
+
+  1096. Massacre of the People’s Crusade.
+
+  1099. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem.
+
+  1147. The Second Crusade.
+
+  1169. Saladin Sultan of Egypt.
+
+  1176. Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope
+  (Alexander III) at Venice.
+
+  1187. Saladin captured Jerusalem.
+
+  1189. The Third Crusade.
+
+  1198. Innocent III Pope (to 1216).  Frederick II (aged four), King of
+  Sicily, became his ward.
+
+  1202. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.
+
+  1204. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.
+
+  1214. Jengis Khan took Pekin.
+
+  1226. St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)
+
+  1227. Jengis Khan died.  Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and
+  was succeeded by Ogdai Khan.
+
+  1228. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired
+  Jerusalem.
+
+  1240. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.
+
+  1241. Mongol victory in Liegnitz in Silesia.
+
+  1250. Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died.  German
+  interregnum until 1273.
+
+  1251. Mangu Khan became Great Khan.  Kublai Khan governor of China.
+
+  1258. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.
+
+  1260. Kublai Khan became Great Khan.
+
+  1261. The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.
+
+  1273. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor.  The Swiss formed their
+  Everlasting League.
+
+  1280. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China.
+
+  1292. Death of Kublai Khan.
+
+  1293. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.
+
+  1348. The Great Plague, the Black Death.
+
+  1360. In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was succeeded by
+  the Ming dynasty (to 1644).
+
+  1377. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.
+
+  1378. The Great Schism.  Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon.
+
+  1398. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.
+
+  1414-18. The Council of Constance.
+
+Huss burnt (1415).
+
+  1417. The Great Schism ended.
+
+  1453. Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.
+
+  1480. Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol
+  allegiance.
+
+  1481. Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the
+  conquest of Italy.
+
+  1486. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+  1492. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America.
+
+  1498. Maximilian I became Emperor.
+
+  1498. Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.
+
+  1499. Switzerland became an independent republic.
+
+  1500. Charles V born.
+
+  1509. Henry VIII King of England.
+
+  1513. Leo X Pope.
+
+  1515. Francis I King of France.
+
+  1520. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from
+  Bagdad to Hungary.  Charles V Emperor.
+
+  1525. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded
+  the Mogul Empire.
+
+  1527. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon,
+  took and pillaged Rome.
+
+  1529. Suleiman besieged Vienna.
+
+  1530. Charles V crowned by the Pope.
+
+Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy.
+
+  1539. The Society of Jesus founded.
+
+  1546. Martin Luther died.
+
+  1547. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the Title of Tsar of Russia.
+
+  1556. Charles V abdicated.  Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605).  Ignatius
+  of Loyola died.
+
+  1558. Death of Charles V.
+
+  1566. Suleiman the Magnificent died.
+
+  1603. James I King of England and Scotland.
+
+  1620. _Mayflower_ expedition founded New Plymouth.  First negro
+  slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).
+
+  1625. Charles I of England.
+
+  1626. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.
+
+  1643. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two year’s.
+
+  1644. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.
+
+  1648. Treaty of Westphalia.  There-by Holland and Switzerland were
+  recognized as free republics and Prussia became important.  The
+  treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor to
+  the Princes.
+
+War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the French
+crown.
+
+  1649. Execution of Charles I of England.
+
+  1658. Aurungzeb Great Mogul.  Cromwell died.
+
+  1660. Charles II of England.
+
+  1674. Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was
+  renamed New York.
+
+  1683. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of
+  Poland.
+
+  1689. Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.)
+
+  1701. Frederick I first King of Prussia.
+
+  1707. Death of Aurungzeb.  The empire of the Great Mogul
+  disintegrated.
+
+  1713. Frederick the Great of Prussia born.
+
+  1715. Louis XV of France.
+
+  1755-63. Britain and France struggled for America and India.  France
+  in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and Britain
+  (1756-63); the Seven Years’ War.
+
+  1759. The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec.
+
+  1760. George III of Britain.
+
+  1763. Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain.  British dominant in
+  India.
+
+  1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born.
+
+  1774. Louis XVI began his reign.
+
+  1776. Declaration of Independence by the United States of America.
+
+  1783. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of
+  America.
+
+  1787. The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the
+  Federal Government of the United States.  France discovered to be
+  bankrupt.
+
+  1788. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.
+
+  1789. The French States-General assembled.  Storming of the Bastille.
+
+  1791. Flight to Varennes.
+
+  1792. France declared war on Austria.  Prussia declared war on
+  France. Battle of Valmy.  France became a republic.
+
+  1793. Louis XVI beheaded.
+
+  1794. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic.
+
+  1795. The Directory.  Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to Italy
+  as commander-in-chief.
+
+  1798. Bonaparte went to Egypt.  Battle of the Nile.
+
+  1799. Bonaparte returned to France.  He became First Consul with
+  enormous powers.
+
+  1804. Bonaparte became Emperor.  Francis II took the title of Emperor
+  of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of Holy Roman
+  Emperor.  So the “Holy Roman Empire” came to an end.
+
+  1806. Prussia overthrown at Jena.
+
+  1808. Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.
+
+  1810. Spanish America became republican.
+
+  1812. Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow.
+
+  1814. Abdication of Napoleon.  Louis XVIII.
+
+  1824. Charles X of France.
+
+  1825. Nicholas I of Russia.  First railway, Stockton to Darlington.
+
+  1827. Battle of Navarino.
+
+  1829. Greece independent.
+
+  1830. A year of disturbance.  Louis Philippe ousted Charles X. 
+  Belgium broke away from Holland.  Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became
+  king of this new country, Belgium.  Russian Poland revolted
+  ineffectually.
+
+  1835. The word “socialism” first used.
+
+  1837. Queen Victoria.
+
+  1840. Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
+
+  1852. Napoleon III Emperor of the French.
+
+1854-56. Crimean War.
+
+  1856. Alexander II of Russia.
+
+  1861. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy.  Abraham Lincoln became
+  President, U. S. A.  The American Civil War began.
+
+  1865. Surrender of Appomattox Court House.  Japan opened to the
+  world.
+
+  1870. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.
+
+  1871. Paris surrendered (January).  The King of Prussia became
+  “German Emperor.”  The Peace of Frankfort.
+
+  1878. The Treaty of Berlin.  The Armed Peace of forty-six years began
+  in western Europe.
+
+  1888. Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors.
+
+  1912. China became a republic.
+
+  1914. The Great War in Europe began.
+
+  1917. The two Russian revolutions.  Establishment of the Bolshevik
+  regime in Russia.
+
+  1918. The Armistice.
+
+  1920. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany,
+  Austria, Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United
+  States was not represented.
+
+  1921. The Greeks, in complete disregard of the League of Nations,
+  make war upon the Turks.
+
+  1922. Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks.
+
+
+INDEX
+
+A
+
+Abolitionist movement,384
+
+Abraham the Patriarch, 116
+
+Abu Bekr", 249, 252, 431
+
+Abyssinia, 398
+
+Actium, battle of, 195
+
+Adam and Eve, 116
+
+Adams, William, 400
+
+Aden, 405
+
+Adowa, battle of, 398
+
+Adrianople, 229
+
+Adrianople, Treaty of, 353
+
+Adriatic Sea, 178, 228
+
+Ægatian Isles, 182
+
+Ægean peoples, 92, 94, 100, 108, 117, 174
+
+Æolic Greeks, 108, 130
+
+Aeroplanes, 4, 363, 413
+
+Æschylus, 139
+
+Afghanistan, 163
+
+Africa, 72, 92, 122, 123, 182, 253, 258, 302
+
+Africa, Central, 397
+
+Africa, North, 65, 94, 180, 192, 232, 292, 394, 397, 431
+
+Africa, South, 72, 335, 398, 405
+
+Africa, West, 393
+
+“Age of Confusion,” the, 168, 173
+
+Agriculturalists, primitive, 66, 68
