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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Spain
+
+Author: Wentworth Webster
+
+Release Date: January 7, 2011 [EBook #34875]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, Michigan University Library and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SPAIN
+
+Edwd Weller]
+
+London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.]
+
+
+
+
+SPAIN
+
+BY THE
+REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER, M.A. OXON.
+
+WITH A CHAPTER BY AN ASSOCIATE OF THE SCHOOL OF MINES.
+
+_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+London:
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
+CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+1882.
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+LONDON:
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+[etext transcriber's note:
+No attempt has been made to correct, normalize or de-anglicize
+the spelling of Spanish names or words.
+For example: Calayatud/Calatayud, Alfonso/Alfonzo,
+Cacéres/Caceres/Cáceres, Cardénas/Cárdenas, Guipúzcoa/Guipuzcoa all
+appear]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+There is a difficulty in writing a book of this character on Spain,
+which does not exist, we think, to the same extent with any other
+European country. In most European nations the official returns and
+government reports may be accepted as trustworthy, and the compiler has
+little more to do than to copy them; but in Spain this is far from being
+always the case. In some instances, from nonchalance and habitual
+inexactitude, in others, and especially in all matters of finance and
+taxation, from designed misstatement, all such reports have to be
+received with caution and scrupulously examined. The reader must
+remember also that in Spain smuggling and contraband dealing in various
+forms is carried on to such a vast extent as seriously to vitiate all
+trade returns. Thus it is that Spanish statistics can be considered
+only as approximate truths.
+
+Another difficulty arises from the very varied character of the Spanish
+provinces. Hardly any statement can be made of one province which is not
+untrue of another. The ordinary descriptions of Spain present only one,
+or at most two, types, the Castling and Andalusian, and utterly neglect
+all the rest. The provinces of Spain have been well described as divided
+into "five Irelands" whose habits and modes of thought, political
+aspirations, and commercial interests and aptitudes, are often utterly
+opposed to those of the capital. A brief survey of the whole of Spain is
+attempted in the following pages.
+
+In a work of this kind one other obvious difficulty is to know what to
+omit. Some well-worn topics will be found to be absent from these pages.
+No references are made to the great Peninsular War. This can be easily
+studied in the admirable pages of Sir W. Napier in English, and of
+Toreno in Spanish, or in compendiums of these, which again are filtered
+down in every guide-book. For a like reason Prescott's brilliant works
+are not alluded to.
+
+For the chapter on Geology and Mining the reader is indebted to one of
+the most distinguished Associates of the School of Mines, who has been
+recently engaged in practical geological survey and mapping in Spain.
+
+Much also of the present work is due to private information most kindly
+furnished by Spanish friends of high position in the literary and
+political world, and with whom some of the subjects treated have been
+frequently discussed. To these the author offers his warmest and most
+grateful thanks.
+
+
+
+
+ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+
+    THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.
+
+                                                           PAGE
+
+    Boundaries of the Peninsula                               1
+    Area and Coast-line                                       2
+    Six divisions of Spain                                _ib._
+
+    _Mountain chains_:
+        Pyrenees                                              3
+        Cantabrian, Asturian, and Galician mountains          4
+        Leon                                              _ib._
+        Oca, Sierra Moncayo, and Idubeda chains               5
+        Central Plateau and its passes                    _ib._
+        Culminating water-shed of the Peninsula               6
+        Guadarrama range                                  _ib._
+        Toledan range                                         7
+        Sierra Morena and passes                          _ib._
+        Central ranges and river basins                       8
+        Sierra Nevada and offshoots                       _ib._
+        Minor ranges                                          9
+
+    _Rivers, river basins, and rainfall_:
+        Five great rivers                                    10
+        Rivers of Galicia and Asturias                       11
+        Basque Provinces                                     12
+        Ebro and its tributaries and canals                  12
+        Catalonia, streams of                                14
+        Douro and its tributaries                            15
+        Tagus     "       "                                  17
+        Guadiana  "       "       and lakes                  19
+        Guadalquiver, its tributaries, islands, and marismas 22
+        Segura and its irrigation                            24
+        Jucar     "        "                                 25
+        Guadalaviar or Turia                              _ib._
+    Lakes and Albuferas                                      26
+    Water toponymy                                           27
+    Comparative table of principal rivers                    28
+    Mineral springs and Salinas                            _ib._
+
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+
+    CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
+
+    Five climates of Spain                                   30
+    Temperature and rainfall of:
+        Galicia and the Asturias                             31
+        Santander and the Basque Provinces                   32
+        Aragon                                            _ib._
+        Catalonia                                         _ib._
+        Valencia                                             34
+        Alicante                                          _ib._
+        Murcia                                               35
+        Cartagena to Almeria                              _ib._
+        Malaga, Motril, Seville, and Cordova              _ib._
+        Granada                                              36
+        Cadiz, Gibraltar, &c                              _ib._
+        Elevation of Central Plateau                      _ib._
+    Temperature and rainfall of Madrid, Salamanca, and Soria 38
+    Agricultural products of:
+        Galicia and the Asturias                             39
+        Basque Provinces and basin of the Ebro               40
+    Moorish agriculture and exotic flora of Southern Spain   41
+    Products of Valencia and Murcia                          43
+    Palms at Elche                                           44
+    Aromatic mountain shrubs                                 45
+    Products and wines of Andalusia                          46
+    Products of the Central Plateau                        _ib._
+        Estremadura and law of the Mesta                     47
+        Locusts                                              48
+        Corn-lands of Castile and Sierras de Campos          50
+        Comparative Flora of Spain                           52
+
+    _Fauna_:
+        Monkeys of Gibraltar                               _ib._
+        Beasts and birds of prey                           _ib._
+        Game birds and African visitants                   _ib._
+        Noxious and useful insects                         _ib._
+        Merino sheep                                         54
+        Horses, cattle, and beasts of burden                 55
+        Fisheries                                            56
+    Estimated total production of Spain                      57
+
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+
+    GEOLOGY AND MINES.
+
+    Peculiar interest of Spanish geology                     58
+          Granite and Silurian rocks                      _ib._
+          Carboniferous formation                            59
+          Secondary formations                            _ib._
+          Upper Cretaceous                                _ib._
+          Eocene tertiary                                    60
+          Miocene fresh-water                             _ib._
+          Pliocene                                        _ib._
+    Influence of geology on populations                   _ib._
+    Statistics of Spanish geology                            61
+    Volcanoes, recent                                     _ib._
+
+    _Minerals of_:
+        Gneiss and crystalline schists                       62
+        Metamorphic rocks                                 _ib._
+        Cambrian formation                                _ib._
+        Silurian slates                                   _ib._
+        Devonian sandstones                               _ib._
+        Carboniferous series                              _ib._
+        Permian                                              63
+        Triassic conglomerates                            _ib._
+        Jurassic limestones and marl                      _ib._
+        Cretaceous formation                              _ib._
+        Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene                     _ib._
+    Production and export of six chief minerals           _ib._
+        Of argentiferous ore, cobalt, silver              _ib._
+        Coal                                                 65
+        Iron of the Bilbao district                       _ib._
+    Locality of principal mines                              66
+    Mining laws                                              67
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+
+    ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.
+
+    Pyrenees, no true boundary of                            69
+    Population of Spain, mixed                               70
+    Iberi, Kelt-Iberi, Basques, and Kelts                 _ib._
+    Foreign races in Spain                                   73
+    Visigoths, Arabs, and Moors                              75
+    Toponymy of Spain                                        76
+    Language of Spanish Jews                                 77
+    Existing dialects                                     _ib._
+    Statistics of the Spanish language                       78
+    Characteristics of   "       "                           79
+    Population of Spain                                      80
+        Density of                                        _ib._
+        Occupations of                                       81
+    Manufacturing and mining Provinces                       82
+    Clergy                                                _ib._
+    Distribution of property, great changes in               83
+        Abolition of Mesta and of feudal privileges       _ib._
+        Sale of Crown and Church property                    84
+        Actual distribution                               _ib._
+    Characteristics of the various populations               85
+        Galicians, Asturians, Basques, and Aragonese         86
+        Catalans, Valencians, and Murcians               86, 87
+        Andalusians                                          87
+        Manchegans, and Castilians                           89
+        Gipsies, Maragatos, Passiegos, Hurdes, Sayagos, &c.  90
+        Contrabandistas                                    _ib._
+
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+
+    DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.
+
+    Division of Kingdoms and Provinces                       91
+       Galicia and its provinces, Corunna, Lugo, Pontevedra,
+         and Orense                                          92
+       Asturias                                              94
+       Santander                                          _ib._
+       Basque Provinces, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, Alava            95
+       Navarre                                               96
+       Aragon and its provinces, Huesca, Saragossa, Teruel   97
+       Catalonia  "  Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida   100
+       Valencia   "  Castellon de la Plana, Valencia,
+         Alicante                                           103
+       Murcia     "  Murcia and Albacete                    107
+       Andalusia, Mediterranean Provinces, Almeria, Granada,
+         Malaga                                             109
+                  Atlantic: Cadiz, Huelva              117, 122
+                  Inland: Seville, Cordova, Jaen  120, 123, 125
+       Estremadura, Badajoz, Cacéres                      _ib._
+    New Castile and La Mancha, Provinces--Ciud ad Real,
+      Toledo, Madrid, Cuenca, Guadalajara                   127
+    Old Castile--Avila, Segovia, Soria, Logrono, Burgos     133
+    Leon--Salamanca, Valladolid, Zamora, Palencia, Leon     137
+    Balearic Isles                                          141
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+
+    HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.
+
+    Early liberties, _behetria_, _fueros_                   145
+    Capitulations of Moors and Jews                         147
+    Conquest of the South and its results                   149
+    The _Santa Hermandad_                                 _ib._
+    The Austrian Dynasty                                    151
+    The Bourbon Dynasty                                     152
+    Modern Constitutional Spain                             153
+    Cortés of Cadiz                                       _ib._
+    Reign of Ferdinand VII., and loss of American colonies_ib._
+        "    Isabella II.                                   154
+        First Carlist War                                 _ib._
+        Ministry of Narvaez                                 156
+            "       O'Donnell                               157
+    Expulsion of Isabella II., and provisional government _ib._
+    Amadeo I.                                               158
+    Republic                                              _ib._
+    Second Carlist War                                      159
+    Cantonalist insurrection                              _ib._
+    Alphonso XII.                                           160
+    Ministry of Cánovas del Castillo                        161
+
+    _Present Constitution and Administration of Spain_      162
+        Cortés, Senate, Congress                            163
+        Provincial administration                           164
+        Municipal       "                                 _ib._
+        Religion                                            165
+        Rights of persons, natives and foreigners         _ib._
+
+    _Military Administration_                               166
+        Army                                                167
+        Quality of Spanish soldiery, _pronunciamientos_,
+          &c.                                               168
+
+    _Naval Administration_                                  169
+        Royal Navy                                        _ib._
+        Mercantile Navy                                   _ib._
+
+    _Judicial Administration_                               169
+        Legal Procedure                                     170
+        Prisons                                           _ib._
+    Hospitals and lunatic asylums                           171
+    Railways                                                172
+    Telegraphs                                            _ib._
+    Letters and post                                      _ib._
+
+    _Finances of Spain._
+
+    Public debt                                             174
+    Increase of, since 1868                                 175
+    Deficit of budgets                                    _ib._
+    Sources of revenue                                      176
+    Expenditure                                           _ib._
+    Imports and exports                                     177
+    Foreign tariffs                                       _ib._
+    Protection and free trade                               178
+    Empleomania and its results                             179
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+
+    EDUCATION AND RELIGION.
+
+    Universities, number of students, salaries of
+      professors                                            181
+    Theological seminaries                                  182
+    Course of university study                              183
+    Provincial and special institutes                     _ib._
+    Secondary instruction, institutes and colleges          184
+    Number of students, and salary of masters               185
+    Course of instruction                                   186
+    University degrees                                    _ib._
+    Primary education                                       187
+
+    _Church and Religion._
+
+    Early Church Councils                                   188
+    Roman and Mazarabic liturgy                           _ib._
+    Inquisition                                           _ib._
+    Philip II., the Jesuits, and the Reformation            189
+    Expulsion of the Jesuits                                191
+    Concordat of 1851                                     _ib._
+    Archbishops, bishops, and clergy                      _ib._
+    Mode of appointment of bishops                          192
+    Spanish Protestants                                   _ib._
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+
+    LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.
+
+    Præhistoric art and architecture                        194
+    Roman and Visigothic                                  _ib._
+    Arabic                                                  195
+        Three periods of                                    196
+    Mudejar                                                 201
+    Christian                                             _ib._
+    Renaissance                                             202
+    Churrigueresque                                         203
+    Domestic architecture                                 _ib._
+    Church furniture and minor arts                         204
+
+    _Painting._
+
+    Characteristics of Spanish painting                     205
+    Local schools                                           206
+    Murillo                                                 208
+    Painters of Valencian school                            209
+      "    "    Castilian   "                             _ib._
+      "    "    Andalusian  "                             _ib._
+    Modern painters                                         210
+    Industrial arts, goldsmith's work, iron, porcelain,
+      glass, wood, lace                                     212
+    Music                                                 _ib._
+
+    _Literature._
+
+    Early Romances                                          213
+      "   Prose works                                       214
+    La Celistina and the _picaresque_ novels                215
+    Drama and _Autors_                                      216
+          Lope de Vega                                     _ib._
+          Calderon de la Barca                              217
+          Cervantes                                        _ib._
+          Quevedo                                           219
+    Historical writings                                     220
+    Poetry                                                 _ib._
+    Mystic writers                                          222
+    Classical and romantic schools                         _ib._
+    Modern writers: Poets--Espronceda, Zorilla, Becquer,
+      &c.                                                   224
+    Novelists--Fernan Caballero, J. Valera, &c.           _ib._
+    Dramatists--Hartzenbusch, Breton de los Herreros, &c.   225
+        Nunez de Arce                                       226
+    Historians--Condé Gayangos, De la Fuente, &c.         _ib._
+    Geographers--Fernandez Guerra, Coello, Bowles         _ib._
+    Geologists--Macpherson, &c.                           _ib._
+    Economists--Cárdenas, Colmeiro, De Azcárate             227
+    Theologians--Balmés, Donoso Cortez, C. Gonzalez, &c.  _ib._
+    Philologists--F. Fita, &c.                            _ib._
+    Orators                                                 228
+    Provincial literature                                   229
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+
+    EPILOGUE.
+
+    Spain not a worn-out country                            231
+    Two hindrances to development                         _ib._
+    Protection and free trade                               233
+    Cruelty and charities of Spain                          234
+
+
+    Appendix I.--Census of Provinces                        237
+       "    II.--Chief historical events                    239
+       "   III.--Chief books used                           241
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                               PAGE
+
+Caballeros                                       86
+
+Dominique, the Espada                            88
+
+Gipsies at Granada                               90
+
+Leaning Tower of Saragossa                       98
+
+General View of Granada, with the Alhambra      110
+
+Alhambra Tower by Moonlight                     114
+
+Fountain of the Four Seasons, Madrid            130
+
+Port of Cadiz                                   153
+
+Vespers                                         190
+
+Giralda of Seville                              197
+
+Moorish Ornamentation                           199
+
+[Illustration:
+
+PHYSICAL MAP
+of
+SPAIN
+
+Edwd Weller
+
+London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.]
+
+
+
+
+SPAIN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.
+
+
+Spain, with the neighbouring kingdom of Portugal, constitutes the most
+westerly of the three southern peninsulas of Europe, and in Cape Tarifa,
+latitude 36° 1', it attains the most southerly point of the whole
+continent. Separated from France and from the rest of Europe by the
+chain of the Pyrenees, and surrounded on all other sides by either the
+Mediterranean or the Atlantic, it presents at first sight the appearance
+of an exceedingly compact and homogeneous surface. It seems strange that
+this well-defined peninsula should contain two separate kingdoms, with
+peoples who speak languages allied, yet so distinct as to be mutually
+unintelligible to the uneducated classes.
+
+The peninsula lies between latitude 43° 45' and 36° 1' N., and between
+3° 20' E. and 9° 32' W. longitude. In shape it is thus nearly a square;
+a diagonal line from the N.E. Cape Creuz to the S.W. Cape St. Vincent
+measures 650 miles, while from Cape Ortegal, N.W., to Cape Gata, S.E.,
+would be 525 miles. The whole area of the peninsula contains 219,200
+square miles, of which 36,500 on the west belong to Portugal, and
+182,700 to Spain.
+
+The peninsular form of the country would lead us to expect that it would
+partake of all the characteristics of a maritime climate; but such is
+not the case. From the comparative evenness of the coast-line, unbroken
+and unindented by any deep inlets except on the extreme north-west, in
+Galicia, the coast-line bears a less proportion to the whole surface
+than that of many lands less surrounded by the sea. It counts only 1300
+miles, 700 of which are washed by the Mediterranean, and 600 by the
+Atlantic; that is, 1 mile of coast-line to 134 square miles of area;
+while Italy contains 1 to 75, and Greece 1 to 7. From the configuration
+of the coast, and from the character of the great central plateau, a
+large part of Spain has really an extreme continental climate.
+
+For while it is distinctly separated from the rest of Europe by the line
+of the Pyrenees, Spain is no less distinctly divided into different
+districts in the interior--districts which differ most widely in climate
+and elevation and products. Six of these are usually named: (1) The N.W.
+Atlantic coast, comprising Galicia, the coast of which presents a
+continuation of the Fiord system of Norway, and of the Firths of
+Scotland and Ireland; (2), the northern slope of the Cantabrian
+Mountains, and the narrow slip of land contained between them and the
+Bay of Biscay, comprising the Asturias, Santander, and the Basque
+Provinces; (3) the Valley of the Ebro, with Navarre, Aragon, and
+Catalonia; (4) the great Central Plateau--Leon, Old and New Castile,
+Estremadura, and La Mancha; (5) the Mediterranean Provinces, including
+Valencia, Murcia, and the parts of Andalusia between the Sierra Nevada
+and the Mediterranean; (6) the rest of Andalusia sloping towards the
+Atlantic.
+
+We will treat of these in order.
+
+
+_Mountain Chains._
+
+But first we must speak of the various mountain systems and river basins
+of Spain, without which it is impossible to understand either the
+physical conditions of the country, or the social and political state of
+the various populations which has resulted from them.
+
+First, on the north is the chain of the Pyrenees, a continuation of the
+great Alpine system of Central Europe, stretching from Cape Creuz, 3°
+19' E., to the Bay of Biscay, 2° 12' W., a distance of 320 miles, and
+prolonging itself westward in lower chains of different denominations
+until it finally sinks into the Atlantic at Cape Finisterre. The
+culminating points of the Pyrenees are towards the centre of the chain,
+in Mounts Maladetta, 11,150 feet, and the Pic de Posets and the Mount
+Perdu, each about 11,000 feet, whence the heights gradually descend, on
+the east to the Mediterranean and on the west to the Bay of Biscay. With
+the exception of the little Bidassoa, which in the lower part of its
+course forms the boundary between France and Spain, at the bottom of the
+Bay of Biscay, all the other waters of the Spanish side of the Pyrenees
+belong to the Ebro and to the Mediterranean. Parallel to the coast of
+the Bay of Biscay the Pyrenees are prolonged, first, by the Cantabrian
+Mountains, which run through the Basque Provinces, and the Province of
+Santandar; thence by the Picos de Europa, 8300 feet--from the
+south-eastern spurs of which the Ebro and Pisuerga take their rise--and
+the Asturian Mountains, to the Sierra de Penamarella, at the junction of
+the three Provinces of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. The chain here
+attains its greatest elevation, 9450 (?) feet, then descends to a
+plateau of about 4000 feet, whence it sinks rapidly to the Atlantic,
+forming the headlands of Ortegal, the extreme north-western, and of
+Finisterre, the extreme western, point of Northern Spain. The mountains
+of Leon form the western watershed, between the waters of the Ebro and
+those which fall into the Atlantic. The line is continued eastward by
+the Oca Mountains, the Sierra de Moncayo, and the Idubeda Mountains.
+These mountain chains divide the basin of the Ebro from that of the
+Douro. They also form the northern buttress of the great plateau of
+Central Spain, which attains an elevation of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The
+rise to the plateau from the Bay of Biscay is very abrupt. Within fifty
+miles of leaving the coast the railways from the north attain a height
+of 2000 feet, and reach the Central Plateau, at Quintanapalla, at an
+elevation of 3000 feet; while La Cañada, the highest point on the line
+to Madrid, is nearly 4460 feet, or about sixty feet higher than the
+tunnel of the Mount Cenis. From the eastern side the rise is less
+abrupt, and the plateau is entered at the lower elevation of 2330 feet,
+on the line from Alicante to Madrid. The famous Pass of Somosierra, on
+the old northern coach-road from Madrid, is about 4700 feet above the
+level of the sea. From these figures it is easy to perceive how very
+different is the aspect of these buttress chains when seen from the
+plateau, and when looked at from the plain from which they rise. Thus
+the Sierra de Moncayo, 7700 feet, stands out with boldness from the
+Valley of the Ebro, but viewed from the plateau of Castile it is
+scarcely noticeable. From its summit, however, the finest view of the
+whole range of the Pyrenees to be found anywhere on the Spanish side of
+the chain, is to be obtained.
+
+Turning thence towards the south and south-east, these mountain
+chains--under the various names of the Sierras de Cuenca, de Molina, and
+Albarracin--divide the river basins of the Mediterranean from the far
+larger ones of the Atlantic. They have their culminating point in the
+Muela de San Juan and the Cerro de San Felipe, nearly 6000 feet, at the
+junction of the three provinces of Teruel, Cuenca, and Guadalaxara. From
+the sides of these mountains the waters fall with rapid course, on the
+north to join the Ebro, on the east and south to the Mediterranean;
+while with gentler slope, but in far greater volume, the Douro, the
+Tagus, and the Guadiana roll their waters to the Atlantic. From these
+Sierras the plateau tilts gradually westward and southward, but is
+intersected by mountain chains, peaks of which towards the west attain a
+higher elevation than those which form the real culmination of this part
+of the peninsula. The bare and bleak granite range of the Guadarrama,
+which divides the basin of the Douro from that of the Tagus, and from
+whose summits steals the icy wind so fatal to Madrid, attains in its
+highest summit, Peña Lara, 7800 feet, near Segovia; while in its western
+prolongation, the Sierras de Credos and de Gata, the Plaza del Moro
+reaches 8700 feet. The chains which divide the valley of the Tagus from
+that of the Guadiana are not nearly so well marked as are those more to
+the north, and rise to a much less elevation above the plateau.
+Beginning with a south-westerly prolongation of the Cerro de San Felipe,
+under the successive titles of Montes de Toledo, Sierras de Guadaloupe,
+Montanchez, and San Mamed, about 2000 feet, they reach the Portuguese
+frontier near Portalegre. The highest point seems to be in the mountains
+of Toledo at Villuercas, where a height of a little over 5000 feet is
+attained. The mountains which separate the basins of the Guadiana and
+the Guadalquiver, under the names of the Sierras de Alcaroz, Morena, de
+Cordova, Guadacanal, and Aroche, and which form the southern buttress of
+the central plateau, present a still greater difference than those of
+the northern buttress when viewed from the plateau and from the plains
+of Andalusia. From the former they appear only rolling undulations, and
+the traveller scarcely notices the rise till he finds himself descending
+one of the steep and savage gorges, like that of the Pass of
+Despeña-Perroz, on the road and rail between La Mancha and Andalusia.
+The Col of Despeña-Perroz is nearly 2500 feet above the sea, and but few
+summits along the ranges of the Sierra Morena and its prolongations
+attain a greater elevation, the general range being about 2000 feet,
+except towards the west and north of Seville, where the Sierra de
+Aracena reaches 5550 feet. Eastward of the Guadalquiver the ranges which
+divide its waters from those of the Segura, the Sierras de Segura, and
+Sagra, attain a greater height, the former 6500 feet, the latter to 7800
+feet.
+
+Thus as supports to the great plateau, or on it, we have the following
+successive ranges as we proceed from north to south. First, the Sierra
+de Moncayo and the Idubeda mountains, dividing the basin of the Ebro
+from that of the Douro; next the Guadarrama chain, with the Sierras de
+Credos and de Gata, separating the Douro from the Tagus; then the
+Mountains of Toledo, and the Sierra de San Mamed, between the Tagus and
+the Guadiana; and lastly, the southern buttress, the Sierra Morena,
+dividing the Guadiana from the Guadalquiver.
+
+But it is south of the last stream that the culminating points of the
+whole peninsula are to be found--in the mighty Sierra Nevada, which
+separates the lovely valley of Granada from the Mediterranean, shielding
+it from the scorching winds of Africa, and giving it its eternal
+freshness and verdure. The highest of its summits are Muley Hacen and
+Velate, lying to the south-east of Granada, the former attaining nearly
+11,670 feet, and the latter 11,400. The altitudes diminish rapidly east
+and west. Towards the east, outlying ranges, such as those of the
+Sierras de Filabrés and of Gador, attain heights of 6000 and 7000 feet
+respectively; while in the westward prolongations, the Mesa de Ronda is
+only 5000; and the chain gradually drops till it reaches the sea at Cape
+Trafalgar, and the rock of Gibraltar, 1400 feet.
+
+But besides these greater chains of mountains Spain is traversed by
+numerous offshoots and lateral ranges, and a great portion of her
+territory is more or less of a mountainous character. In districts where
+rain is unfrequent these hills are absolutely bare of verdure for a
+great part of the year, and remain untenanted and uncultivated. Among
+the more elevated of these lesser chains are those of Monseni,
+Monserrat, and Montagut, in Catalonia, which attain respectively 5500,
+4000, and 3000 feet in height. On the borders of Leon and Galicia, and
+in the latter province, there are numerous mountains and smaller ranges,
+which vary from 3000 to 5000 feet. The whole frontier of Portugal is
+covered by lower ranges, connecting the great chains of which we have
+already spoken with hills of from 2000 to 3000 feet. From the great
+eastern buttress two spurs, or rolling plateaux, run down to the
+Mediterranean, and terminate in the different headlands--such as Cape
+Gata in the south-east, Cape Palos near Carthagena, Capes de la Nao and
+San Antonio near Denia, Peniscola, and others. Some of these smaller
+ranges are exceedingly rich in minerals, and as they approach the sea
+form sites of picturesque and enchanting beauty, such as can be
+surpassed only by the better-known and historic glories of the coasts of
+Italy or of Greece.
+
+
+_Rivers of Spain._
+
+Of the five great rivers of Spain only one, the Ebro, pours its waters
+into the Mediterranean; the other four, the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and
+Guadalquiver, discharge theirs into the Atlantic; but of these last the
+Guadalquiver alone is wholly a Spanish stream. In the lower and more
+valuable part of their course the Douro, Tagus, and Gaudiana, belong to
+Portugal--a fact which must always be remembered when treating of the
+internal commerce of Spain. But besides these larger streams there are
+several of slightly smaller dimensions, of which we will treat in order.
+
+Few countries present within so short a distance so great a difference
+in rainfall and moisture as does Spain. In some parts of the Asturias
+and Galicia the rainfall is probably as heavy as that of any part of
+Europe--as much as 147-1/2 inches are said to have been measured in a
+single year; and the average fall on the northern slopes of the
+Cantabrian mountains is said to be sixty inches annually. Yet the
+average of the whole basin of the Ebro--which rises from the southern
+slopes of the Picos de Europa, one of the most rainy of the rainy
+districts--is only eighteen inches annually, the last 300 miles of its
+course being through almost barren districts, where rain seldom falls.
+
+The principal river of Galicia is the Minho, with its tributary the Sil.
+Each of these rises, though at some distance apart, from the southern
+side of the Cantabrian mountains, much nearer to the waters of the Bay
+of Biscay than to those of the Atlantic, into which they flow. They take
+thence a southerly and south-westerly course, until they unite a few
+miles above Orense. The lower part of the united course, which bears the
+name of the Minho, forms from Melgaco to the sea the frontier between
+the kingdoms of Portugal and Spain. The remaining rivers of Galicia are
+numerous but of little importance: the Tambre is the largest of those
+which fall into the Atlantic on the west; while on the north the sources
+of the Eo and the Navia overlap those of the Minho, and take their rise
+from the mountains which border on Leon. The whole country is
+exceedingly well watered. Both in its agricultural character as a
+grazing country, and in its flora and fauna, it resembles the milder
+portions of southern Ireland and of Devonshire, but with occasional
+products of a warmer zone. The rivers of the Asturias, Santander, and of
+the Basque provinces, all partake of the same general character. In the
+upper part of their courses they are mere mountain torrents, their
+course is rapid but short, and they are of but little use for
+navigation, though occasionally small but insecure harbours are formed
+at their mouth. The only great exception to this is the Nervion, on
+which Bilbao is situated, and which is navigable for eight miles from
+its mouth. The waters of the Bidassoa, the Deva, and others, are,
+however, utilized for the transport of ore from the mines and ironworks
+along the course. The Bidassoa, for some ten miles before it enters the
+Bay of Biscay at Cape Figueras forms the boundary between France and
+Spain; about four miles from its issue, between Irun and Behobie, is the
+celebrated Isle des Faisans, where, in 1659, the marriage was arranged
+between Louis XIV. and the Infanta, which eventually placed the Bourbons
+on the throne of Spain. The Bidassoa is the last of the northern rivers
+of Spain which falls into the Atlantic.
+
+The Ebro has its rise from the source, Fontibre, in the province of
+Santander, and takes a south-easterly course of 466 miles, through the
+provinces of Santander, Burgos, Navarre, and Aragon, almost parallel
+with the Pyrenees, till it falls into the Mediterranean, through a sandy
+delta stretching some fifteen miles into the sea below Amposta. The
+descent for the first 200 miles of its course is exceedingly rapid, but
+after that the fall is gradual till it reaches the sea. In its course
+it receives the waters of many tributaries, both on the left from the
+Pyrenees, and on the right from the Idubeda mountains and the sierras of
+Southern Aragon. Were it not for these tributaries little of its waters
+would reach the Mediterranean, so dry and arid are the Bardenas of
+Navarre, and the Dehesas of Aragon, through which it flows. The
+Spaniards have a proverb that it is the Navarrese and Aragonese
+streams--the Arga, the Ega, and the Aragon--which make a man of the
+Ebro. Farther down, the Gallego runs in near Saragossa; while the united
+waters of the Cinca and the Segre at Mequinenza pour a far larger volume
+of water into the parent bed than it contains itself. From the right,
+the principal streams are the Xalon, with its tributary the Xiloca,
+which joins the Ebro between Tudela and Saragossa, the Marten, and the
+Guadalope near Caspe. The Ebro, notwithstanding its length, the number
+of its tributaries, and the extent of its basin, 25,000 square miles, is
+of little use for navigation. A magnificent canal--first projected and
+commenced by the Emperor Charles V. (I. of Spain) then after a lapse of
+more than two centuries taken in hand by Charles III., in 1770--runs
+from Tudela to Saragossa; thence to the sea it still remains in project
+only. The part already finished is falling into decay; and it is only
+the excellent quality of the masonry, and of the cement or mortar
+employed, that retards its utter ruin. The traffic is very small; and
+even as a means of irrigation its waters are allowed greatly to run to
+waste. At the apex of the delta from Amposta to San Carlos de la Rapita
+a canal of eight miles has been cut for purposes of navigation; but the
+formation of a bar, and the silting up of the bay, have rendered it
+almost useless. The other rivers which flow into the Mediterranean,
+between the lower course of the Ebro and the Pyrenees are the Fluvia,
+which flows into the gulf of Rosas, the Ter, which passes by Gerona, and
+the Llobregat near Barcelona. All are torrential streams, unfit for
+navigation; but their waters, if all utilized for irrigation like those
+of the Llobregat, would be sources of immense wealth to the country.
+
+From the fact that the lower part of the course of the great rivers of
+the plateau--the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana--flow through
+Portugal, their streams are hardly at all available as a means of
+communication or of navigation for Spain; and from the nature of the
+deeply cut beds which the waters have worn through the soil, flowing,
+especially as they approach the frontiers of Portugal, through gorges
+approaching in length and depth the cañons of North America, the rivers
+are little available for irrigation, although far more use might be made
+of them for this purpose than is actually done. Owing to the prejudices
+of the Spanish husbandman, and to his reluctance to accept any change,
+however profitable, in his ancient routine, neither the little that has
+been done in the present century, nor the remains of a wiser agriculture
+in former times are used by the peasantry. In the province of Zamora,
+for instance, both the ancient "acequias" and the modern canal of the
+Esla are equally neglected. The rich results that have followed the
+employment of the waters in the few cases in which they have been
+intelligently directed, stirs no one up to follow the example. It is one
+of the many contrasts between different parts of Spain, that the value
+of irrigation should be so well understood in some parts and so utterly
+neglected and under-valued in others. But we shall have more to say of
+this when we treat of the eastern and southern streams: at present let
+us return to the Douro, and to the other rivers of the plateau.
+
+The Douro takes its rise in the Lago Negro, or Black Lake, on the
+southern flanks of the Mount Urbion, in the north-western angle of the
+province of Soria. It first runs eastward to the city of that name, the
+ancient Numantia, then turns almost directly south as far as Almazan,
+whence it runs westward to Portugal, receiving meanwhile the waters of
+the Esla, below Zamora; at the frontier, again it turns south, through
+deep gorges which form the boundary between Spain and Portugal, until
+it receives the waters of the Agueda, where it finally enters Portugal,
+and after a westerly course thence of about 100 miles, falls into the
+Atlantic below Oporto.
+
+The basin drained by the Douro is the most extensive of all those of the
+rivers in Spain. Including the portion in Portugal, it comprises 35,000
+square miles; the length of the river is about 500 miles; the average
+rainfall is stated at twenty inches. The chief affluents of the Douro
+descend from the north from the mountains of Burgos and the Cantabrian
+range. The largest are the Pisuerga, which rises not far from the
+sources of the Ebro among the Picos de Europa, and flows almost directly
+south by Palencia and Valladolid until it joins the Douro, some miles
+above Tordesilla; the Esla, which also rises from the western flanks of
+the same chain, not far from Covadonga, takes a somewhat more westerly
+direction, and after receiving several smaller streams unites with the
+Douro below Zamora. These two rivers supply water for two of the most
+successful canals in Spain, especially that along the Pisuerga, for over
+ninety miles from Alar del Rey to Valladolid. There is a considerable
+traffic on it, especially for passengers. It was planned in 1753 by
+Ensenada, but completed only in 1832. The canal of the Esla, for
+purposes of irrigation, begun by English engineers in 1864, and
+finished in 1869, has hardly been so successful. The latest report
+(June, 1880) states that the peasant proprietors, notwithstanding
+examples of the great utility of irrigation, obstinately refuse to use
+it. The principal affluents of the Douro on the west and south are the
+Tormes, which flows by Salamanca, and joins it about midway in its
+course as a frontier of Portugal; and the Agueda, which runs in just
+where it takes its final departure for the west.
+
+The Tagus, the central river of Spain, and which divides its territory
+into two nearly equal portions, rises from a fountain called the Fuente
+Garcia, or Pié, on the south side of the Muela de San Juan, between the
+Sierras de Molina, Albaracin, and San Felipe, the knot of mountains
+which, as we have indicated above, form the great watershed of the
+peninsula, whence the waters flow northwards to the Ebro, east and
+southwards to the Mediterranean, and westwards, in the Tagus and its
+tributaries, to the Atlantic. Were the whole peninsula of Spain and
+Portugal one kingdom, the Tagus would be perhaps the most important of
+its rivers; but in the divided state it is of far more value to Portugal
+than to Spain. Its swift and turbid current, flowing between steep
+banks, and in a bed broken into rapids and encumbered by rocks, is
+scarcely navigable above Abrantes. The basin of the Tagus contains an
+area of nearly 30,000 square miles, and its length is estimated at
+about 550. The rainfall is less than that of the Douro, being only
+sixteen inches annually. The river, moreover, runs by no means in the
+centre of its basin, but far to the southwards of a central dividing
+line, and consequently the tributaries which it receives from the north
+or left bank are of much greater importance than those which come from
+the south or right. After flowing a few miles in a north-westerly
+direction, the river gradually bends, first westerly, and then in a
+slightly south-westerly direction, in a deep channel, through a bare
+rolling country, where everything takes the prevailing colour of red
+dusty uplands, until it arrives at Aranjuez, situated at the confluence
+of the Jarama and the Tagus, a royal residence whose abundance of water
+and of shade make it a true oasis in a desert. The Jarama, which rises
+in the Guadarama, brings in also the waters of the Henares, and those of
+the Manzanares, on which Madrid is situated. These streams have been the
+subjects of many projects and attempts at canalization, either for
+irrigation or for supplying the metropolis with water. Most of these
+have failed, but a canal from Porcal to Aranjuez, of seventeen miles and
+a half, is in working order. The canal of Cabarrus brings the waters of
+the Lozoya to Madrid. But the great enterprise of the canal of
+irrigation from the Henares, constructed by the same English company
+which made the canal of the Esla, and which was to have been
+twenty-eight miles in length, and to have irrigated 30,000 acres, is
+suspended by lawsuits as to the ownership of the waters. The Alberche,
+which rises to the north of the Sierra de Gredos, enters the Tagus near
+Talavera de la Reyna. The Tietjar, and the Alagon, which joins the main
+stream just above Alcantara, beside the frontier stream, the Heyas, are
+the only Spanish waters of importance from the north before the Tagus
+enters Portugal; and from the south the Salor and the del Monte, both of
+which have their rise and course in the same province of Caceres alone
+need mention. In the upper part of its course, however, the smaller
+tributaries of both the Tagus and the Guadiana often overlap, and but a
+very few miles separate the Tagus itself from the waters which flow into
+the Guadiana.
+
+The exact source of the Guadiana has been a subject of much debate and
+of many fables. Its true origin seems to be in a series of lakes at the
+junction of the provinces of Ciudad Real and Albacete, near Montiel, in
+La Mancha. A picturesque stream, the Ruidosa, with many cascades and
+broken water, connects these lakes; but after running a few miles in a
+north-westerly direction, it disappears underground near Tomesillo, and
+is believed to rise to the surface after about twenty miles, in the Ojos
+(eyes) of the Guadiana, near Damiel. Very soon it receives from the
+right the united waters of the Zancara and the Giguela, streams whose
+contributions are much more scanty, especially in summer, than the
+length of their course on the map would lead one to suppose; thence the
+river flows in a westerly direction, passing near Ciudad Real, below
+which the Javalon enters from the left, coming from the Campo de
+Montiel; near Don Benito the Zuja, from the Sierra Morena, joins it, and
+some miles lower down the Matachet. Flowing past Medellin, five miles
+below Badajoz the river crosses the frontier of Portugal, changes its
+course from westerly to south-west, and afterwards south and south-east,
+till it again joins the frontier near San Lucar, and dividing the two
+countries till its mouth, falls into the Gulf of Cadiz at Ayamonte. In
+the lower part of its course the river, which before has been wide and
+shallow, and often almost dry in summer, narrows its course, and rushes
+with impetuosity through the rapids called the Salto del Lobo (the
+wolf's leap), near Serpa, in Portugal. The whole length of the Guadiana
+is estimated at 550 miles, and the area of its bed at 24,000 square
+miles. The rainfall is about fourteen inches.
+
+To the south of the rivers of the plateau the only considerable stream
+is the Guadalquiver, with its tributaries. The character of this river
+is entirely different to that of the former streams. Like the Ebro, it
+forms a true valley, instead of merely cutting its way through rocks,
+cañons, and defiles. Its bed is on an average about 1200 feet below that
+of the Guadiana in the greater part of its course. It is also the only
+river in Spain of any utility for navigation; the tide is felt beyond
+Seville, and vessels of 200 to 300 tons ascend to that city. There are
+also several lines of steamboats trading thence directly with London,
+Marseilles, Bilbao, Cadiz, and Gibraltar. The Guadalquiver takes its
+rise from two sources--one, in the streams Guadalimar and Guadarmeno,
+rises in the Sierra Alcaraz, and not very far from the sources of the
+Guadiana; the other, which bears the name of the Guadalquiver, in the
+south-west of the Sierra Sagra; this latter branch is soon joined by the
+Guadiana Menor, coming down from the Sierra Nevada. The basin of the
+Guadalquiver presents this peculiarity, that its boundary is not formed
+by the line of the highest summits; on the contrary, many of its
+tributaries take their rise on the farther side of the Sierra Morena on
+the north, and of the Sierras de Granada and Nevada on the south, and
+have cut their way through these higher grounds to join the Guadalquiver
+in the plains of Andalusia. The upper part of its course is very rapid,
+and the junction of the two rivers Guadalimar and Guadalquiver, in the
+plains of Baeza, is about 5000 feet below the Punta de Almenara; but
+from thence to the sea the fall is very slight. After the junction the
+river passes by Andujar, Montoro, and Cordova, receiving on both banks
+the waters of many streams of but little importance; but between Cordova
+and Seville it is joined by its largest tributary, the Xenil, which
+rises in the Sierra Nevada, and flowing through the celebrated Vega of
+Granada, bursts through the Antequera mountains to enter the great plain
+of Andalusia, and loses itself in the Guadalquiver. From Seville
+downward the character of the stream is greatly changed; it wanders in
+large meanderings through low and marshy grounds for two or three
+leagues on each bank, mostly uninhabited, and used only for pasturing
+cattle. These low lands, which are called _Marismas_, in dry weather are
+covered with clouds of black dust, and in wet are an almost impassable
+slough of mud; mid these the river divides, and its winding beds form
+two islands--Isle Mayor and Menor, the former of which is wholly given
+to cattle, while the latter is inhabited and well cultivated; The river
+finally enters the Gulf of Cadiz, at San Lucar de Barameda, forcing its
+way with difficulty through low hills of sand, like those of the Landes
+in France. The marshes near the mouth are utilized as _Salinas_, for
+making excellent salt; and on the hills which overlook the _Marismas_
+some of the most renowned wines and fruits of Spain are produced. The
+whole course of the Guadalquiver is about 340 miles and the area of its
+basin 21,000: the rainfall is estimated at nineteen inches.
+
+The other streams which fall into the Gulf of Cadiz--the Rio Tinto,
+which runs into the Huelva basin, and the Guadalete at Cadiz--are of no
+utility for navigation. The little port of Palos, whence Columbus sailed
+to discover a new world, is almost entirely blocked up by sands brought
+down by the former torrent.
+
+The remaining rivers of Spain--those which, descending from the great
+plateau, flow eastward to the Mediterranean--though all useless for
+navigation, are among the most productive of all its streams. Flowing
+through a country whose temperature exceeds that of the opposite coast
+of Africa; where the rainfall is either scanty, or disastrous in
+quantity from rare but terrible storms; and through districts in which
+no rain falls for years together--the waters of these rivers, skilfully
+applied to irrigation, have rendered what would otherwise be a barren
+land one of fertility unparalleled in Europe. Unlike the peasants of
+Castile, the cultivators of Murcia and Valencia have learnt to value the
+use of water in agriculture; although even there, works which were first
+constructed by the Moors have been allowed to fall into ruin, and are
+yearly becoming of less utility. Of this we shall speak more at length
+below. The three great rivers we have yet to notice are the Murcian
+Segura, and the Jucar and Guadalaviar, in Valencia.
+
+The river Segura takes its rise in the Sierra de Segura, between the
+Sierras of Alcaraz and Sagra. The upper part of its course is that of a
+mountain torrent, leaping from terrace to terrace of the mountains as it
+descends, until after the junction of the Mundo, which rises from a
+cirque in the Sierra Alcaras, like the cirque of Gavarnie in the
+Pyrenees, and flows through a deep ravine from the north-east. Its
+waters are dammed up, cut into numberless channels, and almost wholly
+utilized for irrigation, so that only about ten per cent of them reaches
+the sea; the rest are dissipated in the huertas of Murcia, Orihuela, and
+part of Elche. Its tributary the Sangonera loses almost all its waters
+in the plains of Lorca. With the little Vinalapo, almost 15,000 acres
+are rendered productive by the waters of these streams in one of the
+driest districts of Spain. The wheat of Orihuela is some of the finest
+in Spain; and so certain is the crop as to give rise to the proverb,
+"Rain or no rain, there is always wheat in Orihuela." The Segura has a
+course of about 217 miles, and an area of about 850 square miles; the
+average rainfall is estimated at about twelve inches, but the difference
+is very great in different years, as the district is liable to rare but
+most heavy and destructive floods.
+
+The Jucar takes its rise not far from the sources of the Tagus, on the
+south side of the Muela de San Juan, which we have before mentioned as
+the culminating watershed of the peninsula. It flows first in a
+south-westerly direction as far as Cuenca, whence it gradually turns
+south and south-east, and at Jorquera, to the north-east of Albacete,
+strikes eastwards for the Mediterranean, which it finally enters at
+Cullera. Like the Segura and Guadalaviar, its waters are drained off for
+irrigation; but its basin is narrower, and it can boast of no fertility
+equal to the huertas of Murcia or Valencia. Its course is about 317
+miles, the area of its bed 580, and the rainfall some twelve and a half
+inches; the irrigated land is over 30,000 acres.
+
+The Guadalaviar, or Turia, rises on the north side of the Muela de San
+Juan, and descending rapidly, flows eastward past Albarracin and Teruel;
+at which latter town it turns abruptly southwards till it enters the
+province of Valencia, where it again takes a more easterly course,
+flowing with ever-diminished stream through the rich garden of Valencia,
+at which city it falls into the Mediterranean, with water which, except
+in time of flood, scarcely rises above the ankle. The length of its
+course is about 187 miles, the area of its basin 320 square miles; it
+irrigates over 25,000 acres near Valencia.
+
+Besides these larger rivers, there are on the Mediterranean slope
+innumerable smaller streams, whose waters, though of little geographical
+importance, are of the greatest utility to agriculture. In summer
+scarcely a drop of their waters reaches the sea; all is either employed
+for irrigation, or dissipated by evaporation; often they are dammed up
+to form reservoirs or _pantanos_, sometimes employed for rice culture.
+But small as these streams are, it is to them that this burning coast
+owes its beauty and fertility, its almost tropical vegetation and its
+rich products. The fair gardens of Castellon, of Gandia, of Murviedro
+would be barren and valueless without these waters. Still farther to the
+north the waters of the Llobregat, and the canal of Urgel in Catalonia,
+are used for the same purpose.
+
+The lakes of Spain are neither large nor numerous, but some are curious
+from a geographical point of view. On the high plateaux whence the
+Guadiana, the Guadalimar, the Segura, and the Jucar take their rise,
+either a dam or a trench would suffice to turn the waters either to the
+Atlantic or the Mediterranean; and here alone in Western Europe are
+found temporary lakes with no outlet, and consequently salt from excess
+of evaporation. For the same reason salt springs and brackish streams
+abound in these highlands. All around the coast, both on the Atlantic
+and Mediterranean, salinas, or salt-works for making salt, either from
+the sea or from the brackish water of lagoons and tidal marshes, abound;
+those of Cadiz, and of the coast between Cartagena and Alicante are
+celebrated for the excellence of their salt. Besides these are the five
+Albuferas, or lagoons, of Valencia, Alicante, Elche, Auna, and Oropesa.
+Of these that of Valencia is far the largest, and feeds enormous
+quantities of fish and of aquatic fowl of all kinds. The interior lakes,
+as that of Sanabria in Zamora, Gallocanta in Aragon, and those from
+which many of the rivers take their source, are noted only for their
+picturesque beauty. We can hardly show the value of water in Spain
+better than by directing the reader's attention to the number of places
+which take their name from water of some kind: thus there are forty-four
+villages or towns whose names are compounded of _Aguas_, waters; 238
+into which the word _Fuente_, fountain, enters; 144 _Rios_, rivers; 54
+_Arroyos_, brooks; 44 _Pozos_, wells; 30 _Salinas_, salt waters; 9 _Rio
+Secos_, dry rivers; and about 600 _Molinos_ or water-mills. The
+multiplicity of these last dates perhaps from the time when every
+seigneur had his own mill, and obliged his vassals to grind their corn
+there; but assuredly in a moister climate water would not have played so
+great a part in the nomenclature, or toponymy, of the country.
+
+We add the following table, deduced from Reclus' "Nouvelle Géographie
+Universelle," 6° Serie, p. 886, compared with an article in "La Revista
+Contemporanea," December 30th, 1880:--
+
+                               Area of  Length of Mean      Outfall compared
+                  Rivers.      basin.   course.   rainfall.  with rainfall.
+                              Sq. miles. Miles.    Inches.    Per cent.
+
+  Northern       {Minho&Sil    10,000    190       47-1/2     50
+    Rivers.      {Ebro         25,000    466       18         20
+
+  Rivers of      {Douro        35,000    506       20         40
+    the          {Tagus        30,000    556       16         33
+    Central      {Guardiana &
+    Plateau.     {Zancara      24,000    553       14         20
+
+  Andulasia      Guadalquiver  21,000    340       19         30
+
+  Mediterranean  {Segura         8500    217       12         10
+    Rivers.      {Jucar          5800    317       12-1/2     15
+  E. & S.E.      {Guadalaviar    3200    187       --         12
+
+The mineral springs of Spain are very numerous, as might be expected in
+a mountainous country, at the junction of different strata in the
+metamorphic fissures, and in the neighbourhood of extinct volcanoes.
+Many of them were known and used by the Romans, and possibly by other
+races before their time. The Moors made use of many, more especially in
+the south. The majority of these springs are much neglected, and the
+bathing establishments in their roughness are a striking contrast to
+those of Germany and of France; there is, however, no reason to suppose
+that the waters themselves are less efficacious. The best known springs
+lie along the line of the Pyrenees, in Catalonia, Navarre, and
+especially in the Basque provinces and Santander. Another noted group
+are in the neighbourhood of Granada, and on the northern slopes of the
+Sierra Nevada. Those in the Guadarrama range are more frequented, from
+their vicinity to Madrid. Many of the Salados and Salinas in the higher
+parts of the eastern range, as well as the springs in the neighbourhood
+of Valencia, might be utilized with advantage. In this, as in many other
+things, Spain has not yet recovered the threads of a lost civilization,
+and in many points of material comfort and well-being is behind the
+Spain of Roman and of Moorish times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
+
+
+Spain may be roughly divided into five climates: (1) that of the north
+and of the Pyrenees, where rain is abundant; (2) the west or Atlantic
+climate, including Portugal; (3) the north-east or Mediterranean; (4)
+the east and south, or African climate; and (5) lastly, the climate of
+the great Central Plateau, or the Continental. All these are well
+marked, and differ greatly in their temperature, in elevation, in
+exposure, in rainfall, and in prevailing winds. To speak of an average
+temperature, or of an average rainfall in Spain, is only to mislead. The
+temperature of the south and south-east is higher than that of the
+opposite coast of Africa, while the winters in Castile recall those of
+Scandinavia in their bitterness. In some of the Asturian valleys there
+is, perhaps, the heaviest rainfall in Europe; while the lower valley of
+the Ebro is almost a desert, from want of rain; and in parts of Valencia
+and Murcia, and even in Andalusia, not a drop will fall for years; yet
+at times these provinces, and their driest portions, are visited--as in
+1802, 1879, and 1881--by overwhelming and destructive floods. To strike
+an average, then, even for the same spot, through several years, is
+often merely deceptive.
+
+We have remarked above on the similarity of the conformation of the
+western coasts of Galicia to those of Norway, Scotland, and Ireland.
+They partake also of the same Atlantic character in their climate and
+productions. Galicia and the Asturias are essentially grazing countries;
+and from the Galician ports, up to 1878, about 20,000 head of fatted
+cattle were annually sent to England. Except in the more sheltered
+valleys, where the productions of a warmer clime will flourish, the
+native flora is not unlike that of the milder parts of Ireland and of
+Devonshire. The average temperature of Santiago is about 55° Fahr., with
+a maximum of 95°, and a minimum of 28°; Oviedo is given as 54° average,
+maximum 80°, and minimum 24°; while the rainfall of the former is from
+58 to 68 inches, and that of the latter varies from 38 to 50 in ordinary
+years, but in 1858 it attained 80 inches. Proceeding eastward we meet
+the northern or Pyrenean climate, where the rainfall is not so great,
+and, except in the immediate vicinity of the highest mountains, lessens
+gradually as we either go eastward or descend into the plains. The
+moisture is condensed and wrung out of the clouds brought by the watery
+western winds, and precipitated on the mountains of the west and north.
+From the Picos de Europa, in the province of Santander, which may be
+considered as the meeting-point of the two climates, the waters descend
+on the one side by the Ebro to the Mediterranean, by the Pisuerga to the
+Douro and the Atlantic, and by the shorter northern streams to the Bay
+of Biscay. In the valley of the Cabuervega (Santander) the rainfall is
+57-1/2 inches. Passing eastward we find Bilbao and San Sebastian, with
+an average temperature of 56° and 55°, a maximum of 93°, and minimum
+23°, while the rainfall has diminished from 55 to 48 inches. At Vergara,
+more inland, it is 52. At Huesca, in Aragon, notwithstanding its
+proximity to the mountains, the rainfall is only 25 inches; at Balaguer,
+in Catalonia, only 15-1/2. At Saragossa the climate becomes more
+extreme; the average is 60°, the maximum 96°, and the minimum 20°, while
+the rainfall descends to 14 inches. The equalizing influence of the
+neighbourhood of the sea is felt in the Mediterranean climate at
+Barcelona; for while the average is 63°, the maximum is only 88°, and
+the minimum 32°, and the rainfall ascends to 24 inches. The difference
+is still more marked if we compare the extreme oscillation between the
+maximum and minimum temperatures. At Saragossa this is from 120° to
+130°; at Barcelona from 90° to 100° Fahr.
+
+The productions of this northern zone vary greatly according to
+elevation and exposition. Those of the Basque Provinces still belong to
+the north temperate zone climate--cattle, corn, and cider, as well as
+wine. The olive, and the mulberry for silk, are almost unknown; but
+maize is largely grown. As we approach Catalonia these products give way
+to those of the Mediterranean region of Provence and of the Riviera--the
+olive, the grape, the mulberry. A powerful red wine is made on the lower
+southern spurs of the Pyrenees and of the Cantabrian Mountains, in the
+Riojas, in Navarre, and in Aragon. Much of it would be excellent if more
+attention were paid to the preparation, and especially to the conditions
+of transport. Great quantities are at present exported to France by sea
+from Bilbao and San Sebastian, and also by rail, for the purpose of
+mixing with the thinner and poorer clarets of Bordeaux, to fit them for
+the taste and market of England. In Catalonia the wine improves, and is
+less used for mixing. The chief kinds are a red wine, like Rousillon,
+and sweet, luscious wines, Rancio, somewhat like Muscat or Malaga. Of
+late the manufacture of effervescing wines like champagne has been
+carried on with considerable success. The wine made in Catalonia amounts
+to one-fifth of the whole produce of Spain. Already the orange and the
+palm appear.
+
+Proceeding southwards from Catalonia, we gradually advance into the
+south-eastern and southern climate of Spain, a climate which is rather
+African than European in its character, and both whose products and
+dryness have more relation to the African continent than to that of the
+rest of Europe. It is here that the date-palm ripens--which it does not
+on the opposite coast of Algeria--and the camel breeds, and can be used
+as a beast of burden equally as in Egypt and the East. Sheltered by the
+mountain ranges to the east and north from the cold winds which sweep
+the plateau of Castile, exposed by the slope of the country to the full
+influence of the southern sun and its powerful evaporation, the
+characteristics of the climate are warmth and dryness, while the
+vicinity of the Mediterranean partly tempers the extreme range of heat
+and cold which might be found in lands more remote from the sea. Thus
+the average temperature of Valencia is 65°, its maximum 102°, its
+minimum 41°, and extreme range 100°. Alicante, still further south, has
+an average of 66°, a maximum of 100°, and a minimum of 35°. The average
+rainfall at Valencia is stated at 17, and that of Alicante at 18 inches;
+but, as remarked above, in this south-eastern district of Spain averages
+of rainfall are quite deceptive. In some years the quantity marked is
+only a very few inches, 3 or 6, over the whole district, and there are
+considerable portions where rain does not fall for years. The country
+is rendered fertile and productive, not by its rains, but by irrigation
+from the rivers, fed by the winter snows on the mountains which border
+the great plateau. At times, however, as in 1802 and 1879, storms of
+rain descend on the high lands of Murcia and the eastern sierras, and
+floods rush down, sweeping away dams which have stood for centuries,
+washing away towns and villages, and spreading destruction far and wide.
+To compute the rainfall of such floods into an average is only to play
+with figures. Murcia has an average temperature of 64°, maximum 112°,
+minimum 24°, and an extreme range of 120°. The rainfall averages about
+12-1/2 inches on the coast, but varies greatly; at Albacete it is said
+to average 13 inches. The directly southern coast, from the Cabo de Gata
+to Gibraltar, has a milder and more equable climate than that of the
+south-eastern coast; but in the inland valley of the Guadalquiver the
+range is more extreme, both for heat and cold. The dryness in the
+eastern district still continues from Cartagena to Almeria; the rainfall
+is said to be only 12 inches. At Malaga, while the average temperature
+is 66°, about the same as that at Valencia and Alicante, the maximum is
+said to be only 78°, and the minimum 53°. At Motril, between Malaga and
+Almeria, the maximum is 77°, and the minimum 52°. In Seville on the
+other hand, the average is 68°, with a maximum Of 118°, and a minimum of
+30°. Cordova, somewhat colder, has a maximum of 93°, and a minimum of
+27°. The rainfall is also more moderate at Malaga, 15-1/2 inches, and 23
+at Seville. Granada, in its upland but sheltered valley, at an elevation
+of 2681 feet, defended from the east and south by the snowy range of the
+Sierra Nevada, and by the mountains of Granada to the north, has still
+an average of 65°, with a maximum of 97°, and a minimum of 42°. The
+rainfall varies considerably in different years, and various geographers
+give its average as 23-1/2 33-1/2, and the latest (Reclus) 48-1/2. Cadiz
+has an Atlantic climate, which in temperature and greater rainfall, 37
+inches, closely approximates to that of Madeira. Moving westward it
+decreases, at Gibraltar, 34-1/2, San Fernando, 27; while at Huelva and
+Tarifa, where the moisture of the north-west gales is intercepted by the
+Portuguese mountains, it descends to 24-1/2. We have now only to treat
+of the climate of the great central elevation, the plateau, which ranges
+at an average height of some 2000 feet above the sea. Thus, Madrid is
+2148, Segovia 2299, Burgos 2873, Soria 3504, and the Escorial, 3683 feet
+above the sea-level. But even these altitudes do not wholly account for
+the rigour of the climate in the latitude of Naples, Rome, and
+Constantinople. We have seen how excellent is the climate of Granada at
+a nearly equal elevation, only three degrees further south. The extremes
+of heat and cold felt at Valladolid and Madrid are due more to the
+uncovered mountain ranges to the north, the treeless, waterless plains,
+over which the wind sweeps unchecked, than to mere elevation. The want
+of rain is greatly owing to the ranges of mountains parallel to the
+frontier and to the Atlantic in Portugal, which condense and wring all
+the moisture from the rain-clouds of the Atlantic, and distribute it
+almost wholly on the western slope. Thus at Lisbon the fall is 29, at
+Coimbra 35, at Oporto 63, in the mountains of Beira and Tras os Montes
+from 68 to 100 inches; while on the eastern slope, at Salamanca it is 9,
+Valladolid 12, at Badajoz 12-1/2, Ciudad Real 14. From the bare granite
+range of the Guadarrama steals down the treacherous icy wind so fatal in
+Madrid--not sufficiently strong to extinguish a candle, but quite enough
+to destroy human life. It is the dislike of the Castilian peasant to
+trees, which would overshadow so much of his small property, the
+destruction of the mountain forests, and the want of good agriculture,
+which has embittered the climate of these plateaux. Were the hill-sides
+clothed with wood, the country dotted with farms, the wide and bare
+plains covered throughout the year with varied agricultural produce, the
+climate would soon be modified and become sensibly warmer, and no
+longer, as it at present is, an obstacle to civilization and to
+improvement. In spite of all neglect these plains grow some of the
+finest wheat in Europe, and the lower mountain ranges supply pasture in
+the summer for the immense flocks which return to winter in the plains
+of Estremadura. The average temperature of Madrid is 59°, its maximum
+104° to 107°, and its minimum only 7°. That of Salamanca is said to be
+57°, with a maximum of 97°, and a minimum of 12°. The average rainfall
+of Madrid is only from 9 to 14 inches, that of Salamanca 9, while Soria,
+nearer to the mountains, in some years reaches 25 inches.
+
+From the above sketch of the climate the reader will expect to find the
+productions vary greatly in the different districts. The north and
+north-west are the lands of cattle and of pasture. In Galicia and in the
+Asturias the products are almost like those of the warmer parts of the
+south-west of England and of Ireland, save that in the more sheltered
+valleys the orange, citron, and pomegranate flourish; a palm is even now
+and then to be seen; and the wine, especially on the confines of
+Portugal, is excellent, and needs only more care in preparation to be a
+rival to the famous Port of the neighbouring country. In the eighteenth
+century, that of Ribadavia was considered to be the finest wine in all
+Spain. Maize, too, is freely grown; but on account of their extreme
+poverty, rye and spelt often replace both it and wheat as food for the
+peasantry. The upland plateaux afford excellent pasture, especially for
+cattle and horses; the hardy and sure-footed hacks of Galicia and the
+Asturias are celebrated. The mountains here are often clothed with wood;
+oaks of various kinds, and the edible chestnut, and the hazel-nut--of
+which over 1000 tons, value 23,000_l._, are annually exported from
+Gijon--grow on the lower spurs, giving food to herds of swine; beech,
+and pine, and fir appear as we approach the tops. In the lower woods the
+arbutus especially flourishes, and the young wild boars in autumn are
+said to become half stupefied with its narcotic berries. As we proceed
+eastward from Galicia to the Asturias the climate becomes sensibly
+colder--the valleys face the north instead of the west; the orange is
+less known, the mulberry will not flourish sufficiently well to pay for
+silk cultivation, the olive will not grow, and the cork does not pay for
+cultivation; the wines lose somewhat of their strength and lusciousness;
+and cider, made from the excellent apples of the country, rivals the
+juice of the grape in popularity. The mountains are covered with heath,
+and fern, and furze, but the aromatic plants are fewer than in Galicia.
+This description applies to the northern slope of the Cantabrian chain
+and to the rolling hills and plateaux of the Basque provinces; but the
+southern slopes of the chain, towards the Ebro, are again a land of vine
+and olive, and of maize, which is everywhere the staple. In the Basque
+provinces the plough is replaced by the ancient "laya," an instrument
+as old, at least, as Roman times. It is a heavy two-pronged steel or
+iron fork, with prongs one and a half to two feet long. A strong man
+will work two of them at once, one in each hand, driving them into the
+ground to their full depth, then with a backward strain turning up the
+deep soil. Usually, four or five men work together, and raise their
+arms, plunge the fork downwards, and heave, in perfect time. The
+cultivation thus effected is excellent, but the expenditure of labour is
+immense The productions do not vary greatly along the slopes of the
+Pyrenees from those above described until we reach Catalonia; but in the
+lower valley of the Ebro, where rain is rare, in the Bardeñas reales of
+Navarre, and in the monegros, or despoblados of Aragon, we meet with a
+phenomenon only too frequent in Spain--tracts of almost utter
+barrenness. The Bardeñas reales are low spurs of the Pyrenees, with
+table-lands, bluffs, and deep gorges, and these could scarcely be
+brought under cultivation; but the "despoblados" (dispeopled lands) of
+Aragon might be irrigated, either by the Ebro or by its tributaries, if
+the water of the canal of Charles V. were but economically applied. The
+sterility of some parts seems to have been the slow result of an
+oppressive land tenure; for as Don Vicente de la Fuente has remarked,
+the lands which belonged to the ancient señors (the feudal lords) lie
+barren, while the lands of the comunidades, the free districts, are
+still fertile. In treating, of the cultivation and the products of
+eastern and southern Spain two facts become evident at once--how many of
+the products are exotic, and how much of the cultivation is still
+Arabian. We shall see in another chapter how deep a mark the Moor or
+Arab has left on the population and toponymy of Spain; and the
+agriculture of the greater part of central and southern Spain is still
+Arabian. The methods of the Spanish peasant are almost all Arabian;
+often he uses the Arabian hoe in preference to the Roman plough. The
+_noria_, or water-wheel; the _sha'doof_, or swipe, the pole and bucket
+for lifting water; the huge dams and reservoirs, the canals and ditches
+(_acequias_), the regulations for the fair distribution of the
+water,--all these, and even the very superstitions as to times of
+sowing, the rotation of crops, the treatment of his animals--for all
+these the Spanish peasant of the South is indebted to the Moors. The
+treatise of Abu Zaccaria, with its traditions of Nabathean agriculture,
+is still one of the manuals of agriculture in Spain. It is the Moors,
+too, who first made the winter gardens in the sands near San Lucarde
+Barameda, at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, and which supply Cadiz and
+Seville with the earliest and latest vegetables. The Roman, with his
+lofty aqueducts, brought water to the towns; but it was the Moor who
+gave that blessing to the thirsty soil of the country districts of
+Spain. And not only the methods of agriculture, but many of its fruits
+and products were introduced by the Arab from the East, and some of
+these are now the very staple of Spanish produce. It is they who brought
+into Spain the cotton plant, rice, and the sugar-cane; mulberries, both
+for fruit and for silk culture; sesame, the caper, the locust bean, the
+castor-oil plant, alfalfa (lucerne), the pomegranate, almond, the walnut
+and filbert, the chestnut and the ever-green oak, the wild olive, the
+jujube, the pistacchio nut, the palm, several kinds of roses, the
+wall-flower, with many another garden herb or flower. It was they who
+improved the Andalusian steed into one of the most excellent in Europe
+for riding, and the strain may still be traced even in the ponies of the
+north. But the cultivated vegetation of the south which meets the
+stranger's eye is perhaps still more indebted to the Americas.[1] It
+needs an effort now to picture what Spanish agriculture and what Spanish
+life was before the time of Columbus, when maize, and the potato, and
+sweet potato, were unknown; when not a cigar was smoked or cigarette
+made, or leaf of tobacco grown in Spain; when only garlic was known, and
+those indispensable condiments of every dish, the tomato, and the
+pimentos had not yet entered a Spanish kitchen, and chocolate had not
+yet been sipped by Spanish ladies; when the hedges were bare of aloes,
+and the prickly pear gave the beggar no fruit. And besides these common
+gifts, there are the more luxurious ones of pine apples, grenadines (the
+fruit of the passion-flower), abocado pears, chirimoyas, guavas,
+earth-nuts, bananas, and many others, while the gardens are enriched
+with magnolias and passion-flowers, and a wealth of creepers of all
+kinds. The Australian eucalypti, also, are highly valued in Spain, both
+as a febrifuge and for their prophylactic qualities in prevention of
+malaria in marshy ground; and a decoction from their leaves has quite
+passed into the popular pharmacopeia.
+
+  [1] For the converse of this, the plants and fruits introduced by the
+  Spaniards into America, see Markham's "Peru," in this series, p. 120.
+
+The most common plant on the sun-dried hills of Valencia and Murcia, the
+esparto-grass (_Stipe tenacissima_), after having been long used in
+various native manufactures, has since 1856 become an article of
+exportation, and an important addition to the wealth of Spain; but the
+cultivation of the barilla plant for soda has much decreased. It is from
+Valencia that the oranges come which are such favourites in Paris. The
+tree is so valuable, both for fruit and flowers, that an acre will
+sometimes give 600_l._ worth of produce. The dried raisins and almonds
+so familiar in England, so eagerly looked for at Christmas time, and
+the green preserved grapes, come from the districts of which we are now
+speaking, the coast-lands from Valencia to Almeira and Malaga. The wines
+are equally celebrated, from the strong red wines of Benicarlo, near the
+frontiers of Catalonia, to the sweet wines of Alicante and of Malaga,
+which are preferred by Continental taste to the drier and more fiery
+sherries, wines of the Guadalquiver valley, which please the English
+palate. Near the coast on the lower grounds, wherever there is
+sufficient water, rice is grown; but, on account of the unhealthy
+character of the cultivation, its culture is forbidden in the
+neighbourhood of towns. Sugar-cane is extending on the southern coast.
+In Andalusia alone more than 7000 acres are devoted to this culture, and
+the total yield of the sugar-cane in Spain is estimated at nearly 20,000
+tons. Palms are grown as an ornament and garden-tree from Barcelona to
+Malaga, but in Murcia, and especially at Elche, they are planted for
+production. Though the number seems declining, there are still some
+40,000 palms together in the neighbourhood of Elche; in the last century
+they are said to have numbered from 50,000 to 70,000. It is not for the
+fruit alone, the date, but for the leaves (the so-called palm-branches)
+that the trees are grown. In the winter these are tied into a close
+bundle to exclude the rays of the sun, in order that they may become
+white, and they are then exported to Rome and Italy, for use in the
+Easter ceremonies of Palm Sunday. Oils and essences, extracted from many
+plants and flowers, are also products of this region. The
+liquorice-root, and many another flower, or fruit, or root of medicinal
+value grows wild on the hills. The slopes of the eastern mountains are
+covered with aromatic herbs, thyme, myrtle, box, rosemary,
+southern-wood, mint, lavender, marjoram, nearly all the sweet-scented
+herbs which were once carefully cultivated in the gardens of our
+ancestors, are natives of these hills; and the flocks of goats returning
+from their pastures bring the sweet odours into the tainted towns and
+villages, and the first draught of milk from them is highly flavoured
+thereby. On these treeless hills, and the warmer parts of the higher
+plateaux, these aromatic herbs are often the only fuel which the peasant
+can employ. The wealth of this portion of the Spanish soil, the variety
+and beauty of its products, can be best seen in a visit to a fruit or
+flower market in any of the towns of the south and east. The richness of
+colour, the size and beauty of form, are amazing to the stranger; but
+the quantity and the cheapness, the way in which these fruits and exotic
+vegetables enter into the diet of the poor, is that which most
+astonishes those from less generous climes. We have not space to
+enumerate in detail a tithe of these productions; this must be sought in
+more special treatises.
+
+Almost equal in agricultural and garden wealth to that of the
+coast-line, and superior to it as regards the culture of the vine, is
+the valley of the Guadalquiver. The oranges of Seville (the civil
+oranges of our forefathers, the main ingredient of marmalade), sack, and
+sherry, are known in every English home of the middle and upper classes.
+It is in the valley of the Guadalquiver, from San Lucar de Barameda to
+above Cordova, that the finest sherries are produced. From San Lucar
+comes the pleasant Manzanilla, the lightest and most wholesome of all
+the sherries, but with a peculiar bitter taste and bouquet, like that of
+the wild camomile-flower. In the neighbourhood of Jerez de la Frontera
+the best sherries are produced, both brown and golden; the Amontillado,
+the nutty-flavoured wine so much sought after, comes from Montilla, to
+the south of Cordova. Several other kinds are manufactured, and have a
+great local reputation. Comparatively very little of these strong and
+fiery wines is consumed in Spain. Spaniards take them only as a liqueur,
+not as the usual accompaniment of a meal or desert. Sherry, though grown
+in Spain, is the foreigner's, and especially the Englishman's wine. The
+red Valdepeñas, from the northern slope of the Sierra Morena, replaces
+it at the Spaniard's table. For the modes of preparation of the various
+sherries, we must refer our readers to special treatises; of its
+statistics as an article of commerce we shall speak in another chapter.
