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diff --git a/34875-h/34875-h.htm b/34875-h/34875-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d49ca4 --- /dev/null +++ b/34875-h/34875-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6497 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> + <head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster. +</title> +<style type="text/css"> + p {margin-top:.75em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.75em;text-indent:2%;} + +.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} + +.hang {text-indent:-2%;margin-left:2%;} + +.nind {text-indent:0%;} + + h4 {text-align:center;clear:both;} + + h1,h3 {margin-top:15%;text-align:center;clear:both;} + + hr.full {width:100%;margin:5% auto 5% auto;border:4px double gray;} + + table {margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;text-align:left;} + + body{margin-left:2%;margin-right:2%;background:#fdfdfd;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;} + +a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} + + link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;} + +a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;} + +a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;} + + img {border:none;} + +.blockquot{margin:auto auto auto 2%;} + +.caption {font-weight:bold;font-size:small;} + +.figcenter {margin: 4% auto 4% auto;text-align:center;} + +.footnote {width:95%;margin:auto 3% 1% auto;font-size:0.9em;position:relative;} + +.label {position:relative;left:-.5em;top:0;text-align:left;font-size:.8em;} + +.fnanchor {vertical-align:30%;font-size:.8em;} +</style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Spain + +Author: Wentworth Webster + +Release Date: January 7, 2011 [EBook #34875] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Michigan University Library and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="367" height="550" alt="image of book's cover" title="image of book's cover" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/map1.jpg"> +<img src="images/map1_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="412" alt="SPAIN +London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington." title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.</span> +</div> + +<h1>SPAIN</h1> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c">BY THE<br /> +REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER, M.A. O<small>XON</small>.<br /><br /> +<small> +W<small>ITH A</small> C<small>HAPTER BY AN</small> A<small>SSOCIATE OF THE</small> S<small>CHOOL OF</small> M<small>INES.</small></small></p> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></p> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c">London:<br /> +SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,<br /> +CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.<br /> +1882.<br /> +[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c">LONDON:<br /> +PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,<br /> +ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.</p> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c">[etext transcriber's note:<br /> +No attempt has been made to correct, normalize or de-anglicize +the spelling of Spanish names or words.<br /> +For example: +Calayatud/Calatayud, +Alfonso/Alfonzo, +Cacéres/Caceres/Cáceres, +Cardénas/Cárdenas, +Guipúzcoa/Guipuzcoa all appear.<br /> +Click on any of the images to view them enlarged.]</p> + +<p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="c"><a href="#ANALYTICAL_TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"><b>ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"><b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX.</b></a></p> + +<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h3> + +<p class="c">————</p> + +<p class="nind">T<small>HERE</small> is a difficulty in writing a book of this character on Spain, +which does not exist, we think, to the same extent with any other +European country. In most European nations the official returns and +government reports may be accepted as trustworthy, and the compiler has +little more to do than to copy them; but in Spain this is far from being +always the case. In some instances, from nonchalance and habitual +inexactitude, in others, and especially in all matters of finance and +taxation, from designed misstatement, all such reports have to be +received with caution and scrupulously examined. The reader must +remember also that in Spain smuggling and contraband dealing in various +forms is carried on to such a vast extent as seriously to vitiate all +trade returns. Thus it is that Spanish statistics can be considered +only as approximate truths.</p> + +<p>Another difficulty arises from the very varied character of the Spanish +provinces. Hardly any statement can be made of one province which is not +untrue of another. The ordinary descriptions of Spain present only one, +or at most two, types, the Castling and Andalusian, and utterly neglect +all the rest. The provinces of Spain have been well described as divided +into "five Irelands" whose habits and modes of thought, political +aspirations, and commercial interests and aptitudes, are often utterly +opposed to those of the capital. A brief survey of the whole of Spain is +attempted in the following pages.</p> + +<p>In a work of this kind one other obvious difficulty is to know what to +omit. Some well-worn topics will be found to be absent from these pages. +No references are made to the great Peninsular War. This can be easily +studied in the admirable pages of Sir W. Napier in English, and of +Toreno in Spanish, or in compendiums of these, which again are filtered +down in every guide-book. For a like reason Prescott's brilliant works +are not alluded to.</p> + +<p>For the chapter on Geology and Mining the reader is indebted to one of +the most distinguished Associates of the School of Mines, who has been +recently engaged in practical geological survey and mapping in Spain.</p> + +<p>Much also of the present work is due to private information most kindly +furnished by Spanish friends of high position in the literary and +political world, and with whom some of the subjects treated have been +frequently discussed. To these the author offers his warmest and most +grateful thanks.</p> + +<h3><a name="ANALYTICAL_TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="ANALYTICAL_TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h3> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="contents"> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="3" align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Boundaries of the Peninsula</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Area and Coast-line</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_002">2</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Six divisions of Spain</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"><br /><i>Mountain chains</i>:</td></tr> +<tr><td> Pyrenees</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cantabrian, Asturian, and Galician mountains</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_004">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Leon</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Oca, Sierra Moncayo, and Idubeda chains</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_005">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Central Plateau and its passes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Culminating water-shed of the Peninsula</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_006">6</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Guadarrama range</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Toledan range</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_007">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Sierra Morena and passes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Central ranges and river basins</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_008">8</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Sierra Nevada and offshoots</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Minor ranges</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_009">9</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"><br /><i>Rivers, river basins, and rainfall</i>:</td></tr> +<tr><td> Five great rivers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_010">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Rivers of Galicia and Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_011">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Basque Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_012">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Ebro and its tributaries and canals</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_012">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Catalonia, streams of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_014">14</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Douro and its tributaries</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_015">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Tagus " "</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_017">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Guadiana " " and lakes</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Guadalquiver, its tributaries, islands, and marismas</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_022">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Segura and its irrigation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Jucar " "</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Guadalaviar or Turia</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Lakes and Albuferas</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_026">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Water toponymy</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Comparative table of principal rivers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Mineral springs and Salinas</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Five climates of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Temperature and rainfall of:</td></tr> +<tr><td> Galicia and the Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Santander and the Basque Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_032">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Aragon</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Catalonia</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Valencia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Alicante</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Murcia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cartagena to Almeria</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Malaga, Motril, Seville, and Cordova</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Granada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_036">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cadiz, Gibraltar, &c</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Elevation of Central Plateau</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Temperature and rainfall of Madrid, Salamanca, and Soria</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_038">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Agricultural products of:</td></tr> +<tr><td> Galicia and the Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Basque Provinces and basin of the Ebro</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_040">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Moorish agriculture and exotic flora of Southern Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Products of Valencia and Murcia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_043">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Palms at Elche</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Aromatic mountain shrubs</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_045">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Products and wines of Andalusia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Products of the Central Plateau</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Estremadura and law of the Mesta</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Locusts</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Corn-lands of Castile and Sierras de Campos</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Comparative Flora of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"><br /><i>Fauna</i>:</td></tr> +<tr><td> Monkeys of Gibraltar</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Beasts and birds of prey</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Game birds and African visitants</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Noxious and useful insects</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Merino sheep</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_054">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Horses, cattle, and beasts of burden</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_055">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Fisheries</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_056">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Estimated total production of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_057">57</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />GEOLOGY AND MINES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Peculiar interest of Spanish geology</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_058">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Granite and Silurian rocks</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Carboniferous formation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_059">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Secondary formations</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Upper Cretaceous</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Eocene tertiary</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Miocene fresh-water</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Pliocene</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Influence of geology on populations</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Statistics of Spanish geology</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Volcanoes, recent</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"><i>Minerals of</i>:</td></tr> +<tr><td> Gneiss and crystalline schists</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Metamorphic rocks</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cambrian formation</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Silurian slates</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Devonian sandstones</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Carboniferous series</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Permian</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_063">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Triassic conglomerates</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Jurassic limestones and marl</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cretaceous formation</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Production and export of six chief minerals</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Of argentiferous ore, cobalt, silver</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Coal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Iron of the Bilbao district</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Locality of principal mines</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Mining laws</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Pyrenees, no true boundary of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Population of Spain, mixed</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_070">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Iberi, Kelt-Iberi, Basques, and Kelts</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Foreign races in Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_073">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Visigoths, Arabs, and Moors</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_075">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Toponymy of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Language of Spanish Jews</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Existing dialects</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Statistics of the Spanish language</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_078">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Characteristics of " "</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_079">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Population of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_080">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Density of</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Occupations of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Manufacturing and mining Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Clergy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Distribution of property, great changes in</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Abolition of Mesta and of feudal privileges</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Sale of Crown and Church property</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_084">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Actual distribution</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Characteristics of the various populations</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_085">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Galicians, Asturians, Basques, and Aragonese</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Catalans, Valencians, and Murcians</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Andalusians</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Manchegans, and Castilians</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Gipsies, Maragatos, Passiegos, Hurdes, Sayagos, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Contrabandistas</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Division of Kingdoms and Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Galicia and its provinces, Corunna, Lugo, Pontevedra, and Orense</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_092">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Santander</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Basque Provinces, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, Alava</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_095">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Navarre</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_096">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Aragon and its provinces, Huesca, Saragossa, Teruel</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Catalonia " Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Valencia " Castellon de la Plana, Valencia, Alicante</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Murcia " Murcia and Albacete</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Andalusia, Mediterranean Provinces, Almeria, Granada, Malaga</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Atlantic: Cadiz, Huelva</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Inland: Seville, Cordova, Jaen</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_120">120</a>, +<a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Estremadura, Badajoz, Cacéres</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>New Castile and La Mancha, Provinces—Ciud ad Real, Toledo, Madrid, Cuenca, Guadalajara</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Old Castile—Avila, Segovia, Soria, Logrono, Burgos</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Leon—Salamanca, Valladolid, Zamora, Palencia, Leon</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_137">137</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Balearic Isles</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_141">141</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Early liberties, <i>behetria</i>, <i>fueros</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Capitulations of Moors and Jews</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Conquest of the South and its results</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>The <i>Santa Hermandad</i></td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>The Austrian Dynasty</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>The Bourbon Dynasty</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Modern Constitutional Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Cortés of Cadiz</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Reign of Ferdinand VII., and loss of American colonies</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> " Isabella II.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> First Carlist War</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Ministry of Narvaez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> " O'Donnell</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Expulsion of Isabella II., and provisional government</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Amadeo I.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Republic</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Second Carlist War</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Cantonalist insurrection</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Alphonso XII.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Ministry of Cánovas del Castillo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><br /><i>Present Constitution and Administration of Spain</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cortés, Senate, Congress</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Provincial administration</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Municipal "</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Religion</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Rights of persons, natives and foreigners</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td><br /><i>Military Administration</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Army</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Quality of Spanish soldiery, <i>pronunciamientos</i>, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><br /><i>Naval Administration</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Royal Navy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Mercantile Navy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td><br /><i>Judicial Administration</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Legal Procedure</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Prisons</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Hospitals and lunatic asylums</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_171">171</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Railways</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Telegraphs</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Letters and post</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Finances of Spain.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Public debt</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Increase of, since 1868</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Deficit of budgets</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Sources of revenue</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Expenditure</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Imports and exports</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Foreign tariffs</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Protection and free trade</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Empleomania and its results</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_179">179</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />EDUCATION AND RELIGION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Universities, number of students, salaries of professors</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Theological seminaries</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Course of university study</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Provincial and special institutes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Secondary instruction, institutes and colleges</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Number of students, and salary of masters</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_185">185</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Course of instruction</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>University degrees</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Primary education</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_187">187</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Church and Religion.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Early Church Councils</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_188">188</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Roman and Mazarabic liturgy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Inquisition</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Philip II., the Jesuits, and the Reformation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Expulsion of the Jesuits</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_191">191</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Concordat of 1851</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Archbishops, bishops, and clergy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Mode of appointment of bishops</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Spanish Protestants</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Præhistoric art and architecture</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_194">194</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Roman and Visigothic</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Arabic</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Three periods of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Mudejar</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Christian</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Renaissance</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Churrigueresque</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Domestic architecture</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Church furniture and minor arts</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Painting.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Characteristics of Spanish painting</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Local schools</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Murillo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_208">208</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Painters of Valencian school</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> " " Castilian "</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> " " Andalusian "</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Modern painters</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_210">210</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Industrial arts, goldsmith's work, iron, porcelain, glass, wood, + lace</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Music</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Literature.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Early Romances</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_213">213</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> " Prose works</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_214">214</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>La Celistina and the <i>picaresque</i> novels</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Drama and <i>Autors</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Lope de Vega</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Calderon de la Barca</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Cervantes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> Quevedo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Historical writings</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Poetry</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Mystic writers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Classical and romantic schools</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Modern writers: Poets—Espronceda, Zorilla, Becquer, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Novelists—Fernan Caballero, J. Valera, &c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Dramatists—Hartzenbusch, Breton de los Herreros, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> Nunez de Arce</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Historians—Condé Gayangos, De la Fuente, &c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Geographers—Fernandez Guerra, Coello, Bowles</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Geologists—Macpherson, &c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Economists—Cárdenas, Colmeiro, De Azcárate</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Theologians—Balmés, Donoso Cortez, C. Gonzalez, &c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Philologists—F. Fita, &c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Orators</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Provincial literature</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_229">229</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />EPILOGUE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Spain not a worn-out country</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Two hindrances to development</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>Protection and free trade</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Cruelty and charities of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">————————</td></tr> + +<tr><td><a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I.</a>—Census of Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> " <a href="#APPENDIX_II">II.</a>—Chief historical events</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> " <a href="#APPENDIX_III">III.</a>—Chief books used</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_241">241</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations"> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Caballeros</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Dominique, the Espada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Gipsies at Granada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Leaning Tower of Saragossa</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">General View of Granada, with the Alhambra</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Alhambra Tower by Moonlight</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Fountain of the Four Seasons, Madrid</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Port of Cadiz</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Vespers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Giralda of Seville</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_197">197</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Moorish Ornamentation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/map2.jpg"> +<img src="images/map2_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="412" alt="PHYSICAL MAP +of +SPAIN + +Edw^d Weller + +London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington. + +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a></p> + +<h1>SPAIN.</h1> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br /> +<small>THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">S<small>PAIN</small>, with the neighbouring kingdom of Portugal, constitutes the most +westerly of the three southern peninsulas of Europe, and in Cape Tarifa, +latitude 36° 1', it attains the most southerly point of the whole +continent. Separated from France and from the rest of Europe by the +chain of the Pyrenees, and surrounded on all other sides by either the +Mediterranean or the Atlantic, it presents at first sight the appearance +of an exceedingly compact and homogeneous surface. It seems strange that +this well-defined peninsula should contain two separate kingdoms, with +peoples who speak languages allied, yet so distinct as to be mutually +unintelligible to the uneducated classes.</p> + +<p>The peninsula lies between latitude 43° 45' and 36° 1' N., and between +3° 20' E. and 9° 32' W. longitude. In shape it is thus nearly a square; +a<a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a> diagonal line from the N.E. Cape Creuz to the S.W. Cape St. Vincent +measures 650 miles, while from Cape Ortegal, N.W., to Cape Gata, S.E., +would be 525 miles. The whole area of the peninsula contains 219,200 +square miles, of which 36,500 on the west belong to Portugal, and +182,700 to Spain.</p> + +<p>The peninsular form of the country would lead us to expect that it would +partake of all the characteristics of a maritime climate; but such is +not the case. From the comparative evenness of the coast-line, unbroken +and unindented by any deep inlets except on the extreme north-west, in +Galicia, the coast-line bears a less proportion to the whole surface +than that of many lands less surrounded by the sea. It counts only 1300 +miles, 700 of which are washed by the Mediterranean, and 600 by the +Atlantic; that is, 1 mile of coast-line to 134 square miles of area; +while Italy contains 1 to 75, and Greece 1 to 7. From the configuration +of the coast, and from the character of the great central plateau, a +large part of Spain has really an extreme continental climate.</p> + +<p>For while it is distinctly separated from the rest of Europe by the line +of the Pyrenees, Spain is no less distinctly divided into different +districts in the interior—districts which differ most widely in climate +and elevation and products. Six of these are usually named: (1) The N.W. +Atlantic coast, comprising Galicia, the coast of which presents a<a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a> +continuation of the Fiord system of Norway, and of the Firths of +Scotland and Ireland; (2), the northern slope of the Cantabrian +Mountains, and the narrow slip of land contained between them and the +Bay of Biscay, comprising the Asturias, Santander, and the Basque +Provinces; (3) the Valley of the Ebro, with Navarre, Aragon, and +Catalonia; (4) the great Central Plateau—Leon, Old and New Castile, +Estremadura, and La Mancha; (5) the Mediterranean Provinces, including +Valencia, Murcia, and the parts of Andalusia between the Sierra Nevada +and the Mediterranean; (6) the rest of Andalusia sloping towards the +Atlantic.</p> + +<p>We will treat of these in order.</p> + +<h4><i>Mountain Chains.</i></h4> + +<p>But first we must speak of the various mountain systems and river basins +of Spain, without which it is impossible to understand either the +physical conditions of the country, or the social and political state of +the various populations which has resulted from them.</p> + +<p>First, on the north is the chain of the Pyrenees, a continuation of the +great Alpine system of Central Europe, stretching from Cape Creuz, 3° +19' E., to the Bay of Biscay, 2° 12' W., a distance of 320 miles, and +prolonging itself westward in lower chains of different denominations +until it<a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a> finally sinks into the Atlantic at Cape Finisterre. The +culminating points of the Pyrenees are towards the centre of the chain, +in Mounts Maladetta, 11,150 feet, and the Pic de Posets and the Mount +Perdu, each about 11,000 feet, whence the heights gradually descend, on +the east to the Mediterranean and on the west to the Bay of Biscay. With +the exception of the little Bidassoa, which in the lower part of its +course forms the boundary between France and Spain, at the bottom of the +Bay of Biscay, all the other waters of the Spanish side of the Pyrenees +belong to the Ebro and to the Mediterranean. Parallel to the coast of +the Bay of Biscay the Pyrenees are prolonged, first, by the Cantabrian +Mountains, which run through the Basque Provinces, and the Province of +Santandar; thence by the Picos de Europa, 8300 feet—from the +south-eastern spurs of which the Ebro and Pisuerga take their rise—and +the Asturian Mountains, to the Sierra de Penamarella, at the junction of +the three Provinces of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. The chain here +attains its greatest elevation, 9450 (?) feet, then descends to a +plateau of about 4000 feet, whence it sinks rapidly to the Atlantic, +forming the headlands of Ortegal, the extreme north-western, and of +Finisterre, the extreme western, point of Northern Spain. The mountains +of Leon form the western watershed, between the waters of the Ebro and +those which<a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a> fall into the Atlantic. The line is continued eastward by +the Oca Mountains, the Sierra de Moncayo, and the Idubeda Mountains. +These mountain chains divide the basin of the Ebro from that of the +Douro. They also form the northern buttress of the great plateau of +Central Spain, which attains an elevation of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The +rise to the plateau from the Bay of Biscay is very abrupt. Within fifty +miles of leaving the coast the railways from the north attain a height +of 2000 feet, and reach the Central Plateau, at Quintanapalla, at an +elevation of 3000 feet; while La Cañada, the highest point on the line +to Madrid, is nearly 4460 feet, or about sixty feet higher than the +tunnel of the Mount Cenis. From the eastern side the rise is less +abrupt, and the plateau is entered at the lower elevation of 2330 feet, +on the line from Alicante to Madrid. The famous Pass of Somosierra, on +the old northern coach-road from Madrid, is about 4700 feet above the +level of the sea. From these figures it is easy to perceive how very +different is the aspect of these buttress chains when seen from the +plateau, and when looked at from the plain from which they rise. Thus +the Sierra de Moncayo, 7700 feet, stands out with boldness from the +Valley of the Ebro, but viewed from the plateau of Castile it is +scarcely noticeable. From its summit, however, the finest view of the +whole range of the Pyrenees to be found anywhere on<a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a> the Spanish side of +the chain, is to be obtained.</p> + +<p>Turning thence towards the south and south-east, these mountain +chains—under the various names of the Sierras de Cuenca, de Molina, and +Albarracin—divide the river basins of the Mediterranean from the far +larger ones of the Atlantic. They have their culminating point in the +Muela de San Juan and the Cerro de San Felipe, nearly 6000 feet, at the +junction of the three provinces of Teruel, Cuenca, and Guadalaxara. From +the sides of these mountains the waters fall with rapid course, on the +north to join the Ebro, on the east and south to the Mediterranean; +while with gentler slope, but in far greater volume, the Douro, the +Tagus, and the Guadiana roll their waters to the Atlantic. From these +Sierras the plateau tilts gradually westward and southward, but is +intersected by mountain chains, peaks of which towards the west attain a +higher elevation than those which form the real culmination of this part +of the peninsula. The bare and bleak granite range of the Guadarrama, +which divides the basin of the Douro from that of the Tagus, and from +whose summits steals the icy wind so fatal to Madrid, attains in its +highest summit, Peña Lara, 7800 feet, near Segovia; while in its western +prolongation, the Sierras de Credos and de Gata, the Plaza del Moro +reaches 8700 feet. The chains which divide the<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a> valley of the Tagus from +that of the Guadiana are not nearly so well marked as are those more to +the north, and rise to a much less elevation above the plateau. +Beginning with a south-westerly prolongation of the Cerro de San Felipe, +under the successive titles of Montes de Toledo, Sierras de Guadaloupe, +Montanchez, and San Mamed, about 2000 feet, they reach the Portuguese +frontier near Portalegre. The highest point seems to be in the mountains +of Toledo at Villuercas, where a height of a little over 5000 feet is +attained. The mountains which separate the basins of the Guadiana and +the Guadalquiver, under the names of the Sierras de Alcaroz, Morena, de +Cordova, Guadacanal, and Aroche, and which form the southern buttress of +the central plateau, present a still greater difference than those of +the northern buttress when viewed from the plateau and from the plains +of Andalusia. From the former they appear only rolling undulations, and +the traveller scarcely notices the rise till he finds himself descending +one of the steep and savage gorges, like that of the Pass of +Despeña-Perroz, on the road and rail between La Mancha and Andalusia. +The Col of Despeña-Perroz is nearly 2500 feet above the sea, and but few +summits along the ranges of the Sierra Morena and its prolongations +attain a greater elevation, the general range being about 2000 feet, +except towards the west and north<a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a> of Seville, where the Sierra de +Aracena reaches 5550 feet. Eastward of the Guadalquiver the ranges which +divide its waters from those of the Segura, the Sierras de Segura, and +Sagra, attain a greater height, the former 6500 feet, the latter to 7800 +feet.</p> + +<p>Thus as supports to the great plateau, or on it, we have the following +successive ranges as we proceed from north to south. First, the Sierra +de Moncayo and the Idubeda mountains, dividing the basin of the Ebro +from that of the Douro; next the Guadarrama chain, with the Sierras de +Credos and de Gata, separating the Douro from the Tagus; then the +Mountains of Toledo, and the Sierra de San Mamed, between the Tagus and +the Guadiana; and lastly, the southern buttress, the Sierra Morena, +dividing the Guadiana from the Guadalquiver.</p> + +<p>But it is south of the last stream that the culminating points of the +whole peninsula are to be found—in the mighty Sierra Nevada, which +separates the lovely valley of Granada from the Mediterranean, shielding +it from the scorching winds of Africa, and giving it its eternal +freshness and verdure. The highest of its summits are Muley Hacen and +Velate, lying to the south-east of Granada, the former attaining nearly +11,670 feet, and the latter 11,400. The altitudes diminish rapidly east +and west. Towards the east, outlying<a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a> ranges, such as those of the +Sierras de Filabrés and of Gador, attain heights of 6000 and 7000 feet +respectively; while in the westward prolongations, the Mesa de Ronda is +only 5000; and the chain gradually drops till it reaches the sea at Cape +Trafalgar, and the rock of Gibraltar, 1400 feet.</p> + +<p>But besides these greater chains of mountains Spain is traversed by +numerous offshoots and lateral ranges, and a great portion of her +territory is more or less of a mountainous character. In districts where +rain is unfrequent these hills are absolutely bare of verdure for a +great part of the year, and remain untenanted and uncultivated. Among +the more elevated of these lesser chains are those of Monseni, +Monserrat, and Montagut, in Catalonia, which attain respectively 5500, +4000, and 3000 feet in height. On the borders of Leon and Galicia, and +in the latter province, there are numerous mountains and smaller ranges, +which vary from 3000 to 5000 feet. The whole frontier of Portugal is +covered by lower ranges, connecting the great chains of which we have +already spoken with hills of from 2000 to 3000 feet. From the great +eastern buttress two spurs, or rolling plateaux, run down to the +Mediterranean, and terminate in the different headlands—such as Cape +Gata in the south-east, Cape Palos near Carthagena, Capes de la Nao and +San Antonio near Denia, Peniscola, and others. Some of these smaller +ranges are<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> exceedingly rich in minerals, and as they approach the sea +form sites of picturesque and enchanting beauty, such as can be +surpassed only by the better-known and historic glories of the coasts of +Italy or of Greece.</p> + +<h4><i>Rivers of Spain.</i></h4> + +<p>Of the five great rivers of Spain only one, the Ebro, pours its waters +into the Mediterranean; the other four, the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and +Guadalquiver, discharge theirs into the Atlantic; but of these last the +Guadalquiver alone is wholly a Spanish stream. In the lower and more +valuable part of their course the Douro, Tagus, and Gaudiana, belong to +Portugal—a fact which must always be remembered when treating of the +internal commerce of Spain. But besides these larger streams there are +several of slightly smaller dimensions, of which we will treat in order.</p> + +<p>Few countries present within so short a distance so great a difference +in rainfall and moisture as does Spain. In some parts of the Asturias +and Galicia the rainfall is probably as heavy as that of any part of +Europe—as much as 147½ inches are said to have been measured in a +single year; and the average fall on the northern slopes of the +Cantabrian mountains is said to be sixty inches annually. Yet the +average of the whole basin of the Ebro—which rises from the southern +slopes of the Picos de Europa, one of the most rainy of the<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> rainy +districts—is only eighteen inches annually, the last 300 miles of its +course being through almost barren districts, where rain seldom falls.</p> + +<p>The principal river of Galicia is the Minho, with its tributary the Sil. +Each of these rises, though at some distance apart, from the southern +side of the Cantabrian mountains, much nearer to the waters of the Bay +of Biscay than to those of the Atlantic, into which they flow. They take +thence a southerly and south-westerly course, until they unite a few +miles above Orense. The lower part of the united course, which bears the +name of the Minho, forms from Melgaco to the sea the frontier between +the kingdoms of Portugal and Spain. The remaining rivers of Galicia are +numerous but of little importance: the Tambre is the largest of those +which fall into the Atlantic on the west; while on the north the sources +of the Eo and the Navia overlap those of the Minho, and take their rise +from the mountains which border on Leon. The whole country is +exceedingly well watered. Both in its agricultural character as a +grazing country, and in its flora and fauna, it resembles the milder +portions of southern Ireland and of Devonshire, but with occasional +products of a warmer zone. The rivers of the Asturias, Santander, and of +the Basque provinces, all partake of the same general character. In the +upper part of their courses they are mere mountain torrents, their<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a> +course is rapid but short, and they are of but little use for +navigation, though occasionally small but insecure harbours are formed +at their mouth. The only great exception to this is the Nervion, on +which Bilbao is situated, and which is navigable for eight miles from +its mouth. The waters of the Bidassoa, the Deva, and others, are, +however, utilized for the transport of ore from the mines and ironworks +along the course. The Bidassoa, for some ten miles before it enters the +Bay of Biscay at Cape Figueras forms the boundary between France and +Spain; about four miles from its issue, between Irun and Behobie, is the +celebrated Isle des Faisans, where, in 1659, the marriage was arranged +between Louis XIV. and the Infanta, which eventually placed the Bourbons +on the throne of Spain. The Bidassoa is the last of the northern rivers +of Spain which falls into the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>The Ebro has its rise from the source, Fontibre, in the province of +Santander, and takes a south-easterly course of 466 miles, through the +provinces of Santander, Burgos, Navarre, and Aragon, almost parallel +with the Pyrenees, till it falls into the Mediterranean, through a sandy +delta stretching some fifteen miles into the sea below Amposta. The +descent for the first 200 miles of its course is exceedingly rapid, but +after that the fall is gradual till it reaches the sea. In its<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a> course +it receives the waters of many tributaries, both on the left from the +Pyrenees, and on the right from the Idubeda mountains and the sierras of +Southern Aragon. Were it not for these tributaries little of its waters +would reach the Mediterranean, so dry and arid are the Bardenas of +Navarre, and the Dehesas of Aragon, through which it flows. The +Spaniards have a proverb that it is the Navarrese and Aragonese +streams—the Arga, the Ega, and the Aragon—which make a man of the +Ebro. Farther down, the Gallego runs in near Saragossa; while the united +waters of the Cinca and the Segre at Mequinenza pour a far larger volume +of water into the parent bed than it contains itself. From the right, +the principal streams are the Xalon, with its tributary the Xiloca, +which joins the Ebro between Tudela and Saragossa, the Marten, and the +Guadalope near Caspe. The Ebro, notwithstanding its length, the number +of its tributaries, and the extent of its basin, 25,000 square miles, is +of little use for navigation. A magnificent canal—first projected and +commenced by the Emperor Charles V. (I. of Spain) then after a lapse of +more than two centuries taken in hand by Charles III., in 1770—runs +from Tudela to Saragossa; thence to the sea it still remains in project +only. The part already finished is falling into decay; and it is only +the excellent quality of the masonry, and of the cement or mortar +employed,<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a> that retards its utter ruin. The traffic is very small; and +even as a means of irrigation its waters are allowed greatly to run to +waste. At the apex of the delta from Amposta to San Carlos de la Rapita +a canal of eight miles has been cut for purposes of navigation; but the +formation of a bar, and the silting up of the bay, have rendered it +almost useless. The other rivers which flow into the Mediterranean, +between the lower course of the Ebro and the Pyrenees are the Fluvia, +which flows into the gulf of Rosas, the Ter, which passes by Gerona, and +the Llobregat near Barcelona. All are torrential streams, unfit for +navigation; but their waters, if all utilized for irrigation like those +of the Llobregat, would be sources of immense wealth to the country.