+
+Agriculture, 203; slaves in, 203
+
+Ahab, 119
+
+Air-breathing vertebrata, 23, 24
+
+Air-raids, 413
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, 265
+
+Akbar, 292, 332, 433
+
+Akkadian and Akkadians, 90, 122, 429
+
+Alabama, 385
+
+_Alabama_, the, 388
+
+Alani, 227, 430
+
+Alaric, 230, 232, 431
+
+Albania, 179
+
+Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Consort), 434
+
+Alchemists, 257, 294
+
+Aldebaran, 257
+
+Alemanni, 200, 431
+
+Alexander I. Tsar, 348
+
+Alexander II of Russia, 435
+
+Alexander III, Pope, 274, 432
+
+Alexander the Great, 142, 146 _et seq._, 163, 186, 240, 299, 430
+
+Alexandretta, 147
+
+Alexandria, 147, 151, 209, 222, 239
+
+Alexandria, library at, 151
+
+Alexandria, museum of, 150, 180
+
+Alexius Comnenus, 268
+
+Alfred the Great, 26
+
+Algæ, 13
+
+Algebra, 257, 282
+
+Algiers, 185
+
+Algol, 257
+
+Allah, 252
+
+Alligators, 28
+
+Alphabets, 79, 127
+
+Alps, the, 37, 197
+
+Alsace, 200, 309, 391
+
+Aluminium, 360
+
+Amenophis III, 96, 429
+
+Amenophis IV, 96
+
+America, 263, 302, 309, 314, 324, 335, 336, 442-23, 434
+
+America, North, 12, 330, 336, 382
+
+American Civil War, 386, 435
+
+American civilizations, primitive, 73 _et seq._
+
+American warships in Japanese waters, 402
+
+Ammonites, 30, 36
+
+Amorites, 90
+
+Amos, the prophet, 124
+
+Amphibia, 24
+
+Amphitheatres, 208
+
+Amur, 334
+
+Anagni, 284
+
+Anatomy, 24, 355
+
+Anaxagoras, 138
+
+Anaximander of Miletus, 132
+
+Andes, 37
+
+Angles, 230
+
+Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 405
+
+Animals, (_See_ Mammalia)
+
+Annam, 402
+
+Anti-aircraft guns, 413
+
+Antigonus, 149
+
+Antioch, 243, 271, 431
+
+Antiochus III, 183
+
+Anti-Slavery Society, 384
+
+Antoninus Pius, 195, 430
+
+Antony, Mark, 194
+
+Antwerp, 294
+
+Anubis, 210
+
+Apes, 43, 44; anthropoid, 45
+
+Apis, 209, 211
+
+Apollonius, 151
+
+Appian Way, 191
+
+Appomattox Court House, 338, 435
+
+Aquileia, 235
+
+Arabia, 77, 88, 91, 122, 123, 248
+
+Arabic figures, 257
+
+Arabic language, 243
+
+Arabs, 253 _et seq._, 294; culture of, 267
+
+Arbela, battle of, 147, 431
+
+Arcadius, 230, 431
+
+Archangel, 419
+
+Archimedes, 151
+
+Ardashir I, 241, 430
+
+Argentine Republic, 396
+
+Arians, 224
+
+Aristocracy, 130
+
+Aristotle, 142, 144, 146, 256, 282, 294, 295, 356, 370
+
+Armadillo, 74
+
+Armenia, 192, 268, 287, 299
+
+Armenians, 100, 108
+
+Armistice, the, 435
+
+Arno, the, 178
+
+Arsacid dynasty, 199, 431
+
+Artizans, 152
+
+Aryan language, 95, 100, 106
+
+Aryans, 95, 104 _et seq._, 122, 128, 151, 174, 176, 185, 197, 198, 233,
+303, 429
+
+Ascalon, 117
+
+Asceticism, 158-60, 213
+
+Ashdod, 117
+
+Asia, 72, 197, 227, 287, 298, 329 _et seq._, 333, 399 _et seq._, 403
+_et seq._, 430
+
+Asia, Central, 108, 122, 134, 148, 185, 245-47, 255, 334
+
+Asia Minor, 92, 94, 108, 127, 134, 148, 180, 192-93, 238, 243, 258,
+271, 292, 429, 430, 431
+
+Asia, Western, 65
+
+Asoka, King, 163 _et seq._, 180, 430
+
+Assam, 394
+
+Asses, 77, 83, 102, 112
+
+Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), 97, 98, 109, 110
+
+Assyria, 109, 115, 119, 121, 122, 429
+
+Assyrians, 84, 96, 97, 98, 108, 429
+
+Astronomy, early, 70, 74
+
+Athanasian Creed, 224
+
+Athenians, 135
+
+Athens, 129, 135-36, 139, 150, 185, 204, 431
+
+Athens, schools of philosophy in, 238
+
+Atkinson, C. F., 345
+
+Atkinson, J. J., 61, 373
+
+Atlantic, 122, 302
+
+Attalus, 430
+
+Attila, 234, 235, 238, 431
+
+Augsburg, Interim of, 313
+
+Augustus Cæsar, Roman Emperor, 195, 214
+
+Aurelian, Emperor, 200
+
+Aurochs, 197
+
+Aurungzeb, 434
+
+Ausculum, battle of, 178, 430
+
+Australia, 72, 322, 336, 395, 405
+
+Austrasia, 431
+
+Austria, 309, 327, 347-48, 349-52, 390, 411, 434
+
+Austrian Empire, 409
+
+Austrians, 344, 351
+
+Automobiles, 362
+
+Avars, 289
+
+Avebury, 106
+
+Averroes, 282
+
+Avignon, 285, 433
+
+Axis of earth, 1, 2
+
+Azilian age, 57, 65
+
+Azilian rock pictures, 57, 78
+
+Azoic rocks, 11
+
+Azores, 302
+
+B
+
+Baber, 290, 310, 332, 433
+
+Baboons, 43
+
+Babylon, 90, 94, 96, 97, 101, 102, 111, 112, 114, 115- 16, 119, 121,
+122, 134, 147, 148, 373, 429
+
+Babylonian calendar, 68
+
+Babylonian Empire, 90, 91, 109, 110
+
+Babylonians, 108
+
+Bacon, Roger, 293-97, 433
+
+Bacon, Sir Francis, 321, 355, 433
+
+Bagdad, 256, 267, 290, 292, 432, 433
+
+Bahamas, 407
+
+Baldwin of Flanders, 272
+
+Balkan peninsula, 108, 200, 230, 392, 429
+
+Balkh, 299
+
+Balloons, altitude attained by, 4
+
+Baltic, 415
+
+Baltic Fleet, Russian, 404
+
+Baluchistan, 405
+
+Barbarians, 227 _et seq._, 230, 320
+
+Barbarossa. Frederick, (_See_ Frederick I)
+
+Bards, 106, 234
+
+Barrows, 104
+
+Barter, 83, 102
+
+Basketwork, 65
+
+Basle, Council of, 305
+
+Basque race, 92, 107
+
+Bastille, 342, 434
+
+Basutoland, 407
+
+Beaconsfield, Lord, 394
+
+Bedouins, 122, 248
+
+Beetles, 26
+
+Behar, 180, 430
+
+Behring Straits, 52, 71, 73
+
+Bel Marduk, 109, 111, 112, 114
+
+Belgium, 185, 344, 347, 352, 411, 434
+
+Belisarius, 421
+
+Belshazzar, 112
+
+Beluchistan, 149
+
+Benares, 156, 160
+
+Beneventum, 179
+
+Berbers, 71, 92
+
+Bergen, 294
+
+Berlin, Treaty of, 435
+
+Bermuda, 407
+
+Bessemer process, 359
+
+Beth-shan, 118
+
+Bible, 1, 68, 100, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 184, 286, 298, 306-07
+(_Cf._ Hebrew Bible)
+
+Birds, flight of, 4; the earliest , 31; development of , 32
+
+Bison, 56
+
+Black Death, the, 433
+
+Black Sea, 71, 94-95, 108, 129, 200
+
+Blood sacrifice, 167, 186, 212 (_See also_ Sacrifice)
+
+Boats, 91, 136
+
+Boer republic, 187
+
+Boers, 398
+
+Bohemia, 236, 306
+
+Bohemians, 304-05, 326
+
+Bokhara, 256
+
+Boleyn, Anne, 313
+
+Bolivar, General, 349
+
+Bologna, 295, 312
+
+Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), 417-19, 435
+
+Bone carvings, 53
+
+Bone implements, 45, 46
+
+Boniface VIII, Pope, 283-84
+
+“Book religions,” 226
+
+Books, 153, 298, 302
+
+Boötes, 257
+
+Boris, King of Bulgaria, 432
+
+Bosnia, 228
+
+Bosphorus, 135
+
+Boston, 337-38
+
+Bostra, 243
+
+Botany Bay, 393
+
+Bourbon, Constable of, 312, 433
+
+Bowmen, 145, 155, 300
+
+Brahmins and Brahminism, 165, 166
+
+Brain, 42
+
+Brazil, 329, 336, 340
+
+Breathing, 24
+
+Brest-Litovsk, 417
+
+Britain, 106, 122, 174, 185, 203, 236, 349, 353, 402, 431, 434, (_See
+also_ England, Great Britain)
+
+British, 329, 331
+
+British Civil Air Transport Commission, 363
+
+British East Indian Company, (_See_ East India Company)
+
+British Empire, 407;  (in 1815) 393; (in 1914) 405
+
+British Guianu. 393
+
+British Navy, 408
+
+“British schools,” the, 369
+
+Brittany, 309
+
+Broken Hill, South Africa, 52
+
+Bronze, 80, 87, 102, 104
+
+Bruges, 294
+
+Brussels, 344
+
+Brythonic Celts, 107
+
+Buda-Pesth, 312
+
+Buddha, 133, 156, 172, 213 429; life of 158; his teaching 161-62
+
+Buddhism (and Buddhists), 166, 172, 222, 255, 290, 319, 334, 400, (_See
+also_ Buddha)
+
+Bulgaria, 135, 229, 245, 292, 411, 432
+
+Bull fights, Cretan, 93
+
+Burgoyne, General, 338
+
+Burgundy, 309, 342
+
+Burial, early, 102, 104
+
+Burleigh. Lord, 324
+
+Burma, 166, 300, 405
+
+Burning the dead, 104
+
+Bury, J. B., 288
+
+Bushmen, 54
+
+Byzantine Army, 253
+
+Byzantine Empire, 238, 271-72
+
+Byzantine fleet, 431
+
+Byzantium, 228, 243, 267, 268, (_See also_ Constantinople)
+
+C
+
+Cabul, 148
+
+Cæsar, Augustus, 430
+
+Cæsar, Julius, 187, 192, 193, 194, 195, 430
+
+Cæsar, title, etc., 212, 223, 240, 327
+
+Cainozoic period, 37 _et seq._
+
+Cairo, 256
+
+Calendar, 68
+
+Calicut, 329
+
+California, 336, 383
+
+Caligula, 195, 430
+
+Caliphs, 252
+
+“Cambulac,” 300
+
+Cambyses, 112, 134
+
+Camels, 42, 102, 112, 196, 319
+
+Campanella, 371
+
+Canaan, 116
+
+Canada, 332, 396, 405, 434
+
+Canary Islands, 302
+
+Cannæ, 182
+
+Canossa, 274
+
+Canton, 247
+
+Canute, 263, 432
+
+Cape Colony, 398
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 336, 393, 433
+
+Capet, Hugh, 266, 432
+
+Carboniferous age.  (_See_ Coal swamps)
+
+Cardinals, 277 _et seq._
+
+Caria, 98
+
+Carians, 94
+
+Caribou, 73
+
+Carlovingian Empire, 432
+
+Carnac, 106
+
+Carolinas, 388
+
+Carrhæ, 194
+
+Carthage, 92, 122, 123, 134, 176, 179, 182, 183, 185, 232, 429- 30, 431
+
+Carthaginians, 179, 182
+
+Caspian Sea, 71, 88, 108, 148, 193, 197, 430
+
+Caste, 157, 165
+
+Catalonians, 302
+
+“Cathay,” 300
+
+Catholicism, 237, 337, 351. (_See also_ Papacy, Roman Catholic)
+
+Cato, 187
+
+Cattle, 77, 83
+
+Caudine Forks, 430
+
+Cavalry, 145, 148, 178
+
+Cave drawings, 53, 56, 57
+
+Caxton, William, 306
+
+Celibacy, 275
+
+Celts, 106, 107, 193
+
+Centipedes, 23
+
+Ceylon, 165, 407
+
+Chæronia, battle of, 145, 146, 430
+
+Chalcedon, 243
+
+Chaldean Empire, 109
+
+Chaldeans, 109, 110-11, 115, 429
+
+Chandragupta, 163, 430
+
+Chariots, 96, 100, 101-02, 112, 119, 145, 148
+
+Charlemagne, 259, 261, 264-65, 272, 309, 432
+
+Charles I, King of England, 308, 314, 433
+
+Charles II, King of England, 324, 434
+
+Charles V, Emperor, 309, 310, 314, 316, 433
+
+Charles X, King of France, 350, 434
+
+Charles the Great, (_See_ Charlemagne)
+
+_Charlotte Dundas_, steamboat, 357
+
+Chelonia, 27
+
+Chemists, Arab, 257.  (_Cf._ Alchemists)
+
+Cheops, 83
+
+Chephren, 83
+
+China, 76, 84, 103, 166, 167 _et seq._, 173, 174, 233, 245 _et seq._,
+248, 287, 290, 297, 333, 399- 400, 402-03, 411, 429-31, 432, 433, 435. 