+The first palm-tree introduced into Spain is said to have been planted
+near Cordova. The olives of this district are considered the finest in
+Spain. Comparatively little of the oil is exported, but the home
+consumption is enormous. The cork forests, too, are abundant; their bark
+forms an important article of commerce.
+
+We have now only to speak of the great central plateau, the Continental
+climate of Spain, and its productions. This is peculiarly the
+corn-growing district of Spain, the land of wheat and maize, especially
+in the Castiles. Estremadura and Léon are rather pastoral districts. It
+is in these provinces that the laws of the _Mesta_, for the protection
+of the celebrated merino sheep, ruled supreme, and which, though
+modified at the close of the last century, and some of their worst
+abuses done away with, were finally repealed only in 1835. By these laws
+the sheep and cattle which fed in the winter in the plains of
+Estremadura, and in the summer on the mountains of Léon, were privileged
+to enter almost any property on their line of march, to feed or to pass
+the night there. A space of ninety yards wide was reserved on each side
+of the highways for their accommodation; no land, especially no
+corn-field, was allowed to be enclosed; and right of forcible entrance
+was given to all orchards and vineyards where pasturage might be found.
+Wherever the flocks had once fed, the land could not be sold or
+alienated to any other purpose. The shepherds who tended these flocks
+became almost as savage and ignorant as the beasts they looked after;
+their privileges produced in them a contempt and hatred of all kinds of
+fixed property, and they were ever trying to extend their oppressive
+right at the expense of the more settled and agricultural portion of the
+community. Under the influence of these laws Estremadura, which, in the
+time of the Romans and Moors had been one of the richest provinces of
+Spain, became under their Christian conquerors not only one of the
+poorest and most thinly peopled districts, but also a curse and source
+of destruction to the rest. Not only were all the evils of the old Roman
+"latifundia" reproduced in this mediæval system, but the locust, which
+never breeds in cultivated lands, or where the plough passes, was
+enabled to make its home in the wilds and pastures of Estremadura,
+whence it periodically sallied out to devastate the fairest and richest
+portions of the land. In the years 1754 to 1757 it desolated the whole
+of the provinces between Estremadura and the Mediterranean. In 1686 and
+the following year it reached the principality of Barcelona, and, in
+spite of exorcisms, ravaged the country till there was nothing more to
+destroy. The provinces nearer to Estremadura are much more frequent
+sufferers, and in recent years (in 1876 the crops in Ciudad Real were
+utterly destroyed) a division of the army has been more than once
+employed to destroy or to check them on their march. The only plant they
+spare is the tomata, which they will not touch. Besides flocks,
+Estremadura maintains huge herds of swine, which feed on the sweet
+acorns and chestnuts of its woods, and whose flesh is renowned through
+Spain. Owing to its situation on the borders of Andalusia, in which
+province the Moors retained their powers long after they had lost the
+rest of Spain, Estremadura was exposed to their frequent incursions;
+every flock and herd was liable to be carried off, every fruit-tree to
+be cut down, the farms burnt and crops destroyed; and in their
+retaliation the Christian knights were almost as fatal as the Arab
+horsemen. The country was never thoroughly peopled after the reconquest,
+and the sense of insecurity remained long after the cause of it had been
+removed. The laws of the Mesta and the emigration to the Americas (both
+Cortes and Pizarro were Extrameños) finished the work of depopulation,
+and left the province, as it has since remained, naturally one of the
+richest, actually one of the poorest in Spain. The products, besides
+those above mentioned, are cork, oak-bark and acorns for tanning,
+honey, nuts, and chestnuts.
+
+The bare plains of the Castiles are now the great corn-producing country
+of Spain. But they have little or nothing of the beauty and variety of
+cultivated land in other countries. There is no succession of crops, no
+mixed husbandry, no scattered farm-houses, neither tree nor fence to
+break the bare monotony. The hill-sides and mountains are given up to
+pasture, the plains to wheat and maize. The husbandmen live in villages,
+and ride out on donkeys in early morn to their distant fields, and
+return home at night. A sense of insecurity seems still to brood over
+the land, as if the peasant dared not trust himself outside the walls of
+village or town. Only at harvest-time, in the warm summer and autumn
+nights, he camps out among his crops, to thresh them on the spot, and
+bring the produce home, a habit which often produces fever and ague.
+Year after year the process is repeated; no improvement is ever made; if
+rain falls the harvest is plentiful--so plentiful sometimes that the
+lazy peasant will not reap his most distant fields, or procure new skins
+or barrels for the over-abundant wine, though with the extension of
+railways this evil is fast disappearing. There is hardly a greater
+contrast than between the habits of the Castilian peasants and those of
+the peasant-proprietors in the Basque provinces and in those of north
+and north-west. In the Basque provinces the farms are scattered all
+over the country, and travellers from other districts of Spain speak of
+the whole district as if it were one city. The farm-house stands in the
+midst of its grounds, with orchard, garden, trees and fences, meadow and
+corn-land round it. To Englishmen this description is almost a matter of
+course, and one must read the narrative of travellers from Castile fully
+to appreciate the force of the contrast. There is, moreover, no natural
+impediment whatever to a similar course of life in many districts of the
+Castiles. Barren and dreary as they look, the plains called the "Sierras
+de Campos," and some others, are watered by a kind of natural capillary
+attraction; dry as the surface appears, water is always to be found at a
+few inches below the surface, and the roots of the wheat and other
+cereal crops penetrate to it. It is only the mixture of pride and
+laziness and ignorance of the Castilian peasant, his senseless disdain
+of all improvement, his want of ambition for anything better, that
+prevents progress in this part of Spain. He refused to make use of the
+machinery invented for him in the last century, nor will he avail
+himself of the means of irrigation and the still better machines
+provided for him now. Yet there is no agricultural country in which
+machinery could be introduced to greater advantage.
+
+Perhaps no better idea can be given of the productions of Spain, and of
+the diversity of its climates and fruits, than by comparing those of
+Murcia with those of the north-west and the centre. In January the bean
+is in flower in Murcia, in April in Madrid; the vine and the wheat
+flower in April in Murcia, but not till May or June in the province of
+Madrid. The climate of Galicia, with its almost continual rain, and
+Murcia with its droughts, are perhaps the most opposite climates of
+Spain. The one is a land of pasture and of flax cultivation; its fruits
+are the apple, the pear, the peach, strawberries, currants, and nuts of
+all kinds; the predominant plant on the hill-sides is the furze, in
+Murcia it is the Esparto grass. The fruits there cultivated in the
+gardens are exotic, and have almost wholly replaced the indigenous
+flora; the "huertas," the gardens or cultivated plains, are there almost
+like oases in a desert.
+
+The fauna of Spain--except in one particular, the monkeys (_Macacus
+Innuus_) which inhabit the rock of Gibraltar, and which are the only
+animals of their kind wild in Europe--does not greatly differ from that
+of the rest of Southern Europe. In the highest part of the Pyrenees, in
+the Sierra de Credos, and in the Sierra Nevada, the izard or chamois
+still exists in considerable numbers. Whether the bouquetin is really
+extinct, or still survives in the Spanish Pyrenees, is a disputed point.
+In the forests which clothe the lower spurs, roe and fallow deer, wild
+goats and wild boars, and in some districts red deer, are still to be
+found. The beasts of prey are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the fox,
+wild cat, marten, ferret, weasel, &c.; and these are assisted by the no
+less rapacious birds of prey--the vultures, eagles, hawks, falcons,
+kites, harriers, pies, and jays. The game birds and animals are the
+pheasant, now very rare, partridges of both kinds, bustards, both large
+and small, sand-grouse, quails, which come in immense quantities to the
+vineyards and maize-fields in the summer and autumn, woodcock, snipe;
+wild duck, geese, all kinds of water-birds and waders, visit the marshes
+of the rivers and the lagoons of the coast in winter; and on the
+southern shores meet the flamingoes, pelicans, spoonbills, and other
+birds from the African coast. From the same quarter come numerous and
+brighter-plumaged birds of passage; orioles, bee-eaters, hoopoes, and
+other natives of a warmer zone, are brought over by the hot south wind
+so irritating to the nerves and temper of a southern Spaniard. It is
+then that the shores of the Mediterranean are lined with sportsmen, when
+the moon is near full, to take heavy toll of these winged travellers.
+The entomology of Spain is probably very rich. We have spoken of the
+locusts of Estremadura; and in the wilds where they breed--mere
+solitudes in summer, when the flocks are absent in their northern
+pastures--many a rare species of butterfly, cicada, and insect is
+doubtless to be found. The insects of Spain, however, are not all
+noxious or without value. Silk-worms are largely bred in the coast
+provinces of the east and south, not only for their silk, but also for
+the gut so precious to all trout and salmon fishermen. The cochineal
+insect, which feeds on the leaves of the prickly pear, is cultivated for
+its brilliant dye.
+
+Of useful and domesticated animals, the sheep of Spain have always been
+celebrated; the very name, "merinos," has been given to the softest kind
+of wool or woolly tissue. It is said that the breed attained its
+excellence through a present of English South Down rams by Edward I. to
+the father of his Castilian bride, and that the wool has improved under
+climatic influences. However this may be, the superiority has hardly
+been maintained, and careless shepherding has sadly deteriorated the
+breed; still the half-bred Spanish merinos are the favourite flocks
+throughout the north of Spain and Southern France, and they are slowly
+superseding the coarser native and local breeds. The Spanish cattle from
+Galicia are well known in the English market, but they are not the
+choicest of their kind. The bulls that are bred for the bull-fights are
+reared chiefly along the marshy banks of the Guadalquiver, which, like
+the delta of the Rhone, supports herds of half-wild cattle and
+buffaloes. Cow's milk is little known or used in many districts of
+Spain, and butter still less. Sheep or goat's milk supplies the place
+of the former, and the olive-oil, excellent were it not too often kept
+till rancid, that of the latter. Cheese and various kinds of curdled
+milk or whey are also made from the milk of sheep. Since the advent of
+the Arabs the Andalusian steed has been much celebrated. It is now
+scarcely equal to its former fame, but, like many a horse of warmer
+climes, its performances are better than its looks; hardy, sure-footed,
+swift, and docile, if not over-weighted it will do more than one of many
+a finer-looking but less enduring breed. The horse, however, is not the
+true beast of burden in Spain; he is the charger, or the luxury of the
+rich. The real work of the country is done by the humble mule or ass,
+or, in some districts, by the ox. The fine Spanish mules are now seldom
+bred in the country, but are procured from Poitou, or from the south of
+France, where great attention is paid to their production, and where the
+average price of a mule of six months old is higher than that of a horse
+of the same age. For long journeys, and for carrying produce over the
+mountain paths, or along the bad roads of the interior, the mule and
+pack-saddle is still generally used. In fact, in some districts no other
+mode of conveyance is possible; but the loss to commerce from want of
+better communications is immense. It is this mode of carriage which
+necessitates and continues the use of the tarred wine-skin, by which so
+much excellent wine is rendered unsalable and almost undrinkable. It is
+hard to recognize the delicious wine when tasted at the vineyard, in the
+pitch-flavoured, half-fermented liquor which has travelled for days in a
+skin exposed to the sun's heat by day, and the closeness and fetid
+odours of the inns by night. Besides these, the camel, buffalo, and
+llama, and vicunâ have been introduced successfully as an experiment for
+breeding, but not in sufficient numbers to affect the means of transport
+in the peninsula.
+
+The fisheries in Galicia and along the north-west Atlantic coast, and
+also at Huelva and at Cadiz, are very valuable. Not only are they an
+abundant means of support to the inhabitants of the coast and of Léon
+and Northern Castile, but the fishermen engaged in them furnish the best
+sailors to the Spanish navy. The chief kinds of fish are sardines and
+pilchards, of which great numbers are preserved in oil, the tunny, and
+the sea-bream, of which enormous quantities are annually taken. The
+rivers, from the Minho to the Bidassoa, furnish trout and salmon. In the
+Mediterranean, tunny, and the anchovies which replace the sardines, are
+the chief fisheries, but many Spaniards are also engaged in the
+coral-fishing off the coasts of Catalonia, of Algiers, and of Tunis.
+
+The total production of Spain has been approximately valued at
+
+    Agriculture        £80,000,000
+    Mines                6,271,000
+    Manufactures        63,480,000
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINES.
+
+
+Even in geological features Spain is a land apart. Divided from the rest
+of Europe by the regular Palæozoic band of the Pyrenees, the rocks of
+the Peninsula are only susceptible of separate study. Hence no
+consistent geological history can be deduced from the fragmentary and
+superficial observations that as yet form the basis of the geological
+map of Spain. A few striking features and geological statistics may
+however be presented; and the recently-published map of Botella, as well
+as the mass of valuable matter already collected by the _Comision del
+Mapa geologico de España_, are an earnest that Spanish geology will soon
+occupy a place corresponding to its peculiar interest.
+
+A mass of Granitic, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks forms the central
+plateau of Spain, extending in a south-easterly direction from Galicia
+to the valley of the Guadalquiver, and spreading to the north-east, as
+shown by the chains of the Guadarrama and the mountains of Toledo, to
+terminate in the Celtiberian range, running nearly parallel to the Ebro
+by Soria and the Moncayo. In this mass the main folds of the strata
+appear to run in a south-easterly, the main fractures in a
+north-easterly, direction; whence the gridiron arrangement of the
+mountain chains and river valleys, directed by these leading features of
+the rocky structure. Great buttresses of the Carboniferous formation
+occupy the corners of the central mass, to the north and south-west, and
+occasional patches of its upper and coal-bearing beds are scattered over
+the interior. The whole valley of the Ebro occupies a trough of
+Secondary rocks, which extend in a south-easterly direction from the Bay
+of Biscay to the Mediterranean, forming a wide boundary to the older
+central mass, and running along the north coast towards Oviedo. The
+Secondary formations of the Ebro sweep over the chain of the Moncayo on
+to the central plateau by Burgos, Soria, and Calatayud; and their latest
+member--the Upper Cretaceous--advances in two long tongues on to the
+granite of the Guadarrama, and far to the east of Madrid, it being
+probable that at least this member formerly extended over the central
+plateau. Another wide band of Secondary rocks, running in a
+north-easterly direction, forms the long strip of Andalusia south of
+the Guadalquiver; and by Valencia and Cuenca this band is widely
+prolonged to the Ebro basin; otherwise, a narrow and interrupted strip
+along the south coast, and a bay-like expanse from the Atlantic, between
+Lisbon and Oporto, are the only Secondary tracts of the Peninsula. These
+Secondary rocks are however in great part concealed by Eocene Tertiary
+beds, formed in marine gulfs in the valley of the Ebro and the
+Guadalquiver, and overlaid by Eocene and Miocene fresh-water deposits;
+the latter being also represented by vast lacustrine sheets, which
+contemporaneously accumulated, and conceal the crystalline and palæozoic
+formations in the elevated river basins of the central primary plateau.
+Patches of Pliocene sands and clays along the Mediterranean coast,
+sheets of diluvial gravels below the mountains, and alluvial sands along
+the larger rivers represent the local and most recent effects of water
+and ice.
+
+The consequences of this general structure are apparent on every hand.
+The population of Galicia is in many respects similar to that of the
+Portuguese mountaineers, who occupy the same band of naked granitic and
+primary rocks. The inhabitants of the varied and fertile Secondary band
+of Andalusia and Valencia have many traits in common. The Biscayans are
+a race apart, like the labyrinth of Cretaceous precipices and green
+rainy valleys which they inhabit. All are distinct from the Castilians,
+whose monotonous and isolated existence on the vast treeless steppes of
+crumbling Tertiary sands and marls that carpet the primary plateau 2000
+feet above the sea has deeply influenced their character. Finally, the
+inhabitants of the Ebro basin, a region where the dry Tertiary soil of
+Castile is combined with many characteristics of the Secondary tracts,
+afford a curious mixture of Castilian with Basque or Valencian traits.
+The inhabitants of the greater Spanish cities are of course products of
+civilization, not of the soil.
+
+Of the visible surface of Spain 37 per cent. is occupied by Crystalline
+and Palæozoic rocks, 34 per cent. by Tertiary, 19 per cent. by
+Secondary, and 10 per cent. by Quaternary deposits. The Palæozoic rocks
+are greatly contorted and fractured, the Secondary scarcely less so, the
+older Tertiary are crumpled up against the flanks of the mountain
+chains, and even upturned Pliocene deposits testify in some places to
+the late continuance of the movements that have contributed to the
+production of the peculiar elevated character of the Peninsula. The
+remains of undoubted volcanoes are confined to the insignificant groups
+of Olot, Cabo de Gata, and Ciudad Real, but innumerable dykes and bosses
+of igneous rock are scattered over the primitive plateau where
+unconcealed by Tertiary sheets, and are also frequent in the Secondary
+tracts. This abundance of igneous injections is intimately connected
+with the exceptionally metalliferous character of Spain, while the
+fractured and contorted condition of even the latest rocky formations
+has contributed to a general diffusion of mineral wealth.
+
+The granite and other igneous rocks form rounded bosses or prominent
+pinnacles, according as they are more or less subject to atmospheric
+decomposition; the pine and the Spanish chestnut flourish on their
+slopes; iron, lead, copper, tin, graphite, phosphorite, kaolin,
+steatite, and serpentine are among the products of these crystalline
+masses. The gneiss and crystalline schists that in part probably
+represent the Laurentian formation, contain silver, bismuth, molybdenum,
+and tin; while metamorphic rocks of unknown age are amongst the richest
+in mines, affording iron, lead, silver, copper, zinc, mercury,
+manganese, and graphite. The Cambrian formation, a mass of lustrous
+fissile slate, traversed by white quartz veins, furnishes lead, silver,
+phosphorite, and gold. The Silurian slates and quartzites yield iron,
+lead, silver, copper, mercury, manganese, antimony, cobalt, nickel,
+anthracite, and gold. A few limited patches of Devonian sandstones,
+quartzites, slates, marls, and limestones, afford iron, zinc,
+phosphorite, cobalt, and nickel. The Carboniferous series, occupying
+two per cent. of the surface, includes valuable coal-fields, the immense
+masses of iron and copper pyrites of the Rio Tinto, Tharsis, and other
+mines in the province of Huelva, besides iron, zinc, mercury, manganese,
+antimony, cobalt, nickel, and phosphorite in other districts. The
+silver-bearing metamorphic rocks of Cartagena, and a portion of the
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada are classed in the Permian formation. The
+Triassic conglomerates, sandstones, and variegated marls, which form the
+usual base of the Secondary rocks, are rich in salt, gypsum, and iron,
+and afford some copper and zinc. The Jurassic limestones and marls
+contain asphalte and bituminous slate. The Cretaceous--mainly Neocomian
+in the south, the Upper Cretaceous predominating in the north--contains
+the immense iron deposits of Bilbao; valuable beds of lignite resembling
+coal; lead, zinc, and asphalte mines in the northern provinces, and gold
+in Granada. In the Eocene formation, which includes the Nummulitic
+limestone that forms some of the highest summits of the Pyrenees, the
+celebrated salt-mine of Cardona, in Catalonia, is usually classed. The
+Miocene beds contain valuable sulphur deposits along the southern coast,
+and great accumulations of sulphate of soda on the arid steppes of
+Madrid and other provinces; while gypsum, in which Spain is probably
+richer than the whole remainder of Europe, is abundant in this
+formation. Lastly, some native silver is found in the Pliocene deposits
+of Almeria, and in the Tertiary clays of Guadalajara, while the later
+gravels of Galicia afford stream tin and gold, the last similarly
+occurring in Leon and Caceres.
+
+The quantity of mineral contained in the rocks of Spain is no less
+remarkable than the exceptional variety of its distribution; but owing
+to a series of adverse circumstances, the industrial production affords
+a most inadequate idea of the capabilities of the mines, if developed by
+a fair amount of capital and skill. The following figures, showing the
+production in 1875, are derived from the last official reports issued by
+the Spanish Government, and are certainly below the truth:--
+
+                   Tons of ore       Tons of metal
+                    exported.      produced in Spain.
+
+    Iron             336,000           37,000
+    Lead              10,000          119,000
+    Copper           362,000            6,620
+    Zinc              43,000            3,820
+    Manganese         14,000
+    Mercury                             1,425
+
+These figures do not include the bar iron produced directly from ore in
+Spain, nor 160 tons of argentiferous copper ore, 89 tons of cobalt ore,
+and 440 tons of nickel ore. The silver extracted in Spain amounted to
+more than 16,000 lbs. troy, while four times that amount was contained
+in exported argentiferous lead. The coal extracted amounted to 666,000
+tons, lignite above 27,000, sulphur above 3000, and phosphorite above
+12,000 tons. The year 1875 was, however, peculiarly unfavourable to
+Spanish mining, and the working of the Bilbao mines, which now produce
+nearly 2,000,000 tons yearly of excellent iron ore, was then practically
+suspended by the Carlist war. All disadvantages cannot, however, arrest
+the steady increase of mineral production in Spain, although under more
+normal political circumstances the above figures would have been greatly
+exceeded.
+
+The chief coal district is that of Oviedo, Palencia, Leon, and
+Santander. The coal-field of Oviedo, occupying an extent of 230 square
+miles, and including a large number of workable beds, is of excellent
+quality, but as yet little developed, owing to high railway tariffs, bad
+condition of ports, traditional prejudices, want of skill and capital,
+and of a local market for inferior qualities. These obstacles will
+probably soon be overcome, and the development of the associated iron
+ores afford an important field of enterprise.
+
+The coal-field of Palencia, a continuation of that of Oviedo, is in
+course of development by the Northern Railway Company. Smaller
+coal-fields of great local importance exist in the provinces of Cordova,
+Seville, Gerona, Burgos, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Ciudad Real; that of
+Gerona, although of small extent and very friable quality, has already
+occasioned the construction of a railway of considerable length. Iron is
+mainly obtained from Biscay, Oviedo, Murcia, and Almeria, but is
+abundant in other provinces. Lead is worked chiefly in Murcia, Jaen,
+Almeria, Badajoz, and Ciudad Real; the presence of antimony or of a
+predominating admixture of blende is very common, but Spain is on the
+whole the most important lead-producing country in Europe. Copper is
+obtained mainly from the Rio Tinto mines and others in Huelva; also from
+Seville, Palencia, Almeria, and Santander; but many other districts
+contain veins yielding more or less of copper ore. Zinc has been chiefly
+procured from superficial pockets of calamine in Santander and the
+neighbouring districts; but in the form of blende it is widely
+distributed in association with lead. Silver ores are worked in Almeria
+and Guadalajara. The immense impregnation of cinnabar of Almaden, in
+Ciudad Real, affords nearly all the mercury, but a little is obtained
+from other mines in the same province and in Oviedo, Granada, and
+Almeria. Manganese is obtained from Huelva, Oviedo, Teruel, Almeria,
+Murcia, and Zamora. Nickel ore is worked in Malaga; cobalt in Oviedo and
+Castellon. Tin occurs in a number of small veins in Galicia; and in the
+rocks of Salamanca, Murcia, and Almeria, as well as in diluvial gravels.
+The Spanish side of the Pyrenees contains numerous veins of
+argentiferous lead, many of copper, and some of cobalt, nickel,
+argentiferous copper, pyrolusite, &c., few of which are worked. The
+lead-mines on the border between Catalonia and Aragon supplied the
+Carlists with ammunition during the late civil war. The fact that more
+than 12,000 concessions of mines already exist in Spain, while a large
+number of lapsed concessions may be found, affords a better idea of the
+mineral wealth of the country than the enumeration of the mines actually
+worked.
+
+That such enormous mineral resources should have as yet yielded no
+greater results is easily explained. The Roman and Moorish workings,
+although traditionally of fabulous yield, are of small depth, owing to
+insufficient machinery for pumping. Till the present century, the
+working of mines was forbidden by the Spanish Government, with the
+object of favouring the development of the American colonies. The mining
+laws of 1825 and 1849, suddenly placing the acquirement of mines within
+the reach of every substantial peasant, produced a fever of speculation,
+and a recklessness in the application of unskilled labour, which
+naturally conduced to the discouragement of mining enterprise, while the
+recurring civil wars excluded foreign capital and skill. Spaniards have
+a mania for erecting smelting-works on the mines, a practice
+occasionally justified by difficulties of transport, but which has
+caused much loss of capital through inherent difficulties and want of
+metallurgical skill. Endless litigation, arising from the defects of the
+first mining laws, and the inexperience of the surveying engineers,
+contributed to ruin the small capitalists who had attempted to work the
+mines. Foreign capital is now the chief requirement. The existing mining
+law, greatly improved since 1868, is the simplest in Europe; the expense
+of a concession is almost nominal, and the royalties on ore are
+extremely moderate. Large mining adventures in Spain rapidly develope
+industrial conditions and profoundly affect the habits of the
+population. Even in times of civil war a _modus vivendi_ between the
+conflicting parties can be more easily secured than might be expected.
+The development of means of transport, already considerable before the
+last Carlist war, is being seriously resumed under the present
+Government. The Spanish peasantry, when suitably treated, will be found
+a fair-dealing, intelligent, and industrious class. It must, however, be
+remembered that in the peculiar physical, political, municipal, and
+fiscal conditions of Spain, no mining enterprise can safely be
+undertaken without thorough investigation of all the external
+circumstances, claims, and prospects concerned; since more mining
+speculations have failed from inattention to such matters than from any
+disappointment as regards the quality or quantity of ore.
+
+P. W. S. M.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.
+
+
+On the first glance at a map of Spain and Portugal we are apt to think
+that few countries could have so well-defined a frontier as that formed
+by the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. In so compact a
+country, and one so distinct and so shut off from the rest of Europe, we
+should expect to find a more unmixed and a more homogeneous population
+than in any of those states whose frontiers are more open and
+conventional. But such is very far from being the case. Even at the
+present time the Pyrenees are no boundary throughout their whole course,
+either as to race or language. The Basque overlaps them at one end, and
+the Provençal at the other. Moreover, they have been a political
+boundary throughout their whole length only since the middle of the
+seventeenth century. Navarre was united to the Spanish crown in 1515,
+and Rousillon to France only in 1659. Ecclesiastically, both the
+dioceses of Bayonne and of Narbonne advanced far into Spain. So far
+from the population of Spain being unmixed and pure, the contrary is far
+nearer the truth. As Senor Tubino has well observed, from its position
+at the south-western angle of Europe, and the most westerly of
+Mediterranean lands, beyond which lay only the impassable ocean, it must
+early have become a very eddy of nations, where all the tribes and races
+who have successively held command of the Mediterranean must necessarily
+have halted, over which and in which all invaders who have crossed the
+Pyrenees from Northern Europe, or have passed the Straits of Gibraltar
+from Africa, must have surged in almost ceaseless conflict. To think of
+Spain as ever having been at any given time occupied solely by any
+single race or people is to lose the clue to her whole history. Of this
+not only the social and political condition of the country, but the
+toponymy and nomenclature of her map afford decisive proof.
+
+We first hear of Spain in history about the sixth century before Christ,
+as then inhabited by the "Iberi" and "Kelt-Iberi," with here and there
+colonies of more unmingled Kelts. It is more than probable that both of
+these races succeeded anterior ones, the existence of which we trace
+only through the remains of præhistoric archæology, in the flint, stone,
+and bronze instruments, similar to those found elsewhere in Europe;
+these were also probably followed by races whose remains we find in the
+sculptors of the so-called "Toros" (bulls) of Guisando, and in the
+builders of the Megalithic monuments, the dolmens, menhirs, and circles
+which are found from Algeria to the Orkneys. For all purposes of history
+we must take the "Iberi" and the "Kelts," with their mixed tribes, as
+our starting-point. These we find scattered in much confusion throughout
+the Peninsula. Either the tribes were constantly shifting their ground,
+owing to petty wars and tribal dissensions or to unknown economic
+conditions, or the successive Greek and Latin writers from whom we get
+our information have not themselves been clear as to the distinction of
+these races. Speaking loosely, we may say that the more purely Keltic
+tribes held their ground in the north-west and west, in Galicia and
+Portugal, with a few scattered colonies further south. Andalusia, parts
+of the centre, the north and north-east were inhabited by the "Iberi;"
+while the Kelt-Iberian tribes lay chiefly in the centre and on the
+eastward slope. Both of these great races have left clear traces on the
+maps of ancient Spain. There can be no reasonable doubt that the
+"Illiberris" which we find in classical maps is a transcription of the
+Basque "Iriberri," which we still find in the French Basque country and
+in Navarre, meaning "New-Town," or more exactly, "Town-new;" that when
+the Romans called a town which they built in Galicia "Iria-Flavia," in
+honour of their then empress, they really used the Basque word "Iri," a
+town or city, just as the colonists of the United States and Canada used
+the French "ville" or English "town," and named a new city Louisville,
+Charleston, Georgetown, in the North American colonies. So, too, any one
+who compares the name "Peña," given to mountains and mountain-chains on
+the map of Spain, together with the river names, "Tamaris," "Deva," and
+the town and district of "Britonia" or "Britannia" in the north-west,
+can hardly doubt that these names were given by the same Keltic race who
+have left us so many "Pens" and "Bens" in Northern Britain, who gave the
+names "Tamar" and "Dee" to Devonshire and Cheshire streams, and called
+our own island Britannia, and themselves Britons. Which of these races
+is the older? the Iberi, i.e. Basque, or the Keltic? How can we decide
+this? Language is a deceitful tool as regards race. A people may utterly
+forget their original language, and adopt that of their conquerors or of
+some superior race with whom they have come in contact. Of this we have
+not only numerous examples in the past, as in the Latin and romance
+tongues superseding many a more ancient idiom, but we can see the same
+change actually going on in our colonies and dependencies in our own
+day. Still there is a certain rough chronology in language. A
+monosyllabic language we may presume, in default of evidence to the
+contrary, to have preceded one whose characteristic is agglutination;
+and again, a language which agglutinates or incorporates its members is
+presumably prior to an inflexional or analytic one. Now the Basque, the
+modern form of some one of those tongues which the Greeks and Romans
+called Iberian, belongs to the second of these classes, and the Keltic
+to the third. Another mode of investigating the antiquity of a language
+is to study the original names of the most necessary objects of daily
+life, and see if they can reveal to us anything about the state of
+civilization of those who used them before the language took a literary
+shape or any books were written in it. A language in which we find all
+the words expressing articles of greater civilization to be borrowed
+from other tongues we may presumably deem older than the languages from
+which it has borrowed them. Now in the Basque, Escuara, the undoubtedly
+native words for cutting instruments seem all to have their root from
+words signifying stone, or rock, and all such words which imply the use
+of metal seem to be borrowed. The language as it were represents the
+"stone" age, before the use of metals was known. It is also singularly
+poor in collective and general terms; thus, while many of the names for
+separate kinds of trees are native, the most common collective term
+_arbola_, "the tree," is clearly borrowed from the Latin. Although the
+arguments from anthropology, the form of the skull, &c., as compared
+with other races, are of still more dubious value than those derived
+from language, yet they all tend to the same conclusion. We may then
+hold from these convergent lines of reasoning, at least as a provisional
+hypothesis, that the Iberian or Basque race is older in Spain than the
+Keltic, and consequently that in the representatives of the former we
+have the remains of the oldest historical people of which we have any
+record in the country.
+
+We said above that, from its geographical position, the Peninsula would
+necessarily be the final-halting-place in ancient times of all the
+masters of the Mediterranean as they pushed westward. There we should
+find their farthest outposts. Thus in Spain we have, at first dimly
+seen, successive colonies of Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Greeks. There
+it was that Carthaginians and Romans met to dispute the supremacy of the
+Mediterranean and of the civilized world. When, after a long occupation,
+during which it Latinized Spain more completely than any other country
+except Italy, the Roman Empire fell, successive waves of barbarian
+destroyers swept across the land, Sueves, Alans, Vandals, Visigoths, in
+wild confusion and internecine strife, wrecked the civilization which
+they could neither appreciate nor understand. The last of these races,
+the Visigoths, who ruled the longest, strove hard to found an empire
+from 450 to 710, but without success. The real power which held society
+together then, and which wrought what little order and law still
+existed, was the Church, and not the State. The Councils of the Church
+were the true legislative assemblies, and the real representatives of
+the people in those times. Yet, with all the power of the Church to
+uphold it, the Visigothic Empire remained so weak that it fell at the
+first shock of the Mohammedan Arabs. The Moors or Arabs landed in Spain
+in the year 711. In ten years they had conquered all of the Peninsula
+that they cared to hold; in eleven years more, 732, they had been
+defeated at Poictiers by Charles Martel, and had withdrawn for ever from
+France, except from the district of Narbonne. This rich province they
+held for many years, and it would seem to them to be more than an
+equivalent for the bare and humid mountains of Galicia and the Asturias,
+or the higher Pyrenees, which alone in the Peninsula were exempt from
+their sway. The Arabs and the Moors of Barbary are the last great race
+that has occupied Spain. Jews and a few Gipsies are the only peoples
+that have entered since. A few remnants of Berber tribes, isolated from
+their countrymen by the rapid advance of the Christian army in the tenth
+and eleventh centuries, like the Maragatos of Astorga, have remained in
+North-Western Spain, and doubtful remains of other peoples are found
+here and there, but none of these are in sufficient numbers to influence
+the nation as a whole. No country was more completely Romanized than
+Spain. In fact, after the Augustan age we might almost say that the best
+Latin writers were Spaniards born; Seneca, Quintilian, Lucian, and
+Martial were all natives of Spain. Hosius, the champion of Latin
+Christianity in the early part of the fourth century, was a Spaniard.
+The names of many of the towns are still Roman. Yet the Arabs have left
+almost a deeper mark upon the toponymy of the country. Look at the map
+of Spain, and we see, even up to the Pyrenees, how many Arabic names
+there are, especially of rivers and mountains, upon the map of Spain.
+Only in Galicia and the Asturias the Keltic and the Latin, in the Basque
+Provinces the Basque, and in Catalonia the Romance names have held their
+own. In all the rest the Roman names would have probably died away, but
+that the language of the Church was Latin, and preserved the Roman names
+of cities, monasteries, and shrines. Down even to the twelfth century it
+might seem doubtful which language would prevail, so many Arabs wrote in
+Spanish, and Spaniards in Arabic, or wrote Spanish in Arabic characters.
+The struggle was decided by the sword; the expulsion of the Arabs was
+also the expulsion of their tongue. Yet the Arabs have left far more
+traces on Spanish than Spanish has done on Arabic. The Spanish Jews,
+however, had forgotten their Semitic tongue, and to this day the sacred
+language of the Jews of the Balkan Peninsula, and of many of the Syrian
+Jews, even of those at Jerusalem, is not Hebrew but Spanish; their
+liturgical works are written in that tongue, and they use it always in
+the synagogue.
+
+In spite, however, of all this mixture of races and of languages, Spain
+and the Spanish language has perhaps fewer dialects than any other
+European speech. From the Central Pyrenees to the Straits of Gibraltar
+only one dialect is used, the Spanish or Castilian, the purest and
+noblest of those which sprang from the decaying Latin. At the inner
+angle of the Bay of Biscay Basque is still spoken by a population of
+about 400,000 souls. The Galician dialect is far more closely allied to
+the Portuguese than to the Spanish, and should be considered as
+belonging to the former tongue. Between Galicia and the Basque Provinces
+are the many Patois, or Bables, of Asturia, which alone of the Romance
+tongues in the Peninsula have kept the three distinct genders, the
+masculine, feminine, and neuter terminations of the Latin adjective. The
+speech of Leon, too, may be classed as a separate dialect. In Catalonia,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Isles a Provençal or Romance dialect is
+spoken, the _Lemosin_ as it was called in mediæval times, and which
+stretched from the Loire to the frontiers of Murcia, and from the
+western coast of the Bay of Biscay, with few interruptions, almost to
+the Black Sea. In the thirteenth century the Catalan dialect more
+resembled that of the Gascon Béarnais, or the Western Languedocian, than
+of the neighbouring Provence, but centuries of intercourse have since
+modified it, and the three dialects of Catalonia, Valencia, and the
+Balearic Isles must now be classed as a Provençal speech.
+
+The tongues of all these successive occupiers of the soil have doubtless
+left traces in the noble Spanish language, but in very unequal
+proportions. A very few words belong to the old Iberian speech, but it
+is to that, perhaps, that Spanish owes the purity and the paucity of its
+vowel sounds, as from the Arabic it has gained the gutturals which have
+prevented its sinking to the effeminate softness of the Italian, and it
+still preserves the lofty sonority of the Latin. Some few of the
+elements of its vocabulary may be traced to the Keltic, less to the
+Teutonic languages. From Arabic it has taken more, and those words of
+more important character. But the bulk of the language still remains
+Latin. It is essentially one of the Romance dialects which sprang from
+the "lingua rustica," the country speech of the decaying Roman Empire.
+It has been calculated that six-tenths of its words are Latin, a tenth
+Gothic or Teutonic, one-tenth liturgical and Greek, one-tenth American
+or modern borrowings, and one-tenth Arabic. But as to this last, we must
+not forget that the different parts of the vocabulary of a language have
+a very different value. Some could be well dispensed with, some are of
+first necessity. There are words which we only see in print, and seldom
+or never hear spoken; there are words which belong only to science or to
+pedantry; but there are others which are in daily and hourly use, and
+whose employment is many times more frequent than the whole number of
+words in all the rest of the language put together. It is thus that the
+contribution of Arabic to Spanish vocabulary is of far more importance
+than is apparent by its numerical proportion; many of the most common
+terms, especially of those used in the south of Spain, are of Arabic
+origin.
+
+Thus has been formed the noble Spanish tongue, the richest and most
+dignified of all that have sprung from the decay of Latin. Marvellously
+adapted to oratory and to verse, most incisive and mordant in the
+tongues of the lowest class, stately and sonorous almost to a fault, it
+is yet unequalled in grace and tenderness in the old romances and in the
+mouths of women and of children. Italian is its only rival. While
+reading its stately sentences, and marking the majestic rhythm of Scio's
+grand translation of the Bible and of its other religious literature, we
+can well understand why Spain's greatest emperor, the lord of many lands
+and of many tongues, spoke Spanish only to his God. It is rare to find a
+foreigner who has mastered Spanish, who does not ever afterwards delight
+in its use above all other tongues except his own.
+
+The population of Spain, according to the census of 1877, is 16,625,000,
+including the Balearic and Canary Islands, and the North African
+possessions. The number of inhabitants in Spain has fluctuated much at
+different periods, according as war, emigration, or bad government have
+affected the condition of the people. In the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries the population, according to the only estimates procurable,
+was about 9,000,000; in 1621, at the close of Philip III.'s reign, it
+had sunk to 6,000,000, the lowest point on record; it gradually rose
+from 7,500,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 10,500,000 at
+the close of the eighteenth. The wars of Napoleon then lowered it by
+500,000, but in 1821 it had recovered, and reached 11,600,000. A more
+rapid increase then took place till 1832, when the population numbered
+14,600,000. The Carlist and civil wars which marked the beginning of the
+reign of Isabella II. reduced it by more than 2,000,000, if the returns
+are exact. In 1837 and in 1846 it stood at 12,200,000. In 1857 at
+15,500,000, whence it mounted rapidly to 16,800,000 in 1870, a total
+which the late Carlist war and that in Cuba has reduced by some 200,000;
+and at the last census, 1877, as said above, the returns were
+16,625,000.
+
+The number of inhabitants to the square mile is 90, just half that of
+France, about a third that of Great Britain, and a fifth that of
+Belgium. This comparative scarcity is easily accounted for when we
+consider that nearly one-half (46 per cent.) of the territory still
+remains uncultivated; and although a considerable portion of this
+consists of mountain or of naturally sterile soil, a still larger
+portion of it is susceptible of some kind of cultivation, and even the
+portion under cultivation would under good husbandry, support a much
+larger population than it actually does.
+
+More than two-thirds (66.75 per cent.) of the whole working population
+of Spain are engaged in agriculture, and the total produce, including
+cereals and cattle of all kinds, wine and fruits, cork, woods, esparto
+grass, &c., after supplying the demand for home consumption, leaves a
+surplus of agricultural produce for exportation of the value of
+14,000,000_l_. sterling. Those engaged in manufacturing industry and in
+commerce are reckoned at 10-1/2 per cent, of the working population; but
+in Spain, as elsewhere, the relative numbers are slowly changing,
+following the conditions of modern European life; a greater
+proportionate number are annually withdrawn from agriculture, and are
+being added to the population of the great towns, and to the
+manufacturing industries. Thus, until the last census the highest
+population of Spain per square kilometre was to be found, not in the
+manufacturing provinces of Barcelona and Valencia, nor in the great
+mining provinces, but in the fishing and agricultural province of
+Pontevedra, in Galicia. In 1870 Pontevedra numbered 107, Barcelona 98
+inhabitants to the square kilometre. In 1877 it is Barcelona that
+numbers 108, and Pontevedra 100 only. Next after these provinces come
+the two Basque ones of Guipuzcoa 88, and Biscay 87. The one almost
+wholly agricultural, the other mining and agricultural. The nearest
+after them is the province of Madrid, with only 77 per square kilometre,
+and Corunna and Alicante with 75. These figures will, we think,
+sufficiently indicate the character of Spanish industry.
+
+The chief centres of manufacturing industry are Catalonia and Valencia,
+in which provinces nearly all the textile goods of Spain are produced.
+The chief mining districts are those round Carthagena in Alicante,
+Linares in Jaen, the Rio Tinto in Huelva, Somorrostro in Biscay, and of
+quicksilver at Almaden in the province of Ciudad Rodrigo; but valuable
+mines, as detailed in a former chapter, are found in many other
+provinces of Spain. In fact, there is scarcely one without a mine of
+more or less importance.
+
+Those engaged in professions of all kinds--lawyers, doctors, artists,
+journalists--are only about 10-1/2 per cent. of the whole working
+population. The clergy, who once numbered, it is said, one-third of the
+whole population, have greatly diminished during the present century,
+and are still gradually declining. Including religious orders of all
+kinds, inquisitors, and the secular clergy, they still numbered, at the
+close of the last century, nearly 250,000, out of a population of
+10,500,000. In 1826 they had sunk to about 60,000, in 1858 to 44,000, in
+1862 to 40,000, and their present numbers are probably about 35,000.
+
+Immense changes have taken place in recent times, and more particularly
+in the present century, with regard to the distribution of land in
+Spain. The large amount of property held by the Crown, the religious
+orders, the clergy, and various municipal bodies, and the restrictions
+imposed by the laws of the Mesta on the enclosure of land, rendered the
+number of private proprietors formerly very few. Even in 1800 their
+number was only 273,760. In 1764 it was estimated that the clergy
+possessed one-sixth of the real property, and one-third of the movable
+property of all Spain, and the property of the Church paid scarcely any
+taxes, or none at all. From the beginning of the sixteenth century
+protests were continually being made against abuses of Church property,
+but only towards the end of the eighteenth century were measures of
+reform seriously undertaken. Little, however, was really effected till
+the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812-13, when the feudal dues on land, of
+whatever nature, regal, ecclesiastical, or seignorial, were abolished.
+The religious orders were also suppressed. In 1820 a law was passed
+forbidding the Church to acquire any more real property. Tithes, of
+which the clergy possessed 60 per cent, and the laity 40, were
+diminished by half in 1821, and wholly suppressed in 1837. In 1836 the
+possessions of the clergy were declared to be national property, and the
+sale of them was begun. This, with various interruptions, according as a
+liberal or reactionary Government has been in power, has been continued
+to the present time. The Crown and municipal property had been sold at
+an earlier period, from 1813 to 1855. The Mesta was totally abolished in
+1837 as to its privileged rights on property, and in 1851 became merely
+an agricultural association for the improvement of the breed of cattle.
+The serfs in Galicia were declared to have become proprietors of their
+land by prescription in 1763.
+
+The result of these successive measures, and of these immense sales of
+territorial property, has been to throw the land into the hands of a
+much greater number of small landed proprietors, who now number
+3,426,083, so that, in spite of some large estates still existing,
+especially in Andalusia, the average quantity of land held in Spain by
+each proprietor would seem to be only about some 30 acres. Yet in
+Galicia alone does there seem to have been any suffering caused by a too
+great subdivision of land, and this perhaps was caused more by the
+perpetuation of habits acquired while the land was burdened with
+seignorial dues, when the occupier could neither quit his land nor sell
+it. In this district the people are still miserably poor, their food and
+houses are equally wretched, and nothing but the large emigration that
+has taken and is now taking place will restore the province to any real
+prosperity.
+
+From what has been said in the preceding pages as to their ethnology,
+the reader will not be surprised to learn that the different populations
+of Spain have very different characteristics. The Galicians and
+Asturians are the hewers of wood and drawers of water in Spain. They are
+often fine, stalwart men, brave, and make excellent sailors. It is they
+who reap the harvests for the more lazy Castilians and gather the
+vintage of Oporto; it is they who do nearly all the hard work in all the
+chief towns, not of Spain only, but also of Portugal. They are
+proverbially honest and trustworthy as servants, though slow and
+somewhat lacking in intelligence. Abroad, and as emigrants, they are
+trusted as men of no other race are: in the countries of La Plata in
+South America, the town-house, during the summer absence of the
+proprietor and his family, is given over to a Gallego, as it stands, to
+be taken care of, and rarely indeed is an article missing. The Asturian
+partakes of the same general characteristics as the Galician, though in
+a less marked degree. In the Montaneses, the inhabitants of the province
+of Santander, we have the favourite nurses and female servants of
+Madrid. The Asturias and Santander are remarkable for the number of
+statesmen and economists they have produced in proportion to the
+population. In the Basque Provinces we find an entirely different race,
+not perhaps of so muscular a build, but active, and capable of great
+endurance. Intelligent and proud of their ancient race and liberties,
+they almost always retain their self-respect, and are for the most part
+free from that cruelty towards animals which is so disfiguring a trait
+in the character of other Spaniards. The Basques are generally found
+among the upper and more trusted servants in civil life, in the army and
+navy they make excellent petty officers; as seamen they are among the
+best of Spain; as soldiers they are brave, enduring, capital marchers,
+and as light infantry second to none of any nation. The Aragonese, like
+the Galicians, count among the hard workers of Spain; generally of
+shorter build, and very thick-set, but somewhat dull and very obstinate,
+they are employed in the heaviest work. In literature they are known as
+jurisconsults and historians. In Catalonia and Valencia we have the
+bright Provençal race. A race apt for commerce and for manufacturing
+industries; pushing, energetic, they gather to themselves the greater
+part of the commerce, manufactures, and shopkeeping of all kinds, as far
+as these are done by Spaniards, throughout the kingdom. Fiery in temper,
+and not to be implicitly trusted, especially in Valencia, their
+weapon is the knife, which they use sometimes on slight provocation; the
+hired assassins and bandits of Spain have always been recruited thence.
+Socialists and Federalists in politics, they have ever been disaffected
+towards the central government. In Catalonia this may be the result of
+memories of former independence; but it is curious to remark that
+Barcelona and the cities of the Mediterranean, as compared with Cadiz
+and Ferrol on the Atlantic, have played analogous parts in Spanish
+history to those of Marseilles and Bordeaux in French; the Mediterranean
+in each case being the home of the ultra-democrat and the man of the
+"Montagne," and the Atlantic of the constitutionalists and the
+Girondins. More to the south we find undoubtedly a greater mixture of
+Moorish blood. The Andalusian is almost oriental in character, he is
+fond of song and dance and colour, yet lazy withal, and disliking
+sustained labour. He delights to deck himself with finery, and his women
+with flowers; and his taste though glowing is never utterly debasing.
+Excelling in wit and repartee, the Andalusian _gamin_ is the most
+amusing rogue in Europe. He has a wild, fierce, momentary energy, and is
+courteous and gracious in speech; his proverbs and songs are
+innumerable, and sparkle with a peculiar wit and charm; but he
+altogether lacks the more solid qualities of the men of the north.
+Philosophers, orators, and poets rather than men of industry and science
+are the product of these provinces. The Andalusian barely keeps up the
+works which the more highly civilized Moors had done for him in
+agriculture and in vineyard, but he does not improve upon them; and both
+in mining and in wine cultivation, in manufactures, and in coasting
+shipping, he allows nearly the whole of the trade and commerce of the
+south to pass into the hands of foreigners or of Catalans. The men of
+central Spain, except in the towns, the men of Leon, of the Castiles,
+and of La Mancha, and in a less degree the men of Estremadura, have
+changed but little for the last few centuries. They are Spaniards of the
+type generally conceived by foreigners as applying to the whole nation.
+Grave and slow of speech, exceedingly courteous unless their prejudices
+are offended, fond of formality and proud of it; they are bigoted (but
+less so than formerly), prejudiced, ignorant to an extreme, each
+thinking his own town or village the _élite_ of the universe; content
+with few comforts and preferring semi-starvation to exertion, the
+Castilian is half ashamed of honest labour, but by no means averse to
+corruption in any shape, and sees no disgrace in beggary. Cruel in the
+extreme, when his passions are aroused, it is one of the misfortunes of
+Spain that from the advantage of their elevated central physical
+position, the Castilians, as warriors and statesmen, at all times among
+the least civilized of her people, have been able to rule and control
+the more civilized and more advanced (especially in political freedom
+and administration) communities of the sea-board. It is a want of
+discernment of this fact which makes so many of the picturesque
+histories of Spain utterly fail in explaining the origin and the
+progressive causes of her present condition. There are a few other
+tribes in Spain which it may be worth while to notice, such as the
+Gipsies, who seem still to keep themselves tolerably distinct in
+Andalusia and in the south, but who in more than one instance have
+completely coalesced with the Basques in the north. The Maragatos, the
+trusted _Arrieros_ or muleteers of Leon, a remnant apparently of a wild
+Berber tribe, left behind when the more civilized Moors retreated
+southwards before the advance of the Christian conquerors; the Passiegos
+near Bilbao, the men of the Sayago, the Hurdes of the Batuecas, the
+Chuetas of Majorca, these and several minor tribes, remnants, perhaps,
+of older populations whose ethnic affinities have never been made out,
+are too few in numbers to affect the general population; but are of
+interest to the ethnologist from the survivals of ancient laws and
+customs which are still observed among them. One class, not a tribe, the
+wretched commercial policy of Spain has developed to a greater extent
+than in any other country, that of the smuggler or contrabandista. He
+differs greatly in different districts, and even on the same line of
+frontier. In some parts contrabandista is almost synonymous with bandit,
+in others he is honest in his illegal trade, and more to be trusted with
+immense sums than the officials who arrest him. In a small way he is a
+type of the many contradictions of Spanish character and of "the things
+of Spain."
+
+[Illustration: CABALLEROS.
+
+_Page 86._]
+
+[Illustration: DOMINIQUE, THE ESPADA.]
+
+[Illustration: GIPSIES AT GRANADA.
+
+_Page 90._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.
+
+
+Spain was formerly divided into some fourteen separate provinces or
+kingdoms, once ruled by distinct and independent sovereigns, and under
+very different political conditions. It was not until the taking of
+Granada, in 1492, that the whole nation became, even nominally, subject
+to the joint sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella; and for long afterwards
+Aragon and Catalonia preserved a semi-independence, while, even to our
+own day, the Basque Provinces and Navarre were really an independent
+republic united to the Spanish crown.
+
+Since 1841, however, the whole country has been divided for
+administrative purposes into forty-eight provinces, including the
+Balearic Isles.
+
+We shall now hastily sketch the chief features of the old kingdoms, with
+the modern provinces included in each. Beginning from the north-west,
+we have the kingdom of GALICIA, with its four provinces, _Corunna_,
+_Lugo_, _Pontevedra_, and _Orense_. We have before remarked on the Frith
+or Fiord-like character of the western coast of Galicia, a conformation
+which gives it by far the finest harbours of the whole Spanish coast.
+Thus, in the province of Corunna there are the harbour and city (33,000
+inhabitants) of the same name, so well known by our forefathers under
+the title of "the Groyne," and the scene of many a gallant fight both by
+land and sea from the days of Queen Elizabeth to the fall of Sir J.
+Moore, but now the chief port of the cattle-trade with England. Its port
+is frequented by about 130,000 tons of British shipping annually; and
+about 20,000 bullocks are exported annually, mostly in small schooners.
+It has also a tobacco factory. A little to the north-east Ferrol
+(23,000) has a still better harbour, and is one of the principal naval
+establishments of Spain. It is capacious enough to almost contain the
+united fleets of Europe; and its only drawback, a singular one in so
+humid a climate, is the want of good water. But the most famous city in
+the province, and indeed, in all Galicia, the pilgrim-town of Santiago
+(St. James) de Compostella (24,000) owes its magnitude to devotion
+rather than to commerce. The legend of the voyage of St. James to Spain,
+the finding his body at Compostella, and his subsequent appearances in
+battle as the champion of Spain, made this the most celebrated shrine
+in Europe. Roads led to it from every land, and one of the popular names
+of the "Milky Way" was "The road to Compostella." The wealth both of the
+military order of Compostella and of the cathedral and chapter was
+immense. Even now, after all its spoiling, the cathedral is rich in
+precious goldsmiths' work, in architectural, and in literary treasures.
+Pontevedra (8000) is the capital of the thickly-populated province of
+the same name, whose inhabitants reap a harvest both from sea and land.
+Vigo (6000) has an excellent harbour and roadstead, but its commerce has
+greatly fallen off in comparison with that of Corunna. It was formerly
+the port at which the galleons disembarked their treasures for Northern
+Spain. The total tonnage of the harbour in 1878 was 208,000. _Orense_,
+an inland province east of Pontevedra, has a capital of the same name
+(11,000) on the banks of the Minho. It is the head of an agricultural
+and pastoral district, and in it are produced some wines which were
+considered in the eighteenth century the finest of all Spain. Here, too,
+is one of the grand bridges of Western Spain, possibly of Roman
+construction. _Lugo_, with its city (8000), faces north instead of west,
+and has its harbours, Vivero and Rivadeo, on the Bay of Biscay; but the
+near neighbourhood of Ferrol and of Corunna deprive them of all but
+coasting trade.
+
+The ASTURIAS, the home of the Spanish monarchy, and the only ancient
+kingdom of which no part was subdued by the Moors (though they raided
+once to Oviedo), contains but one province, called after its chief town
+_Oviedo_ (34,000), with a cathedral, university, and a most pleasant
+situation. In this province is Covadonga, where the Visigoth Pelayo, in
+719, repulsed the Moors, and thus took the first step towards the
+recovery of Spain. The whole country slopes rapidly from its southern
+frontier, the summit of the Cantabrian Mountains, towards the Bay of
+Biscay. Cangas de Tineo (22,000) is the centre of a mining district.
+Owing to the great development of mining operations in this province
+within the last ten years the small towns of Siero, Tineo, Grado, and
+Villaviciosa have suddenly sprung into importance, and each now contains
+over 20,000 inhabitants. The chief port is Gijon (30,000), of which the
+chief trade is in hazel-nuts for England, of which over 1000 tons are
+annually exported, to the value of 23,000 _l._ Here is one of the seven
+government tobacco manufactories, and also important glass-works,
+conducted chiefly by Swiss and French artisans; but it is far
+outstripped in commercial importance by SANTANDER (41,000), the capital
+of the neighbouring province, and the great port of outlet for the
+agricultural riches of Leon and of the Castiles. Santander has also a
+great trade with Cuba and Porto Rico, and possesses almost a monopoly
+of the supply of cereals to those islands. A port of equal natural
+excellence is Santoña, which the first Napoleon would have made the
+Gibraltar of Northern Spain, but which is now frequented only as a
+bathing-place by the inhabitants of the interior. The mountain scenery
+of these two provinces is most picturesque, both along the sea-board and
+in the interior, where the snow sometimes lies on the Picos de Europa
+until July or August. The coal-mines of the Asturias are rapidly
+assuming importance. The output was, in 1878, 400,000 tons, at a cost on
+board ship of 13_s._ per ton. The extent of the bed is estimated at
+667,200 acres.
+
+The BASQUE PROVINCES (Las Provincias Vascongadas) are _Biscay_,
+_Guipuzcoa_, and _Alava_. The union of the three is often represented by
+a symbol like the heraldic bearings of the Isle of Man; and they are,
+with Navarre and the French Pays Basque, the home of the Basque race,
+but only one province, Guipuzcoa, is _wholly_ inhabited by them.
+_Biscay_ has for its chief town the busy mining city of Bilbao (32,000)
+on the Nervion, with a commerce of over 2,000,000_l._ annual value,
+notwithstanding an inferior harbour, exceeding that of Santander. The
+chief mines, iron, are in the Somorrostro district, a few miles to the
+east of the city, and they are worked mainly by English, French, or
+German companies. In 1879 the exports from Bilbao amounted to 1,160,248
+tons of iron minerals, while the imports included 72,196 tons of English
+coke and coal, chiefly for the use of the mines. In this province is the
+Oak of Guernica, where the Spanish sovereigns swore to observe the
+constitutional privileges or _fueros_ of the Basques. The chief city of
+_Guipuzcoa_ is San Sebastian (21,000), a sea-port with a strong citadel.
+Of less commercial importance than Bilbao, it is much frequented in
+summer as a city of pleasure; the town has been almost wholly rebuilt
+since the siege of 1813. The province, though almost wholly
+agricultural, and famous for its cider and apple orchards, contains also
+some mines, and a few manufactures grouped round its old capital, Tolosa
+(8000). Eibar and Plasencia, two small manufacturing towns on the Deva,
+have preserved the art of inlaying iron with gold and silver, and are
+noted for their manufacture of fire-arms. _Alava_ has but one town of
+importance, Vitoria (25,000), a picturesque city at the foot of the
+Cantabrian Mountains and the head of the fertile plains of the Upper
+Rioja. These two districts, the Riojas, divided by the Ebro, are noted
+for their wines, which need only more careful preparation to become an
+important article of commerce; at present they are chiefly exported to
+Bordeaux, for mixing with inferior French wines, to be re-exported as
+claret to England. NAVARRE, the only other province where Basque is
+spoken, once formed part of a petty kingdom which stretched on both
+sides of the Pyrenees, and of which the Spanish portion was definitely
+secured to Spain by the Duke of Alva in the reign of Ferdinand the
+Catholic, in 1512, has Pampeluna (25,000), a fortified city of Roman
+origin, for its capital. The upper part of Navarre is extremely
+mountainous, but it contains some useful iron-mines, and a Government
+foundry at Orbaiceta. The southern parts, along the banks of the Arga,
+and in the valley of the Ebro, are extremely fertile; but at the
+south-eastern corner in the Bardeñas Reales, we encounter a series of
+bare, stony hills, scored with deep ravines, and on which nothing will
+grow, the first of the desert tracks so common in Spain. Tudela (9000)
+on the opposite side of the Ebro, is united to the rest of the province
+by a fine bridge; it is here the traveller first sees in operation the
+_norias_ or water-wheels of the East.
+
+The kingdom of ARAGON contains three provinces, _Huesca_, _Saragossa_,
+and _Teruel_. The kingdom is almost bisected by the Ebro, towards which
+it slopes on both sides, from the highest summits of the Central
+Pyrenees on the north, and from the Idubeda Mountains and the Molina de
+Aragon on the south. Aragon divides with the Asturias the honour of
+having been one of the cradles of the Spanish monarchy. In 795 Don Asnar
+defeated the Moors near Jaca, in the province of Huesca. But the
+progress of the reconquest was very slow; from 714 to 1118 the Moors
+held possession of the town and kingdom of Saragossa, and it is from
+this occupation of four centuries that the traveller first meets here
+distinct remains of Moorish architecture. A still more lasting note of
+their sway is found in the nomenclature of the country. The rivers
+Guaticalema, Alcanadre, Guadalope, the names of the sierras, Alcubiere,
+and of many of the lesser towns and villages, sufficiently attest the
+former presence of the race who gave those names.
+
+_Huesca_ (10,000), the capital of the province of the same name, is an
+episcopal and university town, the bishop's palace being on the site of
+an old mosque. The upper part of this province is exceedingly
+mountainous, and is entered from France by the Central Pyrenean road,
+that of Somport, originally constructed by the Romans. The only other
+towns are Barbastro (7000), Monzon (4000), and Jaca (3500), nearer the
+mountains. _Saragossa_ (84,000), on the Ebro, formerly the Cæsar Augusta
+of the Romans, then for four centuries the capital of a Moorish kingdom,
+rivals Santiago de Compostella as a place of pilgrimage to the shrine of
+the Virgen del Pilar. The worship has, however, much declined of late
+years, and her devotees are not now a tithe of those who frequent the
+more recent shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes on the other side of the
+Pyrenees. The art treasures of the cathedral were sold in 1870, when
+many fine examples of jewellery and art were acquired for the Kensington
+Museum. Saragossa, though now fallen as a place of commerce, must again
+become important if the railway project is carried into effect, which
+will place it on the most direct line between Paris and Madrid. The
+Ebro, from its shallowness, is of no service for navigation; and, from
+neglect, the canals of Charles V. and of Tauste do not render the
+services they might, either for transport or for irrigation. Hence the
+despoblados and desiertos in the valley of the Ebro, both above and
+below the town. _Calayatud_ (12,000) was one of the four _comunidades_
+of Aragon, and is in the midst of a mineral district, the wealth of
+which seems at present almost wholly undeveloped. _Teruel_ (7000) is the
+capital of a very mountainous province which slopes towards the
+north-west from the Sierras de Molina and Albarracin, the mountain
+ranges which form the eastern boundary of the great watershed of the
+peninsula. Excepting the mines in these sierras, the province is almost
+wholly agricultural, but with no towns of importance. The historian Don
+Vicente de la Fuente has remarked that while the lands of the
+_comunidades_, the four free towns of Aragon, Calayatud, Teruel, Daroca,
+and Albarracin, have remained fertile under their more liberal
+government, the lands of the Seigneurs in the valley of the Ebro, where,
+almost alone in Spain, feudalism received its full development, have
+been for centuries barren and _despoblados_.
+
+[Illustration: LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA.
+
+_Page 98._]
+
+CATALONIA.--The ancient principality of Catalonia is now separated into
+four provinces, named after their chief towns, _Gerona_, _Barcelona_,
+_Tarragona_, and _Lerida_. The first three lie along the shores of the
+Mediterranean--the last, inland, and stretches from the Ebro to the
+Pyrenees. To the north of Lerida, and buried in the mountains, is the
+so-called republic of Andorra, which owes its practical independence to
+the singular fact of a double _seigneurie_. Both the Counts of Foix, in
+France, and the Prince-Bishops of Urgel, in Spain, were supreme Lords of
+Andorra. On paper its constitution is by no means so free as that of
+several other Pyrenean communities; but by skilfully playing off the
+jealousies and rivalries of its two lords, and preventing either from
+getting absolute power, this little state of twenty-eight miles by
+twenty has remained unsubdued, and unattached to either nationality. The
+chief trade of the republic may be said to be smuggling. _Lerida_,
+except in the valley of the Segre, is extremely mountainous, and like
+all the hill country of Catalonia is rich in minerals, especially in
+salt, near Solsona. The rest of its products are chiefly agricultural.
+The province is but thinly peopled; its chief town contains 20,000
+inhabitants. Balaguer (5000), Urgel (3000), Solsona (2500), are the most
+populous of the remaining. With _Gerona_ we enter the Mediterranean or
+Provençal region and climate, and come in contact not only with
+picturesque and glowing scenery, with a gorgeous variety of natural
+productions, but also with traditions and remains of the great works of
+all the races that have dominated this inland sea. From the Pyrenees to
+Carthagena the names of the chief towns recall classic reminiscences,
+and bring before us the struggles of ancient nations, contending on her
+soil for a far mightier empire than that of Spain. The province of
+Gerona contains Cape Creuz, the extreme north-easterly point of the
+peninsula, not far from the old Greek cities of Rosas and Emporium
+(Ampurias). Of its towns, Gerona, on the Ter, and Figueras have each
+8000, but are surpassed by Olot, 10,000, around which town are grouped
+the most recently extinct volcanoes in Spain. Coal is found in San Juan
+de las Abadesas. Here the Spanish gravity is mingled with the fire and
+dash of the Provençals, and the inhabitants both of Gerona and
+Barcelona, are more Provençal than Spanish, in language, political
+character, and in commercial and industrial aptitudes. The natural
+productions, and the flora too, are almost identical with those of the
+more sheltered parts of Provence and of the Riviera. Palm trees are seen
+as common ornaments in gardens and public squares, oranges and olives
+flourish, the mulberry is cultivated and silkworms are reared, and all
+announces a warmer zone than any that we have hitherto traversed.
+_Barcelona_ (250,000) the first industrial and commercial city of Spain,
+and the second in point of population, is also the capital of the most
+thickly inhabited province. The greater part of the trade and navigation
+of the whole Spanish sea-board from Catalonia to Cadiz, or even to
+Seville, is in the hands of its merchants. The cotton industry of
+Catalonia employed in 1870 a capital of 6,000,000_l._, and 104,000
+workmen, distributed in 700 factories. The chief of the other
+manufacturing towns are Gracia (33,000), and St. Martin de Provensals
+(24,000). The annual commercial movement of Barcelona is estimated at
+about 11,000,000_l._ sterling. The British imports, chiefly of coal and
+iron, amount to nearly 1,000,000_l._ sterling; but the exports are a
+mere trifle, 10,000_l._, most of the ships returning in ballast; while
+on the contrary, the exports of Tarragona, Palamos, Mataro, and
+Villamena, and the smaller ports amount to nearly 1,000,000_l._, chiefly
+in wine, and the imports are only half that amount. Irrigation is
+successfully carried on in the valley of the Llobregat. _Tarragona_
+(23,000) is rich in Roman remains, in the picturesque beauty of its
+site, in its Gothic architecture, in the mildness of its climate, and in
+the goodness of its wines; but it is surpassed both in wealth and
+population by the neighbouring manufacturing city of Reus (27,000), and
+also by Tortosa (24,000) on the Ebro, to which town all the river
+transport converges. The Ebro below Tortosa forms a sandy delta, and its
+channels are continually silting up. The canal of San Carlos, to connect
+Amposta with the sea by the port of Alfaques, has had but little
+success.
+
+VALENCIA includes the three provinces of _Castellon de la Plana_,
+_Valencia_, and _Alicante_, all three lying along the Mediterranean, and
+facing east and southwards from the mighty buttress sierras which form
+the eastern wall of the great central plateau. It is in these provinces
+that we gradually pass from the Mediterranean climate to the "_Tierra
+caliente_," the warm lands and African products of south-eastern Spain.
+Here too we meet with the finest Roman remains; and Moorish architecture
+begins to form a prominent feature in the characteristics of each city.
+The speech is still a dialect of the Provençal, and the fiery Provençal
+nature is still apparent in the political history of the cities of
+Valencia. The hill-sides, bare of trees, are covered either with the
+esparto grass or with strongly aromatic herbs and shrubs. The rainfall
+gradually lessens; the streams all assume a torrential character, nearly
+dry in summer, swollen with rapid floods in winter; but they are greatly
+utilized for irrigation. By this means are formed the "_huertas_,"
+gardens, and "_vegas_," plains, oases of beauty and fertility lying in
+the bosom of the barren hills, which serve as frames to pictures as
+valuable for their productiveness as they are enchanting in their
+beauty. The chief towns in the province of _Castellon_ are Castellon de
+la Plana (23,000), Vinaroz (9000), Villareal (8000), both near the
+Mediterranean; Segorbe on the Palancia, and numerous smaller towns in
+the interior. Benicarlo and Vinaroz, on the coast to the north of the
+province, are noted for their excellent red wines, quantities of which
+are exported to France for mixing with inferior French vintages, whence
+they find their way to England as Rousillon or Bordeaux. _Valencia_, a
+city of 143,000 inhabitants, and with a fine artificial harbour called
+the "_grao_," is the third city in population in Spain; but its commerce
+is little more than that of Santander and Bilbao, cities only one fourth
+of its size. The value of British imports, chiefly of coal, cod-fish,
+guano, and petroleum, in 1878, was 136,450_l_., and of exports, chiefly
+of fruits to Britain, 524,984_l_. The "_huerta_" of Valencia, with its
+canals for irrigation, its "_acequias_," "_norias_," and other devices
+to draw the waters of the Guadalaviar, is one of the most successful
+examples in Spain of regulated application of water to agriculture. The
+quantity of water allotted to each property, the hour of opening or
+closing the sluices, are regulated according to laws and customs
+descended from Moorish times. So great is the drain upon the streams
+that the waters of some of the smaller rivers are entirely absorbed in
+the summer, and even of the Guadalaviar but little then reaches the sea.
+It is from the _huerta_ of Valencia that the oranges come which form the
+delight of the population of Paris at the new year; hence are the
+raisins and the almonds and candied fruits equally dear to the British
+housekeeper. Rice is successfully cultivated on some of the lower
+grounds near the coast, and fruits and vegetables of every kind abound;
+but the Spaniards complain that they lack the richness and lusciousness
+of flavour belonging to those grown in other parts. "In Valencia," say
+they, "grass is like water, meat like grass, men like women, and the
+women worth nothing." The district was formerly noted for its
+silk-growing and stuffs of silk; also for the fine pottery known as
+Majolica ware from its carriers to the Italian ports, the sailors of
+Majorca and the Balearic Isles. It was also the earliest place of
+printing in Spain, and celebrated as a school of poetry and the arts;
+but nearly all this ancient fame is lost. To the south of Valencia is
+the large lake or lagoon of Albufera, the most extensive of the many
+lagoons along the Mediterranean coast, about nine miles long and
+twenty-seven miles round; it is full of fish, and frequented by wild
+fowls, and its varied inhabitants recall those of the Nile rather than
+those of any part of Europe. In the north of the province is Murviedro
+(7000), the ancient Saguntum, with its port almost entirely blocked up.
+Considerable remains of the older city still exist, with inscriptions in
+idioms yet unknown, and are a treasure to archæologists. The largest of
+the other cities are Alcira (13,000) on the Jucar, and Jativa (14,000).
+The southern coasts of Valencia and the neighbouring districts of
+Alicante abound in sites of picturesque beauty, and the position of many
+of the ruined monasteries, built generally on the hills with a distant
+prospect of the sea, can hardly be excelled.
+
+_Alicante_, whose _huertas_ and _vegas_ with their appliances for
+irrigation rival those of Valencia, has but 34,000 inhabitants.
+Orihuela, in its rich wheat-growing district of never-failing harvest,
+has 21,000, and Alcoy 32,000. The smaller towns are numerous, and from
+the little ports in the north of the province, round Cape Nao, a good
+deal of coasting trade is done with the neighbouring Balearic Isles.
+From Denia, Tabea, and Altea, nearly 100,000 tons of raisins are shipped
+every year, chiefly for Great Britain. At Elche (20,000) is the
+celebrated forest of palms of which we have before spoken, and the
+leaves of which are sent to Rome for the ceremonies of Easter week. The
+number of the trees is gradually declining, as the produce hardly repays
+the great amount of labour required. In the church at Elche religious
+plays or mysteries are occasionally performed, with an enthusiasm and
+solemnity both of actors and spectators equal to that of the
+Passionspiel of Ober-Ammergau.
+
+MURCIA contains the two provinces, _Murcia_ and _Albacete_. The first
+faces the Mediterranean; the second, besides comprising the Sierras of
+Alcazar and Segura, climbs those boundary mountains, and advances far
+into the plateau of La Mancha, and thus contains within its limits the
+sources of the Guadiana as well as those of the Mundo and the Segura.