</p> + +<p>From the fact that the lower part of the course of the great rivers of +the plateau—the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana—flow through +Portugal, their streams are hardly at all available as a means of +communication or of navigation for Spain; and from the nature of the +deeply cut beds which the waters have worn through the soil, flowing, +especially as they approach the frontiers of Portugal, through gorges +approaching in length and depth the cañons of North America, the rivers +are little available for irrigation, although far more use might be made +of them for this purpose than is actually done. Owing to the prejudices +of the<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a> Spanish husbandman, and to his reluctance to accept any change, +however profitable, in his ancient routine, neither the little that has +been done in the present century, nor the remains of a wiser agriculture +in former times are used by the peasantry. In the province of Zamora, +for instance, both the ancient "acequias" and the modern canal of the +Esla are equally neglected. The rich results that have followed the +employment of the waters in the few cases in which they have been +intelligently directed, stirs no one up to follow the example. It is one +of the many contrasts between different parts of Spain, that the value +of irrigation should be so well understood in some parts and so utterly +neglected and under-valued in others. But we shall have more to say of +this when we treat of the eastern and southern streams: at present let +us return to the Douro, and to the other rivers of the plateau.</p> + +<p>The Douro takes its rise in the Lago Negro, or Black Lake, on the +southern flanks of the Mount Urbion, in the north-western angle of the +province of Soria. It first runs eastward to the city of that name, the +ancient Numantia, then turns almost directly south as far as Almazan, +whence it runs westward to Portugal, receiving meanwhile the waters of +the Esla, below Zamora; at the frontier, again it turns south, through +deep gorges which form the boundary between Spain and<a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a> Portugal, until +it receives the waters of the Agueda, where it finally enters Portugal, +and after a westerly course thence of about 100 miles, falls into the +Atlantic below Oporto.</p> + +<p>The basin drained by the Douro is the most extensive of all those of the +rivers in Spain. Including the portion in Portugal, it comprises 35,000 +square miles; the length of the river is about 500 miles; the average +rainfall is stated at twenty inches. The chief affluents of the Douro +descend from the north from the mountains of Burgos and the Cantabrian +range. The largest are the Pisuerga, which rises not far from the +sources of the Ebro among the Picos de Europa, and flows almost directly +south by Palencia and Valladolid until it joins the Douro, some miles +above Tordesilla; the Esla, which also rises from the western flanks of +the same chain, not far from Covadonga, takes a somewhat more westerly +direction, and after receiving several smaller streams unites with the +Douro below Zamora. These two rivers supply water for two of the most +successful canals in Spain, especially that along the Pisuerga, for over +ninety miles from Alar del Rey to Valladolid. There is a considerable +traffic on it, especially for passengers. It was planned in 1753 by +Ensenada, but completed only in 1832. The canal of the Esla, for +purposes of irrigation, begun by English engineers in 1864, and +finished<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> in 1869, has hardly been so successful. The latest report +(June, 1880) states that the peasant proprietors, notwithstanding +examples of the great utility of irrigation, obstinately refuse to use +it. The principal affluents of the Douro on the west and south are the +Tormes, which flows by Salamanca, and joins it about midway in its +course as a frontier of Portugal; and the Agueda, which runs in just +where it takes its final departure for the west.</p> + +<p>The Tagus, the central river of Spain, and which divides its territory +into two nearly equal portions, rises from a fountain called the Fuente +Garcia, or Pié, on the south side of the Muela de San Juan, between the +Sierras de Molina, Albaracin, and San Felipe, the knot of mountains +which, as we have indicated above, form the great watershed of the +peninsula, whence the waters flow northwards to the Ebro, east and +southwards to the Mediterranean, and westwards, in the Tagus and its +tributaries, to the Atlantic. Were the whole peninsula of Spain and +Portugal one kingdom, the Tagus would be perhaps the most important of +its rivers; but in the divided state it is of far more value to Portugal +than to Spain. Its swift and turbid current, flowing between steep +banks, and in a bed broken into rapids and encumbered by rocks, is +scarcely navigable above Abrantes. The basin of the Tagus contains an +area of nearly<a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a> 30,000 square miles, and its length is estimated at +about 550. The rainfall is less than that of the Douro, being only +sixteen inches annually. The river, moreover, runs by no means in the +centre of its basin, but far to the southwards of a central dividing +line, and consequently the tributaries which it receives from the north +or left bank are of much greater importance than those which come from +the south or right. After flowing a few miles in a north-westerly +direction, the river gradually bends, first westerly, and then in a +slightly south-westerly direction, in a deep channel, through a bare +rolling country, where everything takes the prevailing colour of red +dusty uplands, until it arrives at Aranjuez, situated at the confluence +of the Jarama and the Tagus, a royal residence whose abundance of water +and of shade make it a true oasis in a desert. The Jarama, which rises +in the Guadarama, brings in also the waters of the Henares, and those of +the Manzanares, on which Madrid is situated. These streams have been the +subjects of many projects and attempts at canalization, either for +irrigation or for supplying the metropolis with water. Most of these +have failed, but a canal from Porcal to Aranjuez, of seventeen miles and +a half, is in working order. The canal of Cabarrus brings the waters of +the Lozoya to Madrid. But the great enterprise of the canal of +irrigation from the Henares, constructed by the same English company<a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a> +which made the canal of the Esla, and which was to have been +twenty-eight miles in length, and to have irrigated 30,000 acres, is +suspended by lawsuits as to the ownership of the waters. The Alberche, +which rises to the north of the Sierra de Gredos, enters the Tagus near +Talavera de la Reyna. The Tietjar, and the Alagon, which joins the main +stream just above Alcantara, beside the frontier stream, the Heyas, are +the only Spanish waters of importance from the north before the Tagus +enters Portugal; and from the south the Salor and the del Monte, both of +which have their rise and course in the same province of Caceres alone +need mention. In the upper part of its course, however, the smaller +tributaries of both the Tagus and the Guadiana often overlap, and but a +very few miles separate the Tagus itself from the waters which flow into +the Guadiana.</p> + +<p>The exact source of the Guadiana has been a subject of much debate and +of many fables. Its true origin seems to be in a series of lakes at the +junction of the provinces of Ciudad Real and Albacete, near Montiel, in +La Mancha. A picturesque stream, the Ruidosa, with many cascades and +broken water, connects these lakes; but after running a few miles in a +north-westerly direction, it disappears underground near Tomesillo, and +is believed to rise to the surface after about twenty miles, in the Ojos +(eyes) of the Guadiana, near Damiel.<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a> Very soon it receives from the +right the united waters of the Zancara and the Giguela, streams whose +contributions are much more scanty, especially in summer, than the +length of their course on the map would lead one to suppose; thence the +river flows in a westerly direction, passing near Ciudad Real, below +which the Javalon enters from the left, coming from the Campo de +Montiel; near Don Benito the Zuja, from the Sierra Morena, joins it, and +some miles lower down the Matachet. Flowing past Medellin, five miles +below Badajoz the river crosses the frontier of Portugal, changes its +course from westerly to south-west, and afterwards south and south-east, +till it again joins the frontier near San Lucar, and dividing the two +countries till its mouth, falls into the Gulf of Cadiz at Ayamonte. In +the lower part of its course the river, which before has been wide and +shallow, and often almost dry in summer, narrows its course, and rushes +with impetuosity through the rapids called the Salto del Lobo (the +wolf's leap), near Serpa, in Portugal. The whole length of the Guadiana +is estimated at 550 miles, and the area of its bed at 24,000 square +miles. The rainfall is about fourteen inches.</p> + +<p>To the south of the rivers of the plateau the only considerable stream +is the Guadalquiver, with its tributaries. The character of this river +is entirely different to that of the former streams. Like the Ebro, it +forms a true valley, instead of merely cutting<a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> its way through rocks, +cañons, and defiles. Its bed is on an average about 1200 feet below that +of the Guadiana in the greater part of its course. It is also the only +river in Spain of any utility for navigation; the tide is felt beyond +Seville, and vessels of 200 to 300 tons ascend to that city. There are +also several lines of steamboats trading thence directly with London, +Marseilles, Bilbao, Cadiz, and Gibraltar. The Guadalquiver takes its +rise from two sources—one, in the streams Guadalimar and Guadarmeno, +rises in the Sierra Alcaraz, and not very far from the sources of the +Guadiana; the other, which bears the name of the Guadalquiver, in the +south-west of the Sierra Sagra; this latter branch is soon joined by the +Guadiana Menor, coming down from the Sierra Nevada. The basin of the +Guadalquiver presents this peculiarity, that its boundary is not formed +by the line of the highest summits; on the contrary, many of its +tributaries take their rise on the farther side of the Sierra Morena on +the north, and of the Sierras de Granada and Nevada on the south, and +have cut their way through these higher grounds to join the Guadalquiver +in the plains of Andalusia. The upper part of its course is very rapid, +and the junction of the two rivers Guadalimar and Guadalquiver, in the +plains of Baeza, is about 5000 feet below the Punta de Almenara; but +from thence to the sea the fall is<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> very slight. After the junction the +river passes by Andujar, Montoro, and Cordova, receiving on both banks +the waters of many streams of but little importance; but between Cordova +and Seville it is joined by its largest tributary, the Xenil, which +rises in the Sierra Nevada, and flowing through the celebrated Vega of +Granada, bursts through the Antequera mountains to enter the great plain +of Andalusia, and loses itself in the Guadalquiver. From Seville +downward the character of the stream is greatly changed; it wanders in +large meanderings through low and marshy grounds for two or three +leagues on each bank, mostly uninhabited, and used only for pasturing +cattle. These low lands, which are called <i>Marismas</i>, in dry weather are +covered with clouds of black dust, and in wet are an almost impassable +slough of mud; mid these the river divides, and its winding beds form +two islands—Isle Mayor and Menor, the former of which is wholly given +to cattle, while the latter is inhabited and well cultivated; The river +finally enters the Gulf of Cadiz, at San Lucar de Barameda, forcing its +way with difficulty through low hills of sand, like those of the Landes +in France. The marshes near the mouth are utilized as <i>Salinas</i>, for +making excellent salt; and on the hills which overlook the <i>Marismas</i> +some of the most renowned wines and fruits of Spain are produced. The +whole course of the Guadalquiver<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a> is about 340 miles and the area of its +basin 21,000: the rainfall is estimated at nineteen inches.</p> + +<p>The other streams which fall into the Gulf of Cadiz—the Rio Tinto, +which runs into the Huelva basin, and the Guadalete at Cadiz—are of no +utility for navigation. The little port of Palos, whence Columbus sailed +to discover a new world, is almost entirely blocked up by sands brought +down by the former torrent.</p> + +<p>The remaining rivers of Spain—those which, descending from the great +plateau, flow eastward to the Mediterranean—though all useless for +navigation, are among the most productive of all its streams. Flowing +through a country whose temperature exceeds that of the opposite coast +of Africa; where the rainfall is either scanty, or disastrous in +quantity from rare but terrible storms; and through districts in which +no rain falls for years together—the waters of these rivers, skilfully +applied to irrigation, have rendered what would otherwise be a barren +land one of fertility unparalleled in Europe. Unlike the peasants of +Castile, the cultivators of Murcia and Valencia have learnt to value the +use of water in agriculture; although even there, works which were first +constructed by the Moors have been allowed to fall into ruin, and are +yearly becoming of less utility. Of this we shall speak more at length +below. The three great rivers we have yet to notice are<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a> the Murcian +Segura, and the Jucar and Guadalaviar, in Valencia.</p> + +<p>The river Segura takes its rise in the Sierra de Segura, between the +Sierras of Alcaraz and Sagra. The upper part of its course is that of a +mountain torrent, leaping from terrace to terrace of the mountains as it +descends, until after the junction of the Mundo, which rises from a +cirque in the Sierra Alcaras, like the cirque of Gavarnie in the +Pyrenees, and flows through a deep ravine from the north-east. Its +waters are dammed up, cut into numberless channels, and almost wholly +utilized for irrigation, so that only about ten per cent of them reaches +the sea; the rest are dissipated in the huertas of Murcia, Orihuela, and +part of Elche. Its tributary the Sangonera loses almost all its waters +in the plains of Lorca. With the little Vinalapo, almost 15,000 acres +are rendered productive by the waters of these streams in one of the +driest districts of Spain. The wheat of Orihuela is some of the finest +in Spain; and so certain is the crop as to give rise to the proverb, +"Rain or no rain, there is always wheat in Orihuela." The Segura has a +course of about 217 miles, and an area of about 850 square miles; the +average rainfall is estimated at about twelve inches, but the difference +is very great in different years, as the district is liable to rare but +most heavy and destructive floods.<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a></p> + +<p>The Jucar takes its rise not far from the sources of the Tagus, on the +south side of the Muela de San Juan, which we have before mentioned as +the culminating watershed of the peninsula. It flows first in a +south-westerly direction as far as Cuenca, whence it gradually turns +south and south-east, and at Jorquera, to the north-east of Albacete, +strikes eastwards for the Mediterranean, which it finally enters at +Cullera. Like the Segura and Guadalaviar, its waters are drained off for +irrigation; but its basin is narrower, and it can boast of no fertility +equal to the huertas of Murcia or Valencia. Its course is about 317 +miles, the area of its bed 580, and the rainfall some twelve and a half +inches; the irrigated land is over 30,000 acres.</p> + +<p>The Guadalaviar, or Turia, rises on the north side of the Muela de San +Juan, and descending rapidly, flows eastward past Albarracin and Teruel; +at which latter town it turns abruptly southwards till it enters the +province of Valencia, where it again takes a more easterly course, +flowing with ever-diminished stream through the rich garden of Valencia, +at which city it falls into the Mediterranean, with water which, except +in time of flood, scarcely rises above the ankle. The length of its +course is about 187 miles, the area of its basin 320 square miles; it +irrigates over 25,000 acres near Valencia.</p> + +<p>Besides these larger rivers, there are on the<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> Mediterranean slope +innumerable smaller streams, whose waters, though of little geographical +importance, are of the greatest utility to agriculture. In summer +scarcely a drop of their waters reaches the sea; all is either employed +for irrigation, or dissipated by evaporation; often they are dammed up +to form reservoirs or <i>pantanos</i>, sometimes employed for rice culture. +But small as these streams are, it is to them that this burning coast +owes its beauty and fertility, its almost tropical vegetation and its +rich products. The fair gardens of Castellon, of Gandia, of Murviedro +would be barren and valueless without these waters. Still farther to the +north the waters of the Llobregat, and the canal of Urgel in Catalonia, +are used for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>The lakes of Spain are neither large nor numerous, but some are curious +from a geographical point of view. On the high plateaux whence the +Guadiana, the Guadalimar, the Segura, and the Jucar take their rise, +either a dam or a trench would suffice to turn the waters either to the +Atlantic or the Mediterranean; and here alone in Western Europe are +found temporary lakes with no outlet, and consequently salt from excess +of evaporation. For the same reason salt springs and brackish streams +abound in these highlands. All around the coast, both on the Atlantic +and Mediterranean, salinas, or salt-works for making<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a> salt, either from +the sea or from the brackish water of lagoons and tidal marshes, abound; +those of Cadiz, and of the coast between Cartagena and Alicante are +celebrated for the excellence of their salt. Besides these are the five +Albuferas, or lagoons, of Valencia, Alicante, Elche, Auna, and Oropesa. +Of these that of Valencia is far the largest, and feeds enormous +quantities of fish and of aquatic fowl of all kinds. The interior lakes, +as that of Sanabria in Zamora, Gallocanta in Aragon, and those from +which many of the rivers take their source, are noted only for their +picturesque beauty. We can hardly show the value of water in Spain +better than by directing the reader's attention to the number of places +which take their name from water of some kind: thus there are forty-four +villages or towns whose names are compounded of <i>Aguas</i>, waters; 238 +into which the word <i>Fuente</i>, fountain, enters; 144 <i>Rios</i>, rivers; 54 +<i>Arroyos</i>, brooks; 44 <i>Pozos</i>, wells; 30 <i>Salinas</i>, salt waters; 9 <i>Rio +Secos</i>, dry rivers; and about 600 <i>Molinos</i> or water-mills. The +multiplicity of these last dates perhaps from the time when every +seigneur had his own mill, and obliged his vassals to grind their corn +there; but assuredly in a moister climate water would not have played so +great a part in the nomenclature, or toponymy, of the country.</p> + +<p>We add the following table, deduced from Reclus' "Nouvelle Géographie +Universelle," 6° Serie,<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> p. 886, compared with an article in "La Revista +Contemporanea," December 30th, 1880:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr align="center" valign="bottom"><td colspan="2"> </td><td> +Rivers.</td><td> +Area of<br /> +basin.<br /> +Sq. miles.</td><td>Length of<br /> +course.<br /> +Miles.</td><td>Mean<br /> +rainfall.<br /> +Inches.</td><td> +Outfall +<br /> compared<br /> +with<br /> +rainfall.<br /> +Per cent.</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="2"> +Northern<br /> +Rivers.</td><td rowspan="2"><img src="images/bracel.png" +alt="{" +width="10" +height="50" +/> +</td><td>Minho&Sil </td><td align="right">10,000 </td><td align="right">190 </td><td align="right"> 47½ </td><td align="center">50</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ebro </td><td align="right">25,000 </td><td align="right">466 </td><td align="right">18 </td><td align="center">20</td></tr> +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="3"> +Rivers of<br /> +the<br /> +Central<br /> +Plateau. + </td><td rowspan="3"><img src="images/bracel.png" +alt="{" +width="10" +height="80" +/> +</td><td>Douro </td><td align="right"> 35,000 </td><td align="right"> 506 </td><td align="right"> 20 </td><td align="center">40</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tagus </td><td align="right"> 30,000 </td><td align="right">556 </td><td align="right">16 </td><td align="center">33</td></tr> +<tr><td>Guardiana & Zancara </td><td align="right"> 24,000 </td><td align="right"> 553 </td><td align="right">14 </td><td align="center">20</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td>Andulasia</td><td rowspan="1"><img src="images/bracel.png" +alt="{" +width="10" +height="30" +/></td><td> +Guadalquiver </td><td align="right"> 21,000 </td><td align="right"> 340 </td><td align="right"> 19 </td><td align="center">30</td></tr> + +<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="3">Mediterranean<br /> +Rivers.<br /> +E. & S.E.</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><img src="images/bracel.png" +alt="{" +width="10" +height="80" +/></td><td>Segura </td><td align="right"> 8500 </td><td align="right"> 217 </td><td align="right"> 12 </td><td align="center">10</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Jucar </td><td align="right">5800 </td><td align="right"> 317 </td><td align="right"> 12½ </td><td align="center"> 15</td></tr> +<tr><td>Guadalaviar </td><td align="right"> 3200 </td><td align="right"> 187 </td><td align="right"> — </td><td align="center"> 12</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The mineral springs of Spain are very numerous, as might be expected in +a mountainous country, at the junction of different strata in the +metamorphic fissures, and in the neighbourhood of extinct volcanoes. +Many of them were known and used by the Romans, and possibly by other +races before their time. The Moors made use of many, more especially in +the south. The majority of these springs are much neglected, and the +bathing establishments in their roughness are a striking contrast to +those of Germany and of France; there is, however, no reason to suppose +that the waters themselves are less efficacious. The best known springs +lie along the line of the Pyrenees, in Catalonia, Navarre, and +especially in the Basque provinces and Santander. Another<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> noted group +are in the neighbourhood of Granada, and on the northern slopes of the +Sierra Nevada. Those in the Guadarrama range are more frequented, from +their vicinity to Madrid. Many of the Salados and Salinas in the higher +parts of the eastern range, as well as the springs in the neighbourhood +of Valencia, might be utilized with advantage. In this, as in many other +things, Spain has not yet recovered the threads of a lost civilization, +and in many points of material comfort and well-being is behind the +Spain of Roman and of Moorish times.<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br /> +<small>CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">S<small>PAIN</small> may be roughly divided into five climates: (1) that of the north +and of the Pyrenees, where rain is abundant; (2) the west or Atlantic +climate, including Portugal; (3) the north-east or Mediterranean; (4) +the east and south, or African climate; and (5) lastly, the climate of +the great Central Plateau, or the Continental. All these are well +marked, and differ greatly in their temperature, in elevation, in +exposure, in rainfall, and in prevailing winds. To speak of an average +temperature, or of an average rainfall in Spain, is only to mislead. The +temperature of the south and south-east is higher than that of the +opposite coast of Africa, while the winters in Castile recall those of +Scandinavia in their bitterness. In some of the Asturian valleys there +is, perhaps, the heaviest rainfall in Europe; while the lower valley of +the Ebro is almost a desert, from want of rain; and in parts of Valencia +and Murcia, and even in Andalusia, not<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a> a drop will fall for years; yet +at times these provinces, and their driest portions, are visited—as in +1802, 1879, and 1881—by overwhelming and destructive floods. To strike +an average, then, even for the same spot, through several years, is +often merely deceptive.</p> + +<p>We have remarked above on the similarity of the conformation of the +western coasts of Galicia to those of Norway, Scotland, and Ireland. +They partake also of the same Atlantic character in their climate and +productions. Galicia and the Asturias are essentially grazing countries; +and from the Galician ports, up to 1878, about 20,000 head of fatted +cattle were annually sent to England. Except in the more sheltered +valleys, where the productions of a warmer clime will flourish, the +native flora is not unlike that of the milder parts of Ireland and of +Devonshire. The average temperature of Santiago is about 55° Fahr., with +a maximum of 95°, and a minimum of 28°; Oviedo is given as 54° average, +maximum 80°, and minimum 24°; while the rainfall of the former is from +58 to 68 inches, and that of the latter varies from 38 to 50 in ordinary +years, but in 1858 it attained 80 inches. Proceeding eastward we meet +the northern or Pyrenean climate, where the rainfall is not so great, +and, except in the immediate vicinity of the highest mountains, lessens +gradually as we either go eastward or descend into the plains. The +moisture is<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a> condensed and wrung out of the clouds brought by the watery +western winds, and precipitated on the mountains of the west and north. +From the Picos de Europa, in the province of Santander, which may be +considered as the meeting-point of the two climates, the waters descend +on the one side by the Ebro to the Mediterranean, by the Pisuerga to the +Douro and the Atlantic, and by the shorter northern streams to the Bay +of Biscay. In the valley of the Cabuervega (Santander) the rainfall is +57½ inches. Passing eastward we find Bilbao and San Sebastian, with +an average temperature of 56° and 55°, a maximum of 93°, and minimum +23°, while the rainfall has diminished from 55 to 48 inches. At Vergara, +more inland, it is 52. At Huesca, in Aragon, notwithstanding its +proximity to the mountains, the rainfall is only 25 inches; at Balaguer, +in Catalonia, only 15½. At Saragossa the climate becomes more +extreme; the average is 60°, the maximum 96°, and the minimum 20°, while +the rainfall descends to 14 inches. The equalizing influence of the +neighbourhood of the sea is felt in the Mediterranean climate at +Barcelona; for while the average is 63°, the maximum is only 88°, and +the minimum 32°, and the rainfall ascends to 24 inches. The difference +is still more marked if we compare the extreme oscillation between the +maximum and minimum temperatures. At Saragossa this is from 120° to +130°; at Barcelona from 90° to 100° Fahr.<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a></p> + +<p>The productions of this northern zone vary greatly according to +elevation and exposition. Those of the Basque Provinces still belong to +the north temperate zone climate—cattle, corn, and cider, as well as +wine. The olive, and the mulberry for silk, are almost unknown; but +maize is largely grown. As we approach Catalonia these products give way +to those of the Mediterranean region of Provence and of the Riviera—the +olive, the grape, the mulberry. A powerful red wine is made on the lower +southern spurs of the Pyrenees and of the Cantabrian Mountains, in the +Riojas, in Navarre, and in Aragon. Much of it would be excellent if more +attention were paid to the preparation, and especially to the conditions +of transport. Great quantities are at present exported to France by sea +from Bilbao and San Sebastian, and also by rail, for the purpose of +mixing with the thinner and poorer clarets of Bordeaux, to fit them for +the taste and market of England. In Catalonia the wine improves, and is +less used for mixing. The chief kinds are a red wine, like Rousillon, +and sweet, luscious wines, Rancio, somewhat like Muscat or Malaga. Of +late the manufacture of effervescing wines like champagne has been +carried on with considerable success. The wine made in Catalonia amounts +to one-fifth of the whole produce of Spain. Already the orange and the +palm appear.</p> + +<p>Proceeding southwards from Catalonia, we<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a> gradually advance into the +south-eastern and southern climate of Spain, a climate which is rather +African than European in its character, and both whose products and +dryness have more relation to the African continent than to that of the +rest of Europe. It is here that the date-palm ripens—which it does not +on the opposite coast of Algeria—and the camel breeds, and can be used +as a beast of burden equally as in Egypt and the East. Sheltered by the +mountain ranges to the east and north from the cold winds which sweep +the plateau of Castile, exposed by the slope of the country to the full +influence of the southern sun and its powerful evaporation, the +characteristics of the climate are warmth and dryness, while the +vicinity of the Mediterranean partly tempers the extreme range of heat +and cold which might be found in lands more remote from the sea. Thus +the average temperature of Valencia is 65°, its maximum 102°, its +minimum 41°, and extreme range 100°. Alicante, still further south, has +an average of 66°, a maximum of 100°, and a minimum of 35°. The average +rainfall at Valencia is stated at 17, and that of Alicante at 18 inches; +but, as remarked above, in this south-eastern district of Spain averages +of rainfall are quite deceptive. In some years the quantity marked is +only a very few inches, 3 or 6, over the whole district, and there are +considerable portions where rain does not fall for years.<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> The country +is rendered fertile and productive, not by its rains, but by irrigation +from the rivers, fed by the winter snows on the mountains which border +the great plateau. At times, however, as in 1802 and 1879, storms of +rain descend on the high lands of Murcia and the eastern sierras, and +floods rush down, sweeping away dams which have stood for centuries, +washing away towns and villages, and spreading destruction far and wide. +To compute the rainfall of such floods into an average is only to play +with figures. Murcia has an average temperature of 64°, maximum 112°, +minimum 24°, and an extreme range of 120°. The rainfall averages about +12½ inches on the coast, but varies greatly; at Albacete it is said +to average 13 inches. The directly southern coast, from the Cabo de Gata +to Gibraltar, has a milder and more equable climate than that of the +south-eastern coast; but in the inland valley of the Guadalquiver the +range is more extreme, both for heat and cold. The dryness in the +eastern district still continues from Cartagena to Almeria; the rainfall +is said to be only 12 inches. At Malaga, while the average temperature +is 66°, about the same as that at Valencia and Alicante, the maximum is +said to be only 78°, and the minimum 53°. At Motril, between Malaga and +Almeria, the maximum is 77°, and the minimum 52°. In Seville on the +other hand, the average is 68°, with a maximum Of 118°, and a minimum of +30°. Cordova, somewhat<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a> colder, has a maximum of 93°, and a minimum of +27°. The rainfall is also more moderate at Malaga, 15½ inches, and 23 +at Seville. Granada, in its upland but sheltered valley, at an elevation +of 2681 feet, defended from the east and south by the snowy range of the +Sierra Nevada, and by the mountains of Granada to the north, has still +an average of 65°, with a maximum of 97°, and a minimum of 42°. The +rainfall varies considerably in different years, and various geographers +give its average as 23½ 33½, and the latest (Reclus) 48½. Cadiz +has an Atlantic climate, which in temperature and greater rainfall, 37 +inches, closely approximates to that of Madeira. Moving westward it +decreases, at Gibraltar, 34½, San Fernando, 27; while at Huelva and +Tarifa, where the moisture of the north-west gales is intercepted by the +Portuguese mountains, it descends to 24½. We have now only to treat +of the climate of the great central elevation, the plateau, which ranges +at an average height of some 2000 feet above the sea. Thus, Madrid is +2148, Segovia 2299, Burgos 2873, Soria 3504, and the Escorial, 3683 feet +above the sea-level. But even these altitudes do not wholly account for +the rigour of the climate in the latitude of Naples, Rome, and +Constantinople. We have seen how excellent is the climate of Granada at +a nearly equal elevation, only three degrees further south. The extremes +of heat and cold felt at Valladolid and Madrid are due more to<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a> the +uncovered mountain ranges to the north, the treeless, waterless plains, +over which the wind sweeps unchecked, than to mere elevation. The want +of rain is greatly owing to the ranges of mountains parallel to the +frontier and to the Atlantic in Portugal, which condense and wring all +the moisture from the rain-clouds of the Atlantic, and distribute it +almost wholly on the western slope. Thus at Lisbon the fall is 29, at +Coimbra 35, at Oporto 63, in the mountains of Beira and Tras os Montes +from 68 to 100 inches; while on the eastern slope, at Salamanca it is 9, +Valladolid 12, at Badajoz 12½, Ciudad Real 14. From the bare granite +range of the Guadarrama steals down the treacherous icy wind so fatal in +Madrid—not sufficiently strong to extinguish a candle, but quite enough +to destroy human life. It is the dislike of the Castilian peasant to +trees, which would overshadow so much of his small property, the +destruction of the mountain forests, and the want of good agriculture, +which has embittered the climate of these plateaux. Were the hill-sides +clothed with wood, the country dotted with farms, the wide and bare +plains covered throughout the year with varied agricultural produce, the +climate would soon be modified and become sensibly warmer, and no +longer, as it at present is, an obstacle to civilization and to +improvement. In spite of all neglect these plains grow some of the +finest wheat in Europe, and the<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> lower mountain ranges supply pasture in +the summer for the immense flocks which return to winter in the plains +of Estremadura. The average temperature of Madrid is 59°, its maximum +104° to 107°, and its minimum only 7°. That of Salamanca is said to be +57°, with a maximum of 97°, and a minimum of 12°. The average rainfall +of Madrid is only from 9 to 14 inches, that of Salamanca 9, while Soria, +nearer to the mountains, in some years reaches 25 inches.</p> + +<p>From the above sketch of the climate the reader will expect to find the +productions vary greatly in the different districts. The north and +north-west are the lands of cattle and of pasture. In Galicia and in the +Asturias the products are almost like those of the warmer parts of the +south-west of England and of Ireland, save that in the more sheltered +valleys the orange, citron, and pomegranate flourish; a palm is even now +and then to be seen; and the wine, especially on the confines of +Portugal, is excellent, and needs only more care in preparation to be a +rival to the famous Port of the neighbouring country. In the eighteenth +century, that of Ribadavia was considered to be the finest wine in all +Spain. Maize, too, is freely grown; but on account of their extreme +poverty, rye and spelt often replace both it and wheat as food for the +peasantry. The upland plateaux afford excellent pasture, especially for +cattle and<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a> horses; the hardy and sure-footed hacks of Galicia and the +Asturias are celebrated. The mountains here are often clothed with wood; +oaks of various kinds, and the edible chestnut, and the hazel-nut—of +which over 1000 tons, value 23,000<i>l.</i>, are annually exported from +Gijon—grow on the lower spurs, giving food to herds of swine; beech, +and pine, and fir appear as we approach the tops. In the lower woods the +arbutus especially flourishes, and the young wild boars in autumn are +said to become half stupefied with its narcotic berries. As we proceed +eastward from Galicia to the Asturias the climate becomes sensibly +colder—the valleys face the north instead of the west; the orange is +less known, the mulberry will not flourish sufficiently well to pay for +silk cultivation, the olive will not grow, and the cork does not pay for +cultivation; the wines lose somewhat of their strength and lusciousness; +and cider, made from the excellent apples of the country, rivals the +juice of the grape in popularity. The mountains are covered with heath, +and fern, and furze, but the aromatic plants are fewer than in Galicia. +This description applies to the northern slope of the Cantabrian chain +and to the rolling hills and plateaux of the Basque provinces; but the +southern slopes of the chain, towards the Ebro, are again a land of vine +and olive, and of maize, which is everywhere the staple. In the Basque +provinces the plough is<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a> replaced by the ancient "laya," an instrument +as old, at least, as Roman times. It is a heavy two-pronged steel or +iron fork, with prongs one and a half to two feet long. A strong man +will work two of them at once, one in each hand, driving them into the +ground to their full depth, then with a backward strain turning up the +deep soil. Usually, four or five men work together, and raise their +arms, plunge the fork downwards, and heave, in perfect time. The +cultivation thus effected is excellent, but the expenditure of labour is +immense The productions do not vary greatly along the slopes of the +Pyrenees from those above described until we reach Catalonia; but in the +lower valley of the Ebro, where rain is rare, in the Bardeñas reales of +Navarre, and in the monegros, or despoblados of Aragon, we meet with a +phenomenon only too frequent in Spain—tracts of almost utter +barrenness. The Bardeñas reales are low spurs of the Pyrenees, with +table-lands, bluffs, and deep gorges, and these could scarcely be +brought under cultivation; but the "despoblados" (dispeopled lands) of +Aragon might be irrigated, either by the Ebro or by its tributaries, if +the water of the canal of Charles V. were but economically applied. The +sterility of some parts seems to have been the slow result of an +oppressive land tenure; for as Don Vicente de la Fuente has remarked, +the lands which belonged to the ancient señors (the feudal<a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a> lords) lie +barren, while the lands of the comunidades, the free districts, are +still fertile. In treating, of the cultivation and the products of +eastern and southern Spain two facts become evident at once—how many of +the products are exotic, and how much of the cultivation is still +Arabian. We shall see in another chapter how deep a mark the Moor or +Arab has left on the population and toponymy of Spain; and the +agriculture of the greater part of central and southern Spain is still +Arabian. The methods of the Spanish peasant are almost all Arabian; +often he uses the Arabian hoe in preference to the Roman plough. The +<i>noria</i>, or water-wheel; the <i>sha'doof</i>, or swipe, the pole and bucket +for lifting water; the huge dams and reservoirs, the canals and ditches +(<i>acequias</i>), the regulations for the fair distribution of the +water,—all these, and even the very superstitions as to times of +sowing, the rotation of crops, the treatment of his animals—for all +these the Spanish peasant of the South is indebted to the Moors. The +treatise of Abu Zaccaria, with its traditions of Nabathean agriculture, +is still one of the manuals of agriculture in Spain. It is the Moors, +too, who first made the winter gardens in the sands near San Lucarde +Barameda, at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, and which supply Cadiz and +Seville with the earliest and latest vegetables. The Roman, with his +lofty aqueducts, brought water to the towns; but it was<a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a> the Moor who +gave that blessing to the thirsty soil of the country districts of +Spain. And not only the methods of agriculture, but many of its fruits +and products were introduced by the Arab from the East, and some of +these are now the very staple of Spanish produce. It is they who brought +into Spain the cotton plant, rice, and the sugar-cane; mulberries, both +for fruit and for silk culture; sesame, the caper, the locust bean, the +castor-oil plant, alfalfa (lucerne), the pomegranate, almond, the walnut +and filbert, the chestnut and the ever-green oak, the wild olive, the +jujube, the pistacchio nut, the palm, several kinds of roses, the +wall-flower, with many another garden herb or flower. It was they who +improved the Andalusian steed into one of the most excellent in Europe +for riding, and the strain may still be traced even in the ponies of the +north. But the cultivated vegetation of the south which meets the +stranger's eye is perhaps still more indebted to the Americas.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> It +needs an effort now to picture what Spanish agriculture and what Spanish +life was before the time of Columbus, when maize, and the potato, and +sweet potato, were unknown; when not a cigar was smoked or cigarette +made, or leaf of tobacco grown in Spain; when only garlic was known, and +those<a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a> indispensable condiments of every dish, the tomato, and the +pimentos had not yet entered a Spanish kitchen, and chocolate had not +yet been sipped by Spanish ladies; when the hedges were bare of aloes, +and the prickly pear gave the beggar no fruit. And besides these common +gifts, there are the more luxurious ones of pine apples, grenadines (the +fruit of the passion-flower), abocado pears, chirimoyas, guavas, +earth-nuts, bananas, and many others, while the gardens are enriched +with magnolias and passion-flowers, and a wealth of creepers of all +kinds. The Australian eucalypti, also, are highly valued in Spain, both +as a febrifuge and for their prophylactic qualities in prevention of +malaria in marshy ground; and a decoction from their leaves has quite +passed into the popular pharmacopeia.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For the converse of this, the plants and fruits introduced +by the Spaniards into America, see Markham's "Peru," in this series, p. +120.</p></div> + +<p>The most common plant on the sun-dried hills of Valencia and Murcia, the +esparto-grass (<i>Stipe tenacissima</i>), after having been long used in +various native manufactures, has since 1856 become an article of +exportation, and an important addition to the wealth of Spain; but the +cultivation of the barilla plant for soda has much decreased. It is from +Valencia that the oranges come which are such favourites in Paris. The +tree is so valuable, both for fruit and flowers, that an acre will +sometimes give 600<i>l.</i> worth of produce. The dried raisins and almonds +so familiar in England, so eagerly<a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a> looked for at Christmas time, and +the green preserved grapes, come from the districts of which we are now +speaking, the coast-lands from Valencia to Almeira and Malaga. The wines +are equally celebrated, from the strong red wines of Benicarlo, near the +frontiers of Catalonia, to the sweet wines of Alicante and of Malaga, +which are preferred by Continental taste to the drier and more fiery +sherries, wines of the Guadalquiver valley, which please the English +palate. Near the coast on the lower grounds, wherever there is +sufficient water, rice is grown; but, on account of the unhealthy +character of the cultivation, its culture is forbidden in the +neighbourhood of towns. Sugar-cane is extending on the southern coast. +In Andalusia alone more than 7000 acres are devoted to this culture, and +the total yield of the sugar-cane in Spain is estimated at nearly 20,000 +tons. Palms are grown as an ornament and garden-tree from Barcelona to +Malaga, but in Murcia, and especially at Elche, they are planted for +production. Though the number seems declining, there are still some +40,000 palms together in the neighbourhood of Elche; in the last century +they are said to have numbered from 50,000 to 70,000. It is not for the +fruit alone, the date, but for the leaves (the so-called palm-branches) +that the trees are grown. In the winter these are tied into a close +bundle<a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a> to exclude the rays of the sun, in order that they may become +white, and they are then exported to Rome and Italy, for use in the +Easter ceremonies of Palm Sunday. Oils and essences, extracted from many +plants and flowers, are also products of this region. The +liquorice-root, and many another flower, or fruit, or root of medicinal +value grows wild on the hills. The slopes of the eastern mountains are +covered with aromatic herbs, thyme, myrtle, box, rosemary, +southern-wood, mint, lavender, marjoram, nearly all the sweet-scented +herbs which were once carefully cultivated in the gardens of our +ancestors, are natives of these hills; and the flocks of goats returning +from their pastures bring the sweet odours into the tainted towns and +villages, and the first draught of milk from them is highly flavoured +thereby. On these treeless hills, and the warmer parts of the higher +plateaux, these aromatic herbs are often the only fuel which the peasant +can employ. The wealth of this portion of the Spanish soil, the variety +and beauty of its products, can be best seen in a visit to a fruit or +flower market in any of the towns of the south and east. The richness of +colour, the size and beauty of form, are amazing to the stranger; but +the quantity and the cheapness, the way in which these fruits and exotic +vegetables enter into the diet of the poor, is that which most +astonishes those from less generous<a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a> climes. We have not space to +enumerate in detail a tithe of these productions; this must be sought in +more special treatises.</p> + +<p>Almost equal in agricultural and garden wealth to that of the +coast-line, and superior to it as regards the culture of the vine, is +the valley of the Guadalquiver. The oranges of Seville (the civil +oranges of our forefathers, the main ingredient of marmalade), sack, and +sherry, are known in every English home of the middle and upper classes. +It is in the valley of the Guadalquiver, from San Lucar de Barameda to +above Cordova, that the finest sherries are produced. From San Lucar +comes the pleasant Manzanilla, the lightest and most wholesome of all +the sherries, but with a peculiar bitter taste and bouquet, like that of +the wild camomile-flower. In the neighbourhood of Jerez de la Frontera +the best sherries are produced, both brown and golden; the Amontillado, +the nutty-flavoured wine so much sought after, comes from Montilla, to +the south of Cordova. Several other kinds are manufactured, and have a +great local reputation. Comparatively very little of these strong and +fiery wines is consumed in Spain. Spaniards take them only as a liqueur, +not as the usual accompaniment of a meal or desert. Sherry, though grown +in Spain, is the foreigner's, and especially the Englishman's wine. The +red Valdepeñas, from the northern slope of the Sierra<a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a> Morena, replaces +it at the Spaniard's table. For the modes of preparation of the various +sherries, we must refer our readers to special treatises; of its +statistics as an article of commerce we shall speak in another chapter. +The first palm-tree introduced into Spain is said to have been planted +near Cordova. The olives of this district are considered the finest in +Spain. Comparatively little of the oil is exported, but the home +consumption is enormous. The cork forests, too, are abundant; their bark +forms an important article of commerce.