+(_See also_ Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung, Suy, Ts’in, and Yuan
+dynasties)
+
+China, culture and civilization in, 247
+
+China, Empire of, 196 _et seq._
+
+China, Great Wall of, 173, 430
+
+China, North, 173
+
+Chinese picture writing, 79, 167
+
+Chosroes I, 243, 431
+
+Chosroes II, 243, 431
+
+Chow dynasty, 168, 173, 429
+
+Christ.  (_See_ Jesus)
+
+Christian conception of Jesus, 214
+
+Christianity (and Christians), 224, 255, 272, 295, 319, 400, 431
+
+Christianity, doctrinal, development of, 222 _et seq._
+
+Christianity, spirit of, 224
+
+Chronicles, book of, 116, 119
+
+Chronology, primitive, 68
+
+Ch’u, 173
+
+Church, the, 68
+
+Cicero, 193
+
+Cilicia, 299
+
+Cimmerians, 100
+
+Circumcision, 70
+
+Circumnavigation, 302
+
+Cities, Sumerian, 78
+
+Citizenship, 187 _et seq._, 236, 237
+
+City states, Greek, 129 _et seq._, Chinese, 168
+
+Civilization, 100
+
+Civilization, Hellenic, 139, 150 _et seq._
+
+Civilization, Japanese, 400
+
+Civilization, pre-historic, 71
+
+Civilization, primitive, 76, 167
+
+Civilization, Roman, 185
+
+Claudius, Emperor, 195, 430
+
+Clay documents, 77, 80, 111
+
+Clement V, Pope, 285
+
+Clement VII, Pope, 285, 433
+
+Cleopatra, 194
+
+Clermont, 432
+
+_Clermont_, steamboat, 358
+
+Climate, changes of, 21, 37
+
+Clive, 333
+
+Clothing, 77
+
+Clothing of Cretan women, 93
+
+Clouds, 8
+
+Clovis, 259
+
+Clyde, Firth of, 357
+
+Cnossos (Crete), 92, 94, 95, 101, 108, 127, 429
+
+Coal, 26
+
+Coal swamps, the age of, 21 _et seq._
+
+Coinage, 114, 176, 201, 319
+
+Coke, 322
+
+Collectivists, 375
+
+Colonies, 394 _et seq._, 407
+
+Columbus, Christopher, 300-01 _et seq._, 335, 433
+
+Communism (and Communists), 374-75, 417
+
+Comnenus, Alexius.  (_See_ Alexius)
+
+Comparative anatomy, science of, 25, (_Cf._ Anatomy)
+
+Concord, Mass., 338
+
+Confederated States of America, 385
+
+Confucius, 133, 168 _et seq._, 173, 429
+
+Congo, 397
+
+Conifers, 26, 36
+
+Constance, Council of, 286, 304, 433
+
+Constantine the Great, 187, 226, 228, 229, 241, 429, 431
+
+Constantinople, 229, 238, 239, 243, 253, 258, 263- 64, 270 _et seq._,
+272, 283, 292, 301, 321, 327, 431, 432, 433.  (_See also_ Byzantium)
+
+Consuls, Roman, 193
+
+Copper, 74, 80, 102, 360, 395
+
+Cordoba, 256
+
+Corinth, 129
+
+Cornwallis, General, 338
+
+Corsets, 93
+
+Corsica, 182, 185, 232
+
+Cortez, 314
+
+Cossacks, 334
+
+Cotton fabrics, 102
+
+Couvade, the, 70
+
+Crabs, 23
+
+Crassus, 192, 194, 199
+
+Creation of the world, story of, 1, 116
+
+Creed religions, 240
+
+Cretan script, 94
+
+Crete, 92, 108
+
+Crimea, 419
+
+Crimean War, 390, 434
+
+Crocodiles, 28
+
+Crœsus, 111, 429
+
+Cro-Magnon race, 51, 54, 65
+
+Cromwell, Oliver, 434
+
+Cronstadt, 419
+
+Crucifixion, 204
+
+Crusades, 267 _et seq._, 281, 304-05, 432
+
+Crustacea, 13
+
+Ctesiphon, 244
+
+Cuba, 393
+
+Cultivation, the beginnings of, 65 _et seq._
+
+Culture, Heliolithic, 69
+
+Culture, Japanese, 402
+
+Cuneiform, 78
+
+Currents, 18
+
+Cyaxares, 109-10, 429
+
+Cycads, 26, 36
+
+Cyrus the Persian, 111, 116, 121, 123, 134, 429
+
+Czech language, 236
+
+Czecho-Slovaks, 351
+
+Czechs, 304
+
+D
+
+Dacia, 195, 200, 203, 227, 236
+
+Dædalus, 94
+
+Dalmatia, 431
+
+Damascus, 243, 253, 431
+
+Danes, 329, 330
+
+Danube, 135, 200, 227, 430
+
+Dardanelles, 136, 147, 292
+
+Darius I, 112, 134, 135, 136, 429
+
+Darius III, 147, 148, 430
+
+Darlington, 356, 434
+
+David, King, 118-19, 429
+
+Da Vinci, Leonardo, 356
+
+Davis, Jefferson, 385, 388
+
+Dawn Man.  (_See_ Eoanthropus)
+
+Dead, burning the, 104; burial of (_See_ Burial)
+
+Debtors’ prisons, 336
+
+Deciduous trees, 36
+
+Decius, Emperor, 200, 432
+
+Declaration of Independence, 334, 434
+
+_Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (Gibbon’s), 288-89
+
+Deer, 42, 56
+
+Defender of the Faith, title of, 313
+
+Defoe, Daniel, 365
+
+Delhi, 292, 433
+
+Democracy, 131, 132, 270
+
+Deniken, General, 419
+
+Denmark, 306, 313, 394, 432
+
+Deshima, 401
+
+Devonian system, 19
+
+Diaz, 433
+
+Dictator, Roman, 194
+
+Dillon, Dr., 424
+
+Dinosaurs, 28, 31, 36
+
+Diocletian, Emperor, 224, 226, 227
+
+Dionysius, 170
+
+Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, 28
+
+Diseases, infectious, 379
+
+Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, 13
+
+Dogs, 42
+
+Domazlice, battle of, 305
+
+Dominic, St., 276
+
+Dominician Order, 276, 285, 400
+
+Dorian Greeks, 108, 130
+
+Douglas, Senator, 386
+
+Dover, Straits of, 193
+
+Dragon flies, 23
+
+Drama, Greek, 139
+
+Dravidian civilization, 108
+
+Dravidians, 71
+
+Duck-billed platypus, 34
+
+Duma, the, 416
+
+Durazzo, 268
+
+Dutch, 329, 331, 332, 399
+
+Dutch Guiana, 394
+
+Dutch Republic, 350
+
+Dyeing, 75
+
+E
+
+Earth, the, shape of, 1; rotation of, 1; distance from the sun, 2; age
+and origin of, 5; surface of, 21
+
+Earthquakes, 95
+
+East India Company, 332, 337, 393, 394
+
+East Indies, 394, 399
+
+Ebro, 182
+
+Ecbatana, 109, 114
+
+Echidna, the, 34
+
+Eclipses, 8
+
+Ecnomus, battle of, 181, 430
+
+Economists, French, 371
+
+Edessa, 271
+
+Education, 294, 361, 368, 369
+
+Egbert, King of Wessex, 263, 432
+
+Egg-laying mammals, 34
+
+Eggs, 24, 26, 31, 102
+
+Egypt (and Egyptians), 71, 78, 90, 91, 62, 96, 98, 100- 101, 115, 119,
+121, 122, 123, 124, 134, 138, 147, 174, 208, 209, 210, 238, 253, 267,
+290, 292, 396, 398, 405, 429, 431, 434
+
+Egyptian script, 78, 79
+
+Elamites, 88, 90, 174
+
+Elba, 348
+
+Electric light, 360
+
+Electric traction, 360
+
+Electricity, 322, 358, 360
+
+Elephants, 42, 127, 149, 178, 181, 253, 300
+
+Elixir of life, 257
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 324, 332
+
+Emigration, 336
+
+Emperor, title of, 327
+
+Employer and employed, 375
+
+“Encyclopædists,” the, 371
+
+England (and English), 306, 390, 431
+
+England, Norman Conquest of, 266
+
+England, overseas possessions, 330
+
+English Channel, 331
+
+English language, 95
+
+Entelodonts, 42
+
+Eoanthropus, 47
+
+Eoliths, 45
+
+Ephesus, 149
+
+Ephthalites, 199
+
+Epics, 106, 127, 129, 131
+
+Epirus, 131, 178, 179
+
+Epistles, the, 222
+
+Eratosthenes, 151
+
+Erech, Sumerian city of, 78
+
+Esarhaddon, 429
+
+Essenes, 213
+
+Esthonia, 245
+
+Esthonians, 419
+
+Ethiopian dynasty, 429
+
+Ethiopians, 96, 233
+
+Etruscans, 94, 100, 176, 430
+
+Euclid, 151
+
+Euphrates, 77, 110, 127, 129, 174, 196, 429, 430
+
+Euripides, 139
+
+Europe, 200
+
+Europe, Central, 329
+
+Europe, Concert of, 350
+
+Europe, Western, 53, 298
+
+European overseas populations, 336
+
+Europeans, intellectual revival of, 294 _et seq._
+
+Europeans, North Atlantic, 329
+
+Europeans, Western, 329
+
+Everlasting League, 433
+
+Evolution, 16, 42
+
+Excommunication, 275, 281, 285
+
+Execution. Greek method of, 140
+
+Ezekiel, 124
+
+F
+
+Factory system, 365
+
+Family groups, 61
+
+Famine, 420
+
+Faraday, 358
+
+Fashoda, 398
+
+Fatherhood of God, the, 215, 224, 251
+
+Fear, 61
+
+Feathers, 32
+
+Ferdinand of Aragon, King, 293, 302, 309
+
+Ferns, 23, 26
+
+Fertilizers, 363
+
+Fetishism, 63, 64
+
+Feudal system, 258, 400, 401, 402
+
+Fielding, Henry, 365
+
+Fiji, 407
+
+Finance, 134
+
+Finland, 245
+
+Finns, 351