+_Murcia_, in its higher parts, is very thinly peopled, and in spite of
+the fertile plains in the lower course of the Segura and the Sangonera,
+and the rich mining district round Cartagena, has only two-thirds as
+many inhabitants to the square mile as Valencia. Murcia is perhaps the
+driest province of Spain, and the one in which the want of water is the
+most generally felt, yet it is in this province that the floods are the
+most pernicious and destructive. Year by year the irrigation works
+become less effective. Ancient dams broken down by the floods are not
+restored. Since 1856, however, a new source of wealth has been opened to
+this province by the export of the esparto grass, which grows on all the
+low hills, and which, in addition to its use in the country for numerous
+native fabrics, is now largely exported for paper-making. The export
+began only in 1856. In 1873 it had reached 67,000 tons for England
+alone; in 1875 the money value of the whole export was 400,000_l._, but
+it declined to 30,000_l._ in 1877, and 284,000_l._ in 1878, since which
+date it has gradually lessened. Murcia, the chief city, is an irrigated
+plain on the Segura, has a population of 91,000. It is one of the chief
+seats of silk cultivation in Spain. Lorca (52,000), on the Sangonera,
+offers another example of the extreme fertility that can be obtained by
+irrigation in a suitable climate. Cartagena (75,000), with its grand
+harbour and docks, is one of the three naval arsenals in Spain; but has
+greatly fallen from its ancient wealth and importance. Like Barcelona
+and Valencia it has distinguished itself by its extreme democratic and
+cantonalist opinions, and has revolted against the republic equally as
+against the monarchy. In its neighbourhood are some of the richest lead
+and silver mines in Spain, and which have been worked since Carthaginian
+and Roman times. The coal imported from England for smelting purposes
+amounts to 80,000 tons yearly. The tonnage of British vessels employed
+was over 200,000 in 1877. Along the coast are various lagoons and
+salt-lakes (salinas), where salt is made on a considerable scale; it is
+exported chiefly to the Baltic. The Barilla plant, for making soda, is
+also cultivated along the coast; and, of the plants in the salinas, it
+is computed that at least one-sixth of the species are African.
+_Albacete_ (16,000), situated at the junction both of road and railway
+from Murcia and Valencia to Madrid, is chiefly celebrated for its trade
+in common cutlery. It is here that the large stabbing knives (navajas)
+are made, and for the use of which both Valencians and Murcians have an
+unenviable notoriety. On the plateau of this province (Albacete) are
+found (Salinas) salt-lakes formed by evaporation, the only examples of
+this kind in Western Europe. The only other town of any importance in
+the province is Almanza (9000), on the edge of the plateau before making
+the descent into Valencia. The numerous names compounded of "pozo,"
+well, and "fuente," fountain, in this province, attest its arid
+character, where fresh water is scarce enough to make its presence a
+distinguishing mark to any spot.
+
+ANDALUSIA embraces the whole of southern Spain from Murcia to the
+frontier of Portugal. Its seaboard includes both the Mediterranean and
+the Atlantic. In Cabo de Gata, 2°10' W., it has the extreme
+south-easterly point of Spain; and in Cabo de Tarifa, 36°2' N., the
+extreme southerly point, not only of Spain, but of Europe. One chain of
+its mountains, the Sierra de Nevada, contains the highest summits of the
+peninsula; and its river, the Guadalquiver, from Seville to the ocean is
+the only stream of real service for navigation in the whole of Spain.
+Its wines and olives, its grapes and oranges, and fruits of all kinds,
+are the finest, its horses and its cattle are the best, its bulls are
+the fiercest, of all Spain. The sites of its cities rival in their
+entrancing beauty those of any other European land; while, wanting
+though they may be in deeper qualities, its sons and daughters yield not
+in wit or attractive grace or beauty to those of any other race. The
+Moor has left a deeper mark here than elsewhere, even as he kept his
+favourite realm of Granada for centuries after he had lost the rest of
+Spain. And when the sun of Moorish glory set, it was from Andalusia that
+the vision of the New World rose upon astonished Europe. The year of the
+conquest of Granada (1492) was also that of the discovery of America.
+All things take an air of unwonted beauty and of picturesque grace in
+this land of sun and light; even the gipsy race, avoided and abhorred in
+other countries of Europe, at Granada, as at Moscow, becomes one of the
+attractions of the tourist. The province is not entirely of one type. It
+unites many kinds of beauty; even in Andalusia are "_despoblados_" and
+"_destierros_," dispeopled and deserted wastes, under Christian hands,
+but once fertile and inhabited under Moorish rule. Savage wildness and
+barrenness reign in its lofty mountain chains as much as softer beauty
+does in the "_huertas_" and "_vegas_." But from the minerals the one
+district is equally valuable as the other. The province possesses the
+richest mines, as well as the richest fruits and wines, of the whole of
+Spain. ANDALUSIA, is divided into the provinces of _Almeria_, _Granada_,
+_Malaga_, on the Mediterranean; _Cadiz_, _Seville_, _Huelva_, on the
+Atlantic coast; and _Cordova_ and _Jaen_ inland, along the upper waters
+of the Guadalquiver.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF GRANADA, WITH THE ALHAMBRA.
+
+_Page 110._]
+
+In _Almeria_ (40,000) the flat-roofed houses are built round a central
+court, the "_patio_," wherein is often a fountain, and palm and vine for
+shade; while oranges, myrtles, passion-flowers, and other gay or
+odoriferous shrubs or flowers, add their colour and perfume. The type
+and the manners of the inhabitants tell us that we are already in the
+land of the Moors. Almeria has declined from what it was when one of the
+chief ports of transit between the Moors of Africa and their brethren of
+south-eastern Spain; but from the growing importance of the Spanish
+colony in Oran, its trade is now fast reviving. The exports are lead and
+silver ore from the mines of the neighbourhood, fruits of all kinds, and
+a little wine. The tonnage of British shipping employed at Almeria was,
+in 1875, 117,123 tons; 1876, 85,840 tons; 1877, 89,988 tons. The chief
+exports in 1877 were about 10,000 tons of esparto grass, 280,000 barrels
+of grapes, 10,000 tons of minerals, and nearly 10,000 of calamine. The
+sugar-cane is also grown here. The whole province is mountainous,
+covered with the spurs and offshoots of the mighty Sierra Nevada, the
+Sierras de Gador, de Filabres, de Cabrera, de Aljamilla, all which have
+their terminations in headlands which run into the Mediterranean. The
+basins of the rivers of the region are often cleft by these smaller
+ranges, and thus they receive their waters from both the northern and
+southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The only other towns of importance
+are Cuevas de Vera (20,000), and Velez-Rubio (13,000), in the north of
+the province on the road between Murcia and Granada, where some
+lead-mines have been lately opened. The ports, except Almeria, are all
+small; Dalias, on the confines of Granada, is noted for the magnificent
+grapes and raisins shipped there.
+
+_Granada_ (76,000) is one of the most celebrated spots of Europe, a city
+of enchantment and of romance. It is one of the few places of renown,
+the sight of which does not disappoint the traveller. The natural
+advantages of its position would be sufficient to mark it as a city of
+unusual beauty, were there no masterpieces of art and of architecture,
+or storied memories, connected with it. It is situated in an upland
+valley, at an elevation of 2200 feet above the sea level--sufficiently
+high in that climate to prevent the summer's heat from being
+oppressively exhausting, and not too high to hinder the choicest
+semi-tropical fruits and flowers from growing in the open
+air--surrounded, yet not too closely, by mountain ranges, of which those
+to the east are the very highest in Spain--Mulhacen (11,700), Alcazaba
+(11,600), and Veleta (11,400). The ice and snow on their summits not
+only cool the hot winds which blow over them from Africa, but provide
+the means of making the iced water which is the Spaniard's greatest
+luxury. Its climate is second in its equable range only to that of its
+coast towns, Motril and Malaga. It is watered by the united streams of
+the Darro and the Jenil, which meet within the city, both hurrying from
+their mountain home to join the Guadalquiver between Cordova and
+Seville; and with their fertilizing waters dispersed in irrigation they
+make the "Vega," or plain, of Granada one of the noted gardens of the
+world. Granada is worth all the praise that has been sung or written of
+it. On an isolated hill to the east, cut off from the town and from the
+Generalife by the ravine through which the Darro flows, and enclosed
+with a wall flanked by twelve towers, stands the celebrated group of
+buildings known by the name of the Alhambra, perhaps the fairest palace
+and fortress at once ever inhabited by a Moslem monarch. Almost
+unrivalled in the beauty of its site, it outstrips all rivals in the
+beauty of its Arab architecture. The mosque of Cordova is grander, and
+the tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo may be in a purer style, but they lack
+the variety and richness of these diverse buildings. The Alhambra hill
+is to Arabic what the Acropolis of Athens was to Hellenic art; only to
+the attractions of the plastic arts were added in the case of the
+Alhambra the triumphs of the gardener's skill. Shrubs and flowers
+delighted the eyes with colour, or gratified the sense of smell with
+sweetest odours, while water, skilfully conducted from the neighbouring
+hills, purled among the beds, or leaped in fountains, or filled the
+baths with purest streams. Thus every sense and taste was gratified, and
+Granada was indeed an earthly paradise to the Moor. Even in its decay,
+and seen in fragments only, it is one of the world's wonders, a
+treasure and delight to pilgrims of art from every land. But we must not
+waste our space in detailing the beauties of Granada; its trade, sadly
+diminished from what it was formerly, is chiefly in fruits and silk and
+leather stuffs. Next to Granada, the chief city in the province is Loja
+(15,000), near the Jenil, and the little port of Motril (13,500),
+sheltered under the highest summits of the Sierra Nevada, is said to
+possess the most equable climate of the Spanish Mediterranean ports. It
+is here, in the extensive alluvial plain stretching from Motril to the
+sea, that the sugar-cane is most extensively cultivated, producing in
+1877, 113,636 tons of cane. Far inland, and separated from Motril by the
+mountain mass, is Baza (13,500). The mineral riches of the Sierra Nevada
+have never been adequately explored; from specimens used in the
+construction of Granada, it must possess marbles of rare beauty; metals,
+too, abound, but few of its mines are worked. In picturesque beauty,
+when seen near at hand, these mountains are not nearly equal to the
+Pyrenees and to many minor chains; with rounded summits, they are bare
+and denuded of wood, and are entirely without the glacier forms, and the
+lakes and rushing streams, which delight us in the Alps.
+
+[Illustration: ALHAMBRA TOWER BY MOONLIGHT.]
+
+_Malaga._--The greater part of this province lies in an amphitheatre of
+mountains, stretching from the Sierra de Almijarras on the east to
+those of De la Nieve and of Ronda to the west. It faces the full
+southern sun, but is watered and irrigated by torrential streams from
+the mountains, at times almost dry, at others, as in December, 1880,
+rushing down in most destructive floods. The city, with over 110,000
+inhabitants, boasts not only the finest climate in Spain, on which
+account it is greatly frequented by invalids in the winter, but its
+commerce is second in value to that of Barcelona. Its wealth and exports
+are almost wholly agricultural, consisting of luscious wines--which,
+however, have a greater reputation on the continent than in
+England--oil, fruits, and especially dried raisins; oranges, olives,
+figs, sugar, and sweet potatoes. Bananas, and all other tropical and
+semi-tropical products of Spain are here found in perfection. Upwards of
+2,000,000 boxes of raisins, 3,000,000 gallons of oil, and 1,100,100
+gallons of wine, besides other fruits, esparto grass, and minerals
+(chiefly lead), are annually exported. The tonnage of British vessels in
+1878 was about 158,000 tons. It has been a city and port from great
+antiquity; but though a favourite residence of the Moors, they have left
+fewer remains here than at Granada, Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and many a
+place of lesser note. Antequerra (25,000), on the Guadaljorce, on the
+northern slope of the sierras, guards the defile leading to Malaga, and
+was formerly of great military importance. The Cueva del Menjal, in the
+neighbourhood, is a fine dolmen. Ronda (20,000), the chief town of the
+sierra of the same name, is remarkable for its position on both sides of
+an enormous fissure (el Tajo) from 300 to 600 feet deep, and which is
+spanned by a magnificent bridge, constructed by the architect Archidone,
+in 1761. Velez Malaga (24,000) is a small sheltered port to the east of
+Malaga, with a trade in fruits and wines.
+
+_Cadiz_, the most southerly province of Spain, includes the capes of
+Trafalgar and Tarifa, and the Punta de Europa, or the English Rock of
+Gibraltar. This province is also the principal seat of the great sherry
+trade. The town (65,000) and port have greatly fallen from their former
+importance, when Spain possessed nearly all the Americas south of
+California, and but for the Transatlantic steamers to Cuba and the West
+Indies, and to the Philippine Islands in the East Indies, would probably
+decline still more. The application of steam, allowing ocean vessels to
+ascend the Guadalquiver rapidly to Seville, has arrested there a great
+deal of the produce which formerly came to Cadiz, but which is now
+shipped at the former town. The total tonnage of the port is now about
+800,000; the imports over 2,000,000_l._, of which about one-sixth is
+British; but of the exports, which are about the same in value, fully
+two-thirds go to Great Britain. Cadiz itself is undoubtedly one of the
+oldest ports of Western Europe, and is situated on a narrow promontory,
+formed into an island by the channel of San Pedro. Unlike most of the
+southern cities of Spain, its houses are of great height and of several
+stories, the contracted space of its site having occasioned this
+architectural modification. The city is excellently supplied with fish;
+the market is noted both for the quantity and the variety of its supply,
+which amounts to nearly 900 tons annually. Round the Bay of Cadiz are
+situated towns and harbours of considerable size, whose united commerce
+is almost equal to that of Cadiz itself. Of these, Puerto de St. Maria
+(22,000), on the northern side of the bay, is the great harbour for the
+shipment of sherry wines. Immense quantities of salt are made, chiefly
+for exportation, in the Salinas between Puerto Real and San Fernando
+(26,000), and Chiclana (20,000), on the San Pedro canal, which cuts off
+the Isle of Leon from the mainland. The export of wine from the whole
+Bay was, in
+
+                         Gallons.     Butts.
+
+    1858                3,600,000, or 33,028
+    1862                5,600,000, "  51,376
+    1871                8,300,000, "  77,064
+    1876                           "  61,609
+    1877                           "  68,246
+
+Xeres de la Frontera (64,000), situated about thirty miles from Cadiz,
+surrounded by vineyards, is a city of Bodegas, or wine-cellars, the
+principal of which, as well as of the vineyards, are in the hands of
+foreigners. It is one of the busiest of Spanish commercial towns, and,
+like Barcelona, is on that account less peculiarly Spanish than many
+others. The exportation of sherry wines from the district, and those
+shipped at Port St. Mary, amounted, in 1873, to 98,924 butts; 1874,
+65,365 butts; from Jerez alone, in 1875, 43,727 butts; 1876, 42,272
+butts; 1877, 41,660 butts; 87 per cent, of which goes to Great Britain
+and her colonies. The decrease in later years is probably caused by the
+greater amount of lighter French wines now consumed in England. San
+Lucar de Barrameda (22,000), at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, is noted
+for its winter-gardens, which are said to date from Moorish times, and
+which supply Cadiz and Seville with their earliest fruits and
+vegetables. From its vineyards, too, comes the stomachic Manzanilla
+sherry, flavoured with the wild camomile, which grows abundantly in its
+vineyards. Arcos (12,000), on the Guadalete, is the only other Spanish
+town of importance in the province; but to the south lies the isolated
+rock and fortress of Gibraltar (25,000), captured by the Earl of
+Peterborough in 1704. Though held only as an English garrison (5000),
+and made almost impregnable as a fortress, it is yet of considerable
+commerce from its position as a port of call for vessels passing the
+Straits of Gibraltar, and also from its contraband trade with Spain,
+which is a source of constant irritation between the two nations. In
+natural history, it is remarkable for its apes (_macacus inuus_), as the
+only spot in Europe where any species of monkey lives, and it is
+doubtful whether even these would survive without the aid of occasional
+importations from Morocco.
+
+_Seville_ is the typical province of Andalusia, and its city of 133,000
+ranks fourth in population of the cities of Spain. The Moors have left
+deeper outward traces at Granada, but here they have fused more
+thoroughly with the population, and have given it the Oriental grace and
+culture which is lacking in the former place; their wit belongs to
+themselves. Seville is peculiarly the home of Spanish art; the greatest
+of her painters, Murillo and Velasquez, were born there, and Zurbaran
+painted his best pieces to adorn her walls. Her writers are scarcely
+less noted. The most celebrated novelist of modern Spain, Cecilia Bohl
+de Faber (Fernan Caballero), had her home there. There Amador de los
+Rios composed his chief works. The Becquers--both the painter and the
+novelist--were born there. It is a city of predilection for all of
+artistic tastes. The Giralda, a tower of Moorish architecture, rivals,
+if it does not surpass, in its exquisite proportions the _campanille_
+of Italian art. The Alcazar is a home of beauty. The _patios_, or inner
+courts, of many of the houses have remains of Moorish decoration. The
+Cathedral shows that Christian lags not far behind Moslem architecture.
+But Seville, on the Guadalquiver, is not a mere city of pleasure. Like
+Paris, its gay exterior contains a great deal of real work and commerce
+within. Since the invention of steam, allowing sea-going vessels to
+breast with ease the current of the Guadalquiver, it has drawn to itself
+a great deal of the traffic which formerly passed through the harbours
+of the Bay of Cadiz. The tonnage of its shipping amounts to about
+120,000 tons, and the value of its imports to over 2,000,000_l_., and of
+its exports to 1,750,000_l_., one-half of which belongs to Great
+Britain. Among its manufactories, one of porcelain, carried on by a
+British company, but employing Spanish methods, is celebrated; and its
+tobacco manufactory, with its 1000 women workers, is the largest
+government establishment of the kind in Spain. The city long enjoyed
+almost a monopoly of West Indian and of Manilla productions; the wealth
+brought by the galleons was deposited here, and here are still preserved
+the "Archivos de las Indias." It possesses both a university and a mint.
+The lower part of the Guadalquiver runs through marshy lands, which in
+places present almost impenetrable jungles. In these are bred the bulls
+which supply the bull-fights with their victims, and which make Seville
+the great school of _tauromachia_ in Spain. The finest Andalusian horses
+are also produced in this province, and the wines, though not equal to
+those of the neighbouring provinces of Cadiz and Cordova, are still
+highly esteemed. Besides Seville, the chief towns are Ecija (24,000) on
+the Jenil, a place of large trade; Carmona (18,000); Ossuna (16,000).
+Utrera, Lebriga, and Marchena would be considerable towns in other
+provinces, but we can only indicate them here. From the absence of
+mountains Seville has not the mineral wealth of some other provinces,
+but coal is worked at Villanueva del Rio, and the copper-mines at
+Arnalcollar yield 20,000 tons of ore; other outlying deposits of the
+Huelva beds are found in this province, and a great part of the lead
+from the Linares mines is shipped here.
+
+_Huelva_, the last maritime province of Spain, conterminous with
+Portugal on the west and with Seville on the east, with its capital of
+10,000, is one of the richest mining districts in Europe. Worked in
+prehistoric times, and in the mythical dawn of history, by Iberians,
+Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, the mines of Tharsis and of
+the Rio Tinto were strangely neglected by the Spaniards until purchased
+by an Anglo-German company in 1873 for 3,850,000_l_., but with the
+certainty of a rich return. There are now over 7000 men employed by
+this company, and 906,600 tons of copper ore were extracted in 1879 from
+the south lode only; about 10,000 tons of hematite iron were also sold.
+The mines contain sulphur, copper, iron, and silver. In fact, the
+mountains round the source of the Tinto seem to be almost one mass of
+mineral ore. From the working of these mines the development of the
+riches of this province has been most rapid of late years, and the
+tonnage of shipping from the port of Huelva will probably soon rival, if
+not surpass, that of Cadiz: in 1873 the foreign shipping was 180,000
+tons; this had ascended to over 300,000 tons in 1877. The imports were
+valued in 1873 at 168,000_l_., of which 112,000_l_. were British; and in
+1877 to over 300,000, of which not quite one-half was British. The
+exports are of far greater importance, ranging from 750,000_l_. in 1873,
+of which 667,000_l_. were British, to 1,236,243_l_. in 1877, of which
+1,132,782_l_. went to Great Britain. Except in minerals, the province is
+not rich; but a trade which will probably increase, has lately sprung up
+in wines, fruits, and cork. The frontier stream the Guadiana is of
+little use to Spain, and the little port of Palos, whence Columbus set
+out to give a new world to Spain, is now completely silted up.
+
+_Cordova._--The interior provinces of Andalusia are _Cordova_ and
+_Jaen_, both on the Guadalquiver, the latter embracing the sources and
+upper part of the course, the former the central portion before it
+enters the province of Seville. The northern part of the province of
+Cordova is covered by parallel ranges of low mountains running east and
+west--the Sierras de Cordova and de Pedroches within the province, and
+the Sierras de Almaden and Morena, which form the boundary of Castile.
+_Cordova_, the capital, contains now but 49,000 inhabitants in place of
+the 1,000,000 who dwelt there when it was the seat of the western
+khalifat. Its mosque, almost the sole remnant of its former splendour,
+with its 1200 columns, is to Islam what the temple of Karnac at Thebes,
+and that of Karnac in Brittany, with their 100 pillars, are to the
+religions of Egypt and of prehistoric Europe. It is perhaps the grandest
+building for worship ever raised by Moslem hands; its materials were
+pillaged without scruple from shrines of older civilizations, but were
+wrought into new and fairer forms of beauty by the magic of Arabian art.
+As a Christian city, Cordova is of only second rank. It is chiefly noted
+for its leather work, and for its commerce in wines and fruits. It is to
+Cordova that the Amontillada sherry--the most prized of Spanish
+wines--comes, from the vineyards round Montilla (15,000). The only other
+town of importance in the province is Lucena (16,000), to the south.
+
+_Jaen_, like Huelva, at the opposite extremity of Andalusia, is a mining
+province, and like those of Huelva its mines are chiefly in the hands of
+Englishmen and of foreigners. Linares (36,000), north of the
+Guadalquiver, is the centre of the mining district, and is far the most
+populous town in the province. Nearly 11,000 men, women, and boys were
+employed in the lead-mines in 1877, and the ore raised amounted to
+70,000 tons. It has been calculated that the production of the world is
+about 300,000 tons of lead, of which Spain furnishes 100,000 tons and
+the United Kingdom 100,000 tons. The capital, Jaen, south of the great
+river, has only 24,000 inhabitants; Ubeda and Baza, close together, a
+little south of Jaen, have each 15,000. Andujar (11,000), with its old
+bridge over the Guadalquiver, is noted for its porous pottery, the
+cooling water-jars used throughout the whole of Southern Spain. In the
+north of this province is the celebrated Pass of Despeña-perros, through
+the Sierra Morena, one of the wildest gorges through which the traveller
+passes in any part of Europe; a few miles to the south of it is Las
+Navas de Tolosa, the field of the battle in 1212 which first proved how
+fast the power of the Moors was waning in Southern Spain.
+
+ESTREMADURA, conterminous on the west with Portugal and on the south
+with Huelva, is the wildest and least peopled of all the provinces of
+Spain, and has been almost sufficiently described in a former chapter.
+It is divided into the two modern provinces of _Badajoz_ and _Caceres_,
+through which run respectively the two rivers, the Guadiana and the
+Tagus. Desolate as it is now, the numerous Roman remains at Merida
+(6000) and Trajan's mighty bridge at Alcantara tell what it was in Roman
+times; but in Moorish days it suffered more from war than any other
+province, and the curse, the "_mesta_," the only means the Christian
+conquerors had of utilizing their vast and thinly-peopled properties,
+has ever since rested upon it. Besides its flocks and herds its chief
+wealth consists in acorns and bark for tanning, and cork for other
+purposes. The rivers run in deep gorges, almost cañons, and are useless
+for either navigation or for irrigation. Badajoz (22,000), on the
+Guadiana, one of the frontier fortresses of Spain towards Portugal, is
+by far the largest city. Higher up the river are Merida and Medellin,
+but Don Benito (15,000) is of greater commercial importance than either.
+
+_Caceres_, a province still more thinly peopled than Badajoz, having
+only fifteen inhabitants instead of nineteen to the square kilometre,
+has 12,000 for its chief town; Plasencia, on the Xerte, an affluent of
+the Alagon, has only half that number. In the north-east of this
+province, on the southern spurs of the lofty Sierra de Gredos, stands
+the monastery San Juste, to which the Emperor Charles V. retired on his
+resignation of his many crowns. The shepherds of Estremadura,
+notwithstanding the scanty population, gave numbers of emigrants to the
+New World; Cortez and Pizarro were swineherds, the one of Medellin, the
+other of Truxillo. The town of Alcantara gives its name to one of the
+three great military orders of Spain.
+
+NEW CASTILE and LA MANCHA comprise the five modern provinces of _Ciudad
+Real_, _Toledo_, _Madrid_, _Cuenca_, and _Guadalajara_, which all take
+their names from their chief towns. The province of _Ciudad Real_, which
+lies between the Sierra de Morena and the mountains of Toledo, is
+traversed by the Guadiana. It is the most thinly populated of all the
+provinces of Spain, having only thirteen inhabitants to the square
+kilometre; but it is by no means the least wealthy. It contains within
+it the quicksilver-mines of Almaden (9000), the richest deposit in the
+world before the late discoveries in California. They were a source of
+revenue to the Spanish crown for centuries, with an annual rent of over
+a quarter of a million. They were however mortgaged by the Government
+for thirty years in order to raise a loan of 2,318,000_l._ at five per
+cent., to be extinguished in 1900. The average annual extract is
+estimated at 12,000 tons of mercury. The vineyards round Valdepeñas
+(11,000) supply the red wine which is the favourite beverage of the
+Spaniards throughout the centre and the south, and the home consumption
+of which is far beyond that of the sherries. Almagro (14,000) is known
+for its lace manufacture; but Ciudad-Real, the capital (12,000), is
+fallen from its ancient importance. Damiel (13,000) and Manzanares
+(9000) are the only other towns that need mention.
+
+_Toledo_ (21,000), watered by the Tagus, was for centuries the most
+important city of Spain. It is here that the great councils which really
+regulated the civil as well as the ecclesiastical administration of
+Spain, from the fourth to the eighth centuries were held. Here too was
+one of the centres of Arabic civilization: the waterworks, clocks, and
+observatory of Toledo were among the wonders of the world from the tenth
+to the twelfth centuries, and even after its capture by the Christians,
+in 1085, the conqueror seemed for a while to have fallen under the same
+spell. The court of Alfonso X., the Wise, was a semi-Moorish court, and
+his tolerance excited the indignant wonder of travellers from other
+parts of Europe. Moorish and Christian architecture is still most
+strangely blended in many of its buildings, and Moorish architects were
+long employed to keep in repair not only the structures which their
+ancestors had raised, but even the Christian churches. The skill of its
+ironworkers and the temper of its sword-blades were renowned throughout
+Europe. The superiority of its steel was said to be due to some peculiar
+virtue of the water of the Tagus used in tempering; but the best of the
+iron was taken from the mines of Mondragon, in Guipuzcoa. The
+manufactory has greatly fallen from its ancient splendour, but some good
+weapons are still made, though they cannot compete in price with British
+or foreign goods. The insurrection of its inhabitants under the
+"Comuneros" in 1520, in defence of the ancient constitutional liberties
+of Castille probably determined the selection of the more obsequious
+town of Madrid as the capital of Spain by the Emperor Charles V. Toledo,
+with its narrow streets and semi-Moorish houses, is emphatically the
+city of Old Spain; the purest Spanish is said still to be spoken there,
+and for native poets and romancers it seems to have an attraction beyond
+that of any of the cities of Andalusia. The only other town of
+importance in the province is Talavera, with its fifteenth-century
+bridge of nearly a quarter of a mile in length.
+
+_Madrid._--The province of Madrid lies between the Sierra de Guadarrama
+on the north and the Tagus on the south. The city, which now contains
+almost 400,000 inhabitants, was a third or fourth-rate town until
+Charles V., and after him Philip II., chose it for the capital of Spain,
+in place of either Toledo or Valladolid. Its recommendations seem to
+have been its central position, and the absence of any strong traditions
+of ancient constitutional liberties, such as might hamper the sovereign
+in developing his new despotism. A city which owed its creation
+entirely to the sovereign, and its riches to to the presence of his
+court, would be certain to be obedient to its rulers. If Charles V. and
+Philip II. did not make it the centre of a free and constitutional
+government, they at least enriched it with all the treasures of art
+which the rulers of the greater part of Europe could collect from the
+various parts of their vast dominions. It is at the museum of Madrid,
+which owes its existence to Ferdinand VII., that not only Spanish, but
+also many of the Flemish and some of the Italian painters can be best
+studied; and by a happy chance the royal palace, built in the eighteenth
+century, is one of the least faulty and most impressive structures of
+that age. At the west end of the city, on the banks of the Manzanares,
+are the royal gardens; at the opposite extremity the promenades of the
+Prado and the gardens of the Buen Retiro. These artificial parks and
+walks in some way compensate for the dreary and almost desert aspect of
+the country round Madrid; for there are "_despoblados_" and
+"_destierros_" almost within sight of the greatest city of Spain. It is
+now approached by rail from all sides, and the convergence of these iron
+roads and of the highways will probably secure its future position as
+the capital of the nation; but until the present century, contrary to
+that of most European capitals, the approach to Madrid seemed to be
+an approach from civilization to barbarism. As the traveller neared the
+capital, whether from the north or from the east and south, the inns
+grew worse, the roads more impassable, and the difficulty of procuring
+food greater in the neighbourhood of the capital than elsewhere; the
+contrast of magnificence and meanness, of dirt and discomfort and formal
+etiquette in the city itself, until the time of Charles III., is the
+theme of every visitor. Of late its character has much changed; the
+increase of its population has not been caused by the natural growth of
+its inhabitants, but by the migration thither of Catalans, Gallegos,
+Asturians, Basques, and especially of Andalusians; and thus the Puerta
+del Sol, the heart of Madrid, has become, as it were, the heart of
+Spain, and almost every political and social movement which stirs the
+nation has its origin there. Though not quite to the extent with which
+Paris absorbs France, still Madrid collects to itself the greater part
+of the intellectual and literary life of the nation. It is Madrid that
+supplies most of the daily journals, the scientific periodicals,
+reviews, and literature to the rest of Spain. Here is the seat of the
+learned academies and of the chief literary, educational, and scientific
+institutions. The universities, the national and the free, the Ateneo,
+the great public libraries of Madrid, are the best in Spain. It is here
+that Cortés meets, here that the elections are arranged, all the lines
+of Spanish administration converge hither, and it is here that the
+intrigues for place or power are principally conducted, and unhappily we
+must add it is thus that Madrid is also the focus and example of
+administrative corruption for the rest of Spain.
+
+[Illustration: FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR SEASONS, MADRID.
+
+_Page 130._]
+
+Besides Madrid, the province contains two other royal residencies,
+Aranjuez to the south, at the junction of the Tagus with the Jarama, and
+the Escorial to the north, at the foot of the Guadarrama. The chief
+attractions of the former consist in its abundant supply of water, in
+its fountains and running streams, and in the avenues and groves of
+lofty trees, whose roots are fed by these waters. The Escorial is of an
+entirely opposite character. This vast and extraordinary structure was
+raised by Philip II., in pursuance of a vow made at the battle of St.
+Quentin, August 10 (St. Lawrence's Day), 1557; the ground-plan is that
+of a mighty gridiron, to recall that on which the martyr suffered. The
+central piece of architecture is a chapel, impressive from its grand
+simplicity; and however faulty the general design of the vast edifice,
+several details, and especially the frescoes of the ceilings and some of
+the paintings, are of great beauty. The whole fabric, in its severe and
+sombre majesty, harmonizes well with the bare and wind-swept granite
+mountains near which it is placed. Like most of the other
+treasure-houses of Spain, it suffered severely from pillage during the
+French invasion. _Acala de Henares_ (8000) was celebrated in the
+sixteenth century as a university under the patronage of the Cardinal
+Ximenes, and here the celebrated Complutensian Polyglot Bible was
+printed. It was also the birthplace of Cervantes. The canal of Henares
+is described above, pp. 18, 19.
+
+_Cuenca_, one of the most thinly populated as well as one of the most
+mountainous provinces of Spain, stretches on two sides of the chief
+watershed, and the waters of the streams which rise in this province
+from different slopes of the Cerro de San Felipe flow to the Atlantic
+and to the Mediterranean. Cuenca (7000), the capital, is still untouched
+by railway routes, and slumbers on its lofty cliff, and emerged into
+temporary notoriety by its capture and sack by Alphonso, the brother of
+Don Carlos, in 1874.
+
+_Guadalajara_ (6500), on the Henares, though on the line of railway
+between Saragossa and Madrid, is scarcely more lively than Cuenca, but
+it contains the school for military engineers, the most distinguished
+corps in the Spanish army, and which has never stained its character by
+political intrigue. The province supports a slightly higher population
+than that of Cuenca.
+
+OLD CASTILE was with Leon for several centuries the chief of the rising
+kingdoms of Spain, and the one into which all the rest gradually merged.
+It now contains five provinces, _Avila_, _Segovia_, _Soria_, _Logroño_,
+and _Burgos_. Avila (7000), still surrounded by its mediæval walls in
+excellent preservation, is one of the most picturesque cities in Spain,
+at an altitude of nearly 3500 feet above the sea-level. The province is
+remarkable as the one in which the rudely-sculptured stone monuments of
+boars and bulls, the "Toros de Guisando," are chiefly found. They are
+the art remains of a population whose name, age, and ethnic affinities
+are totally unknown. The southern half of this province is traversed by
+the lofty Sierra de Gredos, and hiding in its secluded valleys are some
+of the most primitive peoples of Spain. There are no other large towns
+in the province.
+
+_Segovia_ (7000), another of the picturesque cities of Spain, contains
+fine specimens of Roman, Moorish, and Christian mediæval architecture in
+its wondrous aqueduct, cathedral, the Alcazar, and castle. It was
+formerly a place of great commercial as well as of political importance,
+and was the centre of a trade in woollen goods which employed 34,000
+workmen, and made the cloth of Segovia celebrated throughout Europe.
+This commerce has now utterly departed, both from it and from the other
+cities, such as Avila, Medina del Campo, which shared its reputation. It
+is now visited by the lover of the picturesque, whose taste will be
+here abundantly gratified. Not far from Segovia, under the Peñalarra
+(7800 feet), on the northern slope of the Guadarrama range, are La
+Granja and San Ildefonso. At a height of 4000 feet above the level of
+the sea, this is the most agreeable of all the inland royal residences
+of Spain. Built in French taste by Philip V., it is redeemed from
+banality by its pleasant surroundings. But retired and peaceful as it
+looks, La Granja has been the scene of some of the most important
+political events in the modern history of Spain. The celebrated passes
+of Somosierra (4700 feet), and that of the Col de Guadarrama (5000),
+lead from this province to Madrid; the railway, too, attains at La
+Cañada a height of 4457 feet above the level of the sea.
+
+_Soria_, on the north-eastern edge of the great plateau, is one of the
+poorest provinces of Spain. Leaning on the Sierra de Moncayo, the whole
+of the northern and central part of the province slopes gradually to the
+west, and is watered by the Douro, which takes its rise in the Sierra de
+Moncayo. The southern angle of the province contains also the sources of
+the Jalon, which, flowing through a break in the Idubeda range, finds
+its way to the Ebro, and thence to the Mediterranean, the upper courses
+of the two rivers completely overlapping. In spite of these two
+river-valleys the province is very unproductive. Soria, near the site of
+the Keltiberean Numantia, which held out for twenty-nine years against
+the Romans, contains but 6000 inhabitants. Osma, on the Douro, has
+barely 1000, and Agreda (4000) is celebrated only for the visions of a
+nun in the sixteenth century.
+
+The province of _Burgos_ overlaps the plateau, and in its northern and
+southern extremities embraces the valleys both of the Ebro and the
+Douro, with their respective towns, Miranda del Ebro and Aranda del
+Douro. The basins of these two rivers are separated by the Oca or
+Idubeda mountains, which cross the centre of the province. The
+difference of the elevation of the two valleys may be seen in the fact
+that while Miranda del Ebro is 1600 feet above the sea-level, Burgos is
+more than 2800. Burgos (29,000) and Aranda del Douro were formerly towns
+of considerable commerce, and the former had at one time a claim to be
+considered the chief city of Northern Spain. It has now greatly fallen,
+but will always be visited for the noble remains of Gothic architecture
+in the city and its suburbs. Miranda del Ebro (3000), when the river
+formed the customs line for all commerce passing from the Basque
+Provinces into Spain, was of great consequence, and is now the point of
+junction for the northern lines of railway from Bilbao and from Irun. In
+this province, too, is the pass of Pancorbo, through which both road and
+railway wind; for savage wildness it is inferior only to that of the
+above-mentioned Despeña-perros in the Sierra Morena.
+
+The whole province of _Logroño_ lies in the southern half of the valley
+of the Ebro, and leans against the mountains which form the supports of
+the great plateau. The Ebro forms its northern boundary, and its chief
+towns, Logroño (12,000) and Calahorra (7000), are both on the river.
+Here the traveller from the north first sees the Noria or Moorish
+water-wheel at work. The province is noted chiefly for its strong, rough
+wines, and for its agricultural products. Navarete is known in English
+history as the spot where the Black Prince and Bertrand du Guesclin
+fought out their mightiest duel, the one as the partisan of Pedro the
+Cruel, and the other of Henry of Trastamare.
+
+The kingdom of LEON is divided into five provinces, _Salamanca_,
+_Valladolid_, _Zamora_, _Palencia_, _Leon_. _Salamanca_ lies along the
+Portuguese frontier, which is here formed by the Rivers Douro and
+Agueda. The city (15,000) was famous throughout the early part of the
+Middle Ages for its university and for its Arabic and Hebrew learning.
+It thus became in popular estimation the home of magic and of the black
+arts, and as such its name is found in the folk-lore tales of many parts
+of Europe; its students, poor, riotous, and witty, made it the
+birthplace of the peculiar, picaresque romance literature of Spain, from
+Lazarillo de Tormes to Gil Blas. Like all the Spanish provincial
+universities, it is but the shadow of its former self, nor does the city
+preserve any of the older features which still make Toledo a delight to
+the tourist. Its old bridge over the Tormes is said to date from Roman
+times. Bejar (8000) does a fair trade as a manufactory of cloth. Ciudad
+Rodrigo (5000) is one of the strongest fortresses of Spain, and guards,
+with Badajoz, the frontier against Portugal. The provinces of Salamanca
+and Zamora contain some of the most peculiar and picturesque peasantry
+yet remaining in Spain; even around Salamanca the festal dresses of the
+Charros and Charras are rich with gold and silver ornaments of Moorish
+type. In the valley of the Batuecas, amid the Sierra de Gata, the
+Hurdes, and to the west of Zamora, the Sayagos, and again, the
+Maragatos, to the north-west of the province, in the mountains of Leon,
+are all remnants of ancient races, preserving habits and tribal customs
+and laws, differing from their neighbours, and well worthy of the study,
+as survivals, of the comparative ethnologist. The contrabandistas of the
+province are among the boldest in Spain; they cross the Douro and its
+deep ravine, sometimes on rafts or on inflated skins; at others, when
+the river is in flood, in baskets suspended from ropes flung across the
+whole ravine.
+
+_Zamora_ (10,000), formerly a strong walled city on the Douro, in a
+rich country, notwithstanding the rail which unites it to the Medina del
+Campo, still remains one of the decaying towns of Spain. Toro (9000),
+higher up the stream, is a busier town. A great impulse will probably be
+given to all this district, now one of the most behindhand in Spain, by
+the completion of the Portuguese lines of Beira-alta, connecting Lisbon
+and Oporto with Paris by the North Spanish lines. Benavente (5000), on
+the Esla, is the only other town we have to notice.
+
+_Leon_, which gave its name to one of the old kingdoms of Spain before
+the re-conquest of the Castiles, is full of towns which recall the
+glories of the past, but which are of little importance in modern times.
+The capital (9000) is noted for its cathedral and churches, which are
+perhaps the purest specimens of Gothic, unmixed with Arabian art, to be
+found in Spain. The province is generally mountainous, especially to the
+north and west, and the higher lands afford excellent summer pasture for
+flocks from the plains, and even from Estremadura. The valley of the
+Esla is extremely fertile. Astorga (5000) may be considered as the
+Capital of the Maragatos, of whom we have spoken above; like Sahagun
+(3000), it is a town of ancient consequence now dwindling to
+insignificance. The "_fuero_" or charter of Sahagun, 1085, was the model
+of the "_fueros_" or constitutional privileges of the Castiles, which
+were eventually lost in the war of the _comuneros_ in the time of
+Charles V.
+
+_Palencia._--Through this province passes the canal of Castile from Alar
+del Rey to Valladolid, borrowing its waters from the Pisuerga, and is
+the most useful for transport of all the canals of Spain. This waterway
+is less needed now, owing to the railway of the north from Valladolid to
+Santander, to Bilbao, and to San Sebastian, which runs parallel to it;
+but it will be always available for local traffic. The capital is a
+walled city on the banks of the Carrion, a little above its junction
+with the Pisuerga, an affluent of the Douro; its cathedral is remarkable
+for its size and simplicity, but is otherwise inferior to Leon. The
+valleys, watered by these rivers are very rich in cereals, which find
+their outlet for exportation at Santander. The great coal-field of the
+Asturias extends into the north of this province, and at Barruelo de
+Santillana is largely worked by the Northern Railway Company, and
+supplies Madrid with a yearly increasing quantity of coal. The villages
+near the mines are fast becoming populous towns.
+
+_Valladolid_ (52,000) was till the middle of the sixteenth century the
+capital of Spain, and is likely to become of great importance in the
+near future as the point of junction of all the Spanish and Portuguese
+railways of the north and west. The Douro flows through the centre of
+the province, and the plains of Valladolid are perhaps the most fertile
+of all those in North-western Spain. It is a great centre for the
+corn-trade of the Castiles, and the smoke from its tall chimneys tells
+also of manufacturing industry. There are here two colleges for Scotch
+and Irish students for the Roman Catholic priesthood. They were
+established at the time of the persecutions in England, but are much
+less frequented now than formerly. Medina del Campo (4500) an ancient
+commercial city, was ruined in the wars of the _comuneros_, but may
+recover somewhat of its former traffic as a junction of railways. A town
+of similar name and standing, Medina de Rio Seco (4500), is in the north
+of the province; both are situated in rich corn-growing plains.
+Tordesillas (3500), on the Douro, owes its existence to the junction of
+roads which cross the river by its noble bridge. In this province is the
+Castle of Simancas, wherein are deposited the archives of Spain, as
+those of the Indies are at Seville. Long closed to the world, they are
+now open to the researches of scholars, and guides and inventories in
+aid are being published during the present year.
+
+
+_The Balearic Isles._
+
+These islands are geologically a submarine continuation of the Valencian
+mountains which sink into the sea at Cape Nao. They are divided into
+two groups: (1) Minorca, Majorca, Cabrera, and a few islets; the nearest
+point of which to the mainland is Soller on Majorca, ninety-three miles
+distant; (2) Iviza and Formentera, with some smaller satellites, are
+within sixty miles of the Spanish coast. The whole superficies of the
+islands is nearly two thousand square miles. The inhabitants number
+about 290,000. The climate is equable but exceedingly variable within
+somewhat narrow limits; the average both for Minorca and Majorca being
+sixty-four, the highest temperature ninety, and the lowest forty-four.
+The average rainfall is nearly twenty inches. Majorca, the largest of
+the islands is about sixty miles from east to west, and fifty from north
+to south. The surface is very broken, but with a few fertile plains; the
+greatest elevation is 5000 feet. Minorca, twenty and a half miles to the
+east of Majorca, is twenty miles long by six broad. Iviza, the largest
+island of the western group is only four miles by four. The highest
+points of these two islands are about 1000 feet; but Iviza retains
+traces of volcanic action which seem to connect it geologically with the
+extinct Catalan volcanoes, by way of the Columbretes rocks, and the
+Point de la Baña at the mouth of the Ebro. Majorca and Minorca are
+remarkable for erections called "Talayots," similar to the "Nuraghies"
+of Sardinia; they are the work of one of the many prehistoric, or at
+least unrecorded races whose blood mingles in the veins of the present
+inhabitants, and the origin of them has given rise to almost as many
+theories as those of the round towers of Ireland and Scotland. In the
+west of Majorca is the remarkable and extensive cavern of Arta. The
+language of the islanders is one of the purest dialects of the Provençal
+speech. The only separate race now in the islands is that of the
+"_Chuetas_" or converted Jews, who still keep apart notwithstanding
+their nominal Christianity. The population is mostly engaged in
+agriculture, and the islands export fruits, oil, leather, and a few
+cattle, to an annual value altogether of 350,000_l>_, while the imports
+amount to 210,000_l>_. The land is cultivated mostly by peasant
+proprietors and metayers in small holdings, and by reason of steady
+emigration those who remain are fairly prosperous. The people show
+strong aesthetic tastes, and the art school of Palma is one of the most
+flourishing of the whole of Spain. The chief towns on Majorca are Palma,
+on the east coast, of 58,000 inhabitants; Manacor, in the centre, of
+12,500; Felanitz, 10,000; and Llummayor, Soller, Inca, and Pollensa, of
+about 8000 each. Minorca has only two towns of importance, Port Mahon,
+22,000, and Ciudella, 7000, at opposite extremities of the island. Port
+Mahon is perhaps the finest harbour in the Mediterranean, and is also
+one of its strongest fortresses; during the English occupation the town
+attained great prosperity. Iviza has only one town, of the same name as
+the island, containing 5500 inhabitants. We have noticed before that the
+majolica ware was not made in these islands, but at Valencia, and that
+it acquired the name from Balearic vessels being used for its export to
+Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.
+
+
+In order to understand the present constitution, the political
+condition, and the aspirations of the Spanish nation, it is absolutely
+necessary to have some slight acquaintance with its previous history.
+This we propose to give as briefly as possible.
+
+In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there is no doubt that the
+inhabitants of Northern Spain, under some of the petty kings, enjoyed
+more constitutional liberty than any other people in Europe; that their
+institutions generally, and especially their municipal privileges, were
+more in accordance with the ideas of modern freedom and self-government
+than those of any other nation at that date. The feudal system never
+attained in Northern Spain, except in parts of Catalonia, the systematic
+development, and the organized oppression of the lower classes, which it
+reached in many other parts of Europe. The peculiar institution of
+"_behetria_," which prevailed in Leon and the Castiles, and by which a
+serf was free to go whither he would "from sea to sea," with all his
+goods, and to put himself under any lord he chose, was of itself an
+almost sufficient check to excessive tyranny by the nobles. The old
+Roman municipal organization, of the towns had been preserved by
+tradition throughout the whole of the Visigothic times down to 711, nor
+had the practical working completely died out at the epoch of the early
+reconquest of the north. Hence many of the charters or "_fueros_"
+granted to the towns and cities by the kings are evidently founded on a
+recollection of former institutions, modified according to the
+necessities of the times. Thus the charter of Leon (1020) expressly
+allows exemption from all arbitrary exactions, and grants the free
+election of the _Alcalde_, and of the municipal council, with only the
+appointment of the judges by the king. By the _fuero_ of Arganzon (1191)
+it is expressly stated that if these royal officers overpassed their
+duties, it would be lawful to kill them without incurring any
+responsibility. Similar but still more strongly-worded clauses are found
+in all the Basque _fueros_, and in the coronation oath of Aragon.
+
+The representatives of the burgesses, "el estado llano," the low estate
+in the "Cortés" or parliaments, began much earlier in Spain than in
+other countries. Burgesses sat in the Cortés at Leon certainly in 1188,
+if not in that of Burgos in 1169. In Aragon they were present still
+earlier, in 1134, in Navarre in 1194, in Catalonia, where feudalism was
+more developed than elsewhere, in 1218. These dates are simply those of
+the first mention of the fact, not necessarily that of its first
+institution; the records rather imply their presence at former sessions.
+We find also early protests against judicial and administrative abuses
+which prevailed long afterwards in other parts of Europe. In the _fuero_
+of Arganzon (1191) the inhabitants claim exemption from the ordeal of
+iron, hot-water, or battle. In 1152, the _fuero_ of Molina demands that
+justice be done to all, and truth spoken without favour or bribery of
+any kind whatever. The original capitulations granted to the Moors and
+Mudejares of Castile, and especially to those of Aragon, breathe the
+same liberal spirit. They are granted full liberty in the exercise of
+their own religion, and to live under their own laws in their own
+quarters, subject only to some fixed tribute and service. The spirit of
+bigotry and of hatred between the two races commenced with the foreign
+monks, with the semi-religious military orders, and with the legal
+classes; afterwards it spread to the common people through envy at the
+better use which the Jews, Mudejares, and Moriscos made of the
+privileges granted to them, and the consequent superiority of their
+condition compared with that of the serfs and lower classes of the
+Christians. It is this fact which explains the rising of the population
+at Saragossa in favour of the inquisition against the Mudejares and
+Jews. Travellers in Spain, even to the middle of the fifteenth century,
+were scandalized at the toleration of the Moors by the king and the
+court. Theologians, lawyers (except the royal judges), medical men, and
+traders were they who called for oppression of the Moors; the two last
+classes evidently through jealousy of the superior skill and industry of
+Moors and Jews as doctors and merchants; the literary class, the poets,
+nobles, and kings were in favour of toleration. Afterwards indeed, in
+the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the ravages of the
+pirate ships of Algiers and Tunis roused an indignation and excited a
+far more intense abhorrence than had existed in earlier times, when
+Christian and Moslem knights met in fair and equal warfare.
+
+The development of these early liberties, and the progress of the cause
+of toleration and of true civilization in Spain, were checked by
+circumstances which would assuredly have acted in a similar way in any
+other nation. The establishment of the military orders, the conquest of
+the south, especially the last campaign against Granada, put forces into
+the hand of the king greater than those possessed at that time by any
+other monarch. The richest half of Spain, the newly-conquered Mussulman
+provinces, had not only no liberties of their own except those granted
+in their respective capitulations, and which were speedily revoked, but
+had neither knowledge of, nor any interest in the liberties of the
+north. They were entirely at the mercy of their conquerors, Ferdinand
+and Isabella, who had the control of the finest army of Christendom. The
+mastership of all the great semi-monastic military orders, which had
+hitherto been elective, was now granted to Ferdinand by Pope Innocent
+VIII. (1492), and they were incorporated with the crown by a bull of
+Adrian VI. (1523). An almost equally powerful engine in the royal hands
+was the secret police of the Santa Hermandad (1476), founded to restrain
+the excesses of the nobles and the practice of private war. The success
+of this institution in the cause of order explains both the institution
+and the popularity of the inquisition. It is easy to see what a leverage
+was thus put into the royal hands to destroy the liberties of the north
+of Spain. Add to this that the separate kingdoms, Navarre, Aragon,
+Valencia, the Castiles, and the Basque Provinces had not yet been united
+under a single head, nor had learned to work together, except in war,
+for a single purpose. Catalonia and Aragon had indeed some sympathy with
+each other, but they had none with Leon and Castile; their peculiar
+language and habits isolated the Basque Provinces and Navarre from any
+of the rest. A century of free representation and debate in a national
+Cortés might have changed all this, but the opportunity was not given.
+The discovery and the conquest of America, and the subsequent emigration
+of the bolder spirits, turned men's thoughts away from internal reform
+and the home constitution. Next the fatal election to the empire of
+Charles V. threw into his hands fitting agents, in his foreign and
+ecclesiastical ministers and governors, wherewith to crush any rising of
+the people. Cardinal Ximenes was the only minister in Europe who at that
+date could have pointed to a standing army with the proud words, "With
+these I govern Castile; and with these I will govern it, until the king,
+your master and mine, takes possession of his kingdom."
+
+Yet even to the end of the seventeenth century the king swore to
+preserve the ancient privileges of Aragon and Catalonia. The "_fueros_"
+of Navarre were intact until 1840, and those of the Basque Provinces
+till 1874. The wonder is, not that the Spanish liberties were crushed,
+but that the memory of them should have continued so long, and after so
+many ages of repression should yet be a living force with which every
+statesman and ruler of Spain has still to make his account.
+
+The suppression of Spanish liberty had already begun under the reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, but the death of Francis I. and the retreat of
+Charles V. into the cloister of San Juste definitely closes both the
+period of chivalry and of such liberties as existed through the Middle
+Ages in Europe. With Philip II. begins the era of statesmanship and of
+bureaucratic centralization, when nations were really ruled from the
+closet and with the pen, not with the sovereign's sword or by his
+presence in the field. It is difficult for an Englishman to sympathize
+with the view, but the period of Philip II. is still looked upon by the
+majority of Spaniards as the golden era of the external position of
+Spain. His absolutism, and his concentration in his own person of all
+civil and religious rights, are condoned in their eyes by the glory of
+his having made Spain the arbiter of Europe and the champion of
+Catholicism. But with his successor set in that strange and progressive
+decadence of intellectual power in the sovereigns of the Austrian
+dynasty in Spain, which ended in the almost idiotcy of the childless
+Charles II. Spain, which in the reign of Philip II. had all but imposed
+the sovereign of her choice in France, in the reign of Charles II. was
+ruled according to the intrigues and caprice of the court of Versailles.
+Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV., though vastly superior to the
+late Austrian sovereigns, could never thoroughly emancipate himself from
+the tutelage of the country to whose armies he owed his crown; and the
+family degeneracy, which had shown itself in the Austrian sovereigns,
+again appeared in the Bourbon family, and communicated itself to the
+whole nation. The military and naval greatness of Spain disappeared, the
+very wish for constitutional liberty died out, commerce and literature
+were almost extinct, the population was declining in numbers and
+increasing in misery, the country was daily growing poorer, and its
+wealth was ebbing slowly away to other lands. The noble aristocracy of
+Spain, once so full of loyal self-respect in the age of the Cid,
+grovelled at the sovereign's feet, jealous only for precedence in
+matters of court etiquette, or clamorous for posts in the colonies as a
+means of corruption, and of enriching themselves by the plunder of the
+provinces they administered. The only king who showed some royal talent,
+and who intelligently endeavoured to effect the improvement of Spain,
+was Charles III. (1759--1788). Unfortunately both he and his able
+ministers, instead of basing their reforms on the native liberties and
+constitutions of Spain, imitated almost wholly the spurious liberalism
+of the encyclopædists and doctrinaires of France. Hence few of their
+reforms took root. Those that were not immediately done away with did
+not grow or develope. The successors of Charles III. were still more
+feeble than his immediate predecessors, and the condition of the royal
+family was such that Napoleon had no difficulty in forcing them to
+abdicate, and to crown his brother Joseph king of Spain; but the nation,
+unlike the royal family, refused to acquiesce in this usurpation of
+their rights, and rose as one man to avenge the burning wrong.
+
+[Illustration: PORT OF CADIZ.
+
+_Page 153._]
+
+The modern history of Spain begins naturally with that of the War of
+Liberation, May 2nd, 1808, and politically with the Cortés of Cadiz,
+1812, and with the constitution then promulgated. This declares: That
+the Spanish nation is not the patrimony of any family or person; that
+the sovereignty resides essentially in the nation, which is the
+conservator of its own liberties and rights. The sole religion is and
+shall always be the Apostolic Roman. The legislative power resides in
+the Cortés with the king. The suffrage was universal, and one deputy was
+to be elected for every 70,000 souls. Entails and feudal privileges had
+been abolished by a law of August 6th, 1811, the liberty of the press
+was voted, and in 1813 the inquisition was suppressed. The French had
+been expelled, chiefly through the assistance of England, and the king
+had returned from captivity; all looked well for the new era. But in
+1814 Ferdinand VII. violated the oath which he had sworn to observe the
+constitution; the inquisition was re-established; the feudal exactions
+on real property were restored; and the fatal policy of violent reaction
+and of ruthless vengeance on political opponents was inaugurated which
+has wrought such deadly harm to the cause of progress in Spain. After an
+absolute government of six years, Riego raised the standard of revolt at
+Cadiz, and again Ferdinand swore to observe the constitution of 1812:
+further reforms were established. In 1820, tithes were partially
+suppressed, and the Church was forbidden to acquire any more real
+property. A law of May 3rd, 1823, affirmed in stronger terms the law of
+1813 on the abolition of entail: the religious orders were done away
+with. But in the same year, with the assistance of a French army under
+the Duc d'Angoulême, Ferdinand conquered the liberals and again violated
+his oath to observe the constitution. Every act of the Cortés for the
+last four years was annulled. Riego, with other chiefs of the liberal
+party, was put to death under circumstances of atrocious cruelty, others
+were banished, and a crafty and tenacious system of persecution was
+directed against every liberal for the rest of the reign. During this
+reign, too, through denial of all reform or suppression of any abuse,
+the whole of the vast colonial empire of Spain on the continent of the
+Americas was totally lost.
+
+On the death of Ferdinand VII., June 29, 1833, another element of
+discord was introduced. The first Bourbon king, Philip V., in defiance
+of ancient Spanish precedents to the contrary, had introduced the Salic
+law from France, and had procured its solemn promulgation by Cortés.
+Ferdinand VII., with the consent of Cortés, abrogated this law, and left
+the crown to his only child, Isabella II., an infant of less than three
+years old, with her mother, Christina of Naples, as regent. His
+brother, Don Carlos, who, since the king's last marriage, had been
+intriguing against him with the ultra-conservative party, claimed the
+throne under the law of Philip V. Henceforth a dynastic question was
+added to the standing constitutional one.
+
+The Carlists declared themselves the champions of legitimacy, the divine
+right, and of absolutism; and thus forced the party of Isabella, the
+Christinos, to appeal for support to the liberal and constitutional
+party, though they had no more real attachment to the cause, and no more
+intelligent appreciation of its benefits than had their opponents. A
+blunder of the liberal party in hesitating to confirm the "_fueros_" of
+the Basques, the last vestige still intact of the ancient constitutional
+and municipal liberties of Spain, greatly strengthened their opponents,
+who at once seized the opportunity and loudly confirmed them. A war of
+seven years followed, in which the older liberal generals lost all their
+former military prestige against Zumalacarregui in the Basque Provinces,
+and against Cabrera in Aragon. But the assistance of England, and still
+more the incapacity of Don Carlos, at length enabled Espartero to finish
+the war by the convention of Vergara, August 30, 1839, by which _fueros_
+were confirmed to the Basques on their laying down arms. Cabrera
+continued the war in Aragon and Catalonia, but two years afterwards was
+forced with his followers to take refuge in France. During this period
+constitutional liberty had apparently made great progress in Spain, and
+several useful reforms had been set on foot. But its course had been
+marred by deeds of atrocious violence, such as the massacre of the monks
+and the destruction of the convents in 1835, when valuable treasures,
+both in art and literature, which had been spared in the great
+Peninsular War, were finally lost. All ecclesiastical and church
+property had been declared national, and the sale of it had been
+commenced, tithes were wholly suppressed, the _mesta_ was
+abolished--with results as to the division of property detailed in a
+former chapter. From the regency of Christina dates, in a great degree,
+the shameless corruption, the selfish intrigues, the abuses of all kinds
+among the upper _employés_, which with rare exceptions have marked every
+subsequent government of Spain. A reaction set in in 1843, with Narvaez
+as its real chief. To his stern administration, however, are due the
+establishment of the normal and technical schools, the foundation of the
+present educational system in Spain, and the institution of the
+_guardias civiles_, a kind of police after the model of the French
+gendarmerie or the Irish constabulary, and which has proved itself the
+most trustworthy body in Spain in defence of law and order under all
+changes of government. It would be a weariness to the reader to recount
+all the changes from liberalism to absolutism which followed during the
+reign of Isabella II. No administration succeeded in impressing on the
+bulk of the nation the fact that it was honest and capable; none won
+respect abroad. Perhaps that of O'Donnell (1858-63), during which
+occurred the successful campaign in Morocco, was the least corrupt and
+inefficient; but the indignation of the country at the shame and
+corruption of both court and government broke forth at last, and a
+movement, headed by Admiral Topete and the fleet at Cadiz, in 1868
+overthrew the Government, forced Isabella to fly, and declared the
+Bourbons incapable of ruling in Spain.
+
+On the abdication of Isabella II. in favour of her son, and her
+retirement into France, a provisional government was formed with
+Serrano, Topete, and Prim as chief members, to hold the reins of power
+until Cortés should elect a new sovereign. The choice proved far more
+difficult than was expected. Topete and others favoured the claims of
+the Duc de Montpensier, the brother-in-law of the late queen, but the
+objection to any of the Bourbon family was at that time too strong;
+others desired to seize the opportunity of uniting Spain and Portugal
+under one head by electing a member of the Portuguese royal family; but
+this was rejected by the princes of Portugal. Two years were spent in
+these debates, but at last the choice of Prim prevailed, and Amadeo,
+the second son of Victor Emmanuel II. of Italy, was elected sovereign,
+16th November, 1870. The murder of his chief supporter, Prim, before he
+reached Madrid, deprived him of the only support which might have
+consolidated his dynasty. Had it not been for the deeply-rooted dislike
+of all Spaniards to a foreign ruler, Amadeo would have proved by far the
+best sovereign that had sat upon the throne for many generations. He
+honestly respected the constitution. His court was pure and incorrupt.
+He was intelligently devoted to the best interests of Spain; but he
+found all his efforts at improvement and reform utterly thwarted by the
+intrigues of the nobility and of the upper _employés_ of every kind, and
+after a trial of two years he resigned a post which he could no longer
+maintain with true dignity and self-respect, and retired to Portugal,
+February 11th, 1873. Thereupon a republic was proclaimed by Cortés, with
+Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall as chief ministers. But the events
+of the last few years, the weakening of the central authority, the
+attention which the Carlist rising in the north had drawn to the ancient
+"_fueros_" or constitutional privileges of Spain, on the one side, and
+the incidents of the war with the Paris Commune in France, together with
+the influence of those of the communists who had found refuge in the
+industrial cities of the east and south, on the other, produced constant
+revolts in favour of a federal or cantonalist government of the
+separate provinces. On July 15th, 1873, Don Carlos (Carlos VII.) the
+grandson of the Don Carlos (Carlos V.) of the seven years' war, although
+both his uncles and his father had solemnly renounced their rights to
+the throne, re-entered the Basque Provinces, from which he had been
+quickly driven by General Moriones at Oroquieta in a former attempt, and
+raised the standard of legitimacy and divine right. On the other hand,
+one after the other, Alcoy, Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, and, a few months
+later, Cartagena and Valencia, revolted in a communistic or cantonalist
+conspiracy which threatened the dismemberment of Spain, and the
+destruction of her armaments. It was only after severe fighting, which
+strained the resources of the Government to the utmost, that these
+cities were subdued. Meanwhile Don Carlos had established himself firmly
+in the Basque Provinces, and his brother Alfonso headed considerable
+forces in Aragon and Catalonia. Fortunately Barcelona held aloof from
+the cantonalist and _intransigente_ movement of Cartagena and Valencia.
+
+These events, however, had shown the necessity of tightening the reins
+of discipline in the army. Salmeron, who was now at the head of the
+ministry, exerted himself to restore order, and endeavoured to work the
+republic in a conservative sense. A year or two after, at the
+instigation of Castelar, the penalty of death for mutiny was again
+enforced. After Moriones and Serrano in the north had both failed in
+their attempts to raise the seige of Bilbao, Concha at last succeeded,
+May 2, 1874; and Martinez Campos, who had crushed the insurrection in
+Valencia, was making way against the Carlists in Aragon and Catalonia.
+Between these generals, with Pavia and others, a conspiracy was formed
+to restore the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII., son of Isabella.
+Serrano offered only a doubtful resistance, and Castelar, opposed by the
+_intransigente_ party, found himself almost alone in upholding a
+conservative republic. The death of Concha, before Estella, in Navarre,
+June 27, 1874, delayed for some months the proclamation of Alphonso, but
+at length it took place, on December 30, 1874, and the republic fell
+without a struggle. Alphonso XII. landed at Barcelona in the first days
+of 1875, and entered Madrid on January 14th. In spite of some checks,
+caused by the incapacity of his generals, his power was quickly
+augmented. Many who, through hatred of the republic and of the
+cantonalist excesses, had joined the Carlist ranks, abandoned the cause
+when monarchy was restored. Don Carlos had proved to be as incapable as
+his grandfather had been, and much less reputable in his private life.
+By the end of August, Martinez Campos had taken Urgel, in Catalonia, and
+by the close of the year he was free to assist Quesada in the Basque
+Provinces. The united armies were successful, and on February 28, 1876,
+Don Carlos entered France, leaving his followers and the Basque
+Provinces entirely at the mercy of the conquerors. The consequence to
+them has been the partial loss of their _fueros_, the incorporation of
+the Basque conscripts with the rest of the army, and the annexation of
+the provinces for the first time to the crown of Spain.
+
+With Alphonso XII. entered Spain, as his chief adviser, Cánovas del
+Castillo. Whether nominally prime minister, or out of office, he has
+really held the reins of power--with the exception of the nine months'
+ministry of Martinez Campos in 1879--from 1875 to February, 1881. On the
+whole his exertions have been beneficial to Spain. By an arrangement
+dated January 1, 1877, and by lowering the rate of interest, he saved
+the public credit, which was on the verge of utter bankruptcy.
+Insensibly he has detached himself from the progressive liberal
+movement, and his rule has become more and more conservative. The decree
+for toleration of religion, passed in the first months of the republic
+of 1868, has been greatly modified, and interpreted in a sense more and
+more unfavourable to religious freedom: But he has not succeeded in
+breaking down the many abuses of the administration, or in putting an
+end to the corruption of the upper _employés_, or in insuring freedom
+and purity of parliamentary election; and until this is effected the
+future of Spain must still be doubtful.
+
+
+_Present Constitution and Administration of Spain._
+
+It would be tedious and little instructive to our readers to detail the
+various constitutions under which Spain has been governed since 1812. We
+will give a sketch, as far as we are able, of the last only. By a
+comparison of this with the constitution of Cadiz, it will be seen that,
+in spite of all reactions, Spain has really progressed in the way of
+freedom and good government.
+
+The constitution of the Spanish monarchy, June 30, 1876, declares
+Alphonso XII. de Bourbon to be the legitimate King of Spain. His person
+is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and all his orders
+must be countersigned by a minister. The legislative power resides in
+the Cortés with the king. The Cortés is composed of two legislative
+bodies, equal in power--the Senate and the Congress of Deputies.
+
+The Senate is composed (1) of senators by their own right, who are--sons
+of the kings, grandees of Spain with 3000_l._ yearly income, the
+Captain-General of the Forces, the Admiral-in-Chief, the Patriarch of
+the Indies, the Archbishops, the Presidents of the Council of State, of
+the Supreme Tribunal, of the National Accounts, of the Council of War,
+and of Marine, after two years' service; (2) of life senators, named by
+the crown; (3) of senators elected by the corporations of the State, or
+the richest citizens--half of these must be renewed every five years.
+All senators must be thirty-five years of age, and the number of classes
+(1) and (2) together must not exceed that of the elected senators, which
+is fixed at 180.
+
+The Congress of Deputies is returned by the electoral Juntas, one deputy
+being elected for every 50,000 souls. Deputies are elected by universal
+suffrage, and for a period of five years. The Congress meets every year
+at the summons of the king, who has power to suspend or close the
+session; but in the latter case, a new Congress must meet within three
+months. The president and vice-presidents of the Senate are nominated by
+the king, those of the Congress are elected from its own body. The
+initiation of the laws belongs to the king, and to both legislative
+bodies; but the budget, and all financial matters, must be first
+presented every year to the Congress of Deputies. No one can be
+compelled to pay any tax not voted by Congress, or by the legally
+appointed corporations. The sittings are public, and the person of
+deputies is inviolable. Ministers may be impeached by the deputies, but
+are judged by the Senate.
+
+Justice is administered in the king's name, and judges and magistrates
+are immovable.
+
+The provinces are administered (1) by a governor, who, with his
+immediate subordinates, is nominated by the Government; (2) by a
+Provincial Deputation, elected by the householders of the province. All
+members must be natives of, or residents in, the province; their number
+varies according to the population. (3) Five members elected from the
+Provincial Deputation form a Provincial Commission to conduct business
+when the deputation is not sitting. These authorities and bodies answer
+nearly to the prefects and general councils of the French departments.
+They are of much greater political importance in those provinces which
+have preserved some of their ancient rights than in others.
+
+Below the provincial are the municipal authorities, the Alcaldes
+(mayors), Ayuntamientos (municipal councils), and the Juntas
+Municipales. The internal administration of every parish is entrusted to
+an Ayuntamiento or municipal council, elected by the residents, and
+composed of the Alcalde or mayor, the Tenientes or assistants, the
+Regidores or councillors. The Junta Municipal is composed of all the
+councillors of the Ayuntamiento, and an assembly of three times their
+number, and by them the municipal accounts are to be audited and
+revised. The number of the Ayuntamiento varies according to the
+population; one Alcalde, one Teniente, six Regidores, for 1000; and one
+Alcalde, ten Tenientes, thirty-three Regidores, for 100,000. The real
+independence and free action of these bodies varies much in different
+provinces and in different circumstances. The smaller bodies are quite
+under the thumb of the central government; the larger ones in the great
+towns and in the more independent provinces are much less easily
+influenced.
+
+The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman is declared to be the religion of the
+State, and the nation is bound to maintain its worship and its
+ministers. "But no one shall be molested on Spanish ground for his
+religious opinions, nor for the exercise of his respective worship,
+except it be against Christian morals. Nevertheless, no other ceremonies
+or public manifestations shall be permitted than those of the religion
+of the State." These last two articles are evidently equivocal, and
+subject to great diversity of interpretation and of application.
+
+All foreigners are free to settle in Spanish territory, and to exercise
+therein their respective trades and professions, with the exception of
+those which require special titles. The expression of opinion, the
+press, the right of public meeting, of association, and of petition,
+except from armed bodies, are respectively free. No Spaniard or
+foreigner can be arrested or detained illegally. He must either be set
+at liberty or be brought before a judge within twenty-four hours of his
+arrest. No Spaniard can be arrested without a judge's warrant, and the
+case must then be heard within seventy-two hours after his arrest;
+otherwise he must be set at liberty on his own petition or on that of
+any other Spaniard. Domicile is inviolable. Such are the principal
+articles of the present Spanish Constitution. In spite of the excess of
+some republican governments and the reaction of others, real progress
+has been made, excepting only in the equivocal law on religion, and that
+on marriages between Catholics and Protestants.
+
+
+_Administrative Spain._
+
+For military purposes, Spain is mapped out into five "capitanias
+generales," conferring the rank of field-marshal on the possessors of
+that office. The number of marshals, generals, and superior officers of
+the special corps in active service is over 500. The number of the army
+on a peace footing is fixed at 90,000, the infantry numbering 60,000,
+the cavalry 16,000, artillery 10,000, and engineers 4000. Universal
+conscription is nominally obligatory, but with the power of purchasing a
+substitute for a fixed sum of 80_l._ The time of service is eight years,
+four of which are spent in the active army and four in the reserve. In
+the colonies the time is four years only, the whole of which must be
+spent in active service. Besides the regular army in Spain are the corps
+and garrisons in the Philippine Islands, in Porto Rico, and in Cuba,
+where the mortality is so great that the troops need constant renewal.