</p> + +<p>We have now only to speak of the great central plateau, the Continental +climate of Spain, and its productions. This is peculiarly the +corn-growing district of Spain, the land of wheat and maize, especially +in the Castiles. Estremadura and Léon are rather pastoral districts. It +is in these provinces that the laws of the <i>Mesta</i>, for the protection +of the celebrated merino sheep, ruled supreme, and which, though +modified at the close of the last century, and some of their worst +abuses done away with, were finally repealed only in 1835. By these laws +the sheep and cattle which fed in the winter in the plains of +Estremadura, and in the summer on the mountains of Léon, were privileged +to enter almost any property on their line of march, to feed or to pass +the night there. A space of ninety yards wide was reserved on each side +of the highways for their accommodation; no land,<a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a> especially no +corn-field, was allowed to be enclosed; and right of forcible entrance +was given to all orchards and vineyards where pasturage might be found. +Wherever the flocks had once fed, the land could not be sold or +alienated to any other purpose. The shepherds who tended these flocks +became almost as savage and ignorant as the beasts they looked after; +their privileges produced in them a contempt and hatred of all kinds of +fixed property, and they were ever trying to extend their oppressive +right at the expense of the more settled and agricultural portion of the +community. Under the influence of these laws Estremadura, which, in the +time of the Romans and Moors had been one of the richest provinces of +Spain, became under their Christian conquerors not only one of the +poorest and most thinly peopled districts, but also a curse and source +of destruction to the rest. Not only were all the evils of the old Roman +"latifundia" reproduced in this mediæval system, but the locust, which +never breeds in cultivated lands, or where the plough passes, was +enabled to make its home in the wilds and pastures of Estremadura, +whence it periodically sallied out to devastate the fairest and richest +portions of the land. In the years 1754 to 1757 it desolated the whole +of the provinces between Estremadura and the Mediterranean. In 1686 and +the following year it reached the principality of Barcelona, and, in +spite of<a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a> exorcisms, ravaged the country till there was nothing more to +destroy. The provinces nearer to Estremadura are much more frequent +sufferers, and in recent years (in 1876 the crops in Ciudad Real were +utterly destroyed) a division of the army has been more than once +employed to destroy or to check them on their march. The only plant they +spare is the tomata, which they will not touch. Besides flocks, +Estremadura maintains huge herds of swine, which feed on the sweet +acorns and chestnuts of its woods, and whose flesh is renowned through +Spain. Owing to its situation on the borders of Andalusia, in which +province the Moors retained their powers long after they had lost the +rest of Spain, Estremadura was exposed to their frequent incursions; +every flock and herd was liable to be carried off, every fruit-tree to +be cut down, the farms burnt and crops destroyed; and in their +retaliation the Christian knights were almost as fatal as the Arab +horsemen. The country was never thoroughly peopled after the reconquest, +and the sense of insecurity remained long after the cause of it had been +removed. The laws of the Mesta and the emigration to the Americas (both +Cortes and Pizarro were Extrameños) finished the work of depopulation, +and left the province, as it has since remained, naturally one of the +richest, actually one of the poorest in Spain. The products, besides +those above mentioned, are cork, oak-bark<a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a> and acorns for tanning, +honey, nuts, and chestnuts.</p> + +<p>The bare plains of the Castiles are now the great corn-producing country +of Spain. But they have little or nothing of the beauty and variety of +cultivated land in other countries. There is no succession of crops, no +mixed husbandry, no scattered farm-houses, neither tree nor fence to +break the bare monotony. The hill-sides and mountains are given up to +pasture, the plains to wheat and maize. The husbandmen live in villages, +and ride out on donkeys in early morn to their distant fields, and +return home at night. A sense of insecurity seems still to brood over +the land, as if the peasant dared not trust himself outside the walls of +village or town. Only at harvest-time, in the warm summer and autumn +nights, he camps out among his crops, to thresh them on the spot, and +bring the produce home, a habit which often produces fever and ague. +Year after year the process is repeated; no improvement is ever made; if +rain falls the harvest is plentiful—so plentiful sometimes that the +lazy peasant will not reap his most distant fields, or procure new skins +or barrels for the over-abundant wine, though with the extension of +railways this evil is fast disappearing. There is hardly a greater +contrast than between the habits of the Castilian peasants and those of +the peasant-proprietors in the Basque provinces and in those of north +and north-west.<a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a> In the Basque provinces the farms are scattered all +over the country, and travellers from other districts of Spain speak of +the whole district as if it were one city. The farm-house stands in the +midst of its grounds, with orchard, garden, trees and fences, meadow and +corn-land round it. To Englishmen this description is almost a matter of +course, and one must read the narrative of travellers from Castile fully +to appreciate the force of the contrast. There is, moreover, no natural +impediment whatever to a similar course of life in many districts of the +Castiles. Barren and dreary as they look, the plains called the "Sierras +de Campos," and some others, are watered by a kind of natural capillary +attraction; dry as the surface appears, water is always to be found at a +few inches below the surface, and the roots of the wheat and other +cereal crops penetrate to it. It is only the mixture of pride and +laziness and ignorance of the Castilian peasant, his senseless disdain +of all improvement, his want of ambition for anything better, that +prevents progress in this part of Spain. He refused to make use of the +machinery invented for him in the last century, nor will he avail +himself of the means of irrigation and the still better machines +provided for him now. Yet there is no agricultural country in which +machinery could be introduced to greater advantage.</p> + +<p>Perhaps no better idea can be given of the productions<a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a> of Spain, and of +the diversity of its climates and fruits, than by comparing those of +Murcia with those of the north-west and the centre. In January the bean +is in flower in Murcia, in April in Madrid; the vine and the wheat +flower in April in Murcia, but not till May or June in the province of +Madrid. The climate of Galicia, with its almost continual rain, and +Murcia with its droughts, are perhaps the most opposite climates of +Spain. The one is a land of pasture and of flax cultivation; its fruits +are the apple, the pear, the peach, strawberries, currants, and nuts of +all kinds; the predominant plant on the hill-sides is the furze, in +Murcia it is the Esparto grass. The fruits there cultivated in the +gardens are exotic, and have almost wholly replaced the indigenous +flora; the "huertas," the gardens or cultivated plains, are there almost +like oases in a desert.</p> + +<p>The fauna of Spain—except in one particular, the monkeys (<i>Macacus +Innuus</i>) which inhabit the rock of Gibraltar, and which are the only +animals of their kind wild in Europe—does not greatly differ from that +of the rest of Southern Europe. In the highest part of the Pyrenees, in +the Sierra de Credos, and in the Sierra Nevada, the izard or chamois +still exists in considerable numbers. Whether the bouquetin is really +extinct, or still survives in the Spanish Pyrenees, is a disputed point. +In the forests which clothe the lower spurs,<a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a> roe and fallow deer, wild +goats and wild boars, and in some districts red deer, are still to be +found. The beasts of prey are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the fox, +wild cat, marten, ferret, weasel, &c.; and these are assisted by the no +less rapacious birds of prey—the vultures, eagles, hawks, falcons, +kites, harriers, pies, and jays. The game birds and animals are the +pheasant, now very rare, partridges of both kinds, bustards, both large +and small, sand-grouse, quails, which come in immense quantities to the +vineyards and maize-fields in the summer and autumn, woodcock, snipe; +wild duck, geese, all kinds of water-birds and waders, visit the marshes +of the rivers and the lagoons of the coast in winter; and on the +southern shores meet the flamingoes, pelicans, spoonbills, and other +birds from the African coast. From the same quarter come numerous and +brighter-plumaged birds of passage; orioles, bee-eaters, hoopoes, and +other natives of a warmer zone, are brought over by the hot south wind +so irritating to the nerves and temper of a southern Spaniard. It is +then that the shores of the Mediterranean are lined with sportsmen, when +the moon is near full, to take heavy toll of these winged travellers. +The entomology of Spain is probably very rich. We have spoken of the +locusts of Estremadura; and in the wilds where they breed—mere +solitudes in summer, when the flocks are absent in their northern +pastures—many a rare species of<a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a> butterfly, cicada, and insect is +doubtless to be found. The insects of Spain, however, are not all +noxious or without value. Silk-worms are largely bred in the coast +provinces of the east and south, not only for their silk, but also for +the gut so precious to all trout and salmon fishermen. The cochineal +insect, which feeds on the leaves of the prickly pear, is cultivated for +its brilliant dye.</p> + +<p>Of useful and domesticated animals, the sheep of Spain have always been +celebrated; the very name, "merinos," has been given to the softest kind +of wool or woolly tissue. It is said that the breed attained its +excellence through a present of English South Down rams by Edward I. to +the father of his Castilian bride, and that the wool has improved under +climatic influences. However this may be, the superiority has hardly +been maintained, and careless shepherding has sadly deteriorated the +breed; still the half-bred Spanish merinos are the favourite flocks +throughout the north of Spain and Southern France, and they are slowly +superseding the coarser native and local breeds. The Spanish cattle from +Galicia are well known in the English market, but they are not the +choicest of their kind. The bulls that are bred for the bull-fights are +reared chiefly along the marshy banks of the Guadalquiver, which, like +the delta of the Rhone, supports herds of half-wild cattle and +buffaloes. Cow's milk is little known or used in many districts of +Spain,<a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a> and butter still less. Sheep or goat's milk supplies the place +of the former, and the olive-oil, excellent were it not too often kept +till rancid, that of the latter. Cheese and various kinds of curdled +milk or whey are also made from the milk of sheep. Since the advent of +the Arabs the Andalusian steed has been much celebrated. It is now +scarcely equal to its former fame, but, like many a horse of warmer +climes, its performances are better than its looks; hardy, sure-footed, +swift, and docile, if not over-weighted it will do more than one of many +a finer-looking but less enduring breed. The horse, however, is not the +true beast of burden in Spain; he is the charger, or the luxury of the +rich. The real work of the country is done by the humble mule or ass, +or, in some districts, by the ox. The fine Spanish mules are now seldom +bred in the country, but are procured from Poitou, or from the south of +France, where great attention is paid to their production, and where the +average price of a mule of six months old is higher than that of a horse +of the same age. For long journeys, and for carrying produce over the +mountain paths, or along the bad roads of the interior, the mule and +pack-saddle is still generally used. In fact, in some districts no other +mode of conveyance is possible; but the loss to commerce from want of +better communications is immense. It is this mode of carriage which +necessitates and continues the use of the tarred<a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a> wine-skin, by which so +much excellent wine is rendered unsalable and almost undrinkable. It is +hard to recognize the delicious wine when tasted at the vineyard, in the +pitch-flavoured, half-fermented liquor which has travelled for days in a +skin exposed to the sun's heat by day, and the closeness and fetid +odours of the inns by night. Besides these, the camel, buffalo, and +llama, and vicunâ have been introduced successfully as an experiment for +breeding, but not in sufficient numbers to affect the means of transport +in the peninsula.</p> + +<p>The fisheries in Galicia and along the north-west Atlantic coast, and +also at Huelva and at Cadiz, are very valuable. Not only are they an +abundant means of support to the inhabitants of the coast and of Léon +and Northern Castile, but the fishermen engaged in them furnish the best +sailors to the Spanish navy. The chief kinds of fish are sardines and +pilchards, of which great numbers are preserved in oil, the tunny, and +the sea-bream, of which enormous quantities are annually taken. The +rivers, from the Minho to the Bidassoa, furnish trout and salmon. In the +Mediterranean, tunny, and the anchovies which replace the sardines, are +the chief fisheries, but many Spaniards are also engaged in the +coral-fishing off the coasts of Catalonia, of Algiers, and of Tunis.<a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a></p> + +<p>The total production of Spain has been approximately valued at</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Agriculture</td><td align="right">£80,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mines</td><td align="right">6,271,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manufactures </td><td align="right">63,480,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br /> +<small>GEOLOGY AND MINES.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">E<small>VEN</small> in geological features Spain is a land apart. Divided from the rest +of Europe by the regular Palæozoic band of the Pyrenees, the rocks of +the Peninsula are only susceptible of separate study. Hence no +consistent geological history can be deduced from the fragmentary and +superficial observations that as yet form the basis of the geological +map of Spain. A few striking features and geological statistics may +however be presented; and the recently-published map of Botella, as well +as the mass of valuable matter already collected by the <i>Comision del +Mapa geologico de España</i>, are an earnest that Spanish geology will soon +occupy a place corresponding to its peculiar interest.</p> + +<p>A mass of Granitic, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks forms the central +plateau of Spain, extending in a south-easterly direction from Galicia +to the valley of the Guadalquiver, and spreading to<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a> the north-east, as +shown by the chains of the Guadarrama and the mountains of Toledo, to +terminate in the Celtiberian range, running nearly parallel to the Ebro +by Soria and the Moncayo. In this mass the main folds of the strata +appear to run in a south-easterly, the main fractures in a +north-easterly, direction; whence the gridiron arrangement of the +mountain chains and river valleys, directed by these leading features of +the rocky structure. Great buttresses of the Carboniferous formation +occupy the corners of the central mass, to the north and south-west, and +occasional patches of its upper and coal-bearing beds are scattered over +the interior. The whole valley of the Ebro occupies a trough of +Secondary rocks, which extend in a south-easterly direction from the Bay +of Biscay to the Mediterranean, forming a wide boundary to the older +central mass, and running along the north coast towards Oviedo. The +Secondary formations of the Ebro sweep over the chain of the Moncayo on +to the central plateau by Burgos, Soria, and Calatayud; and their latest +member—the Upper Cretaceous—advances in two long tongues on to the +granite of the Guadarrama, and far to the east of Madrid, it being +probable that at least this member formerly extended over the central +plateau. Another wide band of Secondary rocks, running in a +north-easterly direction, forms the long strip<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a> of Andalusia south of +the Guadalquiver; and by Valencia and Cuenca this band is widely +prolonged to the Ebro basin; otherwise, a narrow and interrupted strip +along the south coast, and a bay-like expanse from the Atlantic, between +Lisbon and Oporto, are the only Secondary tracts of the Peninsula. These +Secondary rocks are however in great part concealed by Eocene Tertiary +beds, formed in marine gulfs in the valley of the Ebro and the +Guadalquiver, and overlaid by Eocene and Miocene fresh-water deposits; +the latter being also represented by vast lacustrine sheets, which +contemporaneously accumulated, and conceal the crystalline and palæozoic +formations in the elevated river basins of the central primary plateau. +Patches of Pliocene sands and clays along the Mediterranean coast, +sheets of diluvial gravels below the mountains, and alluvial sands along +the larger rivers represent the local and most recent effects of water +and ice.</p> + +<p>The consequences of this general structure are apparent on every hand. +The population of Galicia is in many respects similar to that of the +Portuguese mountaineers, who occupy the same band of naked granitic and +primary rocks. The inhabitants of the varied and fertile Secondary band +of Andalusia and Valencia have many traits in common. The Biscayans are +a race apart, like the labyrinth of Cretaceous precipices and green<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a> +rainy valleys which they inhabit. All are distinct from the Castilians, +whose monotonous and isolated existence on the vast treeless steppes of +crumbling Tertiary sands and marls that carpet the primary plateau 2000 +feet above the sea has deeply influenced their character. Finally, the +inhabitants of the Ebro basin, a region where the dry Tertiary soil of +Castile is combined with many characteristics of the Secondary tracts, +afford a curious mixture of Castilian with Basque or Valencian traits. +The inhabitants of the greater Spanish cities are of course products of +civilization, not of the soil.</p> + +<p>Of the visible surface of Spain 37 per cent. is occupied by Crystalline +and Palæozoic rocks, 34 per cent. by Tertiary, 19 per cent. by +Secondary, and 10 per cent. by Quaternary deposits. The Palæozoic rocks +are greatly contorted and fractured, the Secondary scarcely less so, the +older Tertiary are crumpled up against the flanks of the mountain +chains, and even upturned Pliocene deposits testify in some places to +the late continuance of the movements that have contributed to the +production of the peculiar elevated character of the Peninsula. The +remains of undoubted volcanoes are confined to the insignificant groups +of Olot, Cabo de Gata, and Ciudad Real, but innumerable dykes and bosses +of igneous rock are scattered over the primitive plateau where +unconcealed<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a> by Tertiary sheets, and are also frequent in the Secondary +tracts. This abundance of igneous injections is intimately connected +with the exceptionally metalliferous character of Spain, while the +fractured and contorted condition of even the latest rocky formations +has contributed to a general diffusion of mineral wealth.</p> + +<p>The granite and other igneous rocks form rounded bosses or prominent +pinnacles, according as they are more or less subject to atmospheric +decomposition; the pine and the Spanish chestnut flourish on their +slopes; iron, lead, copper, tin, graphite, phosphorite, kaolin, +steatite, and serpentine are among the products of these crystalline +masses. The gneiss and crystalline schists that in part probably +represent the Laurentian formation, contain silver, bismuth, molybdenum, +and tin; while metamorphic rocks of unknown age are amongst the richest +in mines, affording iron, lead, silver, copper, zinc, mercury, +manganese, and graphite. The Cambrian formation, a mass of lustrous +fissile slate, traversed by white quartz veins, furnishes lead, silver, +phosphorite, and gold. The Silurian slates and quartzites yield iron, +lead, silver, copper, mercury, manganese, antimony, cobalt, nickel, +anthracite, and gold. A few limited patches of Devonian sandstones, +quartzites, slates, marls, and limestones, afford iron, zinc, +phosphorite, cobalt, and nickel. The Carboniferous series, occupying<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a> +two per cent. of the surface, includes valuable coal-fields, the immense +masses of iron and copper pyrites of the Rio Tinto, Tharsis, and other +mines in the province of Huelva, besides iron, zinc, mercury, manganese, +antimony, cobalt, nickel, and phosphorite in other districts. The +silver-bearing metamorphic rocks of Cartagena, and a portion of the +slopes of the Sierra Nevada are classed in the Permian formation. The +Triassic conglomerates, sandstones, and variegated marls, which form the +usual base of the Secondary rocks, are rich in salt, gypsum, and iron, +and afford some copper and zinc. The Jurassic limestones and marls +contain asphalte and bituminous slate. The Cretaceous—mainly Neocomian +in the south, the Upper Cretaceous predominating in the north—contains +the immense iron deposits of Bilbao; valuable beds of lignite resembling +coal; lead, zinc, and asphalte mines in the northern provinces, and gold +in Granada. In the Eocene formation, which includes the Nummulitic +limestone that forms some of the highest summits of the Pyrenees, the +celebrated salt-mine of Cardona, in Catalonia, is usually classed. The +Miocene beds contain valuable sulphur deposits along the southern coast, +and great accumulations of sulphate of soda on the arid steppes of +Madrid and other provinces; while gypsum, in which Spain is probably +richer than the whole remainder of Europe, is abundant<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> in this +formation. Lastly, some native silver is found in the Pliocene deposits +of Almeria, and in the Tertiary clays of Guadalajara, while the later +gravels of Galicia afford stream tin and gold, the last similarly +occurring in Leon and Caceres.</p> + +<p>The quantity of mineral contained in the rocks of Spain is no less +remarkable than the exceptional variety of its distribution; but owing +to a series of adverse circumstances, the industrial production affords +a most inadequate idea of the capabilities of the mines, if developed by +a fair amount of capital and skill. The following figures, showing the +production in 1875, are derived from the last official reports issued by +the Spanish Government, and are certainly below the truth:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary=""> +<tr align="center"><td> </td><td>Tons of ore<br /> +exported.</td> +<td>Tons of metal<br /> +produced <br /> +in<br /> +Spain.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Iron</td><td align="right">336,000</td><td align="right">37,000 </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Lead</td><td align="right">10,000</td><td align="right">119,000 </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">362,000</td><td align="right">6,620 </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">43,000</td><td align="right">3,820 </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">14,000</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mercury</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">1,425 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures do not include the bar iron produced directly from ore in +Spain, nor 160 tons of argentiferous copper ore, 89 tons of cobalt ore, +and 440 tons of nickel ore. The silver extracted in Spain amounted to +more than 16,000 lbs. troy, while four times that amount was contained +in<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a> exported argentiferous lead. The coal extracted amounted to 666,000 +tons, lignite above 27,000, sulphur above 3000, and phosphorite above +12,000 tons. The year 1875 was, however, peculiarly unfavourable to +Spanish mining, and the working of the Bilbao mines, which now produce +nearly 2,000,000 tons yearly of excellent iron ore, was then practically +suspended by the Carlist war. All disadvantages cannot, however, arrest +the steady increase of mineral production in Spain, although under more +normal political circumstances the above figures would have been greatly +exceeded.</p> + +<p>The chief coal district is that of Oviedo, Palencia, Leon, and +Santander. The coal-field of Oviedo, occupying an extent of 230 square +miles, and including a large number of workable beds, is of excellent +quality, but as yet little developed, owing to high railway tariffs, bad +condition of ports, traditional prejudices, want of skill and capital, +and of a local market for inferior qualities. These obstacles will +probably soon be overcome, and the development of the associated iron +ores afford an important field of enterprise.</p> + +<p>The coal-field of Palencia, a continuation of that of Oviedo, is in +course of development by the Northern Railway Company. Smaller +coal-fields of great local importance exist in the provinces of Cordova, +Seville, Gerona, Burgos, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Ciudad Real; that of +Gerona, although<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a> of small extent and very friable quality, has already +occasioned the construction of a railway of considerable length. Iron is +mainly obtained from Biscay, Oviedo, Murcia, and Almeria, but is +abundant in other provinces. Lead is worked chiefly in Murcia, Jaen, +Almeria, Badajoz, and Ciudad Real; the presence of antimony or of a +predominating admixture of blende is very common, but Spain is on the +whole the most important lead-producing country in Europe. Copper is +obtained mainly from the Rio Tinto mines and others in Huelva; also from +Seville, Palencia, Almeria, and Santander; but many other districts +contain veins yielding more or less of copper ore. Zinc has been chiefly +procured from superficial pockets of calamine in Santander and the +neighbouring districts; but in the form of blende it is widely +distributed in association with lead. Silver ores are worked in Almeria +and Guadalajara. The immense impregnation of cinnabar of Almaden, in +Ciudad Real, affords nearly all the mercury, but a little is obtained +from other mines in the same province and in Oviedo, Granada, and +Almeria. Manganese is obtained from Huelva, Oviedo, Teruel, Almeria, +Murcia, and Zamora. Nickel ore is worked in Malaga; cobalt in Oviedo and +Castellon. Tin occurs in a number of small veins in Galicia; and in the +rocks of Salamanca, Murcia, and Almeria, as well as in diluvial gravels. +The Spanish side of the Pyrenees contains numerous<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a> veins of +argentiferous lead, many of copper, and some of cobalt, nickel, +argentiferous copper, pyrolusite, &c., few of which are worked. The +lead-mines on the border between Catalonia and Aragon supplied the +Carlists with ammunition during the late civil war. The fact that more +than 12,000 concessions of mines already exist in Spain, while a large +number of lapsed concessions may be found, affords a better idea of the +mineral wealth of the country than the enumeration of the mines actually +worked.</p> + +<p>That such enormous mineral resources should have as yet yielded no +greater results is easily explained. The Roman and Moorish workings, +although traditionally of fabulous yield, are of small depth, owing to +insufficient machinery for pumping. Till the present century, the +working of mines was forbidden by the Spanish Government, with the +object of favouring the development of the American colonies. The mining +laws of 1825 and 1849, suddenly placing the acquirement of mines within +the reach of every substantial peasant, produced a fever of speculation, +and a recklessness in the application of unskilled labour, which +naturally conduced to the discouragement of mining enterprise, while the +recurring civil wars excluded foreign capital and skill. Spaniards have +a mania for erecting smelting-works on the mines, a practice +occasionally justified by difficulties of transport, but which has +caused much loss of capital<a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a> through inherent difficulties and want of +metallurgical skill. Endless litigation, arising from the defects of the +first mining laws, and the inexperience of the surveying engineers, +contributed to ruin the small capitalists who had attempted to work the +mines. Foreign capital is now the chief requirement. The existing mining +law, greatly improved since 1868, is the simplest in Europe; the expense +of a concession is almost nominal, and the royalties on ore are +extremely moderate. Large mining adventures in Spain rapidly develope +industrial conditions and profoundly affect the habits of the +population. Even in times of civil war a <i>modus vivendi</i> between the +conflicting parties can be more easily secured than might be expected. +The development of means of transport, already considerable before the +last Carlist war, is being seriously resumed under the present +Government. The Spanish peasantry, when suitably treated, will be found +a fair-dealing, intelligent, and industrious class. It must, however, be +remembered that in the peculiar physical, political, municipal, and +fiscal conditions of Spain, no mining enterprise can safely be +undertaken without thorough investigation of all the external +circumstances, claims, and prospects concerned; since more mining +speculations have failed from inattention to such matters than from any +disappointment as regards the quality or quantity of ore. P. W. S. M.</p> + +<p><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br /> +<small>ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">O<small>N</small> the first glance at a map of Spain and Portugal we are apt to think +that few countries could have so well-defined a frontier as that formed +by the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. In so compact a +country, and one so distinct and so shut off from the rest of Europe, we +should expect to find a more unmixed and a more homogeneous population +than in any of those states whose frontiers are more open and +conventional. But such is very far from being the case. Even at the +present time the Pyrenees are no boundary throughout their whole course, +either as to race or language. The Basque overlaps them at one end, and +the Provençal at the other. Moreover, they have been a political +boundary throughout their whole length only since the middle of the +seventeenth century. Navarre was united to the Spanish crown in 1515, +and Rousillon to France only in 1659. Ecclesiastically, both the +dioceses of Bayonne<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> and of Narbonne advanced far into Spain. So far +from the population of Spain being unmixed and pure, the contrary is far +nearer the truth. As Senor Tubino has well observed, from its position +at the south-western angle of Europe, and the most westerly of +Mediterranean lands, beyond which lay only the impassable ocean, it must +early have become a very eddy of nations, where all the tribes and races +who have successively held command of the Mediterranean must necessarily +have halted, over which and in which all invaders who have crossed the +Pyrenees from Northern Europe, or have passed the Straits of Gibraltar +from Africa, must have surged in almost ceaseless conflict. To think of +Spain as ever having been at any given time occupied solely by any +single race or people is to lose the clue to her whole history. Of this +not only the social and political condition of the country, but the +toponymy and nomenclature of her map afford decisive proof.</p> + +<p>We first hear of Spain in history about the sixth century before Christ, +as then inhabited by the "Iberi" and "Kelt-Iberi," with here and there +colonies of more unmingled Kelts. It is more than probable that both of +these races succeeded anterior ones, the existence of which we trace +only through the remains of præhistoric archæology, in the flint, stone, +and bronze instruments, similar to those found elsewhere in Europe; +these were also probably<a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a> followed by races whose remains we find in the +sculptors of the so-called "Toros" (bulls) of Guisando, and in the +builders of the Megalithic monuments, the dolmens, menhirs, and circles +which are found from Algeria to the Orkneys. For all purposes of history +we must take the "Iberi" and the "Kelts," with their mixed tribes, as +our starting-point. These we find scattered in much confusion throughout +the Peninsula. Either the tribes were constantly shifting their ground, +owing to petty wars and tribal dissensions or to unknown economic +conditions, or the successive Greek and Latin writers from whom we get +our information have not themselves been clear as to the distinction of +these races. Speaking loosely, we may say that the more purely Keltic +tribes held their ground in the north-west and west, in Galicia and +Portugal, with a few scattered colonies further south. Andalusia, parts +of the centre, the north and north-east were inhabited by the "Iberi;" +while the Kelt-Iberian tribes lay chiefly in the centre and on the +eastward slope. Both of these great races have left clear traces on the +maps of ancient Spain. There can be no reasonable doubt that the +"Illiberris" which we find in classical maps is a transcription of the +Basque "Iriberri," which we still find in the French Basque country and +in Navarre, meaning "New-Town," or more exactly, "Town-new;" that when +the Romans<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a> called a town which they built in Galicia "Iria-Flavia," in +honour of their then empress, they really used the Basque word "Iri," a +town or city, just as the colonists of the United States and Canada used +the French "ville" or English "town," and named a new city Louisville, +Charleston, Georgetown, in the North American colonies. So, too, any one +who compares the name "Peña," given to mountains and mountain-chains on +the map of Spain, together with the river names, "Tamaris," "Deva," and +the town and district of "Britonia" or "Britannia" in the north-west, +can hardly doubt that these names were given by the same Keltic race who +have left us so many "Pens" and "Bens" in Northern Britain, who gave the +names "Tamar" and "Dee" to Devonshire and Cheshire streams, and called +our own island Britannia, and themselves Britons. Which of these races +is the older? the Iberi, i.e. Basque, or the Keltic? How can we decide +this? Language is a deceitful tool as regards race. A people may utterly +forget their original language, and adopt that of their conquerors or of +some superior race with whom they have come in contact. Of this we have +not only numerous examples in the past, as in the Latin and romance +tongues superseding many a more ancient idiom, but we can see the same +change actually going on in our colonies and dependencies in our own +day. Still there is a certain rough chronology in language.<a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a> A +monosyllabic language we may presume, in default of evidence to the +contrary, to have preceded one whose characteristic is agglutination; +and again, a language which agglutinates or incorporates its members is +presumably prior to an inflexional or analytic one. Now the Basque, the +modern form of some one of those tongues which the Greeks and Romans +called Iberian, belongs to the second of these classes, and the Keltic +to the third. Another mode of investigating the antiquity of a language +is to study the original names of the most necessary objects of daily +life, and see if they can reveal to us anything about the state of +civilization of those who used them before the language took a literary +shape or any books were written in it. A language in which we find all +the words expressing articles of greater civilization to be borrowed +from other tongues we may presumably deem older than the languages from +which it has borrowed them. Now in the Basque, Escuara, the undoubtedly +native words for cutting instruments seem all to have their root from +words signifying stone, or rock, and all such words which imply the use +of metal seem to be borrowed. The language as it were represents the +"stone" age, before the use of metals was known. It is also singularly +poor in collective and general terms; thus, while many of the names for +separate kinds of trees are native, the most common collective term +<i>arbola</i>, "the tree," is clearly<a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a> borrowed from the Latin. Although the +arguments from anthropology, the form of the skull, &c., as compared +with other races, are of still more dubious value than those derived +from language, yet they all tend to the same conclusion. We may then +hold from these convergent lines of reasoning, at least as a provisional +hypothesis, that the Iberian or Basque race is older in Spain than the +Keltic, and consequently that in the representatives of the former we +have the remains of the oldest historical people of which we have any +record in the country.</p> + +<p>We said above that, from its geographical position, the Peninsula would +necessarily be the final-halting-place in ancient times of all the +masters of the Mediterranean as they pushed westward. There we should +find their farthest outposts. Thus in Spain we have, at first dimly +seen, successive colonies of Egyptians, Phœnicians, and Greeks. There +it was that Carthaginians and Romans met to dispute the supremacy of the +Mediterranean and of the civilized world. When, after a long occupation, +during which it Latinized Spain more completely than any other country +except Italy, the Roman Empire fell, successive waves of barbarian +destroyers swept across the land, Sueves, Alans, Vandals, Visigoths, in +wild confusion and internecine strife, wrecked the civilization which +they could neither appreciate nor understand. The last of these races, +the Visigoths, who ruled the longest,<a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a> strove hard to found an empire +from 450 to 710, but without success. The real power which held society +together then, and which wrought what little order and law still +existed, was the Church, and not the State. The Councils of the Church +were the true legislative assemblies, and the real representatives of +the people in those times. Yet, with all the power of the Church to +uphold it, the Visigothic Empire remained so weak that it fell at the +first shock of the Mohammedan Arabs. The Moors or Arabs landed in Spain +in the year 711. In ten years they had conquered all of the Peninsula +that they cared to hold; in eleven years more, 732, they had been +defeated at Poictiers by Charles Martel, and had withdrawn for ever from +France, except from the district of Narbonne. This rich province they +held for many years, and it would seem to them to be more than an +equivalent for the bare and humid mountains of Galicia and the Asturias, +or the higher Pyrenees, which alone in the Peninsula were exempt from +their sway. The Arabs and the Moors of Barbary are the last great race +that has occupied Spain. Jews and a few Gipsies are the only peoples +that have entered since. A few remnants of Berber tribes, isolated from +their countrymen by the rapid advance of the Christian army in the tenth +and eleventh centuries, like the Maragatos of Astorga, have remained in +North-Western Spain, and doubtful<a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a> remains of other peoples are found +here and there, but none of these are in sufficient numbers to influence +the nation as a whole. No country was more completely Romanized than +Spain. In fact, after the Augustan age we might almost say that the best +Latin writers were Spaniards born; Seneca, Quintilian, Lucian, and +Martial were all natives of Spain. Hosius, the champion of Latin +Christianity in the early part of the fourth century, was a Spaniard. +The names of many of the towns are still Roman. Yet the Arabs have left +almost a deeper mark upon the toponymy of the country. Look at the map +of Spain, and we see, even up to the Pyrenees, how many Arabic names +there are, especially of rivers and mountains, upon the map of Spain. +Only in Galicia and the Asturias the Keltic and the Latin, in the Basque +Provinces the Basque, and in Catalonia the Romance names have held their +own. In all the rest the Roman names would have probably died away, but +that the language of the Church was Latin, and preserved the Roman names +of cities, monasteries, and shrines. Down even to the twelfth century it +might seem doubtful which language would prevail, so many Arabs wrote in +Spanish, and Spaniards in Arabic, or wrote Spanish in Arabic characters. +The struggle was decided by the sword; the expulsion of the Arabs was +also the expulsion of their tongue. Yet the Arabs have left far more +traces on Spanish than Spanish has done on Arabic. The Spanish<a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a> Jews, +however, had forgotten their Semitic tongue, and to this day the sacred +language of the Jews of the Balkan Peninsula, and of many of the Syrian +Jews, even of those at Jerusalem, is not Hebrew but Spanish; their +liturgical works are written in that tongue, and they use it always in +the synagogue.</p> + +<p>In spite, however, of all this mixture of races and of languages, Spain +and the Spanish language has perhaps fewer dialects than any other +European speech. From the Central Pyrenees to the Straits of Gibraltar +only one dialect is used, the Spanish or Castilian, the purest and +noblest of those which sprang from the decaying Latin. At the inner +angle of the Bay of Biscay Basque is still spoken by a population of +about 400,000 souls. The Galician dialect is far more closely allied to +the Portuguese than to the Spanish, and should be considered as +belonging to the former tongue. Between Galicia and the Basque Provinces +are the many Patois, or Bables, of Asturia, which alone of the Romance +tongues in the Peninsula have kept the three distinct genders, the +masculine, feminine, and neuter terminations of the Latin adjective. The +speech of Leon, too, may be classed as a separate dialect. In Catalonia, +Valencia, and the Balearic Isles a Provençal or Romance dialect is +spoken, the <i>Lemosin</i> as it was called in mediæval times, and which +stretched from the Loire to the frontiers of Murcia, and from the +western coast of the Bay of Biscay, with few interruptions, almost<a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a> to +the Black Sea. In the thirteenth century the Catalan dialect more +resembled that of the Gascon Béarnais, or the Western Languedocian, than +of the neighbouring Provence, but centuries of intercourse have since +modified it, and the three dialects of Catalonia, Valencia, and the +Balearic Isles must now be classed as a Provençal speech.</p> + +<p>The tongues of all these successive occupiers of the soil have doubtless +left traces in the noble Spanish language, but in very unequal +proportions. A very few words belong to the old Iberian speech, but it +is to that, perhaps, that Spanish owes the purity and the paucity of its +vowel sounds, as from the Arabic it has gained the gutturals which have +prevented its sinking to the effeminate softness of the Italian, and it +still preserves the lofty sonority of the Latin. Some few of the +elements of its vocabulary may be traced to the Keltic, less to the +Teutonic languages. From Arabic it has taken more, and those words of +more important character. But the bulk of the language still remains +Latin. It is essentially one of the Romance dialects which sprang from +the "lingua rustica," the country speech of the decaying Roman Empire. +It has been calculated that six-tenths of its words are Latin, a tenth +Gothic or Teutonic, one-tenth liturgical and Greek, one-tenth American +or modern borrowings, and one-tenth Arabic. But as to this last, we must +not forget that the different parts of the vocabulary of a language have +a very different value. Some<a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a> could be well dispensed with, some are of +first necessity. There are words which we only see in print, and seldom +or never hear spoken; there are words which belong only to science or to +pedantry; but there are others which are in daily and hourly use, and +whose employment is many times more frequent than the whole number of +words in all the rest of the language put together. It is thus that the +contribution of Arabic to Spanish vocabulary is of far more importance +than is apparent by its numerical proportion; many of the most common +terms, especially of those used in the south of Spain, are of Arabic +origin.</p> + +<p>Thus has been formed the noble Spanish tongue, the richest and most +dignified of all that have sprung from the decay of Latin. Marvellously +adapted to oratory and to verse, most incisive and mordant in the +tongues of the lowest class, stately and sonorous almost to a fault, it +is yet unequalled in grace and tenderness in the old romances and in the +mouths of women and of children. Italian is its only rival. While +reading its stately sentences, and marking the majestic rhythm of Scio's +grand translation of the Bible and of its other religious literature, we +can well understand why Spain's greatest emperor, the lord of many lands +and of many tongues, spoke Spanish only to his God. It is rare to find a +foreigner who has mastered Spanish, who does not ever afterwards delight +in its use above all other tongues except his own.<a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a></p> + +<p>The population of Spain, according to the census of 1877, is 16,625,000, +including the Balearic and Canary Islands, and the North African +possessions. The number of inhabitants in Spain has fluctuated much at +different periods, according as war, emigration, or bad government have +affected the condition of the people. In the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries the population, according to the only estimates procurable, +was about 9,000,000; in 1621, at the close of Philip III.'s reign, it +had sunk to 6,000,000, the lowest point on record; it gradually rose +from 7,500,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 10,500,000 at +the close of the eighteenth. The wars of Napoleon then lowered it by +500,000, but in 1821 it had recovered, and reached 11,600,000. A more +rapid increase then took place till 1832, when the population numbered +14,600,000. The Carlist and civil wars which marked the beginning of the +reign of Isabella II. reduced it by more than 2,000,000, if the returns +are exact. In 1837 and in 1846 it stood at 12,200,000. In 1857 at +15,500,000, whence it mounted rapidly to 16,800,000 in 1870, a total +which the late Carlist war and that in Cuba has reduced by some 200,000; +and at the last census, 1877, as said above, the returns were +16,625,000.</p> + +<p>The number of inhabitants to the square mile is 90, just half that of +France, about a third that of Great Britain, and a fifth that of +Belgium. This<a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a> comparative scarcity is easily accounted for when we +consider that nearly one-half (46 per cent.) of the territory still +remains uncultivated; and although a considerable portion of this +consists of mountain or of naturally sterile soil, a still larger +portion of it is susceptible of some kind of cultivation, and even the +portion under cultivation would under good husbandry, support a much +larger population than it actually does.</p> + +<p>More than two-thirds (66.75 per cent.) of the whole working population +of Spain are engaged in agriculture, and the total produce, including +cereals and cattle of all kinds, wine and fruits, cork, woods, esparto +grass, &c., after supplying the demand for home consumption, leaves a +surplus of agricultural produce for exportation of the value of +14,000,000<i>l</i>. sterling. Those engaged in manufacturing industry and in +commerce are reckoned at 10½ per cent, of the working population; but +in Spain, as elsewhere, the relative numbers are slowly changing, +following the conditions of modern European life; a greater +proportionate number are annually withdrawn from agriculture, and are +being added to the population of the great towns, and to the +manufacturing industries. Thus, until the last census the highest +population of Spain per square kilometre was to be found, not in the +manufacturing provinces of Barcelona and Valencia, nor in the great +mining provinces, but in the fishing and<a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a> agricultural province of +Pontevedra, in Galicia. In 1870 Pontevedra numbered 107, Barcelona 98 +inhabitants to the square kilometre. In 1877 it is Barcelona that +numbers 108, and Pontevedra 100 only. Next after these provinces come +the two Basque ones of Guipuzcoa 88, and Biscay 87. The one almost +wholly agricultural, the other mining and agricultural. The nearest +after them is the province of Madrid, with only 77 per square kilometre, +and Corunna and Alicante with 75. These figures will, we think, +sufficiently indicate the character of Spanish industry.</p> + +<p>The chief centres of manufacturing industry are Catalonia and Valencia, +in which provinces nearly all the textile goods of Spain are produced. +The chief mining districts are those round Carthagena in Alicante, +Linares in Jaen, the Rio Tinto in Huelva, Somorrostro in Biscay, and of +quicksilver at Almaden in the province of Ciudad Rodrigo; but valuable +mines, as detailed in a former chapter, are found in many other +provinces of Spain. In fact, there is scarcely one without a mine of +more or less importance.