+
+Fish, the age of, 16 _et seq._; the first known vertebrata, 19;
+evolution of, 30
+
+Fisher, Lord, 416
+
+Fishing, 57
+
+Fleming, Bishop, 286
+
+Flint implements, 44, 47
+
+Flood, story of the, 91, 116
+
+Florence, 294
+
+Florentine Society, 322
+
+Florida, 336, 385
+
+Flying machines, 94, 363
+
+Fontainebleau, 348
+
+Food, rationing of, 414
+
+Food riots, 417
+
+Forests, 56, 197
+
+Fossils, 13, 43.  (_Cf._ Rocks)
+
+Fowl, the domestic, 88, 102
+
+France, 106, 185, 230, 259, 263, 312, 336, 342, 353, 390, 391, 394,
+396, 402, 409, 411, 434
+
+Francis I, King of France, 310, 312, 313, 433
+
+Francis II, Emperor of Austria, 434
+
+Francis of Assisi, St., 276, 432
+
+Franciscan Order, 276, 285, 432
+
+Frankfort, Peace of, 391, 435
+
+Franks, 200, 227, 235, 259, 265, 431
+
+Frazer, Sir J. G., 66
+
+Frederick I (Barbarossa), 274, 432
+
+Frederick I, King of Prussia, 434
+
+Frederick II, German Emperor, 279, 280, 288 _et seq._, 289, 294, 304,
+435
+
+Frederick II, King of Sicily, 432
+
+Frederick the Great of Prussia, 437, 434
+
+Freeman’s Farm, 338
+
+French, 329, 331, 332, 419
+
+French Guiana, 394
+
+French language, 203, 327, 328, 419
+
+French Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 374
+
+Frogs, 24
+
+Fronde, war of the, 434
+
+Fulton, Robert, 358
+
+Furnace, blast, 359; electric, 359
+
+Furs, 335
+
+G
+
+Galatia, 430
+
+Galatians, 193
+
+Galba, 430
+
+Galerius, Emperor, 226, 431
+
+Galleys, 91, 92, 181, 263
+
+Galvani, 258
+
+Gamma, Vasco da, 329, 335, 433
+
+Ganges, 156
+
+Gath, 117
+
+Gaul, 203, 235, 236, 357, 431
+
+Gauls, 154, 178, 179, 180, 182, 193, 430
+
+Gautama.  (_See_ Buddha)
+
+Gaza, 117, 147
+
+Gaztelu, 314
+
+Genoa (and Genoese), 294, 300, 301, 302
+
+Genoa Conference, 425
+
+Genseric, 232
+
+Geology, 11 _et seq._, 356
+
+George III, King of England, 324, 337, 434
+
+Georgia, 336, 339, 385, 387
+
+German Empire, 409
+
+German language, 95, 236, 260
+
+Germans, 268, 288, 310, 351, 360- 61, 362
+
+Germany, 197, 326, 347, 348, 362, 390, 396, 402, 409, 410, 411
+
+Germany, North, 306
+
+Gibbon, E., 234, 288
+
+Gibraltar, 71, 92, 94, 253, 393, 407
+
+Gigantosaurus, measurement of, 28
+
+Gilbert, Dr., 322
+
+Gilboa, Mount, 118
+
+Gills, 24
+
+Giraffes, 42
+
+Gizeh, pyramids at, 83
+
+Glacial Ages, 22, 37, 44
+
+Gladiators, 205
+
+Glass, 102
+
+Glyptodon, 74
+
+Goa, 329
+
+Goats, 77
+
+God, idea of one true, 249
+
+God of Judaism, 123, 209, 213, 214, 215
+
+Godfrey of Bouillon, 432
+
+Gods, 111, 123, 129, 165, 184, 186, 201 _et seq._, 208 _et seq._, 240
+
+Goidelic Celts, 106
+
+Gold, 74, 80, 83, 102, 300, 395
+
+_Golden Bough_, Frazer’s, 66
+
+Good Hope, Cape of.  (_See_ Cape)
+
+Gospels, the, 214 _et seq._, 222
+
+Gothic kingdom, 259
+
+Gothland, 197, 200
+
+Goths, 181, 200, 227, 228, 430, 431
+
+Granada, 293, 301
+
+Granicus, battle of the, 146, 430
+
+Grant, General, 387, 388
+
+Graphite, 15
+
+Grass, 37, 51
+
+Great Britain, 396, 410
+
+Great Mogul, Empire of, 394, 434
+
+Great Powers, 399 _et seq._
+
+Great Schism.  (_See_ Papal schism)
+
+Great War, the, 411 _et seq. _, 421, 435
+
+Greece, 92, 94, 108, 127, 139 _et seq._, 145 _et seq._, 434
+
+Greece, war with Persia, 134 _et seq._
+
+Greek language, 95, 202, 203
+
+Greeks, 92, 100, 101, 108, 122 _et seq._, 135, 150, 174, 186, 271, 272,
+301, 353, 419, 429, 430, 433
+
+Greenland, 263
+
+Gregory I, Pope, 263
+
+Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 268, 272, 274, 275, 278, 432
+
+Gregory IX, Pope, 281
+
+Gregory XI, Pope, 285, 433
+
+Gregory the Great, 272
+
+Grimaldi race, 51, 54, 65
+
+Guillotine, the, 346
+
+Guiscard, Robert, 432
+
+Gunpowder, 287, 321
+
+Guns, 321, 413
+
+Gustavus Adolphus, 331
+
+Gymnastic displays, Cretan, 93
+
+H
+
+Habsburgs, 283, 309, 310
+
+Hadrian, 174, 430
+
+Halicarnassus, 138
+
+Hamburg, 294
+
+Hamitic people, 71
+
+Hammurabi, 90, 92, 104, 429
+
+Han dynasty, 196, 200, 245, 430
+
+Hannibal, 182
+
+Hanover, Elector of, 327
+
+Harding, President, 425
+
+Harold Hardrada, 266
+
+Harold, King of England, 266
+
+Haroun-al-Raschid, 267, 432
+
+Hastings, battle of, 266
+
+Hastings, Warren, 333
+
+Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, 96
+
+Hathor, 209
+
+Heaven, Kingdom of, 216, 217
+
+Hebrew Bible, 1, 115, 116.  (_Cf._ Bible)
+
+Hebrew literature, 100
+
+Hebrews, 100, 115.  (_See also_ Jews)
+
+Hegira, 431
+
+Heidelberg man, 45
+
+Heliolithic culture, 69, 71, 167, 174
+
+Heliolithic peoples, 107
+
+Hellenic tribes, 100.  (_See also_ Greeks)
+
+Hellespont, 430, 431
+
+Helots, 130, 203
+
+Hen.  (_See_ Fowl)
+
+Henry IV, King, 274
+
+Henry VI, Emperor, 279
+
+Henry VIII, King of England, 310, 312, 313, 324, 433
+
+Henry the Fowler, 265, 432
+
+Heraclea, battle of, 178, 430
+
+Heraclitus of Ephesus, 132, 156, 161
+
+Heraclius, Emperor, 243, 247, 253, 431
+
+Herat, 148
+
+Herbivorous reptiles, 28
+
+Hercules, Pillars of, (_See_ Gibraltar)
+
+Hero, 151, 152
+
+Herodotus, 138, 139
+
+Herophilus, 151
+
+Hiero, 182
+
+Hieroglyphics, 79, 124
+
+Hildebrand. (_See_ Gregory VII)
+
+Himalayas, the, 37
+
+Hipparchus, 151
+
+Hippopotamus, 43
+
+Hiram, King of Sidon, 118, 119, 122
+
+_History of Charles V_, 316
+
+Hittites, 96, 97, 98, 108
+
+Hohenstaufens, 283
+
+Holland, 306, 344, 347, 394, 396, 402, 433, 434
+
+Holstein, 351
+
+Holy Alliance, 349
+
+Holy Roman Empire, 264, 309, 317, 323, 347, 377, 409, 432, 434
+
+Homer, 129
+
+Honorius, 230, 431
+
+Honorius III, Pope, 281
+
+Horse, 51, 56, 94, 96, 97, 112, 167, 319, 336; evolution of the, 42
+
+Horsetails, 23
+
+Horus, 209, 210, 211
+
+Hottentots, 54
+
+Hsia, 287
+
+Hudson Bay Company, 393
+
+Hudson River, 358
+
+Hulagu Khan, 290, 433
+
+Human sacrifice, 182, 186. (_Cf._ Blood Sacrifice, Sacrifice)
+
+Hungarians, 263, 289, 351
+
+Hungary, 185, 203, 227, 245, 258, 263, 289, 290, 292, 310, 312, 351
+
+Hungary, plain of, 234
+
+Huns, 88, 167, 168, 174, 197, 198, 227, 232, 233, 245, 263, 289, 431
+
+Hunting, 56
+
+Huss, John, 304, 433
+
+Hussites, 305
+
+Hwang-ho river, 173
+
+Hwang-ho valley, 300
+
+Hyksos, 90, 96
+
+Hyracodons, 42
+
+Hystaspes, 430
+
+I
+
+Iberians, 71, 92
+
+Ice age, 43.  (_Cf._ Glacial ages)
+
+Iceland, 263
+
+Ichthyosaurs, 29, 36
+
+Ignatius of Loyola, St., 308, 434
+
+_Iliad_, 127
+
+Illinois, 386
+
+Illyria, 179, 182
+
+Immolation of human beings, 102
+
+Immortality, idea of, 210, 211, 224
+
+Imperialism, 399
+
+Implements, 46, 48, 56, 57, 65, 87
+
+Implements, use of, by animals, 44, 45
+
+India, 71, 84, 104, 108, 122, 149, 156, 163, 164, 196, 199, 287, 302,
+335, 394- 95, 399, 409, 433, 434
+
+Indian Empire, 405
+
+Indian Ocean, 329
+
+Indiana, 383, 386
+
+Individualists, 375 _et seq._
+
+Individuality in reproduction, 16 _et seq._
+
+Indo-Scythians, 199, 430
+
+Indus, 149, 429
+
+Industrial revolution, 365 _et seq._
+
+Infantry, 178
+
+Influenza, 414
+
+Innocent III, Pope, 276, 279, 280, 432
+
+Innocent IV, Pope, 281
+
+Innsbruck, 313
+
+Inquisition, the, 276, 349
+
+Insects, 26, 31
+
+Interdicts, papal, 275
+
+Interglacial period, 44
+
+Internationalism, 380
+
+Invertebrata, 13
+
+Investitures, 275
+
+Ionic Greeks, 108, 130
+
+Iowa, 385
+