+In addition to the above must be reckoned the militia of the Canary
+Islands, the "guardias civiles," a kind of constabulary like that of
+Ireland or the gendarmerie of France. These are about 15,000 men, and
+are some of the best and most trustworthy troops in Spain; the
+carabineros or custom-house officers, who guard the frontiers, form
+another corps of about 12,000. Towards the close of the late Carlist and
+Cuban wars the actual army was far above these numbers, and it is
+probable that 150,000 men were under arms on the side of the Government
+in the Basque Provinces alone. The Spanish soldier is one of the best in
+Europe, if properly commanded. He is sober, and has great powers of
+endurance; is an excellent marcher, and a trustworthy sentinel;
+persistent both in attack and defence, he still retains the steadiness
+of the old Spanish "tercios," which were once the terror and admiration
+of Europe. The Basques under Zumalacarrégui in the first Carlist war,
+and the Catalans under Martinez Campos in the last, earned high praise
+from all foreign officers who saw them. But too often these fine
+qualities of the private have been rendered of no avail, owing to the
+utter want of skill and competency in the officers and commanders, and
+still more by reckless corruption and mismanagement in all things
+relating to the commissariat and supplies. Another element of
+deterioration has been the use of the soldiery as mere tools of
+political intrigue in the frequent revolts and _pronunciamientos_ of
+ambitious generals. The scientific corps, however, the artillery and
+engineers, have always stood aloof from sedition. It was an attempt to
+corrupt the former and to assimilate it in this respect to the rest of
+the army, which led to the abdication of King Amadeo. The generals who
+have achieved the greatest reputation in the Spanish army are Quesada
+and Martinez Campos. Moriones, who distinguished himself in the Basque
+Provinces during the last Carlist war, has lately died. Blanco and
+Jovellar acquired distinction in Cuba, and Loma as a good brigadier in
+the Carlist war. Serrano, Pavia, and others are better known in the
+field of politics than in that of military action.
+
+For naval purposes the coast of Spain is divided into three
+departments--Ferrol, Cadiz, and Cartagena, at each of which ports is a
+naval arsenal. The jurisdiction of the marine extends as far as the tide
+and seventy feet beyond. The three departments, are divided into
+_tercios navales_, _partidos maritimos_, and districts. The Spanish navy
+consists of 121 ships, five of which are armoured vessels of the first
+class, and eleven unarmoured; eighteen belong to the second class, and
+fifty-six to the third, some of which are monitors and armoured
+gunboats. There are also thirty-one smaller vessels, and a few ships
+employed for training and for harbour services. The whole fleet mounts
+525 guns, and is over 20,000 horse-power. The sailors number 14,000,
+with 504 officers of all ranks, and the marine infantry 7000, with 374
+officers. The old fame of Spanish ship-building, except for small
+vessels, has almost entirely passed away. In the great war at the
+beginning of the century, the finest vessels of our navy were prizes
+taken from Spain. Spanish navigators, too, have long lost their old
+renown, though the Basques are still esteemed as mariners. The ironclad
+frigates and monitors of modern Spain have been almost all constructed
+in foreign dockyards. The armoured gunboats, however, built in Spain are
+a good and useful model.
+
+The merchant marine consists of 226 ocean-going steamers and 1578 ocean
+sailing-vessels measuring altogether 460,000 tons. Smaller vessels make
+up a total of 3000 merchant-ships, less than one-fifth of the number of
+those of Great Britain.
+
+For the administration of justice the country is divided into Audiencias
+Territoriales, Provincias, and Partidos Judiciales. The Audiencias, or
+courts of appeal, are fifteen, with 373 judges or procureurs. There are
+also 500 judges of first instance, and there is also a justice of peace
+or alcalde in each town or municipality. All pleadings are still
+conducted in writing in Spain; there is no verbal examination or
+cross-examination in public. Suits both civil and criminal are thus
+dragged out to an inordinate length. Judges are still suspected of being
+open to bribery, and confidence in the just administration of the law is
+as a consequence severely shaken. It is not uncommon for witnesses to be
+summoned to testify to facts which happened many years before, and it
+not unfrequently happens that either the principal witnesses or the
+criminal himself is dead before the case is decided. As a conspicuous
+instance, we may remind our readers that General Prim was assassinated
+in open day in Madrid in 1870, and the case has not yet been adjudged.
+The discipline of the prisons is in general extremely lax, and many
+crimes, especially forgeries, are there concocted with impunity. There
+is, however, a great difference in the treatment of the prisoners in
+different prisons. Up to 1840 the office of Alcaide, or governor of a
+prison, was sold by the Government to the highest bidder, and the
+purchasers made the most they could out of the wretched prisoners by
+starving them or by accepting bribes for illicit indulgences, and for
+furnishing what they were bound to provide, so that it was commonly said
+"that the _bagnios_ of Algiers were less terrible than the prisons of
+Spain." Perhaps the worst of them all, up to the year 1833, was the old
+prison of the city of Madrid, one dark dungeon of which was termed "El
+Infierno"--Hell. Almost as bad was the Prison de Corté and the famous
+Saladero. There was no classification, no cleanliness, and in some of
+the cells neither light nor ventilation. In some of the country prisons
+the cells were like the dens of a menagerie, and the starving prisoners
+thrust their hands through the bars to beg food of passers-by. At last
+has arisen an ardent band of philanthropists, of whom Senors Lastres and
+Vilalva are at the head, and the first stone of a new prison in Madrid,
+arranged on modern principles, was laid by the king in February, 1877.
+
+Hospitals, lunatic asylums, and asylums for the sick and aged poor, and
+other charitable establishments are of very varied descriptions in
+Spain. Some of them, like the famous establishments of Cadiz, Seville,
+Madrid, Cartagena, Valencia, and Cordova, are admirably managed, and
+yield in practical benefit to none of other lands. The first lunatic
+asylum ever founded was that at Valencia by Padre Jofre Gilanext, in
+1409; three others, at Saragossa, Toledo, and Seville were founded in
+the fifteenth century. That of Barcelona is said to be now the best
+public lunatic asylum in Spain. Many others are nearly as good, while
+one or two of the private asylums near Madrid are excellent; but in
+some provinces these establishments, both public and private, are still
+in a very wretched state.
+
+Since 1848 there have been a little over 4000 miles of railway laid down
+in Spain. The principal lines are the two which run from the extreme
+ends of the French Pyrenees to the capital, connecting Spain with the
+great European communications. Next in importance are those from the
+Mediterranean ports Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena, to Madrid; Malaga and
+Granada are connected with the metropolis by the line from Cadiz. A
+rather circuitous route by Badajoz, Ciudad Real, and Toledo is the only
+line at present open to Lisbon, but a more direct one is in course of
+construction. The communications with the extreme north-west are not yet
+completed, but the branch of the Great Northern Company from Santander,
+which brings the products of the Asturian coal-fields to Madrid, is of
+great importance. Other valuable lines are those of the valley of the
+Ebro, from Miranda del Ebro by Saragossa to Barcelona. Should any of the
+schemes projected for a direct route from Paris to Madrid, by any of the
+central passes of the Pyrenees, through Saragossa, be carried into
+effect, the line from the latter place to Madrid will be one of
+considerable traffic. The coast-line from Barcelona to Valencia is of
+great value to one of the richest wine and fruit districts of Spain.
+Shorter lines, which may have a considerable influence on the welfare
+of the country, are those which connect the great mineral fields with
+the chief lines of transport or with the nearest port. It has been
+remarked that hitherto, with some exceptions, Spanish railways have had
+less influence in developing local traffic than those of any other
+European country. The Great Northern lines, too, have suffered seriously
+from interruptions caused by civil war, by floods, and other accidents
+since 1868.
+
+The total length of the telegraph lines is nearly 10,000 miles. The
+number of public offices is 324, of private, 12; the telegrams
+despatched amounted in 1877 to 2,023,579, of which about half were
+private despatches for the interior. The expenses of working were
+165,076_l._, and the receipts 156,950_l._, leaving a deficit of 8126_l._
+
+The number of post-offices in 1877 was 2530, of letters 78,446,000;
+postal cards, 1,040,000; newspapers, 38,479,000; books and samples,
+5,767,000. To Great Britain were despatched, in 1879: Letters and postal
+cards, 1,083,000; books, &c., 317,900; total, 1,400,900. From Great
+Britain: Letters and postal cards, 931,100; books, &c., 646,100; total,
+1,577,200. The receipts from the post-office in 1877 were 361,704_l._,
+while the expenditure was 297,412_l._, leaving a surplus of 64,292_l._
+
+
+_The Finances of Spain._
+
+The most prominent circumstance in the financial condition of Spain is
+the startling increase of the public debt since the revolution of 1868.
+The capital of the debt was then 212,443,600_l._, the interest of which
+was 5,580,000_l._ The funds, three per cents, were then at 33. In 1880
+the capital of the debt amounted to 515,000,000_l._ Since 1870, by abuse
+of credit, the interest of the debt had been paid from the capital; then
+one-third of the interest was paid in paper, with a promise to pay the
+remaining two-thirds in coin; this engagement was soon broken, but the
+paper was punctually paid until 1874, when the interest of the debt was
+erased from the budget. In face of the evident bankruptcy of the
+country, an arrangement was made in 1876 between the Government and the
+principal foreign fund-holders, by which, from January 1, 1877, to June
+30, 1881, inclusive, the interest to be paid on the three per cents was
+reduced to one per cent., and that on the six per cents to two per cent.
+From June 30, 1881, to June 30, 1882, one and a quarter per cent. will
+be paid, and arrangements as to future payments are to be made before
+the last-mentioned date, and a return to a full interest of three and
+six per cent. is to follow at fixed periods. The success of the scheme
+is shown by the fact that in 1876 the three per cents, still nominally
+paying three per cent. interest, were at 11-1/2; in January, 1881,
+paying only one per cent. interest, they were quoted at 22; and the six
+per cents, paying only two per cent. interest, were at 42.
+
+From the above statement we may gather some idea of what the civil wars
+of the republic, the cantonal, Carlist, and Cuban insurrections, joined
+to the expensive experiments of well-intentioned but inexperienced
+financiers, in remitting taxes while the public burdens were increasing,
+have cost the nation. A calm observer, Mr. Phipps, in his official
+report to the British Government, calculates that from 1868 to 1876 the
+addition to the debt from these causes amounted to at least
+260,000,000_l._, considerably more than the total debt of Spain in 1868.
+
+Notwithstanding the plausible balance-sheets annually submitted to
+Congress, the revenue and expenditure of Spain are still far from being
+in a satisfactory condition. The writer above quoted states that
+"enormous deficits in the budgets (however nominally balanced) have been
+the invariable rule in Spain during a long course of years, under every
+sort of _régime_ and under all circumstances." In the last budget,
+1879-80, the revenue is stated at 32,494,552_l._, and the expenditure at
+33,129,484_l._ Supposing these figures to be correct, the deficit,
+634,932_l._, would be far less than for many years past.
+
+The principal sources of Spanish revenue are, in round numbers:--
+
+    Direct Taxes                      £10,500,000
+    Indirect ditto                      5,500,000
+    Customs                             4,500,000
+    Stamps and Government Monopolies    9,000,000
+    National Property                   1,750,000
+    Miscellaneous.                      1,000,000
+                                       ----------
+                                      £32,250,000
+
+Of these the items most foreign to an Englishman's notion of taxation
+are the produce of the seven great tobacco factories, Seville, Madrid,
+Santander, Gijon, Corunna, Valencia, and Alicante, of which the net
+revenue is over 2,500,000_l._, the lotteries, which bring in
+5000,000_l._ net, the consumo tax, a kind of octroi, and the territorial
+tax, which together furnish the largest contribution to the revenue. The
+national property comprises the Almaden quicksilver-mines, valued at
+over 250,000_l._ per annum, the Linares mines, leased at 20,000_l._, and
+other sources about 30,000_l._ annually.
+
+The heaviest item in the expenditure is the interest on the national
+debt, over 11,500,000_l._; the ministry of war and the navy exceeds
+6,000,000_l._, while pensions absorb 1,750,000_l._, public works over
+3,000,000_l._, finance over 5,000,000_l._, administration of justice
+more than 2,000,000_l._; the ministry of the interior, Cortés, the
+civil list, &c., make up the remainder.
+
+The total imports and exports of Spain were:--
+
+             Imports.       Exports.
+    In 1877, £16,340,672  £18,175,140
+    In 1878,  15,910,016   17,172,596
+    In 1879,  17,730,756   20,155,964
+
+But of this increased prosperity far more than her share has fallen to
+France, owing chiefly to its being put in the same category with
+Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Austria, as _most favoured_ nations, who
+import their goods under the customs tariff of July 17, 1877, while
+England and the United States continue-under the old tariff, as
+_favoured_ nations only. This disproportion will probably be still more
+marked, owing to the immense importation of Spanish wines into France
+required to make up for losses by the phylloxera disease; while the
+exportation of sherry to England has been gradually lessening for some
+years, and now we take only some 4 per cent, of the quantity, and 12 per
+cent in value, of the wine exported from Spain. One of our chief imports
+into Spain, coal, is likely also to diminish, owing to the development
+of the native coal-fields in the Asturias and in Andalusia. Our other
+chief exports from Spain in fruits and minerals largely increase. The
+present wine tariff of England, by which she virtually refuses to
+purchase the bulk of Spanish wines in their natural state, while
+importing them largely when mixed with inferior French white wines, and
+treated as clarets, &c., is felt by Spaniards to be so unfair that,
+until this system is modified there is little hope of obtaining a better
+tariff for English manufactures; while the making Gibraltar an immense
+depôt for a contraband trade is a wrong that rankles in the mind of all
+southern Spaniards. The decline of the English import trade into Spain
+would be much more marked but for the immense amount of English capital
+employed in the larger mining and industrial enterprises.
+
+The battle between protection and free trade is not yet fought out in
+Spain. The manufacturing districts of Catalonia and the east coast
+clamour loudly for protection, while the mining and agricultural and
+wine-growing interests demand free trade. It is impossible to say on
+which side the balance may turn. A conservative Government would
+probably favour the former, while a liberal ministry might venture upon
+the latter system.
+
+Heavy as the public debt of Spain undoubtedly is, and serious as are the
+charges imposed upon her by the still unsettled political condition of
+the country and of its principal colony--Cuba, she might more than pay
+the interest of her debts at the present rate of interest, and balance
+the expenditure, but for the administrative corruption and utter want
+of political morality, the fruit of long years of financial abuses, and
+which has become almost a fixed habit amongst all classes of the
+inhabitants. The Government seems to be a mark for fraud to every class,
+from millionaire bankers and the largest landed proprietors down to the
+ill-paid _employé_ who ekes out his scanty salary by accepting petty
+bribes, and the labourer or fisherman on the frontier who never misses
+the occasion of smuggling. It is easy to prove the truth of these
+assertions. In 1877, in an official report, Mr. Phipps writes: "A few
+English, French, and Spanish bankers advance money to Spain, with safe
+security, on conditions as disastrous to the treasury as they are
+discreditable to themselves." The territorial tax, which forms
+one-fourth of the whole internal revenue is notoriously levied on only
+54 per cent, of the whole area of the country. In some provinces not
+two-thirds of the whole is returned at all, and much land that is
+productive is returned as uncultivated. From the extent of the
+contraband trade and the corruption of the custom-house officers, the
+amount levied on imports and exports can hardly be above two-thirds of
+their proper value. In fact, what Spain needs above everything at
+present is an honest and impartial administration. The causes of her
+poverty lie not so much in bad laws or a faulty constitution, but in a
+corrupt and negligent administration. The system of empleomania,
+whereby nearly every ill-paid _employé_ is almost forced to pillage,
+the preference of this ill-paid idleness and of professional poverty to
+honest toil in trade or agriculture--these are the true foes to the
+prosperity of Spain. For party and political purposes, taxes are relaxed
+for those who should bear their equal share of the burden, only to fall
+with crushing weight on the honest workers, unconnected with, or who
+refuse to bribe the administration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+EDUCATION AND RELIGION.
+
+
+The fame of the Spanish universities has greatly fallen from what it was
+in the early Middle Ages, when Salamanca ranked with Bologna, Paris, and
+Oxford, as one of the four great universities in Europe; when its halls
+were thronged with thousands of eager though needy scholars, and it was
+the centre whence Semitic learning and civilization spread to the rest
+of Europe. Even in a later day, in the sixteenth century, under the
+patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, the university of Alcala de Henares
+(Complutum) flashed into sudden fame as one of the great offshoots of
+the Renaissance, with its 7800 students, and its noble production of the
+first great Polyglot Bible since primitive times. In the eighteenth
+century, however, this learning had all but disappeared from Spain, and
+the education given in its universities was all but worthless. Little
+was effected towards any true revival or improvement until 1845, though
+something had been attempted before this in secondary education by the
+successive reforms of 1771, 1807, and especially of 1824 and 1836.
+
+The universities of Spain are now ten: Madrid, with 6672 students;
+Barcelona with 2459; Valencia, 2118; Seville, 1382; Granada, 1225;
+Valladolid, 880; Santiago de Compostella, 779; Saragossa, 771;
+Salamanca, 372; and Oviedo with 216: making a total of 16,874 university
+students. The number of regular professors is 415, with 240
+supernumeraries and assistants, making a total of 655; that is, one
+professor to every 26 students. The salary of the professors varies from
+120_l._ to 260_l._ per annum, except in Madrid, where it is from 160_l._
+to 300_l._ The budget of the whole universities is a little over
+1,000,000_l._, and the expenditure slightly in excess, leaving a deficit
+in 1879 of 4600_l._. The average cost of each student to the university
+is a little over 6_l._.
+
+Though the above institutions are all classed as universities by the
+State, yet the course of instruction is by no means the same in all. At
+Madrid alone the whole programme of university education is followed
+out. This comprises the faculties of civil, canon, and administrative
+law, of philosophy and literature, of science, of medicine, and of
+pharmacy. Since 1868 theology is no longer studied in the universities,
+but in the seminaries, of which there is one in each diocese, under the
+direction of the bishop. The total number of pupils studying in these
+institutions is 8562. At Valladolid are two theological colleges for
+English, Scotch, and Irish students, established, one at the close of
+the sixteenth, the other by the Jesuits at the close of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+Law is studied in all the Spanish universities, and medicine in all but
+one--Oviedo; Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, and Compostella have faculties
+of pharmacy, under which head a certain amount of natural science is
+taught; of the exact sciences there are chairs only at Madrid,
+Barcelona, and Salamanca; philosophy and literature are studied in
+Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Salamanca, Seville, and Saragossa. In
+Oviedo, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, only the first year's or
+preparatory course of law is read, this consists of Latin, general
+literature, and universal history.
+
+Besides these State universities, there are several institutions
+supported by the provincial deputations; for instance, there is a
+faculty of medicine in Seville supported by the province, another in
+Salamanca at the joint expense of the province and of the municipality.
+In addition to these there are technical schools for the study of
+special branches of industry or of administration, such as those of
+roads, canals, and harbours, of mines, and of forests, in Madrid and
+Villa Viciosa. A school of industrial engineering, and of the
+application of chemistry and mechanics, is working at Barcelona. There
+are technical schools of commerce at Madrid and at Barcelona. Schools or
+colleges of veterinary science are to be found in Madrid, Saragossa,
+Cordova, and Leon. Naval schools are established in Santa Cruz
+(Teneriffe), in Palma (Majorca), in Masnou (Barcelona), in San
+Sebastian, supported by the funds of the provinces; there is also one at
+Gijon, in the Asturias, founded by Jovellanos; two other private
+foundations also exist at Lequeito and Santurce in Biscay. In Madrid
+there is a special school of architecture, and also one of painting,
+sculpture, and engraving. Excellent schools of the fine arts exist in
+Barcelona, Cadiz, Corunna, Granada, Malaga, Oviedo, Seville, Valencia,
+Valladolid, Saragossa, and at Palma in the Balearic Isles; this last is
+remarkable for the number of its pupils and its generally flourishing
+condition.
+
+In each of the forty-nine provinces of Spain are institutions of
+superior or secondary education. With the exception of the institutes of
+Cardinal Cisneros and of San Isidro at Madrid, which depend on the
+Government, and which hold the first and third rank as to the number of
+their pupils, these institutions are supported by the funds of the
+provinces or municipalities, but the professors are nominated by the
+Government; besides those in the capital of each province, there are
+also 11 others in various large towns in Spain. There are also 356
+colleges of secondary education affiliated to the institutes, 58 of
+which are under religious corporations, making a total of 417
+establishments of secondary education, with 2730 professors who have all
+taken degrees in science or literature.
+
+The institutes give instruction to 14,872 pupils, and the colleges to
+almost the same number, 14,290; home or private education absorbs 4476;
+making a total in 1880 of 33,638; more than three times the number in
+1848, and, including the episcopal seminaries, giving one pupil to every
+398 inhabitants. All these pupils are admitted to the official
+examinations, and take their degrees equally on passing them. It is
+found that 13 per cent of the candidates are rejected at the
+examinations, 43.8 per cent. simply pass, and 43.1 gain honours of
+various kinds; while 9 per cent. take the degree of Bachelor from the
+colleges, and 37.2 proceed to take it from the universities.
+
+The salary of the masters is from 120_l._ to 180_l._ (except in Madrid
+where it is from 160_l._ to 220_l._), with a right to a portion of the
+fees for matriculation and degrees. The supernumerary masters receive
+60_l._ in Madrid and 40_l._ in the provinces; auxiliary masters are
+unpaid. Pensions of 20_l._ are sometimes given to poor but distinguished
+pupils. The cost of all the institutes is 118,935_l._, the income,
+44,818_l._, leaving a deficit of 74,117_l._ to be supplied either by the
+State, the provinces, or the municipalities.
+
+The course of instruction is two-fold, general and special. The general
+comprises: Spanish and Latin grammar, two courses; rhetoric and poetry,
+geography, history of Spain, universal history, psychology, logic and
+ethics, arithmetic and algebra, geometry and trigonometry, physics and
+the elements of chemistry, natural history, physiology and hygiene, and
+elementary agriculture. The special courses are those of agriculture,
+the fine arts, manufactures and commerce.
+
+Of public schools of primary instruction there are about 23,000 of all
+grades and classes, 1308 are infant schools and 1400 are for male and
+100 for female adults.
+
+The great drawback in the higher education of Spain is the
+disproportionate number of students in law, medicine, or pharmacy, in
+comparison with the few who cultivate the special branches of
+agriculture, industrial or commercial science. Hence the former
+professions are overstocked, with results productive of far-reaching
+evils to the country and to the administration. Notwithstanding its far
+inferior population the number of students in Spain who take their
+degrees in law and medicine is almost treble that of France and of
+Germany, while the total of degrees conferred in all the faculties of
+Spain is equal to that of France, which has double the population.
+Nothing more plainly shows the character of the people, and the mischief
+of "_empleomania_" than such a fact in a country whose natural riches
+in agriculture and mining are so great and so little developed, where
+there is so large a field for industrial enterprises of many kinds, and
+where the fruits of all these are at present almost wholly reaped by
+foreigners.
+
+The primary education of Spain, though nominally everywhere alike, is
+really so very varied as to defy any average description. A few of her
+infant schools are equal to the best of those of other countries. Where
+the provincial deputations or the municipalities take an interest in
+education the primary schools are very fair, but in other parts the
+education is little more than nominal, and the schoolmaster's
+appointment is well-nigh a sinecure both in pay and labour; and probably
+at the present moment, notwithstanding the great improvements of late
+years, two-thirds of the people can still neither read nor write.
+
+
+_Church and Religion._
+
+From the time of the OEcumenical Council of Nicea, A.D. 325, with the
+brief exception of the reigns of the Arian Visigoth kings, Spain has
+been the champion of orthodoxy in religion. From early times too the
+demarcation between Church and State has been less marked, or rather the
+influence of the former over the latter has been more constant and more
+powerful, than in perhaps any other European kingdom. The great councils
+of Toledo were scarcely more ecclesiastical than civil assemblies. The
+recognition of the sovereign, the order of succession, the validity of
+the laws, were either settled or sanctioned therein. Later, in the great
+struggle with the Moors, through the antagonism of exclusive beliefs,
+the war assumed the character of a religious crusade. The semi-monastic
+Spanish military orders, the preaching of the monks, the sanction and
+the bulls of the Popes--auxiliaries which the kings of Spain were forced
+to summon to their aid--gave a complexion to the conquest and to the
+national character quite different to what might have been the case had
+the contest been fought out by the sovereign, the lay warriors, and the
+civil power alone. Thus the triumph of the Christian over the Moor
+became in some sort also the triumph of the Roman over the national
+Spanish Church. The Mozarabic liturgy gave way to that of Rome. The
+peculiar institution of the inquisition, following on that of the Santa
+Hermandad in civil matters, developed in Spain a degree of power to
+which it never attained in other lands. The certainty and the secrecy of
+its proceedings, the mingled pomp and horror of its "autos de fe," the
+whispers and the shudder with which men told of the tortures of its
+hidden processes, deeply impressed and captivated the imagination of a
+people singularly greedy of, and susceptible to, strong and vivid
+emotions. The chivalrous respect for women, heightened by the reserve
+and half-seclusion which the Spanish knights had learned from the Moors,
+was transformed in the sphere of religion into an almost ardent passion
+of devotion to the Blessed Virgin. Centuries before the doctrine of the
+Immaculate Conception was proclaimed by Pius IX. the cry of the Spanish
+beggar heard at every door throughout her vast dominions was, "Ave Maria
+purisima, sin pecádo concebida." Spain had been the champion of
+Christendom against the Jews and against the Moors; she had without
+remorse violated every compact she had sworn with the latter, and she
+became equally the champion of Roman Catholicism against the
+Reformation. Though Philip II. failed in his great armed struggle with
+the northern powers, and wasted and destroyed therein all the real
+resources of Spain, yet Spanish theologians were among the most eloquent
+and the most learned in the Council of Trent; and it was the Jesuits of
+Spain who headed the reaction of the seventeenth century, and who won
+back all but the Teutonic and Scandinavian races to the allegiance of
+Rome. This glory of Catholicism is never absent from the heart of a
+Spaniard. His whole literature is steeped in it; it inspires Spain's
+greatest painters. It is this deep but unconscious feeling that
+Protestanism is un-Spanish which is the real stronghold of Catholicism
+in Spain, and which, in spite of spoliation and political subjection,
+still gives the clerical party there a greater power than they possess
+in other countries. Yet the few Spaniards who embraced the reformed
+doctrines in the sixteenth century were not inferior to those of other
+lands in earnestness, in learning, in eloquence, or in high position,
+both in Church and State. There was just a moment when the court of
+Charles V. hovered on the verge of protest against Rome. When, as before
+related, the liberties of Spain fell beneath the iron rule of the
+Austrian sovereigns, it was the Church, by the hand of one of its
+greatest ornaments, Cardinal Ximenes, which became the willing
+instrument of despotism. In return for the servility of the court, and
+the presence and the sanction of the sovereign at the "autos," the
+inquisition lent its aid to the monarchy, and its assistance was called
+in to suppress the trade in horses, so senselessly forbidden, on the
+northern frontier. In the seventeenth century, however, the Spanish
+court fell under the influence of the French encyclopædists. The Jesuits
+were banished in 1767. We need not detail again the various vicissitudes
+of the abolition and re-establishment of the inquisition, of the
+suppression of tithes, of the sale of Church property, the destruction
+of the monasteries, and the exile of the monks, the effects of which
+have been sufficiently indicated above.
+
+[Illustration: VESPERS.]
+
+Since the Concordat of 1851, Spain is ruled ecclesiastically by nine
+archbishops; those of Toledo (the primate of all Spain), Burgos,
+Saragossa, Tarragona, Valencia, Granada, Seville, Valladolid, and
+Compostella, under whom are forty-six bishops, with their chapters, and
+about 35,000 clergy. The mode of episcopal appointment is this: the
+king presents three names to the Pope, of which his Holiness selects
+one, who is forthwith nominated to the vacant see. Since 1868,
+theological education is entirely under the hands of the bishops, who
+have a seminary in each diocese. The clergy are paid by the State; but
+the stipends of the country priests are said to be frequently in arrear.
+In some parts of Spain, as in the manufacturing towns of Barcelona,
+religion has to a great extent lost its hold upon the people; in other
+parts, as in the Basque Provinces, the majority are still devout. Since
+1871 a reaction from extremes of scepticism and advanced socialistic
+views is manifest in many of the most popular writers. A small but
+increasing body of Protestants has been established since 1868; but the
+vicissitudes of revolution and reaction, and the present ambiguous state
+of the law have acted unfavourably on the movement. The pastors have
+honourably distinguished themselves by their zeal for the education of
+the classes utterly neglected by the dominant Church. On the whole, the
+clerical party in Spain, considered as a political body, seems gradually
+sinking into a like condition to that of France. It is powerful enough
+to thwart and check the policy of its opponents, but impotent to carry
+out its own measures. The extreme Ultramontane party, for whom the Comte
+de Chambord is too liberal and Pope Leo XIII. too comprehensive, has
+lately adopted the banner of the Carlists. Whatever the future of Spain
+may be, it is not probable that the Church will ever attain again the
+political influence and the exclusive control of education which it
+possessed in the past, in spite of the undoubted talents and virtues of
+many of its upholders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.
+
+
+Though one of the most interesting countries of Europe with regard to
+architecture, Spain can lay claim to no style peculiar to itself, or
+that originated wholly within the Peninsula. It contains, however, noble
+specimens of art and architecture of very varied epochs and character,
+from the work of the unknown sculptors who carved the so-called "toros"
+of Guisando and erected the huge dolmens and other megalithic monuments
+so thickly strewed over its soil, to the architects and artists of the
+present day. Almost all the races which have trodden the land have left
+monuments upon it--the Carthaginians, perhaps, the fewest. Scarcely
+anywhere else does the solid, practical character of Roman architecture
+appear more fully than in the amphitheatres, aqueducts, and especially
+in the bridges of Spain. The amphitheatres, temples, and walls of
+Murviedro (Saguntum), Tarragona, Toledo, Coria, Plasencia; the aqueducts
+of Merida, Seville, and Segovia; the bridges of Tuy over the Minho, of
+Zamora over the Douro, Salamanca over the Tormes, of Alcantara,
+Garrovillas de Alconetar, and Puente del Arzobispo over the Tagus, of
+Merida and Medellin over the Guadiana, of Seville, Cordova, and Ubeda
+over the Guadalquiver, and of Lerida over the Segre, are noble relics of
+Roman work. Of the period when Roman art was gradually modified under
+Christian influences, and the basilica was transformed into the
+Christian church, very few remains exist. To the Vandal and Gothic
+conquerors belong part of the walls of Toledo, and a few chapels and
+small churches in the north and north-west may belong in part to this
+date (417-717); but the most peculiar artistic remains of this period
+are the jewellers' and goldsmiths' work, preserved in the metal crowns
+and treasure of Guarrazar (624-672), of a style which, though probably
+derived from the East through Byzantium, continued to influence Spanish
+goldsmiths' work down to the eleventh century.
+
+[Illustration: GIRALDA OF SEVILLE.
+
+_Page 197._]
+
+The architecture and art of the race that succeeded to the Visigoths is
+of much more notable character. The civil and religious architecture of
+the Spanish Arabs is well worthy of most careful study, and is a grand
+example of the artistic talent of a race which, though debarred by its
+religious faith from the reproduction of human, or even of animal form,
+and delighting neither in the scenes of the theatre or the circus, has
+yet left masterpieces of architectural beauty in lands so wide apart as
+Spain, Egypt, Persia, and Hindostan. The architecture of the Arabs in
+Spain may be roughly divided into three periods: The first, from the
+eighth to the tenth century, tells most clearly of its origin as an
+imitation or modification of the Byzantine style; its masterpiece is the
+Mosque of Cordova. The second period, from the tenth to the thirteenth
+centuries, shows the architects seeking their real style--it is a period
+of transition; its finest erection is the Giralda of Seville. The third
+period is when the Moorish style acquired its fullest development in the
+glorious Alhambra, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries.
+Contemporary with the last period is the Mudejar style, the modification
+which Arabic art underwent in the hands of the Christian conquerors. To
+this belong the Alcazar of Seville, 1353; the Mudejar gates of Toledo
+and Saragossa, and the Chapel of St. James in Alcala de Henares. In
+their domestic architecture the Arabs alone have almost solved the
+problem how to unite ventilation and ornament by means of currents of
+air of different temperatures. The pendulous stucco fretwork by which
+they conceal the angles of their apartments serves not only for ornament
+but to equalize the temperature and to admit of concealed openings
+whereby air can penetrate without draught or chill. The sense of true
+harmony of colour seems to be an intuitional gift of Oriental races, and
+is practically understood by them as it never has been by any other. The
+Mosaics of Greece and Rome, and those of mediæval Italy, in their
+storied designs, appeal more to the intellect; but those of Arabic art
+rest and charm the eye by the purity and harmonious blending of tone as
+do none other. In spite of some apparent exceptions, and those of the
+earliest date, as the Mosque of Cordova (788), and the cloisters of
+Tayloon at Cairo (879), Arabic architecture, like Grecian, depended for
+its effect more on the exquisite symmetry and exact proportion of all
+details to a consummate whole, than to impressions of awe derived from
+vast size or immense solidity. It is thus that the massive Roman arch
+became moulded into the light horse-shoe shape, peculiar to the Spanish
+Arabs from the eighth to the tenth centuries. The originality of this
+architecture is not, however, so great as appears at first sight. The
+influence of Byzantine architecture and of that of the Christian
+churches with which the Arabs had become acquainted during their
+conquests, and of constant accessions from Oriental art, can be clearly
+traced therein. But in Spain there is perhaps a juster proportion, a
+greater variety and richness of ornamentation and colour than is to be
+found elsewhere. The grandest of Moorish buildings in Spain is
+undoubtedly one of the earliest, the great Mosque of Cordova, with its
+forest of 1200 columns, its fifty-seven naves, nineteen gates, and
+upwards of 4000 lamps, recalling the impression produced by the Egyptian
+hall of Karnac at Thebes,--an impression so vivid that even the
+iconoclast emperor, Charles V., whose own palace mars the beauty of the
+Alhambra, rebuked the Archbishop of Cordova for destroying what he never
+could replace, when he cut away some of the columns to make room for a
+Christian chapel. Not less beautiful in their graceful proportions than
+the Campanile of Italy are the minarets and towers of Arabian art in
+Spain, as the Giralda of Seville and others; even the quaintness of the
+leaning tower of Pisa finds its counterpart in the leaning tower of
+Saragossa. The Moorish gates of Toledo, of Seville, and the Alcazar of
+Segovia show how castellated strength may be wedded to artistic
+elegance; but the most perfect union at once of fortress and of palace
+is to be found in the noble group of buildings known as the Alhambra, on
+the hill of Granada. Though trembling on the verge of debasement when
+the severer forms of Arabian art were beginning to admit the
+representation of animal shapes, whose rude sculpture forms a contrast
+to the exquisite correctness of the alphabetic and geometrical designs
+which ornament the walls, these buildings may yet be regarded as marking
+the culmination of Moorish art. The fertility of decorative design, the
+exquisite use made of Arabic lettering, and the simple yet subtle forms
+of geometrical interlacing--apparently most fantastic, yet really ever
+subordinated to a just proportion with the whole--these are a theme of
+wondering admiration to every student. A whole grammar of ornament might
+be illustrated by examples taken from these buildings alone. The
+architecture of the houses of the Moorish aristocracy which still remain
+in Seville, Granada, Toledo, and Saragossa is wonderfully adapted both
+to the necessities of the climate and to domestic ornament. In the more
+northern examples the open galleries, in the more southern the flat
+roof, of the apartments surrounding the inner quadrangle make a
+delightful resort in the cool of the day; while the court or _patio_
+itself, with its fountains and shade, its flowers and creepers and
+odoriferous shrubs, its mingled play of light and colour, through which
+the delicate grace of ornament is seen uninjured by the dust and contact
+with the outside traffic, appears to the northern tourist almost like
+one of the fairy homes of which his ancestors dreamed, and which have
+been described to him in many a legend, as a thing too lovely to be
+gazed upon by mortal eyes unless unsealed.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH ORNAMENTATION.]
+
+The influence and the impress of Arabian art was not confined in Spain
+to mosques or to buildings consecrated to the use of Mohammedans alone.
+Some of the most beautiful specimens of this architecture were erected
+for Christians or for Jews. Arabic inscriptions used as ornaments are
+still to be seen on the altar of the Cathedral of Gerona, in the Shrine
+of San Isidore at Leon; Arabic architecture is seen in the palace of the
+archbishops of Toledo, in a chapel in Alcala de Henares, and in more
+than one synagogue of the Jews. Christian bishops used as episcopal
+seals rings on which were engraved the praises of Allah. Long after the
+conquest of the great cities of the centre and of the south, Moorish and
+Mudejar architects were retained in the pay of Christian monarchs to
+keep in repair the cathedrals and palaces, the beauty of whose
+architecture the Christians could appreciate but could not imitate, much
+less surpass. It is this fact, and the mingling of style and ideas
+consequent thereon, which gives its sole peculiar characteristic to
+Spanish art.
+
+Meanwhile, contemporaneously with the flourishing period of Arabian art
+in the south, a Christian architecture, strikingly in contrast from its
+poverty of style and of invention, was slowly being reconstructed in the
+north. Of the eighth century we have the crypt of the Church of Santa
+Cruz, at Cangas in the Asturias, and some remains in parts of the
+churches of Oviedo. To the tenth century belong parts of the Church of
+San Pablo at Barcelona, and other Catalan churches, with here and there
+a chapel in the Western Pyrenees. During the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries the more important churches of Northern Spain were almost
+reproductions of those of Southern France; the Cathedral of Santiago de
+Compostella is almost a copy of the Church of St. Sernin at Toulouse;
+but the Romanesque (semi-Byzantine) style lingered somewhat longer in
+Spain than in the neighbouring country, and especially in North-eastern
+Spain. In the twelfth century edifices of real beauty are beginning to
+be built; such are the cloisters of Tarragona and the cathedrals of
+Lerida and of Tudela. The cathedrals of Avila and Siguenza are of more
+native Spanish character; while those of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon show
+the influence of French artists in their general plan, but with an added
+ornamentation derived from the richer and more florid fancy of the
+south. Of these perhaps Leon is the noblest and Burgos the richest
+example in Spain. Segovia, Salamanca, and Seville, of the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, are the latest of the great Gothic churches of
+Spain, before the rise of the Renaissance.
+
+Nowhere had the classical revival in architecture more influence than in
+Spain. The almost exclusive type of church which, both in Spain and in
+her vast colonies, is pointed out as the Spanish church, is that either
+of the Renaissance or of the styles which have sprung from it. This soon
+became fashionable, but its semi-pagan additions frequently harmonize
+but ill with the deeper religious feeling of the preceding styles. Still
+it has many fine examples; the works of Berruguete and Herrera are well
+worthy of study. The Escorial, the work of the latter, is redeemed from
+ugliness or meanness by the noble proportions of its central chapel and
+pantheon. But to this semi-classical style succeeded, in the eighteenth
+century, the Churrigueresque, the most debased of all styles, wherein
+plaster took the place of sculpture, sham that of reality, and masses of
+gilding and an incongruous medley of meaningless ornament concealed the
+blunders in proportion and poverty of idea. The adoption of this style
+by the Jesuits procured its prevalence in many districts of Spain and of
+her colonies; occasionally the size of the buildings constructed gives a
+certain grandeur and hides the debasement of the methods.
+
+The domestic, palatial, and castellated architecture of Spain has little
+peculiar beyond what has been already indicated. The royal palace at
+Madrid, however, is one of the most successful architectural efforts of
+the eighteenth century. The sculptured coats of arms on mean dwellings
+are perhaps the most notable distinction of Spanish houses. Traces of
+the influence of Moorish traditions may not unfrequently be observed. In
+the north, the cottages and farms of the Basques, with overhanging roofs
+and wooden galleries, recall in some degree those of Switzerland; in the
+south the iron bars or rails (rejas) before the lower windows, and the
+lattices (celosias) in the upper stories tell of insecurity and of
+habits of almost Oriental seclusion of women.
+
+Finer even than the architecture and the exterior of the buildings is
+the church furniture in Spain. It is unsurpassed for beauty and
+interest. The carved and sculptured wood-work in some of the cathedrals
+is finer than even that of the Netherlands and of Germany. The storied
+screens and choir stalls at Toledo; the retablos of Gerona and
+Salamanca, of Avila and Seville; the choir fittings of Santiago, Zamora,
+and of Burgos; the lecterns and pulpits both of brass and wood; and the
+rails and gates and screens of noblest metal-work are often of simply
+grand proportion; nay, even the polychrome wooden statues in the
+churches will often be found to be of rarest beauty. The monuments
+erected to the memory of the dead are equal to anything which affection
+and piety have raised elsewhere, from that of Archbishop Maurice at
+Burgos, in the thirteenth century--of the tombs of the constable and of
+those of Juan II. and Isabel of Portugal, in the Cartuja de Miraflores,
+of the fifteenth century; and that of Prince Juan, the only son of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, at Avila, erected in 1497--down to the noble
+mausoleum of inlaid metal-work by Zuloaga, lately placed in the Church
+of the Atocha to the memory of Prim. In these and many more, Spain can
+show a sequence able to vie with that of any other land. Hardly less
+beautiful are the minor accessories of Catholic worship; the gold and
+silver smiths' work of the chandeliers, the jewelled work of crosses,
+custodias or shrines, and sacred vessels is often worthy of admiration.
+In all such works of art, before the pillage of the French in the war of
+liberation, and the destruction of the convents, Spain was probably one
+of the richest of Christian lands. If we seem to insist too much on
+ecclesiastical art in Spain, it is because, as we shall see still more
+clearly in the case of painting, art has here concentrated its choicest
+effort on religious subjects, and in them has won its greatest triumphs.
+Except, perhaps, in arms and in porcelain, in portrait-painting and in
+furniture, all the masterpieces of Spanish art are in some sense
+ecclesiastical. Take away religion from her art, how poor would be the
+residue, for even Arabian and Moslem art in Spain were essentially
+religious.
+
+
+_Painting._
+
+Though Spain cannot rival some other countries, Italy for example, in
+the number of her great painters; though she has founded no great
+technical school; yet is she worthy of greatest admiration; in one or
+two of her artists she has attained the very highest rank. As a
+religious painter, especially in expressing in form and colour the
+heights of mystic ecstasy, Murillo stands unrivalled. As a
+portrait-painter of courtly grace and distinction, Velazquez has few
+equals. It is not in landscape, or as interpreters of the ever-varying
+beauty of external nature, that Spanish painters excel, but in the
+delineation of the human form, and especially in the rendering of those
+religious emotions which lead through asceticism to ecstasy. Not the
+glorification of merely sensuous beauty, but the triumphs of the spirit
+over the flesh are the conquests which they prefer to delineate.
+
+Spanish painters may be divided among three great provinces: the
+Valencian, Andalusian, and Castilian schools. Of these the Andalusian,
+and especially the school of Seville, has produced by far the greatest
+artists.
+
+The earliest specimens of Spanish painting are of the decorative kind,
+and are employed in subordination to architecture, to add colour to
+form, and to heighten and make more evident the details of sculpture in
+churches or convents. Much of this phase of art, in which they stand
+very high, they probably learned from the Moors. From these labours in
+churches and convents art in Spain received a religious imprint and
+direction which it has never lost, and from which it is only now turning
+in the present generation. Goya and Fortuny are perhaps the only
+considerable painters of Spain in whose works religious subjects do not
+preponderate. Spanish art reflects in a peculiar degree the
+characteristic of Spanish theology. The mystic grace, the transport of
+love which seems almost too human and tender when fixed on the Divine,
+which moves us in the writings of St. Teresa, St. Juan de la Cruz,
+Xavier, and others, touches us no less in the pictures of Murillo. Stern
+and sombre, as these are lovely, are the paintings which remind us that
+we are in the land of the inquisition. Figures of martyrs serene in
+tortures, whose horrors are laid bare as by no other artists, figures of
+saints of primitive, mediæval, or of later times, who have carried
+asceticism to excess, portraits of men who were as severe to themselves
+as they were pitiless to others; such are the subjects which are
+faithfully rendered by the pencils of Ribalta, Ribera, Zurbaran, and
+many others. Later on, when the old constitutional liberties of Spain
+had almost utterly fallen, and when the worship of the king had begun
+almost to rival that of the Blessed Virgin, Velazquez and others give us
+portraits of the royal family of Spain. The fun and wit which really
+existed in Spanish life, and which her novelists have depicted with such
+relish in innumerable novels, is but poorly represented in Spanish art
+by any of her great masters. Murillo's beggar-boys are almost the only
+pictures which answer to the "picaresque" side of Spanish literature
+till the advent of Goya and of Fortuny.
+
+The expressions of the plastic arts of Spain are neither so idealized as
+the Italian, nor so intellectual as the German, nor so sensuous as the
+Flemish, nor so realistic as those of the Dutch school; but they are far
+more powerful in colouring and truer and deeper in feeling than are
+those of the French school. The Spaniard painted the types and
+characters of his native land, but he delighted to throw around them the
+magic lights that never were on sea or land; through the intense
+darkness of his asceticism ever peers a ray of heavenly light; but the
+type of the figure is ever Spanish; never, in the best days of art, was
+inspiration sought from a reproduction of the forms of pagan classical
+ism, or from a mere eclecticism of beauty. Though the drawing is
+correct, we feel that it has not been learned from a mere study of
+ancient statuary or from anatomical preparations, but from the living
+type and figure. Here and there we find painters like Juande Joannes
+(Vicente Macip) and Domenico Theotocopuli (El Greco), who might have
+lived on Italian soil; but generally the tone of Spanish painters is
+local and unmistakable. Through all his styles--the _frio_ (cold),
+_calido_ (warm), and the _vaporoso_ (mystic)--Murillo remained faithful
+to Spanish, nay, to Andalusian models; none can mistake his saints and
+virgins, his boys and beggars, as belonging to any other race. He does
+not tell the wondrous story of the Incarnation with so grand an appeal
+to the intellect as do the Italian painters. The "woman blessed
+throughout all generations" does not look out to us from his canvas from
+the serene heights of perfect woman-hood which has found its crown in
+the mystery of the Motherhood of the Son of God, but in younger and more
+girlish forms he paints for us the maiden rapt in adoring ecstasy as she
+experiences the wonders of love divine, bathed in the golden light of a
+rapture which none but the very purest can ever feel, and which the very
+angels are represented as reverencing.
+
+Space forbids our giving even an approximate catalogue of Spanish
+painters; we can merely single out for mention the two or three of
+highest rank in their respective provinces. In Valencia we have Ribalta
+(1551-1628), Juan de Joames (Vicente Macip) (1523-79), and the great but
+gloomy Ribera (1588-1609). To this school also belong the artists of
+Catalonia and of the Balearic Isles. In Castile are Navarette (El Mudo)
+(1526-79), Morales (1509-86), Theotocopuli (El Greco) (died 1578), and
+the younger Herrera (died 1686). But the greatest painters are from
+Andalusia and from Seville. The well-known names of Herrera the Elder
+(1576-1656), Zurbaran (1598-1662), Murillo (1618-82), Velazquez
+(1623-60), suffice to show its pre-eminence. The eighteenth century, in
+art as well as in literature, was a time of utter decadence; Goya
+(1746-1820), the caricaturist, is the only artist we need mention; but,
+like its literature, Spanish art is now at length rising from its long
+sleep. Fortuny (1838-74), has made himself a European reputation;
+though, through his early death, the pictures he has left give promise
+only of what his future might have been. Rosales (1840-73), though less
+known by foreigners, is of equal, if not of greater merit; like Fortuny,
+he died in his early prime. Madrazo, Jimenez, Fradilla, and others,
+though not of more than national reputation, yet prove that art is not
+extinct in Spain.
+
+In what have been called the industrial arts Spain was formerly very
+rich, and, but for the wretched economical policy and administration of
+the Government since the seventeenth century, would probably have held
+her own against other countries. The gold and silver ornaments still
+worn by the peasantry in a few districts perpetuate designs and methods
+of workmanship originally derived from the Moors, and much of the church
+work is still of great excellence. No less beautiful is the iron-work,
+in which a grand effect is often produced by simply noble proportions in
+the gates, _rejas_, and screens of her cathedrals and churches; and in
+another sphere, in the manufacture of arms, and of inlaying steel or
+iron with arabesque patterns of gold and silver, an art which has been
+lately revived with great success in Biscay and the Basque Provinces. In
+porcelain and pottery the majolica ware, made at Valencia, was renowned
+throughout Europe; and the Moorish glazed and lustred ware, the
+manufacture of which remained a secret till the present century, is
+greatly sought after by amateurs. The wine-jars (_tinajas_ and
+_alpujarras_), the porous pottery (_bucaros_), the _azulejos_ or
+decorated tiles, continue traditions originally derived through the
+Arabs from the East, but which had almost expired when the manufacture
+was faintly revived under royal patronage in the times of Charles III.,
+to start again on a stronger life with the aid of English capital in our
+own times. Spanish glass is sometimes curious, and much of the stained
+and painted windows in the cathedrals is excellent, especially that of
+Toledo and of Leon; but this art was undoubtedly learned from foreign
+workmen, and only became naturalized in Spain. Of carvings in wood and
+marble and ivory we have already sufficiently spoken. In textile fabrics
+and embroidery, especially in lace, Spain was formerly very rich. The
+mantillas of the ladies, the dresses of the sacred images, the copes of
+the clergy, gave full opportunity for the production of this fabric; but
+the chief effort is now directed to the manufacture of the best foreign
+laces, all of which are most successfully imitated by hand-workers in
+Valencia and Murcia, where they can be produced at a lower cost than is
+possible in colder and more northern climes. Everything in Spain, even
+the common use of colour and of flowers by the Andalusian peasants,
+shows a natural feeling for art; and its production is hindered more by
+indolence, and by the mischievous economical conditions of almost all
+Spanish industry, than by any want of talent in the native workman or
+artisan.
+
+Though, perhaps, there is no country in Europe in which music is more
+appreciated or practised than in Spain, it is singular that she has
+produced no really great master. She has many composers of "zarzuelas,"
+a species of lighter opera; her traditional dance and ballad tunes are
+some of the most inspiriting possible; and her guitar playing is
+renowned, but more for the romantic sentiment of the words and the
+occasion on which it is used than for the music itself. Well-nigh the
+only name for which even Spaniards claim equality with the great
+European masters in serious music is that of Don Manuel Doyague, of
+Salamanca (1755-1842). His _Miserere_, _Te Deum_, and various _Masses_
+are said to equal those of any master of his time.
+
+
+_Literature._
+
+It is not necessary to repeat here what has been said above on the
+Spanish authors who wrote during the silver age of Latin literature, or
+to trace again the origin of the Spanish language. It is evident that
+all we can do is to give a very brief sketch of Spanish literature. This
+literature is, perhaps, the richest in Europe in ballads and romances,
+and these, which make one of its chief glories, are among its earliest
+monuments. While the "Chanson de Roland" and other "Chansons de Gestes"
+were being written in Northern France in the form of continuous epic
+poems, Spain was celebrating her hero--the Cid--in a series of ballads.
+These, if united, would tell almost the whole story of his life; but
+each could be sung or recited alone as a separate and complete poem.
+This form of verse continued for many ages to be the favourite
+literature of the common people, and attained a development in Spain
+beyond that which it did in any other land. For spontaneity, for
+movement, for grace of expression, for sudden turns from martial ardour
+to the most pathetic tenderness, the Spanish ballad is unrivalled. It
+embraces and handles with almost equal success the most varied subjects:
+war and chivalry and love, patriotism, wit, amusement, and religion,
+have all been treated of in these romances, and the collections of each
+kind would fill many volumes.
+
+The first prose works in the Spanish language seem to have been a
+translation of the Bible, under Alphonse X., and of two codes of law,
+the "Fuero Juzgo" and "Las Siete Partidas," in the middle of the
+thirteenth century. It seems to have been almost by accident that
+Alfonzo wrote in the dialect of Leon and Castile in preference to that
+of Galicia and Portugal. Had he chosen the latter, probably Portuguese
+would have become the language of the whole Peninsula. Under his reign,
+too, may have been commenced the first history written in Spanish, "La
+Gran Conquista de Ultramar," telling the story of the Crusades, with
+many romantic episodes. The next production that calls for remark is the
+epic of Alexander the Great, by J. L. Segura, of the latter part of the
+same century. This poem gives the name "Alexandrine" to all European
+verse written in the same metre. In the early part of the fourteenth
+century we have a collection of tales, with morals attached, called "El
+Conde Lucanor," by Don Juan Manuel, nephew of Alphonse X. (1282-1347);
+and Alfonso XI. continues the list of royal authors with a "Libro de la
+Monteria,", or treatise on hunting. The arch-priest of Hita, Juan Ruiz
+(1330-43), about the same time took up the strain of love and war in a
+romance of mingled prose and verse, entitled "Guerras Civiles de
+Granada." In the latter half of the fifteenth century we meet with a
+remarkable production, the tragi-comedy of Celestina, which, in its
+two-fold character of novel and of drama, has been the parent of a
+double offspring, both of the comedy and of the _picaresque_ novel of
+Spain. The Spanish rogue, at least in fiction, has been said to be the
+only amusing rogue in Europe. The chief representations of him in
+literature are in the novel of "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554), by Hurtado
+de Mendoza; "Guzman de Alfarache" (1599), by Mateo Aleman; and "La
+Picara Justina" (1605), by the Dominican monk, Andreas Perez. The whole
+series of these works culminated in a masterpiece, "Gil Blas," written,
+not by a Spaniard, but by the Frenchman Lesage, in 1668; perhaps the
+most graphic description of the manners of another nation ever written
+by a foreigner.
+
+The serious drama in Spain arose, probably, like that of other European
+nations, from the mysteries and moralities of the Middle Ages, such as
+are still continued to be performed occasionally at Elche and in other
+districts. In the "Autos" of Calderon and others it bore clear marks of
+this origin to a later date than any other contemporary drama. The first
+plays of any consequence we hear of are those of Lope de Rueda
+(1544-67), who, both as actor and as author, was greatly admired by
+Cervantes. From him the Spanish drama, like the almost contemporary
+Elizabethan drama in England, sprang at once to its full height.
+Cervantes, in his tragedies "Los Baños de Argel," and in "El trato de
+Argel" in which he described incidents in his own captivity, and in the
+"Numancia," telling the story of the siege by the Romans, imitated and
+surpassed his friend. In lighter pieces, comedies and _entremeses_, he
+was less successful. Almost coeval with Cervantes is Lope de Vega
+(1562-1635), perhaps the most prolific dramatic writer of any value that
+ever lived. His pieces are numbered at from 1500 to 2000, and the best
+of these are equal, if not superior, to those of Calderon in delineation
+of character and in plot, and are inferior only in poetical merit. We
+can only mention Tirso de Molina (1588-1648), Montahran (1602-38), and
+Ruiz de Alarcon (died 1639) as dramatists of merit, whose best pieces,
+especially those of the latter, approach very nearly to those of Lope
+and of Calderon. Calderon de la Barca (1600-81), with the German, Göthe,
+is the only dramatist of modern Europe who has been seriously put
+forward as a rival, or even superior, to Shakspere. This we think to be
+a mistake; in rich poetical imagery, in gorgeousness of fancy, in
+harmony of verse, in stately dignity, in depth of religions feeling, in
+knowledge of stage effect--in all these things he may be compared to our
+English master; but he is very far inferior to him in width of sympathy,
+in wit and rollicking fun, or in thoughtful humour; his comedy will not
+bear comparison with that of Shakspere; but he falls most short in his
+delineation of individual character. In comparison with Shakspere's, his
+figures are but well-dressed puppets compared to living men and women;
+not one of them lingers in the memory like a person whom we have known.
+We remember Calderon's verses, we revel in his splendid poetry, but we
+utterly forget who it is that utters these dazzling strains. Calderon's
+dramas and comedies are reckoned at 120, and his Autos, religious or
+sacramental pieces, generally performed by religious or civil
+corporations in the open air, are numbered at about seventy. In these
+plays abstract qualities take the place of living personages, and it is
+perhaps the greatest proof of Calderon's genius that he has by his
+brilliant poetry and serene religious feeling made some of even these
+acceptable to a modern reader.
+
+But while the drama and comedy and the picaresque novel had been thus
+developing themselves, a whole literature of quite a different kind had
+sprung up into favour, flourished, and died away. This consisted of the
+prose books of chivalry, and of the pastoral romances both in prose and
+verse. They are remembered now chiefly through mention of them in the
+pages of the immortal work, the "Don Quixote," of Cervantes, which
+crushed them for ever. The most celebrated of them was the "Amadis de
+Gaul," written probably at the end of the fourteenth century. The
+imitations of it were innumerable, each more wild, extravagant, more
+insipid, and in worse taste than the last. Of the pastoral romances the
+only one we need to note is the "Diana Enamorada," of Montemayor
+(1520-61), and perhaps the most successful after this is the "Galatea,"
+of Cervantes himself, who could never entirely shake off the influence
+of the writings he delighted to satirize, and of which he was the
+literary executioner. The one Spanish book which has become really
+European, in a degree which has been attained by no other purely secular
+work, is the "Don Quixote" of this author (1547-1616). Into this
+extraordinary production, under the guise of the adventures of his hero,
+the last of the knights-errant, with his squire, Sancho Panza--a story
+full of mirth, incident, and humour--Cervantes has put all the wisdom
+which, by his observation on mankind and literature, he had collected
+during a singularly varied life as writer, soldier, seaman, Algerine
+slave, poet, and man of business. Though hardly belonging to the school
+of the classical Renaissance, yet we see in Cervantes a specimen of the
+marked and distinguishing excellence of the men at that time--the width
+of their sympathies; so that each more eminent man seemed to contain in
+himself an epitome of the experience of mankind. It is, perhaps, to this
+many-sidedness of his experience, and of his culture, that is owing the
+genial character, the pathetic humour, and the total absence of
+bitterness in this masterly satire. Thus Cervantes, while laughing down
+and extinguishing for ever the absurdities of the chivalrous and
+pastoral romances, yet retains his sympathy for all that was really
+noble, though exaggerated, in them. His "Don Quixote," though moving
+irrepressible laughter, will for ever remain one of the choicest
+representations of a brave, pure-minded, honourable gentleman, and tears
+of pity for him are not far distant from our smiles at his quaint
+insanities. Since the days of Cervantes one kind only of the chivalrous
+romances has really survived in literature, and that is the historical
+romance, of which the "Guerras Civiles de Granada" of the arch-priest
+Hita, mentioned above, is so good an example. Another satirist, less
+known than Cervantes, to whom his life bears some resemblance, Quevedo y
+Villegas (1580-1645), is even a more versatile writer. In prose and
+verse his writings are very numerous, but his style, learned and
+obscure, often laboured in the extreme, though pregnant with thought and
+wit, contrasts unfavourably with the clearness of Cervantes; he holds
+now in Spanish literature a place nearly analogous to that of Swift
+among British writers.
+
+But we must hurry on. With the downfall of Granada, the discovery of
+America, the consolidation of the kingdoms of the Peninsula into one
+nation, real historical study began in Spain. Thus we have in quick
+succession many works of considerable merit, such as the "Annals of
+Aragon," by Zurita (1512-80); the "Comunidades of Castille," by Mejia
+(1549); the great "History of Spain," by the Jesuit Mariana (1536-1632);
+Herrera's "General History of the Indies" (1549-1625); the "Commentaries
+on Peru," by the Inca, Garcilasso de la Vega (1540-1616); the monographs
+of Hurtado de Mendoza on the "Wars of Granada" (1610); the "Expedition
+of the Catalans," by Moncada (1623); the "Wars of Catalonia," by Melo
+(1645); and, in literary form superior to all these, the "Conquest of
+Mexico," by Solis (1685).
+
+Of poetry, apart from the stage and from the romances, there is not much
+of real value to engage our attention. The grandest verses of early
+Spain are undoubtedly the "Coplas" of Manrique (1476), which have been
+often translated into English, and which form one of the finest elegies
+extant in any language. After Garcilassa de la Vega (1503-36), Spanish
+poets fell into an unworthy imitation of the Italian; and subsequently
+Gongora (1561-1627) set the example of a still more debased and stilted
+style, full of affected conceits and mistaken classicalism. The only
+tolerable epic poem which Spain has yet produced is the "Araucana" of
+Ercilla, which tells the story of the wars with Indians of that name in
+Chili, and in which the author had personally taken part.
+
+From the close of the seventeenth and through the greater part of the
+eighteenth century, literature partook of the progressive decadence of
+all things in Spain. It withered and declined under the double censure
+and oppression of the king and of the inquisition. The theatre, which
+had striven hard in Spain to become the ally, or even the handmaid, of
+the Church, was contemptuously thrust aside by the latter, and within a
+century of Calderon's death, not even an Infanta could procure
+permission from the inquisition for a comedy in time of carnaval. No
+history of any value could be written under such conditions; the only
+outlet for literary skill lay in religious and mystic writings, which
+are of singular beauty. The classical and grammatical movement of the
+Renaissance which had begun so well under the patronage of Juan de
+Cisneros, Cardinal Ximenes, the great minister of Charles V., and the
+chief monument of which is the Complutensian Polyglot Bible of 1514-17,
+and its greatest scholar, Antonio de Nebrija, soon died away, and the
+Spanish universities, which for a while had been the admiration, became,
+in the eighteenth century, the laughing-stock of Europe. Of the earlier
+period we may mention among the religious writers Luis de Granada
+(1505-68), Santa Teresa (1515-82), the Jesuit, Ribadeneyra (1527-1611),
+Juan de la Cruz (1542-91); but even this literature degenerated into
+casuistry and mere technical scholasticism. Spanish religious poetry is,
+however, far more copious and of greater excellence than is generally
+supposed. It has been studied and collected in our own day by the
+opposite schools of the Spanish Protestants, and by the champion of
+orthodoxy, Menendez Pelayo.
+
+There is little to notice in Spanish literature from this time until the
+rise of the doctrinaire and economical writers of the reign of Carlos
+III., who for the most part closely followed the contemporary school of
+French publicists and encyclopædists. Among these are Padre Benito
+Feyjoo, who was the first to protest against the absence of science and
+true learning in Spain; the Padre Isla (1703-81), decidedly one of the
+wittiest of Spanish writers and satirists; Jovellanos (1744-1811), the
+best statesman and political writer of his time, and in the purer walks
+of literature the two Moratins (1737-1828). One or two philological
+works, far in advance of their age, made now their appearance, such as
+the tracts of Padre Sarmiento (1692-1770) on the Spanish language; the
+works of the Jesuits Larramendi (1728-45) on the Basque, and of Hervas
+(1735-1805) on general philology. To this period also belongs the
+magnificent collection entitled, "La España Sagrada," commenced by
+Florez (1754-1801), and, after many interruptions, completed only in
+1880.
+
+Towards the close of the eighteenth century, however, a reaction set in
+against the French and so-called classical school, and the attention of
+Spanish writers was recalled to the masterpieces of their own earlier
+literature. The movement was accelerated by the course of political
+events, and the successes of the war of independence against the French.
+One of the earliest defenders of the romantic against the classical
+school was Bohl de Faber, a Hamburg merchant settled in Cadiz. He
+published in 1820-3, in his native town, selections from works of the
+early poets and dramatists of Spain; and his daughter, Cecilia, under
+the name of Fernan Caballero, has attained the highest rank among the
+lady novelists of Spain. The admission of Bohl de Faber into the ranks
+of the Spanish Academy, under Martinez de la Rosa, marks the definite
+triumph of the national school. At first it seemed as if the movement
+would produce simply a change of French for English and German models.
+Fiction became a stiff imitation of Sir Walter Scott. In poetry the
+influence of Byron reigned supreme. Espronceda (1810-42) has equalled
+his master in his cynical odes. "The Beggar," "The Executioner," "The
+last day of the Condemned," and "The Pirate," might almost have been
+penned by Byron; and "El Mundo Diablo" will long live in Spanish
+literature. Zorilla, born in 1817, still living, has been more
+successful in his dramas than Espronceda, especially in "Don Juan
+Tenorio," but his poems are inferior in force, though rich in colouring
+and in the melody of his verse. Gustavo Becquer (1836-70) is another
+poet who fed his genius with the legends of the past, but his models
+were Edgar Poe and Hoffmann; some of his weird fantastic tales and poems
+are excellent examples of their kind. Of an opposite character are the
+realistic novels of Fernan Caballero above mentioned (1797-1877). These
+are exquisite rose-tinted photographs of Spanish life and character
+taken by one who sees everything Spanish with a favourable eye. Her
+writings are distinguished by a delicate aristocratic grace and
+tenderness which she throws over all subjects which she handles, whether
+of high or lowly life. As an artist her plots are inferior to those of
+many worse novelists; her descriptions of scenery are beautiful and
+exact; as a delineator of individual character she fails, but as a
+painter of type and class she is unrivalled. Her sketches abound in
+humour and in gentle melancholy; a deep and true religious feeling
+pervades every line, but she fails in strength and passion. Thus she can
+be classed only in the second rank of female novelists, and does not
+approach the genius of Georges Sand or of George Elliot. Trueba, in the
+north, essays to imitate her, but he often sinks into puerility, nor
+are his studies marked by the conscientious regard for fact which
+distinguishes those of the lady writer. Pereda, who delineates the
+peasants of Santander, is a less prolific writer but of higher literary
+merit. Of living novelists we should place in the first rank Juan Valera
+with his powerful novels, "Pepita Jimenez," "El Doctor Faustino," and
+"Doña Luz." Next to him is, perhaps, Perez Galdos, who, in the series
+entitled "Episodios Nacionales," rivals the national romances of
+Erckmann-Chatrian in French. Pedro Alarcon has a greater fund of wit and
+humour, and his "Sombrero de tres picos" is a most mirth-provoking tale.
+Fernandez y Gonzalez, in the number, if not in the quality of his works,
+may almost compete with the elder Alexandre Dumas, whose semi-historical
+style he repeats. Feliz Pizcueta, a Valencian writer, has also written
+many novels, whose scenes are laid in his native province. Among
+dramatists now living, or lately dead, we may mention Hartzenbusch
+(1806-80), whose "Amantes de Teruel" is one of the most successful
+tragedies of the romantic school; Breton de los Herreros (1800-70);
+Gertrudis de Avellaneda, the first Spanish female dramatist, born in
+Cuba in 1816; Gutierrez, who, born in 1813, sought refuge, like Zorilla,
+in Spanish America; Lopez de Ayala; and lastly, J. Estebanez, whose best
+work is entitled "Un Drama Nuevo," and who reaches a high level of
+dramatic art. Of more extravagant style, inferior to these, and already
+marking a decadence, is José Echegaray, a man of most versatile and
+opposite talents, and one of the first mathematicians of Spain, the best
+of whose plays is "Locura o Santidad." Of lyric poets we may mention
+Campoamor, an original but languid and graceful writer of minor verse,
+and Selgas, whose grace is seasoned with wit and satire, but whose prose
+is much superior to his verse. But by far the greatest of living Spanish
+poets, though like Tennyson he has failed comparatively on the stage, is
+Gaspar Nuñez de Arce. His "Gritos del Combate," and "La Ultima
+Lamentacion de Lord Byron," contain some noble verses. He writes in the
+spirit of purest patriotism, with a stern morality, and with severe and
+chastened art.
+
+But more important than in the movement of fiction and poetry has been
+the influence of the romantic school in history. The attention of
+Spaniards has been at length turned to the study of their original
+records, and especially to that of the early Arabic writers. The first
+to attempt this, but with insufficient means, was J. A. Condé
+(1757-1820) in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en España."
+This has since been superseded by the exacter learning of Don Pascual
+Gayangos, in the "Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," by many foreign
+writers, and by the labours of Fernandez y Gonzalez in "Los Mudejares de
+Castilla" (1866) and others. The labours of Don Modeste and Don Vicente
+Lafuente, the one in ecclesiastical, the other in civil history, must be
+mentioned with approval, and the works of Amador de los Rios, on the
+literature of Spain and on the history of the Jews in Spain, do honour
+to his country. Among other historians, we may mention F. Castro and
+Sales y Ferrer, whose works are the popular manuals in education.
+Fernandez Guerra in the ancient, and Coello in the modern, Geography of
+Spain, are authors of the highest class; nor must we omit the Englishman
+Bowles, who wrote on the Natural History of Spain in 1775. In Geology
+another English name, Macpherson, attains the highest rank, together
+with the surveyors employed on the "Comision de la Mapa Geologica" of
+Spain. On the history of property in Spain and Europe, are two
+remarkable essays by Cárdenas and de Azcárate. In theology, on the Roman
+Catholic side, are the writings of Balmés (1810-48); of Doñoso Cortes
+(1809-53), of the present Bishop of Cordova, Ceferino Gonzalez; and,
+still publishing, the remarkable production of Menendez Pelayo,
+"Historia de los Heterodoxos in España;" while in the Protestant
+theology, Usoz, assisted by B. Wiffen in England and Boehmer in Germany,
+has rescued from oblivion the works of the Spanish reformers. In
+philology the Jesuit, Padre Fita y Colomé, worthily continues the
+traditions of Larramendi and of Hervas. Fernandez Guerra, and F. Tubino,
+and the Barcelona school pursue archæological studies with success. The
+influence of outside European thought is every day more evident in
+Spain. Ardent disciples of the school of Comte, of Darwin, and of
+Schopenhauer, are to be found among her publicists. In political economy
+Figuerola, G. Rodriguez, Colmeiro, Azcárate, and others, follow keenly
+the teaching of the English liberal school. Face to face in
+parliamentary eloquence and in politics stand Cánovas del Castello and
+Emilio Castelar; the latter distinguished by a florid oratory which is
+unsurpassed in Europe, but whose style is far more effective when spoken
+than when read; the former, with greater learning and a more cultivated
+taste, would undoubtedly be known as a writer but for his devotion to
+political life. The periodical and daily press of Spain, though not to
+compare with that of England, or of the United States, is almost on a
+par with that of most continental countries; the scientific and literary
+reviews and magazines are yearly increasing both in numbers and in
+value.
+
+This sketch, however brief, would be incomplete without a glance at what
+may be called the provincial literature of Spain. The publishers of
+Barcelona, especially in illustrated works, vie with those of Madrid. It
+is not in the Castilian tongue alone that the awakening is apparent. In
+Catalonia and in Valencia the study of the native idiom and of their
+ancient authors has been taken up with zeal, and with happiest results
+in history and philology. Victor Balaguer, the Catalan poet and
+dramatist is equal to all contemporary Spanish poets save Nuñez de Arce.
+The dramas of Pablo Soler (Serafi Petarra) are received with an
+enthusiasm unknown to audiences in Madrid. Mila y Fontanals, Bofarull,
+and Sanpére y Miquel are investigating with success the language,
+history, and archæology of their country. A like, though necessarily a
+less important, movement is taking place in Andalusia, in the Basque
+Provinces, in the Asturias, and in Galicia; everywhere what is worth
+preserving in these dialects is being sought out, edited, and given to
+the press. The archives of Simancas are at length thrown open to the
+world, and guides and catalogues are being industriously prepared.
+Sevillian scholars are also studying the archives of the Indies, and the
+treasures of Hebrew and Arabian lore.
+
+Thus, if Spain can at present boast no writer whom we can place
+undoubtedly and unreservedly in the very first rank, she shows an
+intellectual movement which, though confined at present to a
+comparatively small portion of her inhabitants, may, if it spread and
+continue, place her again in her proud position of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, as one of the first of European nations, not
+perhaps in arms and power, but in literature, if not in science.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+EPILOGUE.