</p> + +<p>Those engaged in professions of all kinds—lawyers, doctors, artists, +journalists—are only about 10½ per cent. of the whole working +population. The clergy, who once numbered, it is said, one-third of the +whole population, have greatly diminished during the present century, +and are<a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a> still gradually declining. Including religious orders of all +kinds, inquisitors, and the secular clergy, they still numbered, at the +close of the last century, nearly 250,000, out of a population of +10,500,000. In 1826 they had sunk to about 60,000, in 1858 to 44,000, in +1862 to 40,000, and their present numbers are probably about 35,000.</p> + +<p>Immense changes have taken place in recent times, and more particularly +in the present century, with regard to the distribution of land in +Spain. The large amount of property held by the Crown, the religious +orders, the clergy, and various municipal bodies, and the restrictions +imposed by the laws of the Mesta on the enclosure of land, rendered the +number of private proprietors formerly very few. Even in 1800 their +number was only 273,760. In 1764 it was estimated that the clergy +possessed one-sixth of the real property, and one-third of the movable +property of all Spain, and the property of the Church paid scarcely any +taxes, or none at all. From the beginning of the sixteenth century +protests were continually being made against abuses of Church property, +but only towards the end of the eighteenth century were measures of +reform seriously undertaken. Little, however, was really effected till +the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812-13, when the feudal dues on land, of +whatever nature, regal, ecclesiastical, or seignorial, were abolished. +The religious orders were also<a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a> suppressed. In 1820 a law was passed +forbidding the Church to acquire any more real property. Tithes, of +which the clergy possessed 60 per cent, and the laity 40, were +diminished by half in 1821, and wholly suppressed in 1837. In 1836 the +possessions of the clergy were declared to be national property, and the +sale of them was begun. This, with various interruptions, according as a +liberal or reactionary Government has been in power, has been continued +to the present time. The Crown and municipal property had been sold at +an earlier period, from 1813 to 1855. The Mesta was totally abolished in +1837 as to its privileged rights on property, and in 1851 became merely +an agricultural association for the improvement of the breed of cattle. +The serfs in Galicia were declared to have become proprietors of their +land by prescription in 1763.</p> + +<p>The result of these successive measures, and of these immense sales of +territorial property, has been to throw the land into the hands of a +much greater number of small landed proprietors, who now number +3,426,083, so that, in spite of some large estates still existing, +especially in Andalusia, the average quantity of land held in Spain by +each proprietor would seem to be only about some 30 acres. Yet in +Galicia alone does there seem to have been any suffering caused by a too +great subdivision of land, and this perhaps was caused more by the +perpetuation of habits acquired while the<a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a> land was burdened with +seignorial dues, when the occupier could neither quit his land nor sell +it. In this district the people are still miserably poor, their food and +houses are equally wretched, and nothing but the large emigration that +has taken and is now taking place will restore the province to any real +prosperity.</p> + +<p>From what has been said in the preceding pages as to their ethnology, +the reader will not be surprised to learn that the different populations +of Spain have very different characteristics. The Galicians and +Asturians are the hewers of wood and drawers of water in Spain. They are +often fine, stalwart men, brave, and make excellent sailors. It is they +who reap the harvests for the more lazy Castilians and gather the +vintage of Oporto; it is they who do nearly all the hard work in all the +chief towns, not of Spain only, but also of Portugal. They are +proverbially honest and trustworthy as servants, though slow and +somewhat lacking in intelligence. Abroad, and as emigrants, they are +trusted as men of no other race are: in the countries of La Plata in +South America, the town-house, during the summer absence of the +proprietor and his family, is given over to a Gallego, as it stands, to +be taken care of, and rarely indeed is an article missing. The Asturian +partakes of the same general characteristics as the Galician, though in +a less marked degree. In the Montaneses, the inhabitants of the province +of Santander, we have the<a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a> favourite nurses and female servants of +Madrid. The Asturias and Santander are remarkable for the number of +statesmen and economists they have produced in proportion to the +population. In the Basque Provinces we find an entirely different race, +not perhaps of so muscular a build, but active, and capable of great +endurance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/ill086.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill086_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="357" alt="CABALLEROS. + +Page 86. +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">CABALLEROS. +(Page 86.) +</span> +</div> + +<p class="nind">Intelligent and proud of their ancient race and liberties, +they almost always retain their self-respect, and are for the most part +free from that cruelty towards animals which is so disfiguring a trait +in the character of other Spaniards. The Basques are generally found +among the upper and more trusted servants in civil life, in the army and +navy they make excellent petty officers; as seamen they are among the +best of Spain; as soldiers they are brave, enduring, capital marchers, +and as light infantry second to none of any nation. The Aragonese, like +the Galicians, count among the hard workers of Spain; generally of +shorter build, and very thick-set, but somewhat dull and very obstinate, +they are employed in the heaviest work. In literature they are known as +jurisconsults and historians. In Catalonia and Valencia we have the +bright Provençal race. A race apt for commerce and for manufacturing +industries; pushing, energetic, they gather to themselves the greater +part of the commerce, manufactures, and shopkeeping of all kinds, as far +as these are done by Spaniards, throughout the kingdom. Fiery in temper, +and not to be implicitly trusted,<a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a> especially in Valencia, their +weapon is the knife, which they use sometimes on slight provocation; the +hired assassins and bandits of Spain have always been recruited thence. +Socialists and Federalists in politics, they have ever been disaffected +towards the central government. In Catalonia this may be the result of +memories of former independence; but it is curious to remark that +Barcelona and the cities of the Mediterranean, as compared with Cadiz +and Ferrol on the Atlantic, have played analogous parts in Spanish +history to those of Marseilles and Bordeaux in French; the Mediterranean +in each case being the home of the ultra-democrat and the man of the +"Montagne," and the Atlantic of the constitutionalists and the +Girondins. More to the south we find undoubtedly a greater mixture of +Moorish blood. The Andalusian is almost oriental in character, he is +fond of song and dance and colour, yet lazy withal, and disliking +sustained labour. He delights to deck himself with finery, and his women +with flowers; and his taste though glowing is never utterly debasing. +Excelling in wit and repartee, the Andalusian <i>gamin</i> is the most +amusing rogue in Europe. He has a wild, fierce, momentary energy, and is +courteous and gracious in speech; his proverbs and songs are +innumerable, and sparkle with a peculiar wit and charm; but he +altogether lacks the more solid qualities of the men of the north. +Philosophers, orators, and poets rather than men of industry and science +are the<a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a> product of these provinces. The Andalusian barely keeps up the +works which the more highly civilized Moors had done for him in +agriculture and in vineyard, but he does not improve upon them; and both +in mining and in wine cultivation, in manufactures, and in coasting +shipping, he allows nearly<a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a> the whole of the trade and commerce of the +south to pass into the hands of foreigners or of Catalans. The men of +central Spain, except in the towns, the men of Leon, of the Castiles, +and of La Mancha, and in a less degree the men of Estremadura, have +changed but little for the last few centuries.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"> +<a href="images/ill088.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill088_thumb.jpg" width="463" height="550" alt="DOMINIQUE, THE ESPADA." title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">DOMINIQUE, THE ESPADA.</span> +</div> + +<p class="nind">They are Spaniards of the +type generally conceived by foreigners as applying to the whole nation. +Grave and slow of speech, exceedingly courteous unless their prejudices +are offended, fond of formality and proud of it; they are bigoted (but +less so than formerly), prejudiced, ignorant to an extreme, each +thinking his own town or village the <i>élite</i> of the universe; content +with few comforts and preferring semi-starvation to exertion, the +Castilian is half ashamed of honest labour, but by no means averse to +corruption in any shape, and sees no disgrace in beggary. Cruel in the +extreme, when his passions are aroused, it is one of the misfortunes of +Spain that from the advantage of their elevated central physical +position, the Castilians, as warriors and statesmen, at all times among +the least civilized of her people, have been able to rule and control +the more civilized and more advanced (especially in political freedom +and administration) communities of the sea-board. It is a want of +discernment of this fact which makes so many of the picturesque +histories of Spain utterly fail in explaining the origin and the +progressive causes of her present condition. There are a few other +tribes in Spain which it may<a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a> be worth while to notice, such as the +Gipsies, who seem still to keep themselves tolerably distinct in +Andalusia and in the south, but who in more than one instance have +completely coalesced with the Basques in the north. The Maragatos, the +trusted <i>Arrieros</i> or muleteers of Leon, a remnant apparently of a wild +Berber tribe, left behind when the more civilized Moors retreated +southwards before the advance of the Christian conquerors; the Passiegos +near Bilbao, the men of the Sayago, the Hurdes of the Batuecas, the +Chuetas of Majorca, these and several minor tribes, remnants, perhaps, +of older populations whose ethnic affinities have never been made out, +are too few in numbers to affect the general population; but are of +interest to the ethnologist from the survivals of ancient laws and +customs which are still observed among them. One class, not a tribe, the +wretched commercial policy of Spain has developed to a greater extent +than in any other country, that of the smuggler or contrabandista. He +differs greatly in different districts, and even on the same line of +frontier. In some parts contrabandista is almost synonymous with bandit, +in others he is honest in his illegal trade, and more to be trusted with +immense sums than the officials who arrest him. In a small way he is a +type of the many contradictions of Spanish character and of "the things +of Spain."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> +<a href="images/ill090.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill090_thumb.jpg" width="377" height="550" alt="GIPSIES AT GRANADA. +(Page 90.)" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">GIPSIES AT GRANADA. (Page 90.)</span> +</div> + +<p><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br /> +<small>DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">S<small>PAIN</small> was formerly divided into some fourteen separate provinces or +kingdoms, once ruled by distinct and independent sovereigns, and under +very different political conditions. It was not until the taking of +Granada, in 1492, that the whole nation became, even nominally, subject +to the joint sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella; and for long afterwards +Aragon and Catalonia preserved a semi-independence, while, even to our +own day, the Basque Provinces and Navarre were really an independent +republic united to the Spanish crown.</p> + +<p>Since 1841, however, the whole country has been divided for +administrative purposes into forty-eight provinces, including the +Balearic Isles.</p> + +<p>We shall now hastily sketch the chief features of the old kingdoms, with +the modern provinces included in each. Beginning from the north-west,<a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a> +we have the kingdom of G<small>ALICIA</small>, with its four provinces, <i>Corunna</i>, +<i>Lugo</i>, <i>Pontevedra</i>, and <i>Orense</i>. We have before remarked on the Frith +or Fiord-like character of the western coast of Galicia, a conformation +which gives it by far the finest harbours of the whole Spanish coast. +Thus, in the province of Corunna there are the harbour and city (33,000 +inhabitants) of the same name, so well known by our forefathers under +the title of "the Groyne," and the scene of many a gallant fight both by +land and sea from the days of Queen Elizabeth to the fall of Sir J. +Moore, but now the chief port of the cattle-trade with England. Its port +is frequented by about 130,000 tons of British shipping annually; and +about 20,000 bullocks are exported annually, mostly in small schooners. +It has also a tobacco factory. A little to the north-east Ferrol +(23,000) has a still better harbour, and is one of the principal naval +establishments of Spain. It is capacious enough to almost contain the +united fleets of Europe; and its only drawback, a singular one in so +humid a climate, is the want of good water. But the most famous city in +the province, and indeed, in all Galicia, the pilgrim-town of Santiago +(St. James) de Compostella (24,000) owes its magnitude to devotion +rather than to commerce. The legend of the voyage of St. James to Spain, +the finding his body at Compostella, and his subsequent appearances in +battle as the champion<a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a> of Spain, made this the most celebrated shrine +in Europe. Roads led to it from every land, and one of the popular names +of the "Milky Way" was "The road to Compostella." The wealth both of the +military order of Compostella and of the cathedral and chapter was +immense. Even now, after all its spoiling, the cathedral is rich in +precious goldsmiths' work, in architectural, and in literary treasures. +Pontevedra (8000) is the capital of the thickly-populated province of +the same name, whose inhabitants reap a harvest both from sea and land. +Vigo (6000) has an excellent harbour and roadstead, but its commerce has +greatly fallen off in comparison with that of Corunna. It was formerly +the port at which the galleons disembarked their treasures for Northern +Spain. The total tonnage of the harbour in 1878 was 208,000. <i>Orense</i>, +an inland province east of Pontevedra, has a capital of the same name +(11,000) on the banks of the Minho. It is the head of an agricultural +and pastoral district, and in it are produced some wines which were +considered in the eighteenth century the finest of all Spain. Here, too, +is one of the grand bridges of Western Spain, possibly of Roman +construction. <i>Lugo</i>, with its city (8000), faces north instead of west, +and has its harbours, Vivero and Rivadeo, on the Bay of Biscay; but the +near neighbourhood of Ferrol and of Corunna deprive them of all but +coasting trade.<a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a></p> + +<p>The A<small>STURIAS</small>, the home of the Spanish monarchy, and the only ancient +kingdom of which no part was subdued by the Moors (though they raided +once to Oviedo), contains but one province, called after its chief town +<i>Oviedo</i> (34,000), with a cathedral, university, and a most pleasant +situation. In this province is Covadonga, where the Visigoth Pelayo, in +719, repulsed the Moors, and thus took the first step towards the +recovery of Spain. The whole country slopes rapidly from its southern +frontier, the summit of the Cantabrian Mountains, towards the Bay of +Biscay. Cangas de Tineo (22,000) is the centre of a mining district. +Owing to the great development of mining operations in this province +within the last ten years the small towns of Siero, Tineo, Grado, and +Villaviciosa have suddenly sprung into importance, and each now contains +over 20,000 inhabitants. The chief port is Gijon (30,000), of which the +chief trade is in hazel-nuts for England, of which over 1000 tons are +annually exported, to the value of 23,000 <i>l.</i> Here is one of the seven +government tobacco manufactories, and also important glass-works, +conducted chiefly by Swiss and French artisans; but it is far +outstripped in commercial importance by S<small>ANTANDER</small> (41,000), the capital +of the neighbouring province, and the great port of outlet for the +agricultural riches of Leon and of the Castiles. Santander has also a +great trade with Cuba and<a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a> Porto Rico, and possesses almost a monopoly +of the supply of cereals to those islands. A port of equal natural +excellence is Santoña, which the first Napoleon would have made the +Gibraltar of Northern Spain, but which is now frequented only as a +bathing-place by the inhabitants of the interior. The mountain scenery +of these two provinces is most picturesque, both along the sea-board and +in the interior, where the snow sometimes lies on the Picos de Europa +until July or August. The coal-mines of the Asturias are rapidly +assuming importance. The output was, in 1878, 400,000 tons, at a cost on +board ship of 13<i>s.</i> per ton. The extent of the bed is estimated at +667,200 acres.</p> + +<p>The B<small>ASQUE</small> P<small>ROVINCES</small> (Las Provincias Vascongadas) are <i>Biscay</i>, +<i>Guipuzcoa</i>, and <i>Alava</i>. The union of the three is often represented by +a symbol like the heraldic bearings of the Isle of Man; and they are, +with Navarre and the French Pays Basque, the home of the Basque race, +but only one province, Guipuzcoa, is <i>wholly</i> inhabited by them. +<i>Biscay</i> has for its chief town the busy mining city of Bilbao (32,000) +on the Nervion, with a commerce of over 2,000,000<i>l.</i> annual value, +notwithstanding an inferior harbour, exceeding that of Santander. The +chief mines, iron, are in the Somorrostro district, a few miles to the +east of the city, and they are worked mainly by English, French, or +German companies. In 1879 the exports from Bilbao amounted to<a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a> 1,160,248 +tons of iron minerals, while the imports included 72,196 tons of English +coke and coal, chiefly for the use of the mines. In this province is the +Oak of Guernica, where the Spanish sovereigns swore to observe the +constitutional privileges or <i>fueros</i> of the Basques. The chief city of +<i>Guipuzcoa</i> is San Sebastian (21,000), a sea-port with a strong citadel. +Of less commercial importance than Bilbao, it is much frequented in +summer as a city of pleasure; the town has been almost wholly rebuilt +since the siege of 1813. The province, though almost wholly +agricultural, and famous for its cider and apple orchards, contains also +some mines, and a few manufactures grouped round its old capital, Tolosa +(8000). Eibar and Plasencia, two small manufacturing towns on the Deva, +have preserved the art of inlaying iron with gold and silver, and are +noted for their manufacture of fire-arms. <i>Alava</i> has but one town of +importance, Vitoria (25,000), a picturesque city at the foot of the +Cantabrian Mountains and the head of the fertile plains of the Upper +Rioja. These two districts, the Riojas, divided by the Ebro, are noted +for their wines, which need only more careful preparation to become an +important article of commerce; at present they are chiefly exported to +Bordeaux, for mixing with inferior French wines, to be re-exported as +claret to England. N<small>AVARRE</small>, the only other province where Basque is +spoken, once formed part of a<a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a> petty kingdom which stretched on both +sides of the Pyrenees, and of which the Spanish portion was definitely +secured to Spain by the Duke of Alva in the reign of Ferdinand the +Catholic, in 1512, has Pampeluna (25,000), a fortified city of Roman +origin, for its capital. The upper part of Navarre is extremely +mountainous, but it contains some useful iron-mines, and a Government +foundry at Orbaiceta. The southern parts, along the banks of the Arga, +and in the valley of the Ebro, are extremely fertile; but at the +south-eastern corner in the Bardeñas Reales, we encounter a series of +bare, stony hills, scored with deep ravines, and on which nothing will +grow, the first of the desert tracks so common in Spain. Tudela (9000) +on the opposite side of the Ebro, is united to the rest of the province +by a fine bridge; it is here the traveller first sees in operation the +<i>norias</i> or water-wheels of the East.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of A<small>RAGON</small> contains three provinces, <i>Huesca</i>, <i>Saragossa</i>, +and <i>Teruel</i>. The kingdom is almost bisected by the Ebro, towards which +it slopes on both sides, from the highest summits of the Central +Pyrenees on the north, and from the Idubeda Mountains and the Molina de +Aragon on the south. Aragon divides with the Asturias the honour of +having been one of the cradles of the Spanish monarchy. In 795 Don Asnar +defeated the Moors near Jaca, in the province of Huesca.<a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a> But the +progress of the reconquest was very slow; from 714 to 1118 the Moors +held possession of the town and kingdom of Saragossa, and it is from +this occupation of four centuries that the traveller first meets here +distinct remains of Moorish architecture. A still more lasting note of +their sway is found in the nomenclature of the country. The rivers +Guaticalema, Alcanadre, Guadalope, the names of the sierras, Alcubiere, +and of many of the lesser towns and villages, sufficiently attest the +former presence of the race who gave those names.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<a href="images/ill098.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill098_thumb.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA. + +Page 98. + +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA. (Page 98.)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Huesca</i> (10,000), the capital of the province of the same name, is an +episcopal and university town, the bishop's palace being on the site of +an old mosque. The upper part of this province is exceedingly +mountainous, and is entered from France by the Central Pyrenean road, +that of Somport, originally constructed by the Romans. The only other +towns are Barbastro (7000), Monzon (4000), and Jaca (3500), nearer the +mountains. <i>Saragossa</i> (84,000), on the Ebro, formerly the Cæsar Augusta +of the Romans, then for four centuries the capital of a Moorish kingdom, +rivals Santiago de Compostella as a place of pilgrimage to the shrine of +the Virgen del Pilar. The worship has, however, much declined of late +years, and her devotees are not now a tithe of those who frequent the +more recent shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes on the other side of the +Pyrenees. The art treasures<a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a> of the cathedral were sold in 1870, when +many fine examples of jewellery and art were acquired for the Kensington +Museum. Saragossa, though now fallen as a place of commerce, must again +become important if the railway project is carried into effect, which +will place it on the most direct line between Paris and Madrid. The +Ebro, from its shallowness, is of no service for navigation; and, from +neglect, the canals of Charles V. and of Tauste do not render the +services they might, either for transport or for irrigation. Hence the +despoblados and desiertos in the valley of the Ebro, both above and +below the town. <i>Calayatud</i> (12,000) was one of the four <i>comunidades</i> +of Aragon, and is in the midst of a mineral district, the wealth of +which seems at present almost wholly undeveloped. <i>Teruel</i> (7000) is the +capital of a very mountainous province which slopes towards the +north-west from the Sierras de Molina and Albarracin, the mountain +ranges which form the eastern boundary of the great watershed of the +peninsula. Excepting the mines in these sierras, the province is almost +wholly agricultural, but with no towns of importance. The historian Don +Vicente de la Fuente has remarked that while the lands of the +<i>comunidades</i>, the four free towns of Aragon, Calayatud, Teruel, Daroca, +and Albarracin, have remained fertile under their more liberal +government, the lands of the Seigneurs in the valley of the Ebro, where, +almost<a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a> alone in Spain, feudalism received its full development, have +been for centuries barren and <i>despoblados</i>.</p> + +<p>C<small>ATALONIA</small>.—The ancient principality of Catalonia is now separated into +four provinces, named after their chief towns, <i>Gerona</i>, <i>Barcelona</i>, +<i>Tarragona</i>, and <i>Lerida</i>. The first three lie along the shores of the +Mediterranean—the last, inland, and stretches from the Ebro to the +Pyrenees. To the north of Lerida, and buried in the mountains, is the +so-called republic of Andorra, which owes its practical independence to +the singular fact of a double <i>seigneurie</i>. Both the Counts of Foix, in +France, and the Prince-Bishops of Urgel, in Spain, were supreme Lords of +Andorra. On paper its constitution is by no means so free as that of +several other Pyrenean communities; but by skilfully playing off the +jealousies and rivalries of its two lords, and preventing either from +getting absolute power, this little state of twenty-eight miles by +twenty has remained unsubdued, and unattached to either nationality. The +chief trade of the republic may be said to be smuggling. <i>Lerida</i>, +except in the valley of the Segre, is extremely mountainous, and like +all the hill country of Catalonia is rich in minerals, especially in +salt, near Solsona. The rest of its products are chiefly agricultural. +The province is but thinly peopled; its chief town contains 20,000 +inhabitants. Balaguer (5000), Urgel (3000), Solsona (2500), are the most +populous of the remaining.<a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a> With <i>Gerona</i> we enter the Mediterranean or +Provençal region and climate, and come in contact not only with +picturesque and glowing scenery, with a gorgeous variety of natural +productions, but also with traditions and remains of the great works of +all the races that have dominated this inland sea. From the Pyrenees to +Carthagena the names of the chief towns recall classic reminiscences, +and bring before us the struggles of ancient nations, contending on her +soil for a far mightier empire than that of Spain. The province of +Gerona contains Cape Creuz, the extreme north-easterly point of the +peninsula, not far from the old Greek cities of Rosas and Emporium +(Ampurias). Of its towns, Gerona, on the Ter, and Figueras have each +8000, but are surpassed by Olot, 10,000, around which town are grouped +the most recently extinct volcanoes in Spain. Coal is found in San Juan +de las Abadesas. Here the Spanish gravity is mingled with the fire and +dash of the Provençals, and the inhabitants both of Gerona and +Barcelona, are more Provençal than Spanish, in language, political +character, and in commercial and industrial aptitudes. The natural +productions, and the flora too, are almost identical with those of the +more sheltered parts of Provence and of the Riviera. Palm trees are seen +as common ornaments in gardens and public squares, oranges and olives +flourish, the mulberry is cultivated and silkworms are reared,<a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a> and all +announces a warmer zone than any that we have hitherto traversed. +<i>Barcelona</i> (250,000) the first industrial and commercial city of Spain, +and the second in point of population, is also the capital of the most +thickly inhabited province. The greater part of the trade and navigation +of the whole Spanish sea-board from Catalonia to Cadiz, or even to +Seville, is in the hands of its merchants. The cotton industry of +Catalonia employed in 1870 a capital of 6,000,000<i>l.</i>, and 104,000 +workmen, distributed in 700 factories. The chief of the other +manufacturing towns are Gracia (33,000), and St. Martin de Provensals +(24,000). The annual commercial movement of Barcelona is estimated at +about 11,000,000<i>l.</i> sterling. The British imports, chiefly of coal and +iron, amount to nearly 1,000,000<i>l.</i> sterling; but the exports are a +mere trifle, 10,000<i>l.</i>, most of the ships returning in ballast; while +on the contrary, the exports of Tarragona, Palamos, Mataro, and +Villamena, and the smaller ports amount to nearly 1,000,000<i>l.</i>, chiefly +in wine, and the imports are only half that amount. Irrigation is +successfully carried on in the valley of the Llobregat. <i>Tarragona</i> +(23,000) is rich in Roman remains, in the picturesque beauty of its +site, in its Gothic architecture, in the mildness of its climate, and in +the goodness of its wines; but it is surpassed both in wealth and +population by the neighbouring manufacturing city of Reus (27,000), and +also by<a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a> Tortosa (24,000) on the Ebro, to which town all the river +transport converges. The Ebro below Tortosa forms a sandy delta, and its +channels are continually silting up. The canal of San Carlos, to connect +Amposta with the sea by the port of Alfaques, has had but little +success.</p> + +<p>V<small>ALENCIA</small> includes the three provinces of <i>Castellon de la Plana</i>, +<i>Valencia</i>, and <i>Alicante</i>, all three lying along the Mediterranean, and +facing east and southwards from the mighty buttress sierras which form +the eastern wall of the great central plateau. It is in these provinces +that we gradually pass from the Mediterranean climate to the "<i>Tierra +caliente</i>," the warm lands and African products of south-eastern Spain. +Here too we meet with the finest Roman remains; and Moorish architecture +begins to form a prominent feature in the characteristics of each city. +The speech is still a dialect of the Provençal, and the fiery Provençal +nature is still apparent in the political history of the cities of +Valencia. The hill-sides, bare of trees, are covered either with the +esparto grass or with strongly aromatic herbs and shrubs. The rainfall +gradually lessens; the streams all assume a torrential character, nearly +dry in summer, swollen with rapid floods in winter; but they are greatly +utilized for irrigation. By this means are formed the "<i>huertas</i>," +gardens, and "<i>vegas</i>," plains, oases of beauty and fertility lying in +the bosom of the barren hills, which<a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a> serve as frames to pictures as +valuable for their productiveness as they are enchanting in their +beauty. The chief towns in the province of <i>Castellon</i> are Castellon de +la Plana (23,000), Vinaroz (9000), Villareal (8000), both near the +Mediterranean; Segorbe on the Palancia, and numerous smaller towns in +the interior. Benicarlo and Vinaroz, on the coast to the north of the +province, are noted for their excellent red wines, quantities of which +are exported to France for mixing with inferior French vintages, whence +they find their way to England as Rousillon or Bordeaux. <i>Valencia</i>, a +city of 143,000 inhabitants, and with a fine artificial harbour called +the "<i>grao</i>," is the third city in population in Spain; but its commerce +is little more than that of Santander and Bilbao, cities only one fourth +of its size. The value of British imports, chiefly of coal, cod-fish, +guano, and petroleum, in 1878, was 136,450<i>l</i>., and of exports, chiefly +of fruits to Britain, 524,984<i>l</i>. The "<i>huerta</i>" of Valencia, with its +canals for irrigation, its "<i>acequias</i>," "<i>norias</i>," and other devices +to draw the waters of the Guadalaviar, is one of the most successful +examples in Spain of regulated application of water to agriculture. The +quantity of water allotted to each property, the hour of opening or +closing the sluices, are regulated according to laws and customs +descended from Moorish times. So great is the drain upon the streams +that the waters<a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a> of some of the smaller rivers are entirely absorbed in +the summer, and even of the Guadalaviar but little then reaches the sea. +It is from the <i>huerta</i> of Valencia that the oranges come which form the +delight of the population of Paris at the new year; hence are the +raisins and the almonds and candied fruits equally dear to the British +housekeeper. Rice is successfully cultivated on some of the lower +grounds near the coast, and fruits and vegetables of every kind abound; +but the Spaniards complain that they lack the richness and lusciousness +of flavour belonging to those grown in other parts. "In Valencia," say +they, "grass is like water, meat like grass, men like women, and the +women worth nothing." The district was formerly noted for its +silk-growing and stuffs of silk; also for the fine pottery known as +Majolica ware from its carriers to the Italian ports, the sailors of +Majorca and the Balearic Isles. It was also the earliest place of +printing in Spain, and celebrated as a school of poetry and the arts; +but nearly all this ancient fame is lost. To the south of Valencia is +the large lake or lagoon of Albufera, the most extensive of the many +lagoons along the Mediterranean coast, about nine miles long and +twenty-seven miles round; it is full of fish, and frequented by wild +fowls, and its varied inhabitants recall those of the Nile rather than +those of any part of Europe. In the north of the province is Murviedro +(7000), the<a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a> ancient Saguntum, with its port almost entirely blocked up. +Considerable remains of the older city still exist, with inscriptions in +idioms yet unknown, and are a treasure to archæologists. The largest of +the other cities are Alcira (13,000) on the Jucar, and Jativa (14,000). +The southern coasts of Valencia and the neighbouring districts of +Alicante abound in sites of picturesque beauty, and the position of many +of the ruined monasteries, built generally on the hills with a distant +prospect of the sea, can hardly be excelled.</p> + +<p><i>Alicante</i>, whose <i>huertas</i> and <i>vegas</i> with their appliances for +irrigation rival those of Valencia, has but 34,000 inhabitants. +Orihuela, in its rich wheat-growing district of never-failing harvest, +has 21,000, and Alcoy 32,000. The smaller towns are numerous, and from +the little ports in the north of the province, round Cape Nao, a good +deal of coasting trade is done with the neighbouring Balearic Isles. +From Denia, Tabea, and Altea, nearly 100,000 tons of raisins are shipped +every year, chiefly for Great Britain. At Elche (20,000) is the +celebrated forest of palms of which we have before spoken, and the +leaves of which are sent to Rome for the ceremonies of Easter week. The +number of the trees is gradually declining, as the produce hardly repays +the great amount of labour required. In the church at Elche religious +plays or mysteries are occasionally performed, with an enthusiasm and +solemnity<a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a> both of actors and spectators equal to that of the +Passionspiel of Ober-Ammergau.</p> + +<p>M<small>URCIA</small> contains the two provinces, <i>Murcia</i> and <i>Albacete</i>. The first +faces the Mediterranean; the second, besides comprising the Sierras of +Alcazar and Segura, climbs those boundary mountains, and advances far +into the plateau of La Mancha, and thus contains within its limits the +sources of the Guadiana as well as those of the Mundo and the Segura. +<i>Murcia</i>, in its higher parts, is very thinly peopled, and in spite of +the fertile plains in the lower course of the Segura and the Sangonera, +and the rich mining district round Cartagena, has only two-thirds as +many inhabitants to the square mile as Valencia. Murcia is perhaps the +driest province of Spain, and the one in which the want of water is the +most generally felt, yet it is in this province that the floods are the +most pernicious and destructive. Year by year the irrigation works +become less effective. Ancient dams broken down by the floods are not +restored. Since 1856, however, a new source of wealth has been opened to +this province by the export of the esparto grass, which grows on all the +low hills, and which, in addition to its use in the country for numerous +native fabrics, is now largely exported for paper-making. The export +began only in 1856. In 1873 it had reached 67,000 tons for England +alone; in 1875 the money value of the whole export was 400,000<i>l.</i>, but +it declined to<a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a> 30,000<i>l.</i> in 1877, and 284,000<i>l.</i> in 1878, since which +date it has gradually lessened. Murcia, the chief city, is an irrigated +plain on the Segura, has a population of 91,000. It is one of the chief +seats of silk cultivation in Spain. Lorca (52,000), on the Sangonera, +offers another example of the extreme fertility that can be obtained by +irrigation in a suitable climate. Cartagena (75,000), with its grand +harbour and docks, is one of the three naval arsenals in Spain; but has +greatly fallen from its ancient wealth and importance. Like Barcelona +and Valencia it has distinguished itself by its extreme democratic and +cantonalist opinions, and has revolted against the republic equally as +against the monarchy. In its neighbourhood are some of the richest lead +and silver mines in Spain, and which have been worked since Carthaginian +and Roman times. The coal imported from England for smelting purposes +amounts to 80,000 tons yearly. The tonnage of British vessels employed +was over 200,000 in 1877. Along the coast are various lagoons and +salt-lakes (salinas), where salt is made on a considerable scale; it is +exported chiefly to the Baltic. The Barilla plant, for making soda, is +also cultivated along the coast; and, of the plants in the salinas, it +is computed that at least one-sixth of the species are African. +<i>Albacete</i> (16,000), situated at the junction both of road and railway +from Murcia and Valencia to Madrid, is chiefly celebrated for its trade<a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a> +in common cutlery. It is here that the large stabbing knives (navajas) +are made, and for the use of which both Valencians and Murcians have an +unenviable notoriety. On the plateau of this province (Albacete) are +found (Salinas) salt-lakes formed by evaporation, the only examples of +this kind in Western Europe. The only other town of any importance in +the province is Almanza (9000), on the edge of the plateau before making +the descent into Valencia. The numerous names compounded of "pozo," +well, and "fuente," fountain, in this province, attest its arid +character, where fresh water is scarce enough to make its presence a +distinguishing mark to any spot.</p> + +<p>A<small>NDALUSIA</small> embraces the whole of southern Spain from Murcia to the +frontier of Portugal. Its seaboard includes both the Mediterranean and +the Atlantic. In Cabo de Gata, 2°10' W., it has the extreme +south-easterly point of Spain; and in Cabo de Tarifa, 36°2' N., the +extreme southerly point, not only of Spain, but of Europe. One chain of +its mountains, the Sierra de Nevada, contains the highest summits of the +peninsula; and its river, the Guadalquiver, from Seville to the ocean is +the only stream of real service for navigation in the whole of Spain. +Its wines and olives, its grapes and oranges, and fruits of all kinds, +are the finest, its horses and its cattle are the best, its bulls are +the fiercest, of all Spain. The sites of its cities rival in<a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a> their +entrancing beauty those of any other European land; while, wanting +though they may be in deeper qualities, its sons and daughters yield not +in wit or attractive grace or beauty to those of any other race. The +Moor has left a deeper mark here than elsewhere, even as he kept his +favourite realm of Granada for centuries after he had lost the rest of +Spain. And when the sun of Moorish glory set, it was from Andalusia that +the vision of the New World rose upon astonished Europe. The year of the +conquest of Granada (1492) was also that of the discovery of America. +All things take an air of unwonted beauty and of picturesque grace in +this land of sun and light; even the gipsy race, avoided and abhorred in +other countries of Europe, at Granada, as at Moscow, becomes one of the +attractions of the tourist. The province is not entirely of one type. It +unites many kinds of beauty; even in Andalusia are "<i>despoblados</i>" and +"<i>destierros</i>," dispeopled and deserted wastes, under Christian hands, +but once fertile and inhabited under Moorish rule. Savage wildness and +barrenness reign in its lofty mountain chains as much as softer beauty +does in the "<i>huertas</i>" and "<i>vegas</i>." But from the minerals the one +district is equally valuable as the other. The province possesses the +richest mines, as well as the richest fruits and wines, of the whole of +Spain. A<small>NDALUSIA</small>, is divided into the provinces of <i>Almeria</i>, <i>Granada</i>, +<i>Malaga</i>, on the Mediterranean;<a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a> <i>Cadiz</i>, <i>Seville</i>, <i>Huelva</i>, on the +Atlantic coast; and <i>Cordova</i> and <i>Jaen</i> inland, along the upper waters +of the Guadalquiver.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/ill110.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill110_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="364" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF GRANADA, WITH THE ALHAMBRA. + +Page 110. + +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF GRANADA, WITH THE ALHAMBRA. (Page 110.)</span> +</div> + +<p>In <i>Almeria</i> (40,000) the flat-roofed houses are built round a central +court, the "<i>patio</i>," wherein is often a fountain, and palm and vine for +shade; while oranges, myrtles, passion-flowers, and other gay or +odoriferous shrubs or flowers, add their colour and perfume. The type +and the manners of the inhabitants tell us that we are already in the +land of the Moors. Almeria has declined from what it was when one of the +chief ports of transit between the Moors of Africa and their brethren of +south-eastern Spain; but from the growing importance of the Spanish +colony in Oran, its trade is now fast reviving. The exports are lead and +silver ore from the mines of the neighbourhood, fruits of all kinds, and +a little wine. The tonnage of British shipping employed at Almeria was, +in 1875, 117,123 tons; 1876, 85,840 tons; 1877, 89,988 tons. The chief +exports in 1877 were about 10,000 tons of esparto grass, 280,000 barrels +of grapes, 10,000 tons of minerals, and nearly 10,000 of calamine. The +sugar-cane is also grown here. The whole province is mountainous, +covered with the spurs and offshoots of the mighty Sierra Nevada, the +Sierras de Gador, de Filabres, de Cabrera, de Aljamilla, all which have +their terminations in headlands which run into the Mediterranean. The +basins of the rivers of the<a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a> region are often cleft by these smaller +ranges, and thus they receive their waters from both the northern and +southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The only other towns of importance +are Cuevas de Vera (20,000), and Velez-Rubio (13,000), in the north of +the province on the road between Murcia and Granada, where some +lead-mines have been lately opened. The ports, except Almeria, are all +small; Dalias, on the confines of Granada, is noted for the magnificent +grapes and raisins shipped there.</p> + +<p><i>Granada</i> (76,000) is one of the most celebrated spots of Europe, a city +of enchantment and of romance. It is one of the few places of renown, +the sight of which does not disappoint the traveller. The natural +advantages of its position would be sufficient to mark it as a city of +unusual beauty, were there no masterpieces of art and of architecture, +or storied memories, connected with it. It is situated in an upland +valley, at an elevation of 2200 feet above the sea level—sufficiently +high in that climate to prevent the summer's heat from being +oppressively exhausting, and not too high to hinder the choicest +semi-tropical fruits and flowers from growing in the open +air—surrounded, yet not too closely, by mountain ranges, of which those +to the east are the very highest in Spain—Mulhacen (11,700), Alcazaba +(11,600), and Veleta (11,400). The ice and snow on their summits<a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a> not +only cool the hot winds which blow over them from Africa, but provide +the means of making the iced water which is the Spaniard's greatest +luxury. Its climate is second in its equable range only to that of its +coast towns, Motril and Malaga. It is watered by the united streams of +the Darro and the Jenil, which meet within the city, both hurrying from +their mountain home to join the Guadalquiver between Cordova and +Seville; and with their fertilizing waters dispersed in irrigation they +make the "Vega," or plain, of Granada one of the noted gardens of the +world. Granada is worth all the praise that has been sung or written of +it. On an isolated hill to the east, cut off from the town and from the +Generalife by the ravine through which the Darro flows, and enclosed +with a wall flanked by twelve towers, stands the celebrated group of +buildings known by the name of the Alhambra, perhaps the fairest palace +and fortress at once ever inhabited by a Moslem monarch. Almost +unrivalled in the beauty of its site, it outstrips all rivals in the +beauty of its Arab architecture. The mosque of Cordova is grander, and +the tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo may be in a purer style, but they lack +the variety and richness of these diverse buildings. The Alhambra hill +is to Arabic what the Acropolis of Athens was to Hellenic art; only to +the attractions of the plastic arts were added<a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a> in the case of the +Alhambra the triumphs of the gardener's skill. Shrubs and flowers +delighted the eyes with colour, or gratified the sense of smell with +sweetest odours, while water, skilfully conducted from the neighbouring +hills, purled among the beds, or leaped in fountains, or filled the +baths with purest streams. Thus every sense and taste was gratified, and +Granada was indeed an earthly paradise to the Moor. Even in its decay, +and<a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a> seen in fragments only, it is one of the world's wonders, a +treasure and delight to pilgrims of art from every land. But we must not +waste our space in detailing the beauties of Granada; its trade, sadly +diminished from what it was formerly, is chiefly in fruits and silk and +leather stuffs. Next to Granada, the chief city in the province is Loja +(15,000), near the Jenil, and the little port of Motril (13,500), +sheltered under the highest summits of the Sierra Nevada, is said to +possess the most equable climate of the Spanish Mediterranean ports. It +is here, in the extensive alluvial plain stretching from Motril to the +sea, that the sugar-cane is most extensively cultivated, producing in +1877, 113,636 tons of cane. Far inland, and separated from Motril by the +mountain mass, is Baza (13,500). The mineral riches of the Sierra Nevada +have never been adequately explored; from specimens used in the +construction of Granada, it must possess marbles of rare beauty; metals, +too, abound, but few of its mines are worked. In picturesque beauty, +when seen near at hand, these mountains are not nearly equal to the +Pyrenees and to many minor chains; with rounded summits, they are bare +and denuded of wood, and are entirely without the glacier forms, and the +lakes and rushing streams, which delight us in the Alps.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/ill114.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill114_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="481" alt="ALHAMBRA TOWER BY MOONLIGHT." title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">ALHAMBRA TOWER BY MOONLIGHT.</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Malaga.</i>—The greater part of this province lies in an amphitheatre of +mountains, stretching from<a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a> the Sierra de Almijarras on the east to +those of De la Nieve and of Ronda to the west. It faces the full +southern sun, but is watered and irrigated by torrential streams from +the mountains, at times almost dry, at others, as in December, 1880, +rushing down in most destructive floods. The city, with over 110,000 +inhabitants, boasts not only the finest climate in Spain, on which +account it is greatly frequented by invalids in the winter, but its +commerce is second in value to that of Barcelona. Its wealth and exports +are almost wholly agricultural, consisting of luscious wines—which, +however, have a greater reputation on the continent than in +England—oil, fruits, and especially dried raisins; oranges, olives, +figs, sugar, and sweet potatoes. Bananas, and all other tropical and +semi-tropical products of Spain are here found in perfection. Upwards of +2,000,000 boxes of raisins, 3,000,000 gallons of oil, and 1,100,100 +gallons of wine, besides other fruits, esparto grass, and minerals +(chiefly lead), are annually exported. The tonnage of British vessels in +1878 was about 158,000 tons. It has been a city and port from great +antiquity; but though a favourite residence of the Moors, they have left +fewer remains here than at Granada, Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and many a +place of lesser note. Antequerra (25,000), on the Guadaljorce, on the +northern slope of the sierras, guards the defile leading to Malaga, and<a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a> +was formerly of great military importance. The Cueva del Menjal, in the +neighbourhood, is a fine dolmen. Ronda (20,000), the chief town of the +sierra of the same name, is remarkable for its position on both sides of +an enormous fissure (el Tajo) from 300 to 600 feet deep, and which is +spanned by a magnificent bridge, constructed by the architect Archidone, +in 1761. Velez Malaga (24,000) is a small sheltered port to the east of +Malaga, with a trade in fruits and wines.