+Ireland, 106, 405
+
+Iron, 80, 87, 94, 97, 102, 104, 168, 319, 321, 358, 359
+
+Irrigation, 290
+
+Isabella of Castile, Queen, 293, 302, 309
+
+Isaiah, 125, 133, 156
+
+Isis, 209, 210, 211, 212
+
+Islam, 251, 252, 432
+
+Islamism, 267, 319.  (_See also_ Moslem, Muhammedanism)
+
+Isocrates, 145
+
+Israel, judges of, 118
+
+Israel, kings of, 118, 119, 121
+
+Issus, battle of, 147, 430
+
+Italian language, 203
+
+Italians, 107, 351
+
+Italica, 202
+
+Italy, 94, 108, 129, 134, 176, 180, 230, 236, 312, 327, 347, 390, 396,
+409, 411, 429, 431, 434
+
+Italy, Central, 429
+
+Italy, North, 263, 312, 351, 390, 429, 431
+
+Italy, South, 429
+
+Ivan III (the Great), 327, 433
+
+Ivan IV (the Terrible), 327, 433
+
+J
+
+Jacobin republic, 434
+
+Jamaica, 393, 407
+
+James I, King of England and Scotland, 324, 433
+
+Jamestown (Va.), 433
+
+Japan, 166, 300, 399, 400-01 _et seq._, 409, 410, 435
+
+Japanese, 419
+
+Jarandilla, 315
+
+Java, 302, 329
+
+Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, 45-46; Piltdown, 46
+
+Jehovah, 125
+
+Jena, 434
+
+Jengis Khan, 287, 298, 334, 432
+
+Jerusalem, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 124, 184, 215, 243, 267, 271, 272,
+299, 431, 432
+
+Jerusalem, Temple of, 119, 184
+
+Jesuits, 308, 400, 433
+
+Jesus, life and teaching of, 214 _et seq._, 224, 270, 306, 374, 430
+
+Jews, 123, 124, 147, 184, 213, 215, 255, 256, 270, 294
+
+Jews, early history of, 115 _et seq._
+
+Jews, literature of, 115
+
+Jewish religion and sacred books, 116
+
+John III of Poland, 434
+
+John XI, Pope, 272
+
+John XII, Pope, 272, 432
+
+Joppa, 117
+
+Joseph, King of Spain, 349, 434
+
+Josiah, King of Judah, 110, 115, 116, 429
+
+Judah, 115, 119
+
+Judah, kings of, 119
+
+Judea, 115, 183, 214
+
+Judea, priests and prophets in, 122 _et seq._
+
+Judges, book of, 117
+
+Judges of Israel, 118
+
+Jugo-Slavia, 354
+
+Jugo-Slavs, 351
+
+Jugurtha, 192
+
+Julian the Apostate, 431
+
+Julius III, 316
+
+Junks, Chinese, 400
+
+Jupiter (god), 211, 212
+
+Jupiter (planet), 2, 3
+
+Jupiter Capitolinus, 184
+
+Jupiter Serapis, 226
+
+Justinian I, 232, 238, 243, 431
+
+Jutes, 230
+
+K
+
+Kaaba, the, 249
+
+Kadessia, battle of, 253, 431
+
+Kalinga, 163
+
+Kansas, 383
+
+Karakorum, 287, 298
+
+Karnak, 101
+
+Kashgar, 300
+
+Kashmir, Buddhists in, 165
+
+Kavadh, 243, 244, 431
+
+Kentucky, 383, 386
+
+Kerensky, 416, 417
+
+Khans, 287 _et seq._
+
+Khyber Pass, 148, 199
+
+Kiau Chau, 400
+
+Kieff, 287, 432
+
+Kin dynasty, 287
+
+Kings, book of, 119
+
+Kioto, 402
+
+Ki-wi, the, 32
+
+Koltchak, Admiral, 419
+
+Koran, the, 251, 255
+
+Korea, 400, 402
+
+Kotan, 300
+
+Krum of Bulgaria, 432
+
+Kublai Khan, 290, 298, 300, 433
+
+Kushan dynasty, 199
+
+L
+
+Labyrinth, Cretan, 127
+
+Lahore, 287
+
+Lake Ontario, 336
+
+Land scorpions, 23
+
+Langley, Professor, 363
+
+Languages of mankind, 94, 95, 100, 106, 107, 108, 134, 145, 156, 176,
+201, 202, 203, 230, 236, 243, 245, 259, 325, 328
+
+Lao Tse, 133, 170 _et seq._, 222, 429
+
+Lapland, 233
+
+Latin Emperor, 259
+
+Latin language, 201, 202, 203, 236, 259.  (_Cf._ also Languages)
+
+Latins, the, 271, 272, 432
+
+Law, 238
+
+_Laws_, Plato’s, 142
+
+League of Nations, 422, 423, 424, 425, 435
+
+Learning, 255
+
+Lee, General, 387, 389
+
+Legionaries, 229
+
+Lemurs, 43
+
+Lenin, 417, 419
+
+Leo III, Pope, 265, 272, 432
+
+Leo X, Pope, 310, 312, 433
+
+Leonidas, 136
+
+Leopold I, 353
+
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 434
+
+Lepanto, battle of, 293
+
+Lepidus, 194
+
+Lexington, 338
+
+Liberia, 398
+
+Libraries, 151, 164, 170
+
+Liegnitz, battle of, 288, 289, 433
+
+Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, 11 _et seq._; progressive
+nature of, 16; of what it consists, 16; theory of Natural Selection,
+18; a teachable type: advent of, 39
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, 385, 386, 388, 389, 435; assassination of, 389
+
+Linen, 102
+
+Lions, 42, 127
+
+Lisbon, 294, 315, 329
+
+Literary criticism, evolution of, 205
+
+Literature, European, 298
+
+Literature, pre-historic, 115
+
+Lizards, 27, 28
+
+Llamas, 42
+
+Lob Nor, 300
+
+Lochau, battle of, 313
+
+Locke, John, 371
+
+Logic, science of, 144
+
+Lombard kingdom, 259
+
+Lombards, 431
+
+Lombardy, 431
+
+London, 294, 413
+
+Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, 308, (_See also_ Ignatius of Loyola)
+
+Lorraine, 391
+
+Louis XIV, 324, 433
+
+Louis XV, 434
+
+Louis XVI, 342, 343, 434
+
+Louis XVIII, 350, 434
+
+Louis Philippe, 350, 434
+
+Louis the Pious, 265, 432
+
+Louisiana, 336, 385
+
+Lu, state of, 170
+
+Lucretius, 294
+
+Lucullus, 192
+
+Lunar month, 68
+
+Lung, the, 24
+
+Luther, Martin, 306, 310, 433
+
+Luxembourg, 351
+
+Luxor, 101
+
+Lvoff, Prince, 416
+
+Lyceum, Athens, 142, 144
+
+Lydia, 98, 134
+
+Lydians, 94
+
+Lyons, 345
+
+M
+
+Macao, 329
+
+Macaulay, Lord, 187
+
+Maccabeans, 184
+
+Macedonia and Macedonians, 131, 135, 139, 145, 179, 292, 350
+
+Machinery, 322, 356
+
+Madeira, 122, 302
+
+Madras, 163
+
+Magellan, Ferdinand, 302
+
+Magic, 172
+
+Magna Græcia, 129, 178
+
+Magnesia, battle of, 183
+
+Magyars, 263, 264, 270, 289
+
+Mahaffy, Professor, 151
+
+Maine, 336, 339
+
+Majuba Hill, battle of, 398
+
+Malta, 393, 407
+
+Mammals, the earliest, 33; viviparous, 33; egg-laying, 34; the Age of,
+37 _et seq. _
+
+Mammoth, 43, 49
+
+Man, brotherhood of, 216, 224, 380
+
+Man, 43; Heidelberg, 45; Eoanthropus, 47; Neanderthal, 47, 48 _et
+seq._; earliest known, 53 _et seq._
+
+Manchu, 333, 433
+
+Manchuria, 197, 400, 402, 403, 404
+
+Mangu Khan, 290, 433
+
+Mani, 241, 270, 430, 431
+
+Manichæans, 243, 255
+
+Mankind, racial divisions of, 54, 71
+
+Mantua, 345
+
+Maoris, 71
+
+Marathon, 136
+
+Marathon, battle of, 430
+
+Marchand, Colonel, 398
+
+Marcus Aurelius, 174, 430
+
+Marie Antoinette, 343, 346
+
+Mariner’s compass, 302, 320
+
+Marius, 191, 192, 237, 430
+
+“Marriage of East and West,” 149
+
+Mars (planet), 2, 3
+
+Marseillaise, the, 343, 345
+
+Marseilles, 129, 182, 312, 345
+
+Martel, Charles, 259, 432
+
+Marlin V, Pope, 286, 304
+
+Marx, 376
+
+Maryland, 337
+
+Mas d’Azil cave, 57
+
+Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 390, 391
+
+Maximilian I, Emperor, 309, 433
+
+Maya writing, 74, 75
+
+Mayence, 265, 344
+
+_Mayflower_ expedition, 433
+
+Mazarin, Cardinal, 324
+
+Mecca, 248, 249, 251, 431
+
+Mechanical revolution, 256 _et seq._, 366, 369
+
+Medes, 100, 108, 109, 115, 122, 134, 155, 174, 429
+
+Media, rebellion in, 136
+
+Median Empire, 109, 110, 112
+
+Medicine man, the, 64
+
+Medina, 249
+
+Mediterranean, 71, 91, 176, 292, 293; valley, 71
+
+“Mediterranean” people, pre-Greek, 130
+
+Megatherium, 74
+
+Megiddo, battle of, 110, 115, 429
+
+Melasgird, battle of, 268, 432
+
+Mentality, primitive, 60, _et seq._
+
+Mercury (planet), 2, 3
+
+Mesopotamia, 77, 80, 96, 100, 109, 127, 174, 267, 290, 299
+
+Mesozoic period, 27; land life of, 28; sea life of, 30; scarcity of
+bird and mammal life in, 32, 34; its difference from Cainozoic period,
+38
+
+Messina, 179, 180
+
+Messina, Straits of, 179
+
+Metallurgy, 356, 359, 360
+
+Metals, transmutation of, 257
+