+
+
+A few words in conclusion. Spain is far from being a worn-out country.
+On the contrary, both in the character and capacities of its varied
+populations, in the mineral riches of its soil, in its agricultural
+wealth, in industrial resources, and in the artistic taste of its
+workmen, it is capable of vast development.
+
+Two things hinder this, and will probably hinder it for some time. These
+are the political separation of Spain and Portugal, so ill-adapted to
+the geographical conformation of the Peninsula. The great rivers of
+Spain run westward, but the benefit of these fluvial highways is
+entirely lost to the country through the intercalation of Portugal into
+the western sea-board, thus making useless to Spain her natural system
+of river transport, and cutting her off from her best and most direct
+Atlantic ports. It is Lisbon, and not Madrid, which should be the
+capital of the whole Peninsula. Scarcely less an evil to Spain is the
+possession of Gibraltar by the English, which, besides the expense of
+watching the fortress, and the loss to Spain of the advantage of the
+possession of the great port of call for the whole maritime traffic of
+the East, is a school of smuggling and contraband, and a focus of
+corruption for the whole of South-western Spain. Were the whole Atlantic
+and Mediterranean sea-board in sole possession of one nation, the
+expenses of the custom-house would be greatly lessened, while the
+smuggling on the Portuguese and British frontiers would wholly
+disappear. In no point was the effect of the narrow and jealous policy
+of Philip II. more disastrous, than in his failure even to attempt to
+attach the Portuguese to his rule when the kingdoms were temporarily
+united under his crown.
+
+The second evil, and one of still graver proportions, is that of the
+exceedingly corrupt administration of the central government, and of
+almost every branch of public employment. It is difficult to exaggerate
+this mischief. It is not bad external political government, it is not a
+faulty constitution, but it is an administration in which corruption has
+become a tradition and the rule, that is the real evil in Spain. It is
+this which baffles every ministry that tries to do real good. Only a
+ministry, or succession of ministries, composed of men of thorough
+honesty, of iron will, and of competence in financial administration,
+supported by strong majorities, can hope to deal with this gigantic
+growth. Even then it must be a work of time. With an honest
+administration, and prudent and sagacious development of her resources,
+Spain would soon regain financial soundness and recover her place among
+the nations.
+
+The contest between the opposite commercial systems of protection and
+free trade is not yet concluded, nor is likely to be, in Spain. As long
+as England, which has the greatest interest of any foreign power in the
+establishment of the latter system, maintains a tariff which unduly
+favours the wines of France in comparison with those of Spain free trade
+is not likely to be popular. From the varied character of her products,
+Spain is of all European countries naturally the most self-sufficing.
+Her north-western provinces furnish her with cattle in abundance; no
+finer wheat is grown than that on the central plateau, and it could
+easily be produced in quantity more than sufficient for her wants; wine,
+oil, and fruits she possesses in superfluity; even sugar is not wanting
+in the south; cotton, indeed, she has not; but wool of excellent quality
+is the produce of her numerous flocks, and it needs only the
+establishment of efficient manufactories for Spanish cloth and woollen
+stuffs to regain their ancient renown. All the most useful minerals
+abound, and are of the finest quality, especially the iron, and the
+development of the working of the Asturian and Andalusian coal-fields
+renders Spain yearly more and more independent of England in this
+respect. True it is that foreign capital is, and will for some time be
+necessary to assist in extracting this hidden wealth; but if the
+ordinary Spaniard of the educated classes, instead of seeking a bare,
+and too often a base, subsistence in petty government employment or in
+ill-paid professions--instead of seeking the barren honour of a
+university degree--would apply himself to scientific, industrial, or
+agricultural enterprise, he might soon obtain his legitimate share of
+the profits which now go mainly into the hands of foreign speculators
+and shareholders.
+
+Spaniards are commonly said to be cruel and bloodthirsty, with little
+regard for the sufferings of others or respect for human life; and
+undoubtedly there is some truth in this charge, but it does not apply to
+the whole Peninsula. Many of Spain's best writers deplore it, and
+inveigh strongly against it and against the bull-fights, which, in their
+present form, are not more than a century old. As a national sport, the
+modern bull-ring, with its professional torreadors and its hideous
+horse-slaughtering, differs from the pastime in which Charles V. and his
+nobles used to take part as much as a prizefight from a tournament. The
+appeals of Fernan Caballero to the clergy, the efforts of Tubino,
+Lastre, and others to arouse the public against this wanton cruelty
+have hitherto been of no avail. We can only hope in the future. On the
+other hand, it is unjust to shut our eyes to the noble charities of
+Spain. She was the first to care for lunatics. Many of her hospitals and
+asylums for the aged were conducted with a tenderness and consideration
+unknown in other lands. Even a beggar is treated with respect, and is
+relieved without contumely. The treatment of her prisoners and the
+condition of her prisons, which was long so foul a blot, is now being
+efficiently removed; she is at least making an earnest effort to attain
+the level of European civilization in this respect.
+
+Intellectually, in science, and especially in literature, Spain is
+advancing rapidly. The historical treasures long buried in the archives
+of Simancas, and those of the Indies at Seville, are now thrown open to
+the world, and are eagerly consulted by native historians. Her literary
+and scientific men, though comparatively few in number, are full of zeal
+and intelligence. There needs only a larger and more appreciative
+audience to encourage them in their labours in order to bring the
+literature of Spain to a level with that of any European country of
+equal population.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I.
+
+PROVINCES OF SPAIN AND THEIR POPULATION IN 1877.
+
+
+                                      Per square
+    Provinces.      Inhabitants.      Kilometer.
+
+    Alava              93,191           30
+    Albacéte          219,122           14
+    Alicante          408,154           75
+    Alméria           349,854           41
+    Avila             180,457           23
+    Badajoz           432,809           19
+    Barcelona         835,306          108
+    Burgos            332,461           23
+    Cacéres           306,594           15
+    Cadiz             430,158           59
+    Castellon         283,961           45
+    Ciudad-Real       260,641           13
+    Cordova           385,582           28
+    Corunna           595,585           75
+    Cuenca            237,497           14
+    Gerona            299,002           51
+    Granada           477,719           37
+    Guadalajara       201,288           16
+    Guipúzcoa         167,207           88
+    Huelva            210,641           20
+    Huesca            252,165           17
+    Jaën              422,972           32
+    Leon              350,210           22
+    Lerida            285,297           23
+    Logroño           174,425           34
+    Lugo              410,387           42
+    Madrid            593,775           77
+    Malaga            500,231           68
+    Murcia            451,611           39
+    Navarre           304,184           29
+    Orense            388,835           55
+    Oviedo            576,352           54
+    Palencia          180,785           22
+    Pontevedra        451,946          100
+    Salamanca         285,500           23
+    Santander         235,299           44
+    Saragossa         400,266           23
+    Segovia           149,961           21
+    Seville           505,291           36
+    Soria             153,654           15
+    Tarragona         330,105           52
+    Teruel            242,296           17
+    Toledo            334,744           23
+    Valencia          679,030           60
+    Valladolid        247,453           31
+    Vizcaya           189,954           86
+    Zamora            250,004           23
+                   ----------           --
+                   16,053,961           32
+    Balearic Isles    289,035           60
+    Canaries          280,388           37
+                   ----------           --
+                   16,623,384           33
+                   ----------           --
+
+    In area of surface Spain ranks the           5th of European States.
+    In number of population                      7th        "
+    In density of population to the square mile 14th        "
+    In extent of colonies                        5th        "
+    Rates of women to men, 1044 to 1000.
+    The infantile mortality is said to be 24-1/2 per cent. in first year.
+    Expectation of life at 2 years old is said to be 49 years;
+      the average 41.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF SPANISH HISTORY.
+
+                                                                    A.D.
+
+  Visigoth kings rule from                                414   to   711
+  Entry of Moors, battle of Guadelete, death of last
+      Visigothic king                                       31 July, 711
+  Reconquest begun by Pelayo at Covadonga in the Asturias            719
+  Toledo captured by Alphonso VI.                                   1085
+  Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa                                     1212
+  Final union of Leon and Castile                                   1230
+  Alphonso X. (Law Codes: The Fuero Real and Las Siete
+      Partidas)                                                     1252
+  Union of Aragon with Castile under Ferdinand and
+        Isabella                                                    1474
+      Inquisition established (first Auto de Fé, 1488)              1484
+      Conquest of Granada                                           1492
+      Discovery of America                                          1492
+      Expulsion of Moors from Castile, 1501; from Granada           1502
+      Conquest of Naples and Sicily                                 1504
+  _Austrian Dynasty_:--Philip I. and Joanna                         1504
+    Charles I. (Emperor of Germany, Charles V.)                     1516
+      War of Comunidades of Castile, Battle of Villalar             1521
+      Battle of Pavia, Francis I. prisoner                          1525
+      Capture of Tunis                                              1535
+      Abdication of Charles I.                                      1556
+    Philip II.:--Greatest extension of Spanish monarchy, comprising
+        Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia,
+        Milan, Roussillon, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg,
+        Franche-Comté, Tunis, Oran, the Canaries, Fernando
+        Po, St. Helena, The Americas, Philippine Isles, &c.
+    Insurrection of Low Countries                                   1566
+    First rebellion and expulsion of Moriscos                       1568
+    Battle of Lepanto                                               1571
+    League of Provinces and independence of Holland,       25 Jan., 1579
+    Conquest of Portugal (1580-1640)                                1580
+      Defeat of Armada                                              1588
+      Death of Philip II.                                           1598
+    Final expulsion of Moriscos                                     1609
+    Insurrection of Catalonia                                       1640
+    Loss of Portugal                                                1640
+    Battle of Rocroy                                                1643
+    Peace of the Pyrenees and marriage of Louis XIV.                1659
+    Death of Charles II., last of Austrian dynasty         29 Oct., 1700
+
+  _Bourbon Dynasty_:--War of Succession between Archduke
+        Charles and Philip V., 1701-13
+      Loss of Gibraltar                                             1704
+      Treaty of Utrecht                                             1713
+      Salic Law voted in Cortes                                     1713
+      Abolition of Constitution of Catalonia                        1716
+    Charles III.                                                    1759
+      Family Pact                                                   1761
+      Expulsion of Jesuits                                          1767
+      Siege of Gibraltar                                            1782
+    Charles IV.                                                     1788
+      Godoy, Prince of Peace                                        1795
+      Battle of Trafalgar                                           1805
+      Abdication of Charles IV.                                     1808
+    Ferdinand VII., Renunciation at Bayonne                         1808
+      Joseph Bonaparte, King (1808-14)
+      Uprising of Spain                                      2 May, 1808
+      Peninsular War, 1808-14
+      Expulsion of French                                           1814
+      Cortés of Cadiz, suppression of Inquisition, of
+        Feudal Rights, and establishment of Constitution            1812
+      Return of Ferdinand VII., Inquisition re-established,
+        and Constitution abolished                                  1814
+      Insurrection of Riego, new Constitution (1820-23)             1820
+      Invasion of French, violation of Constitution                 1823
+      Loss of American colonies. Buenos Ayres 1811
+                                 Chili        1818
+                                 Columbia     1819
+                                 Mexico       1821
+                                 Peru         1824
+  Absolutism till death of Ferdinand VII. (1823-33).
+  Birth of Isabella II., abolition of Salic Law, expulsion
+      of Don Carlos                                                 1830
+  Death of Ferdinand VII.                                           1833
+  Regency of Christina, the queen-mother, 1833; expelled
+      1840                                                          1833
+    First Carlist War, 1833-39.
+  Majority of Isabella II.                                          1844
+    War with Morocco                                                1860
+    Insurrection and expulsion of Isabella                          1868
+  Provisional Government, 1868-70                                   1868
+  Amadeo I., November, 1870, to February, 1873                      1870
+  Republic, Cantonalist insurrections                               1873
+    Second Carlist War, 1873-76.
+  Alphonso XII.                                               Dec., 1874
+    Don Carlos entered France, February, 1876                       1876
+    Abolition of Basque Fueros                                      1876
+    Downfall of Cánovas del Castillo                                1881
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX III.
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS CHIEFLY MADE USE OF IN THE FOREGOING PAGES.
+
+_Geography_:--
+
+     La Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, par Elisée Reclus, series 5 and
+     6. Hachette, Paris, 1876.
+
+     Spanien und die Balearen. Willkomm, Berlin, 1879.
+
+     The Balearic Isles, by T. Bidwell. London.
+
+     Boletin de la Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid, various years.
+
+     Introduccion à la Historia Natural y à la Geográfica Fisica de
+     España, por Don Guillermo Bowles. Madrid, 1775.
+
+     Espagne, Algerie, et Tunisie, par P. de Tchikatchef. Paris, 1880.
+
+     Libro de Agricultura, por Abu Zaccaria. Spanish translation
+     Seville, 1878.
+
+_Meteorology_:--
+
+     Reports of the Meteorological Society of Madrid, various years.
+
+     Revista Contemporanea, tomo xxx. 4. December, 1880.
+
+_Philology_:--
+
+     Grammaire des Langues Romaines, par F. Diez, 2nd German edition.
+     French translation, Paris.
+
+     Études sur les Idiomes Pyrénéenes, par A. Luchaire. Paris, 1879.
+
+     Various articles in Spanish Literary and Provincial Journals.
+
+_History, General_:--
+
+     Dunham's History of Spain and Portugal, 5 vols. Lardner's Cabinet
+     Encyclopaedia.
+
+     Resúmen de Historia de España, por F. de Castro, 12th edition.
+     Madrid, 1878.
+
+     Compendio Razonado de História General, por Sales y Ferré, last
+     edition, 4 vols. Madrid, 1880.
+
+     History of Civilization, by Buckle, 3 vols. London.
+
+_Particular Histories_:--
+
+     Investigaciones sobre la História de España, por Dozy, Spanish
+     translation, 2 vols. Seville, 1877.
+
+     Los Mudejares de Castillo, por Fernandez Gonzalez. Madrid, 1866.
+
+     Vida de la Princesa Eboli, by G. Muro, with introductory letter by
+     Cánovas del Castillo. Madrid, 1877.
+
+     Text of various Fueros, and of the Constitutions since 1812.
+
+     Espagne Contemporaine, par F. Garrido. Bruxelles, 1865.
+
+_Ecclesiastical History_:--
+
+     Die Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, von P. B. Gams, 5 vols. Berlin,
+     1879.
+
+     Historia de los Heterodoxos Españoles, por M. Menendez Pelayo,
+     tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii. not yet published.) Madrid, 1880.
+
+_History of Property, &c._:--
+
+     Ensayo sobre la História del derecho de Propiedad y su Estado
+     actual en Europa, por G. de Azcárate. Tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii.
+     not yet published.) Madrid, 1879-80.
+
+     Estudios filosóficos y politicos, por G. de Azcárate. Madrid, 1877.
+
+     La Constitucion Inglesa y la politica del Continente, por G. de
+     Azcárate. Madrid, 1878.
+
+     Ensayo sobre la Propiedad Territorial en España, per Cardénas, 2
+     vols. Madrid, 1875.
+
+_Art_:--
+
+     Street's Gothic Architecture in Spain. Murray, 1865.
+
+     The Industrial Arts of Spain, by Juan F. Riaño. London 1879.
+
+     Discurso de Recepcion, by Juan F. Riaño. Madrid, 1880.
+
+     Numerous articles in Spanish Periodicals.
+
+_Literature_:--
+
+     Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature, 4 vols. London, 1845.
+
+     Sismondi's Literature of the South of Europe. Bohn, London, 1846.
+
+     Hubbard's Littérature Contemporaine en Espagne. Paris, 1876.
+
+_Guide-Books_:--
+
+     Ford's last edition, and O'Shea's Guide to Spain, with numerous
+     Spanish general and local guides, and particular descriptions of
+     towns, provinces, &c.
+
+     Tourist Books in Spanish, German, French, and English. The only
+     ones needing mention, as going out of the common round are--
+
+     Untrodden Spain, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1875.
+
+     Among the Spanish People, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1877.
+
+     Government and Consular reports too numerous to specify; but we
+     must except Phipps' masterly Report on Spanish Finance to the close
+     of 1876.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+    AGRICULTURE, 41.
+
+    Alhambra, 113, 198.
+
+    Alphonso XII., 160.
+
+    Amadeo I., 138, 168.
+
+    Andorra, republic of, 100.
+
+    Arabs, 75.
+
+    Architecture, Roman, 194;
+      Arab, 195;
+      Mudejar, 200;
+      Renaissance, 202;
+      Churrigueresque, 203.
+
+    Army, 167.
+
+    Art, Visigothic, 195;
+      Arabic, 196;
+      Christian, 205;
+      industrial, 210.
+
+
+    BALEARIC ISLES, 141.
+
+    Bardeñas Reales, 13, 97.
+
+    Basque language, 71, 77, 78.
+
+    Behetria, 145.
+
+    Bidassoa, 12, 56.
+
+    Budgets, 175.
+
+    Bulls and bull-fighting, 121, 234.
+
+
+    CABALLERO, Fernan, 223.
+
+    Calderon, 216.
+
+    Camel breeds in Spain, 34, 65.
+
+    Cañada, La, pass of, 5, 135.
+
+    Canals, 13, 16, 18, 133.
+
+    Cánovas del Castillo, 161, 228.
+
+    Carlists, 155, 159.
+
+    Castelar, 158, 159, 228.
+
+    Cerro de San Felipe, 6, 133.
+
+    Cervantes, 215, 217.
+
+    Charles I., 13, 150.
+
+    Charles III., 13, 152.
+
+    Chuetas of Balearic Isles, 90, 143.
+
+    Church, councils of, 75, 187;
+      furniture and art, 205.
+
+    Clergy, 82, 191.
+
+    Coal-mines, 65, 94, 101, 122, 234.
+
+    Colleges, British, 141, 183.
+
+    Comunidades of Aragon, 40, 99.
+
+    Congress of deputies, 162.
+
+    Constitutions of Spain, 153, 162.
+
+    Contrabandistas, 90.
+
+    Cortés, 146, 162.
+
+    Cordova, mosque of, 124, 196, 198.
+
+
+    DEBT, public, 174.
+
+    Despeña-Perros, pass of, 3, 125.
+
+    Despoblados and Destierros, 7, 111, 130.
+
+    Douro, 15, 139.
+
+
+    EBRO, 12, 97, 99.
+
+    Escorial, 36, 132, 203.
+
+    Esparto grass, 43, 107, 111.
+
+    Exports and imports, 177.
+
+
+    FAUNA, 52.
+
+    Ferdinand VII., 153.
+
+    Finance, 174.
+
+    Fiords or Friths in Galicia, 3, 31, 92.
+
+    Fisheries, 56, 93, 118.
+
+    Flora, greatly exotic, 41, 42;
+      herbaceous aromatic, 45;
+      African, 108.
+
+    Fueros, 146, 147, 150, 158, 161.
+
+    Funds, 175.
+
+
+    GATA, Cabo de, 2, 9, 109.
+
+    Gibraltar, 9, 119.
+
+    Guadalaviar and irrigation, 24, 104.
+
+    Guadalquiver and affluents, 20, 109.
+
+    Guadarrama, range of, 6, 129, 135.
+
+    Guadiana and affluents, 19.
+
+    Guardias civiles, 156.
+
+    Guisando, Toros de, 71, 134, 194.
+
+
+    HISTORICAL school in Spain, 220, 226.
+
+    Hospitals, 171.
+
+    Hurdes, 90, 138.
+
+
+    IBERI, 70.
+
+    Imports and exports, 177.
+
+    Inquisition, 149, 188.
+
+    Irrigation of Llobregat, 26;
+      Esla, 17;
+      Henares, 18, 19, 193;
+      in Valencia and Murcia, 24, 25, 104, 106, 107.
+
+    Isabella II., 154.
+
+
+    JEWS of Balearic Isles, 77, 143.
+
+    Justice, administration of, 169.
+
+
+    KELT and Keltiberi, 70, 76.
+
+
+    LACE, 211.
+
+    Lakes, 19, 26, 105, 108.
+
+    Laya, Basque tool, 40.
+
+    Lead-mines, 64, 125.
+
+    Lemosin dialects, 77.
+
+    Locusts, 48, 53.
+
+    Lunatic asylums, 171, 235.
+
+
+    MAJOLICA ware, 105, 144, 211.
+
+    Manufactures, cotton, 81, 82, 102.
+
+    Maragatos, 105, 144, 211.
+
+    Marismas of Guadalquiver, 22, 121.
+
+    Merino sheep, 54.
+
+    Mesta, 47, 83, 84, 156.
+
+    Mineral springs, 28.
+
+    Minho, 11, 93.
+
+    Mining districts, 64, 94, 95, 102, 107, 110, 111, 122, 125, 140.
+
+    Monkeys at Gibraltar, 52, 120.
+
+    Mudejar art, 201.
+
+    Municipal administration, 164.
+
+    Mules, 55.
+
+    Murillo, 120, 206, 207, 209.
+
+
+    NAVY, 168.
+
+    Nevada, Sierra, 8, 109, 115.
+
+
+    OLIVES, 33, 47, 59, 101, 109, 116.
+
+    Orange cultivation, 39, 43, 46, 105, 109.
+
+
+    PAINTING, schools of, 206, 209.
+
+    Palms, 33, 44, 106.
+
+    Passiegos of Bilbao, 90.
+
+    Philip II., 132, 232.
+
+    Population, census of, 80, 82;
+      diverse of Spain, 69, 85;
+      occupations of, 81.
+
+    Post and letters, 172.
+
+    Pottery and porcelain, 105, 144, 211.
+
+    Prisons, 170, 234.
+
+    Professors, salary of, 182.
+
+    Property, distribution of, 83, 153;
+      Church, sale of, 83, 154, 191.
+
+    Provinces, administration of, 164.
+
+    Provincial literature, 228.
+
+
+    RAILWAYS, 172.
+
+    Rainfall, 10, 28, 31.
+
+    Republic of Andora, 100.
+
+    Rice cultivation, 42, 44, 105.
+
+    Rivers, comparative table of, 28.
+
+    Romans in Spain, 17, 41, 76, 93, 102, 108, 194.
+
+
+    SALINAS, 22, 26, 29, 108, 109, 118.
+
+    Salt-mine, 63, 100.
+
+    Schools and schoolmasters, 184.
+
+    Sea-board of Spain, 2.
+
+    Seguro, sierra and rivers, 8, 24, 107.
+
+    Silk, 17.
+
+    Sugar, 42, 44, 115.
+
+
+    TAGUS and its affluents, 17.
+
+    Taxes, 176.
+
+    Telegraphs, 173.
+
+    Tobacco factories, 121, 176.
+
+    Toleration, early religious, 147, 165, 188.
+
+
+    UNIVERSITIES, 182.
+
+
+    VISIGOTHS, 74, 187, 195.
+
+
+    WATER, names connected with, 27.
+
+    Wines of Galicia, 38, 93;
+      Riojas, 33, 96;
+      Navarre and Aragon, 33;
+      Catalonia, 33, 102;
+      Valencia, 104;
+      La Mancha, 127;
+      Malaga 116;
+      Andalusia sherries, 118, 119, 124.
+
+
+LONDON:
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Spain
+
+Author: Wentworth Webster
+
+Release Date: January 7, 2011 [EBook #34875]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, Michigan University Library and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="367" height="550" alt="image of book&#39;s cover" title="image of book&#39;s cover" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/map1.jpg">
+<img src="images/map1_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="412" alt="SPAIN
+London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, &amp; Rivington." title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, &amp; Rivington.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h1>SPAIN</h1>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c">BY THE<br />
+REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER, M.A. O<small>XON</small>.<br /><br />
+<small>
+W<small>ITH A</small> C<small>HAPTER BY AN</small> A<small>SSOCIATE OF THE</small> S<small>CHOOL OF</small> M<small>INES.</small></small></p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c">London:<br />
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, &amp; RIVINGTON,<br />
+CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.<br />
+1882.<br />
+[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c">LONDON:<br />
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,<br />
+ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c">[etext transcriber's note:<br />
+No attempt has been made to correct, normalize or de-anglicize
+the spelling of Spanish names or words.<br />
+For example:
+Calayatud/Calatayud,
+Alfonso/Alfonzo,
+Cacéres/Caceres/Cáceres,
+Cardénas/Cárdenas,
+Guipúzcoa/Guipuzcoa all appear.<br />
+Click on any of the images to view them enlarged.]</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c"><a href="#ANALYTICAL_TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"><b>ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.</b></a><br />
+<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"><b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</b></a><br />
+<a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX.</b></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h3>
+
+<p class="c">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="nind">T<small>HERE</small> is a difficulty in writing a book of this character on Spain,
+which does not exist, we think, to the same extent with any other
+European country. In most European nations the official returns and
+government reports may be accepted as trustworthy, and the compiler has
+little more to do than to copy them; but in Spain this is far from being
+always the case. In some instances, from nonchalance and habitual
+inexactitude, in others, and especially in all matters of finance and
+taxation, from designed misstatement, all such reports have to be
+received with caution and scrupulously examined. The reader must
+remember also that in Spain smuggling and contraband dealing in various
+forms is carried on to such a vast extent as seriously to vitiate all
+trade returns. Thus it is that Spanish statistics can be considered
+only as approximate truths.</p>
+
+<p>Another difficulty arises from the very varied character of the Spanish
+provinces. Hardly any statement can be made of one province which is not
+untrue of another. The ordinary descriptions of Spain present only one,
+or at most two, types, the Castling and Andalusian, and utterly neglect
+all the rest. The provinces of Spain have been well described as divided
+into "five Irelands" whose habits and modes of thought, political
+aspirations, and commercial interests and aptitudes, are often utterly
+opposed to those of the capital. A brief survey of the whole of Spain is
+attempted in the following pages.</p>
+
+<p>In a work of this kind one other obvious difficulty is to know what to
+omit. Some well-worn topics will be found to be absent from these pages.
+No references are made to the great Peninsular War. This can be easily
+studied in the admirable pages of Sir W. Napier in English, and of
+Toreno in Spanish, or in compendiums of these, which again are filtered
+down in every guide-book. For a like reason Prescott's brilliant works
+are not alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>For the chapter on Geology and Mining the reader is indebted to one of
+the most distinguished Associates of the School of Mines, who has been
+recently engaged in practical geological survey and mapping in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Much also of the present work is due to private information most kindly
+furnished by Spanish friends of high position in the literary and
+political world, and with whom some of the subjects treated have been
+frequently discussed. To these the author offers his warmest and most
+grateful thanks.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="ANALYTICAL_TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="ANALYTICAL_TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="contents">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Boundaries of the Peninsula</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Area and Coast-line</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_002">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Six divisions of Spain</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2"><br /><i>Mountain chains</i>:</td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Pyrenees</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_003">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Cantabrian, Asturian, and Galician mountains</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_004">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Leon</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Oca, Sierra Moncayo, and Idubeda chains</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_005">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Central Plateau and its passes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Culminating water-shed of the Peninsula</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_006">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Guadarrama range</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Toledan range</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_007">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Sierra Morena and passes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Central ranges and river basins</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_008">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Sierra Nevada and offshoots</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Minor ranges</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_009">9</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2"><br /><i>Rivers, river basins, and rainfall</i>:</td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Five great rivers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_010">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Rivers of Galicia and Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_011">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Basque Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_012">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Ebro and its tributaries and canals</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_012">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Catalonia, streams of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_014">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Douro and its tributaries</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_015">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Tagus&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;     "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;       "</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_017">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Guadiana  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"       &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;     and lakes</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Guadalquiver, its tributaries, islands, and marismas</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_022">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Segura and its irrigation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_024">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Jucar     &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"        &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_025">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Guadalaviar or Turia</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lakes and Albuferas</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_026">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water toponymy</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_027">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Comparative table of principal rivers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_028">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mineral springs and Salinas</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Five climates of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_030">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Temperature and rainfall of:</td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Galicia and the Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Santander and the Basque Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_032">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Aragon</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Catalonia</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Valencia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Alicante</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Murcia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Cartagena to Almeria</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Malaga, Motril, Seville, and Cordova</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Granada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_036">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Cadiz, Gibraltar, &amp;c</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Elevation of Central Plateau</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Temperature and rainfall of Madrid, Salamanca, and Soria</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_038">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Agricultural products of:</td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Galicia and the Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Basque Provinces and basin of the Ebro</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_040">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Moorish agriculture and exotic flora of Southern Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Products of Valencia and Murcia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_043">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Palms at Elche</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_044">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Aromatic mountain shrubs</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_045">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Products and wines of Andalusia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_046">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Products of the Central Plateau</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Estremadura and law of the Mesta</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Locusts</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Corn-lands of Castile and Sierras de Campos</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Comparative Flora of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2"><br /><i>Fauna</i>:</td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Monkeys of Gibraltar</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Beasts and birds of prey</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Game birds and African visitants</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Noxious and useful insects</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Merino sheep</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_054">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Horses, cattle, and beasts of burden</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_055">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Fisheries</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_056">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Estimated total production of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_057">57</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />GEOLOGY AND MINES.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Peculiar interest of Spanish geology</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_058">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Granite and Silurian rocks</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Carboniferous formation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_059">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Secondary formations</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Upper Cretaceous</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Eocene tertiary</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Miocene fresh-water</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Pliocene</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Influence of geology on populations</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Statistics of Spanish geology</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Volcanoes, recent</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2"><i>Minerals of</i>:</td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Gneiss and crystalline schists</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_062">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Metamorphic rocks</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Cambrian formation</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Silurian slates</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Devonian sandstones</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Carboniferous series</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Permian</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Triassic conglomerates</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Jurassic limestones and marl</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Cretaceous formation</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Production and export of six chief minerals</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Of argentiferous ore, cobalt, silver</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Coal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Iron of the Bilbao district</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Locality of principal mines</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mining laws</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_067">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Pyrenees, no true boundary of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Population of Spain, mixed</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_070">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Iberi, Kelt-Iberi, Basques, and Kelts</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Foreign races in Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_073">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Visigoths, Arabs, and Moors</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_075">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Toponymy of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_076">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Language of Spanish Jews</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Existing dialects</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Statistics of the Spanish language</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_078">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Characteristics of   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"       &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;"</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Population of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Density of</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Occupations of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Manufacturing and mining Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Clergy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Distribution of property, great changes in</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Abolition of Mesta and of feudal privileges</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Sale of Crown and Church property</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_084">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Actual distribution</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Characteristics of the various populations</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_085">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Galicians, Asturians, Basques, and Aragonese</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Catalans, Valencians, and Murcians</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Andalusians</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Manchegans, and Castilians</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Gipsies, Maragatos, Passiegos, Hurdes, Sayagos, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Contrabandistas</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Division of Kingdoms and Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_091">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Galicia and its provinces, Corunna, Lugo, Pontevedra, and Orense</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Asturias</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Santander</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Basque Provinces, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, Alava</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Navarre</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Aragon and its provinces, Huesca, Saragossa, Teruel</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Catalonia &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Valencia &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Castellon de la Plana, Valencia, Alicante</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Murcia &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Murcia and Albacete</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Andalusia, Mediterranean Provinces, Almeria, Granada, Malaga</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;          Atlantic: Cadiz, Huelva</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;          Inland: Seville, Cordova, Jaen</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_120">120</a>,
+<a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Estremadura, Badajoz, Cacéres</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>New Castile and La Mancha, Provinces&mdash;Ciud ad Real, Toledo, Madrid, Cuenca, Guadalajara</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Old Castile&mdash;Avila, Segovia, Soria, Logrono, Burgos</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Leon&mdash;Salamanca, Valladolid, Zamora, Palencia, Leon</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Balearic Isles</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Early liberties, <i>behetria</i>, <i>fueros</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Capitulations of Moors and Jews</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Conquest of the South and its results</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The <i>Santa Hermandad</i></td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Austrian Dynasty</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Bourbon Dynasty</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Modern Constitutional Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cortés of Cadiz</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Reign of Ferdinand VII., and loss of American colonies</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp;"  &nbsp;  Isabella II.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;First Carlist War</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Ministry of Narvaez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;    "     &nbsp; &nbsp;  O'Donnell</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Expulsion of Isabella II., and provisional government</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Amadeo I.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Republic</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Second Carlist War</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cantonalist insurrection</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alphonso XII.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ministry of Cánovas del Castillo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><br /><i>Present Constitution and Administration of Spain</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Cortés, Senate, Congress</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Provincial administration</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Municipal       "</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Religion</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Rights of persons, natives and foreigners</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><br /><i>Military Administration</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Army</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Quality of Spanish soldiery, <i>pronunciamientos</i>, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><br /><i>Naval Administration</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Royal Navy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Mercantile Navy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><br /><i>Judicial Administration</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Legal Procedure</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Prisons</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hospitals and lunatic asylums</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Railways</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Telegraphs</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Letters and post</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Finances of Spain.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Public debt</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Increase of, since 1868</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Deficit of budgets</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sources of revenue</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Expenditure</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Imports and exports</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Foreign tariffs</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Protection and free trade</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Empleomania and its results</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />EDUCATION AND RELIGION.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Universities, number of students, salaries of professors</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Theological seminaries</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Course of university study</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Provincial and special institutes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Secondary instruction, institutes and colleges</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Number of students, and salary of masters</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Course of instruction</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>University degrees</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Primary education</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Church and Religion.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Early Church Councils</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Roman and Mazarabic liturgy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Inquisition</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Philip II., the Jesuits, and the Reformation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Expulsion of the Jesuits</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_191">191</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Concordat of 1851</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Archbishops, bishops, and clergy</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mode of appointment of bishops</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spanish Protestants</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Præhistoric art and architecture</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Roman and Visigothic</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Arabic</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Three periods of</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mudejar</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Christian</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Renaissance</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Churrigueresque</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Domestic architecture</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Church furniture and minor arts</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Painting.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Characteristics of Spanish painting</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Local schools</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Murillo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Painters of Valencian school</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp;  "  &nbsp; &nbsp;  "  &nbsp; &nbsp;  Castilian  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; " &nbsp; &nbsp;   "  &nbsp; &nbsp;  Andalusian &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Modern painters</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Industrial arts, goldsmith's work, iron, porcelain, glass, wood,
+  lace</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Music</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Literature.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Early Romances</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_213">213</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;  Prose works</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>La Celistina and the <i>picaresque</i> novels</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Drama and <i>Autors</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Lope de Vega</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Calderon de la Barca</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Cervantes</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  Quevedo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Historical writings</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Poetry</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mystic writers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Classical and romantic schools</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Modern writers: Poets&mdash;Espronceda, Zorilla, Becquer, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Novelists&mdash;Fernan Caballero, J. Valera, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dramatists&mdash;Hartzenbusch, Breton de los Herreros, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Nunez de Arce</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Historians&mdash;Condé Gayangos, De la Fuente, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Geographers&mdash;Fernandez Guerra, Coello, Bowles</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Geologists&mdash;Macpherson, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Economists&mdash;Cárdenas, Colmeiro, De Azcárate</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Theologians&mdash;Balmés, Donoso Cortez, C. Gonzalez, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Philologists&mdash;F. Fita, &amp;c.</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Orators</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Provincial literature</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br /><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><br />EPILOGUE.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Spain not a worn-out country</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Two hindrances to development</td><td align="right"><i>ib.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Protection and free trade</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cruelty and charities of Spain</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I.</a>&mdash;Census of Provinces</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   " &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;  <a href="#APPENDIX_II">II.</a>&mdash;Chief historical events</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;   " &nbsp; &nbsp;  <a href="#APPENDIX_III">III.</a>&mdash;Chief books used</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Caballeros</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_086">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dominique, the Espada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gipsies at Granada</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Leaning Tower of Saragossa</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">General View of Granada, with the Alhambra</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alhambra Tower by Moonlight</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fountain of the Four Seasons, Madrid</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Port of Cadiz</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vespers</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Giralda of Seville</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Moorish Ornamentation</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/map2.jpg">
+<img src="images/map2_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="412" alt="PHYSICAL MAP
+of
+SPAIN
+
+Edw^d Weller
+
+London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, &amp; Rivington.
+
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, &amp; Rivington.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a></p>
+
+<h1>SPAIN.</h1>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><br />
+<small>THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">S<small>PAIN</small>, with the neighbouring kingdom of Portugal, constitutes the most
+westerly of the three southern peninsulas of Europe, and in Cape Tarifa,
+latitude 36° 1', it attains the most southerly point of the whole
+continent. Separated from France and from the rest of Europe by the
+chain of the Pyrenees, and surrounded on all other sides by either the
+Mediterranean or the Atlantic, it presents at first sight the appearance
+of an exceedingly compact and homogeneous surface. It seems strange that
+this well-defined peninsula should contain two separate kingdoms, with
+peoples who speak languages allied, yet so distinct as to be mutually
+unintelligible to the uneducated classes.</p>
+
+<p>The peninsula lies between latitude 43° 45' and 36° 1' N., and between
+3° 20' E. and 9° 32' W. longitude. In shape it is thus nearly a square;
+a<a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a> diagonal line from the N.E. Cape Creuz to the S.W. Cape St. Vincent
+measures 650 miles, while from Cape Ortegal, N.W., to Cape Gata, S.E.,
+would be 525 miles. The whole area of the peninsula contains 219,200
+square miles, of which 36,500 on the west belong to Portugal, and
+182,700 to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The peninsular form of the country would lead us to expect that it would
+partake of all the characteristics of a maritime climate; but such is
+not the case. From the comparative evenness of the coast-line, unbroken
+and unindented by any deep inlets except on the extreme north-west, in
+Galicia, the coast-line bears a less proportion to the whole surface
+than that of many lands less surrounded by the sea. It counts only 1300
+miles, 700 of which are washed by the Mediterranean, and 600 by the
+Atlantic; that is, 1 mile of coast-line to 134 square miles of area;
+while Italy contains 1 to 75, and Greece 1 to 7. From the configuration
+of the coast, and from the character of the great central plateau, a
+large part of Spain has really an extreme continental climate.</p>
+
+<p>For while it is distinctly separated from the rest of Europe by the line
+of the Pyrenees, Spain is no less distinctly divided into different
+districts in the interior&mdash;districts which differ most widely in climate
+and elevation and products. Six of these are usually named: (1) The N.W.
+Atlantic coast, comprising Galicia, the coast of which presents a<a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a>
+continuation of the Fiord system of Norway, and of the Firths of
+Scotland and Ireland; (2), the northern slope of the Cantabrian
+Mountains, and the narrow slip of land contained between them and the
+Bay of Biscay, comprising the Asturias, Santander, and the Basque
+Provinces; (3) the Valley of the Ebro, with Navarre, Aragon, and
+Catalonia; (4) the great Central Plateau&mdash;Leon, Old and New Castile,
+Estremadura, and La Mancha; (5) the Mediterranean Provinces, including
+Valencia, Murcia, and the parts of Andalusia between the Sierra Nevada
+and the Mediterranean; (6) the rest of Andalusia sloping towards the
+Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>We will treat of these in order.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Mountain Chains.</i></h4>
+
+<p>But first we must speak of the various mountain systems and river basins
+of Spain, without which it is impossible to understand either the
+physical conditions of the country, or the social and political state of
+the various populations which has resulted from them.</p>
+
+<p>First, on the north is the chain of the Pyrenees, a continuation of the
+great Alpine system of Central Europe, stretching from Cape Creuz, 3°
+19' E., to the Bay of Biscay, 2° 12' W., a distance of 320 miles, and
+prolonging itself westward in lower chains of different denominations
+until it<a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a> finally sinks into the Atlantic at Cape Finisterre. The
+culminating points of the Pyrenees are towards the centre of the chain,
+in Mounts Maladetta, 11,150 feet, and the Pic de Posets and the Mount
+Perdu, each about 11,000 feet, whence the heights gradually descend, on
+the east to the Mediterranean and on the west to the Bay of Biscay. With
+the exception of the little Bidassoa, which in the lower part of its
+course forms the boundary between France and Spain, at the bottom of the
+Bay of Biscay, all the other waters of the Spanish side of the Pyrenees
+belong to the Ebro and to the Mediterranean. Parallel to the coast of
+the Bay of Biscay the Pyrenees are prolonged, first, by the Cantabrian
+Mountains, which run through the Basque Provinces, and the Province of
+Santandar; thence by the Picos de Europa, 8300 feet&mdash;from the
+south-eastern spurs of which the Ebro and Pisuerga take their rise&mdash;and
+the Asturian Mountains, to the Sierra de Penamarella, at the junction of
+the three Provinces of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. The chain here
+attains its greatest elevation, 9450 (?) feet, then descends to a
+plateau of about 4000 feet, whence it sinks rapidly to the Atlantic,
+forming the headlands of Ortegal, the extreme north-western, and of
+Finisterre, the extreme western, point of Northern Spain. The mountains
+of Leon form the western watershed, between the waters of the Ebro and
+those which<a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a> fall into the Atlantic. The line is continued eastward by
+the Oca Mountains, the Sierra de Moncayo, and the Idubeda Mountains.
+These mountain chains divide the basin of the Ebro from that of the
+Douro. They also form the northern buttress of the great plateau of
+Central Spain, which attains an elevation of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The
+rise to the plateau from the Bay of Biscay is very abrupt. Within fifty
+miles of leaving the coast the railways from the north attain a height
+of 2000 feet, and reach the Central Plateau, at Quintanapalla, at an
+elevation of 3000 feet; while La Cañada, the highest point on the line
+to Madrid, is nearly 4460 feet, or about sixty feet higher than the
+tunnel of the Mount Cenis. From the eastern side the rise is less
+abrupt, and the plateau is entered at the lower elevation of 2330 feet,
+on the line from Alicante to Madrid. The famous Pass of Somosierra, on
+the old northern coach-road from Madrid, is about 4700 feet above the
+level of the sea. From these figures it is easy to perceive how very
+different is the aspect of these buttress chains when seen from the
+plateau, and when looked at from the plain from which they rise. Thus
+the Sierra de Moncayo, 7700 feet, stands out with boldness from the
+Valley of the Ebro, but viewed from the plateau of Castile it is
+scarcely noticeable. From its summit, however, the finest view of the
+whole range of the Pyrenees to be found anywhere on<a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a> the Spanish side of
+the chain, is to be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Turning thence towards the south and south-east, these mountain
+chains&mdash;under the various names of the Sierras de Cuenca, de Molina, and
+Albarracin&mdash;divide the river basins of the Mediterranean from the far
+larger ones of the Atlantic. They have their culminating point in the
+Muela de San Juan and the Cerro de San Felipe, nearly 6000 feet, at the
+junction of the three provinces of Teruel, Cuenca, and Guadalaxara. From
+the sides of these mountains the waters fall with rapid course, on the
+north to join the Ebro, on the east and south to the Mediterranean;
+while with gentler slope, but in far greater volume, the Douro, the
+Tagus, and the Guadiana roll their waters to the Atlantic. From these
+Sierras the plateau tilts gradually westward and southward, but is
+intersected by mountain chains, peaks of which towards the west attain a
+higher elevation than those which form the real culmination of this part
+of the peninsula. The bare and bleak granite range of the Guadarrama,
+which divides the basin of the Douro from that of the Tagus, and from
+whose summits steals the icy wind so fatal to Madrid, attains in its
+highest summit, Peña Lara, 7800 feet, near Segovia; while in its western
+prolongation, the Sierras de Credos and de Gata, the Plaza del Moro
+reaches 8700 feet. The chains which divide the<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a> valley of the Tagus from
+that of the Guadiana are not nearly so well marked as are those more to
+the north, and rise to a much less elevation above the plateau.
+Beginning with a south-westerly prolongation of the Cerro de San Felipe,
+under the successive titles of Montes de Toledo, Sierras de Guadaloupe,
+Montanchez, and San Mamed, about 2000 feet, they reach the Portuguese
+frontier near Portalegre. The highest point seems to be in the mountains
+of Toledo at Villuercas, where a height of a little over 5000 feet is
+attained. The mountains which separate the basins of the Guadiana and
+the Guadalquiver, under the names of the Sierras de Alcaroz, Morena, de
+Cordova, Guadacanal, and Aroche, and which form the southern buttress of
+the central plateau, present a still greater difference than those of
+the northern buttress when viewed from the plateau and from the plains
+of Andalusia. From the former they appear only rolling undulations, and
+the traveller scarcely notices the rise till he finds himself descending
+one of the steep and savage gorges, like that of the Pass of
+Despeña-Perroz, on the road and rail between La Mancha and Andalusia.
+The Col of Despeña-Perroz is nearly 2500 feet above the sea, and but few
+summits along the ranges of the Sierra Morena and its prolongations
+attain a greater elevation, the general range being about 2000 feet,
+except towards the west and north<a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a> of Seville, where the Sierra de
+Aracena reaches 5550 feet. Eastward of the Guadalquiver the ranges which
+divide its waters from those of the Segura, the Sierras de Segura, and
+Sagra, attain a greater height, the former 6500 feet, the latter to 7800
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>Thus as supports to the great plateau, or on it, we have the following
+successive ranges as we proceed from north to south. First, the Sierra
+de Moncayo and the Idubeda mountains, dividing the basin of the Ebro
+from that of the Douro; next the Guadarrama chain, with the Sierras de
+Credos and de Gata, separating the Douro from the Tagus; then the
+Mountains of Toledo, and the Sierra de San Mamed, between the Tagus and
+the Guadiana; and lastly, the southern buttress, the Sierra Morena,
+dividing the Guadiana from the Guadalquiver.</p>
+
+<p>But it is south of the last stream that the culminating points of the
+whole peninsula are to be found&mdash;in the mighty Sierra Nevada, which
+separates the lovely valley of Granada from the Mediterranean, shielding
+it from the scorching winds of Africa, and giving it its eternal
+freshness and verdure. The highest of its summits are Muley Hacen and
+Velate, lying to the south-east of Granada, the former attaining nearly
+11,670 feet, and the latter 11,400. The altitudes diminish rapidly east
+and west. Towards the east, outlying<a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a> ranges, such as those of the
+Sierras de Filabrés and of Gador, attain heights of 6000 and 7000 feet
+respectively; while in the westward prolongations, the Mesa de Ronda is
+only 5000; and the chain gradually drops till it reaches the sea at Cape
+Trafalgar, and the rock of Gibraltar, 1400 feet.</p>
+
+<p>But besides these greater chains of mountains Spain is traversed by
+numerous offshoots and lateral ranges, and a great portion of her
+territory is more or less of a mountainous character. In districts where
+rain is unfrequent these hills are absolutely bare of verdure for a
+great part of the year, and remain untenanted and uncultivated. Among
+the more elevated of these lesser chains are those of Monseni,
+Monserrat, and Montagut, in Catalonia, which attain respectively 5500,
+4000, and 3000 feet in height. On the borders of Leon and Galicia, and
+in the latter province, there are numerous mountains and smaller ranges,
+which vary from 3000 to 5000 feet. The whole frontier of Portugal is
+covered by lower ranges, connecting the great chains of which we have
+already spoken with hills of from 2000 to 3000 feet. From the great
+eastern buttress two spurs, or rolling plateaux, run down to the
+Mediterranean, and terminate in the different headlands&mdash;such as Cape
+Gata in the south-east, Cape Palos near Carthagena, Capes de la Nao and
+San Antonio near Denia, Peniscola, and others. Some of these smaller
+ranges are<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> exceedingly rich in minerals, and as they approach the sea
+form sites of picturesque and enchanting beauty, such as can be
+surpassed only by the better-known and historic glories of the coasts of
+Italy or of Greece.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Rivers of Spain.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Of the five great rivers of Spain only one, the Ebro, pours its waters
+into the Mediterranean; the other four, the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and
+Guadalquiver, discharge theirs into the Atlantic; but of these last the
+Guadalquiver alone is wholly a Spanish stream. In the lower and more
+valuable part of their course the Douro, Tagus, and Gaudiana, belong to
+Portugal&mdash;a fact which must always be remembered when treating of the
+internal commerce of Spain. But besides these larger streams there are
+several of slightly smaller dimensions, of which we will treat in order.</p>
+
+<p>Few countries present within so short a distance so great a difference
+in rainfall and moisture as does Spain. In some parts of the Asturias
+and Galicia the rainfall is probably as heavy as that of any part of
+Europe&mdash;as much as 147&frac12; inches are said to have been measured in a
+single year; and the average fall on the northern slopes of the
+Cantabrian mountains is said to be sixty inches annually. Yet the
+average of the whole basin of the Ebro&mdash;which rises from the southern
+slopes of the Picos de Europa, one of the most rainy of the<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> rainy
+districts&mdash;is only eighteen inches annually, the last 300 miles of its
+course being through almost barren districts, where rain seldom falls.</p>
+
+<p>The principal river of Galicia is the Minho, with its tributary the Sil.
+Each of these rises, though at some distance apart, from the southern
+side of the Cantabrian mountains, much nearer to the waters of the Bay
+of Biscay than to those of the Atlantic, into which they flow. They take
+thence a southerly and south-westerly course, until they unite a few
+miles above Orense. The lower part of the united course, which bears the
+name of the Minho, forms from Melgaco to the sea the frontier between
+the kingdoms of Portugal and Spain. The remaining rivers of Galicia are
+numerous but of little importance: the Tambre is the largest of those
+which fall into the Atlantic on the west; while on the north the sources
+of the Eo and the Navia overlap those of the Minho, and take their rise
+from the mountains which border on Leon. The whole country is
+exceedingly well watered. Both in its agricultural character as a
+grazing country, and in its flora and fauna, it resembles the milder
+portions of southern Ireland and of Devonshire, but with occasional
+products of a warmer zone. The rivers of the Asturias, Santander, and of
+the Basque provinces, all partake of the same general character. In the
+upper part of their courses they are mere mountain torrents, their<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>
+course is rapid but short, and they are of but little use for
+navigation, though occasionally small but insecure harbours are formed
+at their mouth. The only great exception to this is the Nervion, on
+which Bilbao is situated, and which is navigable for eight miles from
+its mouth. The waters of the Bidassoa, the Deva, and others, are,
+however, utilized for the transport of ore from the mines and ironworks
+along the course. The Bidassoa, for some ten miles before it enters the
+Bay of Biscay at Cape Figueras forms the boundary between France and
+Spain; about four miles from its issue, between Irun and Behobie, is the
+celebrated Isle des Faisans, where, in 1659, the marriage was arranged
+between Louis XIV. and the Infanta, which eventually placed the Bourbons
+on the throne of Spain. The Bidassoa is the last of the northern rivers
+of Spain which falls into the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>The Ebro has its rise from the source, Fontibre, in the province of
+Santander, and takes a south-easterly course of 466 miles, through the
+provinces of Santander, Burgos, Navarre, and Aragon, almost parallel
+with the Pyrenees, till it falls into the Mediterranean, through a sandy
+delta stretching some fifteen miles into the sea below Amposta. The
+descent for the first 200 miles of its course is exceedingly rapid, but
+after that the fall is gradual till it reaches the sea. In its<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a> course
+it receives the waters of many tributaries, both on the left from the
+Pyrenees, and on the right from the Idubeda mountains and the sierras of
+Southern Aragon. Were it not for these tributaries little of its waters
+would reach the Mediterranean, so dry and arid are the Bardenas of
+Navarre, and the Dehesas of Aragon, through which it flows. The
+Spaniards have a proverb that it is the Navarrese and Aragonese
+streams&mdash;the Arga, the Ega, and the Aragon&mdash;which make a man of the
+Ebro. Farther down, the Gallego runs in near Saragossa; while the united
+waters of the Cinca and the Segre at Mequinenza pour a far larger volume
+of water into the parent bed than it contains itself. From the right,
+the principal streams are the Xalon, with its tributary the Xiloca,
+which joins the Ebro between Tudela and Saragossa, the Marten, and the
+Guadalope near Caspe. The Ebro, notwithstanding its length, the number
+of its tributaries, and the extent of its basin, 25,000 square miles, is
+of little use for navigation. A magnificent canal&mdash;first projected and
+commenced by the Emperor Charles V. (I. of Spain) then after a lapse of
+more than two centuries taken in hand by Charles III., in 1770&mdash;runs
+from Tudela to Saragossa; thence to the sea it still remains in project
+only. The part already finished is falling into decay; and it is only
+the excellent quality of the masonry, and of the cement or mortar
+employed,<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a> that retards its utter ruin. The traffic is very small; and
+even as a means of irrigation its waters are allowed greatly to run to
+waste. At the apex of the delta from Amposta to San Carlos de la Rapita
+a canal of eight miles has been cut for purposes of navigation; but the
+formation of a bar, and the silting up of the bay, have rendered it
+almost useless. The other rivers which flow into the Mediterranean,
+between the lower course of the Ebro and the Pyrenees are the Fluvia,
+which flows into the gulf of Rosas, the Ter, which passes by Gerona, and
+the Llobregat near Barcelona. All are torrential streams, unfit for
+navigation; but their waters, if all utilized for irrigation like those
+of the Llobregat, would be sources of immense wealth to the country.</p>
+
+<p>From the fact that the lower part of the course of the great rivers of
+the plateau&mdash;the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana&mdash;flow through
+Portugal, their streams are hardly at all available as a means of
+communication or of navigation for Spain; and from the nature of the
+deeply cut beds which the waters have worn through the soil, flowing,
+especially as they approach the frontiers of Portugal, through gorges
+approaching in length and depth the cañons of North America, the rivers
+are little available for irrigation, although far more use might be made
+of them for this purpose than is actually done. Owing to the prejudices
+of the<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a> Spanish husbandman, and to his reluctance to accept any change,
+however profitable, in his ancient routine, neither the little that has
+been done in the present century, nor the remains of a wiser agriculture
+in former times are used by the peasantry. In the province of Zamora,
+for instance, both the ancient "acequias" and the modern canal of the
+Esla are equally neglected. The rich results that have followed the
+employment of the waters in the few cases in which they have been
+intelligently directed, stirs no one up to follow the example. It is one
+of the many contrasts between different parts of Spain, that the value
+of irrigation should be so well understood in some parts and so utterly
+neglected and under-valued in others. But we shall have more to say of
+this when we treat of the eastern and southern streams: at present let
+us return to the Douro, and to the other rivers of the plateau.</p>
+
+<p>The Douro takes its rise in the Lago Negro, or Black Lake, on the
+southern flanks of the Mount Urbion, in the north-western angle of the
+province of Soria. It first runs eastward to the city of that name, the
+ancient Numantia, then turns almost directly south as far as Almazan,
+whence it runs westward to Portugal, receiving meanwhile the waters of
+the Esla, below Zamora; at the frontier, again it turns south, through
+deep gorges which form the boundary between Spain and<a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a> Portugal, until
+it receives the waters of the Agueda, where it finally enters Portugal,
+and after a westerly course thence of about 100 miles, falls into the
+Atlantic below Oporto.</p>
+
+<p>The basin drained by the Douro is the most extensive of all those of the
+rivers in Spain. Including the portion in Portugal, it comprises 35,000
+square miles; the length of the river is about 500 miles; the average
+rainfall is stated at twenty inches. The chief affluents of the Douro
+descend from the north from the mountains of Burgos and the Cantabrian
+range. The largest are the Pisuerga, which rises not far from the
+sources of the Ebro among the Picos de Europa, and flows almost directly
+south by Palencia and Valladolid until it joins the Douro, some miles
+above Tordesilla; the Esla, which also rises from the western flanks of
+the same chain, not far from Covadonga, takes a somewhat more westerly
+direction, and after receiving several smaller streams unites with the
+Douro below Zamora. These two rivers supply water for two of the most
+successful canals in Spain, especially that along the Pisuerga, for over
+ninety miles from Alar del Rey to Valladolid. There is a considerable
+traffic on it, especially for passengers. It was planned in 1753 by
+Ensenada, but completed only in 1832. The canal of the Esla, for
+purposes of irrigation, begun by English engineers in 1864, and
+finished<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> in 1869, has hardly been so successful. The latest report
+(June, 1880) states that the peasant proprietors, notwithstanding
+examples of the great utility of irrigation, obstinately refuse to use
+it. The principal affluents of the Douro on the west and south are the
+Tormes, which flows by Salamanca, and joins it about midway in its
+course as a frontier of Portugal; and the Agueda, which runs in just
+where it takes its final departure for the west.</p>
+
+<p>The Tagus, the central river of Spain, and which divides its territory
+into two nearly equal portions, rises from a fountain called the Fuente
+Garcia, or Pié, on the south side of the Muela de San Juan, between the
+Sierras de Molina, Albaracin, and San Felipe, the knot of mountains
+which, as we have indicated above, form the great watershed of the
+peninsula, whence the waters flow northwards to the Ebro, east and
+southwards to the Mediterranean, and westwards, in the Tagus and its
+tributaries, to the Atlantic. Were the whole peninsula of Spain and
+Portugal one kingdom, the Tagus would be perhaps the most important of
+its rivers; but in the divided state it is of far more value to Portugal
+than to Spain. Its swift and turbid current, flowing between steep
+banks, and in a bed broken into rapids and encumbered by rocks, is
+scarcely navigable above Abrantes. The basin of the Tagus contains an
+area of nearly<a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a> 30,000 square miles, and its length is estimated at
+about 550. The rainfall is less than that of the Douro, being only
+sixteen inches annually. The river, moreover, runs by no means in the
+centre of its basin, but far to the southwards of a central dividing
+line, and consequently the tributaries which it receives from the north
+or left bank are of much greater importance than those which come from
+the south or right. After flowing a few miles in a north-westerly
+direction, the river gradually bends, first westerly, and then in a
+slightly south-westerly direction, in a deep channel, through a bare
+rolling country, where everything takes the prevailing colour of red
+dusty uplands, until it arrives at Aranjuez, situated at the confluence
+of the Jarama and the Tagus, a royal residence whose abundance of water
+and of shade make it a true oasis in a desert. The Jarama, which rises
+in the Guadarama, brings in also the waters of the Henares, and those of
+the Manzanares, on which Madrid is situated. These streams have been the
+subjects of many projects and attempts at canalization, either for
+irrigation or for supplying the metropolis with water. Most of these
+have failed, but a canal from Porcal to Aranjuez, of seventeen miles and
+a half, is in working order. The canal of Cabarrus brings the waters of
+the Lozoya to Madrid. But the great enterprise of the canal of
+irrigation from the Henares, constructed by the same English company<a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a>
+which made the canal of the Esla, and which was to have been
+twenty-eight miles in length, and to have irrigated 30,000 acres, is
+suspended by lawsuits as to the ownership of the waters. The Alberche,
+which rises to the north of the Sierra de Gredos, enters the Tagus near
+Talavera de la Reyna. The Tietjar, and the Alagon, which joins the main
+stream just above Alcantara, beside the frontier stream, the Heyas, are
+the only Spanish waters of importance from the north before the Tagus
+enters Portugal; and from the south the Salor and the del Monte, both of
+which have their rise and course in the same province of Caceres alone
+need mention. In the upper part of its course, however, the smaller
+tributaries of both the Tagus and the Guadiana often overlap, and but a
+very few miles separate the Tagus itself from the waters which flow into
+the Guadiana.</p>
+
+<p>The exact source of the Guadiana has been a subject of much debate and
+of many fables. Its true origin seems to be in a series of lakes at the
+junction of the provinces of Ciudad Real and Albacete, near Montiel, in
+La Mancha. A picturesque stream, the Ruidosa, with many cascades and
+broken water, connects these lakes; but after running a few miles in a
+north-westerly direction, it disappears underground near Tomesillo, and
+is believed to rise to the surface after about twenty miles, in the Ojos
+(eyes) of the Guadiana, near Damiel.<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a> Very soon it receives from the
+right the united waters of the Zancara and the Giguela, streams whose
+contributions are much more scanty, especially in summer, than the
+length of their course on the map would lead one to suppose; thence the
+river flows in a westerly direction, passing near Ciudad Real, below
+which the Javalon enters from the left, coming from the Campo de
+Montiel; near Don Benito the Zuja, from the Sierra Morena, joins it, and
+some miles lower down the Matachet. Flowing past Medellin, five miles
+below Badajoz the river crosses the frontier of Portugal, changes its
+course from westerly to south-west, and afterwards south and south-east,
+till it again joins the frontier near San Lucar, and dividing the two
+countries till its mouth, falls into the Gulf of Cadiz at Ayamonte. In
+the lower part of its course the river, which before has been wide and
+shallow, and often almost dry in summer, narrows its course, and rushes
+with impetuosity through the rapids called the Salto del Lobo (the
+wolf's leap), near Serpa, in Portugal. The whole length of the Guadiana
+is estimated at 550 miles, and the area of its bed at 24,000 square
+miles. The rainfall is about fourteen inches.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of the rivers of the plateau the only considerable stream
+is the Guadalquiver, with its tributaries. The character of this river
+is entirely different to that of the former streams. Like the Ebro, it
+forms a true valley, instead of merely cutting<a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> its way through rocks,
+cañons, and defiles. Its bed is on an average about 1200 feet below that
+of the Guadiana in the greater part of its course. It is also the only
+river in Spain of any utility for navigation; the tide is felt beyond
+Seville, and vessels of 200 to 300 tons ascend to that city. There are
+also several lines of steamboats trading thence directly with London,
+Marseilles, Bilbao, Cadiz, and Gibraltar. The Guadalquiver takes its
+rise from two sources&mdash;one, in the streams Guadalimar and Guadarmeno,
+rises in the Sierra Alcaraz, and not very far from the sources of the
+Guadiana; the other, which bears the name of the Guadalquiver, in the
+south-west of the Sierra Sagra; this latter branch is soon joined by the
+Guadiana Menor, coming down from the Sierra Nevada. The basin of the
+Guadalquiver presents this peculiarity, that its boundary is not formed
+by the line of the highest summits; on the contrary, many of its
+tributaries take their rise on the farther side of the Sierra Morena on
+the north, and of the Sierras de Granada and Nevada on the south, and
+have cut their way through these higher grounds to join the Guadalquiver
+in the plains of Andalusia. The upper part of its course is very rapid,
+and the junction of the two rivers Guadalimar and Guadalquiver, in the
+plains of Baeza, is about 5000 feet below the Punta de Almenara; but
+from thence to the sea the fall is<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> very slight. After the junction the
+river passes by Andujar, Montoro, and Cordova, receiving on both banks
+the waters of many streams of but little importance; but between Cordova
+and Seville it is joined by its largest tributary, the Xenil, which
+rises in the Sierra Nevada, and flowing through the celebrated Vega of
+Granada, bursts through the Antequera mountains to enter the great plain
+of Andalusia, and loses itself in the Guadalquiver. From Seville
+downward the character of the stream is greatly changed; it wanders in
+large meanderings through low and marshy grounds for two or three
+leagues on each bank, mostly uninhabited, and used only for pasturing
+cattle. These low lands, which are called <i>Marismas</i>, in dry weather are
+covered with clouds of black dust, and in wet are an almost impassable
+slough of mud; mid these the river divides, and its winding beds form
+two islands&mdash;Isle Mayor and Menor, the former of which is wholly given
+to cattle, while the latter is inhabited and well cultivated; The river
+finally enters the Gulf of Cadiz, at San Lucar de Barameda, forcing its
+way with difficulty through low hills of sand, like those of the Landes
+in France. The marshes near the mouth are utilized as <i>Salinas</i>, for
+making excellent salt; and on the hills which overlook the <i>Marismas</i>
+some of the most renowned wines and fruits of Spain are produced. The
+whole course of the Guadalquiver<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a> is about 340 miles and the area of its
+basin 21,000: the rainfall is estimated at nineteen inches.</p>
+
+<p>The other streams which fall into the Gulf of Cadiz&mdash;the Rio Tinto,
+which runs into the Huelva basin, and the Guadalete at Cadiz&mdash;are of no
+utility for navigation. The little port of Palos, whence Columbus sailed
+to discover a new world, is almost entirely blocked up by sands brought
+down by the former torrent.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining rivers of Spain&mdash;those which, descending from the great
+plateau, flow eastward to the Mediterranean&mdash;though all useless for
+navigation, are among the most productive of all its streams. Flowing
+through a country whose temperature exceeds that of the opposite coast
+of Africa; where the rainfall is either scanty, or disastrous in
+quantity from rare but terrible storms; and through districts in which
+no rain falls for years together&mdash;the waters of these rivers, skilfully
+applied to irrigation, have rendered what would otherwise be a barren
+land one of fertility unparalleled in Europe. Unlike the peasants of
+Castile, the cultivators of Murcia and Valencia have learnt to value the
+use of water in agriculture; although even there, works which were first
+constructed by the Moors have been allowed to fall into ruin, and are
+yearly becoming of less utility. Of this we shall speak more at length
+below. The three great rivers we have yet to notice are<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a> the Murcian
+Segura, and the Jucar and Guadalaviar, in Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>The river Segura takes its rise in the Sierra de Segura, between the
+Sierras of Alcaraz and Sagra. The upper part of its course is that of a
+mountain torrent, leaping from terrace to terrace of the mountains as it
+descends, until after the junction of the Mundo, which rises from a
+cirque in the Sierra Alcaras, like the cirque of Gavarnie in the
+Pyrenees, and flows through a deep ravine from the north-east. Its
+waters are dammed up, cut into numberless channels, and almost wholly
+utilized for irrigation, so that only about ten per cent of them reaches
+the sea; the rest are dissipated in the huertas of Murcia, Orihuela, and
+part of Elche. Its tributary the Sangonera loses almost all its waters
+in the plains of Lorca. With the little Vinalapo, almost 15,000 acres
+are rendered productive by the waters of these streams in one of the
+driest districts of Spain. The wheat of Orihuela is some of the finest
+in Spain; and so certain is the crop as to give rise to the proverb,
+"Rain or no rain, there is always wheat in Orihuela." The Segura has a
+course of about 217 miles, and an area of about 850 square miles; the
+average rainfall is estimated at about twelve inches, but the difference
+is very great in different years, as the district is liable to rare but
+most heavy and destructive floods.<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a></p>
+
+<p>The Jucar takes its rise not far from the sources of the Tagus, on the
+south side of the Muela de San Juan, which we have before mentioned as
+the culminating watershed of the peninsula. It flows first in a
+south-westerly direction as far as Cuenca, whence it gradually turns
+south and south-east, and at Jorquera, to the north-east of Albacete,
+strikes eastwards for the Mediterranean, which it finally enters at
+Cullera. Like the Segura and Guadalaviar, its waters are drained off for
+irrigation; but its basin is narrower, and it can boast of no fertility
+equal to the huertas of Murcia or Valencia. Its course is about 317
+miles, the area of its bed 580, and the rainfall some twelve and a half
+inches; the irrigated land is over 30,000 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The Guadalaviar, or Turia, rises on the north side of the Muela de San
+Juan, and descending rapidly, flows eastward past Albarracin and Teruel;
+at which latter town it turns abruptly southwards till it enters the
+province of Valencia, where it again takes a more easterly course,
+flowing with ever-diminished stream through the rich garden of Valencia,
+at which city it falls into the Mediterranean, with water which, except
+in time of flood, scarcely rises above the ankle. The length of its
+course is about 187 miles, the area of its basin 320 square miles; it
+irrigates over 25,000 acres near Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these larger rivers, there are on the<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> Mediterranean slope
+innumerable smaller streams, whose waters, though of little geographical
+importance, are of the greatest utility to agriculture. In summer
+scarcely a drop of their waters reaches the sea; all is either employed
+for irrigation, or dissipated by evaporation; often they are dammed up
+to form reservoirs or <i>pantanos</i>, sometimes employed for rice culture.
+But small as these streams are, it is to them that this burning coast
+owes its beauty and fertility, its almost tropical vegetation and its
+rich products. The fair gardens of Castellon, of Gandia, of Murviedro
+would be barren and valueless without these waters. Still farther to the
+north the waters of the Llobregat, and the canal of Urgel in Catalonia,
+are used for the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The lakes of Spain are neither large nor numerous, but some are curious
+from a geographical point of view. On the high plateaux whence the
+Guadiana, the Guadalimar, the Segura, and the Jucar take their rise,
+either a dam or a trench would suffice to turn the waters either to the
+Atlantic or the Mediterranean; and here alone in Western Europe are
+found temporary lakes with no outlet, and consequently salt from excess
+of evaporation. For the same reason salt springs and brackish streams
+abound in these highlands. All around the coast, both on the Atlantic
+and Mediterranean, salinas, or salt-works for making<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a> salt, either from
+the sea or from the brackish water of lagoons and tidal marshes, abound;
+those of Cadiz, and of the coast between Cartagena and Alicante are
+celebrated for the excellence of their salt. Besides these are the five
+Albuferas, or lagoons, of Valencia, Alicante, Elche, Auna, and Oropesa.
+Of these that of Valencia is far the largest, and feeds enormous
+quantities of fish and of aquatic fowl of all kinds. The interior lakes,
+as that of Sanabria in Zamora, Gallocanta in Aragon, and those from
+which many of the rivers take their source, are noted only for their
+picturesque beauty. We can hardly show the value of water in Spain
+better than by directing the reader's attention to the number of places
+which take their name from water of some kind: thus there are forty-four
+villages or towns whose names are compounded of <i>Aguas</i>, waters; 238
+into which the word <i>Fuente</i>, fountain, enters; 144 <i>Rios</i>, rivers; 54
+<i>Arroyos</i>, brooks; 44 <i>Pozos</i>, wells; 30 <i>Salinas</i>, salt waters; 9 <i>Rio
+Secos</i>, dry rivers; and about 600 <i>Molinos</i> or water-mills. The
+multiplicity of these last dates perhaps from the time when every
+seigneur had his own mill, and obliged his vassals to grind their corn
+there; but assuredly in a moister climate water would not have played so
+great a part in the nomenclature, or toponymy, of the country.</p>
+
+<p>We add the following table, deduced from Reclus' "Nouvelle Géographie
+Universelle," 6° Serie,<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> p. 886, compared with an article in "La Revista
+Contemporanea," December 30th, 1880:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr align="center" valign="bottom"><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>
+Rivers.</td><td>
+Area of<br />
+basin.<br />
+Sq. miles.</td><td>Length of<br />
+course.<br />
+Miles.</td><td>Mean<br />
+rainfall.<br />
+Inches.</td><td>
+Outfall
+<br /> compared<br />
+with<br />
+rainfall.<br />
+Per cent.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="2">
+Northern<br />
+Rivers.</td><td rowspan="2"><img src="images/bracel.png"
+alt="{"
+width="10"
+height="50"
+/>
+</td><td>Minho&amp;Sil </td><td align="right">10,000 </td><td align="right">190 </td><td align="right"> 47&frac12; </td><td align="center">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ebro </td><td align="right">25,000 </td><td align="right">466 </td><td align="right">18 &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">20</td></tr>
+<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="3">
+Rivers of<br />
+the<br />
+Central<br />
+Plateau.
+       </td><td rowspan="3"><img src="images/bracel.png"
+alt="{"
+width="10"
+height="80"
+/>
+</td><td>Douro </td><td align="right"> 35,000 </td><td align="right"> 506 </td><td align="right"> 20 &nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tagus </td><td align="right"> 30,000 </td><td align="right">556 </td><td align="right">16 &nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guardiana &amp; Zancara </td><td align="right"> 24,000 </td><td align="right"> 553 </td><td align="right">14 &nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center">20</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="middle"><td>Andulasia</td><td rowspan="1"><img src="images/bracel.png"
+alt="{"
+width="10"
+height="30"
+/></td><td>
+Guadalquiver </td><td align="right"> 21,000 </td><td align="right"> 340 </td><td align="right"> 19 &nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center">30</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="middle"><td rowspan="3">Mediterranean<br />
+Rivers.<br />
+E. &amp; S.E.</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><img src="images/bracel.png"
+alt="{"
+width="10"
+height="80"
+/></td><td>Segura </td><td align="right"> 8500 </td><td align="right"> 217 </td><td align="right"> 12 &nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center">10</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Jucar </td><td align="right">5800 </td><td align="right"> 317 </td><td align="right"> 12&frac12; </td><td align="center"> 15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guadalaviar </td><td align="right"> 3200 </td><td align="right"> 187 </td><td align="right"> &mdash; &nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align="center"> 12</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The mineral springs of Spain are very numerous, as might be expected in
+a mountainous country, at the junction of different strata in the
+metamorphic fissures, and in the neighbourhood of extinct volcanoes.