</p> + +<p><i>Cadiz</i>, the most southerly province of Spain, includes the capes of +Trafalgar and Tarifa, and the Punta de Europa, or the English Rock of +Gibraltar. This province is also the principal seat of the great sherry +trade. The town (65,000) and port have greatly fallen from their former +importance, when Spain possessed nearly all the Americas south of +California, and but for the Transatlantic steamers to Cuba and the West +Indies, and to the Philippine Islands in the East Indies, would probably +decline still more. The application of steam, allowing ocean vessels to +ascend the Guadalquiver rapidly to Seville, has arrested there a great +deal of the produce which formerly came to Cadiz, but which is now +shipped at the former town. The total tonnage of the port is now about +800,000; the imports over 2,000,000<i>l.</i>, of which about one-sixth is +British; but of the exports, which are about the same in value, fully +two-thirds go to Great<a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a> Britain. Cadiz itself is undoubtedly one of the +oldest ports of Western Europe, and is situated on a narrow promontory, +formed into an island by the channel of San Pedro. Unlike most of the +southern cities of Spain, its houses are of great height and of several +stories, the contracted space of its site having occasioned this +architectural modification. The city is excellently supplied with fish; +the market is noted both for the quantity and the variety of its supply, +which amounts to nearly 900 tons annually. Round the Bay of Cadiz are +situated towns and harbours of considerable size, whose united commerce +is almost equal to that of Cadiz itself. Of these, Puerto de St. Maria +(22,000), on the northern side of the bay, is the great harbour for the +shipment of sherry wines. Immense quantities of salt are made, chiefly +for exportation, in the Salinas between Puerto Real and San Fernando +(26,000), and Chiclana (20,000), on the San Pedro canal, which cuts off +the Isle of Leon from the mainland. The export of wine from the whole +Bay was, in</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr align="center"><td> </td><td>Gallons.</td><td> </td><td>Butts.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1858</td><td align="left">3,600,000,</td><td align="center">or</td><td align="left">33,028</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1862</td><td align="left">5,600,000,</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">51,376</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1871</td><td align="left">8,300,000,</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">77,064</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1876</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">61,609</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">1877</td><td align="left"> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">68,246</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Xeres de la Frontera (64,000), situated about<a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a> thirty miles from Cadiz, +surrounded by vineyards, is a city of Bodegas, or wine-cellars, the +principal of which, as well as of the vineyards, are in the hands of +foreigners. It is one of the busiest of Spanish commercial towns, and, +like Barcelona, is on that account less peculiarly Spanish than many +others. The exportation of sherry wines from the district, and those +shipped at Port St. Mary, amounted, in 1873, to 98,924 butts; 1874, +65,365 butts; from Jerez alone, in 1875, 43,727 butts; 1876, 42,272 +butts; 1877, 41,660 butts; 87 per cent, of which goes to Great Britain +and her colonies. The decrease in later years is probably caused by the +greater amount of lighter French wines now consumed in England. San +Lucar de Barrameda (22,000), at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, is noted +for its winter-gardens, which are said to date from Moorish times, and +which supply Cadiz and Seville with their earliest fruits and +vegetables. From its vineyards, too, comes the stomachic Manzanilla +sherry, flavoured with the wild camomile, which grows abundantly in its +vineyards. Arcos (12,000), on the Guadalete, is the only other Spanish +town of importance in the province; but to the south lies the isolated +rock and fortress of Gibraltar (25,000), captured by the Earl of +Peterborough in 1704. Though held only as an English garrison (5000), +and made almost impregnable as a fortress, it is yet of considerable +commerce<a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a> from its position as a port of call for vessels passing the +Straits of Gibraltar, and also from its contraband trade with Spain, +which is a source of constant irritation between the two nations. In +natural history, it is remarkable for its apes (<i>macacus inuus</i>), as the +only spot in Europe where any species of monkey lives, and it is +doubtful whether even these would survive without the aid of occasional +importations from Morocco.</p> + +<p><i>Seville</i> is the typical province of Andalusia, and its city of 133,000 +ranks fourth in population of the cities of Spain. The Moors have left +deeper outward traces at Granada, but here they have fused more +thoroughly with the population, and have given it the Oriental grace and +culture which is lacking in the former place; their wit belongs to +themselves. Seville is peculiarly the home of Spanish art; the greatest +of her painters, Murillo and Velasquez, were born there, and Zurbaran +painted his best pieces to adorn her walls. Her writers are scarcely +less noted. The most celebrated novelist of modern Spain, Cecilia Bohl +de Faber (Fernan Caballero), had her home there. There Amador de los +Rios composed his chief works. The Becquers—both the painter and the +novelist—were born there. It is a city of predilection for all of +artistic tastes. The Giralda, a tower of Moorish architecture, rivals, +if it does not surpass, in its exquisite proportions the <i>campanille</i><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a> +of Italian art. The Alcazar is a home of beauty. The <i>patios</i>, or inner +courts, of many of the houses have remains of Moorish decoration. The +Cathedral shows that Christian lags not far behind Moslem architecture. +But Seville, on the Guadalquiver, is not a mere city of pleasure. Like +Paris, its gay exterior contains a great deal of real work and commerce +within. Since the invention of steam, allowing sea-going vessels to +breast with ease the current of the Guadalquiver, it has drawn to itself +a great deal of the traffic which formerly passed through the harbours +of the Bay of Cadiz. The tonnage of its shipping amounts to about +120,000 tons, and the value of its imports to over 2,000,000<i>l</i>., and of +its exports to 1,750,000<i>l</i>., one-half of which belongs to Great +Britain. Among its manufactories, one of porcelain, carried on by a +British company, but employing Spanish methods, is celebrated; and its +tobacco manufactory, with its 1000 women workers, is the largest +government establishment of the kind in Spain. The city long enjoyed +almost a monopoly of West Indian and of Manilla productions; the wealth +brought by the galleons was deposited here, and here are still preserved +the "Archivos de las Indias." It possesses both a university and a mint. +The lower part of the Guadalquiver runs through marshy lands, which in +places present almost impenetrable jungles. In these are bred<a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a> the bulls +which supply the bull-fights with their victims, and which make Seville +the great school of <i>tauromachia</i> in Spain. The finest Andalusian horses +are also produced in this province, and the wines, though not equal to +those of the neighbouring provinces of Cadiz and Cordova, are still +highly esteemed. Besides Seville, the chief towns are Ecija (24,000) on +the Jenil, a place of large trade; Carmona (18,000); Ossuna (16,000). +Utrera, Lebriga, and Marchena would be considerable towns in other +provinces, but we can only indicate them here. From the absence of +mountains Seville has not the mineral wealth of some other provinces, +but coal is worked at Villanueva del Rio, and the copper-mines at +Arnalcollar yield 20,000 tons of ore; other outlying deposits of the +Huelva beds are found in this province, and a great part of the lead +from the Linares mines is shipped here.</p> + +<p><i>Huelva</i>, the last maritime province of Spain, conterminous with +Portugal on the west and with Seville on the east, with its capital of +10,000, is one of the richest mining districts in Europe. Worked in +prehistoric times, and in the mythical dawn of history, by Iberians, +Phœnicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, the mines of Tharsis and of +the Rio Tinto were strangely neglected by the Spaniards until purchased +by an Anglo-German company in 1873 for 3,850,000<i>l</i>., but with the +certainty<a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a> of a rich return. There are now over 7000 men employed by +this company, and 906,600 tons of copper ore were extracted in 1879 from +the south lode only; about 10,000 tons of hematite iron were also sold. +The mines contain sulphur, copper, iron, and silver. In fact, the +mountains round the source of the Tinto seem to be almost one mass of +mineral ore. From the working of these mines the development of the +riches of this province has been most rapid of late years, and the +tonnage of shipping from the port of Huelva will probably soon rival, if +not surpass, that of Cadiz: in 1873 the foreign shipping was 180,000 +tons; this had ascended to over 300,000 tons in 1877. The imports were +valued in 1873 at 168,000<i>l</i>., of which 112,000<i>l</i>. were British; and in +1877 to over 300,000, of which not quite one-half was British. The +exports are of far greater importance, ranging from 750,000<i>l</i>. in 1873, +of which 667,000<i>l</i>. were British, to 1,236,243<i>l</i>. in 1877, of which +1,132,782<i>l</i>. went to Great Britain. Except in minerals, the province is +not rich; but a trade which will probably increase, has lately sprung up +in wines, fruits, and cork. The frontier stream the Guadiana is of +little use to Spain, and the little port of Palos, whence Columbus set +out to give a new world to Spain, is now completely silted up.</p> + +<p><i>Cordova.</i>—The interior provinces of Andalusia are <i>Cordova</i> and +<i>Jaen</i>, both on the Guadalquiver,<a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a> the latter embracing the sources and +upper part of the course, the former the central portion before it +enters the province of Seville. The northern part of the province of +Cordova is covered by parallel ranges of low mountains running east and +west—the Sierras de Cordova and de Pedroches within the province, and +the Sierras de Almaden and Morena, which form the boundary of Castile. +<i>Cordova</i>, the capital, contains now but 49,000 inhabitants in place of +the 1,000,000 who dwelt there when it was the seat of the western +khalifat. Its mosque, almost the sole remnant of its former splendour, +with its 1200 columns, is to Islam what the temple of Karnac at Thebes, +and that of Karnac in Brittany, with their 100 pillars, are to the +religions of Egypt and of prehistoric Europe. It is perhaps the grandest +building for worship ever raised by Moslem hands; its materials were +pillaged without scruple from shrines of older civilizations, but were +wrought into new and fairer forms of beauty by the magic of Arabian art. +As a Christian city, Cordova is of only second rank. It is chiefly noted +for its leather work, and for its commerce in wines and fruits. It is to +Cordova that the Amontillada sherry—the most prized of Spanish +wines—comes, from the vineyards round Montilla (15,000). The only other +town of importance in the province is Lucena (16,000), to the south.<a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a></p> + +<p><i>Jaen</i>, like Huelva, at the opposite extremity of Andalusia, is a mining +province, and like those of Huelva its mines are chiefly in the hands of +Englishmen and of foreigners. Linares (36,000), north of the +Guadalquiver, is the centre of the mining district, and is far the most +populous town in the province. Nearly 11,000 men, women, and boys were +employed in the lead-mines in 1877, and the ore raised amounted to +70,000 tons. It has been calculated that the production of the world is +about 300,000 tons of lead, of which Spain furnishes 100,000 tons and +the United Kingdom 100,000 tons. The capital, Jaen, south of the great +river, has only 24,000 inhabitants; Ubeda and Baza, close together, a +little south of Jaen, have each 15,000. Andujar (11,000), with its old +bridge over the Guadalquiver, is noted for its porous pottery, the +cooling water-jars used throughout the whole of Southern Spain. In the +north of this province is the celebrated Pass of Despeña-perros, through +the Sierra Morena, one of the wildest gorges through which the traveller +passes in any part of Europe; a few miles to the south of it is Las +Navas de Tolosa, the field of the battle in 1212 which first proved how +fast the power of the Moors was waning in Southern Spain.</p> + +<p>E<small>STREMADURA</small>, conterminous on the west with Portugal and on the south +with Huelva, is the wildest and least peopled of all the provinces of +Spain, and has been almost sufficiently described in<a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a> a former chapter. +It is divided into the two modern provinces of <i>Badajoz</i> and <i>Caceres</i>, +through which run respectively the two rivers, the Guadiana and the +Tagus. Desolate as it is now, the numerous Roman remains at Merida +(6000) and Trajan's mighty bridge at Alcantara tell what it was in Roman +times; but in Moorish days it suffered more from war than any other +province, and the curse, the "<i>mesta</i>," the only means the Christian +conquerors had of utilizing their vast and thinly-peopled properties, +has ever since rested upon it. Besides its flocks and herds its chief +wealth consists in acorns and bark for tanning, and cork for other +purposes. The rivers run in deep gorges, almost cañons, and are useless +for either navigation or for irrigation. Badajoz (22,000), on the +Guadiana, one of the frontier fortresses of Spain towards Portugal, is +by far the largest city. Higher up the river are Merida and Medellin, +but Don Benito (15,000) is of greater commercial importance than either.</p> + +<p><i>Caceres</i>, a province still more thinly peopled than Badajoz, having +only fifteen inhabitants instead of nineteen to the square kilometre, +has 12,000 for its chief town; Plasencia, on the Xerte, an affluent of +the Alagon, has only half that number. In the north-east of this +province, on the southern spurs of the lofty Sierra de Gredos, stands +the monastery San Juste, to which the Emperor Charles V. retired on<a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a> his +resignation of his many crowns. The shepherds of Estremadura, +notwithstanding the scanty population, gave numbers of emigrants to the +New World; Cortez and Pizarro were swineherds, the one of Medellin, the +other of Truxillo. The town of Alcantara gives its name to one of the +three great military orders of Spain.</p> + +<p>N<small>EW</small> C<small>ASTILE</small> and L<small>A</small> M<small>ANCHA</small> comprise the five modern provinces of <i>Ciudad +Real</i>, <i>Toledo</i>, <i>Madrid</i>, <i>Cuenca</i>, and <i>Guadalajara</i>, which all take +their names from their chief towns. The province of <i>Ciudad Real</i>, which +lies between the Sierra de Morena and the mountains of Toledo, is +traversed by the Guadiana. It is the most thinly populated of all the +provinces of Spain, having only thirteen inhabitants to the square +kilometre; but it is by no means the least wealthy. It contains within +it the quicksilver-mines of Almaden (9000), the richest deposit in the +world before the late discoveries in California. They were a source of +revenue to the Spanish crown for centuries, with an annual rent of over +a quarter of a million. They were however mortgaged by the Government +for thirty years in order to raise a loan of 2,318,000<i>l.</i> at five per +cent., to be extinguished in 1900. The average annual extract is +estimated at 12,000 tons of mercury. The vineyards round Valdepeñas +(11,000) supply the red wine which is the favourite beverage of the +Spaniards throughout the centre and the south,<a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a> and the home consumption +of which is far beyond that of the sherries. Almagro (14,000) is known +for its lace manufacture; but Ciudad-Real, the capital (12,000), is +fallen from its ancient importance. Damiel (13,000) and Manzanares +(9000) are the only other towns that need mention.</p> + +<p><i>Toledo</i> (21,000), watered by the Tagus, was for centuries the most +important city of Spain. It is here that the great councils which really +regulated the civil as well as the ecclesiastical administration of +Spain, from the fourth to the eighth centuries were held. Here too was +one of the centres of Arabic civilization: the waterworks, clocks, and +observatory of Toledo were among the wonders of the world from the tenth +to the twelfth centuries, and even after its capture by the Christians, +in 1085, the conqueror seemed for a while to have fallen under the same +spell. The court of Alfonso X., the Wise, was a semi-Moorish court, and +his tolerance excited the indignant wonder of travellers from other +parts of Europe. Moorish and Christian architecture is still most +strangely blended in many of its buildings, and Moorish architects were +long employed to keep in repair not only the structures which their +ancestors had raised, but even the Christian churches. The skill of its +ironworkers and the temper of its sword-blades were renowned throughout +Europe. The superiority of its steel was said to be due to some peculiar +virtue of the water of the Tagus used in<a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a> tempering; but the best of the +iron was taken from the mines of Mondragon, in Guipuzcoa. The +manufactory has greatly fallen from its ancient splendour, but some good +weapons are still made, though they cannot compete in price with British +or foreign goods. The insurrection of its inhabitants under the +"Comuneros" in 1520, in defence of the ancient constitutional liberties +of Castille probably determined the selection of the more obsequious +town of Madrid as the capital of Spain by the Emperor Charles V. Toledo, +with its narrow streets and semi-Moorish houses, is emphatically the +city of Old Spain; the purest Spanish is said still to be spoken there, +and for native poets and romancers it seems to have an attraction beyond +that of any of the cities of Andalusia. The only other town of +importance in the province is Talavera, with its fifteenth-century +bridge of nearly a quarter of a mile in length.</p> + +<p><i>Madrid.</i>—The province of Madrid lies between the Sierra de Guadarrama +on the north and the Tagus on the south. The city, which now contains +almost 400,000 inhabitants, was a third or fourth-rate town until +Charles V., and after him Philip II., chose it for the capital of Spain, +in place of either Toledo or Valladolid. Its recommendations seem to +have been its central position, and the absence of any strong traditions +of ancient constitutional liberties, such as might hamper the sovereign +in developing<a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a> his new despotism. A city which owed its creation +entirely to the sovereign, and its riches to to the presence of his +court, would be certain to be obedient to its rulers. If Charles V. and +Philip II. did not make it the centre of a free and constitutional +government, they at least enriched it with all the treasures of art +which the rulers of the greater part of Europe could collect from the +various parts of their vast dominions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/ill130.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill130_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="358" alt="FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR SEASONS, MADRID. + +Page 130. + +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR SEASONS, MADRID. +(Page 130.)</span> +</div> + +<p class="nind">It is at the museum of Madrid, +which owes its existence to Ferdinand VII., that not only Spanish, but +also many of the Flemish and some of the Italian painters can be best +studied; and by a happy chance the royal palace, built in the eighteenth +century, is one of the least faulty and most impressive structures of +that age. At the west end of the city, on the banks of the Manzanares, +are the royal gardens; at the opposite extremity the promenades of the +Prado and the gardens of the Buen Retiro. These artificial parks and +walks in some way compensate for the dreary and almost desert aspect of +the country round Madrid; for there are "<i>despoblados</i>" and +"<i>destierros</i>" almost within sight of the greatest city of Spain. It is +now approached by rail from all sides, and the convergence of these iron +roads and of the highways will probably secure its future position as +the capital of the nation; but until the present century, contrary to +that of most European capitals, the<a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a> approach to Madrid seemed to be +an approach from civilization to barbarism. As the traveller neared the +capital, whether from the north or from the east and south, the inns +grew worse, the roads more impassable, and the difficulty of procuring +food greater in the neighbourhood of the capital than elsewhere; the +contrast of magnificence and meanness, of dirt and discomfort and formal +etiquette in the city itself, until the time of Charles III., is the +theme of every visitor. Of late its character has much changed; the +increase of its population has not been caused by the natural growth of +its inhabitants, but by the migration thither of Catalans, Gallegos, +Asturians, Basques, and especially of Andalusians; and thus the Puerta +del Sol, the heart of Madrid, has become, as it were, the heart of +Spain, and almost every political and social movement which stirs the +nation has its origin there. Though not quite to the extent with which +Paris absorbs France, still Madrid collects to itself the greater part +of the intellectual and literary life of the nation. It is Madrid that +supplies most of the daily journals, the scientific periodicals, +reviews, and literature to the rest of Spain. Here is the seat of the +learned academies and of the chief literary, educational, and scientific +institutions. The universities, the national and the free, the Ateneo, +the great public libraries of Madrid, are the best in Spain. It is here +that Cortés meets,<a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a> here that the elections are arranged, all the lines +of Spanish administration converge hither, and it is here that the +intrigues for place or power are principally conducted, and unhappily we +must add it is thus that Madrid is also the focus and example of +administrative corruption for the rest of Spain.</p> + +<p>Besides Madrid, the province contains two other royal residencies, +Aranjuez to the south, at the junction of the Tagus with the Jarama, and +the Escorial to the north, at the foot of the Guadarrama. The chief +attractions of the former consist in its abundant supply of water, in +its fountains and running streams, and in the avenues and groves of +lofty trees, whose roots are fed by these waters. The Escorial is of an +entirely opposite character. This vast and extraordinary structure was +raised by Philip II., in pursuance of a vow made at the battle of St. +Quentin, August 10 (St. Lawrence's Day), 1557; the ground-plan is that +of a mighty gridiron, to recall that on which the martyr suffered. The +central piece of architecture is a chapel, impressive from its grand +simplicity; and however faulty the general design of the vast edifice, +several details, and especially the frescoes of the ceilings and some of +the paintings, are of great beauty. The whole fabric, in its severe and +sombre majesty, harmonizes well with the bare and wind-swept granite +mountains near which it is placed. Like<a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a> most of the other +treasure-houses of Spain, it suffered severely from pillage during the +French invasion. <i>Acala de Henares</i> (8000) was celebrated in the +sixteenth century as a university under the patronage of the Cardinal +Ximenes, and here the celebrated Complutensian Polyglot Bible was +printed. It was also the birthplace of Cervantes. The canal of Henares +is described above, pp. 18, 19.</p> + +<p><i>Cuenca</i>, one of the most thinly populated as well as one of the most +mountainous provinces of Spain, stretches on two sides of the chief +watershed, and the waters of the streams which rise in this province +from different slopes of the Cerro de San Felipe flow to the Atlantic +and to the Mediterranean. Cuenca (7000), the capital, is still untouched +by railway routes, and slumbers on its lofty cliff, and emerged into +temporary notoriety by its capture and sack by Alphonso, the brother of +Don Carlos, in 1874.</p> + +<p><i>Guadalajara</i> (6500), on the Henares, though on the line of railway +between Saragossa and Madrid, is scarcely more lively than Cuenca, but +it contains the school for military engineers, the most distinguished +corps in the Spanish army, and which has never stained its character by +political intrigue. The province supports a slightly higher population +than that of Cuenca.</p> + +<p>O<small>LD</small> C<small>ASTILE</small> was with Leon for several<a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a> centuries the chief of the rising +kingdoms of Spain, and the one into which all the rest gradually merged. +It now contains five provinces, <i>Avila</i>, <i>Segovia</i>, <i>Soria</i>, <i>Logroño</i>, +and <i>Burgos</i>. Avila (7000), still surrounded by its mediæval walls in +excellent preservation, is one of the most picturesque cities in Spain, +at an altitude of nearly 3500 feet above the sea-level. The province is +remarkable as the one in which the rudely-sculptured stone monuments of +boars and bulls, the "Toros de Guisando," are chiefly found. They are +the art remains of a population whose name, age, and ethnic affinities +are totally unknown. The southern half of this province is traversed by +the lofty Sierra de Gredos, and hiding in its secluded valleys are some +of the most primitive peoples of Spain. There are no other large towns +in the province.</p> + +<p><i>Segovia</i> (7000), another of the picturesque cities of Spain, contains +fine specimens of Roman, Moorish, and Christian mediæval architecture in +its wondrous aqueduct, cathedral, the Alcazar, and castle. It was +formerly a place of great commercial as well as of political importance, +and was the centre of a trade in woollen goods which employed 34,000 +workmen, and made the cloth of Segovia celebrated throughout Europe. +This commerce has now utterly departed, both from it and from the other +cities, such as Avila, Medina del Campo, which shared its reputation. It +is now visited by the<a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a> lover of the picturesque, whose taste will be +here abundantly gratified. Not far from Segovia, under the Peñalarra +(7800 feet), on the northern slope of the Guadarrama range, are La +Granja and San Ildefonso. At a height of 4000 feet above the level of +the sea, this is the most agreeable of all the inland royal residences +of Spain. Built in French taste by Philip V., it is redeemed from +banality by its pleasant surroundings. But retired and peaceful as it +looks, La Granja has been the scene of some of the most important +political events in the modern history of Spain. The celebrated passes +of Somosierra (4700 feet), and that of the Col de Guadarrama (5000), +lead from this province to Madrid; the railway, too, attains at La +Cañada a height of 4457 feet above the level of the sea.</p> + +<p><i>Soria</i>, on the north-eastern edge of the great plateau, is one of the +poorest provinces of Spain. Leaning on the Sierra de Moncayo, the whole +of the northern and central part of the province slopes gradually to the +west, and is watered by the Douro, which takes its rise in the Sierra de +Moncayo. The southern angle of the province contains also the sources of +the Jalon, which, flowing through a break in the Idubeda range, finds +its way to the Ebro, and thence to the Mediterranean, the upper courses +of the two rivers completely overlapping. In spite of these two +river-valleys the province is very unproductive. Soria, near the site of +the<a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a> Keltiberean Numantia, which held out for twenty-nine years against +the Romans, contains but 6000 inhabitants. Osma, on the Douro, has +barely 1000, and Agreda (4000) is celebrated only for the visions of a +nun in the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>The province of <i>Burgos</i> overlaps the plateau, and in its northern and +southern extremities embraces the valleys both of the Ebro and the +Douro, with their respective towns, Miranda del Ebro and Aranda del +Douro. The basins of these two rivers are separated by the Oca or +Idubeda mountains, which cross the centre of the province. The +difference of the elevation of the two valleys may be seen in the fact +that while Miranda del Ebro is 1600 feet above the sea-level, Burgos is +more than 2800. Burgos (29,000) and Aranda del Douro were formerly towns +of considerable commerce, and the former had at one time a claim to be +considered the chief city of Northern Spain. It has now greatly fallen, +but will always be visited for the noble remains of Gothic architecture +in the city and its suburbs. Miranda del Ebro (3000), when the river +formed the customs line for all commerce passing from the Basque +Provinces into Spain, was of great consequence, and is now the point of +junction for the northern lines of railway from Bilbao and from Irun. In +this province, too, is the pass of Pancorbo, through which both road and +railway wind; for savage wildness it is inferior<a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a> only to that of the +above-mentioned Despeña-perros in the Sierra Morena.</p> + +<p>The whole province of <i>Logroño</i> lies in the southern half of the valley +of the Ebro, and leans against the mountains which form the supports of +the great plateau. The Ebro forms its northern boundary, and its chief +towns, Logroño (12,000) and Calahorra (7000), are both on the river. +Here the traveller from the north first sees the Noria or Moorish +water-wheel at work. The province is noted chiefly for its strong, rough +wines, and for its agricultural products. Navarete is known in English +history as the spot where the Black Prince and Bertrand du Guesclin +fought out their mightiest duel, the one as the partisan of Pedro the +Cruel, and the other of Henry of Trastamare.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of L<small>EON</small> is divided into five provinces, <i>Salamanca</i>, +<i>Valladolid</i>, <i>Zamora</i>, <i>Palencia</i>, <i>Leon</i>. <i>Salamanca</i> lies along the +Portuguese frontier, which is here formed by the Rivers Douro and +Agueda. The city (15,000) was famous throughout the early part of the +Middle Ages for its university and for its Arabic and Hebrew learning. +It thus became in popular estimation the home of magic and of the black +arts, and as such its name is found in the folk-lore tales of many parts +of Europe; its students, poor, riotous, and witty, made it the +birthplace of the peculiar, picaresque romance literature of Spain, from +Lazarillo de Tormes to Gil Blas.<a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a> Like all the Spanish provincial +universities, it is but the shadow of its former self, nor does the city +preserve any of the older features which still make Toledo a delight to +the tourist. Its old bridge over the Tormes is said to date from Roman +times. Bejar (8000) does a fair trade as a manufactory of cloth. Ciudad +Rodrigo (5000) is one of the strongest fortresses of Spain, and guards, +with Badajoz, the frontier against Portugal. The provinces of Salamanca +and Zamora contain some of the most peculiar and picturesque peasantry +yet remaining in Spain; even around Salamanca the festal dresses of the +Charros and Charras are rich with gold and silver ornaments of Moorish +type. In the valley of the Batuecas, amid the Sierra de Gata, the +Hurdes, and to the west of Zamora, the Sayagos, and again, the +Maragatos, to the north-west of the province, in the mountains of Leon, +are all remnants of ancient races, preserving habits and tribal customs +and laws, differing from their neighbours, and well worthy of the study, +as survivals, of the comparative ethnologist. The contrabandistas of the +province are among the boldest in Spain; they cross the Douro and its +deep ravine, sometimes on rafts or on inflated skins; at others, when +the river is in flood, in baskets suspended from ropes flung across the +whole ravine.</p> + +<p><i>Zamora</i> (10,000), formerly a strong walled city<a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a> on the Douro, in a +rich country, notwithstanding the rail which unites it to the Medina del +Campo, still remains one of the decaying towns of Spain. Toro (9000), +higher up the stream, is a busier town. A great impulse will probably be +given to all this district, now one of the most behindhand in Spain, by +the completion of the Portuguese lines of Beira-alta, connecting Lisbon +and Oporto with Paris by the North Spanish lines. Benavente (5000), on +the Esla, is the only other town we have to notice.</p> + +<p><i>Leon</i>, which gave its name to one of the old kingdoms of Spain before +the re-conquest of the Castiles, is full of towns which recall the +glories of the past, but which are of little importance in modern times. +The capital (9000) is noted for its cathedral and churches, which are +perhaps the purest specimens of Gothic, unmixed with Arabian art, to be +found in Spain. The province is generally mountainous, especially to the +north and west, and the higher lands afford excellent summer pasture for +flocks from the plains, and even from Estremadura. The valley of the +Esla is extremely fertile. Astorga (5000) may be considered as the +Capital of the Maragatos, of whom we have spoken above; like Sahagun +(3000), it is a town of ancient consequence now dwindling to +insignificance. The "<i>fuero</i>" or charter of Sahagun, 1085, was the model +of the "<i>fueros</i>" or<a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a> constitutional privileges of the Castiles, which +were eventually lost in the war of the <i>comuneros</i> in the time of +Charles V.</p> + +<p><i>Palencia.</i>—Through this province passes the canal of Castile from Alar +del Rey to Valladolid, borrowing its waters from the Pisuerga, and is +the most useful for transport of all the canals of Spain. This waterway +is less needed now, owing to the railway of the north from Valladolid to +Santander, to Bilbao, and to San Sebastian, which runs parallel to it; +but it will be always available for local traffic. The capital is a +walled city on the banks of the Carrion, a little above its junction +with the Pisuerga, an affluent of the Douro; its cathedral is remarkable +for its size and simplicity, but is otherwise inferior to Leon. The +valleys, watered by these rivers are very rich in cereals, which find +their outlet for exportation at Santander. The great coal-field of the +Asturias extends into the north of this province, and at Barruelo de +Santillana is largely worked by the Northern Railway Company, and +supplies Madrid with a yearly increasing quantity of coal. The villages +near the mines are fast becoming populous towns.</p> + +<p><i>Valladolid</i> (52,000) was till the middle of the sixteenth century the +capital of Spain, and is likely to become of great importance in the +near future as the point of junction of all the Spanish and Portuguese +railways of the north and west.<a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a> The Douro flows through the centre of +the province, and the plains of Valladolid are perhaps the most fertile +of all those in North-western Spain. It is a great centre for the +corn-trade of the Castiles, and the smoke from its tall chimneys tells +also of manufacturing industry. There are here two colleges for Scotch +and Irish students for the Roman Catholic priesthood. They were +established at the time of the persecutions in England, but are much +less frequented now than formerly. Medina del Campo (4500) an ancient +commercial city, was ruined in the wars of the <i>comuneros</i>, but may +recover somewhat of its former traffic as a junction of railways. A town +of similar name and standing, Medina de Rio Seco (4500), is in the north +of the province; both are situated in rich corn-growing plains. +Tordesillas (3500), on the Douro, owes its existence to the junction of +roads which cross the river by its noble bridge. In this province is the +Castle of Simancas, wherein are deposited the archives of Spain, as +those of the Indies are at Seville. Long closed to the world, they are +now open to the researches of scholars, and guides and inventories in +aid are being published during the present year.</p> + +<h4><i>The Balearic Isles.</i></h4> + +<p>These islands are geologically a submarine continuation of the Valencian +mountains which sink into the sea at Cape Nao. They are divided into<a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a> +two groups: (1) Minorca, Majorca, Cabrera, and a few islets; the nearest +point of which to the mainland is Soller on Majorca, ninety-three miles +distant; (2) Iviza and Formentera, with some smaller satellites, are +within sixty miles of the Spanish coast. The whole superficies of the +islands is nearly two thousand square miles. The inhabitants number +about 290,000. The climate is equable but exceedingly variable within +somewhat narrow limits; the average both for Minorca and Majorca being +sixty-four, the highest temperature ninety, and the lowest forty-four. +The average rainfall is nearly twenty inches. Majorca, the largest of +the islands is about sixty miles from east to west, and fifty from north +to south. The surface is very broken, but with a few fertile plains; the +greatest elevation is 5000 feet. Minorca, twenty and a half miles to the +east of Majorca, is twenty miles long by six broad. Iviza, the largest +island of the western group is only four miles by four. The highest +points of these two islands are about 1000 feet; but Iviza retains +traces of volcanic action which seem to connect it geologically with the +extinct Catalan volcanoes, by way of the Columbretes rocks, and the +Point de la Baña at the mouth of the Ebro. Majorca and Minorca are +remarkable for erections called "Talayots," similar to the "Nuraghies" +of Sardinia; they are the work of one of the many prehistoric, or at +least unrecorded<a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a> races whose blood mingles in the veins of the present +inhabitants, and the origin of them has given rise to almost as many +theories as those of the round towers of Ireland and Scotland. In the +west of Majorca is the remarkable and extensive cavern of Arta. The +language of the islanders is one of the purest dialects of the Provençal +speech. The only separate race now in the islands is that of the +"<i>Chuetas</i>" or converted Jews, who still keep apart notwithstanding +their nominal Christianity. The population is mostly engaged in +agriculture, and the islands export fruits, oil, leather, and a few +cattle, to an annual value altogether of 350,000<i>l</i>, while the imports +amount to 210,000<i>l</i>. The land is cultivated mostly by peasant +proprietors and metayers in small holdings, and by reason of steady +emigration those who remain are fairly prosperous. The people show +strong aesthetic tastes, and the art school of Palma is one of the most +flourishing of the whole of Spain. The chief towns on Majorca are Palma, +on the east coast, of 58,000 inhabitants; Manacor, in the centre, of +12,500; Felanitz, 10,000; and Llummayor, Soller, Inca, and Pollensa, of +about 8000 each. Minorca has only two towns of importance, Port Mahon, +22,000, and Ciudella, 7000, at opposite extremities of the island. Port +Mahon is perhaps the finest harbour in the Mediterranean, and is also +one of its strongest fortresses; during the English occupation the town +attained great<a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a> prosperity. Iviza has only one town, of the same name as +the island, containing 5500 inhabitants. We have noticed before that the +majolica ware was not made in these islands, but at Valencia, and that +it acquired the name from Balearic vessels being used for its export to +Italy.<a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /><br /> +<small>HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">I<small>N</small> order to understand the present constitution, the political +condition, and the aspirations of the Spanish nation, it is absolutely +necessary to have some slight acquaintance with its previous history. +This we propose to give as briefly as possible.</p> + +<p>In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there is no doubt that the +inhabitants of Northern Spain, under some of the petty kings, enjoyed +more constitutional liberty than any other people in Europe; that their +institutions generally, and especially their municipal privileges, were +more in accordance with the ideas of modern freedom and self-government +than those of any other nation at that date. The feudal system never +attained in Northern Spain, except in parts of Catalonia, the systematic +development, and the organized oppression of the lower classes, which it +reached in many other parts of Europe. The peculiar institution of +"<i>behetria</i>," which prevailed in Leon and the Castiles, and by<a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a> which a +serf was free to go whither he would "from sea to sea," with all his +goods, and to put himself under any lord he chose, was of itself an +almost sufficient check to excessive tyranny by the nobles. The old +Roman municipal organization, of the towns had been preserved by +tradition throughout the whole of the Visigothic times down to 711, nor +had the practical working completely died out at the epoch of the early +reconquest of the north. Hence many of the charters or "<i>fueros</i>" +granted to the towns and cities by the kings are evidently founded on a +recollection of former institutions, modified according to the +necessities of the times. Thus the charter of Leon (1020) expressly +allows exemption from all arbitrary exactions, and grants the free +election of the <i>Alcalde</i>, and of the municipal council, with only the +appointment of the judges by the king. By the <i>fuero</i> of Arganzon (1191) +it is expressly stated that if these royal officers overpassed their +duties, it would be lawful to kill them without incurring any +responsibility. Similar but still more strongly-worded clauses are found +in all the Basque <i>fueros</i>, and in the coronation oath of Aragon.</p> + +<p>The representatives of the burgesses, "el estado llano," the low estate +in the "Cortés" or parliaments, began much earlier in Spain than in +other countries. Burgesses sat in the Cortés at Leon certainly in 1188, +if not in that of Burgos in 1169. In Aragon<a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a> they were present still +earlier, in 1134, in Navarre in 1194, in Catalonia, where feudalism was +more developed than elsewhere, in 1218. These dates are simply those of +the first mention of the fact, not necessarily that of its first +institution; the records rather imply their presence at former sessions. +We find also early protests against judicial and administrative abuses +which prevailed long afterwards in other parts of Europe. In the <i>fuero</i> +of Arganzon (1191) the inhabitants claim exemption from the ordeal of +iron, hot-water, or battle. In 1152, the <i>fuero</i> of Molina demands that +justice be done to all, and truth spoken without favour or bribery of +any kind whatever. The original capitulations granted to the Moors and +Mudejares of Castile, and especially to those of Aragon, breathe the +same liberal spirit. They are granted full liberty in the exercise of +their own religion, and to live under their own laws in their own +quarters, subject only to some fixed tribute and service. The spirit of +bigotry and of hatred between the two races commenced with the foreign +monks, with the semi-religious military orders, and with the legal +classes; afterwards it spread to the common people through envy at the +better use which the Jews, Mudejares, and Moriscos made of the +privileges granted to them, and the consequent superiority of their +condition compared with that of the serfs and lower classes of the +Christians. It is this fact<a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a> which explains the rising of the population +at Saragossa in favour of the inquisition against the Mudejares and +Jews. Travellers in Spain, even to the middle of the fifteenth century, +were scandalized at the toleration of the Moors by the king and the +court. Theologians, lawyers (except the royal judges), medical men, and +traders were they who called for oppression of the Moors; the two last +classes evidently through jealousy of the superior skill and industry of +Moors and Jews as doctors and merchants; the literary class, the poets, +nobles, and kings were in favour of toleration. Afterwards indeed, in +the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the ravages of the +pirate ships of Algiers and Tunis roused an indignation and excited a +far more intense abhorrence than had existed in earlier times, when +Christian and Moslem knights met in fair and equal warfare.</p> + +<p>The development of these early liberties, and the progress of the cause +of toleration and of true civilization in Spain, were checked by +circumstances which would assuredly have acted in a similar way in any +other nation. The establishment of the military orders, the conquest of +the south, especially the last campaign against Granada, put forces into +the hand of the king greater than those possessed at that time by any +other monarch. The richest half of Spain, the newly-conquered Mussulman +provinces, had not only no liberties of their<a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a> own except those granted +in their respective capitulations, and which were speedily revoked, but +had neither knowledge of, nor any interest in the liberties of the +north. They were entirely at the mercy of their conquerors, Ferdinand +and Isabella, who had the control of the finest army of Christendom. The +mastership of all the great semi-monastic military orders, which had +hitherto been elective, was now granted to Ferdinand by Pope Innocent +VIII. (1492), and they were incorporated with the crown by a bull of +Adrian VI. (1523). An almost equally powerful engine in the royal hands +was the secret police of the Santa Hermandad (1476), founded to restrain +the excesses of the nobles and the practice of private war. The success +of this institution in the cause of order explains both the institution +and the popularity of the inquisition. It is easy to see what a leverage +was thus put into the royal hands to destroy the liberties of the north +of Spain. Add to this that the separate kingdoms, Navarre, Aragon, +Valencia, the Castiles, and the Basque Provinces had not yet been united +under a single head, nor had learned to work together, except in war, +for a single purpose. Catalonia and Aragon had indeed some sympathy with +each other, but they had none with Leon and Castile; their peculiar +language and habits isolated the Basque Provinces and Navarre from any +of the rest. A century of free representation and debate in a national +Cortés might have<a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a> changed all this, but the opportunity was not given. +The discovery and the conquest of America, and the subsequent emigration +of the bolder spirits, turned men's thoughts away from internal reform +and the home constitution. Next the fatal election to the empire of +Charles V. threw into his hands fitting agents, in his foreign and +ecclesiastical ministers and governors, wherewith to crush any rising of +the people. Cardinal Ximenes was the only minister in Europe who at that +date could have pointed to a standing army with the proud words, "With +these I govern Castile; and with these I will govern it, until the king, +your master and mine, takes possession of his kingdom."</p> + +<p>Yet even to the end of the seventeenth century the king swore to +preserve the ancient privileges of Aragon and Catalonia. The "<i>fueros</i>" +of Navarre were intact until 1840, and those of the Basque Provinces +till 1874. The wonder is, not that the Spanish liberties were crushed, +but that the memory of them should have continued so long, and after so +many ages of repression should yet be a living force with which every +statesman and ruler of Spain has still to make his account.