+Meteoric iron, 80, 94
+
+Metz, 391
+
+Mexico, 74, 76, 324, 321, 384, 385, 389, 399
+
+Michael VII, Emperor, 268
+
+Michael VIII.  (_See_ Palæologus)
+
+Microscope, 355
+
+Midianites, 117
+
+Milan, 227, 235, 309, 312, 351
+
+Miletus, 129
+
+Millipedes, 23
+
+Milton, 129
+
+Ming dynasty, 290, 333, 433
+
+Mining, 335
+
+Minnesota, 385
+
+Minos, 92, 95, 127, 131
+
+Missionaries, 236, 247, 380, 400, 431
+
+Mississippi (state), 385
+
+Mississippi River, 386
+
+Missouri, 382
+
+Mithraism, 211, 212, 213, 222, 431
+
+Mithras, 211, 213
+
+Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, 76
+
+Moabites, 117
+
+Moawija, Caliph, 431
+
+Mogul dynasty, 292, 433
+
+Moluccas, 329
+
+Monarchy, 323, 341, 347
+
+Monasticism, 213, 236
+
+Money, 114, 176, 201, 319
+
+Mongol conquests, influence of, 298
+
+Mongol Court, the, 299
+
+Mongol Empire, 332
+
+Mongolia, 197
+
+Mongolian language, 108
+
+Mongolian peoples, 72, 73, 88, 167, 197, 227, 232, 233 _et seq._, 245,
+258, 287 _et seq._, 298, 320, 333, 400, 433
+
+Mongoloid tribes, 69
+
+Monkeys, 43, 45
+
+Monotheism, 251. (_See also_ Muhammad)
+
+Monroe doctrine, 349, 389, 396, 423
+
+Monroe, President, 349
+
+Montesquieu, 371
+
+Montgomery, 385
+
+Month, the lunar, 68
+
+Moon, the, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 68
+
+Moorish paper-mills, 297
+
+More, Sir Thomas, 365, 371
+
+Morelly, 371
+
+Morocco, 185, 398
+
+Mortillet, 57
+
+Moscow, 293, 434
+
+Moscow, Grand Duke of, 290
+
+Moses, 116
+
+Moslem Empire, 253
+
+Moslems, 297, 431, 432
+
+Moslim, the, 253, 269, 271, 290
+
+Mososaurs, 29
+
+Moses, 23
+
+Mounds, Neolithic, 70
+
+Mountains, 197
+
+Mozambique, 329
+
+Muehlon, Herr, 424
+
+Muhammad, prophet, 243, 247, 248 _et seq._, 270, 431
+
+Muhammad II, Sultan, 292, 433
+
+Mules, 102
+
+Mummies, 70
+
+Munitions, 412
+
+Musk ox, 43
+
+Mycalæ, battle of, 136, 430
+
+Mycenæ, 92, 108
+
+Mycerinus, 83
+
+Mylæ, battle of, 181, 430
+
+N
+
+Nabonidus, 111, 112
+
+Nankin, 173
+
+Naples, 178, 350, 431
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, 345, 347, 348, 356, 434
+
+Napoleon III, 390, 434, 435
+
+Nasmyth, 359
+
+Natal, 398
+
+“National schools,” 369
+
+Natural history, father of, 144
+
+Natural Selection, theory of, 17
+
+Nautilus, the pearly, 39
+
+Navarino, battle of, 353, 434
+
+Neanderthaler Man, 47, 48 _et seq._
+
+Nebraska, 383
+
+Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), 102, 110, 115, 429
+
+Nebulæ, 4, 5
+
+Necho II, 109, 110, 115, 122, 147, 429
+
+Needles, bone, 57
+
+Negroid tribes, 72, 88
+
+Nelson, Horatio, 348
+
+Neolithic age, 59, 65
+
+Neolithic civilizations, primitive, 71 _et seq._
+
+Neptune (planet), 2, 3
+
+Nero, 195, 430
+
+Nestorian missionaries, 431.  (_Cf._ Missionaries)
+
+Netherlands, 259, 309, 351
+
+Neustria, 431
+
+Neva, 327
+
+New Assyrian Empire, 97
+
+_New Atlantis, The_, 322, 355
+
+New England, 335, 337
+
+New Mexico, 433
+
+New Plymouth, 433
+
+Newts, 24
+
+New York, 358, 434
+
+New Zealand, 322, 396, 405
+
+Newfoundland, 405
+
+Nicæa, 268, 270
+
+Nicæa, Council of, 431
+
+Nicephorus, Emperor, 432
+
+Nicholas I, Tsar, 351, 390, 434
+
+Nicholas II, Tsar, 416
+
+Nickel, 360
+
+Nicomedia, 227
+
+Nieuw Amsterdam, 434.  (_Cf._ New York)
+
+Nile, 83, 100, 129, 398; valley 90, 429
+
+Nile, battle of the, 434
+
+Nineveh, 94, 97, 101, 109, 114, 243, 429, 431
+
+Nippur, 78
+
+Nirvana, 161
+
+Nish, 227
+
+Noah’s Ark, 91
+
+Nogaret, Guillaume de, 284
+
+Nomadic peoples, primitive, 84 _et seq._, (_Cf._ Nomads)
+
+Nomads, 122, 155, 167, 168, 174, 198-200, 233-34, 245, 287, 334
+
+Nonconformity, 307, 308
+
+Nordic race, 72, 88, 104, 108, 134, 154, 155, 174, 178, 185, 197, 200,
+233, 258, 261
+
+Normandy, 263, 342, 432
+
+Normandy, Duke of, 266
+
+Normans, 263, 266, 279, 302
+
+Northmen, 263, 264, 266, 268, 432
+
+Norway, 306, 313, 432
+
+Norwegians, 351
+
+Novgorod, 294, 432
+
+Nubians, 238
+
+Numerals, Arabic, 282
+
+Numidia, 191
+
+Numidians, 182
+
+Nuremberg, 294
+
+Nuremberg, Peace of, 313
+
+O
+
+Ocean dredgings, deepest, 4
+
+Ocean liners, 322, 336
+
+Octavian. (_See_ Augustus)
+
+Odenathus of Palmyra, 431
+
+Odoacer, 236, 431
+
+_Odyssey_, 127
+
+Ogdai Khan, 287, 289, 432
+
+Oglethorpe, 336
+
+Okapi, 397
+
+“Old Man,” 372, 373
+
+Old Testament, 115, 116
+
+Olympiad, first, 176, 429
+
+Olympian games, 131
+
+Olympias, Queen, 146
+
+Omar, Caliph, 431
+
+Open-hearth process, 359
+
+Orange River, 398
+
+“Ordinance of secession,” 385
+
+Oregon, 385
+
+Organic Evolution, 16
+
+Ormuz, 299
+
+Orsini family, 284
+
+Orthodoxy, 240
+
+Osiris, 200, 210, 211
+
+Ostrogoths, 227, 431
+
+Othman, 432
+
+Otho, 430
+
+Otto I, King of Germany, 265, 432
+
+Otto of Bavaria, Prince, 354
+
+Ottoman Empire, 202.  (_See also_ Turkey, Turks)
+
+Oudh, 394
+
+Ownership, 373, 374, 375
+
+Oxen, 49, 104, 112
+
+Oxford, 295
+
+P
+
+Padua, 235
+
+Pæstum, 176
+
+Palæologus, Michael (Michael VIII), 283
+
+Palæolithic age, 13, 59, 66 (note)
+
+Palermo, 181
+
+Palestine, 290, 299
+
+Pamirs, 196, 300
+
+Panama, 385
+
+Panama, Isthmus of, 314
+
+Pan Chau, 197, 430
+
+Panipat, battle of, 433
+
+Pannonia, 203, 229, 232, 234, 431
+
+Papacy (including Popes), 237, 261, 265, 277 _et seq._, 329 _et seq._,
+343
+
+Papal schism (the Great Schism), 285, 394, 433
+
+Paper, 153, 236, 255, 297, 320, 322
+
+Papyrus, 78, 153
+
+Parables, 216
+
+_Paradise Lost_, 129
+
+Parchment, 153
+
+Paris, 294, 295, 342, 350, 356, 390, 391, 412, 413, 415, 435
+
+Paris, Peace of, 338, 434
+
+Parthian dynasty, 202
+
+Parthians, 155, 192, 194, 198, 199, 245
+
+Passau, Treaty of, 314
+
+Patricians, Roman, 176, 188
+
+Paul, St., 202, 223
+
+Pavia, siege of, 312
+
+_Peace Conference_, Dr. Dillon’s, 434
+
+Peasant revolts, 305, 310
+
+Peculium, 206
+
+Pedro I, 340
+
+Pegu, 300
+
+Pekin, 173, 287, 300, 383, 400, 432
+
+Peloponnesian War, 139, 145, 430
+
+Pentateuch, the, 116
+
+“People’s crusade,” the, 270, 432.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+
+Pepi II, 83
+
+Pepin I, 259
+
+Pepin of Hersthal, 431
+
+Pergamum, 154, 180, 183, 430
+
+Pericles, 139, 140
+
+Perry, Commodore, 402
+
+Persepolis, 114, 148, 155
+
+Persia, 77, 134 _et seq._, 165, 185, 192, 227, 243, 253, 255, 287, 399,
+409, 430, 431
+
+Persian Empire, 112, 134, 238, 429
+
+Persian Gulf, 77, 78, 91, 299
+
+Persian language, 95
+
+Persians, 100, 108, 109, 115, 155, 174, 431
+
+Peru, 74, 75, 314, 321
+
+Pestilence, 305, 320, 334, 413, 430, 431, 433
+
+Peter the Great, 327, 434
+
+Peter the Hermit, 269, 270
+
+Peterhof, 327
+
+Petersburg, 127, 419. (_See also_ Petrograd)
+
+Petrograd, 416, 417.  (_See also_ Petersburg)
+
+Petschenegs, 268
+
+Phalanx, 145, 178
+
+Pharaohs, the, 90, 96, 119, 131, 150, 188
+
+Pharsalos, 430
+
+Philadelphia, 358, 434
+
+Philip, Duke of Orleans, 350
+
+Philip, King of France, 285
+
+Philip II, King of Spain, 314, 324
+
+Philip of Hesse, 313
+
+Philip of Macedon, 145, 146, 430
+
+Philippine Islands, 302, 393, 400
+
+Philistines, 100, 117
+
+Philosopher’s stone, 257
+
+Philosophers and Philosophy, 133, 139, 152, 168, 239, 294, 295
+
+Phœnicians, 92, 94, 107, 123, 147
+
+_Phœnix_, steamship, 358
+
+Phrygians, 100, 108