+Many of them were known and used by the Romans, and possibly by other
+races before their time. The Moors made use of many, more especially in
+the south. The majority of these springs are much neglected, and the
+bathing establishments in their roughness are a striking contrast to
+those of Germany and of France; there is, however, no reason to suppose
+that the waters themselves are less efficacious. The best known springs
+lie along the line of the Pyrenees, in Catalonia, Navarre, and
+especially in the Basque provinces and Santander. Another<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> noted group
+are in the neighbourhood of Granada, and on the northern slopes of the
+Sierra Nevada. Those in the Guadarrama range are more frequented, from
+their vicinity to Madrid. Many of the Salados and Salinas in the higher
+parts of the eastern range, as well as the springs in the neighbourhood
+of Valencia, might be utilized with advantage. In this, as in many other
+things, Spain has not yet recovered the threads of a lost civilization,
+and in many points of material comfort and well-being is behind the
+Spain of Roman and of Moorish times.<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><br />
+<small>CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">S<small>PAIN</small> may be roughly divided into five climates: (1) that of the north
+and of the Pyrenees, where rain is abundant; (2) the west or Atlantic
+climate, including Portugal; (3) the north-east or Mediterranean; (4)
+the east and south, or African climate; and (5) lastly, the climate of
+the great Central Plateau, or the Continental. All these are well
+marked, and differ greatly in their temperature, in elevation, in
+exposure, in rainfall, and in prevailing winds. To speak of an average
+temperature, or of an average rainfall in Spain, is only to mislead. The
+temperature of the south and south-east is higher than that of the
+opposite coast of Africa, while the winters in Castile recall those of
+Scandinavia in their bitterness. In some of the Asturian valleys there
+is, perhaps, the heaviest rainfall in Europe; while the lower valley of
+the Ebro is almost a desert, from want of rain; and in parts of Valencia
+and Murcia, and even in Andalusia, not<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a> a drop will fall for years; yet
+at times these provinces, and their driest portions, are visited&mdash;as in
+1802, 1879, and 1881&mdash;by overwhelming and destructive floods. To strike
+an average, then, even for the same spot, through several years, is
+often merely deceptive.</p>
+
+<p>We have remarked above on the similarity of the conformation of the
+western coasts of Galicia to those of Norway, Scotland, and Ireland.
+They partake also of the same Atlantic character in their climate and
+productions. Galicia and the Asturias are essentially grazing countries;
+and from the Galician ports, up to 1878, about 20,000 head of fatted
+cattle were annually sent to England. Except in the more sheltered
+valleys, where the productions of a warmer clime will flourish, the
+native flora is not unlike that of the milder parts of Ireland and of
+Devonshire. The average temperature of Santiago is about 55° Fahr., with
+a maximum of 95°, and a minimum of 28°; Oviedo is given as 54° average,
+maximum 80°, and minimum 24°; while the rainfall of the former is from
+58 to 68 inches, and that of the latter varies from 38 to 50 in ordinary
+years, but in 1858 it attained 80 inches. Proceeding eastward we meet
+the northern or Pyrenean climate, where the rainfall is not so great,
+and, except in the immediate vicinity of the highest mountains, lessens
+gradually as we either go eastward or descend into the plains. The
+moisture is<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a> condensed and wrung out of the clouds brought by the watery
+western winds, and precipitated on the mountains of the west and north.
+From the Picos de Europa, in the province of Santander, which may be
+considered as the meeting-point of the two climates, the waters descend
+on the one side by the Ebro to the Mediterranean, by the Pisuerga to the
+Douro and the Atlantic, and by the shorter northern streams to the Bay
+of Biscay. In the valley of the Cabuervega (Santander) the rainfall is
+57&frac12; inches. Passing eastward we find Bilbao and San Sebastian, with
+an average temperature of 56° and 55°, a maximum of 93°, and minimum
+23°, while the rainfall has diminished from 55 to 48 inches. At Vergara,
+more inland, it is 52. At Huesca, in Aragon, notwithstanding its
+proximity to the mountains, the rainfall is only 25 inches; at Balaguer,
+in Catalonia, only 15&frac12;. At Saragossa the climate becomes more
+extreme; the average is 60°, the maximum 96°, and the minimum 20°, while
+the rainfall descends to 14 inches. The equalizing influence of the
+neighbourhood of the sea is felt in the Mediterranean climate at
+Barcelona; for while the average is 63°, the maximum is only 88°, and
+the minimum 32°, and the rainfall ascends to 24 inches. The difference
+is still more marked if we compare the extreme oscillation between the
+maximum and minimum temperatures. At Saragossa this is from 120° to
+130°; at Barcelona from 90° to 100° Fahr.<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a></p>
+
+<p>The productions of this northern zone vary greatly according to
+elevation and exposition. Those of the Basque Provinces still belong to
+the north temperate zone climate&mdash;cattle, corn, and cider, as well as
+wine. The olive, and the mulberry for silk, are almost unknown; but
+maize is largely grown. As we approach Catalonia these products give way
+to those of the Mediterranean region of Provence and of the Riviera&mdash;the
+olive, the grape, the mulberry. A powerful red wine is made on the lower
+southern spurs of the Pyrenees and of the Cantabrian Mountains, in the
+Riojas, in Navarre, and in Aragon. Much of it would be excellent if more
+attention were paid to the preparation, and especially to the conditions
+of transport. Great quantities are at present exported to France by sea
+from Bilbao and San Sebastian, and also by rail, for the purpose of
+mixing with the thinner and poorer clarets of Bordeaux, to fit them for
+the taste and market of England. In Catalonia the wine improves, and is
+less used for mixing. The chief kinds are a red wine, like Rousillon,
+and sweet, luscious wines, Rancio, somewhat like Muscat or Malaga. Of
+late the manufacture of effervescing wines like champagne has been
+carried on with considerable success. The wine made in Catalonia amounts
+to one-fifth of the whole produce of Spain. Already the orange and the
+palm appear.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding southwards from Catalonia, we<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a> gradually advance into the
+south-eastern and southern climate of Spain, a climate which is rather
+African than European in its character, and both whose products and
+dryness have more relation to the African continent than to that of the
+rest of Europe. It is here that the date-palm ripens&mdash;which it does not
+on the opposite coast of Algeria&mdash;and the camel breeds, and can be used
+as a beast of burden equally as in Egypt and the East. Sheltered by the
+mountain ranges to the east and north from the cold winds which sweep
+the plateau of Castile, exposed by the slope of the country to the full
+influence of the southern sun and its powerful evaporation, the
+characteristics of the climate are warmth and dryness, while the
+vicinity of the Mediterranean partly tempers the extreme range of heat
+and cold which might be found in lands more remote from the sea. Thus
+the average temperature of Valencia is 65°, its maximum 102°, its
+minimum 41°, and extreme range 100°. Alicante, still further south, has
+an average of 66°, a maximum of 100°, and a minimum of 35°. The average
+rainfall at Valencia is stated at 17, and that of Alicante at 18 inches;
+but, as remarked above, in this south-eastern district of Spain averages
+of rainfall are quite deceptive. In some years the quantity marked is
+only a very few inches, 3 or 6, over the whole district, and there are
+considerable portions where rain does not fall for years.<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> The country
+is rendered fertile and productive, not by its rains, but by irrigation
+from the rivers, fed by the winter snows on the mountains which border
+the great plateau. At times, however, as in 1802 and 1879, storms of
+rain descend on the high lands of Murcia and the eastern sierras, and
+floods rush down, sweeping away dams which have stood for centuries,
+washing away towns and villages, and spreading destruction far and wide.
+To compute the rainfall of such floods into an average is only to play
+with figures. Murcia has an average temperature of 64°, maximum 112°,
+minimum 24°, and an extreme range of 120°. The rainfall averages about
+12&frac12; inches on the coast, but varies greatly; at Albacete it is said
+to average 13 inches. The directly southern coast, from the Cabo de Gata
+to Gibraltar, has a milder and more equable climate than that of the
+south-eastern coast; but in the inland valley of the Guadalquiver the
+range is more extreme, both for heat and cold. The dryness in the
+eastern district still continues from Cartagena to Almeria; the rainfall
+is said to be only 12 inches. At Malaga, while the average temperature
+is 66°, about the same as that at Valencia and Alicante, the maximum is
+said to be only 78°, and the minimum 53°. At Motril, between Malaga and
+Almeria, the maximum is 77°, and the minimum 52°. In Seville on the
+other hand, the average is 68°, with a maximum Of 118°, and a minimum of
+30°. Cordova, somewhat<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a> colder, has a maximum of 93°, and a minimum of
+27°. The rainfall is also more moderate at Malaga, 15&frac12; inches, and 23
+at Seville. Granada, in its upland but sheltered valley, at an elevation
+of 2681 feet, defended from the east and south by the snowy range of the
+Sierra Nevada, and by the mountains of Granada to the north, has still
+an average of 65°, with a maximum of 97°, and a minimum of 42°. The
+rainfall varies considerably in different years, and various geographers
+give its average as 23&frac12; 33&frac12;, and the latest (Reclus) 48&frac12;. Cadiz
+has an Atlantic climate, which in temperature and greater rainfall, 37
+inches, closely approximates to that of Madeira. Moving westward it
+decreases, at Gibraltar, 34&frac12;, San Fernando, 27; while at Huelva and
+Tarifa, where the moisture of the north-west gales is intercepted by the
+Portuguese mountains, it descends to 24&frac12;. We have now only to treat
+of the climate of the great central elevation, the plateau, which ranges
+at an average height of some 2000 feet above the sea. Thus, Madrid is
+2148, Segovia 2299, Burgos 2873, Soria 3504, and the Escorial, 3683 feet
+above the sea-level. But even these altitudes do not wholly account for
+the rigour of the climate in the latitude of Naples, Rome, and
+Constantinople. We have seen how excellent is the climate of Granada at
+a nearly equal elevation, only three degrees further south. The extremes
+of heat and cold felt at Valladolid and Madrid are due more to<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a> the
+uncovered mountain ranges to the north, the treeless, waterless plains,
+over which the wind sweeps unchecked, than to mere elevation. The want
+of rain is greatly owing to the ranges of mountains parallel to the
+frontier and to the Atlantic in Portugal, which condense and wring all
+the moisture from the rain-clouds of the Atlantic, and distribute it
+almost wholly on the western slope. Thus at Lisbon the fall is 29, at
+Coimbra 35, at Oporto 63, in the mountains of Beira and Tras os Montes
+from 68 to 100 inches; while on the eastern slope, at Salamanca it is 9,
+Valladolid 12, at Badajoz 12&frac12;, Ciudad Real 14. From the bare granite
+range of the Guadarrama steals down the treacherous icy wind so fatal in
+Madrid&mdash;not sufficiently strong to extinguish a candle, but quite enough
+to destroy human life. It is the dislike of the Castilian peasant to
+trees, which would overshadow so much of his small property, the
+destruction of the mountain forests, and the want of good agriculture,
+which has embittered the climate of these plateaux. Were the hill-sides
+clothed with wood, the country dotted with farms, the wide and bare
+plains covered throughout the year with varied agricultural produce, the
+climate would soon be modified and become sensibly warmer, and no
+longer, as it at present is, an obstacle to civilization and to
+improvement. In spite of all neglect these plains grow some of the
+finest wheat in Europe, and the<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> lower mountain ranges supply pasture in
+the summer for the immense flocks which return to winter in the plains
+of Estremadura. The average temperature of Madrid is 59°, its maximum
+104° to 107°, and its minimum only 7°. That of Salamanca is said to be
+57°, with a maximum of 97°, and a minimum of 12°. The average rainfall
+of Madrid is only from 9 to 14 inches, that of Salamanca 9, while Soria,
+nearer to the mountains, in some years reaches 25 inches.</p>
+
+<p>From the above sketch of the climate the reader will expect to find the
+productions vary greatly in the different districts. The north and
+north-west are the lands of cattle and of pasture. In Galicia and in the
+Asturias the products are almost like those of the warmer parts of the
+south-west of England and of Ireland, save that in the more sheltered
+valleys the orange, citron, and pomegranate flourish; a palm is even now
+and then to be seen; and the wine, especially on the confines of
+Portugal, is excellent, and needs only more care in preparation to be a
+rival to the famous Port of the neighbouring country. In the eighteenth
+century, that of Ribadavia was considered to be the finest wine in all
+Spain. Maize, too, is freely grown; but on account of their extreme
+poverty, rye and spelt often replace both it and wheat as food for the
+peasantry. The upland plateaux afford excellent pasture, especially for
+cattle and<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a> horses; the hardy and sure-footed hacks of Galicia and the
+Asturias are celebrated. The mountains here are often clothed with wood;
+oaks of various kinds, and the edible chestnut, and the hazel-nut&mdash;of
+which over 1000 tons, value 23,000<i>l.</i>, are annually exported from
+Gijon&mdash;grow on the lower spurs, giving food to herds of swine; beech,
+and pine, and fir appear as we approach the tops. In the lower woods the
+arbutus especially flourishes, and the young wild boars in autumn are
+said to become half stupefied with its narcotic berries. As we proceed
+eastward from Galicia to the Asturias the climate becomes sensibly
+colder&mdash;the valleys face the north instead of the west; the orange is
+less known, the mulberry will not flourish sufficiently well to pay for
+silk cultivation, the olive will not grow, and the cork does not pay for
+cultivation; the wines lose somewhat of their strength and lusciousness;
+and cider, made from the excellent apples of the country, rivals the
+juice of the grape in popularity. The mountains are covered with heath,
+and fern, and furze, but the aromatic plants are fewer than in Galicia.
+This description applies to the northern slope of the Cantabrian chain
+and to the rolling hills and plateaux of the Basque provinces; but the
+southern slopes of the chain, towards the Ebro, are again a land of vine
+and olive, and of maize, which is everywhere the staple. In the Basque
+provinces the plough is<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a> replaced by the ancient "laya," an instrument
+as old, at least, as Roman times. It is a heavy two-pronged steel or
+iron fork, with prongs one and a half to two feet long. A strong man
+will work two of them at once, one in each hand, driving them into the
+ground to their full depth, then with a backward strain turning up the
+deep soil. Usually, four or five men work together, and raise their
+arms, plunge the fork downwards, and heave, in perfect time. The
+cultivation thus effected is excellent, but the expenditure of labour is
+immense The productions do not vary greatly along the slopes of the
+Pyrenees from those above described until we reach Catalonia; but in the
+lower valley of the Ebro, where rain is rare, in the Bardeñas reales of
+Navarre, and in the monegros, or despoblados of Aragon, we meet with a
+phenomenon only too frequent in Spain&mdash;tracts of almost utter
+barrenness. The Bardeñas reales are low spurs of the Pyrenees, with
+table-lands, bluffs, and deep gorges, and these could scarcely be
+brought under cultivation; but the "despoblados" (dispeopled lands) of
+Aragon might be irrigated, either by the Ebro or by its tributaries, if
+the water of the canal of Charles V. were but economically applied. The
+sterility of some parts seems to have been the slow result of an
+oppressive land tenure; for as Don Vicente de la Fuente has remarked,
+the lands which belonged to the ancient señors (the feudal<a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a> lords) lie
+barren, while the lands of the comunidades, the free districts, are
+still fertile. In treating, of the cultivation and the products of
+eastern and southern Spain two facts become evident at once&mdash;how many of
+the products are exotic, and how much of the cultivation is still
+Arabian. We shall see in another chapter how deep a mark the Moor or
+Arab has left on the population and toponymy of Spain; and the
+agriculture of the greater part of central and southern Spain is still
+Arabian. The methods of the Spanish peasant are almost all Arabian;
+often he uses the Arabian hoe in preference to the Roman plough. The
+<i>noria</i>, or water-wheel; the <i>sha'doof</i>, or swipe, the pole and bucket
+for lifting water; the huge dams and reservoirs, the canals and ditches
+(<i>acequias</i>), the regulations for the fair distribution of the
+water,&mdash;all these, and even the very superstitions as to times of
+sowing, the rotation of crops, the treatment of his animals&mdash;for all
+these the Spanish peasant of the South is indebted to the Moors. The
+treatise of Abu Zaccaria, with its traditions of Nabathean agriculture,
+is still one of the manuals of agriculture in Spain. It is the Moors,
+too, who first made the winter gardens in the sands near San Lucarde
+Barameda, at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, and which supply Cadiz and
+Seville with the earliest and latest vegetables. The Roman, with his
+lofty aqueducts, brought water to the towns; but it was<a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a> the Moor who
+gave that blessing to the thirsty soil of the country districts of
+Spain. And not only the methods of agriculture, but many of its fruits
+and products were introduced by the Arab from the East, and some of
+these are now the very staple of Spanish produce. It is they who brought
+into Spain the cotton plant, rice, and the sugar-cane; mulberries, both
+for fruit and for silk culture; sesame, the caper, the locust bean, the
+castor-oil plant, alfalfa (lucerne), the pomegranate, almond, the walnut
+and filbert, the chestnut and the ever-green oak, the wild olive, the
+jujube, the pistacchio nut, the palm, several kinds of roses, the
+wall-flower, with many another garden herb or flower. It was they who
+improved the Andalusian steed into one of the most excellent in Europe
+for riding, and the strain may still be traced even in the ponies of the
+north. But the cultivated vegetation of the south which meets the
+stranger's eye is perhaps still more indebted to the Americas.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> It
+needs an effort now to picture what Spanish agriculture and what Spanish
+life was before the time of Columbus, when maize, and the potato, and
+sweet potato, were unknown; when not a cigar was smoked or cigarette
+made, or leaf of tobacco grown in Spain; when only garlic was known, and
+those<a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a> indispensable condiments of every dish, the tomato, and the
+pimentos had not yet entered a Spanish kitchen, and chocolate had not
+yet been sipped by Spanish ladies; when the hedges were bare of aloes,
+and the prickly pear gave the beggar no fruit. And besides these common
+gifts, there are the more luxurious ones of pine apples, grenadines (the
+fruit of the passion-flower), abocado pears, chirimoyas, guavas,
+earth-nuts, bananas, and many others, while the gardens are enriched
+with magnolias and passion-flowers, and a wealth of creepers of all
+kinds. The Australian eucalypti, also, are highly valued in Spain, both
+as a febrifuge and for their prophylactic qualities in prevention of
+malaria in marshy ground; and a decoction from their leaves has quite
+passed into the popular pharmacopeia.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For the converse of this, the plants and fruits introduced
+by the Spaniards into America, see Markham's "Peru," in this series, p.
+120.</p></div>
+
+<p>The most common plant on the sun-dried hills of Valencia and Murcia, the
+esparto-grass (<i>Stipe tenacissima</i>), after having been long used in
+various native manufactures, has since 1856 become an article of
+exportation, and an important addition to the wealth of Spain; but the
+cultivation of the barilla plant for soda has much decreased. It is from
+Valencia that the oranges come which are such favourites in Paris. The
+tree is so valuable, both for fruit and flowers, that an acre will
+sometimes give 600<i>l.</i> worth of produce. The dried raisins and almonds
+so familiar in England, so eagerly<a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a> looked for at Christmas time, and
+the green preserved grapes, come from the districts of which we are now
+speaking, the coast-lands from Valencia to Almeira and Malaga. The wines
+are equally celebrated, from the strong red wines of Benicarlo, near the
+frontiers of Catalonia, to the sweet wines of Alicante and of Malaga,
+which are preferred by Continental taste to the drier and more fiery
+sherries, wines of the Guadalquiver valley, which please the English
+palate. Near the coast on the lower grounds, wherever there is
+sufficient water, rice is grown; but, on account of the unhealthy
+character of the cultivation, its culture is forbidden in the
+neighbourhood of towns. Sugar-cane is extending on the southern coast.
+In Andalusia alone more than 7000 acres are devoted to this culture, and
+the total yield of the sugar-cane in Spain is estimated at nearly 20,000
+tons. Palms are grown as an ornament and garden-tree from Barcelona to
+Malaga, but in Murcia, and especially at Elche, they are planted for
+production. Though the number seems declining, there are still some
+40,000 palms together in the neighbourhood of Elche; in the last century
+they are said to have numbered from 50,000 to 70,000. It is not for the
+fruit alone, the date, but for the leaves (the so-called palm-branches)
+that the trees are grown. In the winter these are tied into a close
+bundle<a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a> to exclude the rays of the sun, in order that they may become
+white, and they are then exported to Rome and Italy, for use in the
+Easter ceremonies of Palm Sunday. Oils and essences, extracted from many
+plants and flowers, are also products of this region. The
+liquorice-root, and many another flower, or fruit, or root of medicinal
+value grows wild on the hills. The slopes of the eastern mountains are
+covered with aromatic herbs, thyme, myrtle, box, rosemary,
+southern-wood, mint, lavender, marjoram, nearly all the sweet-scented
+herbs which were once carefully cultivated in the gardens of our
+ancestors, are natives of these hills; and the flocks of goats returning
+from their pastures bring the sweet odours into the tainted towns and
+villages, and the first draught of milk from them is highly flavoured
+thereby. On these treeless hills, and the warmer parts of the higher
+plateaux, these aromatic herbs are often the only fuel which the peasant
+can employ. The wealth of this portion of the Spanish soil, the variety
+and beauty of its products, can be best seen in a visit to a fruit or
+flower market in any of the towns of the south and east. The richness of
+colour, the size and beauty of form, are amazing to the stranger; but
+the quantity and the cheapness, the way in which these fruits and exotic
+vegetables enter into the diet of the poor, is that which most
+astonishes those from less generous<a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a> climes. We have not space to
+enumerate in detail a tithe of these productions; this must be sought in
+more special treatises.</p>
+
+<p>Almost equal in agricultural and garden wealth to that of the
+coast-line, and superior to it as regards the culture of the vine, is
+the valley of the Guadalquiver. The oranges of Seville (the civil
+oranges of our forefathers, the main ingredient of marmalade), sack, and
+sherry, are known in every English home of the middle and upper classes.
+It is in the valley of the Guadalquiver, from San Lucar de Barameda to
+above Cordova, that the finest sherries are produced. From San Lucar
+comes the pleasant Manzanilla, the lightest and most wholesome of all
+the sherries, but with a peculiar bitter taste and bouquet, like that of
+the wild camomile-flower. In the neighbourhood of Jerez de la Frontera
+the best sherries are produced, both brown and golden; the Amontillado,
+the nutty-flavoured wine so much sought after, comes from Montilla, to
+the south of Cordova. Several other kinds are manufactured, and have a
+great local reputation. Comparatively very little of these strong and
+fiery wines is consumed in Spain. Spaniards take them only as a liqueur,
+not as the usual accompaniment of a meal or desert. Sherry, though grown
+in Spain, is the foreigner's, and especially the Englishman's wine. The
+red Valdepeñas, from the northern slope of the Sierra<a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a> Morena, replaces
+it at the Spaniard's table. For the modes of preparation of the various
+sherries, we must refer our readers to special treatises; of its
+statistics as an article of commerce we shall speak in another chapter.
+The first palm-tree introduced into Spain is said to have been planted
+near Cordova. The olives of this district are considered the finest in
+Spain. Comparatively little of the oil is exported, but the home
+consumption is enormous. The cork forests, too, are abundant; their bark
+forms an important article of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>We have now only to speak of the great central plateau, the Continental
+climate of Spain, and its productions. This is peculiarly the
+corn-growing district of Spain, the land of wheat and maize, especially
+in the Castiles. Estremadura and Léon are rather pastoral districts. It
+is in these provinces that the laws of the <i>Mesta</i>, for the protection
+of the celebrated merino sheep, ruled supreme, and which, though
+modified at the close of the last century, and some of their worst
+abuses done away with, were finally repealed only in 1835. By these laws
+the sheep and cattle which fed in the winter in the plains of
+Estremadura, and in the summer on the mountains of Léon, were privileged
+to enter almost any property on their line of march, to feed or to pass
+the night there. A space of ninety yards wide was reserved on each side
+of the highways for their accommodation; no land,<a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a> especially no
+corn-field, was allowed to be enclosed; and right of forcible entrance
+was given to all orchards and vineyards where pasturage might be found.
+Wherever the flocks had once fed, the land could not be sold or
+alienated to any other purpose. The shepherds who tended these flocks
+became almost as savage and ignorant as the beasts they looked after;
+their privileges produced in them a contempt and hatred of all kinds of
+fixed property, and they were ever trying to extend their oppressive
+right at the expense of the more settled and agricultural portion of the
+community. Under the influence of these laws Estremadura, which, in the
+time of the Romans and Moors had been one of the richest provinces of
+Spain, became under their Christian conquerors not only one of the
+poorest and most thinly peopled districts, but also a curse and source
+of destruction to the rest. Not only were all the evils of the old Roman
+"latifundia" reproduced in this mediæval system, but the locust, which
+never breeds in cultivated lands, or where the plough passes, was
+enabled to make its home in the wilds and pastures of Estremadura,
+whence it periodically sallied out to devastate the fairest and richest
+portions of the land. In the years 1754 to 1757 it desolated the whole
+of the provinces between Estremadura and the Mediterranean. In 1686 and
+the following year it reached the principality of Barcelona, and, in
+spite of<a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a> exorcisms, ravaged the country till there was nothing more to
+destroy. The provinces nearer to Estremadura are much more frequent
+sufferers, and in recent years (in 1876 the crops in Ciudad Real were
+utterly destroyed) a division of the army has been more than once
+employed to destroy or to check them on their march. The only plant they
+spare is the tomata, which they will not touch. Besides flocks,
+Estremadura maintains huge herds of swine, which feed on the sweet
+acorns and chestnuts of its woods, and whose flesh is renowned through
+Spain. Owing to its situation on the borders of Andalusia, in which
+province the Moors retained their powers long after they had lost the
+rest of Spain, Estremadura was exposed to their frequent incursions;
+every flock and herd was liable to be carried off, every fruit-tree to
+be cut down, the farms burnt and crops destroyed; and in their
+retaliation the Christian knights were almost as fatal as the Arab
+horsemen. The country was never thoroughly peopled after the reconquest,
+and the sense of insecurity remained long after the cause of it had been
+removed. The laws of the Mesta and the emigration to the Americas (both
+Cortes and Pizarro were Extrameños) finished the work of depopulation,
+and left the province, as it has since remained, naturally one of the
+richest, actually one of the poorest in Spain. The products, besides
+those above mentioned, are cork, oak-bark<a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a> and acorns for tanning,
+honey, nuts, and chestnuts.</p>
+
+<p>The bare plains of the Castiles are now the great corn-producing country
+of Spain. But they have little or nothing of the beauty and variety of
+cultivated land in other countries. There is no succession of crops, no
+mixed husbandry, no scattered farm-houses, neither tree nor fence to
+break the bare monotony. The hill-sides and mountains are given up to
+pasture, the plains to wheat and maize. The husbandmen live in villages,
+and ride out on donkeys in early morn to their distant fields, and
+return home at night. A sense of insecurity seems still to brood over
+the land, as if the peasant dared not trust himself outside the walls of
+village or town. Only at harvest-time, in the warm summer and autumn
+nights, he camps out among his crops, to thresh them on the spot, and
+bring the produce home, a habit which often produces fever and ague.
+Year after year the process is repeated; no improvement is ever made; if
+rain falls the harvest is plentiful&mdash;so plentiful sometimes that the
+lazy peasant will not reap his most distant fields, or procure new skins
+or barrels for the over-abundant wine, though with the extension of
+railways this evil is fast disappearing. There is hardly a greater
+contrast than between the habits of the Castilian peasants and those of
+the peasant-proprietors in the Basque provinces and in those of north
+and north-west.<a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a> In the Basque provinces the farms are scattered all
+over the country, and travellers from other districts of Spain speak of
+the whole district as if it were one city. The farm-house stands in the
+midst of its grounds, with orchard, garden, trees and fences, meadow and
+corn-land round it. To Englishmen this description is almost a matter of
+course, and one must read the narrative of travellers from Castile fully
+to appreciate the force of the contrast. There is, moreover, no natural
+impediment whatever to a similar course of life in many districts of the
+Castiles. Barren and dreary as they look, the plains called the "Sierras
+de Campos," and some others, are watered by a kind of natural capillary
+attraction; dry as the surface appears, water is always to be found at a
+few inches below the surface, and the roots of the wheat and other
+cereal crops penetrate to it. It is only the mixture of pride and
+laziness and ignorance of the Castilian peasant, his senseless disdain
+of all improvement, his want of ambition for anything better, that
+prevents progress in this part of Spain. He refused to make use of the
+machinery invented for him in the last century, nor will he avail
+himself of the means of irrigation and the still better machines
+provided for him now. Yet there is no agricultural country in which
+machinery could be introduced to greater advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no better idea can be given of the productions<a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a> of Spain, and of
+the diversity of its climates and fruits, than by comparing those of
+Murcia with those of the north-west and the centre. In January the bean
+is in flower in Murcia, in April in Madrid; the vine and the wheat
+flower in April in Murcia, but not till May or June in the province of
+Madrid. The climate of Galicia, with its almost continual rain, and
+Murcia with its droughts, are perhaps the most opposite climates of
+Spain. The one is a land of pasture and of flax cultivation; its fruits
+are the apple, the pear, the peach, strawberries, currants, and nuts of
+all kinds; the predominant plant on the hill-sides is the furze, in
+Murcia it is the Esparto grass. The fruits there cultivated in the
+gardens are exotic, and have almost wholly replaced the indigenous
+flora; the "huertas," the gardens or cultivated plains, are there almost
+like oases in a desert.</p>
+
+<p>The fauna of Spain&mdash;except in one particular, the monkeys (<i>Macacus
+Innuus</i>) which inhabit the rock of Gibraltar, and which are the only
+animals of their kind wild in Europe&mdash;does not greatly differ from that
+of the rest of Southern Europe. In the highest part of the Pyrenees, in
+the Sierra de Credos, and in the Sierra Nevada, the izard or chamois
+still exists in considerable numbers. Whether the bouquetin is really
+extinct, or still survives in the Spanish Pyrenees, is a disputed point.
+In the forests which clothe the lower spurs,<a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a> roe and fallow deer, wild
+goats and wild boars, and in some districts red deer, are still to be
+found. The beasts of prey are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the fox,
+wild cat, marten, ferret, weasel, &amp;c.; and these are assisted by the no
+less rapacious birds of prey&mdash;the vultures, eagles, hawks, falcons,
+kites, harriers, pies, and jays. The game birds and animals are the
+pheasant, now very rare, partridges of both kinds, bustards, both large
+and small, sand-grouse, quails, which come in immense quantities to the
+vineyards and maize-fields in the summer and autumn, woodcock, snipe;
+wild duck, geese, all kinds of water-birds and waders, visit the marshes
+of the rivers and the lagoons of the coast in winter; and on the
+southern shores meet the flamingoes, pelicans, spoonbills, and other
+birds from the African coast. From the same quarter come numerous and
+brighter-plumaged birds of passage; orioles, bee-eaters, hoopoes, and
+other natives of a warmer zone, are brought over by the hot south wind
+so irritating to the nerves and temper of a southern Spaniard. It is
+then that the shores of the Mediterranean are lined with sportsmen, when
+the moon is near full, to take heavy toll of these winged travellers.
+The entomology of Spain is probably very rich. We have spoken of the
+locusts of Estremadura; and in the wilds where they breed&mdash;mere
+solitudes in summer, when the flocks are absent in their northern
+pastures&mdash;many a rare species of<a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a> butterfly, cicada, and insect is
+doubtless to be found. The insects of Spain, however, are not all
+noxious or without value. Silk-worms are largely bred in the coast
+provinces of the east and south, not only for their silk, but also for
+the gut so precious to all trout and salmon fishermen. The cochineal
+insect, which feeds on the leaves of the prickly pear, is cultivated for
+its brilliant dye.</p>
+
+<p>Of useful and domesticated animals, the sheep of Spain have always been
+celebrated; the very name, "merinos," has been given to the softest kind
+of wool or woolly tissue. It is said that the breed attained its
+excellence through a present of English South Down rams by Edward I. to
+the father of his Castilian bride, and that the wool has improved under
+climatic influences. However this may be, the superiority has hardly
+been maintained, and careless shepherding has sadly deteriorated the
+breed; still the half-bred Spanish merinos are the favourite flocks
+throughout the north of Spain and Southern France, and they are slowly
+superseding the coarser native and local breeds. The Spanish cattle from
+Galicia are well known in the English market, but they are not the
+choicest of their kind. The bulls that are bred for the bull-fights are
+reared chiefly along the marshy banks of the Guadalquiver, which, like
+the delta of the Rhone, supports herds of half-wild cattle and
+buffaloes. Cow's milk is little known or used in many districts of
+Spain,<a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a> and butter still less. Sheep or goat's milk supplies the place
+of the former, and the olive-oil, excellent were it not too often kept
+till rancid, that of the latter. Cheese and various kinds of curdled
+milk or whey are also made from the milk of sheep. Since the advent of
+the Arabs the Andalusian steed has been much celebrated. It is now
+scarcely equal to its former fame, but, like many a horse of warmer
+climes, its performances are better than its looks; hardy, sure-footed,
+swift, and docile, if not over-weighted it will do more than one of many
+a finer-looking but less enduring breed. The horse, however, is not the
+true beast of burden in Spain; he is the charger, or the luxury of the
+rich. The real work of the country is done by the humble mule or ass,
+or, in some districts, by the ox. The fine Spanish mules are now seldom
+bred in the country, but are procured from Poitou, or from the south of
+France, where great attention is paid to their production, and where the
+average price of a mule of six months old is higher than that of a horse
+of the same age. For long journeys, and for carrying produce over the
+mountain paths, or along the bad roads of the interior, the mule and
+pack-saddle is still generally used. In fact, in some districts no other
+mode of conveyance is possible; but the loss to commerce from want of
+better communications is immense. It is this mode of carriage which
+necessitates and continues the use of the tarred<a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a> wine-skin, by which so
+much excellent wine is rendered unsalable and almost undrinkable. It is
+hard to recognize the delicious wine when tasted at the vineyard, in the
+pitch-flavoured, half-fermented liquor which has travelled for days in a
+skin exposed to the sun's heat by day, and the closeness and fetid
+odours of the inns by night. Besides these, the camel, buffalo, and
+llama, and vicunâ have been introduced successfully as an experiment for
+breeding, but not in sufficient numbers to affect the means of transport
+in the peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>The fisheries in Galicia and along the north-west Atlantic coast, and
+also at Huelva and at Cadiz, are very valuable. Not only are they an
+abundant means of support to the inhabitants of the coast and of Léon
+and Northern Castile, but the fishermen engaged in them furnish the best
+sailors to the Spanish navy. The chief kinds of fish are sardines and
+pilchards, of which great numbers are preserved in oil, the tunny, and
+the sea-bream, of which enormous quantities are annually taken. The
+rivers, from the Minho to the Bidassoa, furnish trout and salmon. In the
+Mediterranean, tunny, and the anchovies which replace the sardines, are
+the chief fisheries, but many Spaniards are also engaged in the
+coral-fishing off the coasts of Catalonia, of Algiers, and of Tunis.<a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a></p>
+
+<p>The total production of Spain has been approximately valued at</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Agriculture</td><td align="right">£80,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mines</td><td align="right">6,271,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manufactures &nbsp;</td><td align="right">63,480,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><br />
+<small>GEOLOGY AND MINES.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">E<small>VEN</small> in geological features Spain is a land apart. Divided from the rest
+of Europe by the regular Palæozoic band of the Pyrenees, the rocks of
+the Peninsula are only susceptible of separate study. Hence no
+consistent geological history can be deduced from the fragmentary and
+superficial observations that as yet form the basis of the geological
+map of Spain. A few striking features and geological statistics may
+however be presented; and the recently-published map of Botella, as well
+as the mass of valuable matter already collected by the <i>Comision del
+Mapa geologico de España</i>, are an earnest that Spanish geology will soon
+occupy a place corresponding to its peculiar interest.</p>
+
+<p>A mass of Granitic, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks forms the central
+plateau of Spain, extending in a south-easterly direction from Galicia
+to the valley of the Guadalquiver, and spreading to<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a> the north-east, as
+shown by the chains of the Guadarrama and the mountains of Toledo, to
+terminate in the Celtiberian range, running nearly parallel to the Ebro
+by Soria and the Moncayo. In this mass the main folds of the strata
+appear to run in a south-easterly, the main fractures in a
+north-easterly, direction; whence the gridiron arrangement of the
+mountain chains and river valleys, directed by these leading features of
+the rocky structure. Great buttresses of the Carboniferous formation
+occupy the corners of the central mass, to the north and south-west, and
+occasional patches of its upper and coal-bearing beds are scattered over
+the interior. The whole valley of the Ebro occupies a trough of
+Secondary rocks, which extend in a south-easterly direction from the Bay
+of Biscay to the Mediterranean, forming a wide boundary to the older
+central mass, and running along the north coast towards Oviedo. The
+Secondary formations of the Ebro sweep over the chain of the Moncayo on
+to the central plateau by Burgos, Soria, and Calatayud; and their latest
+member&mdash;the Upper Cretaceous&mdash;advances in two long tongues on to the
+granite of the Guadarrama, and far to the east of Madrid, it being
+probable that at least this member formerly extended over the central
+plateau. Another wide band of Secondary rocks, running in a
+north-easterly direction, forms the long strip<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a> of Andalusia south of
+the Guadalquiver; and by Valencia and Cuenca this band is widely
+prolonged to the Ebro basin; otherwise, a narrow and interrupted strip
+along the south coast, and a bay-like expanse from the Atlantic, between
+Lisbon and Oporto, are the only Secondary tracts of the Peninsula. These
+Secondary rocks are however in great part concealed by Eocene Tertiary
+beds, formed in marine gulfs in the valley of the Ebro and the
+Guadalquiver, and overlaid by Eocene and Miocene fresh-water deposits;
+the latter being also represented by vast lacustrine sheets, which
+contemporaneously accumulated, and conceal the crystalline and palæozoic
+formations in the elevated river basins of the central primary plateau.
+Patches of Pliocene sands and clays along the Mediterranean coast,
+sheets of diluvial gravels below the mountains, and alluvial sands along
+the larger rivers represent the local and most recent effects of water
+and ice.</p>
+
+<p>The consequences of this general structure are apparent on every hand.
+The population of Galicia is in many respects similar to that of the
+Portuguese mountaineers, who occupy the same band of naked granitic and
+primary rocks. The inhabitants of the varied and fertile Secondary band
+of Andalusia and Valencia have many traits in common. The Biscayans are
+a race apart, like the labyrinth of Cretaceous precipices and green<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>
+rainy valleys which they inhabit. All are distinct from the Castilians,
+whose monotonous and isolated existence on the vast treeless steppes of
+crumbling Tertiary sands and marls that carpet the primary plateau 2000
+feet above the sea has deeply influenced their character. Finally, the
+inhabitants of the Ebro basin, a region where the dry Tertiary soil of
+Castile is combined with many characteristics of the Secondary tracts,
+afford a curious mixture of Castilian with Basque or Valencian traits.
+The inhabitants of the greater Spanish cities are of course products of
+civilization, not of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Of the visible surface of Spain 37 per cent. is occupied by Crystalline
+and Palæozoic rocks, 34 per cent. by Tertiary, 19 per cent. by
+Secondary, and 10 per cent. by Quaternary deposits. The Palæozoic rocks
+are greatly contorted and fractured, the Secondary scarcely less so, the
+older Tertiary are crumpled up against the flanks of the mountain
+chains, and even upturned Pliocene deposits testify in some places to
+the late continuance of the movements that have contributed to the
+production of the peculiar elevated character of the Peninsula. The
+remains of undoubted volcanoes are confined to the insignificant groups
+of Olot, Cabo de Gata, and Ciudad Real, but innumerable dykes and bosses
+of igneous rock are scattered over the primitive plateau where
+unconcealed<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a> by Tertiary sheets, and are also frequent in the Secondary
+tracts. This abundance of igneous injections is intimately connected
+with the exceptionally metalliferous character of Spain, while the
+fractured and contorted condition of even the latest rocky formations
+has contributed to a general diffusion of mineral wealth.</p>
+
+<p>The granite and other igneous rocks form rounded bosses or prominent
+pinnacles, according as they are more or less subject to atmospheric
+decomposition; the pine and the Spanish chestnut flourish on their
+slopes; iron, lead, copper, tin, graphite, phosphorite, kaolin,
+steatite, and serpentine are among the products of these crystalline
+masses. The gneiss and crystalline schists that in part probably
+represent the Laurentian formation, contain silver, bismuth, molybdenum,
+and tin; while metamorphic rocks of unknown age are amongst the richest
+in mines, affording iron, lead, silver, copper, zinc, mercury,
+manganese, and graphite. The Cambrian formation, a mass of lustrous
+fissile slate, traversed by white quartz veins, furnishes lead, silver,
+phosphorite, and gold. The Silurian slates and quartzites yield iron,
+lead, silver, copper, mercury, manganese, antimony, cobalt, nickel,
+anthracite, and gold. A few limited patches of Devonian sandstones,
+quartzites, slates, marls, and limestones, afford iron, zinc,
+phosphorite, cobalt, and nickel. The Carboniferous series, occupying<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a>
+two per cent. of the surface, includes valuable coal-fields, the immense
+masses of iron and copper pyrites of the Rio Tinto, Tharsis, and other
+mines in the province of Huelva, besides iron, zinc, mercury, manganese,
+antimony, cobalt, nickel, and phosphorite in other districts. The
+silver-bearing metamorphic rocks of Cartagena, and a portion of the
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada are classed in the Permian formation. The
+Triassic conglomerates, sandstones, and variegated marls, which form the
+usual base of the Secondary rocks, are rich in salt, gypsum, and iron,
+and afford some copper and zinc. The Jurassic limestones and marls
+contain asphalte and bituminous slate. The Cretaceous&mdash;mainly Neocomian
+in the south, the Upper Cretaceous predominating in the north&mdash;contains
+the immense iron deposits of Bilbao; valuable beds of lignite resembling
+coal; lead, zinc, and asphalte mines in the northern provinces, and gold
+in Granada. In the Eocene formation, which includes the Nummulitic
+limestone that forms some of the highest summits of the Pyrenees, the
+celebrated salt-mine of Cardona, in Catalonia, is usually classed. The
+Miocene beds contain valuable sulphur deposits along the southern coast,
+and great accumulations of sulphate of soda on the arid steppes of
+Madrid and other provinces; while gypsum, in which Spain is probably
+richer than the whole remainder of Europe, is abundant<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> in this
+formation. Lastly, some native silver is found in the Pliocene deposits
+of Almeria, and in the Tertiary clays of Guadalajara, while the later
+gravels of Galicia afford stream tin and gold, the last similarly
+occurring in Leon and Caceres.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of mineral contained in the rocks of Spain is no less
+remarkable than the exceptional variety of its distribution; but owing
+to a series of adverse circumstances, the industrial production affords
+a most inadequate idea of the capabilities of the mines, if developed by
+a fair amount of capital and skill. The following figures, showing the
+production in 1875, are derived from the last official reports issued by
+the Spanish Government, and are certainly below the truth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="">
+<tr align="center"><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Tons of ore<br />
+exported.</td>
+<td>Tons of metal<br />
+produced &nbsp;<br />
+in<br />
+Spain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron</td><td align="right">336,000</td><td align="right">37,000 &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lead</td><td align="right">10,000</td><td align="right">119,000 &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">362,000</td><td align="right">6,620 &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">43,000</td><td align="right">3,820 &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">14,000</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mercury</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1,425 &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures do not include the bar iron produced directly from ore in
+Spain, nor 160 tons of argentiferous copper ore, 89 tons of cobalt ore,
+and 440 tons of nickel ore. The silver extracted in Spain amounted to
+more than 16,000 lbs. troy, while four times that amount was contained
+in<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a> exported argentiferous lead. The coal extracted amounted to 666,000
+tons, lignite above 27,000, sulphur above 3000, and phosphorite above
+12,000 tons. The year 1875 was, however, peculiarly unfavourable to
+Spanish mining, and the working of the Bilbao mines, which now produce
+nearly 2,000,000 tons yearly of excellent iron ore, was then practically
+suspended by the Carlist war. All disadvantages cannot, however, arrest
+the steady increase of mineral production in Spain, although under more
+normal political circumstances the above figures would have been greatly
+exceeded.</p>
+
+<p>The chief coal district is that of Oviedo, Palencia, Leon, and
+Santander. The coal-field of Oviedo, occupying an extent of 230 square
+miles, and including a large number of workable beds, is of excellent
+quality, but as yet little developed, owing to high railway tariffs, bad
+condition of ports, traditional prejudices, want of skill and capital,
+and of a local market for inferior qualities. These obstacles will
+probably soon be overcome, and the development of the associated iron
+ores afford an important field of enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>The coal-field of Palencia, a continuation of that of Oviedo, is in
+course of development by the Northern Railway Company. Smaller
+coal-fields of great local importance exist in the provinces of Cordova,
+Seville, Gerona, Burgos, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Ciudad Real; that of
+Gerona, although<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a> of small extent and very friable quality, has already
+occasioned the construction of a railway of considerable length. Iron is
+mainly obtained from Biscay, Oviedo, Murcia, and Almeria, but is
+abundant in other provinces. Lead is worked chiefly in Murcia, Jaen,
+Almeria, Badajoz, and Ciudad Real; the presence of antimony or of a
+predominating admixture of blende is very common, but Spain is on the
+whole the most important lead-producing country in Europe. Copper is
+obtained mainly from the Rio Tinto mines and others in Huelva; also from
+Seville, Palencia, Almeria, and Santander; but many other districts
+contain veins yielding more or less of copper ore. Zinc has been chiefly
+procured from superficial pockets of calamine in Santander and the
+neighbouring districts; but in the form of blende it is widely
+distributed in association with lead. Silver ores are worked in Almeria
+and Guadalajara. The immense impregnation of cinnabar of Almaden, in
+Ciudad Real, affords nearly all the mercury, but a little is obtained
+from other mines in the same province and in Oviedo, Granada, and
+Almeria. Manganese is obtained from Huelva, Oviedo, Teruel, Almeria,
+Murcia, and Zamora. Nickel ore is worked in Malaga; cobalt in Oviedo and
+Castellon. Tin occurs in a number of small veins in Galicia; and in the
+rocks of Salamanca, Murcia, and Almeria, as well as in diluvial gravels.
+The Spanish side of the Pyrenees contains numerous<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a> veins of
+argentiferous lead, many of copper, and some of cobalt, nickel,
+argentiferous copper, pyrolusite, &amp;c., few of which are worked. The
+lead-mines on the border between Catalonia and Aragon supplied the
+Carlists with ammunition during the late civil war. The fact that more
+than 12,000 concessions of mines already exist in Spain, while a large
+number of lapsed concessions may be found, affords a better idea of the
+mineral wealth of the country than the enumeration of the mines actually
+worked.</p>
+
+<p>That such enormous mineral resources should have as yet yielded no
+greater results is easily explained. The Roman and Moorish workings,
+although traditionally of fabulous yield, are of small depth, owing to
+insufficient machinery for pumping. Till the present century, the
+working of mines was forbidden by the Spanish Government, with the
+object of favouring the development of the American colonies. The mining
+laws of 1825 and 1849, suddenly placing the acquirement of mines within
+the reach of every substantial peasant, produced a fever of speculation,
+and a recklessness in the application of unskilled labour, which
+naturally conduced to the discouragement of mining enterprise, while the
+recurring civil wars excluded foreign capital and skill. Spaniards have
+a mania for erecting smelting-works on the mines, a practice
+occasionally justified by difficulties of transport, but which has
+caused much loss of capital<a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a> through inherent difficulties and want of
+metallurgical skill. Endless litigation, arising from the defects of the
+first mining laws, and the inexperience of the surveying engineers,
+contributed to ruin the small capitalists who had attempted to work the
+mines. Foreign capital is now the chief requirement. The existing mining
+law, greatly improved since 1868, is the simplest in Europe; the expense
+of a concession is almost nominal, and the royalties on ore are
+extremely moderate. Large mining adventures in Spain rapidly develope
+industrial conditions and profoundly affect the habits of the
+population. Even in times of civil war a <i>modus vivendi</i> between the
+conflicting parties can be more easily secured than might be expected.
+The development of means of transport, already considerable before the
+last Carlist war, is being seriously resumed under the present
+Government. The Spanish peasantry, when suitably treated, will be found
+a fair-dealing, intelligent, and industrious class. It must, however, be
+remembered that in the peculiar physical, political, municipal, and
+fiscal conditions of Spain, no mining enterprise can safely be
+undertaken without thorough investigation of all the external
+circumstances, claims, and prospects concerned; since more mining
+speculations have failed from inattention to such matters than from any
+disappointment as regards the quality or quantity of ore. &nbsp; &nbsp; P. W. S. M.</p>
+
+<p><a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><br />
+<small>ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">O<small>N</small> the first glance at a map of Spain and Portugal we are apt to think
+that few countries could have so well-defined a frontier as that formed
+by the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. In so compact a
+country, and one so distinct and so shut off from the rest of Europe, we
+should expect to find a more unmixed and a more homogeneous population
+than in any of those states whose frontiers are more open and
+conventional. But such is very far from being the case. Even at the
+present time the Pyrenees are no boundary throughout their whole course,
+either as to race or language. The Basque overlaps them at one end, and
+the Provençal at the other. Moreover, they have been a political
+boundary throughout their whole length only since the middle of the
+seventeenth century. Navarre was united to the Spanish crown in 1515,
+and Rousillon to France only in 1659. Ecclesiastically, both the
+dioceses of Bayonne<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> and of Narbonne advanced far into Spain. So far
+from the population of Spain being unmixed and pure, the contrary is far
+nearer the truth. As Senor Tubino has well observed, from its position
+at the south-western angle of Europe, and the most westerly of
+Mediterranean lands, beyond which lay only the impassable ocean, it must
+early have become a very eddy of nations, where all the tribes and races
+who have successively held command of the Mediterranean must necessarily
+have halted, over which and in which all invaders who have crossed the
+Pyrenees from Northern Europe, or have passed the Straits of Gibraltar
+from Africa, must have surged in almost ceaseless conflict. To think of
+Spain as ever having been at any given time occupied solely by any
+single race or people is to lose the clue to her whole history. Of this
+not only the social and political condition of the country, but the
+toponymy and nomenclature of her map afford decisive proof.</p>
+
+<p>We first hear of Spain in history about the sixth century before Christ,
+as then inhabited by the "Iberi" and "Kelt-Iberi," with here and there
+colonies of more unmingled Kelts. It is more than probable that both of
+these races succeeded anterior ones, the existence of which we trace
+only through the remains of præhistoric archæology, in the flint, stone,
+and bronze instruments, similar to those found elsewhere in Europe;
+these were also probably<a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a> followed by races whose remains we find in the
+sculptors of the so-called "Toros" (bulls) of Guisando, and in the
+builders of the Megalithic monuments, the dolmens, menhirs, and circles
+which are found from Algeria to the Orkneys. For all purposes of history
+we must take the "Iberi" and the "Kelts," with their mixed tribes, as
+our starting-point. These we find scattered in much confusion throughout
+the Peninsula. Either the tribes were constantly shifting their ground,
+owing to petty wars and tribal dissensions or to unknown economic
+conditions, or the successive Greek and Latin writers from whom we get
+our information have not themselves been clear as to the distinction of
+these races. Speaking loosely, we may say that the more purely Keltic
+tribes held their ground in the north-west and west, in Galicia and
+Portugal, with a few scattered colonies further south. Andalusia, parts
+of the centre, the north and north-east were inhabited by the "Iberi;"
+while the Kelt-Iberian tribes lay chiefly in the centre and on the
+eastward slope. Both of these great races have left clear traces on the
+maps of ancient Spain. There can be no reasonable doubt that the
+"Illiberris" which we find in classical maps is a transcription of the
+Basque "Iriberri," which we still find in the French Basque country and
+in Navarre, meaning "New-Town," or more exactly, "Town-new;" that when
+the Romans<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a> called a town which they built in Galicia "Iria-Flavia," in
+honour of their then empress, they really used the Basque word "Iri," a
+town or city, just as the colonists of the United States and Canada used
+the French "ville" or English "town," and named a new city Louisville,
+Charleston, Georgetown, in the North American colonies. So, too, any one
+who compares the name "Peña," given to mountains and mountain-chains on
+the map of Spain, together with the river names, "Tamaris," "Deva," and
+the town and district of "Britonia" or "Britannia" in the north-west,
+can hardly doubt that these names were given by the same Keltic race who
+have left us so many "Pens" and "Bens" in Northern Britain, who gave the
+names "Tamar" and "Dee" to Devonshire and Cheshire streams, and called
+our own island Britannia, and themselves Britons. Which of these races
+is the older? the Iberi, i.e. Basque, or the Keltic? How can we decide
+this? Language is a deceitful tool as regards race. A people may utterly
+forget their original language, and adopt that of their conquerors or of
+some superior race with whom they have come in contact. Of this we have
+not only numerous examples in the past, as in the Latin and romance
+tongues superseding many a more ancient idiom, but we can see the same
+change actually going on in our colonies and dependencies in our own
+day. Still there is a certain rough chronology in language.<a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a> A
+monosyllabic language we may presume, in default of evidence to the
+contrary, to have preceded one whose characteristic is agglutination;
+and again, a language which agglutinates or incorporates its members is
+presumably prior to an inflexional or analytic one. Now the Basque, the
+modern form of some one of those tongues which the Greeks and Romans
+called Iberian, belongs to the second of these classes, and the Keltic
+to the third. Another mode of investigating the antiquity of a language
+is to study the original names of the most necessary objects of daily
+life, and see if they can reveal to us anything about the state of
+civilization of those who used them before the language took a literary
+shape or any books were written in it. A language in which we find all
+the words expressing articles of greater civilization to be borrowed
+from other tongues we may presumably deem older than the languages from
+which it has borrowed them. Now in the Basque, Escuara, the undoubtedly
+native words for cutting instruments seem all to have their root from
+words signifying stone, or rock, and all such words which imply the use
+of metal seem to be borrowed. The language as it were represents the
+"stone" age, before the use of metals was known. It is also singularly
+poor in collective and general terms; thus, while many of the names for
+separate kinds of trees are native, the most common collective term
+<i>arbola</i>, "the tree," is clearly<a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a> borrowed from the Latin. Although the
+arguments from anthropology, the form of the skull, &amp;c., as compared
+with other races, are of still more dubious value than those derived
+from language, yet they all tend to the same conclusion. We may then
+hold from these convergent lines of reasoning, at least as a provisional
+hypothesis, that the Iberian or Basque race is older in Spain than the
+Keltic, and consequently that in the representatives of the former we
+have the remains of the oldest historical people of which we have any
+record in the country.</p>
+
+<p>We said above that, from its geographical position, the Peninsula would
+necessarily be the final-halting-place in ancient times of all the
+masters of the Mediterranean as they pushed westward. There we should
+find their farthest outposts. Thus in Spain we have, at first dimly
+seen, successive colonies of Egyptians, Ph&oelig;nicians, and Greeks. There
+it was that Carthaginians and Romans met to dispute the supremacy of the
+Mediterranean and of the civilized world. When, after a long occupation,
+during which it Latinized Spain more completely than any other country
+except Italy, the Roman Empire fell, successive waves of barbarian
+destroyers swept across the land, Sueves, Alans, Vandals, Visigoths, in
+wild confusion and internecine strife, wrecked the civilization which
+they could neither appreciate nor understand. The last of these races,
+the Visigoths, who ruled the longest,<a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a> strove hard to found an empire
+from 450 to 710, but without success. The real power which held society
+together then, and which wrought what little order and law still
+existed, was the Church, and not the State. The Councils of the Church
+were the true legislative assemblies, and the real representatives of
+the people in those times. Yet, with all the power of the Church to
+uphold it, the Visigothic Empire remained so weak that it fell at the
+first shock of the Mohammedan Arabs. The Moors or Arabs landed in Spain
+in the year 711. In ten years they had conquered all of the Peninsula
+that they cared to hold; in eleven years more, 732, they had been
+defeated at Poictiers by Charles Martel, and had withdrawn for ever from
+France, except from the district of Narbonne. This rich province they
+held for many years, and it would seem to them to be more than an
+equivalent for the bare and humid mountains of Galicia and the Asturias,
+or the higher Pyrenees, which alone in the Peninsula were exempt from
+their sway. The Arabs and the Moors of Barbary are the last great race
+that has occupied Spain. Jews and a few Gipsies are the only peoples
+that have entered since. A few remnants of Berber tribes, isolated from
+their countrymen by the rapid advance of the Christian army in the tenth
+and eleventh centuries, like the Maragatos of Astorga, have remained in
+North-Western Spain, and doubtful<a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a> remains of other peoples are found
+here and there, but none of these are in sufficient numbers to influence
+the nation as a whole. No country was more completely Romanized than
+Spain. In fact, after the Augustan age we might almost say that the best
+Latin writers were Spaniards born; Seneca, Quintilian, Lucian, and
+Martial were all natives of Spain. Hosius, the champion of Latin
+Christianity in the early part of the fourth century, was a Spaniard.
+The names of many of the towns are still Roman. Yet the Arabs have left
+almost a deeper mark upon the toponymy of the country. Look at the map
+of Spain, and we see, even up to the Pyrenees, how many Arabic names
+there are, especially of rivers and mountains, upon the map of Spain.
+Only in Galicia and the Asturias the Keltic and the Latin, in the Basque
+Provinces the Basque, and in Catalonia the Romance names have held their
+own. In all the rest the Roman names would have probably died away, but
+that the language of the Church was Latin, and preserved the Roman names
+of cities, monasteries, and shrines. Down even to the twelfth century it
+might seem doubtful which language would prevail, so many Arabs wrote in
+Spanish, and Spaniards in Arabic, or wrote Spanish in Arabic characters.
+The struggle was decided by the sword; the expulsion of the Arabs was
+also the expulsion of their tongue. Yet the Arabs have left far more
+traces on Spanish than Spanish has done on Arabic. The Spanish<a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a> Jews,
+however, had forgotten their Semitic tongue, and to this day the sacred
+language of the Jews of the Balkan Peninsula, and of many of the Syrian
+Jews, even of those at Jerusalem, is not Hebrew but Spanish; their
+liturgical works are written in that tongue, and they use it always in
+the synagogue.</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of all this mixture of races and of languages, Spain
+and the Spanish language has perhaps fewer dialects than any other
+European speech. From the Central Pyrenees to the Straits of Gibraltar
+only one dialect is used, the Spanish or Castilian, the purest and
+noblest of those which sprang from the decaying Latin. At the inner
+angle of the Bay of Biscay Basque is still spoken by a population of
+about 400,000 souls. The Galician dialect is far more closely allied to
+the Portuguese than to the Spanish, and should be considered as
+belonging to the former tongue. Between Galicia and the Basque Provinces
+are the many Patois, or Bables, of Asturia, which alone of the Romance
+tongues in the Peninsula have kept the three distinct genders, the
+masculine, feminine, and neuter terminations of the Latin adjective. The
+speech of Leon, too, may be classed as a separate dialect. In Catalonia,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Isles a Provençal or Romance dialect is
+spoken, the <i>Lemosin</i> as it was called in mediæval times, and which
+stretched from the Loire to the frontiers of Murcia, and from the
+western coast of the Bay of Biscay, with few interruptions, almost<a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a> to
+the Black Sea. In the thirteenth century the Catalan dialect more
+resembled that of the Gascon Béarnais, or the Western Languedocian, than
+of the neighbouring Provence, but centuries of intercourse have since
+modified it, and the three dialects of Catalonia, Valencia, and the
+Balearic Isles must now be classed as a Provençal speech.</p>
+
+<p>The tongues of all these successive occupiers of the soil have doubtless
+left traces in the noble Spanish language, but in very unequal
+proportions. A very few words belong to the old Iberian speech, but it
+is to that, perhaps, that Spanish owes the purity and the paucity of its
+vowel sounds, as from the Arabic it has gained the gutturals which have
+prevented its sinking to the effeminate softness of the Italian, and it
+still preserves the lofty sonority of the Latin. Some few of the
+elements of its vocabulary may be traced to the Keltic, less to the
+Teutonic languages. From Arabic it has taken more, and those words of
+more important character. But the bulk of the language still remains
+Latin. It is essentially one of the Romance dialects which sprang from
+the "lingua rustica," the country speech of the decaying Roman Empire.
+It has been calculated that six-tenths of its words are Latin, a tenth
+Gothic or Teutonic, one-tenth liturgical and Greek, one-tenth American
+or modern borrowings, and one-tenth Arabic. But as to this last, we must
+not forget that the different parts of the vocabulary of a language have
+a very different value. Some<a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a> could be well dispensed with, some are of
+first necessity. There are words which we only see in print, and seldom
+or never hear spoken; there are words which belong only to science or to
+pedantry; but there are others which are in daily and hourly use, and
+whose employment is many times more frequent than the whole number of
+words in all the rest of the language put together. It is thus that the
+contribution of Arabic to Spanish vocabulary is of far more importance
+than is apparent by its numerical proportion; many of the most common
+terms, especially of those used in the south of Spain, are of Arabic
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>Thus has been formed the noble Spanish tongue, the richest and most
+dignified of all that have sprung from the decay of Latin. Marvellously
+adapted to oratory and to verse, most incisive and mordant in the
+tongues of the lowest class, stately and sonorous almost to a fault, it
+is yet unequalled in grace and tenderness in the old romances and in the
+mouths of women and of children. Italian is its only rival. While
+reading its stately sentences, and marking the majestic rhythm of Scio's
+grand translation of the Bible and of its other religious literature, we
+can well understand why Spain's greatest emperor, the lord of many lands
+and of many tongues, spoke Spanish only to his God. It is rare to find a
+foreigner who has mastered Spanish, who does not ever afterwards delight
+in its use above all other tongues except his own.<a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a></p>
+
+<p>The population of Spain, according to the census of 1877, is 16,625,000,
+including the Balearic and Canary Islands, and the North African
+possessions. The number of inhabitants in Spain has fluctuated much at
+different periods, according as war, emigration, or bad government have
+affected the condition of the people. In the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries the population, according to the only estimates procurable,
+was about 9,000,000; in 1621, at the close of Philip III.'s reign, it
+had sunk to 6,000,000, the lowest point on record; it gradually rose
+from 7,500,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 10,500,000 at
+the close of the eighteenth. The wars of Napoleon then lowered it by
+500,000, but in 1821 it had recovered, and reached 11,600,000. A more
+rapid increase then took place till 1832, when the population numbered
+14,600,000. The Carlist and civil wars which marked the beginning of the
+reign of Isabella II. reduced it by more than 2,000,000, if the returns
+are exact. In 1837 and in 1846 it stood at 12,200,000. In 1857 at
+15,500,000, whence it mounted rapidly to 16,800,000 in 1870, a total
+which the late Carlist war and that in Cuba has reduced by some 200,000;
+and at the last census, 1877, as said above, the returns were
+16,625,000.</p>
+
+<p>The number of inhabitants to the square mile is 90, just half that of
+France, about a third that of Great Britain, and a fifth that of
+Belgium. This<a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a> comparative scarcity is easily accounted for when we
+consider that nearly one-half (46 per cent.) of the territory still
+remains uncultivated; and although a considerable portion of this
+consists of mountain or of naturally sterile soil, a still larger
+portion of it is susceptible of some kind of cultivation, and even the
+portion under cultivation would under good husbandry, support a much
+larger population than it actually does.</p>
+
+<p>More than two-thirds (66.75 per cent.) of the whole working population
+of Spain are engaged in agriculture, and the total produce, including
+cereals and cattle of all kinds, wine and fruits, cork, woods, esparto
+grass, &amp;c., after supplying the demand for home consumption, leaves a
+surplus of agricultural produce for exportation of the value of
+14,000,000<i>l</i>. sterling. Those engaged in manufacturing industry and in
+commerce are reckoned at 10&frac12; per cent, of the working population; but
+in Spain, as elsewhere, the relative numbers are slowly changing,
+following the conditions of modern European life; a greater
+proportionate number are annually withdrawn from agriculture, and are
+being added to the population of the great towns, and to the
+manufacturing industries. Thus, until the last census the highest
+population of Spain per square kilometre was to be found, not in the
+manufacturing provinces of Barcelona and Valencia, nor in the great
+mining provinces, but in the fishing and<a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a> agricultural province of
+Pontevedra, in Galicia. In 1870 Pontevedra numbered 107, Barcelona 98
+inhabitants to the square kilometre. In 1877 it is Barcelona that
+numbers 108, and Pontevedra 100 only. Next after these provinces come
+the two Basque ones of Guipuzcoa 88, and Biscay 87. The one almost
+wholly agricultural, the other mining and agricultural. The nearest
+after them is the province of Madrid, with only 77 per square kilometre,
+and Corunna and Alicante with 75. These figures will, we think,
+sufficiently indicate the character of Spanish industry.</p>
+
+<p>The chief centres of manufacturing industry are Catalonia and Valencia,
+in which provinces nearly all the textile goods of Spain are produced.
+The chief mining districts are those round Carthagena in Alicante,
+Linares in Jaen, the Rio Tinto in Huelva, Somorrostro in Biscay, and of
+quicksilver at Almaden in the province of Ciudad Rodrigo; but valuable
+mines, as detailed in a former chapter, are found in many other
+provinces of Spain. In fact, there is scarcely one without a mine of
+more or less importance.</p>
+
+<p>Those engaged in professions of all kinds&mdash;lawyers, doctors, artists,
+journalists&mdash;are only about 10&frac12; per cent. of the whole working
+population. The clergy, who once numbered, it is said, one-third of the
+whole population, have greatly diminished during the present century,
+and are<a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a> still gradually declining. Including religious orders of all
+kinds, inquisitors, and the secular clergy, they still numbered, at the
+close of the last century, nearly 250,000, out of a population of
+10,500,000. In 1826 they had sunk to about 60,000, in 1858 to 44,000, in
+1862 to 40,000, and their present numbers are probably about 35,000.</p>
+
+<p>Immense changes have taken place in recent times, and more particularly
+in the present century, with regard to the distribution of land in
+Spain. The large amount of property held by the Crown, the religious
+orders, the clergy, and various municipal bodies, and the restrictions
+imposed by the laws of the Mesta on the enclosure of land, rendered the
+number of private proprietors formerly very few. Even in 1800 their
+number was only 273,760. In 1764 it was estimated that the clergy
+possessed one-sixth of the real property, and one-third of the movable
+property of all Spain, and the property of the Church paid scarcely any
+taxes, or none at all. From the beginning of the sixteenth century
+protests were continually being made against abuses of Church property,
+but only towards the end of the eighteenth century were measures of
+reform seriously undertaken. Little, however, was really effected till
+the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812-13, when the feudal dues on land, of
+whatever nature, regal, ecclesiastical, or seignorial, were abolished.
+The religious orders were also<a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a> suppressed. In 1820 a law was passed
+forbidding the Church to acquire any more real property. Tithes, of
+which the clergy possessed 60 per cent, and the laity 40, were
+diminished by half in 1821, and wholly suppressed in 1837. In 1836 the
+possessions of the clergy were declared to be national property, and the
+sale of them was begun. This, with various interruptions, according as a
+liberal or reactionary Government has been in power, has been continued
+to the present time. The Crown and municipal property had been sold at
+an earlier period, from 1813 to 1855. The Mesta was totally abolished in
+1837 as to its privileged rights on property, and in 1851 became merely
+an agricultural association for the improvement of the breed of cattle.
+The serfs in Galicia were declared to have become proprietors of their
+land by prescription in 1763.</p>
+
+<p>The result of these successive measures, and of these immense sales of
+territorial property, has been to throw the land into the hands of a
+much greater number of small landed proprietors, who now number
+3,426,083, so that, in spite of some large estates still existing,
+especially in Andalusia, the average quantity of land held in Spain by
+each proprietor would seem to be only about some 30 acres. Yet in
+Galicia alone does there seem to have been any suffering caused by a too
+great subdivision of land, and this perhaps was caused more by the
+perpetuation of habits acquired while the<a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a> land was burdened with
+seignorial dues, when the occupier could neither quit his land nor sell
+it. In this district the people are still miserably poor, their food and
+houses are equally wretched, and nothing but the large emigration that
+has taken and is now taking place will restore the province to any real
+prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said in the preceding pages as to their ethnology,
+the reader will not be surprised to learn that the different populations
+of Spain have very different characteristics. The Galicians and
+Asturians are the hewers of wood and drawers of water in Spain. They are
+often fine, stalwart men, brave, and make excellent sailors. It is they
+who reap the harvests for the more lazy Castilians and gather the
+vintage of Oporto; it is they who do nearly all the hard work in all the
+chief towns, not of Spain only, but also of Portugal. They are
+proverbially honest and trustworthy as servants, though slow and
+somewhat lacking in intelligence. Abroad, and as emigrants, they are
+trusted as men of no other race are: in the countries of La Plata in
+South America, the town-house, during the summer absence of the
+proprietor and his family, is given over to a Gallego, as it stands, to
+be taken care of, and rarely indeed is an article missing. The Asturian
+partakes of the same general characteristics as the Galician, though in
+a less marked degree. In the Montaneses, the inhabitants of the province
+of Santander, we have the<a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a> favourite nurses and female servants of
+Madrid. The Asturias and Santander are remarkable for the number of
+statesmen and economists they have produced in proportion to the
+population. In the Basque Provinces we find an entirely different race,
+not perhaps of so muscular a build, but active, and capable of great
+endurance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/ill086.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill086_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="357" alt="CABALLEROS.
+
+Page 86.
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">CABALLEROS.
+(Page 86.)
+</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">Intelligent and proud of their ancient race and liberties,
+they almost always retain their self-respect, and are for the most part
+free from that cruelty towards animals which is so disfiguring a trait
+in the character of other Spaniards. The Basques are generally found
+among the upper and more trusted servants in civil life, in the army and
+navy they make excellent petty officers; as seamen they are among the
+best of Spain; as soldiers they are brave, enduring, capital marchers,
+and as light infantry second to none of any nation. The Aragonese, like
+the Galicians, count among the hard workers of Spain; generally of
+shorter build, and very thick-set, but somewhat dull and very obstinate,
+they are employed in the heaviest work. In literature they are known as
+jurisconsults and historians. In Catalonia and Valencia we have the
+bright Provençal race. A race apt for commerce and for manufacturing
+industries; pushing, energetic, they gather to themselves the greater
+part of the commerce, manufactures, and shopkeeping of all kinds, as far
+as these are done by Spaniards, throughout the kingdom. Fiery in temper,
+and not to be implicitly trusted,<a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a> especially in Valencia, their
+weapon is the knife, which they use sometimes on slight provocation; the
+hired assassins and bandits of Spain have always been recruited thence.