</p> + +<p>The suppression of Spanish liberty had already begun under the reign of +Ferdinand and Isabella, but the death of Francis I. and the retreat of +Charles V. into the cloister of San Juste definitely closes both the +period of chivalry and of such<a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a> liberties as existed through the Middle +Ages in Europe. With Philip II. begins the era of statesmanship and of +bureaucratic centralization, when nations were really ruled from the +closet and with the pen, not with the sovereign's sword or by his +presence in the field. It is difficult for an Englishman to sympathize +with the view, but the period of Philip II. is still looked upon by the +majority of Spaniards as the golden era of the external position of +Spain. His absolutism, and his concentration in his own person of all +civil and religious rights, are condoned in their eyes by the glory of +his having made Spain the arbiter of Europe and the champion of +Catholicism. But with his successor set in that strange and progressive +decadence of intellectual power in the sovereigns of the Austrian +dynasty in Spain, which ended in the almost idiotcy of the childless +Charles II. Spain, which in the reign of Philip II. had all but imposed +the sovereign of her choice in France, in the reign of Charles II. was +ruled according to the intrigues and caprice of the court of Versailles. +Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV., though vastly superior to the +late Austrian sovereigns, could never thoroughly emancipate himself from +the tutelage of the country to whose armies he owed his crown; and the +family degeneracy, which had shown itself in the Austrian sovereigns, +again appeared in the Bourbon family, and communicated itself<a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a> to the +whole nation. The military and naval greatness of Spain disappeared, the +very wish for constitutional liberty died out, commerce and literature +were almost extinct, the population was declining in numbers and +increasing in misery, the country was daily growing poorer, and its +wealth was ebbing slowly away to other lands. The noble aristocracy of +Spain, once so full of loyal self-respect in the age of the Cid, +grovelled at the sovereign's feet, jealous only for precedence in +matters of court etiquette, or clamorous for posts in the colonies as a +means of corruption, and of enriching themselves by the plunder of the +provinces they administered. The only king who showed some royal talent, +and who intelligently endeavoured to effect the improvement of Spain, +was Charles III. (1759—1788). Unfortunately both he and his able +ministers, instead of basing their reforms on the native liberties and +constitutions of Spain, imitated almost wholly the spurious liberalism +of the encyclopædists and doctrinaires of France. Hence few of their +reforms took root. Those that were not immediately done away with did +not grow or develope. The successors of Charles III. were still more +feeble than his immediate predecessors, and the condition of the royal +family was such that Napoleon had no difficulty in forcing them to +abdicate, and to crown his brother Joseph king of Spain; but the nation, +unlike the royal family, refused to acquiesce in this<a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a> usurpation of +their rights, and rose as one man to avenge the burning wrong.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/ill153.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill153_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="323" alt="PORT OF CADIZ. + +Page 153. + +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">PORT OF CADIZ. +(Page 153.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The modern history of Spain begins naturally with that of the War of +Liberation, May 2nd, 1808, and politically with the Cortés of Cadiz, +1812, and with the constitution then promulgated. This declares: That +the Spanish nation is not the patrimony of any family or person; that +the sovereignty resides essentially in the nation, which is the +conservator of its own liberties and rights. The sole religion is and +shall always be the Apostolic Roman. The legislative power resides in +the Cortés with the king. The suffrage was universal, and one deputy was +to be elected for every 70,000 souls. Entails and feudal privileges had +been abolished by a law of August 6th, 1811, the liberty of the press +was voted, and in 1813 the inquisition was suppressed. The French had +been expelled, chiefly through the assistance of England, and the king +had returned from captivity; all looked well for the new era. But in +1814 Ferdinand VII. violated the oath which he had sworn to observe the +constitution; the inquisition was re-established; the feudal exactions +on real property were restored; and the fatal policy of violent reaction +and of ruthless vengeance on political opponents was inaugurated which +has wrought such deadly harm to the cause of progress in Spain. After an +absolute government of six years, Riego raised the standard of revolt at +Cadiz,<a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a> and again Ferdinand swore to observe the constitution of 1812: +further reforms were established. In 1820, tithes were partially +suppressed, and the Church was forbidden to acquire any more real +property. A law of May 3rd, 1823, affirmed in stronger terms the law of +1813 on the abolition of entail: the religious orders were done away +with. But in the same year, with the assistance of a French army under +the Duc d'Angoulême, Ferdinand conquered the liberals and again violated +his oath to observe the constitution. Every act of the Cortés for the +last four years was annulled. Riego, with other chiefs of the liberal +party, was put to death under circumstances of atrocious cruelty, others +were banished, and a crafty and tenacious system of persecution was +directed against every liberal for the rest of the reign. During this +reign, too, through denial of all reform or suppression of any abuse, +the whole of the vast colonial empire of Spain on the continent of the +Americas was totally lost.</p> + +<p>On the death of Ferdinand VII., June 29, 1833, another element of +discord was introduced. The first Bourbon king, Philip V., in defiance +of ancient Spanish precedents to the contrary, had introduced the Salic +law from France, and had procured its solemn promulgation by Cortés. +Ferdinand VII., with the consent of Cortés, abrogated this law, and left +the crown to his only child, Isabella II., an infant of less than three +years old, with her mother,<a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a> Christina of Naples, as regent. His +brother, Don Carlos, who, since the king's last marriage, had been +intriguing against him with the ultra-conservative party, claimed the +throne under the law of Philip V. Henceforth a dynastic question was +added to the standing constitutional one.</p> + +<p>The Carlists declared themselves the champions of legitimacy, the divine +right, and of absolutism; and thus forced the party of Isabella, the +Christinos, to appeal for support to the liberal and constitutional +party, though they had no more real attachment to the cause, and no more +intelligent appreciation of its benefits than had their opponents. A +blunder of the liberal party in hesitating to confirm the "<i>fueros</i>" of +the Basques, the last vestige still intact of the ancient constitutional +and municipal liberties of Spain, greatly strengthened their opponents, +who at once seized the opportunity and loudly confirmed them. A war of +seven years followed, in which the older liberal generals lost all their +former military prestige against Zumalacarregui in the Basque Provinces, +and against Cabrera in Aragon. But the assistance of England, and still +more the incapacity of Don Carlos, at length enabled Espartero to finish +the war by the convention of Vergara, August 30, 1839, by which <i>fueros</i> +were confirmed to the Basques on their laying down arms. Cabrera +continued the war in Aragon and Catalonia, but two years afterwards was +forced with<a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a> his followers to take refuge in France. During this period +constitutional liberty had apparently made great progress in Spain, and +several useful reforms had been set on foot. But its course had been +marred by deeds of atrocious violence, such as the massacre of the monks +and the destruction of the convents in 1835, when valuable treasures, +both in art and literature, which had been spared in the great +Peninsular War, were finally lost. All ecclesiastical and church +property had been declared national, and the sale of it had been +commenced, tithes were wholly suppressed, the <i>mesta</i> was +abolished—with results as to the division of property detailed in a +former chapter. From the regency of Christina dates, in a great degree, +the shameless corruption, the selfish intrigues, the abuses of all kinds +among the upper <i>employés</i>, which with rare exceptions have marked every +subsequent government of Spain. A reaction set in in 1843, with Narvaez +as its real chief. To his stern administration, however, are due the +establishment of the normal and technical schools, the foundation of the +present educational system in Spain, and the institution of the +<i>guardias civiles</i>, a kind of police after the model of the French +gendarmerie or the Irish constabulary, and which has proved itself the +most trustworthy body in Spain in defence of law and order under all +changes of government. It would be a weariness to the reader to recount +all<a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a> the changes from liberalism to absolutism which followed during the +reign of Isabella II. No administration succeeded in impressing on the +bulk of the nation the fact that it was honest and capable; none won +respect abroad. Perhaps that of O'Donnell (1858-63), during which +occurred the successful campaign in Morocco, was the least corrupt and +inefficient; but the indignation of the country at the shame and +corruption of both court and government broke forth at last, and a +movement, headed by Admiral Topete and the fleet at Cadiz, in 1868 +overthrew the Government, forced Isabella to fly, and declared the +Bourbons incapable of ruling in Spain.</p> + +<p>On the abdication of Isabella II. in favour of her son, and her +retirement into France, a provisional government was formed with +Serrano, Topete, and Prim as chief members, to hold the reins of power +until Cortés should elect a new sovereign. The choice proved far more +difficult than was expected. Topete and others favoured the claims of +the Duc de Montpensier, the brother-in-law of the late queen, but the +objection to any of the Bourbon family was at that time too strong; +others desired to seize the opportunity of uniting Spain and Portugal +under one head by electing a member of the Portuguese royal family; but +this was rejected by the princes of Portugal. Two years were spent in +these debates, but at last the choice of Prim prevailed, and<a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a> Amadeo, +the second son of Victor Emmanuel II. of Italy, was elected sovereign, +16th November, 1870. The murder of his chief supporter, Prim, before he +reached Madrid, deprived him of the only support which might have +consolidated his dynasty. Had it not been for the deeply-rooted dislike +of all Spaniards to a foreign ruler, Amadeo would have proved by far the +best sovereign that had sat upon the throne for many generations. He +honestly respected the constitution. His court was pure and incorrupt. +He was intelligently devoted to the best interests of Spain; but he +found all his efforts at improvement and reform utterly thwarted by the +intrigues of the nobility and of the upper <i>employés</i> of every kind, and +after a trial of two years he resigned a post which he could no longer +maintain with true dignity and self-respect, and retired to Portugal, +February 11th, 1873. Thereupon a republic was proclaimed by Cortés, with +Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall as chief ministers. But the events +of the last few years, the weakening of the central authority, the +attention which the Carlist rising in the north had drawn to the ancient +"<i>fueros</i>" or constitutional privileges of Spain, on the one side, and +the incidents of the war with the Paris Commune in France, together with +the influence of those of the communists who had found refuge in the +industrial cities of the east and south, on the other, produced constant +revolts in<a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a> favour of a federal or cantonalist government of the +separate provinces. On July 15th, 1873, Don Carlos (Carlos VII.) the +grandson of the Don Carlos (Carlos V.) of the seven years' war, although +both his uncles and his father had solemnly renounced their rights to +the throne, re-entered the Basque Provinces, from which he had been +quickly driven by General Moriones at Oroquieta in a former attempt, and +raised the standard of legitimacy and divine right. On the other hand, +one after the other, Alcoy, Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, and, a few months +later, Cartagena and Valencia, revolted in a communistic or cantonalist +conspiracy which threatened the dismemberment of Spain, and the +destruction of her armaments. It was only after severe fighting, which +strained the resources of the Government to the utmost, that these +cities were subdued. Meanwhile Don Carlos had established himself firmly +in the Basque Provinces, and his brother Alfonso headed considerable +forces in Aragon and Catalonia. Fortunately Barcelona held aloof from +the cantonalist and <i>intransigente</i> movement of Cartagena and Valencia.</p> + +<p>These events, however, had shown the necessity of tightening the reins +of discipline in the army. Salmeron, who was now at the head of the +ministry, exerted himself to restore order, and endeavoured to work the +republic in a conservative sense. A year or two after, at the +instigation of Castelar, the<a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a> penalty of death for mutiny was again +enforced. After Moriones and Serrano in the north had both failed in +their attempts to raise the seige of Bilbao, Concha at last succeeded, +May 2, 1874; and Martinez Campos, who had crushed the insurrection in +Valencia, was making way against the Carlists in Aragon and Catalonia. +Between these generals, with Pavia and others, a conspiracy was formed +to restore the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII., son of Isabella. +Serrano offered only a doubtful resistance, and Castelar, opposed by the +<i>intransigente</i> party, found himself almost alone in upholding a +conservative republic. The death of Concha, before Estella, in Navarre, +June 27, 1874, delayed for some months the proclamation of Alphonso, but +at length it took place, on December 30, 1874, and the republic fell +without a struggle. Alphonso XII. landed at Barcelona in the first days +of 1875, and entered Madrid on January 14th. In spite of some checks, +caused by the incapacity of his generals, his power was quickly +augmented. Many who, through hatred of the republic and of the +cantonalist excesses, had joined the Carlist ranks, abandoned the cause +when monarchy was restored. Don Carlos had proved to be as incapable as +his grandfather had been, and much less reputable in his private life. +By the end of August, Martinez Campos had taken Urgel, in Catalonia, and +by the close of the year he was free to assist Quesada in<a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a> the Basque +Provinces. The united armies were successful, and on February 28, 1876, +Don Carlos entered France, leaving his followers and the Basque +Provinces entirely at the mercy of the conquerors. The consequence to +them has been the partial loss of their <i>fueros</i>, the incorporation of +the Basque conscripts with the rest of the army, and the annexation of +the provinces for the first time to the crown of Spain.</p> + +<p>With Alphonso XII. entered Spain, as his chief adviser, Cánovas del +Castillo. Whether nominally prime minister, or out of office, he has +really held the reins of power—with the exception of the nine months' +ministry of Martinez Campos in 1879—from 1875 to February, 1881. On the +whole his exertions have been beneficial to Spain. By an arrangement +dated January 1, 1877, and by lowering the rate of interest, he saved +the public credit, which was on the verge of utter bankruptcy. +Insensibly he has detached himself from the progressive liberal +movement, and his rule has become more and more conservative. The decree +for toleration of religion, passed in the first months of the republic +of 1868, has been greatly modified, and interpreted in a sense more and +more unfavourable to religious freedom: But he has not succeeded in +breaking down the many abuses of the administration, or in putting an +end to the corruption of the upper <i>employés</i>, or in insuring freedom +and<a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a> purity of parliamentary election; and until this is effected the +future of Spain must still be doubtful.</p> + +<h4><i>Present Constitution and Administration of Spain.</i></h4> + +<p>It would be tedious and little instructive to our readers to detail the +various constitutions under which Spain has been governed since 1812. We +will give a sketch, as far as we are able, of the last only. By a +comparison of this with the constitution of Cadiz, it will be seen that, +in spite of all reactions, Spain has really progressed in the way of +freedom and good government.</p> + +<p>The constitution of the Spanish monarchy, June 30, 1876, declares +Alphonso XII. de Bourbon to be the legitimate King of Spain. His person +is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and all his orders +must be countersigned by a minister. The legislative power resides in +the Cortés with the king. The Cortés is composed of two legislative +bodies, equal in power—the Senate and the Congress of Deputies.</p> + +<p>The Senate is composed (1) of senators by their own right, who are—sons +of the kings, grandees of Spain with 3000<i>l.</i> yearly income, the +Captain-General of the Forces, the Admiral-in-Chief, the Patriarch of +the Indies, the Archbishops, the Presidents of the Council of State, of +the Supreme Tribunal, of the National Accounts, of the Council of War, +and of Marine, after two years' service;<a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a> (2) of life senators, named by +the crown; (3) of senators elected by the corporations of the State, or +the richest citizens—half of these must be renewed every five years. +All senators must be thirty-five years of age, and the number of classes +(1) and (2) together must not exceed that of the elected senators, which +is fixed at 180.</p> + +<p>The Congress of Deputies is returned by the electoral Juntas, one deputy +being elected for every 50,000 souls. Deputies are elected by universal +suffrage, and for a period of five years. The Congress meets every year +at the summons of the king, who has power to suspend or close the +session; but in the latter case, a new Congress must meet within three +months. The president and vice-presidents of the Senate are nominated by +the king, those of the Congress are elected from its own body. The +initiation of the laws belongs to the king, and to both legislative +bodies; but the budget, and all financial matters, must be first +presented every year to the Congress of Deputies. No one can be +compelled to pay any tax not voted by Congress, or by the legally +appointed corporations. The sittings are public, and the person of +deputies is inviolable. Ministers may be impeached by the deputies, but +are judged by the Senate.</p> + +<p>Justice is administered in the king's name, and judges and magistrates +are immovable.<a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a></p> + +<p>The provinces are administered (1) by a governor, who, with his +immediate subordinates, is nominated by the Government; (2) by a +Provincial Deputation, elected by the householders of the province. All +members must be natives of, or residents in, the province; their number +varies according to the population. (3) Five members elected from the +Provincial Deputation form a Provincial Commission to conduct business +when the deputation is not sitting. These authorities and bodies answer +nearly to the prefects and general councils of the French departments. +They are of much greater political importance in those provinces which +have preserved some of their ancient rights than in others.</p> + +<p>Below the provincial are the municipal authorities, the Alcaldes +(mayors), Ayuntamientos (municipal councils), and the Juntas +Municipales. The internal administration of every parish is entrusted to +an Ayuntamiento or municipal council, elected by the residents, and +composed of the Alcalde or mayor, the Tenientes or assistants, the +Regidores or councillors. The Junta Municipal is composed of all the +councillors of the Ayuntamiento, and an assembly of three times their +number, and by them the municipal accounts are to be audited and +revised. The number of the Ayuntamiento varies according to the +population; one Alcalde, one Teniente, six Regidores, for 1000; and one +Alcalde,<a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a> ten Tenientes, thirty-three Regidores, for 100,000. The real +independence and free action of these bodies varies much in different +provinces and in different circumstances. The smaller bodies are quite +under the thumb of the central government; the larger ones in the great +towns and in the more independent provinces are much less easily +influenced.</p> + +<p>The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman is declared to be the religion of the +State, and the nation is bound to maintain its worship and its +ministers. "But no one shall be molested on Spanish ground for his +religious opinions, nor for the exercise of his respective worship, +except it be against Christian morals. Nevertheless, no other ceremonies +or public manifestations shall be permitted than those of the religion +of the State." These last two articles are evidently equivocal, and +subject to great diversity of interpretation and of application.</p> + +<p>All foreigners are free to settle in Spanish territory, and to exercise +therein their respective trades and professions, with the exception of +those which require special titles. The expression of opinion, the +press, the right of public meeting, of association, and of petition, +except from armed bodies, are respectively free. No Spaniard or +foreigner can be arrested or detained illegally. He must either be set +at liberty or be brought before a judge within twenty-four hours of his +arrest. No<a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a> Spaniard can be arrested without a judge's warrant, and the +case must then be heard within seventy-two hours after his arrest; +otherwise he must be set at liberty on his own petition or on that of +any other Spaniard. Domicile is inviolable. Such are the principal +articles of the present Spanish Constitution. In spite of the excess of +some republican governments and the reaction of others, real progress +has been made, excepting only in the equivocal law on religion, and that +on marriages between Catholics and Protestants.</p> + +<h4><i>Administrative Spain.</i></h4> + +<p>For military purposes, Spain is mapped out into five "capitanias +generales," conferring the rank of field-marshal on the possessors of +that office. The number of marshals, generals, and superior officers of +the special corps in active service is over 500. The number of the army +on a peace footing is fixed at 90,000, the infantry numbering 60,000, +the cavalry 16,000, artillery 10,000, and engineers 4000. Universal +conscription is nominally obligatory, but with the power of purchasing a +substitute for a fixed sum of 80<i>l.</i> The time of service is eight years, +four of which are spent in the active army and four in the reserve. In +the colonies the time is four years only, the whole of which must be +spent in active service. Besides the regular army in Spain are the corps +and garrisons<a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a> in the Philippine Islands, in Porto Rico, and in Cuba, +where the mortality is so great that the troops need constant renewal. +In addition to the above must be reckoned the militia of the Canary +Islands, the "guardias civiles," a kind of constabulary like that of +Ireland or the gendarmerie of France. These are about 15,000 men, and +are some of the best and most trustworthy troops in Spain; the +carabineros or custom-house officers, who guard the frontiers, form +another corps of about 12,000. Towards the close of the late Carlist and +Cuban wars the actual army was far above these numbers, and it is +probable that 150,000 men were under arms on the side of the Government +in the Basque Provinces alone. The Spanish soldier is one of the best in +Europe, if properly commanded. He is sober, and has great powers of +endurance; is an excellent marcher, and a trustworthy sentinel; +persistent both in attack and defence, he still retains the steadiness +of the old Spanish "tercios," which were once the terror and admiration +of Europe. The Basques under Zumalacarrégui in the first Carlist war, +and the Catalans under Martinez Campos in the last, earned high praise +from all foreign officers who saw them. But too often these fine +qualities of the private have been rendered of no avail, owing to the +utter want of skill and competency in the officers and commanders, and +still more by reckless<a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a> corruption and mismanagement in all things +relating to the commissariat and supplies. Another element of +deterioration has been the use of the soldiery as mere tools of +political intrigue in the frequent revolts and <i>pronunciamientos</i> of +ambitious generals. The scientific corps, however, the artillery and +engineers, have always stood aloof from sedition. It was an attempt to +corrupt the former and to assimilate it in this respect to the rest of +the army, which led to the abdication of King Amadeo. The generals who +have achieved the greatest reputation in the Spanish army are Quesada +and Martinez Campos. Moriones, who distinguished himself in the Basque +Provinces during the last Carlist war, has lately died. Blanco and +Jovellar acquired distinction in Cuba, and Loma as a good brigadier in +the Carlist war. Serrano, Pavia, and others are better known in the +field of politics than in that of military action.</p> + +<p>For naval purposes the coast of Spain is divided into three +departments—Ferrol, Cadiz, and Cartagena, at each of which ports is a +naval arsenal. The jurisdiction of the marine extends as far as the tide +and seventy feet beyond. The three departments, are divided into +<i>tercios navales</i>, <i>partidos maritimos</i>, and districts. The Spanish navy +consists of 121 ships, five of which are armoured vessels of the first +class, and eleven unarmoured; eighteen belong to the second class, and +fifty-six to the<a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a> third, some of which are monitors and armoured +gunboats. There are also thirty-one smaller vessels, and a few ships +employed for training and for harbour services. The whole fleet mounts +525 guns, and is over 20,000 horse-power. The sailors number 14,000, +with 504 officers of all ranks, and the marine infantry 7000, with 374 +officers. The old fame of Spanish ship-building, except for small +vessels, has almost entirely passed away. In the great war at the +beginning of the century, the finest vessels of our navy were prizes +taken from Spain. Spanish navigators, too, have long lost their old +renown, though the Basques are still esteemed as mariners. The ironclad +frigates and monitors of modern Spain have been almost all constructed +in foreign dockyards. The armoured gunboats, however, built in Spain are +a good and useful model.</p> + +<p>The merchant marine consists of 226 ocean-going steamers and 1578 ocean +sailing-vessels measuring altogether 460,000 tons. Smaller vessels make +up a total of 3000 merchant-ships, less than one-fifth of the number of +those of Great Britain.</p> + +<p>For the administration of justice the country is divided into Audiencias +Territoriales, Provincias, and Partidos Judiciales. The Audiencias, or +courts of appeal, are fifteen, with 373 judges or procureurs. There are +also 500 judges of first instance,<a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a> and there is also a justice of peace +or alcalde in each town or municipality. All pleadings are still +conducted in writing in Spain; there is no verbal examination or +cross-examination in public. Suits both civil and criminal are thus +dragged out to an inordinate length. Judges are still suspected of being +open to bribery, and confidence in the just administration of the law is +as a consequence severely shaken. It is not uncommon for witnesses to be +summoned to testify to facts which happened many years before, and it +not unfrequently happens that either the principal witnesses or the +criminal himself is dead before the case is decided. As a conspicuous +instance, we may remind our readers that General Prim was assassinated +in open day in Madrid in 1870, and the case has not yet been adjudged. +The discipline of the prisons is in general extremely lax, and many +crimes, especially forgeries, are there concocted with impunity. There +is, however, a great difference in the treatment of the prisoners in +different prisons. Up to 1840 the office of Alcaide, or governor of a +prison, was sold by the Government to the highest bidder, and the +purchasers made the most they could out of the wretched prisoners by +starving them or by accepting bribes for illicit indulgences, and for +furnishing what they were bound to provide, so that it was commonly said +"that the <i>bagnios</i> of Algiers were less terrible than the<a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a> prisons of +Spain." Perhaps the worst of them all, up to the year 1833, was the old +prison of the city of Madrid, one dark dungeon of which was termed "El +Infierno"—Hell. Almost as bad was the Prison de Corté and the famous +Saladero. There was no classification, no cleanliness, and in some of +the cells neither light nor ventilation. In some of the country prisons +the cells were like the dens of a menagerie, and the starving prisoners +thrust their hands through the bars to beg food of passers-by. At last +has arisen an ardent band of philanthropists, of whom Senors Lastres and +Vilalva are at the head, and the first stone of a new prison in Madrid, +arranged on modern principles, was laid by the king in February, 1877.</p> + +<p>Hospitals, lunatic asylums, and asylums for the sick and aged poor, and +other charitable establishments are of very varied descriptions in +Spain. Some of them, like the famous establishments of Cadiz, Seville, +Madrid, Cartagena, Valencia, and Cordova, are admirably managed, and +yield in practical benefit to none of other lands. The first lunatic +asylum ever founded was that at Valencia by Padre Jofre Gilanext, in +1409; three others, at Saragossa, Toledo, and Seville were founded in +the fifteenth century. That of Barcelona is said to be now the best +public lunatic asylum in Spain. Many others are nearly as good, while +one or two of the private asylums near Madrid are excellent;<a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a> but in +some provinces these establishments, both public and private, are still +in a very wretched state.</p> + +<p>Since 1848 there have been a little over 4000 miles of railway laid down +in Spain. The principal lines are the two which run from the extreme +ends of the French Pyrenees to the capital, connecting Spain with the +great European communications. Next in importance are those from the +Mediterranean ports Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena, to Madrid; Malaga and +Granada are connected with the metropolis by the line from Cadiz. A +rather circuitous route by Badajoz, Ciudad Real, and Toledo is the only +line at present open to Lisbon, but a more direct one is in course of +construction. The communications with the extreme north-west are not yet +completed, but the branch of the Great Northern Company from Santander, +which brings the products of the Asturian coal-fields to Madrid, is of +great importance. Other valuable lines are those of the valley of the +Ebro, from Miranda del Ebro by Saragossa to Barcelona. Should any of the +schemes projected for a direct route from Paris to Madrid, by any of the +central passes of the Pyrenees, through Saragossa, be carried into +effect, the line from the latter place to Madrid will be one of +considerable traffic. The coast-line from Barcelona to Valencia is of +great value to one of the richest wine and fruit districts of Spain. +Shorter<a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a> lines, which may have a considerable influence on the welfare +of the country, are those which connect the great mineral fields with +the chief lines of transport or with the nearest port. It has been +remarked that hitherto, with some exceptions, Spanish railways have had +less influence in developing local traffic than those of any other +European country. The Great Northern lines, too, have suffered seriously +from interruptions caused by civil war, by floods, and other accidents +since 1868.</p> + +<p>The total length of the telegraph lines is nearly 10,000 miles. The +number of public offices is 324, of private, 12; the telegrams +despatched amounted in 1877 to 2,023,579, of which about half were +private despatches for the interior. The expenses of working were +165,076<i>l.</i>, and the receipts 156,950<i>l.</i>, leaving a deficit of 8126<i>l.</i></p> + +<p>The number of post-offices in 1877 was 2530, of letters 78,446,000; +postal cards, 1,040,000; newspapers, 38,479,000; books and samples, +5,767,000. To Great Britain were despatched, in 1879: Letters and postal +cards, 1,083,000; books, &c., 317,900; total, 1,400,900. From Great +Britain: Letters and postal cards, 931,100; books, &c., 646,100; total, +1,577,200. The receipts from the post-office in 1877 were 361,704<i>l.</i>, +while the expenditure was 297,412<i>l.</i>, leaving a surplus of 64,292<i>l.</i><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a></p> + +<h4><i>The Finances of Spain.</i></h4> + +<p>The most prominent circumstance in the financial condition of Spain is +the startling increase of the public debt since the revolution of 1868. +The capital of the debt was then 212,443,600<i>l.</i>, the interest of which +was 5,580,000<i>l.</i> The funds, three per cents, were then at 33. In 1880 +the capital of the debt amounted to 515,000,000<i>l.</i> Since 1870, by abuse +of credit, the interest of the debt had been paid from the capital; then +one-third of the interest was paid in paper, with a promise to pay the +remaining two-thirds in coin; this engagement was soon broken, but the +paper was punctually paid until 1874, when the interest of the debt was +erased from the budget. In face of the evident bankruptcy of the +country, an arrangement was made in 1876 between the Government and the +principal foreign fund-holders, by which, from January 1, 1877, to June +30, 1881, inclusive, the interest to be paid on the three per cents was +reduced to one per cent., and that on the six per cents to two per cent. +From June 30, 1881, to June 30, 1882, one and a quarter per cent. will +be paid, and arrangements as to future payments are to be made before +the last-mentioned date, and a return to a full interest of three and +six per cent. is to follow at fixed periods. The success of the scheme +is shown by the fact that in 1876 the three per cents, still nominally<a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a> +paying three per cent. interest, were at 11½; in January, 1881, +paying only one per cent. interest, they were quoted at 22; and the six +per cents, paying only two per cent. interest, were at 42.</p> + +<p>From the above statement we may gather some idea of what the civil wars +of the republic, the cantonal, Carlist, and Cuban insurrections, joined +to the expensive experiments of well-intentioned but inexperienced +financiers, in remitting taxes while the public burdens were increasing, +have cost the nation. A calm observer, Mr. Phipps, in his official +report to the British Government, calculates that from 1868 to 1876 the +addition to the debt from these causes amounted to at least +260,000,000<i>l.</i>, considerably more than the total debt of Spain in 1868.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the plausible balance-sheets annually submitted to +Congress, the revenue and expenditure of Spain are still far from being +in a satisfactory condition. The writer above quoted states that +"enormous deficits in the budgets (however nominally balanced) have been +the invariable rule in Spain during a long course of years, under every +sort of <i>régime</i> and under all circumstances." In the last budget, +1879-80, the revenue is stated at 32,494,552<i>l.</i>, and the expenditure at +33,129,484<i>l.</i> Supposing these figures to be correct, the deficit, +634,932<i>l.</i>, would be far less than for many years past.<a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a></p> + +<p>The principal sources of Spanish revenue are, in round numbers:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Direct Taxes</td><td align="right">£10,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Indirect ditto</td><td align="right">5,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Customs</td><td align="right">4,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Stamps and Government Monopolies</td><td align="right">9,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">National Property</td><td align="right">1,750,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Miscellaneous.</td><td align="right">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right" +style="border-top:1px solid black;">£32,250,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of these the items most foreign to an Englishman's notion of taxation +are the produce of the seven great tobacco factories, Seville, Madrid, +Santander, Gijon, Corunna, Valencia, and Alicante, of which the net +revenue is over 2,500,000<i>l.</i>, the lotteries, which bring in +5000,000<i>l.</i> net, the consumo tax, a kind of octroi, and the territorial +tax, which together furnish the largest contribution to the revenue. The +national property comprises the Almaden quicksilver-mines, valued at +over 250,000<i>l.</i> per annum, the Linares mines, leased at 20,000<i>l.</i>, and +other sources about 30,000<i>l.</i> annually.</p> + +<p>The heaviest item in the expenditure is the interest on the national +debt, over 11,500,000<i>l.</i>; the ministry of war and the navy exceeds +6,000,000<i>l.</i>, while pensions absorb 1,750,000<i>l.</i>, public works over +3,000,000<i>l.</i>, finance over 5,000,000<i>l.</i>, administration of justice +more than 2,000,000<i>l.</i>; the ministry of<a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a> the interior, Cortés, the +civil list, &c., make up the remainder.</p> + +<p>The total imports and exports of Spain were:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">Imports.</td><td align="center">Exports.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">In 1877,</td><td align="right">£16,340,672</td><td align="right">£18,175,140</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">In 1878,</td><td align="right">15,910,016</td><td align="right">17,172,596</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">In 1879,</td><td align="right">17,730,756</td><td align="right">20,155,964</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>But of this increased prosperity far more than her share has fallen to +France, owing chiefly to its being put in the same category with +Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Austria, as <i>most favoured</i> nations, who +import their goods under the customs tariff of July 17, 1877, while +England and the United States continue-under the old tariff, as +<i>favoured</i> nations only. This disproportion will probably be still more +marked, owing to the immense importation of Spanish wines into France +required to make up for losses by the phylloxera disease; while the +exportation of sherry to England has been gradually lessening for some +years, and now we take only some 4 per cent, of the quantity, and 12 per +cent in value, of the wine exported from Spain. One of our chief imports +into Spain, coal, is likely also to diminish, owing to the development +of the native coal-fields in the Asturias and in Andalusia. Our other +chief exports from Spain in fruits and minerals largely increase. The +present wine tariff of England, by which she virtually refuses to<a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a> +purchase the bulk of Spanish wines in their natural state, while +importing them largely when mixed with inferior French white wines, and +treated as clarets, &c., is felt by Spaniards to be so unfair that, +until this system is modified there is little hope of obtaining a better +tariff for English manufactures; while the making Gibraltar an immense +depôt for a contraband trade is a wrong that rankles in the mind of all +southern Spaniards. The decline of the English import trade into Spain +would be much more marked but for the immense amount of English capital +employed in the larger mining and industrial enterprises.</p> + +<p>The battle between protection and free trade is not yet fought out in +Spain. The manufacturing districts of Catalonia and the east coast +clamour loudly for protection, while the mining and agricultural and +wine-growing interests demand free trade. It is impossible to say on +which side the balance may turn. A conservative Government would +probably favour the former, while a liberal ministry might venture upon +the latter system.</p> + +<p>Heavy as the public debt of Spain undoubtedly is, and serious as are the +charges imposed upon her by the still unsettled political condition of +the country and of its principal colony—Cuba, she might more than pay +the interest of her debts at the present rate of interest, and balance +the expenditure, but for the administrative corruption<a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a> and utter want +of political morality, the fruit of long years of financial abuses, and +which has become almost a fixed habit amongst all classes of the +inhabitants. The Government seems to be a mark for fraud to every class, +from millionaire bankers and the largest landed proprietors down to the +ill-paid <i>employé</i> who ekes out his scanty salary by accepting petty +bribes, and the labourer or fisherman on the frontier who never misses +the occasion of smuggling. It is easy to prove the truth of these +assertions. In 1877, in an official report, Mr. Phipps writes: "A few +English, French, and Spanish bankers advance money to Spain, with safe +security, on conditions as disastrous to the treasury as they are +discreditable to themselves." The territorial tax, which forms +one-fourth of the whole internal revenue is notoriously levied on only +54 per cent, of the whole area of the country. In some provinces not +two-thirds of the whole is returned at all, and much land that is +productive is returned as uncultivated. From the extent of the +contraband trade and the corruption of the custom-house officers, the +amount levied on imports and exports can hardly be above two-thirds of +their proper value. In fact, what Spain needs above everything at +present is an honest and impartial administration. The causes of her +poverty lie not so much in bad laws or a faulty constitution, but in a +corrupt and negligent administration. The system of empleomania, +whereby<a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a> nearly every ill-paid <i>employé</i> is almost forced to pillage, +the preference of this ill-paid idleness and of professional poverty to +honest toil in trade or agriculture—these are the true foes to the +prosperity of Spain. For party and political purposes, taxes are relaxed +for those who should bear their equal share of the burden, only to fall +with crushing weight on the honest workers, unconnected with, or who +refuse to bribe the administration.<a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /><br /> +<small>EDUCATION AND RELIGION.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">T<small>HE</small> fame of the Spanish universities has greatly fallen from what it was +in the early Middle Ages, when Salamanca ranked with Bologna, Paris, and +Oxford, as one of the four great universities in Europe; when its halls +were thronged with thousands of eager though needy scholars, and it was +the centre whence Semitic learning and civilization spread to the rest +of Europe. Even in a later day, in the sixteenth century, under the +patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, the university of Alcala de Henares +(Complutum) flashed into sudden fame as one of the great offshoots of +the Renaissance, with its 7800 students, and its noble production of the +first great Polyglot Bible since primitive times. In the eighteenth +century, however, this learning had all but disappeared from Spain, and +the education given in its universities was all but worthless. Little +was effected towards any true revival or improvement until 1845, though +something had been<a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a> attempted before this in secondary education by the +successive reforms of 1771, 1807, and especially of 1824 and 1836.</p> + +<p>The universities of Spain are now ten: Madrid, with 6672 students; +Barcelona with 2459; Valencia, 2118; Seville, 1382; Granada, 1225; +Valladolid, 880; Santiago de Compostella, 779; Saragossa, 771; +Salamanca, 372; and Oviedo with 216: making a total of 16,874 university +students. The number of regular professors is 415, with 240 +supernumeraries and assistants, making a total of 655; that is, one +professor to every 26 students. The salary of the professors varies from +120<i>l.</i> to 260<i>l.</i> per annum, except in Madrid, where it is from 160<i>l.</i> +to 300<i>l.</i> The budget of the whole universities is a little over +1,000,000<i>l.</i>, and the expenditure slightly in excess, leaving a deficit +in 1879 of 4600<i>l.</i>. The average cost of each student to the university +is a little over 6<i>l.</i>.</p> + +<p>Though the above institutions are all classed as universities by the +State, yet the course of instruction is by no means the same in all. At +Madrid alone the whole programme of university education is followed +out. This comprises the faculties of civil, canon, and administrative +law, of philosophy and literature, of science, of medicine, and of +pharmacy. Since 1868 theology is no longer studied in the universities, +but in the seminaries, of which there is one in each diocese, under the<a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a> +direction of the bishop. The total number of pupils studying in these +institutions is 8562. At Valladolid are two theological colleges for +English, Scotch, and Irish students, established, one at the close of +the sixteenth, the other by the Jesuits at the close of the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>Law is studied in all the Spanish universities, and medicine in all but +one—Oviedo; Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, and Compostella have faculties +of pharmacy, under which head a certain amount of natural science is +taught; of the exact sciences there are chairs only at Madrid, +Barcelona, and Salamanca; philosophy and literature are studied in +Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Salamanca, Seville, and Saragossa. In +Oviedo, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, only the first year's or +preparatory course of law is read, this consists of Latin, general +literature, and universal history.</p> + +<p>Besides these State universities, there are several institutions +supported by the provincial deputations; for instance, there is a +faculty of medicine in Seville supported by the province, another in +Salamanca at the joint expense of the province and of the municipality. +In addition to these there are technical schools for the study of +special branches of industry or of administration, such as those of +roads, canals, and harbours, of mines, and of forests, in Madrid and +Villa Viciosa. A school of industrial engineering, and of the +application of<a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a> chemistry and mechanics, is working at Barcelona. There +are technical schools of commerce at Madrid and at Barcelona. Schools or +colleges of veterinary science are to be found in Madrid, Saragossa, +Cordova, and Leon. Naval schools are established in Santa Cruz +(Teneriffe), in Palma (Majorca), in Masnou (Barcelona), in San +Sebastian, supported by the funds of the provinces; there is also one at +Gijon, in the Asturias, founded by Jovellanos; two other private +foundations also exist at Lequeito and Santurce in Biscay. In Madrid +there is a special school of architecture, and also one of painting, +sculpture, and engraving. Excellent schools of the fine arts exist in +Barcelona, Cadiz, Corunna, Granada, Malaga, Oviedo, Seville, Valencia, +Valladolid, Saragossa, and at Palma in the Balearic Isles; this last is +remarkable for the number of its pupils and its generally flourishing +condition.</p> + +<p>In each of the forty-nine provinces of Spain are institutions of +superior or secondary education. With the exception of the institutes of +Cardinal Cisneros and of San Isidro at Madrid, which depend on the +Government, and which hold the first and third rank as to the number of +their pupils, these institutions are supported by the funds of the +provinces or municipalities, but the professors are nominated by the +Government; besides those in the capital of each province, there are +also 11 others in various large towns in Spain. There are<a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a> also 356 +colleges of secondary education affiliated to the institutes, 58 of +which are under religious corporations, making a total of 417 +establishments of secondary education, with 2730 professors who have all +taken degrees in science or literature.