+
+Physiocrats, 371
+
+Picture writing, 56, 57, 78, 79, 167
+
+Piedmont, 345
+
+Pirates and Piracy, 92, 179, 180, 200, 263
+
+Pithecanthropus erectus, 45
+
+Pizarro, 314
+
+Plague, (_See_ Pestilence)
+
+Planetoids, 2
+
+Planets, 2
+
+Plant lice, 13
+
+Plants, 22, 23, 36
+
+Platea, battle of, 136, 430
+
+Plato, 140, 142, 144, 170, 370- 71
+
+Platypus, duck-billed, 34
+
+Plebeians, Roman, 176, 177, 187-88
+
+Plesiosaurs, 29, 30, 36
+
+Poison-gas, 413
+
+Poitiers, 432
+
+Poitiers, battle of, 253, 259
+
+Poland, 288, 327, 353, 434
+
+Poles, 288, 419
+
+Political experiment, age of, 318 _et seq._
+
+Political ideas, development of, 370 _et seq._
+
+Political science, founder of, 144
+
+Political worship, 412
+
+Polo, Marco, 299-300
+
+Polynesian races, 71
+
+Pompey the Great, 192, 193, 196, 198, 430
+
+Pontifex maximus, 237, 261
+
+Popes.  (_See_ Papacy)
+
+Population, 379, 383
+
+Port Arthur, 400, 403
+
+Portugal, 340, 394, 396, 431
+
+Portuguese, 302, 329, 332, 400
+
+Porus, King, 149
+
+Potato, 76
+
+Potsdam, 327
+
+Pottery, 75, 87X
+
+Prague, 433
+
+Prescott, 314
+
+Priestcraft (including Priests), 64, 68, 69, 74, 75, 77, 83, 111, 114
+_et seq._, 122, 131, 132, 167, 174, 275, 277
+
+_Primal Law_, 61
+
+Primates, 43.  (_Cf._ Mammalia)
+
+Printing, 80, 153, 247, 255, 298, 302, 305, 306, 320, 322, 329
+
+Priscus, 234
+
+Property, 274, 372, 374, 375
+
+Prophet, Muhammad as, 249
+
+Prophets, Jewish, 118, 122 _et seq._
+
+Proprietorship, 373
+
+Protestantism, 316, 324, 327, 351, 400
+
+Proverbs, book of, 116
+
+Prussia, 327, 348, 351, 390, 391, 392, 434, 435
+
+Prussia, East, 412, 415
+
+Psalms, 116
+
+Psammetichus I, 109, 429
+
+Psycho-analvsis, 69
+
+Pterodactyls, 28, 29, 31, 36
+
+Ptolemy I, 149, 150, 151, 186, 211
+
+Ptolemy II, 151, 186
+
+Punic language, 203
+
+Punic Wars, 180 _et seq._, 187, 188, 430
+
+Punjab, 163, 199
+
+Puritans, 335
+
+Pygmies, 397
+
+Pyramids, 69, 83, 100
+
+Pyrenees, 253, 432
+
+Pyrrhus, 178, 179, 430
+
+Q
+
+Quebec, 434
+
+Quinqueremes, 180
+
+Quixada, 314
+
+R
+
+Races of mankind, 71 _et seq._
+
+Railways, 322, 350, 357, 382, 383, 384, 389, 395, 396, 409, 434
+
+Rain, 9, 10
+
+Rameses II, 96, 147, 429
+
+Rasputin, 415, 416
+
+Ratisbon, Diet of, 313
+
+Ravenna, 431
+
+Reading, 176
+
+Rebus, 79
+
+Red deer, 56
+
+Red Sea, 91, 118, 122, 196
+
+Reformation, the, 308
+
+Reindeer, 43, 49, 51, 56, 73
+
+Religion, and the creation of the world, 1; and organic evolution, 16;
+primitive, 61, 64
+
+Religions, 172, 222 _et seq._, 240 _et seq._, 319.  (_Cf._ Buddhism,
+Christianity, etc.)
+
+Religious developments under the Roman Empire, 208 _et seq._
+
+Religious wars, 270, 304, 313.  (_Cf._ Crusades)
+
+Reptiles, the age of, 26 _et seq._; mental life of, 38
+
+Reproduction, 17 _et seq._
+
+_Republic_, Plato’s, 142
+
+Republic, the Assimilative, 187
+
+Republics, 187 _et seq._, 236, 308, 324, 328, 340, 343, 344, 416, 433,
+434, 435
+
+Republicans, the first, 131
+
+Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 150
+
+Revolution, 342 _et seq._, 349 _et seq._, 390, 404, 416, 435
+
+Rhine, 200, 227
+
+Rhine languages, 236
+
+Rhineland, 270, 306
+
+Rhinoceros, 43, 49
+
+Rhodes, 108
+
+Rhodesia, 407
+
+Rhodesian man, 52
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 324
+
+Richmond, U.S.A., 386, 388, 389
+
+Roads, 114, 187
+
+Robertson, 316
+
+Robespierre, 345, 346, 434
+
+Robinson, J. H., 284
+
+“Rocket,” Stephenson’s, 356
+
+Rock pictures, 57, 78
+
+Rocks as record of beginnings of life, 11 _et seq._
+
+S
+
+Sabellians, 224
+
+Sabre-toothed tiger, 43
+
+Sacrifice, 102, 103, 167, 174, 182, 186, 211, 212.  (_Cf._ also Blood
+sacrifice, Human sacrifice)
+
+Sagas, 106
+
+Saghalien, 404
+
+Sailing ships, 91, 336
+
+St. Angelo, castle of, 312
+
+St. Helena, 407
+
+St. Sophia, church of, 238
+
+Saladin, 272, 432
+
+Salamis, battle of, 180, 430
+
+Salamis, bay of, 136
+
+Salerno, 282
+
+Samarkand, 256, 297
+
+Samnites, 430
+
+Samos, 129
+
+Samson, 116
+
+Samurai, 401
+
+San Francisco, 383
+
+Sandstones, 26
+
+Sanskrit, 95, 107, 156
+
+Sapor I, 430
+
+Saracens, 264, 265, 297
+
+Saratoga, 338
+
+Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), 98, 109, 111
+
+Sardinia, 182, 185, 232, 309, 351, 390
+
+Sardis, 98
+
+Sargon I, 90, 92, 109, 122, 429
+
+Sargon II, 97, 109, 429
+
+Sarmatians, 100
+
+Sassanid dynasty, 227, 241, 430
+
+Saturn (planet), 2, 3
+
+Saul, King of Israel, 118, 429
+
+Saul of Tarsus.  (_See_ Paul, St.)"
+
+_Savannah_, steamship, 258
+
+Savoy, 334, 351, 390
+
+Saxons, 230, 265
+
+Saxony, Elector of, 310
+
+Scandinavians, 329
+
+Scarabeus beetle, 209
+
+Scheldt, 344
+
+Schmalkaldic League, 312
+
+Science, 144
+
+Science and religion, 243
+
+Science, exploitation of, 362
+
+Science, physical, 412
+
+Scientific societies, 322
+
+Scipio Africanus, 182, 187
+
+Scorpion, sea, 13, 18, 23
+
+Scotland, 306, 307
+
+Scott, Michael, 282
+
+Scythia, 429
+
+Scythians, 100, 108, 134, 135
+
+Sea trade, 91
+
+Sea worms, 13
+
+Seasons, the, 68
+
+Seaweed, 13
+
+Sedan, 391
+
+Seed-bearing trees, 26
+
+Seleucid dynasty, 183, 186, 196, 199
+
+Seleucus I, 149, 163
+
+Seljuks, 267, 268, 272, 432
+
+Semites and Semitic peoples, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 107, 115 , 122, 134,
+174, 233, 256, 258
+
+Semitic language, 202, 243
+
+Sennacherib, 97
+
+Serapeum, 211, 213
+
+Serapis, 211, 212
+
+Serbia, 179, 200, 227, 228, 292, 354, 411
+
+Serfdom, 207
+
+Seven Years’ War, 434
+
+Severus, Septimius, 202
+
+Seville, 202, 213, 302
+
+Shang dynasty, 103, 168
+
+Sheep, 77
+
+Shell necklaces, 56
+
+Shellfish, 13
+
+Shells, as protection against drying, 18
+
+Sherman, General, 387, 388
+
+Shi Hwang-ti, 173, 180, 430
+
+Shimonoseki, Straits of, 402
+
+Shipbuilding, 359, 360, 400
+
+Ships, 91, 119, 122, 149, 180, 196, 320, 322, 336
+
+Shishak, 119
+
+Shrubs, 16
+
+Shumanism, 298
+
+Siam, 166
+
+Siberia, 334
+
+Siberia, Eastern, 419
+
+Siberian railway, 403, 409
+
+Sicilies, Two, 287
+
+Sicily, 108, 122, 129, 134, 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 323, 263, 279, 280
+
+Sidon, 92, 122, 123, 134, 147
+
+Silurian system, 19
+
+Silver, 80, 102, 335
+
+Sind, 394
+
+Sirmium, 227
+
+Skins, use of; for clothing, 56 for writing, 75; inflated as boats, 91
+
+Skull, Rhodesian, 52
+
+Slavery (and slaves), 94, 102 , 188, 191, 194, 203 _et seq._, 236, 320,
+337, 373, 374, 384-86, 388, 430, 433
+
+Slavonic language, 236
+
+Slavs, 263, 265
+
+Smelting, 87, 104, 322
+
+Smith, Adam, 377
+
+Smith, Eliot, 69
+
+Snakes, 27, 28
+
+Social reform, 125
+
+Socialism, 371, 416, 417, 434
+
+Socialists, 375 _et seq._
+
+Socialists, primitive, 374
+
+Society, primitive, 60
+
+Socrates, 140
+
+Solomon, King, 119, 122, 127, 429
+
+Solomon’s temple, 119
+
+Sophists, 140
+
+Sophocles, 139
+
+South Carolina, 385
+
+Soviets, 417
+
+Space, the world in, 1 _et seq._
+
+Spain, 93, 106, 122, 123, 180, 185, 230, 232, 236, 253, 255, 256, 309,
+348, 349, 350, 393, 429, 431; relics of first true man in, 53
+
+Spain, North, 431
+
+Spanish, 329, 331
+
+Spanish language, 203
+
+Sparta, 129, 130, 136, 203
+
+Spartacus, 191, 192, 203, 430