+Socialists and Federalists in politics, they have ever been disaffected
+towards the central government. In Catalonia this may be the result of
+memories of former independence; but it is curious to remark that
+Barcelona and the cities of the Mediterranean, as compared with Cadiz
+and Ferrol on the Atlantic, have played analogous parts in Spanish
+history to those of Marseilles and Bordeaux in French; the Mediterranean
+in each case being the home of the ultra-democrat and the man of the
+"Montagne," and the Atlantic of the constitutionalists and the
+Girondins. More to the south we find undoubtedly a greater mixture of
+Moorish blood. The Andalusian is almost oriental in character, he is
+fond of song and dance and colour, yet lazy withal, and disliking
+sustained labour. He delights to deck himself with finery, and his women
+with flowers; and his taste though glowing is never utterly debasing.
+Excelling in wit and repartee, the Andalusian <i>gamin</i> is the most
+amusing rogue in Europe. He has a wild, fierce, momentary energy, and is
+courteous and gracious in speech; his proverbs and songs are
+innumerable, and sparkle with a peculiar wit and charm; but he
+altogether lacks the more solid qualities of the men of the north.
+Philosophers, orators, and poets rather than men of industry and science
+are the<a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a> product of these provinces. The Andalusian barely keeps up the
+works which the more highly civilized Moors had done for him in
+agriculture and in vineyard, but he does not improve upon them; and both
+in mining and in wine cultivation, in manufactures, and in coasting
+shipping, he allows nearly<a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a> the whole of the trade and commerce of the
+south to pass into the hands of foreigners or of Catalans. The men of
+central Spain, except in the towns, the men of Leon, of the Castiles,
+and of La Mancha, and in a less degree the men of Estremadura, have
+changed but little for the last few centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;">
+<a href="images/ill088.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill088_thumb.jpg" width="463" height="550" alt="DOMINIQUE, THE ESPADA." title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">DOMINIQUE, THE ESPADA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">They are Spaniards of the
+type generally conceived by foreigners as applying to the whole nation.
+Grave and slow of speech, exceedingly courteous unless their prejudices
+are offended, fond of formality and proud of it; they are bigoted (but
+less so than formerly), prejudiced, ignorant to an extreme, each
+thinking his own town or village the <i>élite</i> of the universe; content
+with few comforts and preferring semi-starvation to exertion, the
+Castilian is half ashamed of honest labour, but by no means averse to
+corruption in any shape, and sees no disgrace in beggary. Cruel in the
+extreme, when his passions are aroused, it is one of the misfortunes of
+Spain that from the advantage of their elevated central physical
+position, the Castilians, as warriors and statesmen, at all times among
+the least civilized of her people, have been able to rule and control
+the more civilized and more advanced (especially in political freedom
+and administration) communities of the sea-board. It is a want of
+discernment of this fact which makes so many of the picturesque
+histories of Spain utterly fail in explaining the origin and the
+progressive causes of her present condition. There are a few other
+tribes in Spain which it may<a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a> be worth while to notice, such as the
+Gipsies, who seem still to keep themselves tolerably distinct in
+Andalusia and in the south, but who in more than one instance have
+completely coalesced with the Basques in the north. The Maragatos, the
+trusted <i>Arrieros</i> or muleteers of Leon, a remnant apparently of a wild
+Berber tribe, left behind when the more civilized Moors retreated
+southwards before the advance of the Christian conquerors; the Passiegos
+near Bilbao, the men of the Sayago, the Hurdes of the Batuecas, the
+Chuetas of Majorca, these and several minor tribes, remnants, perhaps,
+of older populations whose ethnic affinities have never been made out,
+are too few in numbers to affect the general population; but are of
+interest to the ethnologist from the survivals of ancient laws and
+customs which are still observed among them. One class, not a tribe, the
+wretched commercial policy of Spain has developed to a greater extent
+than in any other country, that of the smuggler or contrabandista. He
+differs greatly in different districts, and even on the same line of
+frontier. In some parts contrabandista is almost synonymous with bandit,
+in others he is honest in his illegal trade, and more to be trusted with
+immense sums than the officials who arrest him. In a small way he is a
+type of the many contradictions of Spanish character and of "the things
+of Spain."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
+<a href="images/ill090.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill090_thumb.jpg" width="377" height="550" alt="GIPSIES AT GRANADA.
+(Page 90.)" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">GIPSIES AT GRANADA. (Page 90.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><br />
+<small>DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">S<small>PAIN</small> was formerly divided into some fourteen separate provinces or
+kingdoms, once ruled by distinct and independent sovereigns, and under
+very different political conditions. It was not until the taking of
+Granada, in 1492, that the whole nation became, even nominally, subject
+to the joint sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella; and for long afterwards
+Aragon and Catalonia preserved a semi-independence, while, even to our
+own day, the Basque Provinces and Navarre were really an independent
+republic united to the Spanish crown.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1841, however, the whole country has been divided for
+administrative purposes into forty-eight provinces, including the
+Balearic Isles.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now hastily sketch the chief features of the old kingdoms, with
+the modern provinces included in each. Beginning from the north-west,<a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a>
+we have the kingdom of G<small>ALICIA</small>, with its four provinces, <i>Corunna</i>,
+<i>Lugo</i>, <i>Pontevedra</i>, and <i>Orense</i>. We have before remarked on the Frith
+or Fiord-like character of the western coast of Galicia, a conformation
+which gives it by far the finest harbours of the whole Spanish coast.
+Thus, in the province of Corunna there are the harbour and city (33,000
+inhabitants) of the same name, so well known by our forefathers under
+the title of "the Groyne," and the scene of many a gallant fight both by
+land and sea from the days of Queen Elizabeth to the fall of Sir J.
+Moore, but now the chief port of the cattle-trade with England. Its port
+is frequented by about 130,000 tons of British shipping annually; and
+about 20,000 bullocks are exported annually, mostly in small schooners.
+It has also a tobacco factory. A little to the north-east Ferrol
+(23,000) has a still better harbour, and is one of the principal naval
+establishments of Spain. It is capacious enough to almost contain the
+united fleets of Europe; and its only drawback, a singular one in so
+humid a climate, is the want of good water. But the most famous city in
+the province, and indeed, in all Galicia, the pilgrim-town of Santiago
+(St. James) de Compostella (24,000) owes its magnitude to devotion
+rather than to commerce. The legend of the voyage of St. James to Spain,
+the finding his body at Compostella, and his subsequent appearances in
+battle as the champion<a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a> of Spain, made this the most celebrated shrine
+in Europe. Roads led to it from every land, and one of the popular names
+of the "Milky Way" was "The road to Compostella." The wealth both of the
+military order of Compostella and of the cathedral and chapter was
+immense. Even now, after all its spoiling, the cathedral is rich in
+precious goldsmiths' work, in architectural, and in literary treasures.
+Pontevedra (8000) is the capital of the thickly-populated province of
+the same name, whose inhabitants reap a harvest both from sea and land.
+Vigo (6000) has an excellent harbour and roadstead, but its commerce has
+greatly fallen off in comparison with that of Corunna. It was formerly
+the port at which the galleons disembarked their treasures for Northern
+Spain. The total tonnage of the harbour in 1878 was 208,000. <i>Orense</i>,
+an inland province east of Pontevedra, has a capital of the same name
+(11,000) on the banks of the Minho. It is the head of an agricultural
+and pastoral district, and in it are produced some wines which were
+considered in the eighteenth century the finest of all Spain. Here, too,
+is one of the grand bridges of Western Spain, possibly of Roman
+construction. <i>Lugo</i>, with its city (8000), faces north instead of west,
+and has its harbours, Vivero and Rivadeo, on the Bay of Biscay; but the
+near neighbourhood of Ferrol and of Corunna deprive them of all but
+coasting trade.<a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a></p>
+
+<p>The A<small>STURIAS</small>, the home of the Spanish monarchy, and the only ancient
+kingdom of which no part was subdued by the Moors (though they raided
+once to Oviedo), contains but one province, called after its chief town
+<i>Oviedo</i> (34,000), with a cathedral, university, and a most pleasant
+situation. In this province is Covadonga, where the Visigoth Pelayo, in
+719, repulsed the Moors, and thus took the first step towards the
+recovery of Spain. The whole country slopes rapidly from its southern
+frontier, the summit of the Cantabrian Mountains, towards the Bay of
+Biscay. Cangas de Tineo (22,000) is the centre of a mining district.
+Owing to the great development of mining operations in this province
+within the last ten years the small towns of Siero, Tineo, Grado, and
+Villaviciosa have suddenly sprung into importance, and each now contains
+over 20,000 inhabitants. The chief port is Gijon (30,000), of which the
+chief trade is in hazel-nuts for England, of which over 1000 tons are
+annually exported, to the value of 23,000 <i>l.</i> Here is one of the seven
+government tobacco manufactories, and also important glass-works,
+conducted chiefly by Swiss and French artisans; but it is far
+outstripped in commercial importance by S<small>ANTANDER</small> (41,000), the capital
+of the neighbouring province, and the great port of outlet for the
+agricultural riches of Leon and of the Castiles. Santander has also a
+great trade with Cuba and<a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a> Porto Rico, and possesses almost a monopoly
+of the supply of cereals to those islands. A port of equal natural
+excellence is Santoña, which the first Napoleon would have made the
+Gibraltar of Northern Spain, but which is now frequented only as a
+bathing-place by the inhabitants of the interior. The mountain scenery
+of these two provinces is most picturesque, both along the sea-board and
+in the interior, where the snow sometimes lies on the Picos de Europa
+until July or August. The coal-mines of the Asturias are rapidly
+assuming importance. The output was, in 1878, 400,000 tons, at a cost on
+board ship of 13<i>s.</i> per ton. The extent of the bed is estimated at
+667,200 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The B<small>ASQUE</small> P<small>ROVINCES</small> (Las Provincias Vascongadas) are <i>Biscay</i>,
+<i>Guipuzcoa</i>, and <i>Alava</i>. The union of the three is often represented by
+a symbol like the heraldic bearings of the Isle of Man; and they are,
+with Navarre and the French Pays Basque, the home of the Basque race,
+but only one province, Guipuzcoa, is <i>wholly</i> inhabited by them.
+<i>Biscay</i> has for its chief town the busy mining city of Bilbao (32,000)
+on the Nervion, with a commerce of over 2,000,000<i>l.</i> annual value,
+notwithstanding an inferior harbour, exceeding that of Santander. The
+chief mines, iron, are in the Somorrostro district, a few miles to the
+east of the city, and they are worked mainly by English, French, or
+German companies. In 1879 the exports from Bilbao amounted to<a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a> 1,160,248
+tons of iron minerals, while the imports included 72,196 tons of English
+coke and coal, chiefly for the use of the mines. In this province is the
+Oak of Guernica, where the Spanish sovereigns swore to observe the
+constitutional privileges or <i>fueros</i> of the Basques. The chief city of
+<i>Guipuzcoa</i> is San Sebastian (21,000), a sea-port with a strong citadel.
+Of less commercial importance than Bilbao, it is much frequented in
+summer as a city of pleasure; the town has been almost wholly rebuilt
+since the siege of 1813. The province, though almost wholly
+agricultural, and famous for its cider and apple orchards, contains also
+some mines, and a few manufactures grouped round its old capital, Tolosa
+(8000). Eibar and Plasencia, two small manufacturing towns on the Deva,
+have preserved the art of inlaying iron with gold and silver, and are
+noted for their manufacture of fire-arms. <i>Alava</i> has but one town of
+importance, Vitoria (25,000), a picturesque city at the foot of the
+Cantabrian Mountains and the head of the fertile plains of the Upper
+Rioja. These two districts, the Riojas, divided by the Ebro, are noted
+for their wines, which need only more careful preparation to become an
+important article of commerce; at present they are chiefly exported to
+Bordeaux, for mixing with inferior French wines, to be re-exported as
+claret to England. N<small>AVARRE</small>, the only other province where Basque is
+spoken, once formed part of a<a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a> petty kingdom which stretched on both
+sides of the Pyrenees, and of which the Spanish portion was definitely
+secured to Spain by the Duke of Alva in the reign of Ferdinand the
+Catholic, in 1512, has Pampeluna (25,000), a fortified city of Roman
+origin, for its capital. The upper part of Navarre is extremely
+mountainous, but it contains some useful iron-mines, and a Government
+foundry at Orbaiceta. The southern parts, along the banks of the Arga,
+and in the valley of the Ebro, are extremely fertile; but at the
+south-eastern corner in the Bardeñas Reales, we encounter a series of
+bare, stony hills, scored with deep ravines, and on which nothing will
+grow, the first of the desert tracks so common in Spain. Tudela (9000)
+on the opposite side of the Ebro, is united to the rest of the province
+by a fine bridge; it is here the traveller first sees in operation the
+<i>norias</i> or water-wheels of the East.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of A<small>RAGON</small> contains three provinces, <i>Huesca</i>, <i>Saragossa</i>,
+and <i>Teruel</i>. The kingdom is almost bisected by the Ebro, towards which
+it slopes on both sides, from the highest summits of the Central
+Pyrenees on the north, and from the Idubeda Mountains and the Molina de
+Aragon on the south. Aragon divides with the Asturias the honour of
+having been one of the cradles of the Spanish monarchy. In 795 Don Asnar
+defeated the Moors near Jaca, in the province of Huesca.<a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a> But the
+progress of the reconquest was very slow; from 714 to 1118 the Moors
+held possession of the town and kingdom of Saragossa, and it is from
+this occupation of four centuries that the traveller first meets here
+distinct remains of Moorish architecture. A still more lasting note of
+their sway is found in the nomenclature of the country. The rivers
+Guaticalema, Alcanadre, Guadalope, the names of the sierras, Alcubiere,
+and of many of the lesser towns and villages, sufficiently attest the
+former presence of the race who gave those names.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a href="images/ill098.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill098_thumb.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA.
+
+Page 98.
+
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA. (Page 98.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Huesca</i> (10,000), the capital of the province of the same name, is an
+episcopal and university town, the bishop's palace being on the site of
+an old mosque. The upper part of this province is exceedingly
+mountainous, and is entered from France by the Central Pyrenean road,
+that of Somport, originally constructed by the Romans. The only other
+towns are Barbastro (7000), Monzon (4000), and Jaca (3500), nearer the
+mountains. <i>Saragossa</i> (84,000), on the Ebro, formerly the Cæsar Augusta
+of the Romans, then for four centuries the capital of a Moorish kingdom,
+rivals Santiago de Compostella as a place of pilgrimage to the shrine of
+the Virgen del Pilar. The worship has, however, much declined of late
+years, and her devotees are not now a tithe of those who frequent the
+more recent shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes on the other side of the
+Pyrenees. The art treasures<a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a> of the cathedral were sold in 1870, when
+many fine examples of jewellery and art were acquired for the Kensington
+Museum. Saragossa, though now fallen as a place of commerce, must again
+become important if the railway project is carried into effect, which
+will place it on the most direct line between Paris and Madrid. The
+Ebro, from its shallowness, is of no service for navigation; and, from
+neglect, the canals of Charles V. and of Tauste do not render the
+services they might, either for transport or for irrigation. Hence the
+despoblados and desiertos in the valley of the Ebro, both above and
+below the town. <i>Calayatud</i> (12,000) was one of the four <i>comunidades</i>
+of Aragon, and is in the midst of a mineral district, the wealth of
+which seems at present almost wholly undeveloped. <i>Teruel</i> (7000) is the
+capital of a very mountainous province which slopes towards the
+north-west from the Sierras de Molina and Albarracin, the mountain
+ranges which form the eastern boundary of the great watershed of the
+peninsula. Excepting the mines in these sierras, the province is almost
+wholly agricultural, but with no towns of importance. The historian Don
+Vicente de la Fuente has remarked that while the lands of the
+<i>comunidades</i>, the four free towns of Aragon, Calayatud, Teruel, Daroca,
+and Albarracin, have remained fertile under their more liberal
+government, the lands of the Seigneurs in the valley of the Ebro, where,
+almost<a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a> alone in Spain, feudalism received its full development, have
+been for centuries barren and <i>despoblados</i>.</p>
+
+<p>C<small>ATALONIA</small>.&mdash;The ancient principality of Catalonia is now separated into
+four provinces, named after their chief towns, <i>Gerona</i>, <i>Barcelona</i>,
+<i>Tarragona</i>, and <i>Lerida</i>. The first three lie along the shores of the
+Mediterranean&mdash;the last, inland, and stretches from the Ebro to the
+Pyrenees. To the north of Lerida, and buried in the mountains, is the
+so-called republic of Andorra, which owes its practical independence to
+the singular fact of a double <i>seigneurie</i>. Both the Counts of Foix, in
+France, and the Prince-Bishops of Urgel, in Spain, were supreme Lords of
+Andorra. On paper its constitution is by no means so free as that of
+several other Pyrenean communities; but by skilfully playing off the
+jealousies and rivalries of its two lords, and preventing either from
+getting absolute power, this little state of twenty-eight miles by
+twenty has remained unsubdued, and unattached to either nationality. The
+chief trade of the republic may be said to be smuggling. <i>Lerida</i>,
+except in the valley of the Segre, is extremely mountainous, and like
+all the hill country of Catalonia is rich in minerals, especially in
+salt, near Solsona. The rest of its products are chiefly agricultural.
+The province is but thinly peopled; its chief town contains 20,000
+inhabitants. Balaguer (5000), Urgel (3000), Solsona (2500), are the most
+populous of the remaining.<a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a> With <i>Gerona</i> we enter the Mediterranean or
+Provençal region and climate, and come in contact not only with
+picturesque and glowing scenery, with a gorgeous variety of natural
+productions, but also with traditions and remains of the great works of
+all the races that have dominated this inland sea. From the Pyrenees to
+Carthagena the names of the chief towns recall classic reminiscences,
+and bring before us the struggles of ancient nations, contending on her
+soil for a far mightier empire than that of Spain. The province of
+Gerona contains Cape Creuz, the extreme north-easterly point of the
+peninsula, not far from the old Greek cities of Rosas and Emporium
+(Ampurias). Of its towns, Gerona, on the Ter, and Figueras have each
+8000, but are surpassed by Olot, 10,000, around which town are grouped
+the most recently extinct volcanoes in Spain. Coal is found in San Juan
+de las Abadesas. Here the Spanish gravity is mingled with the fire and
+dash of the Provençals, and the inhabitants both of Gerona and
+Barcelona, are more Provençal than Spanish, in language, political
+character, and in commercial and industrial aptitudes. The natural
+productions, and the flora too, are almost identical with those of the
+more sheltered parts of Provence and of the Riviera. Palm trees are seen
+as common ornaments in gardens and public squares, oranges and olives
+flourish, the mulberry is cultivated and silkworms are reared,<a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a> and all
+announces a warmer zone than any that we have hitherto traversed.
+<i>Barcelona</i> (250,000) the first industrial and commercial city of Spain,
+and the second in point of population, is also the capital of the most
+thickly inhabited province. The greater part of the trade and navigation
+of the whole Spanish sea-board from Catalonia to Cadiz, or even to
+Seville, is in the hands of its merchants. The cotton industry of
+Catalonia employed in 1870 a capital of 6,000,000<i>l.</i>, and 104,000
+workmen, distributed in 700 factories. The chief of the other
+manufacturing towns are Gracia (33,000), and St. Martin de Provensals
+(24,000). The annual commercial movement of Barcelona is estimated at
+about 11,000,000<i>l.</i> sterling. The British imports, chiefly of coal and
+iron, amount to nearly 1,000,000<i>l.</i> sterling; but the exports are a
+mere trifle, 10,000<i>l.</i>, most of the ships returning in ballast; while
+on the contrary, the exports of Tarragona, Palamos, Mataro, and
+Villamena, and the smaller ports amount to nearly 1,000,000<i>l.</i>, chiefly
+in wine, and the imports are only half that amount. Irrigation is
+successfully carried on in the valley of the Llobregat. <i>Tarragona</i>
+(23,000) is rich in Roman remains, in the picturesque beauty of its
+site, in its Gothic architecture, in the mildness of its climate, and in
+the goodness of its wines; but it is surpassed both in wealth and
+population by the neighbouring manufacturing city of Reus (27,000), and
+also by<a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a> Tortosa (24,000) on the Ebro, to which town all the river
+transport converges. The Ebro below Tortosa forms a sandy delta, and its
+channels are continually silting up. The canal of San Carlos, to connect
+Amposta with the sea by the port of Alfaques, has had but little
+success.</p>
+
+<p>V<small>ALENCIA</small> includes the three provinces of <i>Castellon de la Plana</i>,
+<i>Valencia</i>, and <i>Alicante</i>, all three lying along the Mediterranean, and
+facing east and southwards from the mighty buttress sierras which form
+the eastern wall of the great central plateau. It is in these provinces
+that we gradually pass from the Mediterranean climate to the "<i>Tierra
+caliente</i>," the warm lands and African products of south-eastern Spain.
+Here too we meet with the finest Roman remains; and Moorish architecture
+begins to form a prominent feature in the characteristics of each city.
+The speech is still a dialect of the Provençal, and the fiery Provençal
+nature is still apparent in the political history of the cities of
+Valencia. The hill-sides, bare of trees, are covered either with the
+esparto grass or with strongly aromatic herbs and shrubs. The rainfall
+gradually lessens; the streams all assume a torrential character, nearly
+dry in summer, swollen with rapid floods in winter; but they are greatly
+utilized for irrigation. By this means are formed the "<i>huertas</i>,"
+gardens, and "<i>vegas</i>," plains, oases of beauty and fertility lying in
+the bosom of the barren hills, which<a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a> serve as frames to pictures as
+valuable for their productiveness as they are enchanting in their
+beauty. The chief towns in the province of <i>Castellon</i> are Castellon de
+la Plana (23,000), Vinaroz (9000), Villareal (8000), both near the
+Mediterranean; Segorbe on the Palancia, and numerous smaller towns in
+the interior. Benicarlo and Vinaroz, on the coast to the north of the
+province, are noted for their excellent red wines, quantities of which
+are exported to France for mixing with inferior French vintages, whence
+they find their way to England as Rousillon or Bordeaux. <i>Valencia</i>, a
+city of 143,000 inhabitants, and with a fine artificial harbour called
+the "<i>grao</i>," is the third city in population in Spain; but its commerce
+is little more than that of Santander and Bilbao, cities only one fourth
+of its size. The value of British imports, chiefly of coal, cod-fish,
+guano, and petroleum, in 1878, was 136,450<i>l</i>., and of exports, chiefly
+of fruits to Britain, 524,984<i>l</i>. The "<i>huerta</i>" of Valencia, with its
+canals for irrigation, its "<i>acequias</i>," "<i>norias</i>," and other devices
+to draw the waters of the Guadalaviar, is one of the most successful
+examples in Spain of regulated application of water to agriculture. The
+quantity of water allotted to each property, the hour of opening or
+closing the sluices, are regulated according to laws and customs
+descended from Moorish times. So great is the drain upon the streams
+that the waters<a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a> of some of the smaller rivers are entirely absorbed in
+the summer, and even of the Guadalaviar but little then reaches the sea.
+It is from the <i>huerta</i> of Valencia that the oranges come which form the
+delight of the population of Paris at the new year; hence are the
+raisins and the almonds and candied fruits equally dear to the British
+housekeeper. Rice is successfully cultivated on some of the lower
+grounds near the coast, and fruits and vegetables of every kind abound;
+but the Spaniards complain that they lack the richness and lusciousness
+of flavour belonging to those grown in other parts. "In Valencia," say
+they, "grass is like water, meat like grass, men like women, and the
+women worth nothing." The district was formerly noted for its
+silk-growing and stuffs of silk; also for the fine pottery known as
+Majolica ware from its carriers to the Italian ports, the sailors of
+Majorca and the Balearic Isles. It was also the earliest place of
+printing in Spain, and celebrated as a school of poetry and the arts;
+but nearly all this ancient fame is lost. To the south of Valencia is
+the large lake or lagoon of Albufera, the most extensive of the many
+lagoons along the Mediterranean coast, about nine miles long and
+twenty-seven miles round; it is full of fish, and frequented by wild
+fowls, and its varied inhabitants recall those of the Nile rather than
+those of any part of Europe. In the north of the province is Murviedro
+(7000), the<a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a> ancient Saguntum, with its port almost entirely blocked up.
+Considerable remains of the older city still exist, with inscriptions in
+idioms yet unknown, and are a treasure to archæologists. The largest of
+the other cities are Alcira (13,000) on the Jucar, and Jativa (14,000).
+The southern coasts of Valencia and the neighbouring districts of
+Alicante abound in sites of picturesque beauty, and the position of many
+of the ruined monasteries, built generally on the hills with a distant
+prospect of the sea, can hardly be excelled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alicante</i>, whose <i>huertas</i> and <i>vegas</i> with their appliances for
+irrigation rival those of Valencia, has but 34,000 inhabitants.
+Orihuela, in its rich wheat-growing district of never-failing harvest,
+has 21,000, and Alcoy 32,000. The smaller towns are numerous, and from
+the little ports in the north of the province, round Cape Nao, a good
+deal of coasting trade is done with the neighbouring Balearic Isles.
+From Denia, Tabea, and Altea, nearly 100,000 tons of raisins are shipped
+every year, chiefly for Great Britain. At Elche (20,000) is the
+celebrated forest of palms of which we have before spoken, and the
+leaves of which are sent to Rome for the ceremonies of Easter week. The
+number of the trees is gradually declining, as the produce hardly repays
+the great amount of labour required. In the church at Elche religious
+plays or mysteries are occasionally performed, with an enthusiasm and
+solemnity<a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a> both of actors and spectators equal to that of the
+Passionspiel of Ober-Ammergau.</p>
+
+<p>M<small>URCIA</small> contains the two provinces, <i>Murcia</i> and <i>Albacete</i>. The first
+faces the Mediterranean; the second, besides comprising the Sierras of
+Alcazar and Segura, climbs those boundary mountains, and advances far
+into the plateau of La Mancha, and thus contains within its limits the
+sources of the Guadiana as well as those of the Mundo and the Segura.
+<i>Murcia</i>, in its higher parts, is very thinly peopled, and in spite of
+the fertile plains in the lower course of the Segura and the Sangonera,
+and the rich mining district round Cartagena, has only two-thirds as
+many inhabitants to the square mile as Valencia. Murcia is perhaps the
+driest province of Spain, and the one in which the want of water is the
+most generally felt, yet it is in this province that the floods are the
+most pernicious and destructive. Year by year the irrigation works
+become less effective. Ancient dams broken down by the floods are not
+restored. Since 1856, however, a new source of wealth has been opened to
+this province by the export of the esparto grass, which grows on all the
+low hills, and which, in addition to its use in the country for numerous
+native fabrics, is now largely exported for paper-making. The export
+began only in 1856. In 1873 it had reached 67,000 tons for England
+alone; in 1875 the money value of the whole export was 400,000<i>l.</i>, but
+it declined to<a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a> 30,000<i>l.</i> in 1877, and 284,000<i>l.</i> in 1878, since which
+date it has gradually lessened. Murcia, the chief city, is an irrigated
+plain on the Segura, has a population of 91,000. It is one of the chief
+seats of silk cultivation in Spain. Lorca (52,000), on the Sangonera,
+offers another example of the extreme fertility that can be obtained by
+irrigation in a suitable climate. Cartagena (75,000), with its grand
+harbour and docks, is one of the three naval arsenals in Spain; but has
+greatly fallen from its ancient wealth and importance. Like Barcelona
+and Valencia it has distinguished itself by its extreme democratic and
+cantonalist opinions, and has revolted against the republic equally as
+against the monarchy. In its neighbourhood are some of the richest lead
+and silver mines in Spain, and which have been worked since Carthaginian
+and Roman times. The coal imported from England for smelting purposes
+amounts to 80,000 tons yearly. The tonnage of British vessels employed
+was over 200,000 in 1877. Along the coast are various lagoons and
+salt-lakes (salinas), where salt is made on a considerable scale; it is
+exported chiefly to the Baltic. The Barilla plant, for making soda, is
+also cultivated along the coast; and, of the plants in the salinas, it
+is computed that at least one-sixth of the species are African.
+<i>Albacete</i> (16,000), situated at the junction both of road and railway
+from Murcia and Valencia to Madrid, is chiefly celebrated for its trade<a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a>
+in common cutlery. It is here that the large stabbing knives (navajas)
+are made, and for the use of which both Valencians and Murcians have an
+unenviable notoriety. On the plateau of this province (Albacete) are
+found (Salinas) salt-lakes formed by evaporation, the only examples of
+this kind in Western Europe. The only other town of any importance in
+the province is Almanza (9000), on the edge of the plateau before making
+the descent into Valencia. The numerous names compounded of "pozo,"
+well, and "fuente," fountain, in this province, attest its arid
+character, where fresh water is scarce enough to make its presence a
+distinguishing mark to any spot.</p>
+
+<p>A<small>NDALUSIA</small> embraces the whole of southern Spain from Murcia to the
+frontier of Portugal. Its seaboard includes both the Mediterranean and
+the Atlantic. In Cabo de Gata, 2°10' W., it has the extreme
+south-easterly point of Spain; and in Cabo de Tarifa, 36°2' N., the
+extreme southerly point, not only of Spain, but of Europe. One chain of
+its mountains, the Sierra de Nevada, contains the highest summits of the
+peninsula; and its river, the Guadalquiver, from Seville to the ocean is
+the only stream of real service for navigation in the whole of Spain.
+Its wines and olives, its grapes and oranges, and fruits of all kinds,
+are the finest, its horses and its cattle are the best, its bulls are
+the fiercest, of all Spain. The sites of its cities rival in<a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a> their
+entrancing beauty those of any other European land; while, wanting
+though they may be in deeper qualities, its sons and daughters yield not
+in wit or attractive grace or beauty to those of any other race. The
+Moor has left a deeper mark here than elsewhere, even as he kept his
+favourite realm of Granada for centuries after he had lost the rest of
+Spain. And when the sun of Moorish glory set, it was from Andalusia that
+the vision of the New World rose upon astonished Europe. The year of the
+conquest of Granada (1492) was also that of the discovery of America.
+All things take an air of unwonted beauty and of picturesque grace in
+this land of sun and light; even the gipsy race, avoided and abhorred in
+other countries of Europe, at Granada, as at Moscow, becomes one of the
+attractions of the tourist. The province is not entirely of one type. It
+unites many kinds of beauty; even in Andalusia are "<i>despoblados</i>" and
+"<i>destierros</i>," dispeopled and deserted wastes, under Christian hands,
+but once fertile and inhabited under Moorish rule. Savage wildness and
+barrenness reign in its lofty mountain chains as much as softer beauty
+does in the "<i>huertas</i>" and "<i>vegas</i>." But from the minerals the one
+district is equally valuable as the other. The province possesses the
+richest mines, as well as the richest fruits and wines, of the whole of
+Spain. A<small>NDALUSIA</small>, is divided into the provinces of <i>Almeria</i>, <i>Granada</i>,
+<i>Malaga</i>, on the Mediterranean;<a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a> <i>Cadiz</i>, <i>Seville</i>, <i>Huelva</i>, on the
+Atlantic coast; and <i>Cordova</i> and <i>Jaen</i> inland, along the upper waters
+of the Guadalquiver.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/ill110.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill110_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="364" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF GRANADA, WITH THE ALHAMBRA.
+
+Page 110.
+
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">GENERAL VIEW OF GRANADA, WITH THE ALHAMBRA. (Page 110.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In <i>Almeria</i> (40,000) the flat-roofed houses are built round a central
+court, the "<i>patio</i>," wherein is often a fountain, and palm and vine for
+shade; while oranges, myrtles, passion-flowers, and other gay or
+odoriferous shrubs or flowers, add their colour and perfume. The type
+and the manners of the inhabitants tell us that we are already in the
+land of the Moors. Almeria has declined from what it was when one of the
+chief ports of transit between the Moors of Africa and their brethren of
+south-eastern Spain; but from the growing importance of the Spanish
+colony in Oran, its trade is now fast reviving. The exports are lead and
+silver ore from the mines of the neighbourhood, fruits of all kinds, and
+a little wine. The tonnage of British shipping employed at Almeria was,
+in 1875, 117,123 tons; 1876, 85,840 tons; 1877, 89,988 tons. The chief
+exports in 1877 were about 10,000 tons of esparto grass, 280,000 barrels
+of grapes, 10,000 tons of minerals, and nearly 10,000 of calamine. The
+sugar-cane is also grown here. The whole province is mountainous,
+covered with the spurs and offshoots of the mighty Sierra Nevada, the
+Sierras de Gador, de Filabres, de Cabrera, de Aljamilla, all which have
+their terminations in headlands which run into the Mediterranean. The
+basins of the rivers of the<a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a> region are often cleft by these smaller
+ranges, and thus they receive their waters from both the northern and
+southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The only other towns of importance
+are Cuevas de Vera (20,000), and Velez-Rubio (13,000), in the north of
+the province on the road between Murcia and Granada, where some
+lead-mines have been lately opened. The ports, except Almeria, are all
+small; Dalias, on the confines of Granada, is noted for the magnificent
+grapes and raisins shipped there.</p>
+
+<p><i>Granada</i> (76,000) is one of the most celebrated spots of Europe, a city
+of enchantment and of romance. It is one of the few places of renown,
+the sight of which does not disappoint the traveller. The natural
+advantages of its position would be sufficient to mark it as a city of
+unusual beauty, were there no masterpieces of art and of architecture,
+or storied memories, connected with it. It is situated in an upland
+valley, at an elevation of 2200 feet above the sea level&mdash;sufficiently
+high in that climate to prevent the summer's heat from being
+oppressively exhausting, and not too high to hinder the choicest
+semi-tropical fruits and flowers from growing in the open
+air&mdash;surrounded, yet not too closely, by mountain ranges, of which those
+to the east are the very highest in Spain&mdash;Mulhacen (11,700), Alcazaba
+(11,600), and Veleta (11,400). The ice and snow on their summits<a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a> not
+only cool the hot winds which blow over them from Africa, but provide
+the means of making the iced water which is the Spaniard's greatest
+luxury. Its climate is second in its equable range only to that of its
+coast towns, Motril and Malaga. It is watered by the united streams of
+the Darro and the Jenil, which meet within the city, both hurrying from
+their mountain home to join the Guadalquiver between Cordova and
+Seville; and with their fertilizing waters dispersed in irrigation they
+make the "Vega," or plain, of Granada one of the noted gardens of the
+world. Granada is worth all the praise that has been sung or written of
+it. On an isolated hill to the east, cut off from the town and from the
+Generalife by the ravine through which the Darro flows, and enclosed
+with a wall flanked by twelve towers, stands the celebrated group of
+buildings known by the name of the Alhambra, perhaps the fairest palace
+and fortress at once ever inhabited by a Moslem monarch. Almost
+unrivalled in the beauty of its site, it outstrips all rivals in the
+beauty of its Arab architecture. The mosque of Cordova is grander, and
+the tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo may be in a purer style, but they lack
+the variety and richness of these diverse buildings. The Alhambra hill
+is to Arabic what the Acropolis of Athens was to Hellenic art; only to
+the attractions of the plastic arts were added<a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a> in the case of the
+Alhambra the triumphs of the gardener's skill. Shrubs and flowers
+delighted the eyes with colour, or gratified the sense of smell with
+sweetest odours, while water, skilfully conducted from the neighbouring
+hills, purled among the beds, or leaped in fountains, or filled the
+baths with purest streams. Thus every sense and taste was gratified, and
+Granada was indeed an earthly paradise to the Moor. Even in its decay,
+and<a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a> seen in fragments only, it is one of the world's wonders, a
+treasure and delight to pilgrims of art from every land. But we must not
+waste our space in detailing the beauties of Granada; its trade, sadly
+diminished from what it was formerly, is chiefly in fruits and silk and
+leather stuffs. Next to Granada, the chief city in the province is Loja
+(15,000), near the Jenil, and the little port of Motril (13,500),
+sheltered under the highest summits of the Sierra Nevada, is said to
+possess the most equable climate of the Spanish Mediterranean ports. It
+is here, in the extensive alluvial plain stretching from Motril to the
+sea, that the sugar-cane is most extensively cultivated, producing in
+1877, 113,636 tons of cane. Far inland, and separated from Motril by the
+mountain mass, is Baza (13,500). The mineral riches of the Sierra Nevada
+have never been adequately explored; from specimens used in the
+construction of Granada, it must possess marbles of rare beauty; metals,
+too, abound, but few of its mines are worked. In picturesque beauty,
+when seen near at hand, these mountains are not nearly equal to the
+Pyrenees and to many minor chains; with rounded summits, they are bare
+and denuded of wood, and are entirely without the glacier forms, and the
+lakes and rushing streams, which delight us in the Alps.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/ill114.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill114_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="481" alt="ALHAMBRA TOWER BY MOONLIGHT." title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">ALHAMBRA TOWER BY MOONLIGHT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Malaga.</i>&mdash;The greater part of this province lies in an amphitheatre of
+mountains, stretching from<a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a> the Sierra de Almijarras on the east to
+those of De la Nieve and of Ronda to the west. It faces the full
+southern sun, but is watered and irrigated by torrential streams from
+the mountains, at times almost dry, at others, as in December, 1880,
+rushing down in most destructive floods. The city, with over 110,000
+inhabitants, boasts not only the finest climate in Spain, on which
+account it is greatly frequented by invalids in the winter, but its
+commerce is second in value to that of Barcelona. Its wealth and exports
+are almost wholly agricultural, consisting of luscious wines&mdash;which,
+however, have a greater reputation on the continent than in
+England&mdash;oil, fruits, and especially dried raisins; oranges, olives,
+figs, sugar, and sweet potatoes. Bananas, and all other tropical and
+semi-tropical products of Spain are here found in perfection. Upwards of
+2,000,000 boxes of raisins, 3,000,000 gallons of oil, and 1,100,100
+gallons of wine, besides other fruits, esparto grass, and minerals
+(chiefly lead), are annually exported. The tonnage of British vessels in
+1878 was about 158,000 tons. It has been a city and port from great
+antiquity; but though a favourite residence of the Moors, they have left
+fewer remains here than at Granada, Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and many a
+place of lesser note. Antequerra (25,000), on the Guadaljorce, on the
+northern slope of the sierras, guards the defile leading to Malaga, and<a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a>
+was formerly of great military importance. The Cueva del Menjal, in the
+neighbourhood, is a fine dolmen. Ronda (20,000), the chief town of the
+sierra of the same name, is remarkable for its position on both sides of
+an enormous fissure (el Tajo) from 300 to 600 feet deep, and which is
+spanned by a magnificent bridge, constructed by the architect Archidone,
+in 1761. Velez Malaga (24,000) is a small sheltered port to the east of
+Malaga, with a trade in fruits and wines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cadiz</i>, the most southerly province of Spain, includes the capes of
+Trafalgar and Tarifa, and the Punta de Europa, or the English Rock of
+Gibraltar. This province is also the principal seat of the great sherry
+trade. The town (65,000) and port have greatly fallen from their former
+importance, when Spain possessed nearly all the Americas south of
+California, and but for the Transatlantic steamers to Cuba and the West
+Indies, and to the Philippine Islands in the East Indies, would probably
+decline still more. The application of steam, allowing ocean vessels to
+ascend the Guadalquiver rapidly to Seville, has arrested there a great
+deal of the produce which formerly came to Cadiz, but which is now
+shipped at the former town. The total tonnage of the port is now about
+800,000; the imports over 2,000,000<i>l.</i>, of which about one-sixth is
+British; but of the exports, which are about the same in value, fully
+two-thirds go to Great<a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a> Britain. Cadiz itself is undoubtedly one of the
+oldest ports of Western Europe, and is situated on a narrow promontory,
+formed into an island by the channel of San Pedro. Unlike most of the
+southern cities of Spain, its houses are of great height and of several
+stories, the contracted space of its site having occasioned this
+architectural modification. The city is excellently supplied with fish;
+the market is noted both for the quantity and the variety of its supply,
+which amounts to nearly 900 tons annually. Round the Bay of Cadiz are
+situated towns and harbours of considerable size, whose united commerce
+is almost equal to that of Cadiz itself. Of these, Puerto de St. Maria
+(22,000), on the northern side of the bay, is the great harbour for the
+shipment of sherry wines. Immense quantities of salt are made, chiefly
+for exportation, in the Salinas between Puerto Real and San Fernando
+(26,000), and Chiclana (20,000), on the San Pedro canal, which cuts off
+the Isle of Leon from the mainland. The export of wine from the whole
+Bay was, in</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr align="center"><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Gallons.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Butts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1858</td><td align="left">3,600,000,</td><td align="center">or</td><td align="left">33,028</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1862</td><td align="left">5,600,000,</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">51,376</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1871</td><td align="left">8,300,000,</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">77,064</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1876</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">61,609</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1877</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">68,246</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Xeres de la Frontera (64,000), situated about<a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a> thirty miles from Cadiz,
+surrounded by vineyards, is a city of Bodegas, or wine-cellars, the
+principal of which, as well as of the vineyards, are in the hands of
+foreigners. It is one of the busiest of Spanish commercial towns, and,
+like Barcelona, is on that account less peculiarly Spanish than many
+others. The exportation of sherry wines from the district, and those
+shipped at Port St. Mary, amounted, in 1873, to 98,924 butts; 1874,
+65,365 butts; from Jerez alone, in 1875, 43,727 butts; 1876, 42,272
+butts; 1877, 41,660 butts; 87 per cent, of which goes to Great Britain
+and her colonies. The decrease in later years is probably caused by the
+greater amount of lighter French wines now consumed in England. San
+Lucar de Barrameda (22,000), at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, is noted
+for its winter-gardens, which are said to date from Moorish times, and
+which supply Cadiz and Seville with their earliest fruits and
+vegetables. From its vineyards, too, comes the stomachic Manzanilla
+sherry, flavoured with the wild camomile, which grows abundantly in its
+vineyards. Arcos (12,000), on the Guadalete, is the only other Spanish
+town of importance in the province; but to the south lies the isolated
+rock and fortress of Gibraltar (25,000), captured by the Earl of
+Peterborough in 1704. Though held only as an English garrison (5000),
+and made almost impregnable as a fortress, it is yet of considerable
+commerce<a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a> from its position as a port of call for vessels passing the
+Straits of Gibraltar, and also from its contraband trade with Spain,
+which is a source of constant irritation between the two nations. In
+natural history, it is remarkable for its apes (<i>macacus inuus</i>), as the
+only spot in Europe where any species of monkey lives, and it is
+doubtful whether even these would survive without the aid of occasional
+importations from Morocco.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seville</i> is the typical province of Andalusia, and its city of 133,000
+ranks fourth in population of the cities of Spain. The Moors have left
+deeper outward traces at Granada, but here they have fused more
+thoroughly with the population, and have given it the Oriental grace and
+culture which is lacking in the former place; their wit belongs to
+themselves. Seville is peculiarly the home of Spanish art; the greatest
+of her painters, Murillo and Velasquez, were born there, and Zurbaran
+painted his best pieces to adorn her walls. Her writers are scarcely
+less noted. The most celebrated novelist of modern Spain, Cecilia Bohl
+de Faber (Fernan Caballero), had her home there. There Amador de los
+Rios composed his chief works. The Becquers&mdash;both the painter and the
+novelist&mdash;were born there. It is a city of predilection for all of
+artistic tastes. The Giralda, a tower of Moorish architecture, rivals,
+if it does not surpass, in its exquisite proportions the <i>campanille</i><a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a>
+of Italian art. The Alcazar is a home of beauty. The <i>patios</i>, or inner
+courts, of many of the houses have remains of Moorish decoration. The
+Cathedral shows that Christian lags not far behind Moslem architecture.
+But Seville, on the Guadalquiver, is not a mere city of pleasure. Like
+Paris, its gay exterior contains a great deal of real work and commerce
+within. Since the invention of steam, allowing sea-going vessels to
+breast with ease the current of the Guadalquiver, it has drawn to itself
+a great deal of the traffic which formerly passed through the harbours
+of the Bay of Cadiz. The tonnage of its shipping amounts to about
+120,000 tons, and the value of its imports to over 2,000,000<i>l</i>., and of
+its exports to 1,750,000<i>l</i>., one-half of which belongs to Great
+Britain. Among its manufactories, one of porcelain, carried on by a
+British company, but employing Spanish methods, is celebrated; and its
+tobacco manufactory, with its 1000 women workers, is the largest
+government establishment of the kind in Spain. The city long enjoyed
+almost a monopoly of West Indian and of Manilla productions; the wealth
+brought by the galleons was deposited here, and here are still preserved
+the "Archivos de las Indias." It possesses both a university and a mint.
+The lower part of the Guadalquiver runs through marshy lands, which in
+places present almost impenetrable jungles. In these are bred<a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a> the bulls
+which supply the bull-fights with their victims, and which make Seville
+the great school of <i>tauromachia</i> in Spain. The finest Andalusian horses
+are also produced in this province, and the wines, though not equal to
+those of the neighbouring provinces of Cadiz and Cordova, are still
+highly esteemed. Besides Seville, the chief towns are Ecija (24,000) on
+the Jenil, a place of large trade; Carmona (18,000); Ossuna (16,000).
+Utrera, Lebriga, and Marchena would be considerable towns in other
+provinces, but we can only indicate them here. From the absence of
+mountains Seville has not the mineral wealth of some other provinces,
+but coal is worked at Villanueva del Rio, and the copper-mines at
+Arnalcollar yield 20,000 tons of ore; other outlying deposits of the
+Huelva beds are found in this province, and a great part of the lead
+from the Linares mines is shipped here.</p>
+
+<p><i>Huelva</i>, the last maritime province of Spain, conterminous with
+Portugal on the west and with Seville on the east, with its capital of
+10,000, is one of the richest mining districts in Europe. Worked in
+prehistoric times, and in the mythical dawn of history, by Iberians,
+Ph&oelig;nicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, the mines of Tharsis and of
+the Rio Tinto were strangely neglected by the Spaniards until purchased
+by an Anglo-German company in 1873 for 3,850,000<i>l</i>., but with the
+certainty<a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a> of a rich return. There are now over 7000 men employed by
+this company, and 906,600 tons of copper ore were extracted in 1879 from
+the south lode only; about 10,000 tons of hematite iron were also sold.
+The mines contain sulphur, copper, iron, and silver. In fact, the
+mountains round the source of the Tinto seem to be almost one mass of
+mineral ore. From the working of these mines the development of the
+riches of this province has been most rapid of late years, and the
+tonnage of shipping from the port of Huelva will probably soon rival, if
+not surpass, that of Cadiz: in 1873 the foreign shipping was 180,000
+tons; this had ascended to over 300,000 tons in 1877. The imports were
+valued in 1873 at 168,000<i>l</i>., of which 112,000<i>l</i>. were British; and in
+1877 to over 300,000, of which not quite one-half was British. The
+exports are of far greater importance, ranging from 750,000<i>l</i>. in 1873,
+of which 667,000<i>l</i>. were British, to 1,236,243<i>l</i>. in 1877, of which
+1,132,782<i>l</i>. went to Great Britain. Except in minerals, the province is
+not rich; but a trade which will probably increase, has lately sprung up
+in wines, fruits, and cork. The frontier stream the Guadiana is of
+little use to Spain, and the little port of Palos, whence Columbus set
+out to give a new world to Spain, is now completely silted up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cordova.</i>&mdash;The interior provinces of Andalusia are <i>Cordova</i> and
+<i>Jaen</i>, both on the Guadalquiver,<a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a> the latter embracing the sources and
+upper part of the course, the former the central portion before it
+enters the province of Seville. The northern part of the province of
+Cordova is covered by parallel ranges of low mountains running east and
+west&mdash;the Sierras de Cordova and de Pedroches within the province, and
+the Sierras de Almaden and Morena, which form the boundary of Castile.
+<i>Cordova</i>, the capital, contains now but 49,000 inhabitants in place of
+the 1,000,000 who dwelt there when it was the seat of the western
+khalifat. Its mosque, almost the sole remnant of its former splendour,
+with its 1200 columns, is to Islam what the temple of Karnac at Thebes,
+and that of Karnac in Brittany, with their 100 pillars, are to the
+religions of Egypt and of prehistoric Europe. It is perhaps the grandest
+building for worship ever raised by Moslem hands; its materials were
+pillaged without scruple from shrines of older civilizations, but were
+wrought into new and fairer forms of beauty by the magic of Arabian art.
+As a Christian city, Cordova is of only second rank. It is chiefly noted
+for its leather work, and for its commerce in wines and fruits. It is to
+Cordova that the Amontillada sherry&mdash;the most prized of Spanish
+wines&mdash;comes, from the vineyards round Montilla (15,000). The only other
+town of importance in the province is Lucena (16,000), to the south.<a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Jaen</i>, like Huelva, at the opposite extremity of Andalusia, is a mining
+province, and like those of Huelva its mines are chiefly in the hands of
+Englishmen and of foreigners. Linares (36,000), north of the
+Guadalquiver, is the centre of the mining district, and is far the most
+populous town in the province. Nearly 11,000 men, women, and boys were
+employed in the lead-mines in 1877, and the ore raised amounted to
+70,000 tons. It has been calculated that the production of the world is
+about 300,000 tons of lead, of which Spain furnishes 100,000 tons and
+the United Kingdom 100,000 tons. The capital, Jaen, south of the great
+river, has only 24,000 inhabitants; Ubeda and Baza, close together, a
+little south of Jaen, have each 15,000. Andujar (11,000), with its old
+bridge over the Guadalquiver, is noted for its porous pottery, the
+cooling water-jars used throughout the whole of Southern Spain. In the
+north of this province is the celebrated Pass of Despeña-perros, through
+the Sierra Morena, one of the wildest gorges through which the traveller
+passes in any part of Europe; a few miles to the south of it is Las
+Navas de Tolosa, the field of the battle in 1212 which first proved how
+fast the power of the Moors was waning in Southern Spain.</p>
+
+<p>E<small>STREMADURA</small>, conterminous on the west with Portugal and on the south
+with Huelva, is the wildest and least peopled of all the provinces of
+Spain, and has been almost sufficiently described in<a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a> a former chapter.
+It is divided into the two modern provinces of <i>Badajoz</i> and <i>Caceres</i>,
+through which run respectively the two rivers, the Guadiana and the
+Tagus. Desolate as it is now, the numerous Roman remains at Merida
+(6000) and Trajan's mighty bridge at Alcantara tell what it was in Roman
+times; but in Moorish days it suffered more from war than any other
+province, and the curse, the "<i>mesta</i>," the only means the Christian
+conquerors had of utilizing their vast and thinly-peopled properties,
+has ever since rested upon it. Besides its flocks and herds its chief
+wealth consists in acorns and bark for tanning, and cork for other
+purposes. The rivers run in deep gorges, almost cañons, and are useless
+for either navigation or for irrigation. Badajoz (22,000), on the
+Guadiana, one of the frontier fortresses of Spain towards Portugal, is
+by far the largest city. Higher up the river are Merida and Medellin,
+but Don Benito (15,000) is of greater commercial importance than either.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caceres</i>, a province still more thinly peopled than Badajoz, having
+only fifteen inhabitants instead of nineteen to the square kilometre,
+has 12,000 for its chief town; Plasencia, on the Xerte, an affluent of
+the Alagon, has only half that number. In the north-east of this
+province, on the southern spurs of the lofty Sierra de Gredos, stands
+the monastery San Juste, to which the Emperor Charles V. retired on<a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a> his
+resignation of his many crowns. The shepherds of Estremadura,
+notwithstanding the scanty population, gave numbers of emigrants to the
+New World; Cortez and Pizarro were swineherds, the one of Medellin, the
+other of Truxillo. The town of Alcantara gives its name to one of the
+three great military orders of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>N<small>EW</small> C<small>ASTILE</small> and L<small>A</small> M<small>ANCHA</small> comprise the five modern provinces of <i>Ciudad
+Real</i>, <i>Toledo</i>, <i>Madrid</i>, <i>Cuenca</i>, and <i>Guadalajara</i>, which all take
+their names from their chief towns. The province of <i>Ciudad Real</i>, which
+lies between the Sierra de Morena and the mountains of Toledo, is
+traversed by the Guadiana. It is the most thinly populated of all the
+provinces of Spain, having only thirteen inhabitants to the square
+kilometre; but it is by no means the least wealthy. It contains within
+it the quicksilver-mines of Almaden (9000), the richest deposit in the
+world before the late discoveries in California. They were a source of
+revenue to the Spanish crown for centuries, with an annual rent of over
+a quarter of a million. They were however mortgaged by the Government
+for thirty years in order to raise a loan of 2,318,000<i>l.</i> at five per
+cent., to be extinguished in 1900. The average annual extract is
+estimated at 12,000 tons of mercury. The vineyards round Valdepeñas
+(11,000) supply the red wine which is the favourite beverage of the
+Spaniards throughout the centre and the south,<a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a> and the home consumption
+of which is far beyond that of the sherries. Almagro (14,000) is known
+for its lace manufacture; but Ciudad-Real, the capital (12,000), is
+fallen from its ancient importance. Damiel (13,000) and Manzanares
+(9000) are the only other towns that need mention.</p>
+
+<p><i>Toledo</i> (21,000), watered by the Tagus, was for centuries the most
+important city of Spain. It is here that the great councils which really
+regulated the civil as well as the ecclesiastical administration of
+Spain, from the fourth to the eighth centuries were held. Here too was
+one of the centres of Arabic civilization: the waterworks, clocks, and
+observatory of Toledo were among the wonders of the world from the tenth
+to the twelfth centuries, and even after its capture by the Christians,
+in 1085, the conqueror seemed for a while to have fallen under the same
+spell. The court of Alfonso X., the Wise, was a semi-Moorish court, and
+his tolerance excited the indignant wonder of travellers from other
+parts of Europe. Moorish and Christian architecture is still most
+strangely blended in many of its buildings, and Moorish architects were
+long employed to keep in repair not only the structures which their
+ancestors had raised, but even the Christian churches. The skill of its
+ironworkers and the temper of its sword-blades were renowned throughout
+Europe. The superiority of its steel was said to be due to some peculiar
+virtue of the water of the Tagus used in<a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a> tempering; but the best of the
+iron was taken from the mines of Mondragon, in Guipuzcoa. The
+manufactory has greatly fallen from its ancient splendour, but some good
+weapons are still made, though they cannot compete in price with British
+or foreign goods. The insurrection of its inhabitants under the
+"Comuneros" in 1520, in defence of the ancient constitutional liberties
+of Castille probably determined the selection of the more obsequious
+town of Madrid as the capital of Spain by the Emperor Charles V. Toledo,
+with its narrow streets and semi-Moorish houses, is emphatically the
+city of Old Spain; the purest Spanish is said still to be spoken there,
+and for native poets and romancers it seems to have an attraction beyond
+that of any of the cities of Andalusia. The only other town of
+importance in the province is Talavera, with its fifteenth-century
+bridge of nearly a quarter of a mile in length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Madrid.</i>&mdash;The province of Madrid lies between the Sierra de Guadarrama
+on the north and the Tagus on the south. The city, which now contains
+almost 400,000 inhabitants, was a third or fourth-rate town until
+Charles V., and after him Philip II., chose it for the capital of Spain,
+in place of either Toledo or Valladolid. Its recommendations seem to
+have been its central position, and the absence of any strong traditions
+of ancient constitutional liberties, such as might hamper the sovereign
+in developing<a name="page_130" id="page_130"></a> his new despotism. A city which owed its creation
+entirely to the sovereign, and its riches to to the presence of his
+court, would be certain to be obedient to its rulers. If Charles V. and
+Philip II. did not make it the centre of a free and constitutional
+government, they at least enriched it with all the treasures of art
+which the rulers of the greater part of Europe could collect from the
+various parts of their vast dominions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/ill130.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill130_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="358" alt="FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR SEASONS, MADRID.
+
+Page 130.
+
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR SEASONS, MADRID.
+(Page 130.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">It is at the museum of Madrid,
+which owes its existence to Ferdinand VII., that not only Spanish, but
+also many of the Flemish and some of the Italian painters can be best
+studied; and by a happy chance the royal palace, built in the eighteenth
+century, is one of the least faulty and most impressive structures of
+that age. At the west end of the city, on the banks of the Manzanares,
+are the royal gardens; at the opposite extremity the promenades of the
+Prado and the gardens of the Buen Retiro. These artificial parks and
+walks in some way compensate for the dreary and almost desert aspect of
+the country round Madrid; for there are "<i>despoblados</i>" and
+"<i>destierros</i>" almost within sight of the greatest city of Spain. It is
+now approached by rail from all sides, and the convergence of these iron
+roads and of the highways will probably secure its future position as
+the capital of the nation; but until the present century, contrary to
+that of most European capitals, the<a name="page_131" id="page_131"></a> approach to Madrid seemed to be
+an approach from civilization to barbarism. As the traveller neared the
+capital, whether from the north or from the east and south, the inns
+grew worse, the roads more impassable, and the difficulty of procuring
+food greater in the neighbourhood of the capital than elsewhere; the
+contrast of magnificence and meanness, of dirt and discomfort and formal
+etiquette in the city itself, until the time of Charles III., is the
+theme of every visitor. Of late its character has much changed; the
+increase of its population has not been caused by the natural growth of
+its inhabitants, but by the migration thither of Catalans, Gallegos,
+Asturians, Basques, and especially of Andalusians; and thus the Puerta
+del Sol, the heart of Madrid, has become, as it were, the heart of
+Spain, and almost every political and social movement which stirs the
+nation has its origin there. Though not quite to the extent with which
+Paris absorbs France, still Madrid collects to itself the greater part
+of the intellectual and literary life of the nation. It is Madrid that
+supplies most of the daily journals, the scientific periodicals,
+reviews, and literature to the rest of Spain. Here is the seat of the
+learned academies and of the chief literary, educational, and scientific
+institutions. The universities, the national and the free, the Ateneo,
+the great public libraries of Madrid, are the best in Spain. It is here
+that Cortés meets,<a name="page_132" id="page_132"></a> here that the elections are arranged, all the lines
+of Spanish administration converge hither, and it is here that the
+intrigues for place or power are principally conducted, and unhappily we
+must add it is thus that Madrid is also the focus and example of
+administrative corruption for the rest of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Madrid, the province contains two other royal residencies,
+Aranjuez to the south, at the junction of the Tagus with the Jarama, and
+the Escorial to the north, at the foot of the Guadarrama. The chief
+attractions of the former consist in its abundant supply of water, in
+its fountains and running streams, and in the avenues and groves of
+lofty trees, whose roots are fed by these waters. The Escorial is of an
+entirely opposite character. This vast and extraordinary structure was
+raised by Philip II., in pursuance of a vow made at the battle of St.
+Quentin, August 10 (St. Lawrence's Day), 1557; the ground-plan is that
+of a mighty gridiron, to recall that on which the martyr suffered. The
+central piece of architecture is a chapel, impressive from its grand
+simplicity; and however faulty the general design of the vast edifice,
+several details, and especially the frescoes of the ceilings and some of
+the paintings, are of great beauty. The whole fabric, in its severe and
+sombre majesty, harmonizes well with the bare and wind-swept granite
+mountains near which it is placed. Like<a name="page_133" id="page_133"></a> most of the other
+treasure-houses of Spain, it suffered severely from pillage during the
+French invasion. <i>Acala de Henares</i> (8000) was celebrated in the
+sixteenth century as a university under the patronage of the Cardinal
+Ximenes, and here the celebrated Complutensian Polyglot Bible was
+printed. It was also the birthplace of Cervantes. The canal of Henares
+is described above, pp. 18, 19.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuenca</i>, one of the most thinly populated as well as one of the most
+mountainous provinces of Spain, stretches on two sides of the chief
+watershed, and the waters of the streams which rise in this province
+from different slopes of the Cerro de San Felipe flow to the Atlantic
+and to the Mediterranean. Cuenca (7000), the capital, is still untouched
+by railway routes, and slumbers on its lofty cliff, and emerged into
+temporary notoriety by its capture and sack by Alphonso, the brother of
+Don Carlos, in 1874.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guadalajara</i> (6500), on the Henares, though on the line of railway
+between Saragossa and Madrid, is scarcely more lively than Cuenca, but
+it contains the school for military engineers, the most distinguished
+corps in the Spanish army, and which has never stained its character by
+political intrigue. The province supports a slightly higher population
+than that of Cuenca.</p>
+
+<p>O<small>LD</small> C<small>ASTILE</small> was with Leon for several<a name="page_134" id="page_134"></a> centuries the chief of the rising
+kingdoms of Spain, and the one into which all the rest gradually merged.
+It now contains five provinces, <i>Avila</i>, <i>Segovia</i>, <i>Soria</i>, <i>Logroño</i>,
+and <i>Burgos</i>. Avila (7000), still surrounded by its mediæval walls in
+excellent preservation, is one of the most picturesque cities in Spain,
+at an altitude of nearly 3500 feet above the sea-level. The province is
+remarkable as the one in which the rudely-sculptured stone monuments of
+boars and bulls, the "Toros de Guisando," are chiefly found. They are
+the art remains of a population whose name, age, and ethnic affinities
+are totally unknown. The southern half of this province is traversed by
+the lofty Sierra de Gredos, and hiding in its secluded valleys are some
+of the most primitive peoples of Spain. There are no other large towns
+in the province.</p>
+
+<p><i>Segovia</i> (7000), another of the picturesque cities of Spain, contains
+fine specimens of Roman, Moorish, and Christian mediæval architecture in
+its wondrous aqueduct, cathedral, the Alcazar, and castle. It was
+formerly a place of great commercial as well as of political importance,
+and was the centre of a trade in woollen goods which employed 34,000
+workmen, and made the cloth of Segovia celebrated throughout Europe.
+This commerce has now utterly departed, both from it and from the other
+cities, such as Avila, Medina del Campo, which shared its reputation. It
+is now visited by the<a name="page_135" id="page_135"></a> lover of the picturesque, whose taste will be
+here abundantly gratified. Not far from Segovia, under the Peñalarra
+(7800 feet), on the northern slope of the Guadarrama range, are La
+Granja and San Ildefonso. At a height of 4000 feet above the level of
+the sea, this is the most agreeable of all the inland royal residences
+of Spain. Built in French taste by Philip V., it is redeemed from
+banality by its pleasant surroundings. But retired and peaceful as it
+looks, La Granja has been the scene of some of the most important
+political events in the modern history of Spain. The celebrated passes
+of Somosierra (4700 feet), and that of the Col de Guadarrama (5000),
+lead from this province to Madrid; the railway, too, attains at La
+Cañada a height of 4457 feet above the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soria</i>, on the north-eastern edge of the great plateau, is one of the
+poorest provinces of Spain. Leaning on the Sierra de Moncayo, the whole
+of the northern and central part of the province slopes gradually to the
+west, and is watered by the Douro, which takes its rise in the Sierra de
+Moncayo. The southern angle of the province contains also the sources of
+the Jalon, which, flowing through a break in the Idubeda range, finds
+its way to the Ebro, and thence to the Mediterranean, the upper courses
+of the two rivers completely overlapping. In spite of these two
+river-valleys the province is very unproductive. Soria, near the site of
+the<a name="page_136" id="page_136"></a> Keltiberean Numantia, which held out for twenty-nine years against
+the Romans, contains but 6000 inhabitants. Osma, on the Douro, has
+barely 1000, and Agreda (4000) is celebrated only for the visions of a
+nun in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The province of <i>Burgos</i> overlaps the plateau, and in its northern and
+southern extremities embraces the valleys both of the Ebro and the
+Douro, with their respective towns, Miranda del Ebro and Aranda del
+Douro. The basins of these two rivers are separated by the Oca or
+Idubeda mountains, which cross the centre of the province. The
+difference of the elevation of the two valleys may be seen in the fact
+that while Miranda del Ebro is 1600 feet above the sea-level, Burgos is
+more than 2800. Burgos (29,000) and Aranda del Douro were formerly towns
+of considerable commerce, and the former had at one time a claim to be
+considered the chief city of Northern Spain. It has now greatly fallen,
+but will always be visited for the noble remains of Gothic architecture
+in the city and its suburbs. Miranda del Ebro (3000), when the river
+formed the customs line for all commerce passing from the Basque
+Provinces into Spain, was of great consequence, and is now the point of
+junction for the northern lines of railway from Bilbao and from Irun. In
+this province, too, is the pass of Pancorbo, through which both road and
+railway wind; for savage wildness it is inferior<a name="page_137" id="page_137"></a> only to that of the
+above-mentioned Despeña-perros in the Sierra Morena.</p>
+
+<p>The whole province of <i>Logroño</i> lies in the southern half of the valley
+of the Ebro, and leans against the mountains which form the supports of
+the great plateau. The Ebro forms its northern boundary, and its chief
+towns, Logroño (12,000) and Calahorra (7000), are both on the river.
+Here the traveller from the north first sees the Noria or Moorish
+water-wheel at work. The province is noted chiefly for its strong, rough
+wines, and for its agricultural products. Navarete is known in English
+history as the spot where the Black Prince and Bertrand du Guesclin
+fought out their mightiest duel, the one as the partisan of Pedro the
+Cruel, and the other of Henry of Trastamare.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of L<small>EON</small> is divided into five provinces, <i>Salamanca</i>,
+<i>Valladolid</i>, <i>Zamora</i>, <i>Palencia</i>, <i>Leon</i>. <i>Salamanca</i> lies along the
+Portuguese frontier, which is here formed by the Rivers Douro and
+Agueda. The city (15,000) was famous throughout the early part of the
+Middle Ages for its university and for its Arabic and Hebrew learning.
+It thus became in popular estimation the home of magic and of the black
+arts, and as such its name is found in the folk-lore tales of many parts
+of Europe; its students, poor, riotous, and witty, made it the
+birthplace of the peculiar, picaresque romance literature of Spain, from
+Lazarillo de Tormes to Gil Blas.<a name="page_138" id="page_138"></a> Like all the Spanish provincial
+universities, it is but the shadow of its former self, nor does the city
+preserve any of the older features which still make Toledo a delight to
+the tourist. Its old bridge over the Tormes is said to date from Roman
+times. Bejar (8000) does a fair trade as a manufactory of cloth. Ciudad
+Rodrigo (5000) is one of the strongest fortresses of Spain, and guards,
+with Badajoz, the frontier against Portugal. The provinces of Salamanca
+and Zamora contain some of the most peculiar and picturesque peasantry
+yet remaining in Spain; even around Salamanca the festal dresses of the
+Charros and Charras are rich with gold and silver ornaments of Moorish
+type. In the valley of the Batuecas, amid the Sierra de Gata, the
+Hurdes, and to the west of Zamora, the Sayagos, and again, the
+Maragatos, to the north-west of the province, in the mountains of Leon,
+are all remnants of ancient races, preserving habits and tribal customs
+and laws, differing from their neighbours, and well worthy of the study,
+as survivals, of the comparative ethnologist. The contrabandistas of the
+province are among the boldest in Spain; they cross the Douro and its
+deep ravine, sometimes on rafts or on inflated skins; at others, when
+the river is in flood, in baskets suspended from ropes flung across the
+whole ravine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zamora</i> (10,000), formerly a strong walled city<a name="page_139" id="page_139"></a> on the Douro, in a
+rich country, notwithstanding the rail which unites it to the Medina del
+Campo, still remains one of the decaying towns of Spain. Toro (9000),
+higher up the stream, is a busier town. A great impulse will probably be
+given to all this district, now one of the most behindhand in Spain, by
+the completion of the Portuguese lines of Beira-alta, connecting Lisbon
+and Oporto with Paris by the North Spanish lines. Benavente (5000), on
+the Esla, is the only other town we have to notice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leon</i>, which gave its name to one of the old kingdoms of Spain before
+the re-conquest of the Castiles, is full of towns which recall the
+glories of the past, but which are of little importance in modern times.
+The capital (9000) is noted for its cathedral and churches, which are
+perhaps the purest specimens of Gothic, unmixed with Arabian art, to be
+found in Spain. The province is generally mountainous, especially to the
+north and west, and the higher lands afford excellent summer pasture for
+flocks from the plains, and even from Estremadura. The valley of the
+Esla is extremely fertile. Astorga (5000) may be considered as the
+Capital of the Maragatos, of whom we have spoken above; like Sahagun
+(3000), it is a town of ancient consequence now dwindling to
+insignificance. The "<i>fuero</i>" or charter of Sahagun, 1085, was the model
+of the "<i>fueros</i>" or<a name="page_140" id="page_140"></a> constitutional privileges of the Castiles, which
+were eventually lost in the war of the <i>comuneros</i> in the time of
+Charles V.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palencia.</i>&mdash;Through this province passes the canal of Castile from Alar
+del Rey to Valladolid, borrowing its waters from the Pisuerga, and is
+the most useful for transport of all the canals of Spain. This waterway
+is less needed now, owing to the railway of the north from Valladolid to
+Santander, to Bilbao, and to San Sebastian, which runs parallel to it;
+but it will be always available for local traffic. The capital is a
+walled city on the banks of the Carrion, a little above its junction
+with the Pisuerga, an affluent of the Douro; its cathedral is remarkable
+for its size and simplicity, but is otherwise inferior to Leon. The
+valleys, watered by these rivers are very rich in cereals, which find
+their outlet for exportation at Santander. The great coal-field of the
+Asturias extends into the north of this province, and at Barruelo de
+Santillana is largely worked by the Northern Railway Company, and
+supplies Madrid with a yearly increasing quantity of coal. The villages
+near the mines are fast becoming populous towns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Valladolid</i> (52,000) was till the middle of the sixteenth century the
+capital of Spain, and is likely to become of great importance in the
+near future as the point of junction of all the Spanish and Portuguese
+railways of the north and west.<a name="page_141" id="page_141"></a> The Douro flows through the centre of
+the province, and the plains of Valladolid are perhaps the most fertile
+of all those in North-western Spain. It is a great centre for the
+corn-trade of the Castiles, and the smoke from its tall chimneys tells
+also of manufacturing industry. There are here two colleges for Scotch
+and Irish students for the Roman Catholic priesthood. They were
+established at the time of the persecutions in England, but are much
+less frequented now than formerly. Medina del Campo (4500) an ancient
+commercial city, was ruined in the wars of the <i>comuneros</i>, but may
+recover somewhat of its former traffic as a junction of railways. A town
+of similar name and standing, Medina de Rio Seco (4500), is in the north
+of the province; both are situated in rich corn-growing plains.
+Tordesillas (3500), on the Douro, owes its existence to the junction of
+roads which cross the river by its noble bridge. In this province is the
+Castle of Simancas, wherein are deposited the archives of Spain, as
+those of the Indies are at Seville. Long closed to the world, they are
+now open to the researches of scholars, and guides and inventories in
+aid are being published during the present year.</p>
+
+<h4><i>The Balearic Isles.</i></h4>
+
+<p>These islands are geologically a submarine continuation of the Valencian
+mountains which sink into the sea at Cape Nao. They are divided into<a name="page_142" id="page_142"></a>
+two groups: (1) Minorca, Majorca, Cabrera, and a few islets; the nearest
+point of which to the mainland is Soller on Majorca, ninety-three miles
+distant; (2) Iviza and Formentera, with some smaller satellites, are
+within sixty miles of the Spanish coast. The whole superficies of the
+islands is nearly two thousand square miles. The inhabitants number
+about 290,000. The climate is equable but exceedingly variable within
+somewhat narrow limits; the average both for Minorca and Majorca being
+sixty-four, the highest temperature ninety, and the lowest forty-four.