</p> + +<p>The institutes give instruction to 14,872 pupils, and the colleges to +almost the same number, 14,290; home or private education absorbs 4476; +making a total in 1880 of 33,638; more than three times the number in +1848, and, including the episcopal seminaries, giving one pupil to every +398 inhabitants. All these pupils are admitted to the official +examinations, and take their degrees equally on passing them. It is +found that 13 per cent of the candidates are rejected at the +examinations, 43.8 per cent. simply pass, and 43.1 gain honours of +various kinds; while 9 per cent. take the degree of Bachelor from the +colleges, and 37.2 proceed to take it from the universities.</p> + +<p>The salary of the masters is from 120<i>l.</i> to 180<i>l.</i> (except in Madrid +where it is from 160<i>l.</i> to 220<i>l.</i>), with a right to a portion of the +fees for matriculation and degrees. The supernumerary masters receive +60<i>l.</i> in Madrid and 40<i>l.</i> in the provinces; auxiliary masters are +unpaid. Pensions of 20<i>l.</i> are sometimes given to poor but distinguished +pupils. The cost of all the institutes is 118,935<i>l.</i>, the income, +44,818<i>l.</i>, leaving a deficit of 74,117<i>l.</i> to be supplied either by the +State, the provinces, or the municipalities.</p> + +<p>The course of instruction is two-fold, general and<a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a> special. The general +comprises: Spanish and Latin grammar, two courses; rhetoric and poetry, +geography, history of Spain, universal history, psychology, logic and +ethics, arithmetic and algebra, geometry and trigonometry, physics and +the elements of chemistry, natural history, physiology and hygiene, and +elementary agriculture. The special courses are those of agriculture, +the fine arts, manufactures and commerce.</p> + +<p>Of public schools of primary instruction there are about 23,000 of all +grades and classes, 1308 are infant schools and 1400 are for male and +100 for female adults.</p> + +<p>The great drawback in the higher education of Spain is the +disproportionate number of students in law, medicine, or pharmacy, in +comparison with the few who cultivate the special branches of +agriculture, industrial or commercial science. Hence the former +professions are overstocked, with results productive of far-reaching +evils to the country and to the administration. Notwithstanding its far +inferior population the number of students in Spain who take their +degrees in law and medicine is almost treble that of France and of +Germany, while the total of degrees conferred in all the faculties of +Spain is equal to that of France, which has double the population. +Nothing more plainly shows the character of the people, and the mischief +of "<i>empleomania</i>" than such a fact in a country whose<a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a> natural riches +in agriculture and mining are so great and so little developed, where +there is so large a field for industrial enterprises of many kinds, and +where the fruits of all these are at present almost wholly reaped by +foreigners.</p> + +<p>The primary education of Spain, though nominally everywhere alike, is +really so very varied as to defy any average description. A few of her +infant schools are equal to the best of those of other countries. Where +the provincial deputations or the municipalities take an interest in +education the primary schools are very fair, but in other parts the +education is little more than nominal, and the schoolmaster's +appointment is well-nigh a sinecure both in pay and labour; and probably +at the present moment, notwithstanding the great improvements of late +years, two-thirds of the people can still neither read nor write.</p> + +<h4><i>Church and Religion.</i></h4> + +<p>From the time of the Œcumenical Council of Nicea, <small>A.D.</small> 325, with the +brief exception of the reigns of the Arian Visigoth kings, Spain has +been the champion of orthodoxy in religion. From early times too the +demarcation between Church and State has been less marked, or rather the +influence of the former over the latter has been more constant and more +powerful, than in perhaps any other European kingdom. The great councils +of<a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a> Toledo were scarcely more ecclesiastical than civil assemblies. The +recognition of the sovereign, the order of succession, the validity of +the laws, were either settled or sanctioned therein. Later, in the great +struggle with the Moors, through the antagonism of exclusive beliefs, +the war assumed the character of a religious crusade. The semi-monastic +Spanish military orders, the preaching of the monks, the sanction and +the bulls of the Popes—auxiliaries which the kings of Spain were forced +to summon to their aid—gave a complexion to the conquest and to the +national character quite different to what might have been the case had +the contest been fought out by the sovereign, the lay warriors, and the +civil power alone. Thus the triumph of the Christian over the Moor +became in some sort also the triumph of the Roman over the national +Spanish Church. The Mozarabic liturgy gave way to that of Rome. The +peculiar institution of the inquisition, following on that of the Santa +Hermandad in civil matters, developed in Spain a degree of power to +which it never attained in other lands. The certainty and the secrecy of +its proceedings, the mingled pomp and horror of its "autos de fe," the +whispers and the shudder with which men told of the tortures of its +hidden processes, deeply impressed and captivated the imagination of a +people singularly greedy of, and susceptible to, strong and vivid +emotions. The chivalrous respect for women,<a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a> heightened by the reserve +and half-seclusion which the Spanish knights had learned from the Moors, +was transformed in the sphere of religion into an almost ardent passion +of devotion to the Blessed Virgin. Centuries before the doctrine of the +Immaculate Conception was proclaimed by Pius IX. the cry of the Spanish +beggar heard at every door throughout her vast dominions was, "Ave Maria +purisima, sin pecádo concebida." Spain had been the champion of +Christendom against the Jews and against the Moors; she had without +remorse violated every compact she had sworn with the latter, and she +became equally the champion of Roman Catholicism against the +Reformation. Though Philip II. failed in his great armed struggle with +the northern powers, and wasted and destroyed therein all the real +resources of Spain, yet Spanish theologians were among the most eloquent +and the most learned in the Council of Trent; and it was the Jesuits of +Spain who headed the reaction of the seventeenth century, and who won +back all but the Teutonic and Scandinavian races to the allegiance of +Rome. This glory of Catholicism is never absent from the heart of a +Spaniard. His whole literature is steeped in it; it inspires Spain's +greatest painters. It is this deep but unconscious feeling that +Protestanism is un-Spanish which is the real stronghold of Catholicism +in Spain, and which, in spite of spoliation and political subjection, +still gives the clerical party there a<a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a> greater power than they possess +in other countries. Yet the few Spaniards who embraced the reformed +doctrines in the sixteenth century were not inferior<a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a> to those of other +lands in earnestness, in learning, in eloquence, or in high position, +both in Church and State. There was just a moment when the court of +Charles V. hovered on the verge of protest against Rome. When, as before +related, the liberties of Spain fell beneath the iron rule of the +Austrian sovereigns, it was the Church, by the hand of one of its +greatest ornaments, Cardinal Ximenes, which became the willing +instrument of despotism. In return for the servility of the court, and +the presence and the sanction of the sovereign at the "autos," the +inquisition lent its aid to the monarchy, and its assistance was called +in to suppress the trade in horses, so senselessly forbidden, on the +northern frontier. In the seventeenth century, however, the Spanish +court fell under the influence of the French encyclopædists. The Jesuits +were banished in 1767. We need not detail again the various vicissitudes +of the abolition and re-establishment of the inquisition, of the +suppression of tithes, of the sale of Church property, the destruction +of the monasteries, and the exile of the monks, the effects of which +have been sufficiently indicated above.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a href="images/ill190.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill190_thumb.jpg" width="415" height="550" alt="VESPERS." title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">VESPERS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Since the Concordat of 1851, Spain is ruled ecclesiastically by nine +archbishops; those of Toledo (the primate of all Spain), Burgos, +Saragossa, Tarragona, Valencia, Granada, Seville, Valladolid, and +Compostella, under whom are forty-six bishops, with their chapters, and +about 35,000 clergy. The<a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a> mode of episcopal appointment is this: the +king presents three names to the Pope, of which his Holiness selects +one, who is forthwith nominated to the vacant see. Since 1868, +theological education is entirely under the hands of the bishops, who +have a seminary in each diocese. The clergy are paid by the State; but +the stipends of the country priests are said to be frequently in arrear. +In some parts of Spain, as in the manufacturing towns of Barcelona, +religion has to a great extent lost its hold upon the people; in other +parts, as in the Basque Provinces, the majority are still devout. Since +1871 a reaction from extremes of scepticism and advanced socialistic +views is manifest in many of the most popular writers. A small but +increasing body of Protestants has been established since 1868; but the +vicissitudes of revolution and reaction, and the present ambiguous state +of the law have acted unfavourably on the movement. The pastors have +honourably distinguished themselves by their zeal for the education of +the classes utterly neglected by the dominant Church. On the whole, the +clerical party in Spain, considered as a political body, seems gradually +sinking into a like condition to that of France. It is powerful enough +to thwart and check the policy of its opponents, but impotent to carry +out its own measures. The extreme Ultramontane party, for whom the Comte +de Chambord is too liberal and Pope Leo XIII. too comprehensive,<a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a> has +lately adopted the banner of the Carlists. Whatever the future of Spain +may be, it is not probable that the Church will ever attain again the +political influence and the exclusive control of education which it +possessed in the past, in spite of the undoubted talents and virtues of +many of its upholders.<a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br /> +<small>LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.</small></h3> + +<p class="nind">T<small>HOUGH</small> one of the most interesting countries of Europe with regard to +architecture, Spain can lay claim to no style peculiar to itself, or +that originated wholly within the Peninsula. It contains, however, noble +specimens of art and architecture of very varied epochs and character, +from the work of the unknown sculptors who carved the so-called "toros" +of Guisando and erected the huge dolmens and other megalithic monuments +so thickly strewed over its soil, to the architects and artists of the +present day. Almost all the races which have trodden the land have left +monuments upon it—the Carthaginians, perhaps, the fewest. Scarcely +anywhere else does the solid, practical character of Roman architecture +appear more fully than in the amphitheatres, aqueducts, and especially +in the bridges of Spain. The amphitheatres, temples, and walls of +Murviedro (Saguntum), Tarragona, Toledo, Coria, Plasencia; the aqueducts +of Merida,<a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a> Seville, and Segovia; the bridges of Tuy over the Minho, of +Zamora over the Douro, Salamanca over the Tormes, of Alcantara, +Garrovillas de Alconetar, and Puente del Arzobispo over the Tagus, of +Merida and Medellin over the Guadiana, of Seville, Cordova, and Ubeda +over the Guadalquiver, and of Lerida over the Segre, are noble relics of +Roman work. Of the period when Roman art was gradually modified under +Christian influences, and the basilica was transformed into the +Christian church, very few remains exist. To the Vandal and Gothic +conquerors belong part of the walls of Toledo, and a few chapels and +small churches in the north and north-west may belong in part to this +date (417-717); but the most peculiar artistic remains of this period +are the jewellers' and goldsmiths' work, preserved in the metal crowns +and treasure of Guarrazar (624-672), of a style which, though probably +derived from the East through Byzantium, continued to influence Spanish +goldsmiths' work down to the eleventh century.</p> + +<p>The architecture and art of the race that succeeded to the Visigoths is +of much more notable character. The civil and religious architecture of +the Spanish Arabs is well worthy of most careful study, and is a grand +example of the artistic talent of a race which, though debarred by its +religious faith from the reproduction of human, or even of animal form, +and delighting neither in the scenes<a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a> of the theatre or the circus, has +yet left masterpieces of architectural beauty in lands so wide apart as +Spain, Egypt, Persia, and Hindostan. The architecture of the Arabs in +Spain may be roughly divided into three periods: The first, from the +eighth to the tenth century, tells most clearly of its origin as an +imitation or modification of the Byzantine style; its masterpiece is the +Mosque of Cordova. The second period, from the tenth to the thirteenth +centuries, shows the architects seeking their real style—it is a period +of transition; its finest erection is the Giralda of Seville. The third +period is when the Moorish style acquired its fullest development in the +glorious Alhambra, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries. +Contemporary with the last period is the Mudejar style, the modification +which Arabic art underwent in the hands of the Christian conquerors. To +this belong the Alcazar of Seville, 1353; the Mudejar gates of Toledo +and Saragossa, and the Chapel of St. James in Alcala de Henares. In +their domestic architecture the Arabs alone have almost solved the +problem how to unite ventilation and ornament by means of currents of +air of different temperatures. The pendulous stucco fretwork by which +they conceal the angles of their apartments serves not only for ornament +but to equalize the temperature and to admit of concealed openings +whereby air can penetrate without<a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a> draught or chill. The sense of true +harmony of colour seems to be an intuitional gift of Oriental races, and +is practically understood by them as it never has been by any other. The +Mosaics of Greece and Rome, and those of mediæval Italy, in their +storied designs, appeal more to the intellect; but those of Arabic art +rest and charm the eye by the purity and harmonious blending of tone as +do none other.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;"> +<a href="images/ill197.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill197_thumb.jpg" width="344" height="550" alt="GIRALDA OF SEVILLE. + +Page 197. + +" title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">GIRALDA OF SEVILLE. (Page 197.)</span> +</div> + +<p class="nind">In spite of some apparent exceptions, and those of the +earliest date, as the Mosque of Cordova (788), and the cloisters of +Tayloon at Cairo (879), Arabic architecture, like Grecian, depended for +its effect more on the exquisite symmetry and exact proportion of all +details to a consummate whole, than to impressions of awe derived from +vast size or immense solidity. It is thus that the massive Roman arch +became moulded into the light horse-shoe shape, peculiar to the Spanish +Arabs from the eighth to the tenth centuries. The originality of this +architecture is not, however, so great as appears at first sight. The +influence of Byzantine architecture and of that of the Christian +churches with which the Arabs had become acquainted during their +conquests, and of constant accessions from Oriental art, can be clearly +traced therein. But in Spain there is perhaps a juster proportion, a +greater variety and richness of ornamentation and colour than is to be +found elsewhere. The grandest of Moorish buildings in Spain is +undoubtedly<a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a> one of the earliest, the great Mosque of Cordova, with its +forest of 1200 columns, its fifty-seven naves, nineteen gates, and +upwards of 4000 lamps, recalling the impression produced by the Egyptian +hall of Karnac at Thebes,—an impression so vivid that even the +iconoclast emperor, Charles V., whose own palace mars the beauty of the +Alhambra, rebuked the Archbishop of Cordova for destroying what he never +could replace, when he cut away some of the columns to make room for a +Christian chapel. Not less beautiful in their graceful proportions than +the Campanile of Italy are the minarets and towers of Arabian art in +Spain, as the Giralda of Seville and others; even the quaintness of the +leaning tower of Pisa finds its counterpart in the leaning tower of +Saragossa. The Moorish gates of Toledo, of Seville, and the Alcazar of +Segovia show how castellated strength may be wedded to artistic +elegance; but the most perfect union at once of fortress and of palace +is to be found in the noble group of buildings known as the Alhambra, on +the hill of Granada. Though trembling on the verge of debasement when +the severer forms of Arabian art were beginning to admit the +representation of animal shapes, whose rude sculpture forms a contrast +to the exquisite correctness of the alphabetic and geometrical designs +which ornament the walls, these buildings may yet be regarded as marking +the culmination<a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a> of Moorish art. The fertility of decorative design, the +exquisite use made of Arabic lettering, and the simple yet subtle forms +of geometrical interlacing—apparently most fantastic, yet really ever +subordinated<a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a> to a just proportion with the whole—these are a theme of +wondering admiration to every student. A whole grammar of ornament might +be illustrated by examples taken from these buildings alone. The +architecture of the houses of the Moorish aristocracy which still remain +in Seville, Granada, Toledo, and Saragossa is wonderfully adapted both +to the necessities of the climate and to domestic ornament. In the more +northern examples the open galleries, in the more southern the flat +roof, of the apartments surrounding the inner quadrangle make a +delightful resort in the cool of the day; while the court or <i>patio</i> +itself, with its fountains and shade, its flowers and creepers and +odoriferous shrubs, its mingled play of light and colour, through which +the delicate grace of ornament is seen uninjured by the dust and contact +with the outside traffic, appears to the northern tourist almost like +one of the fairy homes of which his ancestors dreamed, and which have +been described to him in many a legend, as a thing too lovely to be +gazed upon by mortal eyes unless unsealed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"> +<a href="images/ill199.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill199_thumb.jpg" width="384" height="550" alt="MOORISH ORNAMENTATION." title="" /></a> +<br /><br /><span class="caption">MOORISH ORNAMENTATION.</span> +</div> + +<p>The influence and the impress of Arabian art was not confined in Spain +to mosques or to buildings consecrated to the use of Mohammedans alone. +Some of the most beautiful specimens of this architecture were erected +for Christians or for Jews. Arabic inscriptions used as ornaments are<a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a> +still to be seen on the altar of the Cathedral of Gerona, in the Shrine +of San Isidore at Leon; Arabic architecture is seen in the palace of the +archbishops of Toledo, in a chapel in Alcala de Henares, and in more +than one synagogue of the Jews. Christian bishops used as episcopal +seals rings on which were engraved the praises of Allah. Long after the +conquest of the great cities of the centre and of the south, Moorish and +Mudejar architects were retained in the pay of Christian monarchs to +keep in repair the cathedrals and palaces, the beauty of whose +architecture the Christians could appreciate but could not imitate, much +less surpass. It is this fact, and the mingling of style and ideas +consequent thereon, which gives its sole peculiar characteristic to +Spanish art.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, contemporaneously with the flourishing period of Arabian art +in the south, a Christian architecture, strikingly in contrast from its +poverty of style and of invention, was slowly being reconstructed in the +north. Of the eighth century we have the crypt of the Church of Santa +Cruz, at Cangas in the Asturias, and some remains in parts of the +churches of Oviedo. To the tenth century belong parts of the Church of +San Pablo at Barcelona, and other Catalan churches, with here and there +a chapel in the Western Pyrenees. During the eleventh and twelfth +centuries the more important churches of Northern Spain were almost<a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a> +reproductions of those of Southern France; the Cathedral of Santiago de +Compostella is almost a copy of the Church of St. Sernin at Toulouse; +but the Romanesque (semi-Byzantine) style lingered somewhat longer in +Spain than in the neighbouring country, and especially in North-eastern +Spain. In the twelfth century edifices of real beauty are beginning to +be built; such are the cloisters of Tarragona and the cathedrals of +Lerida and of Tudela. The cathedrals of Avila and Siguenza are of more +native Spanish character; while those of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon show +the influence of French artists in their general plan, but with an added +ornamentation derived from the richer and more florid fancy of the +south. Of these perhaps Leon is the noblest and Burgos the richest +example in Spain. Segovia, Salamanca, and Seville, of the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, are the latest of the great Gothic churches of +Spain, before the rise of the Renaissance.</p> + +<p>Nowhere had the classical revival in architecture more influence than in +Spain. The almost exclusive type of church which, both in Spain and in +her vast colonies, is pointed out as the Spanish church, is that either +of the Renaissance or of the styles which have sprung from it. This soon +became fashionable, but its semi-pagan additions frequently harmonize +but ill with the deeper religious feeling of the preceding styles. Still +it has many<a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a> fine examples; the works of Berruguete and Herrera are well +worthy of study. The Escorial, the work of the latter, is redeemed from +ugliness or meanness by the noble proportions of its central chapel and +pantheon. But to this semi-classical style succeeded, in the eighteenth +century, the Churrigueresque, the most debased of all styles, wherein +plaster took the place of sculpture, sham that of reality, and masses of +gilding and an incongruous medley of meaningless ornament concealed the +blunders in proportion and poverty of idea. The adoption of this style +by the Jesuits procured its prevalence in many districts of Spain and of +her colonies; occasionally the size of the buildings constructed gives a +certain grandeur and hides the debasement of the methods.</p> + +<p>The domestic, palatial, and castellated architecture of Spain has little +peculiar beyond what has been already indicated. The royal palace at +Madrid, however, is one of the most successful architectural efforts of +the eighteenth century. The sculptured coats of arms on mean dwellings +are perhaps the most notable distinction of Spanish houses. Traces of +the influence of Moorish traditions may not unfrequently be observed. In +the north, the cottages and farms of the Basques, with overhanging roofs +and wooden galleries, recall in some degree those of Switzerland; in the +south the iron bars or rails (rejas) before the<a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a> lower windows, and the +lattices (celosias) in the upper stories tell of insecurity and of +habits of almost Oriental seclusion of women.</p> + +<p>Finer even than the architecture and the exterior of the buildings is +the church furniture in Spain. It is unsurpassed for beauty and +interest. The carved and sculptured wood-work in some of the cathedrals +is finer than even that of the Netherlands and of Germany. The storied +screens and choir stalls at Toledo; the retablos of Gerona and +Salamanca, of Avila and Seville; the choir fittings of Santiago, Zamora, +and of Burgos; the lecterns and pulpits both of brass and wood; and the +rails and gates and screens of noblest metal-work are often of simply +grand proportion; nay, even the polychrome wooden statues in the +churches will often be found to be of rarest beauty. The monuments +erected to the memory of the dead are equal to anything which affection +and piety have raised elsewhere, from that of Archbishop Maurice at +Burgos, in the thirteenth century—of the tombs of the constable and of +those of Juan II. and Isabel of Portugal, in the Cartuja de Miraflores, +of the fifteenth century; and that of Prince Juan, the only son of +Ferdinand and Isabella, at Avila, erected in 1497—down to the noble +mausoleum of inlaid metal-work by Zuloaga, lately placed in the Church +of the Atocha to the memory of Prim. In these and many more, Spain can +show a sequence able to<a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a> vie with that of any other land. Hardly less +beautiful are the minor accessories of Catholic worship; the gold and +silver smiths' work of the chandeliers, the jewelled work of crosses, +custodias or shrines, and sacred vessels is often worthy of admiration. +In all such works of art, before the pillage of the French in the war of +liberation, and the destruction of the convents, Spain was probably one +of the richest of Christian lands. If we seem to insist too much on +ecclesiastical art in Spain, it is because, as we shall see still more +clearly in the case of painting, art has here concentrated its choicest +effort on religious subjects, and in them has won its greatest triumphs. +Except, perhaps, in arms and in porcelain, in portrait-painting and in +furniture, all the masterpieces of Spanish art are in some sense +ecclesiastical. Take away religion from her art, how poor would be the +residue, for even Arabian and Moslem art in Spain were essentially +religious.</p> + +<h4><i>Painting.</i></h4> + +<p>Though Spain cannot rival some other countries, Italy for example, in +the number of her great painters; though she has founded no great +technical school; yet is she worthy of greatest admiration; in one or +two of her artists she has attained the very highest rank. As a +religious painter,<a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a> especially in expressing in form and colour the +heights of mystic ecstasy, Murillo stands unrivalled. As a +portrait-painter of courtly grace and distinction, Velazquez has few +equals. It is not in landscape, or as interpreters of the ever-varying +beauty of external nature, that Spanish painters excel, but in the +delineation of the human form, and especially in the rendering of those +religious emotions which lead through asceticism to ecstasy. Not the +glorification of merely sensuous beauty, but the triumphs of the spirit +over the flesh are the conquests which they prefer to delineate.</p> + +<p>Spanish painters may be divided among three great provinces: the +Valencian, Andalusian, and Castilian schools. Of these the Andalusian, +and especially the school of Seville, has produced by far the greatest +artists.</p> + +<p>The earliest specimens of Spanish painting are of the decorative kind, +and are employed in subordination to architecture, to add colour to +form, and to heighten and make more evident the details of sculpture in +churches or convents. Much of this phase of art, in which they stand +very high, they probably learned from the Moors. From these labours in +churches and convents art in Spain received a religious imprint and +direction which it has never lost, and from which it is only now turning +in the present generation. Goya and Fortuny are perhaps the only +considerable painters<a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a> of Spain in whose works religious subjects do not +preponderate. Spanish art reflects in a peculiar degree the +characteristic of Spanish theology. The mystic grace, the transport of +love which seems almost too human and tender when fixed on the Divine, +which moves us in the writings of St. Teresa, St. Juan de la Cruz, +Xavier, and others, touches us no less in the pictures of Murillo. Stern +and sombre, as these are lovely, are the paintings which remind us that +we are in the land of the inquisition. Figures of martyrs serene in +tortures, whose horrors are laid bare as by no other artists, figures of +saints of primitive, mediæval, or of later times, who have carried +asceticism to excess, portraits of men who were as severe to themselves +as they were pitiless to others; such are the subjects which are +faithfully rendered by the pencils of Ribalta, Ribera, Zurbaran, and +many others. Later on, when the old constitutional liberties of Spain +had almost utterly fallen, and when the worship of the king had begun +almost to rival that of the Blessed Virgin, Velazquez and others give us +portraits of the royal family of Spain. The fun and wit which really +existed in Spanish life, and which her novelists have depicted with such +relish in innumerable novels, is but poorly represented in Spanish art +by any of her great masters. Murillo's beggar-boys are almost the only +pictures which answer to the "picaresque"<a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a> side of Spanish literature +till the advent of Goya and of Fortuny.</p> + +<p>The expressions of the plastic arts of Spain are neither so idealized as +the Italian, nor so intellectual as the German, nor so sensuous as the +Flemish, nor so realistic as those of the Dutch school; but they are far +more powerful in colouring and truer and deeper in feeling than are +those of the French school. The Spaniard painted the types and +characters of his native land, but he delighted to throw around them the +magic lights that never were on sea or land; through the intense +darkness of his asceticism ever peers a ray of heavenly light; but the +type of the figure is ever Spanish; never, in the best days of art, was +inspiration sought from a reproduction of the forms of pagan classical +ism, or from a mere eclecticism of beauty. Though the drawing is +correct, we feel that it has not been learned from a mere study of +ancient statuary or from anatomical preparations, but from the living +type and figure. Here and there we find painters like Juande Joannes +(Vicente Macip) and Domenico Theotocopuli (El Greco), who might have +lived on Italian soil; but generally the tone of Spanish painters is +local and unmistakable. Through all his styles—the <i>frio</i> (cold), +<i>calido</i> (warm), and the <i>vaporoso</i> (mystic)—Murillo remained faithful +to Spanish, nay, to Andalusian models; none can mistake his saints and +virgins, his boys and beggars,<a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a> as belonging to any other race. He does +not tell the wondrous story of the Incarnation with so grand an appeal +to the intellect as do the Italian painters. The "woman blessed +throughout all generations" does not look out to us from his canvas from +the serene heights of perfect woman-hood which has found its crown in +the mystery of the Motherhood of the Son of God, but in younger and more +girlish forms he paints for us the maiden rapt in adoring ecstasy as she +experiences the wonders of love divine, bathed in the golden light of a +rapture which none but the very purest can ever feel, and which the very +angels are represented as reverencing.</p> + +<p>Space forbids our giving even an approximate catalogue of Spanish +painters; we can merely single out for mention the two or three of +highest rank in their respective provinces. In Valencia we have Ribalta +(1551-1628), Juan de Joames (Vicente Macip) (1523-79), and the great but +gloomy Ribera (1588-1609). To this school also belong the artists of +Catalonia and of the Balearic Isles. In Castile are Navarette (El Mudo) +(1526-79), Morales (1509-86), Theotocopuli (El Greco) (died 1578), and +the younger Herrera (died 1686). But the greatest painters are from +Andalusia and from Seville. The well-known names of Herrera the Elder +(1576-1656), Zurbaran (1598-1662), Murillo (1618-82), Velazquez +(1623-60), suffice to<a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a> show its pre-eminence. The eighteenth century, in +art as well as in literature, was a time of utter decadence; Goya +(1746-1820), the caricaturist, is the only artist we need mention; but, +like its literature, Spanish art is now at length rising from its long +sleep. Fortuny (1838-74), has made himself a European reputation; +though, through his early death, the pictures he has left give promise +only of what his future might have been. Rosales (1840-73), though less +known by foreigners, is of equal, if not of greater merit; like Fortuny, +he died in his early prime. Madrazo, Jimenez, Fradilla, and others, +though not of more than national reputation, yet prove that art is not +extinct in Spain.</p> + +<p>In what have been called the industrial arts Spain was formerly very +rich, and, but for the wretched economical policy and administration of +the Government since the seventeenth century, would probably have held +her own against other countries. The gold and silver ornaments still +worn by the peasantry in a few districts perpetuate designs and methods +of workmanship originally derived from the Moors, and much of the church +work is still of great excellence. No less beautiful is the iron-work, +in which a grand effect is often produced by simply noble proportions in +the gates, <i>rejas</i>, and screens of her cathedrals and churches; and in +another sphere, in the manufacture of arms, and of<a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a> inlaying steel or +iron with arabesque patterns of gold and silver, an art which has been +lately revived with great success in Biscay and the Basque Provinces. In +porcelain and pottery the majolica ware, made at Valencia, was renowned +throughout Europe; and the Moorish glazed and lustred ware, the +manufacture of which remained a secret till the present century, is +greatly sought after by amateurs. The wine-jars (<i>tinajas</i> and +<i>alpujarras</i>), the porous pottery (<i>bucaros</i>), the <i>azulejos</i> or +decorated tiles, continue traditions originally derived through the +Arabs from the East, but which had almost expired when the manufacture +was faintly revived under royal patronage in the times of Charles III., +to start again on a stronger life with the aid of English capital in our +own times. Spanish glass is sometimes curious, and much of the stained +and painted windows in the cathedrals is excellent, especially that of +Toledo and of Leon; but this art was undoubtedly learned from foreign +workmen, and only became naturalized in Spain. Of carvings in wood and +marble and ivory we have already sufficiently spoken. In textile fabrics +and embroidery, especially in lace, Spain was formerly very rich. The +mantillas of the ladies, the dresses of the sacred images, the copes of +the clergy, gave full opportunity for the production of this fabric; but +the chief effort is now directed to the manufacture of<a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a> the best foreign +laces, all of which are most successfully imitated by hand-workers in +Valencia and Murcia, where they can be produced at a lower cost than is +possible in colder and more northern climes. Everything in Spain, even +the common use of colour and of flowers by the Andalusian peasants, +shows a natural feeling for art; and its production is hindered more by +indolence, and by the mischievous economical conditions of almost all +Spanish industry, than by any want of talent in the native workman or +artisan.</p> + +<p>Though, perhaps, there is no country in Europe in which music is more +appreciated or practised than in Spain, it is singular that she has +produced no really great master. She has many composers of "zarzuelas," +a species of lighter opera; her traditional dance and ballad tunes are +some of the most inspiriting possible; and her guitar playing is +renowned, but more for the romantic sentiment of the words and the +occasion on which it is used than for the music itself. Well-nigh the +only name for which even Spaniards claim equality with the great +European masters in serious music is that of Don Manuel Doyague, of +Salamanca (1755-1842). His <i>Miserere</i>, <i>Te Deum</i>, and various <i>Masses</i> +are said to equal those of any master of his time.</p> + +<h4><i>Literature.</i></h4> + +<p>It is not necessary to repeat here what has been<a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a> said above on the +Spanish authors who wrote during the silver age of Latin literature, or +to trace again the origin of the Spanish language. It is evident that +all we can do is to give a very brief sketch of Spanish literature. This +literature is, perhaps, the richest in Europe in ballads and romances, +and these, which make one of its chief glories, are among its earliest +monuments. While the "Chanson de Roland" and other "Chansons de Gestes" +were being written in Northern France in the form of continuous epic +poems, Spain was celebrating her hero—the Cid—in a series of ballads. +These, if united, would tell almost the whole story of his life; but +each could be sung or recited alone as a separate and complete poem. +This form of verse continued for many ages to be the favourite +literature of the common people, and attained a development in Spain +beyond that which it did in any other land. For spontaneity, for +movement, for grace of expression, for sudden turns from martial ardour +to the most pathetic tenderness, the Spanish ballad is unrivalled. It +embraces and handles with almost equal success the most varied subjects: +war and chivalry and love, patriotism, wit, amusement, and religion, +have all been treated of in these romances, and the collections of each +kind would fill many volumes.</p> + +<p>The first prose works in the Spanish language seem to have been a +translation of the Bible, under<a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a> Alphonse X., and of two codes of law, +the "Fuero Juzgo" and "Las Siete Partidas," in the middle of the +thirteenth century. It seems to have been almost by accident that +Alfonzo wrote in the dialect of Leon and Castile in preference to that +of Galicia and Portugal. Had he chosen the latter, probably Portuguese +would have become the language of the whole Peninsula. Under his reign, +too, may have been commenced the first history written in Spanish, "La +Gran Conquista de Ultramar," telling the story of the Crusades, with +many romantic episodes. The next production that calls for remark is the +epic of Alexander the Great, by J. L. Segura, of the latter part of the +same century. This poem gives the name "Alexandrine" to all European +verse written in the same metre. In the early part of the fourteenth +century we have a collection of tales, with morals attached, called "El +Conde Lucanor," by Don Juan Manuel, nephew of Alphonse X. (1282-1347); +and Alfonso XI. continues the list of royal authors with a "Libro de la +Monteria,", or treatise on hunting. The arch-priest of Hita, Juan Ruiz +(1330-43), about the same time took up the strain of love and war in a +romance of mingled prose and verse, entitled "Guerras Civiles de +Granada." In the latter half of the fifteenth century we meet with a +remarkable production, the tragi-comedy of Celestina, which, in its +two-fold<a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a> character of novel and of drama, has been the parent of a +double offspring, both of the comedy and of the <i>picaresque</i> novel of +Spain. The Spanish rogue, at least in fiction, has been said to be the +only amusing rogue in Europe. The chief representations of him in +literature are in the novel of "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554), by Hurtado +de Mendoza; "Guzman de Alfarache" (1599), by Mateo Aleman; and "La +Picara Justina" (1605), by the Dominican monk, Andreas Perez. The whole +series of these works culminated in a masterpiece, "Gil Blas," written, +not by a Spaniard, but by the Frenchman Lesage, in 1668; perhaps the +most graphic description of the manners of another nation ever written +by a foreigner.</p> + +<p>The serious drama in Spain arose, probably, like that of other European +nations, from the mysteries and moralities of the Middle Ages, such as +are still continued to be performed occasionally at Elche and in other +districts. In the "Autos" of Calderon and others it bore clear marks of +this origin to a later date than any other contemporary drama. The first +plays of any consequence we hear of are those of Lope de Rueda +(1544-67), who, both as actor and as author, was greatly admired by +Cervantes. From him the Spanish drama, like the almost contemporary +Elizabethan drama in England, sprang at once to its full height. +Cervantes, in his tragedies "Los Baños de Argel," and in<a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a> "El trato de +Argel" in which he described incidents in his own captivity, and in the +"Numancia," telling the story of the siege by the Romans, imitated and +surpassed his friend. In lighter pieces, comedies and <i>entremeses</i>, he +was less successful. Almost coeval with Cervantes is Lope de Vega +(1562-1635), perhaps the most prolific dramatic writer of any value that +ever lived. His pieces are numbered at from 1500 to 2000, and the best +of these are equal, if not superior, to those of Calderon in delineation +of character and in plot, and are inferior only in poetical merit. We +can only mention Tirso de Molina (1588-1648), Montahran (1602-38), and +Ruiz de Alarcon (died 1639) as dramatists of merit, whose best pieces, +especially those of the latter, approach very nearly to those of Lope +and of Calderon. Calderon de la Barca (1600-81), with the German, Göthe, +is the only dramatist of modern Europe who has been seriously put +forward as a rival, or even superior, to Shakspere. This we think to be +a mistake; in rich poetical imagery, in gorgeousness of fancy, in +harmony of verse, in stately dignity, in depth of religions feeling, in +knowledge of stage effect—in all these things he may be compared to our +English master; but he is very far inferior to him in width of sympathy, +in wit and rollicking fun, or in thoughtful humour; his comedy will not +bear comparison with that of Shakspere; but he falls<a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a> most short in his +delineation of individual character. In comparison with Shakspere's, his +figures are but well-dressed puppets compared to living men and women; +not one of them lingers in the memory like a person whom we have known. +We remember Calderon's verses, we revel in his splendid poetry, but we +utterly forget who it is that utters these dazzling strains. Calderon's +dramas and comedies are reckoned at 120, and his Autos, religious or +sacramental pieces, generally performed by religious or civil +corporations in the open air, are numbered at about seventy. In these +plays abstract qualities take the place of living personages, and it is +perhaps the greatest proof of Calderon's genius that he has by his +brilliant poetry and serene religious feeling made some of even these +acceptable to a modern reader.</p> + +<p>But while the drama and comedy and the picaresque novel had been thus +developing themselves, a whole literature of quite a different kind had +sprung up into favour, flourished, and died away. This consisted of the +prose books of chivalry, and of the pastoral romances both in prose and +verse. They are remembered now chiefly through mention of them in the +pages of the immortal work, the "Don Quixote," of Cervantes, which +crushed them for ever. The most celebrated of them was the "Amadis de +Gaul," written probably at the end of the fourteenth century. The<a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a> +imitations of it were innumerable, each more wild, extravagant, more +insipid, and in worse taste than the last. Of the pastoral romances the +only one we need to note is the "Diana Enamorada," of Montemayor +(1520-61), and perhaps the most successful after this is the "Galatea," +of Cervantes himself, who could never entirely shake off the influence +of the writings he delighted to satirize, and of which he was the +literary executioner. The one Spanish book which has become really +European, in a degree which has been attained by no other purely secular +work, is the "Don Quixote" of this author (1547-1616). Into this +extraordinary production, under the guise of the adventures of his hero, +the last of the knights-errant, with his squire, Sancho Panza—a story +full of mirth, incident, and humour—Cervantes has put all the wisdom +which, by his observation on mankind and literature, he had collected +during a singularly varied life as writer, soldier, seaman, Algerine +slave, poet, and man of business. Though hardly belonging to the school +of the classical Renaissance, yet we see in Cervantes a specimen of the +marked and distinguishing excellence of the men at that time—the width +of their sympathies; so that each more eminent man seemed to contain in +himself an epitome of the experience of mankind. It is, perhaps, to this +many-sidedness of his experience, and of his culture, that is owing the +genial<a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a> character, the pathetic humour, and the total absence of +bitterness in this masterly satire. Thus Cervantes, while laughing down +and extinguishing for ever the absurdities of the chivalrous and +pastoral romances, yet retains his sympathy for all that was really +noble, though exaggerated, in them. His "Don Quixote," though moving +irrepressible laughter, will for ever remain one of the choicest +representations of a brave, pure-minded, honourable gentleman, and tears +of pity for him are not far distant from our smiles at his quaint +insanities. Since the days of Cervantes one kind only of the chivalrous +romances has really survived in literature, and that is the historical +romance, of which the "Guerras Civiles de Granada" of the arch-priest +Hita, mentioned above, is so good an example. Another satirist, less +known than Cervantes, to whom his life bears some resemblance, Quevedo y +Villegas (1580-1645), is even a more versatile writer. In prose and +verse his writings are very numerous, but his style, learned and +obscure, often laboured in the extreme, though pregnant with thought and +wit, contrasts unfavourably with the clearness of Cervantes; he holds +now in Spanish literature a place nearly analogous to that of Swift +among British writers.</p> + +<p>But we must hurry on. With the downfall of Granada, the discovery of +America, the consolidation of the kingdoms of the Peninsula into one<a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a> +nation, real historical study began in Spain. Thus we have in quick +succession many works of considerable merit, such as the "Annals of +Aragon," by Zurita (1512-80); the "Comunidades of Castille," by Mejia +(1549); the great "History of Spain," by the Jesuit Mariana (1536-1632); +Herrera's "General History of the Indies" (1549-1625); the "Commentaries +on Peru," by the Inca, Garcilasso de la Vega (1540-1616); the monographs +of Hurtado de Mendoza on the "Wars of Granada" (1610); the "Expedition +of the Catalans," by Moncada (1623); the "Wars of Catalonia," by Melo +(1645); and, in literary form superior to all these, the "Conquest of +Mexico," by Solis (1685).</p> + +<p>Of poetry, apart from the stage and from the romances, there is not much +of real value to engage our attention. The grandest verses of early +Spain are undoubtedly the "Coplas" of Manrique (1476), which have been +often translated into English, and which form one of the finest elegies +extant in any language. After Garcilassa de la Vega (1503-36), Spanish +poets fell into an unworthy imitation of the Italian; and subsequently +Gongora (1561-1627) set the example of a still more debased and stilted +style, full of affected conceits and mistaken classicalism. The only +tolerable epic poem which Spain has yet produced is the "Araucana" of +Ercilla, which tells the story of the wars with<a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a> Indians of that name in +Chili, and in which the author had personally taken part.