+
+Spartans, 136
+
+Species, generation of, 17; new, 36
+
+Speech, primitive human, 63
+
+Spiders, 23
+
+Spiral nebulæ, 5
+
+Spores, 24
+
+Stagira, 142
+
+Stamford Bridge, battle of, 286
+
+Stars, 68, 257
+
+State, modern idea of a, 375
+
+State ownership, 374
+
+States General, the, 341, 434
+
+
+Steamboat, 340, 357 _et seq._, 374, 382, 395, 396
+
+Steam engine, 151, 152, 359
+
+Steam hammer, 359
+
+Steam power, 322
+
+Steel, 322, 359-60
+
+Stephenson, George, 356
+
+Stilicho, 230, 234, 431
+
+Stockholm, 417
+
+Stockton, 356, 434
+
+Stone age, 53, 59
+
+Stone implements, 45, 65
+
+Stonehenge, 106, 429
+
+Story-telling, primitive, 62
+
+Styria, 309
+
+Submarine campaign, 423
+
+Subutai, 289
+
+Sudan, the, 405
+
+Suevi, 431
+
+Suleiman the Magnificent, 310, 312, 432, 433
+
+Sulla, 192, 237
+
+Sumeria and Sumerians, 77, 78 _et seq._, 87, 88, 90, 91, 122
+
+Sumerian Empire, 429
+
+Sumerian language and writing, 77, 78, 79
+
+Sun, the, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
+
+Sun worship, 211
+
+Sung dynasty, 290
+
+Susa, 114, 135, 148, 149, 155
+
+Suy dynasty, 245
+
+Swastika, 70
+
+Sweden, 306, 313, 348
+
+Swedes, 326, 329, 330, 351
+
+Swimming bladder, 24
+
+Switzerland, 327, 347, 350, 433
+
+Syracuse, 151, 154, 170, 178
+
+Syria, 88, 91, 115, 119, 122, 138, 238, 243, 249, 290, 431
+
+Syrians, 96, 98
+
+T
+
+_Tabus_, the, 61
+
+Tadpoles, 26
+
+Tagus valley, 314
+
+Tai-Tsung, 247, 431
+
+Tang dynasty, 200, 245, 247, 287, 431
+
+“Tanks,” 413
+
+Taoism, 174, 222.  (_See also_ Lao Tse)
+
+Taranto, 178
+
+Tarentum, 178
+
+Tarim valley, 430
+
+Tartars, 167, 197, 232, 243, 288, 290, 334
+
+Tasmania, 59, 322, 393
+
+Tattooing, 70
+
+Taxation, 271, 337
+
+Tea, 247, 337
+
+Teeth, 19, 20
+
+Telamon, battle of, 182
+
+Telegraph, electric, 340, 358, 382, 384, 396
+
+Telescope, 355
+
+Temples, 77, 83, 101, 129, 131, 167, 174, 184, 186, 211, 212, 213, 240
+
+Tennessee, 386
+
+Testament, Old, 115, 116
+
+Teutons, 431
+
+Texas, 384, 385
+
+Texel, 344
+
+Thales, 131, 161
+
+Thebes, 101, 102, 129, 136
+
+Theocrasia, 209
+
+Theodora, Empress, 238
+
+Theodoric the Goth, 236, 431
+
+Theodosius II, 234, 238
+
+Theodosius the Great, 226, 229, 431
+
+Thermopylæ, battle of, 136, 430
+
+Thessaly, 145, 178
+
+Thirty Years’ War, 326
+
+Thothmes III, 96, 127, 147, 429
+
+Thought and research, 140
+
+Thought, primitive, 60 _et seq._
+
+Thrace, 135
+
+Three Estates, council of the, 285
+
+Three Teachings, the, 170
+
+Tiberius Cæsar, 195, 214, 430
+
+Tibet, 196, 400
+
+Tides, 18
+
+Tigers, 42, 43
+
+Tiglath Pileser I, 97, 429
+
+Tiglath Pileser III, 97, 108, 109, 429
+
+Tigris, 77, 84
+
+Time, 5, 6
+
+Timor, 329
+
+Timurlane, 290, 334
+
+Tin, 360
+
+Tiryns, 108
+
+Titanotherium, the, 39, 42
+
+Tonkin, 402
+
+Tortoises, 27, 28
+
+Toulon, 345
+
+Trade, early, 83, 88
+
+Trade, Grecian, 129
+
+Trade routes, 119
+
+Traders, 132, 335
+
+Traders, sea, 92
+
+Trafalgar, battle of, 348
+
+Trajan, 195, 430
+
+Transport, 319, 358, 382
+
+Transvaal, 398
+
+Transylvania, 195
+
+Trasimere, Lake, 182
+
+Trench warfare, 412
+
+Trevithick, 356
+
+Tribal life, 61
+
+Trilobites, 13
+
+Trinidad, 407
+
+Trinil, Java, 45
+
+Trinitarians, 224
+
+Trinity, doctrine of the, 224, 261
+
+Triremes, 180
+
+Triumvirates, 194
+
+Trojans, 94
+
+Troy, 92, 127
+
+Troyes, battle of, 235, 431
+
+Tsar, title of, 327
+
+Tshushima, Straits of, 404
+
+Ts’i, 173
+
+Ts’in, 173, 431
+
+Tuileries, 342, 343
+
+Tunis, 185
+
+Turkestan, 77, 108, 148, 196, 197, 198, 199, 245, 253, 287, 290, 292,
+334
+
+Turkey, 390, 411
+
+Turkoman dynasty, 405
+
+Turkomans, 334
+
+Turks, 167, 197, 243, 245, 263, 267, 287, 292, 310, 312, 334, 353, 354,
+434
+
+Turtles, 27, 28
+
+Tushratta, king of Mitanni, 97
+
+Twelve tribes, the, 116
+
+Tyrannosaurus, 28
+
+Tyre, 92, 118, 119, 122, 123, 134, 147
+
+U
+
+Uintatheres, 42
+
+Uncleanness, 68
+
+United States, 357, 410, 411, 422, 434; Declaration of Independence,
+338; treaty with Britain, 339; expansion of, 382 _et seq._
+
+Universities, 295, 304, 355, 361
+
+Uranus, 2, 3
+
+Urban II, Pope, 268, 272, 432
+
+Urban VI, Pope, 285, 433
+
+Utopias, 140, 142, 144
+
+V
+
+Valens, Emperor, 229
+
+Valerian, 430
+
+Valladolid, 314, 315, 316
+
+Valmy, battle of, 434
+
+Vandals, 227, 229, 230, 232, 431
+
+Varennes, 343, 434
+
+Vassalage, 259
+
+Vatican, 265, 266, 272, 285
+
+Vedas, 106
+
+Vegetation of Mesozoic period, 28
+
+Veii, 177, 178
+
+Vendée, 345
+
+Venetia, 235
+
+Venetians, 301
+
+Venice, 235, 272, 274, 294, 327, 351, 432
+
+Venus (goddess), 213
+
+Venus (planet), 2, 3
+
+Verona, 345
+
+Versailles, 325, 327, 341, 342
+
+Versailles, Peace Conference of, 421
+
+Versailles, Treaty of, 421, 422
+
+Vertebrata, 19; ancestors of, 20
+
+Verulam, Lord, (_See_ Bacon, Sir Francis)
+
+Vespasian, 430
+
+Vesuvius, 191
+
+Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 435
+
+Victoria, Queen, 394, 434
+
+Vienna, 292, 312, 433, 434
+
+Vienna, Congress of, 348, 349, 350
+
+Vienna, Treaty of, 355
+
+Vilna, 356
+
+Vindhya Mountains, 159
+
+Virginia, 337, 383, 386
+
+Visigoths, 227, 229, 232, 235, 259, 431.  (_Cf._ Goths)
+
+Vitellus, 430
+
+_Vittoria_, ship, 302
+
+Viviparous mammals, 33
+
+Vivisection, Herophilus and, 151
+
+Volcanoes, 37
+
+Volga, 200, 227
+
+Volta, 358
+
+Voltaire, 328
+
+Votes, 382
+
+W
+
+Waldenses, 276, 280, 305
+
+Waldo, 276
+
+Walid I, 432
+
+War and Warfare, 96, 344, 390, 422
+
+War of American Independence, 338 _et seq._
+
+Warsaw, 353
+
+Washington, 340, 357, 383, 386, 389
+
+Washington, Conference of, 425
+
+Washington, George, 338
+
+Waterloo, battle of, 348
+
+Watt engine, 356
+
+Weapons, 100, 106
+
+Weaving, 65, 75
+
+Wei-hai-wei, 400
+
+Wellington, Duke of, 348
+
+West Indies, 330, 385, 393, 394
+
+Western Empire, 431
+
+Westminster, 306
+
+Westphalia, Peace of, 326, 355, 433
+
+Wheat, 66, 104
+
+White Huns.  (_See_ Ephthalites)
+
+William Duke of Normandy (William I), 432
+
+William II, German Emperor, 410, 435
+
+Wilson, President, 422, 423, 424
+
+Wings, birds’, 32
+
+Wisby, 294
+
+Wisconsin, 385
+
+“Wisdom lovers,” the first, 133
+
+Witchcraft, 68
+
+Wittenberg, 306
+
+Wolfe, General, 434
+
+Wolsey, Cardinal, 324
+
+Wood blocks for printing, 247
+
+Wool, 102, 395
+
+Workers’ Internationals, 377
+
+World, The, creation of, 1; in time, 5 _et seq._
+
+Wrangel, General, 419
+
+Writing, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 94, 124, 176; dawn of, 57
+
+Wycliffe, John, and his followers, 286, 304, 433
+
+X
+
+Xavier, Francis, 400
+
+Xenophon, 150
+
+Xerxes, 136, 138, 147, 150
+
+Y
+
+Yang-Chow, 300
+
+Yang-tse-Kiang, 173
+
+Yangtse valley, 173
+
+Yarmuk, battle of, the, 253, 431
+
+Yedo Bay, 401
+
+Yorktown, 338
+
+Yuan dynasty, 290, 433
+
+Yucatan, 74
+
+Yudenitch, General, 419
+
+Yuste, 314, 317
+
+Z
+
+Zama, battle of, 182, 430
+
+Zanzibar, 329
+
+Zarathustra, 241
+
+Zeppelins, 413
+
+Zero sign, 257
+
+Zeus, 211
+
+Zimbabwe, 397
+
+Zoophytes, fossilized, 13
+
+Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), 241, 243, 255
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD ***
+
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