</p> + +<p>From the close of the seventeenth and through the greater part of the +eighteenth century, literature partook of the progressive decadence of +all things in Spain. It withered and declined under the double censure +and oppression of the king and of the inquisition. The theatre, which +had striven hard in Spain to become the ally, or even the handmaid, of +the Church, was contemptuously thrust aside by the latter, and within a +century of Calderon's death, not even an Infanta could procure +permission from the inquisition for a comedy in time of carnaval. No +history of any value could be written under such conditions; the only +outlet for literary skill lay in religious and mystic writings, which +are of singular beauty. The classical and grammatical movement of the +Renaissance which had begun so well under the patronage of Juan de +Cisneros, Cardinal Ximenes, the great minister of Charles V., and the +chief monument of which is the Complutensian Polyglot Bible of 1514-17, +and its greatest scholar, Antonio de Nebrija, soon died away, and the +Spanish universities, which for a while had been the admiration, became, +in the eighteenth century, the laughing-stock of Europe. Of the earlier +period we may mention among the religious writers Luis de Granada +(1505-68), Santa Teresa (1515-82), the Jesuit, Ribadeneyra<a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a> (1527-1611), +Juan de la Cruz (1542-91); but even this literature degenerated into +casuistry and mere technical scholasticism. Spanish religious poetry is, +however, far more copious and of greater excellence than is generally +supposed. It has been studied and collected in our own day by the +opposite schools of the Spanish Protestants, and by the champion of +orthodoxy, Menendez Pelayo.</p> + +<p>There is little to notice in Spanish literature from this time until the +rise of the doctrinaire and economical writers of the reign of Carlos +III., who for the most part closely followed the contemporary school of +French publicists and encyclopædists. Among these are Padre Benito +Feyjoo, who was the first to protest against the absence of science and +true learning in Spain; the Padre Isla (1703-81), decidedly one of the +wittiest of Spanish writers and satirists; Jovellanos (1744-1811), the +best statesman and political writer of his time, and in the purer walks +of literature the two Moratins (1737-1828). One or two philological +works, far in advance of their age, made now their appearance, such as +the tracts of Padre Sarmiento (1692-1770) on the Spanish language; the +works of the Jesuits Larramendi (1728-45) on the Basque, and of Hervas +(1735-1805) on general philology. To this period also belongs the +magnificent collection entitled, "La España Sagrada," commenced by<a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a> +Florez (1754-1801), and, after many interruptions, completed only in +1880.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the eighteenth century, however, a reaction set in +against the French and so-called classical school, and the attention of +Spanish writers was recalled to the masterpieces of their own earlier +literature. The movement was accelerated by the course of political +events, and the successes of the war of independence against the French. +One of the earliest defenders of the romantic against the classical +school was Bohl de Faber, a Hamburg merchant settled in Cadiz. He +published in 1820-3, in his native town, selections from works of the +early poets and dramatists of Spain; and his daughter, Cecilia, under +the name of Fernan Caballero, has attained the highest rank among the +lady novelists of Spain. The admission of Bohl de Faber into the ranks +of the Spanish Academy, under Martinez de la Rosa, marks the definite +triumph of the national school. At first it seemed as if the movement +would produce simply a change of French for English and German models. +Fiction became a stiff imitation of Sir Walter Scott. In poetry the +influence of Byron reigned supreme. Espronceda (1810-42) has equalled +his master in his cynical odes. "The Beggar," "The Executioner," "The +last day of the Condemned," and "The Pirate," might almost have been +penned by Byron; and "El Mundo Diablo"<a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a> will long live in Spanish +literature. Zorilla, born in 1817, still living, has been more +successful in his dramas than Espronceda, especially in "Don Juan +Tenorio," but his poems are inferior in force, though rich in colouring +and in the melody of his verse. Gustavo Becquer (1836-70) is another +poet who fed his genius with the legends of the past, but his models +were Edgar Poe and Hoffmann; some of his weird fantastic tales and poems +are excellent examples of their kind. Of an opposite character are the +realistic novels of Fernan Caballero above mentioned (1797-1877). These +are exquisite rose-tinted photographs of Spanish life and character +taken by one who sees everything Spanish with a favourable eye. Her +writings are distinguished by a delicate aristocratic grace and +tenderness which she throws over all subjects which she handles, whether +of high or lowly life. As an artist her plots are inferior to those of +many worse novelists; her descriptions of scenery are beautiful and +exact; as a delineator of individual character she fails, but as a +painter of type and class she is unrivalled. Her sketches abound in +humour and in gentle melancholy; a deep and true religious feeling +pervades every line, but she fails in strength and passion. Thus she can +be classed only in the second rank of female novelists, and does not +approach the genius of Georges Sand or of George Elliot. Trueba, in the +north, essays to imitate her,<a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a> but he often sinks into puerility, nor +are his studies marked by the conscientious regard for fact which +distinguishes those of the lady writer. Pereda, who delineates the +peasants of Santander, is a less prolific writer but of higher literary +merit. Of living novelists we should place in the first rank Juan Valera +with his powerful novels, "Pepita Jimenez," "El Doctor Faustino," and +"Doña Luz." Next to him is, perhaps, Perez Galdos, who, in the series +entitled "Episodios Nacionales," rivals the national romances of +Erckmann-Chatrian in French. Pedro Alarcon has a greater fund of wit and +humour, and his "Sombrero de tres picos" is a most mirth-provoking tale. +Fernandez y Gonzalez, in the number, if not in the quality of his works, +may almost compete with the elder Alexandre Dumas, whose semi-historical +style he repeats. Feliz Pizcueta, a Valencian writer, has also written +many novels, whose scenes are laid in his native province. Among +dramatists now living, or lately dead, we may mention Hartzenbusch +(1806-80), whose "Amantes de Teruel" is one of the most successful +tragedies of the romantic school; Breton de los Herreros (1800-70); +Gertrudis de Avellaneda, the first Spanish female dramatist, born in +Cuba in 1816; Gutierrez, who, born in 1813, sought refuge, like Zorilla, +in Spanish America; Lopez de Ayala; and lastly, J. Estebanez, whose best +work is entitled "Un Drama Nuevo," and who<a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a> reaches a high level of +dramatic art. Of more extravagant style, inferior to these, and already +marking a decadence, is José Echegaray, a man of most versatile and +opposite talents, and one of the first mathematicians of Spain, the best +of whose plays is "Locura o Santidad." Of lyric poets we may mention +Campoamor, an original but languid and graceful writer of minor verse, +and Selgas, whose grace is seasoned with wit and satire, but whose prose +is much superior to his verse. But by far the greatest of living Spanish +poets, though like Tennyson he has failed comparatively on the stage, is +Gaspar Nuñez de Arce. His "Gritos del Combate," and "La Ultima +Lamentacion de Lord Byron," contain some noble verses. He writes in the +spirit of purest patriotism, with a stern morality, and with severe and +chastened art.</p> + +<p>But more important than in the movement of fiction and poetry has been +the influence of the romantic school in history. The attention of +Spaniards has been at length turned to the study of their original +records, and especially to that of the early Arabic writers. The first +to attempt this, but with insufficient means, was J. A. Condé +(1757-1820) in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en España." +This has since been superseded by the exacter learning of Don Pascual +Gayangos, in the "Mohammedan Dynasties of<a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a> Spain," by many foreign +writers, and by the labours of Fernandez y Gonzalez in "Los Mudejares de +Castilla" (1866) and others. The labours of Don Modeste and Don Vicente +Lafuente, the one in ecclesiastical, the other in civil history, must be +mentioned with approval, and the works of Amador de los Rios, on the +literature of Spain and on the history of the Jews in Spain, do honour +to his country. Among other historians, we may mention F. Castro and +Sales y Ferrer, whose works are the popular manuals in education. +Fernandez Guerra in the ancient, and Coello in the modern, Geography of +Spain, are authors of the highest class; nor must we omit the Englishman +Bowles, who wrote on the Natural History of Spain in 1775. In Geology +another English name, Macpherson, attains the highest rank, together +with the surveyors employed on the "Comision de la Mapa Geologica" of +Spain. On the history of property in Spain and Europe, are two +remarkable essays by Cárdenas and de Azcárate. In theology, on the Roman +Catholic side, are the writings of Balmés (1810-48); of Doñoso Cortes +(1809-53), of the present Bishop of Cordova, Ceferino Gonzalez; and, +still publishing, the remarkable production of Menendez Pelayo, +"Historia de los Heterodoxos in España;" while in the Protestant +theology, Usoz, assisted by B. Wiffen in England and Boehmer in Germany, +has rescued from oblivion the works of the Spanish<a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a> reformers. In +philology the Jesuit, Padre Fita y Colomé, worthily continues the +traditions of Larramendi and of Hervas. Fernandez Guerra, and F. Tubino, +and the Barcelona school pursue archæological studies with success. The +influence of outside European thought is every day more evident in +Spain. Ardent disciples of the school of Comte, of Darwin, and of +Schopenhauer, are to be found among her publicists. In political economy +Figuerola, G. Rodriguez, Colmeiro, Azcárate, and others, follow keenly +the teaching of the English liberal school. Face to face in +parliamentary eloquence and in politics stand Cánovas del Castello and +Emilio Castelar; the latter distinguished by a florid oratory which is +unsurpassed in Europe, but whose style is far more effective when spoken +than when read; the former, with greater learning and a more cultivated +taste, would undoubtedly be known as a writer but for his devotion to +political life. The periodical and daily press of Spain, though not to +compare with that of England, or of the United States, is almost on a +par with that of most continental countries; the scientific and literary +reviews and magazines are yearly increasing both in numbers and in +value.</p> + +<p>This sketch, however brief, would be incomplete without a glance at what +may be called the provincial literature of Spain. The publishers of<a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a> +Barcelona, especially in illustrated works, vie with those of Madrid. It +is not in the Castilian tongue alone that the awakening is apparent. In +Catalonia and in Valencia the study of the native idiom and of their +ancient authors has been taken up with zeal, and with happiest results +in history and philology. Victor Balaguer, the Catalan poet and +dramatist is equal to all contemporary Spanish poets save Nuñez de Arce. +The dramas of Pablo Soler (Serafi Petarra) are received with an +enthusiasm unknown to audiences in Madrid. Mila y Fontanals, Bofarull, +and Sanpére y Miquel are investigating with success the language, +history, and archæology of their country. A like, though necessarily a +less important, movement is taking place in Andalusia, in the Basque +Provinces, in the Asturias, and in Galicia; everywhere what is worth +preserving in these dialects is being sought out, edited, and given to +the press. The archives of Simancas are at length thrown open to the +world, and guides and catalogues are being industriously prepared. +Sevillian scholars are also studying the archives of the Indies, and the +treasures of Hebrew and Arabian lore.</p> + +<p>Thus, if Spain can at present boast no writer whom we can place +undoubtedly and unreservedly in the very first rank, she shows an +intellectual movement which, though confined at present to a +comparatively small portion of her inhabitants,<a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a> may, if it spread and +continue, place her again in her proud position of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, as one of the first of European nations, not +perhaps in arms and power, but in literature, if not in science.<a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br /><br /> +EPILOGUE.</h3> + +<p class="nind">A <small>FEW</small> words in conclusion. Spain is far from being a worn-out country. +On the contrary, both in the character and capacities of its varied +populations, in the mineral riches of its soil, in its agricultural +wealth, in industrial resources, and in the artistic taste of its +workmen, it is capable of vast development.</p> + +<p>Two things hinder this, and will probably hinder it for some time. These +are the political separation of Spain and Portugal, so ill-adapted to +the geographical conformation of the Peninsula. The great rivers of +Spain run westward, but the benefit of these fluvial highways is +entirely lost to the country through the intercalation of Portugal into +the western sea-board, thus making useless to Spain her natural system +of river transport, and cutting her off from her best and most direct +Atlantic ports. It is Lisbon, and not Madrid, which should be the +capital of the whole Peninsula.<a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a> Scarcely less an evil to Spain is the +possession of Gibraltar by the English, which, besides the expense of +watching the fortress, and the loss to Spain of the advantage of the +possession of the great port of call for the whole maritime traffic of +the East, is a school of smuggling and contraband, and a focus of +corruption for the whole of South-western Spain. Were the whole Atlantic +and Mediterranean sea-board in sole possession of one nation, the +expenses of the custom-house would be greatly lessened, while the +smuggling on the Portuguese and British frontiers would wholly +disappear. In no point was the effect of the narrow and jealous policy +of Philip II. more disastrous, than in his failure even to attempt to +attach the Portuguese to his rule when the kingdoms were temporarily +united under his crown.</p> + +<p>The second evil, and one of still graver proportions, is that of the +exceedingly corrupt administration of the central government, and of +almost every branch of public employment. It is difficult to exaggerate +this mischief. It is not bad external political government, it is not a +faulty constitution, but it is an administration in which corruption has +become a tradition and the rule, that is the real evil in Spain. It is +this which baffles every ministry that tries to do real good. Only a +ministry, or succession of ministries, composed of men of thorough +honesty, of iron will, and of competence in financial administration, +supported by strong majorities,<a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a> can hope to deal with this gigantic +growth. Even then it must be a work of time. With an honest +administration, and prudent and sagacious development of her resources, +Spain would soon regain financial soundness and recover her place among +the nations.</p> + +<p>The contest between the opposite commercial systems of protection and +free trade is not yet concluded, nor is likely to be, in Spain. As long +as England, which has the greatest interest of any foreign power in the +establishment of the latter system, maintains a tariff which unduly +favours the wines of France in comparison with those of Spain free trade +is not likely to be popular. From the varied character of her products, +Spain is of all European countries naturally the most self-sufficing. +Her north-western provinces furnish her with cattle in abundance; no +finer wheat is grown than that on the central plateau, and it could +easily be produced in quantity more than sufficient for her wants; wine, +oil, and fruits she possesses in superfluity; even sugar is not wanting +in the south; cotton, indeed, she has not; but wool of excellent quality +is the produce of her numerous flocks, and it needs only the +establishment of efficient manufactories for Spanish cloth and woollen +stuffs to regain their ancient renown. All the most useful minerals +abound, and are of the finest quality, especially the iron, and the +development of the working of the<a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a> Asturian and Andalusian coal-fields +renders Spain yearly more and more independent of England in this +respect. True it is that foreign capital is, and will for some time be +necessary to assist in extracting this hidden wealth; but if the +ordinary Spaniard of the educated classes, instead of seeking a bare, +and too often a base, subsistence in petty government employment or in +ill-paid professions—instead of seeking the barren honour of a +university degree—would apply himself to scientific, industrial, or +agricultural enterprise, he might soon obtain his legitimate share of +the profits which now go mainly into the hands of foreign speculators +and shareholders.</p> + +<p>Spaniards are commonly said to be cruel and bloodthirsty, with little +regard for the sufferings of others or respect for human life; and +undoubtedly there is some truth in this charge, but it does not apply to +the whole Peninsula. Many of Spain's best writers deplore it, and +inveigh strongly against it and against the bull-fights, which, in their +present form, are not more than a century old. As a national sport, the +modern bull-ring, with its professional torreadors and its hideous +horse-slaughtering, differs from the pastime in which Charles V. and his +nobles used to take part as much as a prizefight from a tournament. The +appeals of Fernan Caballero to the clergy, the efforts of Tubino, +Lastre, and others to arouse the public against<a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a> this wanton cruelty +have hitherto been of no avail. We can only hope in the future. On the +other hand, it is unjust to shut our eyes to the noble charities of +Spain. She was the first to care for lunatics. Many of her hospitals and +asylums for the aged were conducted with a tenderness and consideration +unknown in other lands. Even a beggar is treated with respect, and is +relieved without contumely. The treatment of her prisoners and the +condition of her prisons, which was long so foul a blot, is now being +efficiently removed; she is at least making an earnest effort to attain +the level of European civilization in this respect.</p> + +<p>Intellectually, in science, and especially in literature, Spain is +advancing rapidly. The historical treasures long buried in the archives +of Simancas, and those of the Indies at Seville, are now thrown open to +the world, and are eagerly consulted by native historians. Her literary +and scientific men, though comparatively few in number, are full of zeal +and intelligence. There needs only a larger and more appreciative +audience to encourage them in their labours in order to bring the +literature of Spain to a level with that of any European country of +equal population.</p> + +<p><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a></p> + +<p><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="APPENDIX_I" id="APPENDIX_I"></a>APPENDIX I.</h3> + +<p class="c">PROVINCES OF SPAIN AND THEIR POPULATION IN 1877.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>Provinces.</td><td align="center">Inhabitants.</td> +<td rowspan="55"> </td> +<td align="center">Per square<br /> +Kilometer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alava</td><td align="right">93,191</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> +<tr><td>Albacéte</td><td align="right">219,122</td><td align="right">14</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alicante</td><td align="right">408,154</td><td align="right">75</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alméria</td><td align="right">349,854</td><td align="right">41</td></tr> +<tr><td>Avila</td><td align="right">180,457</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Badajoz</td><td align="right">432,809</td><td align="right">19</td></tr> +<tr><td>Barcelona</td><td align="right">835,306</td><td align="right">108</td></tr> +<tr><td>Burgos</td><td align="right">332,461</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cacéres</td><td align="right">306,594</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cadiz</td><td align="right">430,158</td><td align="right">59</td></tr> +<tr><td>Castellon</td><td align="right">283,961</td><td align="right">45</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ciudad-Real</td><td align="right">260,641</td><td align="right">13</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cordova</td><td align="right">385,582</td><td align="right">28</td></tr> +<tr><td>Corunna</td><td align="right">595,585</td><td align="right">75</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cuenca</td><td align="right">237,497</td><td align="right">14</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gerona</td><td align="right">299,002</td><td align="right">51</td></tr> +<tr><td>Granada</td><td align="right">477,719</td><td align="right">37</td></tr> +<tr><td>Guadalajara</td><td align="right">201,288</td><td align="right">16</td></tr> +<tr><td>Guipúzcoa</td><td align="right">167,207</td><td align="right">88</td></tr> +<tr><td>Huelva</td><td align="right">210,641</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> +<tr><td>Huesca</td><td align="right">252,165</td><td align="right">17</td></tr> +<tr><td>Jaën</td><td align="right">422,972</td><td align="right">32</td></tr> +<tr><td>Leon</td><td align="right">350,210</td><td align="right">22</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lerida</td><td align="right">285,297</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Logroño</td><td align="right">174,425</td><td align="right">34</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lugo</td><td align="right">410,387</td><td align="right">42</td></tr> +<tr><td>Madrid</td><td align="right">593,775</td><td align="right">77</td></tr> +<tr><td>Malaga</td><td align="right">500,231</td><td align="right">68</td></tr> +<tr><td>Murcia</td><td align="right">451,611</td><td align="right">39</td></tr> +<tr><td>Navarre</td><td align="right">304,184</td><td align="right">29</td></tr> +<tr><td>Orense</td><td align="right">388,835</td><td align="right">55</td></tr> +<tr><td>Oviedo</td><td align="right">576,352</td><td align="right">54</td></tr> +<tr><td>Palencia</td><td align="right">180,785</td><td align="right">22</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pontevedra</td><td align="right">451,946</td><td align="right">100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Salamanca</td><td align="right">285,500</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Santander</td><td align="right">235,299</td><td align="right">44</td></tr> +<tr><td>Saragossa</td><td align="right">400,266</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Segovia</td><td align="right">149,961</td><td align="right">21</td></tr> +<tr><td>Seville</td><td align="right">505,291</td><td align="right">36</td></tr> +<tr><td>Soria</td><td align="right">153,654</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tarragona</td><td align="right">330,105</td><td align="right">52</td></tr> +<tr><td>Teruel</td><td align="right">242,296</td><td align="right">17</td></tr> +<tr><td>Toledo</td><td align="right">334,744</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td>Valencia</td><td align="right">679,030</td><td align="right">60</td></tr> +<tr><td>Valladolid</td><td align="right">247,453</td><td align="right">31</td></tr> +<tr><td>Vizcaya</td><td align="right">189,954</td><td align="right">86</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zamora</td><td align="right">250,004</td><td align="right">23</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">16,053,961</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">32</td></tr> +<tr><td>Balearic Isles</td><td align="right">289,035</td><td align="right">60</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canaries</td><td align="right">280,388</td><td align="right">37</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">16,623,384</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">33</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;"> </td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;"> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td colspan="2">In area of surface Spain ranks the</td> +<td align="right">5th</td> +<td align="center"> of European States.</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2">In number of population </td> +<td align="right">7th</td> +<td align="center">"</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2">In density of population to the square mile</td> +<td align="right">14th</td> +<td align="center">"</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2">In extent of colonies </td> +<td align="right">5th</td> +<td align="center">"</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4">Rates of women to men, 1044 to 1000.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">The infantile mortality is said to be 24½ per cent. in first year.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4">Expectation of life at 2 years old is said to be 49 years; the average 41.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="APPENDIX_II" id="APPENDIX_II"></a>APPENDIX II.</h3> + +<p class="c">PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF SPANISH HISTORY.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td> </td><td align="center"><small>A.D.</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Visigoth kings rule from</td><td align="right">414 to 711</td></tr> +<tr><td>Entry of Moors, battle of Guadelete, death of last Visigothic king</td><td align="right">31 July, 711</td></tr> +<tr><td>Reconquest begun by Pelayo at Covadonga in the Asturias</td><td align="right">719</td></tr> +<tr><td>Toledo captured by Alphonso VI.</td><td align="right">1085</td></tr> +<tr><td>Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa</td><td align="right">1212</td></tr> +<tr><td>Final union of Leon and Castile</td><td align="right">1230</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alphonso X. (Law Codes: The Fuero Real and Las Siete Partidas)</td><td align="right">1252</td></tr> +<tr><td>Union of Aragon with Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella</td><td align="right">1474</td></tr> +<tr><td> Inquisition established (first Auto de Fé, 1488)</td><td align="right">1484</td></tr> +<tr><td> Conquest of Granada</td><td align="right">1492</td></tr> +<tr><td> Discovery of America</td><td align="right">1492</td></tr> +<tr><td> Expulsion of Moors from Castile, 1501; from Granada</td><td align="right">1502</td></tr> +<tr><td> Conquest of Naples and Sicily</td><td align="right">1504</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Austrian Dynasty</i>:—Philip I. and Joanna</td><td align="right">1504</td></tr> +<tr><td> Charles I. (Emperor of Germany, Charles V.)</td><td align="right">1516</td></tr> +<tr><td> War of Comunidades of Castile, Battle of Villalar</td><td align="right">1521</td></tr> +<tr><td> Battle of Pavia, Francis I. prisoner</td><td align="right">1525</td></tr> +<tr><td> Capture of Tunis</td><td align="right">1535</td></tr> +<tr><td> Abdication of Charles I.</td><td align="right">1556</td></tr> +<tr><td> Philip II.:—Greatest extension of Spanish monarchy, comprising<br /> + Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia,<br /> + Milan, Roussillon, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg,<br /> + Franche-Comté, Tunis, Oran, the Canaries, Fernando<br /> + Po, St. Helena, The Americas, Philippine Isles, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Insurrection of Low Countries</td><td align="right">1566</td></tr> +<tr><td> First rebellion and expulsion of Moriscos</td><td align="right">1568</td></tr> +<tr><td> Battle of Lepanto</td><td align="right">1571</td></tr> +<tr><td> League of Provinces and independence of Holland,</td><td align="right">25 Jan., 1579</td></tr> +<tr><td> Conquest of Portugal (1580-1640)</td><td align="right">1580</td></tr> +<tr><td> Defeat of Armada</td><td align="right">1588</td></tr> +<tr><td> Death of Philip II.</td><td align="right">1598</td></tr> +<tr><td> Final expulsion of Moriscos</td><td align="right">1609</td></tr> +<tr><td> Insurrection of Catalonia</td><td align="right">1640</td></tr> +<tr><td> Loss of Portugal</td><td align="right">1640</td></tr> +<tr><td> Battle of Rocroy</td><td align="right">1643</td></tr> +<tr><td> Peace of the Pyrenees and marriage of Louis XIV.</td><td align="right">1659</td></tr> +<tr><td> Death of Charles II., last of Austrian dynasty</td><td align="right">29 Oct., 1700</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Bourbon Dynasty</i>:—War of Succession between Archduke Charles and Philip V., 1701-13</td></tr> +<tr><td> Loss of Gibraltar</td><td align="right">1704</td></tr> +<tr><td> Treaty of Utrecht</td><td align="right">1713</td></tr> +<tr><td> Salic Law voted in Cortes</td><td align="right">1713</td></tr> +<tr><td> Abolition of Constitution of Catalonia</td><td align="right">1716</td></tr> +<tr><td> Charles III.</td><td align="right">1759</td></tr> +<tr><td> Family Pact</td><td align="right">1761</td></tr> +<tr><td> Expulsion of Jesuits</td><td align="right">1767</td></tr> +<tr><td> Siege of Gibraltar</td><td align="right">1782</td></tr> +<tr><td> Charles IV.</td><td align="right">1788</td></tr> +<tr><td> Godoy, Prince of Peace</td><td align="right">1795</td></tr> +<tr><td> Battle of Trafalgar</td><td align="right">1805</td></tr> +<tr><td> Abdication of Charles IV.</td><td align="right">1808</td></tr> +<tr><td> Ferdinand VII., Renunciation at Bayonne</td><td align="right">1808</td></tr> +<tr><td> Joseph Bonaparte, King (1808-14)</td></tr> +<tr><td> Uprising of Spain</td><td align="right">2 May, 1808</td></tr> +<tr><td> Peninsular War, 1808-14</td></tr> +<tr><td> Expulsion of French</td><td align="right">1814</td></tr> +<tr><td> Cortés of Cadiz, suppression of Inquisition, of Feudal Rights, and establishment of Constitution</td><td align="right">1812</td></tr> +<tr><td> Return of Ferdinand VII., Inquisition re-established, and Constitution abolished</td><td align="right">1814</td></tr> +<tr><td> Insurrection of Riego, new Constitution (1820-23)</td><td align="right">1820</td></tr> +<tr><td> Invasion of French, violation of Constitution</td><td align="right">1823</td></tr> +<tr><td> Loss of American colonies.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Buenos Ayres</td><td align="left">1811</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Chili</td><td align="left">1818</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Columbia</td><td align="left">1819</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Mexico</td><td align="left">1821</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> Peru</td><td align="left">1824</td></tr> +<tr><td>Absolutism till death of Ferdinand VII. (1823-33).</td></tr> +<tr><td>Birth of Isabella II., abolition of Salic Law, expulsion of Don Carlos</td><td align="right">1830</td></tr> +<tr><td>Death of Ferdinand VII.</td><td align="right">1833</td></tr> +<tr><td>Regency of Christina, the queen-mother, 1833; expelled 1840</td><td align="right">1833</td></tr> +<tr><td> First Carlist War, 1833-39.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Majority of Isabella II.</td><td align="right">1844</td></tr> +<tr><td> War with Morocco</td><td align="right">1860</td></tr> +<tr><td> Insurrection and expulsion of Isabella</td><td align="right">1868</td></tr> +<tr><td>Provisional Government, 1868-70</td><td align="right">1868</td></tr> +<tr><td>Amadeo I., November, 1870, to February, 1873</td><td align="right">1870</td></tr> +<tr><td>Republic, Cantonalist insurrections</td><td align="right">1873</td></tr> +<tr><td> Second Carlist War, 1873-76.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Alphonso XII.</td><td align="right">Dec., 1874</td></tr> +<tr><td> Don Carlos entered France, February, 1876</td><td align="right">1876</td></tr> +<tr><td> Abolition of Basque Fueros</td><td align="right">1876</td></tr> +<tr><td> Downfall of Cánovas del Castillo</td><td align="right">1881</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a></p> + +<h3><a name="APPENDIX_III" id="APPENDIX_III"></a>APPENDIX III.</h3> + +<p class="c">LIST OF BOOKS CHIEFLY MADE USE OF IN THE FOREGOING PAGES.</p> + +<p><i>Geography</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">La Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, par Elisée Reclus, series 5 and +6. Hachette, Paris, 1876.</p> + +<p class="hang">Spanien und die Balearen. Willkomm, Berlin, 1879.</p> + +<p class="hang">The Balearic Isles, by T. Bidwell. London.</p> + +<p class="hang">Boletin de la Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid, various years.</p> + +<p class="hang">Introduccion à la Historia Natural y à la Geográfica Fisica de +España, por Don Guillermo Bowles. Madrid, 1775.</p> + +<p class="hang">Espagne, Algerie, et Tunisie, par P. de Tchikatchef. Paris, 1880.</p> + +<p class="hang">Libro de Agricultura, por Abu Zaccaria. Spanish translation +Seville, 1878.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Meteorology</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Reports of the Meteorological Society of Madrid, various years.</p> + +<p class="hang">Revista Contemporanea, tomo xxx. 4. December, 1880.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Philology</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Grammaire des Langues Romaines, par F. Diez, 2nd German edition. +French translation, Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang">Études sur les Idiomes Pyrénéenes, par A. Luchaire. Paris, 1879.</p> + +<p class="hang">Various articles in Spanish Literary and Provincial Journals.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>History, General</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Dunham's History of Spain and Portugal, 5 vols. Lardner's Cabinet +Encyclopaedia.</p> + +<p class="hang">Resúmen de Historia de España, por F. de Castro, 12th edition. +Madrid, 1878.</p> + +<p class="hang">Compendio Razonado de História General, por Sales y Ferré, last +edition, 4 vols. Madrid, 1880.</p> + +<p class="hang">History of Civilization, by Buckle, 3 vols. London.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Particular Histories</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Investigaciones sobre la História de España, por Dozy, Spanish +translation, 2 vols. Seville, 1877.</p> + +<p class="hang">Los Mudejares de Castillo, por Fernandez Gonzalez. Madrid, 1866.</p> + +<p class="hang">Vida de la Princesa Eboli, by G. Muro, with introductory letter by +Cánovas del Castillo. Madrid, 1877.</p> + +<p class="hang">Text of various Fueros, and of the Constitutions since 1812.</p> + +<p class="hang">Espagne Contemporaine, par F. Garrido. Bruxelles, 1865.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Ecclesiastical History</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Die Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, von P. B. Gams, 5 vols. Berlin, +1879.</p> + +<p class="hang">Historia de los Heterodoxos Españoles, por M. Menendez Pelayo, +tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii. not yet published.) Madrid, 1880.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>History of Property, &c.</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Ensayo sobre la História del derecho de Propiedad y su Estado +actual en Europa, por G. de Azcárate. Tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii. +not yet published.) Madrid, 1879-80.<a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a></p> + +<p class="hang">Estudios filosóficos y politicos, por G. de Azcárate. Madrid, 1877.</p> + +<p class="hang">La Constitucion Inglesa y la politica del Continente, por G. de +Azcárate. Madrid, 1878.</p> + +<p class="hang">Ensayo sobre la Propiedad Territorial en España, per Cardénas, 2 +vols. Madrid, 1875.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Art</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Street's Gothic Architecture in Spain. Murray, 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang">The Industrial Arts of Spain, by Juan F. Riaño. London 1879.</p> + +<p class="hang">Discurso de Recepcion, by Juan F. Riaño. Madrid, 1880.</p> + +<p class="hang">Numerous articles in Spanish Periodicals.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Literature</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature, 4 vols. London, 1845.</p> + +<p class="hang">Sismondi's Literature of the South of Europe. Bohn, London, 1846.</p> + +<p class="hang">Hubbard's Littérature Contemporaine en Espagne. Paris, 1876.</p></div> + +<p class="hang"><i>Guide-Books</i>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Ford's last edition, and O'Shea's Guide to Spain, with numerous +Spanish general and local guides, and particular descriptions of +towns, provinces, &c.</p> + +<p class="hang">Tourist Books in Spanish, German, French, and English. The only +ones needing mention, as going out of the common round are—</p> + +<p class="hang">Untrodden Spain, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1875.</p> + +<p class="hang">Among the Spanish People, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1877.</p> + +<p class="hang">Government and Consular reports too numerous to specify; but we +must except Phipps' masterly Report on Spanish Finance to the close +of 1876.</p></div> + +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h3> +<p class="nind">A<small>GRICULTURE</small>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>.<br /> +Alhambra, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br /> +Alphonso XII., <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br /> +Amadeo I., <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br /> +Andorra, republic of, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br /> +Arabs, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br /> +Architecture, Roman, <a href="#page_194">194</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arab, <a href="#page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mudejar, <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Churrigueresque, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.</span><br /> +Army, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<br /> +Art, Visigothic, <a href="#page_195">195</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabic, <a href="#page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christian, <a href="#page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial, <a href="#page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +B<small>ALEARIC</small> I<small>SLES</small>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.<br /> +Bardeñas Reales, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>.<br /> +Basque language, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>.<br /> +Behetria, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.<br /> +Bidassoa, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.<br /> +Budgets, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br /> +Bulls and bull-fighting, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +C<small>ABALLERO</small>, Fernan, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br /> +Calderon, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br /> +Camel breeds in Spain, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>.<br /> +Cañada, La, pass of, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>.<br /> +Canals, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>.<br /> +Cánovas del Castillo, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br /> +Carlists, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, 159.<br /> +Castelar, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br /> +Cerro de San Felipe, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>.<br /> +Cervantes, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>.<br /> +Charles I., <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br /> +Charles III., <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>.<br /> +Chuetas of Balearic Isles, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br /> +Church, councils of, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">furniture and art, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.</span><br /> +Clergy, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br /> +Coal-mines, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> +Colleges, British, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br /> +Comunidades of Aragon, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br /> +Congress of deputies, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> +Constitutions of Spain, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> +Contrabandistas, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br /> +Cortés, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br /> +Cordova, mosque of, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +D<small>EBT</small>, public, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.<br /> +Despeña-Perros, pass of, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> +Despoblados and Destierros, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_130">130</a>.<br /> +Douro, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br /> +<br /> +E<small>BRO</small>, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br /> +Escorial, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br /> +Esparto grass, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br /> +Exports and imports, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a><br /> +<br /> +F<small>AUNA</small>, <a href="#page_052">52</a>.<br /> +Ferdinand VII., <a href="#page_153">153</a>.<br /> +Finance, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.<br /> +Fiords or Friths in Galicia, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>.<br /> +Fisheries, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> +Flora, greatly exotic, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">herbaceous aromatic, <a href="#page_045">45</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">African, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> +Fueros, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br /> +Funds, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +G<small>ATA</small>, Cabo de, <a href="#page_002">2</a>, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br /> +Gibraltar, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br /> +Guadalaviar and irrigation, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br /> +Guadalquiver and affluents, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br /> +Guadarrama, range of, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>.<br /> +Guadiana and affluents, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br /> +Guardias civiles, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br /> +Guisando, Toros de, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +H<small>ISTORICAL</small> school in Spain, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br /> +Hospitals, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br /> +Hurdes, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br /> +<br /> +I<small>BERI</small>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br /> +Imports and exports, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<br /> +Inquisition, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.<br /> +Irrigation of Llobregat, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Esla, <a href="#page_017">17</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Henares, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Valencia and Murcia, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +Isabella II., <a href="#page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +J<small>EWS</small> of Balearic Isles, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br /> +Justice, administration of, <a href="#page_169">169</a>.<br /> +<br /> +K<small>ELT</small> and Keltiberi, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +L<small>ACE</small>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> +Lakes, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.<br /> +Laya, Basque tool, <a href="#page_040">40</a>.<br /> +Lead-mines, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br /> +Lemosin dialects, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.<br /> +Locusts, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.<br /> +Lunatic asylums, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +M<small>AJOLICA</small> ware, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> +Manufactures, cotton, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.<br /> +Maragatos, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> +Marismas of Guadalquiver, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br /> +Merino sheep, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.<br /> +Mesta, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br /> +Mineral springs, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.<br /> +Minho, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.<br /> +Mining districts, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br /> +Monkeys at Gibraltar, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br /> +Mudejar art, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.<br /> +Municipal administration, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> +Mules, <a href="#page_055">55</a>.<br /> +Murillo, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +N<small>AVY</small>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br /> +Nevada, Sierra, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br /> +<br /> +O<small>LIVES</small>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.<br /> +Orange cultivation, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br /> +<br /> +P<small>AINTING</small>, schools of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br /> +Palms, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>.<br /> +Passiegos of Bilbao, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br /> +Philip II., <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>.<br /> +Population, census of, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diverse of Spain, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupations of, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br /> +Post and letters, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> +Pottery and porcelain, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br /> +Prisons, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br /> +Professors, salary of, <a href="#page_182">182</a>.<br /> +Property, distribution of, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church, sale of, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> +Provinces, administration of, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br /> +Provincial literature, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br /> +<br /> +R<small>AILWAYS</small>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br /> +Rainfall, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>.<br /> +Republic of Andora, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br /> +Rice cultivation, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.<br /> +Rivers, comparative table of, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.<br /> +Romans in Spain, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +S<small>ALINAS</small>, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br /> +Salt-mine, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br /> +Schools and schoolmasters, <a href="#page_184">184</a>.<br /> +Sea-board of Spain, <a href="#page_002">2</a>.<br /> +Seguro, sierra and rivers, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.<br /> +Silk, <a href="#page_017">17</a>.<br /> +Sugar, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br /> +<br /> +T<small>AGUS</small> and its affluents, <a href="#page_017">17</a>.<br /> +Taxes, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.<br /> +Telegraphs, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br /> +Tobacco factories, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.<br /> +Toleration, early religious, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +U<small>NIVERSITIES</small>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +V<small>ISIGOTHS</small>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +W<small>ATER</small>, names connected with, <a href="#page_027">27</a>.<br /> + +Wines of Galicia, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Riojas, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Navarre and Aragon, <a href="#page_033">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catalonia, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valencia, <a href="#page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Mancha, <a href="#page_127">127</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malaga <a href="#page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andalusia sherries, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p class="c">LONDON:<br /> +PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,<br /> +ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"> +<img src="images/back.jpg" width="388" height="550" alt="image of book's back cover" title="image of book's back cover" /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN *** + +***** This file should be named 34875-h.htm or 34875-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/8/7/34875/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif, Michigan University Library and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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