+The average rainfall is nearly twenty inches. Majorca, the largest of
+the islands is about sixty miles from east to west, and fifty from north
+to south. The surface is very broken, but with a few fertile plains; the
+greatest elevation is 5000 feet. Minorca, twenty and a half miles to the
+east of Majorca, is twenty miles long by six broad. Iviza, the largest
+island of the western group is only four miles by four. The highest
+points of these two islands are about 1000 feet; but Iviza retains
+traces of volcanic action which seem to connect it geologically with the
+extinct Catalan volcanoes, by way of the Columbretes rocks, and the
+Point de la Baña at the mouth of the Ebro. Majorca and Minorca are
+remarkable for erections called "Talayots," similar to the "Nuraghies"
+of Sardinia; they are the work of one of the many prehistoric, or at
+least unrecorded<a name="page_143" id="page_143"></a> races whose blood mingles in the veins of the present
+inhabitants, and the origin of them has given rise to almost as many
+theories as those of the round towers of Ireland and Scotland. In the
+west of Majorca is the remarkable and extensive cavern of Arta. The
+language of the islanders is one of the purest dialects of the Provençal
+speech. The only separate race now in the islands is that of the
+"<i>Chuetas</i>" or converted Jews, who still keep apart notwithstanding
+their nominal Christianity. The population is mostly engaged in
+agriculture, and the islands export fruits, oil, leather, and a few
+cattle, to an annual value altogether of 350,000<i>l</i>, while the imports
+amount to 210,000<i>l</i>. The land is cultivated mostly by peasant
+proprietors and metayers in small holdings, and by reason of steady
+emigration those who remain are fairly prosperous. The people show
+strong aesthetic tastes, and the art school of Palma is one of the most
+flourishing of the whole of Spain. The chief towns on Majorca are Palma,
+on the east coast, of 58,000 inhabitants; Manacor, in the centre, of
+12,500; Felanitz, 10,000; and Llummayor, Soller, Inca, and Pollensa, of
+about 8000 each. Minorca has only two towns of importance, Port Mahon,
+22,000, and Ciudella, 7000, at opposite extremities of the island. Port
+Mahon is perhaps the finest harbour in the Mediterranean, and is also
+one of its strongest fortresses; during the English occupation the town
+attained great<a name="page_144" id="page_144"></a> prosperity. Iviza has only one town, of the same name as
+the island, containing 5500 inhabitants. We have noticed before that the
+majolica ware was not made in these islands, but at Valencia, and that
+it acquired the name from Balearic vessels being used for its export to
+Italy.<a name="page_145" id="page_145"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /><br />
+<small>HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">I<small>N</small> order to understand the present constitution, the political
+condition, and the aspirations of the Spanish nation, it is absolutely
+necessary to have some slight acquaintance with its previous history.
+This we propose to give as briefly as possible.</p>
+
+<p>In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there is no doubt that the
+inhabitants of Northern Spain, under some of the petty kings, enjoyed
+more constitutional liberty than any other people in Europe; that their
+institutions generally, and especially their municipal privileges, were
+more in accordance with the ideas of modern freedom and self-government
+than those of any other nation at that date. The feudal system never
+attained in Northern Spain, except in parts of Catalonia, the systematic
+development, and the organized oppression of the lower classes, which it
+reached in many other parts of Europe. The peculiar institution of
+"<i>behetria</i>," which prevailed in Leon and the Castiles, and by<a name="page_146" id="page_146"></a> which a
+serf was free to go whither he would "from sea to sea," with all his
+goods, and to put himself under any lord he chose, was of itself an
+almost sufficient check to excessive tyranny by the nobles. The old
+Roman municipal organization, of the towns had been preserved by
+tradition throughout the whole of the Visigothic times down to 711, nor
+had the practical working completely died out at the epoch of the early
+reconquest of the north. Hence many of the charters or "<i>fueros</i>"
+granted to the towns and cities by the kings are evidently founded on a
+recollection of former institutions, modified according to the
+necessities of the times. Thus the charter of Leon (1020) expressly
+allows exemption from all arbitrary exactions, and grants the free
+election of the <i>Alcalde</i>, and of the municipal council, with only the
+appointment of the judges by the king. By the <i>fuero</i> of Arganzon (1191)
+it is expressly stated that if these royal officers overpassed their
+duties, it would be lawful to kill them without incurring any
+responsibility. Similar but still more strongly-worded clauses are found
+in all the Basque <i>fueros</i>, and in the coronation oath of Aragon.</p>
+
+<p>The representatives of the burgesses, "el estado llano," the low estate
+in the "Cortés" or parliaments, began much earlier in Spain than in
+other countries. Burgesses sat in the Cortés at Leon certainly in 1188,
+if not in that of Burgos in 1169. In Aragon<a name="page_147" id="page_147"></a> they were present still
+earlier, in 1134, in Navarre in 1194, in Catalonia, where feudalism was
+more developed than elsewhere, in 1218. These dates are simply those of
+the first mention of the fact, not necessarily that of its first
+institution; the records rather imply their presence at former sessions.
+We find also early protests against judicial and administrative abuses
+which prevailed long afterwards in other parts of Europe. In the <i>fuero</i>
+of Arganzon (1191) the inhabitants claim exemption from the ordeal of
+iron, hot-water, or battle. In 1152, the <i>fuero</i> of Molina demands that
+justice be done to all, and truth spoken without favour or bribery of
+any kind whatever. The original capitulations granted to the Moors and
+Mudejares of Castile, and especially to those of Aragon, breathe the
+same liberal spirit. They are granted full liberty in the exercise of
+their own religion, and to live under their own laws in their own
+quarters, subject only to some fixed tribute and service. The spirit of
+bigotry and of hatred between the two races commenced with the foreign
+monks, with the semi-religious military orders, and with the legal
+classes; afterwards it spread to the common people through envy at the
+better use which the Jews, Mudejares, and Moriscos made of the
+privileges granted to them, and the consequent superiority of their
+condition compared with that of the serfs and lower classes of the
+Christians. It is this fact<a name="page_148" id="page_148"></a> which explains the rising of the population
+at Saragossa in favour of the inquisition against the Mudejares and
+Jews. Travellers in Spain, even to the middle of the fifteenth century,
+were scandalized at the toleration of the Moors by the king and the
+court. Theologians, lawyers (except the royal judges), medical men, and
+traders were they who called for oppression of the Moors; the two last
+classes evidently through jealousy of the superior skill and industry of
+Moors and Jews as doctors and merchants; the literary class, the poets,
+nobles, and kings were in favour of toleration. Afterwards indeed, in
+the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the ravages of the
+pirate ships of Algiers and Tunis roused an indignation and excited a
+far more intense abhorrence than had existed in earlier times, when
+Christian and Moslem knights met in fair and equal warfare.</p>
+
+<p>The development of these early liberties, and the progress of the cause
+of toleration and of true civilization in Spain, were checked by
+circumstances which would assuredly have acted in a similar way in any
+other nation. The establishment of the military orders, the conquest of
+the south, especially the last campaign against Granada, put forces into
+the hand of the king greater than those possessed at that time by any
+other monarch. The richest half of Spain, the newly-conquered Mussulman
+provinces, had not only no liberties of their<a name="page_149" id="page_149"></a> own except those granted
+in their respective capitulations, and which were speedily revoked, but
+had neither knowledge of, nor any interest in the liberties of the
+north. They were entirely at the mercy of their conquerors, Ferdinand
+and Isabella, who had the control of the finest army of Christendom. The
+mastership of all the great semi-monastic military orders, which had
+hitherto been elective, was now granted to Ferdinand by Pope Innocent
+VIII. (1492), and they were incorporated with the crown by a bull of
+Adrian VI. (1523). An almost equally powerful engine in the royal hands
+was the secret police of the Santa Hermandad (1476), founded to restrain
+the excesses of the nobles and the practice of private war. The success
+of this institution in the cause of order explains both the institution
+and the popularity of the inquisition. It is easy to see what a leverage
+was thus put into the royal hands to destroy the liberties of the north
+of Spain. Add to this that the separate kingdoms, Navarre, Aragon,
+Valencia, the Castiles, and the Basque Provinces had not yet been united
+under a single head, nor had learned to work together, except in war,
+for a single purpose. Catalonia and Aragon had indeed some sympathy with
+each other, but they had none with Leon and Castile; their peculiar
+language and habits isolated the Basque Provinces and Navarre from any
+of the rest. A century of free representation and debate in a national
+Cortés might have<a name="page_150" id="page_150"></a> changed all this, but the opportunity was not given.
+The discovery and the conquest of America, and the subsequent emigration
+of the bolder spirits, turned men's thoughts away from internal reform
+and the home constitution. Next the fatal election to the empire of
+Charles V. threw into his hands fitting agents, in his foreign and
+ecclesiastical ministers and governors, wherewith to crush any rising of
+the people. Cardinal Ximenes was the only minister in Europe who at that
+date could have pointed to a standing army with the proud words, "With
+these I govern Castile; and with these I will govern it, until the king,
+your master and mine, takes possession of his kingdom."</p>
+
+<p>Yet even to the end of the seventeenth century the king swore to
+preserve the ancient privileges of Aragon and Catalonia. The "<i>fueros</i>"
+of Navarre were intact until 1840, and those of the Basque Provinces
+till 1874. The wonder is, not that the Spanish liberties were crushed,
+but that the memory of them should have continued so long, and after so
+many ages of repression should yet be a living force with which every
+statesman and ruler of Spain has still to make his account.</p>
+
+<p>The suppression of Spanish liberty had already begun under the reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, but the death of Francis I. and the retreat of
+Charles V. into the cloister of San Juste definitely closes both the
+period of chivalry and of such<a name="page_151" id="page_151"></a> liberties as existed through the Middle
+Ages in Europe. With Philip II. begins the era of statesmanship and of
+bureaucratic centralization, when nations were really ruled from the
+closet and with the pen, not with the sovereign's sword or by his
+presence in the field. It is difficult for an Englishman to sympathize
+with the view, but the period of Philip II. is still looked upon by the
+majority of Spaniards as the golden era of the external position of
+Spain. His absolutism, and his concentration in his own person of all
+civil and religious rights, are condoned in their eyes by the glory of
+his having made Spain the arbiter of Europe and the champion of
+Catholicism. But with his successor set in that strange and progressive
+decadence of intellectual power in the sovereigns of the Austrian
+dynasty in Spain, which ended in the almost idiotcy of the childless
+Charles II. Spain, which in the reign of Philip II. had all but imposed
+the sovereign of her choice in France, in the reign of Charles II. was
+ruled according to the intrigues and caprice of the court of Versailles.
+Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV., though vastly superior to the
+late Austrian sovereigns, could never thoroughly emancipate himself from
+the tutelage of the country to whose armies he owed his crown; and the
+family degeneracy, which had shown itself in the Austrian sovereigns,
+again appeared in the Bourbon family, and communicated itself<a name="page_152" id="page_152"></a> to the
+whole nation. The military and naval greatness of Spain disappeared, the
+very wish for constitutional liberty died out, commerce and literature
+were almost extinct, the population was declining in numbers and
+increasing in misery, the country was daily growing poorer, and its
+wealth was ebbing slowly away to other lands. The noble aristocracy of
+Spain, once so full of loyal self-respect in the age of the Cid,
+grovelled at the sovereign's feet, jealous only for precedence in
+matters of court etiquette, or clamorous for posts in the colonies as a
+means of corruption, and of enriching themselves by the plunder of the
+provinces they administered. The only king who showed some royal talent,
+and who intelligently endeavoured to effect the improvement of Spain,
+was Charles III. (1759&mdash;1788). Unfortunately both he and his able
+ministers, instead of basing their reforms on the native liberties and
+constitutions of Spain, imitated almost wholly the spurious liberalism
+of the encyclopædists and doctrinaires of France. Hence few of their
+reforms took root. Those that were not immediately done away with did
+not grow or develope. The successors of Charles III. were still more
+feeble than his immediate predecessors, and the condition of the royal
+family was such that Napoleon had no difficulty in forcing them to
+abdicate, and to crown his brother Joseph king of Spain; but the nation,
+unlike the royal family, refused to acquiesce in this<a name="page_153" id="page_153"></a> usurpation of
+their rights, and rose as one man to avenge the burning wrong.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/ill153.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill153_thumb.jpg" width="550" height="323" alt="PORT OF CADIZ.
+
+Page 153.
+
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">PORT OF CADIZ.
+(Page 153.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The modern history of Spain begins naturally with that of the War of
+Liberation, May 2nd, 1808, and politically with the Cortés of Cadiz,
+1812, and with the constitution then promulgated. This declares: That
+the Spanish nation is not the patrimony of any family or person; that
+the sovereignty resides essentially in the nation, which is the
+conservator of its own liberties and rights. The sole religion is and
+shall always be the Apostolic Roman. The legislative power resides in
+the Cortés with the king. The suffrage was universal, and one deputy was
+to be elected for every 70,000 souls. Entails and feudal privileges had
+been abolished by a law of August 6th, 1811, the liberty of the press
+was voted, and in 1813 the inquisition was suppressed. The French had
+been expelled, chiefly through the assistance of England, and the king
+had returned from captivity; all looked well for the new era. But in
+1814 Ferdinand VII. violated the oath which he had sworn to observe the
+constitution; the inquisition was re-established; the feudal exactions
+on real property were restored; and the fatal policy of violent reaction
+and of ruthless vengeance on political opponents was inaugurated which
+has wrought such deadly harm to the cause of progress in Spain. After an
+absolute government of six years, Riego raised the standard of revolt at
+Cadiz,<a name="page_154" id="page_154"></a> and again Ferdinand swore to observe the constitution of 1812:
+further reforms were established. In 1820, tithes were partially
+suppressed, and the Church was forbidden to acquire any more real
+property. A law of May 3rd, 1823, affirmed in stronger terms the law of
+1813 on the abolition of entail: the religious orders were done away
+with. But in the same year, with the assistance of a French army under
+the Duc d'Angoulême, Ferdinand conquered the liberals and again violated
+his oath to observe the constitution. Every act of the Cortés for the
+last four years was annulled. Riego, with other chiefs of the liberal
+party, was put to death under circumstances of atrocious cruelty, others
+were banished, and a crafty and tenacious system of persecution was
+directed against every liberal for the rest of the reign. During this
+reign, too, through denial of all reform or suppression of any abuse,
+the whole of the vast colonial empire of Spain on the continent of the
+Americas was totally lost.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Ferdinand VII., June 29, 1833, another element of
+discord was introduced. The first Bourbon king, Philip V., in defiance
+of ancient Spanish precedents to the contrary, had introduced the Salic
+law from France, and had procured its solemn promulgation by Cortés.
+Ferdinand VII., with the consent of Cortés, abrogated this law, and left
+the crown to his only child, Isabella II., an infant of less than three
+years old, with her mother,<a name="page_155" id="page_155"></a> Christina of Naples, as regent. His
+brother, Don Carlos, who, since the king's last marriage, had been
+intriguing against him with the ultra-conservative party, claimed the
+throne under the law of Philip V. Henceforth a dynastic question was
+added to the standing constitutional one.</p>
+
+<p>The Carlists declared themselves the champions of legitimacy, the divine
+right, and of absolutism; and thus forced the party of Isabella, the
+Christinos, to appeal for support to the liberal and constitutional
+party, though they had no more real attachment to the cause, and no more
+intelligent appreciation of its benefits than had their opponents. A
+blunder of the liberal party in hesitating to confirm the "<i>fueros</i>" of
+the Basques, the last vestige still intact of the ancient constitutional
+and municipal liberties of Spain, greatly strengthened their opponents,
+who at once seized the opportunity and loudly confirmed them. A war of
+seven years followed, in which the older liberal generals lost all their
+former military prestige against Zumalacarregui in the Basque Provinces,
+and against Cabrera in Aragon. But the assistance of England, and still
+more the incapacity of Don Carlos, at length enabled Espartero to finish
+the war by the convention of Vergara, August 30, 1839, by which <i>fueros</i>
+were confirmed to the Basques on their laying down arms. Cabrera
+continued the war in Aragon and Catalonia, but two years afterwards was
+forced with<a name="page_156" id="page_156"></a> his followers to take refuge in France. During this period
+constitutional liberty had apparently made great progress in Spain, and
+several useful reforms had been set on foot. But its course had been
+marred by deeds of atrocious violence, such as the massacre of the monks
+and the destruction of the convents in 1835, when valuable treasures,
+both in art and literature, which had been spared in the great
+Peninsular War, were finally lost. All ecclesiastical and church
+property had been declared national, and the sale of it had been
+commenced, tithes were wholly suppressed, the <i>mesta</i> was
+abolished&mdash;with results as to the division of property detailed in a
+former chapter. From the regency of Christina dates, in a great degree,
+the shameless corruption, the selfish intrigues, the abuses of all kinds
+among the upper <i>employés</i>, which with rare exceptions have marked every
+subsequent government of Spain. A reaction set in in 1843, with Narvaez
+as its real chief. To his stern administration, however, are due the
+establishment of the normal and technical schools, the foundation of the
+present educational system in Spain, and the institution of the
+<i>guardias civiles</i>, a kind of police after the model of the French
+gendarmerie or the Irish constabulary, and which has proved itself the
+most trustworthy body in Spain in defence of law and order under all
+changes of government. It would be a weariness to the reader to recount
+all<a name="page_157" id="page_157"></a> the changes from liberalism to absolutism which followed during the
+reign of Isabella II. No administration succeeded in impressing on the
+bulk of the nation the fact that it was honest and capable; none won
+respect abroad. Perhaps that of O'Donnell (1858-63), during which
+occurred the successful campaign in Morocco, was the least corrupt and
+inefficient; but the indignation of the country at the shame and
+corruption of both court and government broke forth at last, and a
+movement, headed by Admiral Topete and the fleet at Cadiz, in 1868
+overthrew the Government, forced Isabella to fly, and declared the
+Bourbons incapable of ruling in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>On the abdication of Isabella II. in favour of her son, and her
+retirement into France, a provisional government was formed with
+Serrano, Topete, and Prim as chief members, to hold the reins of power
+until Cortés should elect a new sovereign. The choice proved far more
+difficult than was expected. Topete and others favoured the claims of
+the Duc de Montpensier, the brother-in-law of the late queen, but the
+objection to any of the Bourbon family was at that time too strong;
+others desired to seize the opportunity of uniting Spain and Portugal
+under one head by electing a member of the Portuguese royal family; but
+this was rejected by the princes of Portugal. Two years were spent in
+these debates, but at last the choice of Prim prevailed, and<a name="page_158" id="page_158"></a> Amadeo,
+the second son of Victor Emmanuel II. of Italy, was elected sovereign,
+16th November, 1870. The murder of his chief supporter, Prim, before he
+reached Madrid, deprived him of the only support which might have
+consolidated his dynasty. Had it not been for the deeply-rooted dislike
+of all Spaniards to a foreign ruler, Amadeo would have proved by far the
+best sovereign that had sat upon the throne for many generations. He
+honestly respected the constitution. His court was pure and incorrupt.
+He was intelligently devoted to the best interests of Spain; but he
+found all his efforts at improvement and reform utterly thwarted by the
+intrigues of the nobility and of the upper <i>employés</i> of every kind, and
+after a trial of two years he resigned a post which he could no longer
+maintain with true dignity and self-respect, and retired to Portugal,
+February 11th, 1873. Thereupon a republic was proclaimed by Cortés, with
+Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall as chief ministers. But the events
+of the last few years, the weakening of the central authority, the
+attention which the Carlist rising in the north had drawn to the ancient
+"<i>fueros</i>" or constitutional privileges of Spain, on the one side, and
+the incidents of the war with the Paris Commune in France, together with
+the influence of those of the communists who had found refuge in the
+industrial cities of the east and south, on the other, produced constant
+revolts in<a name="page_159" id="page_159"></a> favour of a federal or cantonalist government of the
+separate provinces. On July 15th, 1873, Don Carlos (Carlos VII.) the
+grandson of the Don Carlos (Carlos V.) of the seven years' war, although
+both his uncles and his father had solemnly renounced their rights to
+the throne, re-entered the Basque Provinces, from which he had been
+quickly driven by General Moriones at Oroquieta in a former attempt, and
+raised the standard of legitimacy and divine right. On the other hand,
+one after the other, Alcoy, Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, and, a few months
+later, Cartagena and Valencia, revolted in a communistic or cantonalist
+conspiracy which threatened the dismemberment of Spain, and the
+destruction of her armaments. It was only after severe fighting, which
+strained the resources of the Government to the utmost, that these
+cities were subdued. Meanwhile Don Carlos had established himself firmly
+in the Basque Provinces, and his brother Alfonso headed considerable
+forces in Aragon and Catalonia. Fortunately Barcelona held aloof from
+the cantonalist and <i>intransigente</i> movement of Cartagena and Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>These events, however, had shown the necessity of tightening the reins
+of discipline in the army. Salmeron, who was now at the head of the
+ministry, exerted himself to restore order, and endeavoured to work the
+republic in a conservative sense. A year or two after, at the
+instigation of Castelar, the<a name="page_160" id="page_160"></a> penalty of death for mutiny was again
+enforced. After Moriones and Serrano in the north had both failed in
+their attempts to raise the seige of Bilbao, Concha at last succeeded,
+May 2, 1874; and Martinez Campos, who had crushed the insurrection in
+Valencia, was making way against the Carlists in Aragon and Catalonia.
+Between these generals, with Pavia and others, a conspiracy was formed
+to restore the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII., son of Isabella.
+Serrano offered only a doubtful resistance, and Castelar, opposed by the
+<i>intransigente</i> party, found himself almost alone in upholding a
+conservative republic. The death of Concha, before Estella, in Navarre,
+June 27, 1874, delayed for some months the proclamation of Alphonso, but
+at length it took place, on December 30, 1874, and the republic fell
+without a struggle. Alphonso XII. landed at Barcelona in the first days
+of 1875, and entered Madrid on January 14th. In spite of some checks,
+caused by the incapacity of his generals, his power was quickly
+augmented. Many who, through hatred of the republic and of the
+cantonalist excesses, had joined the Carlist ranks, abandoned the cause
+when monarchy was restored. Don Carlos had proved to be as incapable as
+his grandfather had been, and much less reputable in his private life.
+By the end of August, Martinez Campos had taken Urgel, in Catalonia, and
+by the close of the year he was free to assist Quesada in<a name="page_161" id="page_161"></a> the Basque
+Provinces. The united armies were successful, and on February 28, 1876,
+Don Carlos entered France, leaving his followers and the Basque
+Provinces entirely at the mercy of the conquerors. The consequence to
+them has been the partial loss of their <i>fueros</i>, the incorporation of
+the Basque conscripts with the rest of the army, and the annexation of
+the provinces for the first time to the crown of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>With Alphonso XII. entered Spain, as his chief adviser, Cánovas del
+Castillo. Whether nominally prime minister, or out of office, he has
+really held the reins of power&mdash;with the exception of the nine months'
+ministry of Martinez Campos in 1879&mdash;from 1875 to February, 1881. On the
+whole his exertions have been beneficial to Spain. By an arrangement
+dated January 1, 1877, and by lowering the rate of interest, he saved
+the public credit, which was on the verge of utter bankruptcy.
+Insensibly he has detached himself from the progressive liberal
+movement, and his rule has become more and more conservative. The decree
+for toleration of religion, passed in the first months of the republic
+of 1868, has been greatly modified, and interpreted in a sense more and
+more unfavourable to religious freedom: But he has not succeeded in
+breaking down the many abuses of the administration, or in putting an
+end to the corruption of the upper <i>employés</i>, or in insuring freedom
+and<a name="page_162" id="page_162"></a> purity of parliamentary election; and until this is effected the
+future of Spain must still be doubtful.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Present Constitution and Administration of Spain.</i></h4>
+
+<p>It would be tedious and little instructive to our readers to detail the
+various constitutions under which Spain has been governed since 1812. We
+will give a sketch, as far as we are able, of the last only. By a
+comparison of this with the constitution of Cadiz, it will be seen that,
+in spite of all reactions, Spain has really progressed in the way of
+freedom and good government.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of the Spanish monarchy, June 30, 1876, declares
+Alphonso XII. de Bourbon to be the legitimate King of Spain. His person
+is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and all his orders
+must be countersigned by a minister. The legislative power resides in
+the Cortés with the king. The Cortés is composed of two legislative
+bodies, equal in power&mdash;the Senate and the Congress of Deputies.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate is composed (1) of senators by their own right, who are&mdash;sons
+of the kings, grandees of Spain with 3000<i>l.</i> yearly income, the
+Captain-General of the Forces, the Admiral-in-Chief, the Patriarch of
+the Indies, the Archbishops, the Presidents of the Council of State, of
+the Supreme Tribunal, of the National Accounts, of the Council of War,
+and of Marine, after two years' service;<a name="page_163" id="page_163"></a> (2) of life senators, named by
+the crown; (3) of senators elected by the corporations of the State, or
+the richest citizens&mdash;half of these must be renewed every five years.
+All senators must be thirty-five years of age, and the number of classes
+(1) and (2) together must not exceed that of the elected senators, which
+is fixed at 180.</p>
+
+<p>The Congress of Deputies is returned by the electoral Juntas, one deputy
+being elected for every 50,000 souls. Deputies are elected by universal
+suffrage, and for a period of five years. The Congress meets every year
+at the summons of the king, who has power to suspend or close the
+session; but in the latter case, a new Congress must meet within three
+months. The president and vice-presidents of the Senate are nominated by
+the king, those of the Congress are elected from its own body. The
+initiation of the laws belongs to the king, and to both legislative
+bodies; but the budget, and all financial matters, must be first
+presented every year to the Congress of Deputies. No one can be
+compelled to pay any tax not voted by Congress, or by the legally
+appointed corporations. The sittings are public, and the person of
+deputies is inviolable. Ministers may be impeached by the deputies, but
+are judged by the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>Justice is administered in the king's name, and judges and magistrates
+are immovable.<a name="page_164" id="page_164"></a></p>
+
+<p>The provinces are administered (1) by a governor, who, with his
+immediate subordinates, is nominated by the Government; (2) by a
+Provincial Deputation, elected by the householders of the province. All
+members must be natives of, or residents in, the province; their number
+varies according to the population. (3) Five members elected from the
+Provincial Deputation form a Provincial Commission to conduct business
+when the deputation is not sitting. These authorities and bodies answer
+nearly to the prefects and general councils of the French departments.
+They are of much greater political importance in those provinces which
+have preserved some of their ancient rights than in others.</p>
+
+<p>Below the provincial are the municipal authorities, the Alcaldes
+(mayors), Ayuntamientos (municipal councils), and the Juntas
+Municipales. The internal administration of every parish is entrusted to
+an Ayuntamiento or municipal council, elected by the residents, and
+composed of the Alcalde or mayor, the Tenientes or assistants, the
+Regidores or councillors. The Junta Municipal is composed of all the
+councillors of the Ayuntamiento, and an assembly of three times their
+number, and by them the municipal accounts are to be audited and
+revised. The number of the Ayuntamiento varies according to the
+population; one Alcalde, one Teniente, six Regidores, for 1000; and one
+Alcalde,<a name="page_165" id="page_165"></a> ten Tenientes, thirty-three Regidores, for 100,000. The real
+independence and free action of these bodies varies much in different
+provinces and in different circumstances. The smaller bodies are quite
+under the thumb of the central government; the larger ones in the great
+towns and in the more independent provinces are much less easily
+influenced.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman is declared to be the religion of the
+State, and the nation is bound to maintain its worship and its
+ministers. "But no one shall be molested on Spanish ground for his
+religious opinions, nor for the exercise of his respective worship,
+except it be against Christian morals. Nevertheless, no other ceremonies
+or public manifestations shall be permitted than those of the religion
+of the State." These last two articles are evidently equivocal, and
+subject to great diversity of interpretation and of application.</p>
+
+<p>All foreigners are free to settle in Spanish territory, and to exercise
+therein their respective trades and professions, with the exception of
+those which require special titles. The expression of opinion, the
+press, the right of public meeting, of association, and of petition,
+except from armed bodies, are respectively free. No Spaniard or
+foreigner can be arrested or detained illegally. He must either be set
+at liberty or be brought before a judge within twenty-four hours of his
+arrest. No<a name="page_166" id="page_166"></a> Spaniard can be arrested without a judge's warrant, and the
+case must then be heard within seventy-two hours after his arrest;
+otherwise he must be set at liberty on his own petition or on that of
+any other Spaniard. Domicile is inviolable. Such are the principal
+articles of the present Spanish Constitution. In spite of the excess of
+some republican governments and the reaction of others, real progress
+has been made, excepting only in the equivocal law on religion, and that
+on marriages between Catholics and Protestants.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Administrative Spain.</i></h4>
+
+<p>For military purposes, Spain is mapped out into five "capitanias
+generales," conferring the rank of field-marshal on the possessors of
+that office. The number of marshals, generals, and superior officers of
+the special corps in active service is over 500. The number of the army
+on a peace footing is fixed at 90,000, the infantry numbering 60,000,
+the cavalry 16,000, artillery 10,000, and engineers 4000. Universal
+conscription is nominally obligatory, but with the power of purchasing a
+substitute for a fixed sum of 80<i>l.</i> The time of service is eight years,
+four of which are spent in the active army and four in the reserve. In
+the colonies the time is four years only, the whole of which must be
+spent in active service. Besides the regular army in Spain are the corps
+and garrisons<a name="page_167" id="page_167"></a> in the Philippine Islands, in Porto Rico, and in Cuba,
+where the mortality is so great that the troops need constant renewal.
+In addition to the above must be reckoned the militia of the Canary
+Islands, the "guardias civiles," a kind of constabulary like that of
+Ireland or the gendarmerie of France. These are about 15,000 men, and
+are some of the best and most trustworthy troops in Spain; the
+carabineros or custom-house officers, who guard the frontiers, form
+another corps of about 12,000. Towards the close of the late Carlist and
+Cuban wars the actual army was far above these numbers, and it is
+probable that 150,000 men were under arms on the side of the Government
+in the Basque Provinces alone. The Spanish soldier is one of the best in
+Europe, if properly commanded. He is sober, and has great powers of
+endurance; is an excellent marcher, and a trustworthy sentinel;
+persistent both in attack and defence, he still retains the steadiness
+of the old Spanish "tercios," which were once the terror and admiration
+of Europe. The Basques under Zumalacarrégui in the first Carlist war,
+and the Catalans under Martinez Campos in the last, earned high praise
+from all foreign officers who saw them. But too often these fine
+qualities of the private have been rendered of no avail, owing to the
+utter want of skill and competency in the officers and commanders, and
+still more by reckless<a name="page_168" id="page_168"></a> corruption and mismanagement in all things
+relating to the commissariat and supplies. Another element of
+deterioration has been the use of the soldiery as mere tools of
+political intrigue in the frequent revolts and <i>pronunciamientos</i> of
+ambitious generals. The scientific corps, however, the artillery and
+engineers, have always stood aloof from sedition. It was an attempt to
+corrupt the former and to assimilate it in this respect to the rest of
+the army, which led to the abdication of King Amadeo. The generals who
+have achieved the greatest reputation in the Spanish army are Quesada
+and Martinez Campos. Moriones, who distinguished himself in the Basque
+Provinces during the last Carlist war, has lately died. Blanco and
+Jovellar acquired distinction in Cuba, and Loma as a good brigadier in
+the Carlist war. Serrano, Pavia, and others are better known in the
+field of politics than in that of military action.</p>
+
+<p>For naval purposes the coast of Spain is divided into three
+departments&mdash;Ferrol, Cadiz, and Cartagena, at each of which ports is a
+naval arsenal. The jurisdiction of the marine extends as far as the tide
+and seventy feet beyond. The three departments, are divided into
+<i>tercios navales</i>, <i>partidos maritimos</i>, and districts. The Spanish navy
+consists of 121 ships, five of which are armoured vessels of the first
+class, and eleven unarmoured; eighteen belong to the second class, and
+fifty-six to the<a name="page_169" id="page_169"></a> third, some of which are monitors and armoured
+gunboats. There are also thirty-one smaller vessels, and a few ships
+employed for training and for harbour services. The whole fleet mounts
+525 guns, and is over 20,000 horse-power. The sailors number 14,000,
+with 504 officers of all ranks, and the marine infantry 7000, with 374
+officers. The old fame of Spanish ship-building, except for small
+vessels, has almost entirely passed away. In the great war at the
+beginning of the century, the finest vessels of our navy were prizes
+taken from Spain. Spanish navigators, too, have long lost their old
+renown, though the Basques are still esteemed as mariners. The ironclad
+frigates and monitors of modern Spain have been almost all constructed
+in foreign dockyards. The armoured gunboats, however, built in Spain are
+a good and useful model.</p>
+
+<p>The merchant marine consists of 226 ocean-going steamers and 1578 ocean
+sailing-vessels measuring altogether 460,000 tons. Smaller vessels make
+up a total of 3000 merchant-ships, less than one-fifth of the number of
+those of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>For the administration of justice the country is divided into Audiencias
+Territoriales, Provincias, and Partidos Judiciales. The Audiencias, or
+courts of appeal, are fifteen, with 373 judges or procureurs. There are
+also 500 judges of first instance,<a name="page_170" id="page_170"></a> and there is also a justice of peace
+or alcalde in each town or municipality. All pleadings are still
+conducted in writing in Spain; there is no verbal examination or
+cross-examination in public. Suits both civil and criminal are thus
+dragged out to an inordinate length. Judges are still suspected of being
+open to bribery, and confidence in the just administration of the law is
+as a consequence severely shaken. It is not uncommon for witnesses to be
+summoned to testify to facts which happened many years before, and it
+not unfrequently happens that either the principal witnesses or the
+criminal himself is dead before the case is decided. As a conspicuous
+instance, we may remind our readers that General Prim was assassinated
+in open day in Madrid in 1870, and the case has not yet been adjudged.
+The discipline of the prisons is in general extremely lax, and many
+crimes, especially forgeries, are there concocted with impunity. There
+is, however, a great difference in the treatment of the prisoners in
+different prisons. Up to 1840 the office of Alcaide, or governor of a
+prison, was sold by the Government to the highest bidder, and the
+purchasers made the most they could out of the wretched prisoners by
+starving them or by accepting bribes for illicit indulgences, and for
+furnishing what they were bound to provide, so that it was commonly said
+"that the <i>bagnios</i> of Algiers were less terrible than the<a name="page_171" id="page_171"></a> prisons of
+Spain." Perhaps the worst of them all, up to the year 1833, was the old
+prison of the city of Madrid, one dark dungeon of which was termed "El
+Infierno"&mdash;Hell. Almost as bad was the Prison de Corté and the famous
+Saladero. There was no classification, no cleanliness, and in some of
+the cells neither light nor ventilation. In some of the country prisons
+the cells were like the dens of a menagerie, and the starving prisoners
+thrust their hands through the bars to beg food of passers-by. At last
+has arisen an ardent band of philanthropists, of whom Senors Lastres and
+Vilalva are at the head, and the first stone of a new prison in Madrid,
+arranged on modern principles, was laid by the king in February, 1877.</p>
+
+<p>Hospitals, lunatic asylums, and asylums for the sick and aged poor, and
+other charitable establishments are of very varied descriptions in
+Spain. Some of them, like the famous establishments of Cadiz, Seville,
+Madrid, Cartagena, Valencia, and Cordova, are admirably managed, and
+yield in practical benefit to none of other lands. The first lunatic
+asylum ever founded was that at Valencia by Padre Jofre Gilanext, in
+1409; three others, at Saragossa, Toledo, and Seville were founded in
+the fifteenth century. That of Barcelona is said to be now the best
+public lunatic asylum in Spain. Many others are nearly as good, while
+one or two of the private asylums near Madrid are excellent;<a name="page_172" id="page_172"></a> but in
+some provinces these establishments, both public and private, are still
+in a very wretched state.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1848 there have been a little over 4000 miles of railway laid down
+in Spain. The principal lines are the two which run from the extreme
+ends of the French Pyrenees to the capital, connecting Spain with the
+great European communications. Next in importance are those from the
+Mediterranean ports Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena, to Madrid; Malaga and
+Granada are connected with the metropolis by the line from Cadiz. A
+rather circuitous route by Badajoz, Ciudad Real, and Toledo is the only
+line at present open to Lisbon, but a more direct one is in course of
+construction. The communications with the extreme north-west are not yet
+completed, but the branch of the Great Northern Company from Santander,
+which brings the products of the Asturian coal-fields to Madrid, is of
+great importance. Other valuable lines are those of the valley of the
+Ebro, from Miranda del Ebro by Saragossa to Barcelona. Should any of the
+schemes projected for a direct route from Paris to Madrid, by any of the
+central passes of the Pyrenees, through Saragossa, be carried into
+effect, the line from the latter place to Madrid will be one of
+considerable traffic. The coast-line from Barcelona to Valencia is of
+great value to one of the richest wine and fruit districts of Spain.
+Shorter<a name="page_173" id="page_173"></a> lines, which may have a considerable influence on the welfare
+of the country, are those which connect the great mineral fields with
+the chief lines of transport or with the nearest port. It has been
+remarked that hitherto, with some exceptions, Spanish railways have had
+less influence in developing local traffic than those of any other
+European country. The Great Northern lines, too, have suffered seriously
+from interruptions caused by civil war, by floods, and other accidents
+since 1868.</p>
+
+<p>The total length of the telegraph lines is nearly 10,000 miles. The
+number of public offices is 324, of private, 12; the telegrams
+despatched amounted in 1877 to 2,023,579, of which about half were
+private despatches for the interior. The expenses of working were
+165,076<i>l.</i>, and the receipts 156,950<i>l.</i>, leaving a deficit of 8126<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>The number of post-offices in 1877 was 2530, of letters 78,446,000;
+postal cards, 1,040,000; newspapers, 38,479,000; books and samples,
+5,767,000. To Great Britain were despatched, in 1879: Letters and postal
+cards, 1,083,000; books, &amp;c., 317,900; total, 1,400,900. From Great
+Britain: Letters and postal cards, 931,100; books, &amp;c., 646,100; total,
+1,577,200. The receipts from the post-office in 1877 were 361,704<i>l.</i>,
+while the expenditure was 297,412<i>l.</i>, leaving a surplus of 64,292<i>l.</i><a name="page_174" id="page_174"></a></p>
+
+<h4><i>The Finances of Spain.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The most prominent circumstance in the financial condition of Spain is
+the startling increase of the public debt since the revolution of 1868.
+The capital of the debt was then 212,443,600<i>l.</i>, the interest of which
+was 5,580,000<i>l.</i> The funds, three per cents, were then at 33. In 1880
+the capital of the debt amounted to 515,000,000<i>l.</i> Since 1870, by abuse
+of credit, the interest of the debt had been paid from the capital; then
+one-third of the interest was paid in paper, with a promise to pay the
+remaining two-thirds in coin; this engagement was soon broken, but the
+paper was punctually paid until 1874, when the interest of the debt was
+erased from the budget. In face of the evident bankruptcy of the
+country, an arrangement was made in 1876 between the Government and the
+principal foreign fund-holders, by which, from January 1, 1877, to June
+30, 1881, inclusive, the interest to be paid on the three per cents was
+reduced to one per cent., and that on the six per cents to two per cent.
+From June 30, 1881, to June 30, 1882, one and a quarter per cent. will
+be paid, and arrangements as to future payments are to be made before
+the last-mentioned date, and a return to a full interest of three and
+six per cent. is to follow at fixed periods. The success of the scheme
+is shown by the fact that in 1876 the three per cents, still nominally<a name="page_175" id="page_175"></a>
+paying three per cent. interest, were at 11&frac12;; in January, 1881,
+paying only one per cent. interest, they were quoted at 22; and the six
+per cents, paying only two per cent. interest, were at 42.</p>
+
+<p>From the above statement we may gather some idea of what the civil wars
+of the republic, the cantonal, Carlist, and Cuban insurrections, joined
+to the expensive experiments of well-intentioned but inexperienced
+financiers, in remitting taxes while the public burdens were increasing,
+have cost the nation. A calm observer, Mr. Phipps, in his official
+report to the British Government, calculates that from 1868 to 1876 the
+addition to the debt from these causes amounted to at least
+260,000,000<i>l.</i>, considerably more than the total debt of Spain in 1868.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the plausible balance-sheets annually submitted to
+Congress, the revenue and expenditure of Spain are still far from being
+in a satisfactory condition. The writer above quoted states that
+"enormous deficits in the budgets (however nominally balanced) have been
+the invariable rule in Spain during a long course of years, under every
+sort of <i>régime</i> and under all circumstances." In the last budget,
+1879-80, the revenue is stated at 32,494,552<i>l.</i>, and the expenditure at
+33,129,484<i>l.</i> Supposing these figures to be correct, the deficit,
+634,932<i>l.</i>, would be far less than for many years past.<a name="page_176" id="page_176"></a></p>
+
+<p>The principal sources of Spanish revenue are, in round numbers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Direct Taxes</td><td align="right">£10,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Indirect ditto</td><td align="right">5,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Customs</td><td align="right">4,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stamps and Government Monopolies</td><td align="right">9,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">National Property</td><td align="right">1,750,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Miscellaneous.</td><td align="right">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"
+style="border-top:1px solid black;">£32,250,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of these the items most foreign to an Englishman's notion of taxation
+are the produce of the seven great tobacco factories, Seville, Madrid,
+Santander, Gijon, Corunna, Valencia, and Alicante, of which the net
+revenue is over 2,500,000<i>l.</i>, the lotteries, which bring in
+5000,000<i>l.</i> net, the consumo tax, a kind of octroi, and the territorial
+tax, which together furnish the largest contribution to the revenue. The
+national property comprises the Almaden quicksilver-mines, valued at
+over 250,000<i>l.</i> per annum, the Linares mines, leased at 20,000<i>l.</i>, and
+other sources about 30,000<i>l.</i> annually.</p>
+
+<p>The heaviest item in the expenditure is the interest on the national
+debt, over 11,500,000<i>l.</i>; the ministry of war and the navy exceeds
+6,000,000<i>l.</i>, while pensions absorb 1,750,000<i>l.</i>, public works over
+3,000,000<i>l.</i>, finance over 5,000,000<i>l.</i>, administration of justice
+more than 2,000,000<i>l.</i>; the ministry of<a name="page_177" id="page_177"></a> the interior, Cortés, the
+civil list, &amp;c., make up the remainder.</p>
+
+<p>The total imports and exports of Spain were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Imports.</td><td align="center">Exports.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">In 1877,</td><td align="right">£16,340,672</td><td align="right">£18,175,140</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">In 1878,</td><td align="right">15,910,016</td><td align="right">17,172,596</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">In 1879,</td><td align="right">17,730,756</td><td align="right">20,155,964</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>But of this increased prosperity far more than her share has fallen to
+France, owing chiefly to its being put in the same category with
+Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Austria, as <i>most favoured</i> nations, who
+import their goods under the customs tariff of July 17, 1877, while
+England and the United States continue-under the old tariff, as
+<i>favoured</i> nations only. This disproportion will probably be still more
+marked, owing to the immense importation of Spanish wines into France
+required to make up for losses by the phylloxera disease; while the
+exportation of sherry to England has been gradually lessening for some
+years, and now we take only some 4 per cent, of the quantity, and 12 per
+cent in value, of the wine exported from Spain. One of our chief imports
+into Spain, coal, is likely also to diminish, owing to the development
+of the native coal-fields in the Asturias and in Andalusia. Our other
+chief exports from Spain in fruits and minerals largely increase. The
+present wine tariff of England, by which she virtually refuses to<a name="page_178" id="page_178"></a>
+purchase the bulk of Spanish wines in their natural state, while
+importing them largely when mixed with inferior French white wines, and
+treated as clarets, &amp;c., is felt by Spaniards to be so unfair that,
+until this system is modified there is little hope of obtaining a better
+tariff for English manufactures; while the making Gibraltar an immense
+depôt for a contraband trade is a wrong that rankles in the mind of all
+southern Spaniards. The decline of the English import trade into Spain
+would be much more marked but for the immense amount of English capital
+employed in the larger mining and industrial enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>The battle between protection and free trade is not yet fought out in
+Spain. The manufacturing districts of Catalonia and the east coast
+clamour loudly for protection, while the mining and agricultural and
+wine-growing interests demand free trade. It is impossible to say on
+which side the balance may turn. A conservative Government would
+probably favour the former, while a liberal ministry might venture upon
+the latter system.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy as the public debt of Spain undoubtedly is, and serious as are the
+charges imposed upon her by the still unsettled political condition of
+the country and of its principal colony&mdash;Cuba, she might more than pay
+the interest of her debts at the present rate of interest, and balance
+the expenditure, but for the administrative corruption<a name="page_179" id="page_179"></a> and utter want
+of political morality, the fruit of long years of financial abuses, and
+which has become almost a fixed habit amongst all classes of the
+inhabitants. The Government seems to be a mark for fraud to every class,
+from millionaire bankers and the largest landed proprietors down to the
+ill-paid <i>employé</i> who ekes out his scanty salary by accepting petty
+bribes, and the labourer or fisherman on the frontier who never misses
+the occasion of smuggling. It is easy to prove the truth of these
+assertions. In 1877, in an official report, Mr. Phipps writes: "A few
+English, French, and Spanish bankers advance money to Spain, with safe
+security, on conditions as disastrous to the treasury as they are
+discreditable to themselves." The territorial tax, which forms
+one-fourth of the whole internal revenue is notoriously levied on only
+54 per cent, of the whole area of the country. In some provinces not
+two-thirds of the whole is returned at all, and much land that is
+productive is returned as uncultivated. From the extent of the
+contraband trade and the corruption of the custom-house officers, the
+amount levied on imports and exports can hardly be above two-thirds of
+their proper value. In fact, what Spain needs above everything at
+present is an honest and impartial administration. The causes of her
+poverty lie not so much in bad laws or a faulty constitution, but in a
+corrupt and negligent administration. The system of empleomania,
+whereby<a name="page_180" id="page_180"></a> nearly every ill-paid <i>employé</i> is almost forced to pillage,
+the preference of this ill-paid idleness and of professional poverty to
+honest toil in trade or agriculture&mdash;these are the true foes to the
+prosperity of Spain. For party and political purposes, taxes are relaxed
+for those who should bear their equal share of the burden, only to fall
+with crushing weight on the honest workers, unconnected with, or who
+refuse to bribe the administration.<a name="page_181" id="page_181"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /><br />
+<small>EDUCATION AND RELIGION.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">T<small>HE</small> fame of the Spanish universities has greatly fallen from what it was
+in the early Middle Ages, when Salamanca ranked with Bologna, Paris, and
+Oxford, as one of the four great universities in Europe; when its halls
+were thronged with thousands of eager though needy scholars, and it was
+the centre whence Semitic learning and civilization spread to the rest
+of Europe. Even in a later day, in the sixteenth century, under the
+patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, the university of Alcala de Henares
+(Complutum) flashed into sudden fame as one of the great offshoots of
+the Renaissance, with its 7800 students, and its noble production of the
+first great Polyglot Bible since primitive times. In the eighteenth
+century, however, this learning had all but disappeared from Spain, and
+the education given in its universities was all but worthless. Little
+was effected towards any true revival or improvement until 1845, though
+something had been<a name="page_182" id="page_182"></a> attempted before this in secondary education by the
+successive reforms of 1771, 1807, and especially of 1824 and 1836.</p>
+
+<p>The universities of Spain are now ten: Madrid, with 6672 students;
+Barcelona with 2459; Valencia, 2118; Seville, 1382; Granada, 1225;
+Valladolid, 880; Santiago de Compostella, 779; Saragossa, 771;
+Salamanca, 372; and Oviedo with 216: making a total of 16,874 university
+students. The number of regular professors is 415, with 240
+supernumeraries and assistants, making a total of 655; that is, one
+professor to every 26 students. The salary of the professors varies from
+120<i>l.</i> to 260<i>l.</i> per annum, except in Madrid, where it is from 160<i>l.</i>
+to 300<i>l.</i> The budget of the whole universities is a little over
+1,000,000<i>l.</i>, and the expenditure slightly in excess, leaving a deficit
+in 1879 of 4600<i>l.</i>. The average cost of each student to the university
+is a little over 6<i>l.</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Though the above institutions are all classed as universities by the
+State, yet the course of instruction is by no means the same in all. At
+Madrid alone the whole programme of university education is followed
+out. This comprises the faculties of civil, canon, and administrative
+law, of philosophy and literature, of science, of medicine, and of
+pharmacy. Since 1868 theology is no longer studied in the universities,
+but in the seminaries, of which there is one in each diocese, under the<a name="page_183" id="page_183"></a>
+direction of the bishop. The total number of pupils studying in these
+institutions is 8562. At Valladolid are two theological colleges for
+English, Scotch, and Irish students, established, one at the close of
+the sixteenth, the other by the Jesuits at the close of the eighteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Law is studied in all the Spanish universities, and medicine in all but
+one&mdash;Oviedo; Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, and Compostella have faculties
+of pharmacy, under which head a certain amount of natural science is
+taught; of the exact sciences there are chairs only at Madrid,
+Barcelona, and Salamanca; philosophy and literature are studied in
+Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Salamanca, Seville, and Saragossa. In
+Oviedo, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, only the first year's or
+preparatory course of law is read, this consists of Latin, general
+literature, and universal history.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these State universities, there are several institutions
+supported by the provincial deputations; for instance, there is a
+faculty of medicine in Seville supported by the province, another in
+Salamanca at the joint expense of the province and of the municipality.
+In addition to these there are technical schools for the study of
+special branches of industry or of administration, such as those of
+roads, canals, and harbours, of mines, and of forests, in Madrid and
+Villa Viciosa. A school of industrial engineering, and of the
+application of<a name="page_184" id="page_184"></a> chemistry and mechanics, is working at Barcelona. There
+are technical schools of commerce at Madrid and at Barcelona. Schools or
+colleges of veterinary science are to be found in Madrid, Saragossa,
+Cordova, and Leon. Naval schools are established in Santa Cruz
+(Teneriffe), in Palma (Majorca), in Masnou (Barcelona), in San
+Sebastian, supported by the funds of the provinces; there is also one at
+Gijon, in the Asturias, founded by Jovellanos; two other private
+foundations also exist at Lequeito and Santurce in Biscay. In Madrid
+there is a special school of architecture, and also one of painting,
+sculpture, and engraving. Excellent schools of the fine arts exist in
+Barcelona, Cadiz, Corunna, Granada, Malaga, Oviedo, Seville, Valencia,
+Valladolid, Saragossa, and at Palma in the Balearic Isles; this last is
+remarkable for the number of its pupils and its generally flourishing
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>In each of the forty-nine provinces of Spain are institutions of
+superior or secondary education. With the exception of the institutes of
+Cardinal Cisneros and of San Isidro at Madrid, which depend on the
+Government, and which hold the first and third rank as to the number of
+their pupils, these institutions are supported by the funds of the
+provinces or municipalities, but the professors are nominated by the
+Government; besides those in the capital of each province, there are
+also 11 others in various large towns in Spain. There are<a name="page_185" id="page_185"></a> also 356
+colleges of secondary education affiliated to the institutes, 58 of
+which are under religious corporations, making a total of 417
+establishments of secondary education, with 2730 professors who have all
+taken degrees in science or literature.</p>
+
+<p>The institutes give instruction to 14,872 pupils, and the colleges to
+almost the same number, 14,290; home or private education absorbs 4476;
+making a total in 1880 of 33,638; more than three times the number in
+1848, and, including the episcopal seminaries, giving one pupil to every
+398 inhabitants. All these pupils are admitted to the official
+examinations, and take their degrees equally on passing them. It is
+found that 13 per cent of the candidates are rejected at the
+examinations, 43.8 per cent. simply pass, and 43.1 gain honours of
+various kinds; while 9 per cent. take the degree of Bachelor from the
+colleges, and 37.2 proceed to take it from the universities.</p>
+
+<p>The salary of the masters is from 120<i>l.</i> to 180<i>l.</i> (except in Madrid
+where it is from 160<i>l.</i> to 220<i>l.</i>), with a right to a portion of the
+fees for matriculation and degrees. The supernumerary masters receive
+60<i>l.</i> in Madrid and 40<i>l.</i> in the provinces; auxiliary masters are
+unpaid. Pensions of 20<i>l.</i> are sometimes given to poor but distinguished
+pupils. The cost of all the institutes is 118,935<i>l.</i>, the income,
+44,818<i>l.</i>, leaving a deficit of 74,117<i>l.</i> to be supplied either by the
+State, the provinces, or the municipalities.</p>
+
+<p>The course of instruction is two-fold, general and<a name="page_186" id="page_186"></a> special. The general
+comprises: Spanish and Latin grammar, two courses; rhetoric and poetry,
+geography, history of Spain, universal history, psychology, logic and
+ethics, arithmetic and algebra, geometry and trigonometry, physics and
+the elements of chemistry, natural history, physiology and hygiene, and
+elementary agriculture. The special courses are those of agriculture,
+the fine arts, manufactures and commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Of public schools of primary instruction there are about 23,000 of all
+grades and classes, 1308 are infant schools and 1400 are for male and
+100 for female adults.</p>
+
+<p>The great drawback in the higher education of Spain is the
+disproportionate number of students in law, medicine, or pharmacy, in
+comparison with the few who cultivate the special branches of
+agriculture, industrial or commercial science. Hence the former
+professions are overstocked, with results productive of far-reaching
+evils to the country and to the administration. Notwithstanding its far
+inferior population the number of students in Spain who take their
+degrees in law and medicine is almost treble that of France and of
+Germany, while the total of degrees conferred in all the faculties of
+Spain is equal to that of France, which has double the population.
+Nothing more plainly shows the character of the people, and the mischief
+of "<i>empleomania</i>" than such a fact in a country whose<a name="page_187" id="page_187"></a> natural riches
+in agriculture and mining are so great and so little developed, where
+there is so large a field for industrial enterprises of many kinds, and
+where the fruits of all these are at present almost wholly reaped by
+foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>The primary education of Spain, though nominally everywhere alike, is
+really so very varied as to defy any average description. A few of her
+infant schools are equal to the best of those of other countries. Where
+the provincial deputations or the municipalities take an interest in
+education the primary schools are very fair, but in other parts the
+education is little more than nominal, and the schoolmaster's
+appointment is well-nigh a sinecure both in pay and labour; and probably
+at the present moment, notwithstanding the great improvements of late
+years, two-thirds of the people can still neither read nor write.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Church and Religion.</i></h4>
+
+<p>From the time of the &OElig;cumenical Council of Nicea, <small>A.D.</small> 325, with the
+brief exception of the reigns of the Arian Visigoth kings, Spain has
+been the champion of orthodoxy in religion. From early times too the
+demarcation between Church and State has been less marked, or rather the
+influence of the former over the latter has been more constant and more
+powerful, than in perhaps any other European kingdom. The great councils
+of<a name="page_188" id="page_188"></a> Toledo were scarcely more ecclesiastical than civil assemblies. The
+recognition of the sovereign, the order of succession, the validity of
+the laws, were either settled or sanctioned therein. Later, in the great
+struggle with the Moors, through the antagonism of exclusive beliefs,
+the war assumed the character of a religious crusade. The semi-monastic
+Spanish military orders, the preaching of the monks, the sanction and
+the bulls of the Popes&mdash;auxiliaries which the kings of Spain were forced
+to summon to their aid&mdash;gave a complexion to the conquest and to the
+national character quite different to what might have been the case had
+the contest been fought out by the sovereign, the lay warriors, and the
+civil power alone. Thus the triumph of the Christian over the Moor
+became in some sort also the triumph of the Roman over the national
+Spanish Church. The Mozarabic liturgy gave way to that of Rome. The
+peculiar institution of the inquisition, following on that of the Santa
+Hermandad in civil matters, developed in Spain a degree of power to
+which it never attained in other lands. The certainty and the secrecy of
+its proceedings, the mingled pomp and horror of its "autos de fe," the
+whispers and the shudder with which men told of the tortures of its
+hidden processes, deeply impressed and captivated the imagination of a
+people singularly greedy of, and susceptible to, strong and vivid
+emotions. The chivalrous respect for women,<a name="page_189" id="page_189"></a> heightened by the reserve
+and half-seclusion which the Spanish knights had learned from the Moors,
+was transformed in the sphere of religion into an almost ardent passion
+of devotion to the Blessed Virgin. Centuries before the doctrine of the
+Immaculate Conception was proclaimed by Pius IX. the cry of the Spanish
+beggar heard at every door throughout her vast dominions was, "Ave Maria
+purisima, sin pecádo concebida." Spain had been the champion of
+Christendom against the Jews and against the Moors; she had without
+remorse violated every compact she had sworn with the latter, and she
+became equally the champion of Roman Catholicism against the
+Reformation. Though Philip II. failed in his great armed struggle with
+the northern powers, and wasted and destroyed therein all the real
+resources of Spain, yet Spanish theologians were among the most eloquent
+and the most learned in the Council of Trent; and it was the Jesuits of
+Spain who headed the reaction of the seventeenth century, and who won
+back all but the Teutonic and Scandinavian races to the allegiance of
+Rome. This glory of Catholicism is never absent from the heart of a
+Spaniard. His whole literature is steeped in it; it inspires Spain's
+greatest painters. It is this deep but unconscious feeling that
+Protestanism is un-Spanish which is the real stronghold of Catholicism
+in Spain, and which, in spite of spoliation and political subjection,
+still gives the clerical party there a<a name="page_190" id="page_190"></a> greater power than they possess
+in other countries. Yet the few Spaniards who embraced the reformed
+doctrines in the sixteenth century were not inferior<a name="page_191" id="page_191"></a> to those of other
+lands in earnestness, in learning, in eloquence, or in high position,
+both in Church and State. There was just a moment when the court of
+Charles V. hovered on the verge of protest against Rome. When, as before
+related, the liberties of Spain fell beneath the iron rule of the
+Austrian sovereigns, it was the Church, by the hand of one of its
+greatest ornaments, Cardinal Ximenes, which became the willing
+instrument of despotism. In return for the servility of the court, and
+the presence and the sanction of the sovereign at the "autos," the
+inquisition lent its aid to the monarchy, and its assistance was called
+in to suppress the trade in horses, so senselessly forbidden, on the
+northern frontier. In the seventeenth century, however, the Spanish
+court fell under the influence of the French encyclopædists. The Jesuits
+were banished in 1767. We need not detail again the various vicissitudes
+of the abolition and re-establishment of the inquisition, of the
+suppression of tithes, of the sale of Church property, the destruction
+of the monasteries, and the exile of the monks, the effects of which
+have been sufficiently indicated above.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;">
+<a href="images/ill190.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill190_thumb.jpg" width="415" height="550" alt="VESPERS." title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">VESPERS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since the Concordat of 1851, Spain is ruled ecclesiastically by nine
+archbishops; those of Toledo (the primate of all Spain), Burgos,
+Saragossa, Tarragona, Valencia, Granada, Seville, Valladolid, and
+Compostella, under whom are forty-six bishops, with their chapters, and
+about 35,000 clergy. The<a name="page_192" id="page_192"></a> mode of episcopal appointment is this: the
+king presents three names to the Pope, of which his Holiness selects
+one, who is forthwith nominated to the vacant see. Since 1868,
+theological education is entirely under the hands of the bishops, who
+have a seminary in each diocese. The clergy are paid by the State; but
+the stipends of the country priests are said to be frequently in arrear.
+In some parts of Spain, as in the manufacturing towns of Barcelona,
+religion has to a great extent lost its hold upon the people; in other
+parts, as in the Basque Provinces, the majority are still devout. Since
+1871 a reaction from extremes of scepticism and advanced socialistic
+views is manifest in many of the most popular writers. A small but
+increasing body of Protestants has been established since 1868; but the
+vicissitudes of revolution and reaction, and the present ambiguous state
+of the law have acted unfavourably on the movement. The pastors have
+honourably distinguished themselves by their zeal for the education of
+the classes utterly neglected by the dominant Church. On the whole, the
+clerical party in Spain, considered as a political body, seems gradually
+sinking into a like condition to that of France. It is powerful enough
+to thwart and check the policy of its opponents, but impotent to carry
+out its own measures. The extreme Ultramontane party, for whom the Comte
+de Chambord is too liberal and Pope Leo XIII. too comprehensive,<a name="page_193" id="page_193"></a> has
+lately adopted the banner of the Carlists. Whatever the future of Spain
+may be, it is not probable that the Church will ever attain again the
+political influence and the exclusive control of education which it
+possessed in the past, in spite of the undoubted talents and virtues of
+many of its upholders.<a name="page_194" id="page_194"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><br />
+<small>LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.</small></h3>
+
+<p class="nind">T<small>HOUGH</small> one of the most interesting countries of Europe with regard to
+architecture, Spain can lay claim to no style peculiar to itself, or
+that originated wholly within the Peninsula. It contains, however, noble
+specimens of art and architecture of very varied epochs and character,
+from the work of the unknown sculptors who carved the so-called "toros"
+of Guisando and erected the huge dolmens and other megalithic monuments
+so thickly strewed over its soil, to the architects and artists of the
+present day. Almost all the races which have trodden the land have left
+monuments upon it&mdash;the Carthaginians, perhaps, the fewest. Scarcely
+anywhere else does the solid, practical character of Roman architecture
+appear more fully than in the amphitheatres, aqueducts, and especially
+in the bridges of Spain. The amphitheatres, temples, and walls of
+Murviedro (Saguntum), Tarragona, Toledo, Coria, Plasencia; the aqueducts
+of Merida,<a name="page_195" id="page_195"></a> Seville, and Segovia; the bridges of Tuy over the Minho, of
+Zamora over the Douro, Salamanca over the Tormes, of Alcantara,
+Garrovillas de Alconetar, and Puente del Arzobispo over the Tagus, of
+Merida and Medellin over the Guadiana, of Seville, Cordova, and Ubeda
+over the Guadalquiver, and of Lerida over the Segre, are noble relics of
+Roman work. Of the period when Roman art was gradually modified under
+Christian influences, and the basilica was transformed into the
+Christian church, very few remains exist. To the Vandal and Gothic
+conquerors belong part of the walls of Toledo, and a few chapels and
+small churches in the north and north-west may belong in part to this
+date (417-717); but the most peculiar artistic remains of this period
+are the jewellers' and goldsmiths' work, preserved in the metal crowns
+and treasure of Guarrazar (624-672), of a style which, though probably
+derived from the East through Byzantium, continued to influence Spanish
+goldsmiths' work down to the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture and art of the race that succeeded to the Visigoths is
+of much more notable character. The civil and religious architecture of
+the Spanish Arabs is well worthy of most careful study, and is a grand
+example of the artistic talent of a race which, though debarred by its
+religious faith from the reproduction of human, or even of animal form,
+and delighting neither in the scenes<a name="page_196" id="page_196"></a> of the theatre or the circus, has
+yet left masterpieces of architectural beauty in lands so wide apart as
+Spain, Egypt, Persia, and Hindostan. The architecture of the Arabs in
+Spain may be roughly divided into three periods: The first, from the
+eighth to the tenth century, tells most clearly of its origin as an
+imitation or modification of the Byzantine style; its masterpiece is the
+Mosque of Cordova. The second period, from the tenth to the thirteenth
+centuries, shows the architects seeking their real style&mdash;it is a period
+of transition; its finest erection is the Giralda of Seville. The third
+period is when the Moorish style acquired its fullest development in the
+glorious Alhambra, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries.
+Contemporary with the last period is the Mudejar style, the modification
+which Arabic art underwent in the hands of the Christian conquerors. To
+this belong the Alcazar of Seville, 1353; the Mudejar gates of Toledo
+and Saragossa, and the Chapel of St. James in Alcala de Henares. In
+their domestic architecture the Arabs alone have almost solved the
+problem how to unite ventilation and ornament by means of currents of
+air of different temperatures. The pendulous stucco fretwork by which
+they conceal the angles of their apartments serves not only for ornament
+but to equalize the temperature and to admit of concealed openings
+whereby air can penetrate without<a name="page_197" id="page_197"></a> draught or chill. The sense of true
+harmony of colour seems to be an intuitional gift of Oriental races, and
+is practically understood by them as it never has been by any other. The
+Mosaics of Greece and Rome, and those of mediæval Italy, in their
+storied designs, appeal more to the intellect; but those of Arabic art
+rest and charm the eye by the purity and harmonious blending of tone as
+do none other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<a href="images/ill197.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill197_thumb.jpg" width="344" height="550" alt="GIRALDA OF SEVILLE.
+
+Page 197.
+
+" title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">GIRALDA OF SEVILLE. (Page 197.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">In spite of some apparent exceptions, and those of the
+earliest date, as the Mosque of Cordova (788), and the cloisters of
+Tayloon at Cairo (879), Arabic architecture, like Grecian, depended for
+its effect more on the exquisite symmetry and exact proportion of all
+details to a consummate whole, than to impressions of awe derived from
+vast size or immense solidity. It is thus that the massive Roman arch
+became moulded into the light horse-shoe shape, peculiar to the Spanish
+Arabs from the eighth to the tenth centuries. The originality of this
+architecture is not, however, so great as appears at first sight. The
+influence of Byzantine architecture and of that of the Christian
+churches with which the Arabs had become acquainted during their
+conquests, and of constant accessions from Oriental art, can be clearly
+traced therein. But in Spain there is perhaps a juster proportion, a
+greater variety and richness of ornamentation and colour than is to be
+found elsewhere. The grandest of Moorish buildings in Spain is
+undoubtedly<a name="page_198" id="page_198"></a> one of the earliest, the great Mosque of Cordova, with its
+forest of 1200 columns, its fifty-seven naves, nineteen gates, and
+upwards of 4000 lamps, recalling the impression produced by the Egyptian
+hall of Karnac at Thebes,&mdash;an impression so vivid that even the
+iconoclast emperor, Charles V., whose own palace mars the beauty of the
+Alhambra, rebuked the Archbishop of Cordova for destroying what he never
+could replace, when he cut away some of the columns to make room for a
+Christian chapel. Not less beautiful in their graceful proportions than
+the Campanile of Italy are the minarets and towers of Arabian art in
+Spain, as the Giralda of Seville and others; even the quaintness of the
+leaning tower of Pisa finds its counterpart in the leaning tower of
+Saragossa. The Moorish gates of Toledo, of Seville, and the Alcazar of
+Segovia show how castellated strength may be wedded to artistic
+elegance; but the most perfect union at once of fortress and of palace
+is to be found in the noble group of buildings known as the Alhambra, on
+the hill of Granada. Though trembling on the verge of debasement when
+the severer forms of Arabian art were beginning to admit the
+representation of animal shapes, whose rude sculpture forms a contrast
+to the exquisite correctness of the alphabetic and geometrical designs
+which ornament the walls, these buildings may yet be regarded as marking
+the culmination<a name="page_199" id="page_199"></a> of Moorish art. The fertility of decorative design, the
+exquisite use made of Arabic lettering, and the simple yet subtle forms
+of geometrical interlacing&mdash;apparently most fantastic, yet really ever
+subordinated<a name="page_200" id="page_200"></a> to a just proportion with the whole&mdash;these are a theme of
+wondering admiration to every student. A whole grammar of ornament might
+be illustrated by examples taken from these buildings alone. The
+architecture of the houses of the Moorish aristocracy which still remain
+in Seville, Granada, Toledo, and Saragossa is wonderfully adapted both
+to the necessities of the climate and to domestic ornament. In the more
+northern examples the open galleries, in the more southern the flat
+roof, of the apartments surrounding the inner quadrangle make a
+delightful resort in the cool of the day; while the court or <i>patio</i>
+itself, with its fountains and shade, its flowers and creepers and
+odoriferous shrubs, its mingled play of light and colour, through which
+the delicate grace of ornament is seen uninjured by the dust and contact
+with the outside traffic, appears to the northern tourist almost like
+one of the fairy homes of which his ancestors dreamed, and which have
+been described to him in many a legend, as a thing too lovely to be
+gazed upon by mortal eyes unless unsealed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;">
+<a href="images/ill199.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill199_thumb.jpg" width="384" height="550" alt="MOORISH ORNAMENTATION." title="" /></a>
+<br /><br /><span class="caption">MOORISH ORNAMENTATION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The influence and the impress of Arabian art was not confined in Spain
+to mosques or to buildings consecrated to the use of Mohammedans alone.
+Some of the most beautiful specimens of this architecture were erected
+for Christians or for Jews. Arabic inscriptions used as ornaments are<a name="page_201" id="page_201"></a>
+still to be seen on the altar of the Cathedral of Gerona, in the Shrine
+of San Isidore at Leon; Arabic architecture is seen in the palace of the
+archbishops of Toledo, in a chapel in Alcala de Henares, and in more
+than one synagogue of the Jews. Christian bishops used as episcopal
+seals rings on which were engraved the praises of Allah. Long after the
+conquest of the great cities of the centre and of the south, Moorish and
+Mudejar architects were retained in the pay of Christian monarchs to
+keep in repair the cathedrals and palaces, the beauty of whose
+architecture the Christians could appreciate but could not imitate, much
+less surpass. It is this fact, and the mingling of style and ideas
+consequent thereon, which gives its sole peculiar characteristic to
+Spanish art.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, contemporaneously with the flourishing period of Arabian art
+in the south, a Christian architecture, strikingly in contrast from its
+poverty of style and of invention, was slowly being reconstructed in the
+north. Of the eighth century we have the crypt of the Church of Santa
+Cruz, at Cangas in the Asturias, and some remains in parts of the
+churches of Oviedo. To the tenth century belong parts of the Church of
+San Pablo at Barcelona, and other Catalan churches, with here and there
+a chapel in the Western Pyrenees. During the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries the more important churches of Northern Spain were almost<a name="page_202" id="page_202"></a>
+reproductions of those of Southern France; the Cathedral of Santiago de
+Compostella is almost a copy of the Church of St. Sernin at Toulouse;
+but the Romanesque (semi-Byzantine) style lingered somewhat longer in
+Spain than in the neighbouring country, and especially in North-eastern
+Spain. In the twelfth century edifices of real beauty are beginning to
+be built; such are the cloisters of Tarragona and the cathedrals of
+Lerida and of Tudela. The cathedrals of Avila and Siguenza are of more
+native Spanish character; while those of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon show
+the influence of French artists in their general plan, but with an added
+ornamentation derived from the richer and more florid fancy of the
+south. Of these perhaps Leon is the noblest and Burgos the richest
+example in Spain. Segovia, Salamanca, and Seville, of the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, are the latest of the great Gothic churches of
+Spain, before the rise of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere had the classical revival in architecture more influence than in
+Spain. The almost exclusive type of church which, both in Spain and in
+her vast colonies, is pointed out as the Spanish church, is that either
+of the Renaissance or of the styles which have sprung from it. This soon
+became fashionable, but its semi-pagan additions frequently harmonize
+but ill with the deeper religious feeling of the preceding styles. Still
+it has many<a name="page_203" id="page_203"></a> fine examples; the works of Berruguete and Herrera are well
+worthy of study. The Escorial, the work of the latter, is redeemed from
+ugliness or meanness by the noble proportions of its central chapel and
+pantheon. But to this semi-classical style succeeded, in the eighteenth
+century, the Churrigueresque, the most debased of all styles, wherein
+plaster took the place of sculpture, sham that of reality, and masses of
+gilding and an incongruous medley of meaningless ornament concealed the
+blunders in proportion and poverty of idea. The adoption of this style
+by the Jesuits procured its prevalence in many districts of Spain and of
+her colonies; occasionally the size of the buildings constructed gives a
+certain grandeur and hides the debasement of the methods.</p>
+
+<p>The domestic, palatial, and castellated architecture of Spain has little
+peculiar beyond what has been already indicated. The royal palace at
+Madrid, however, is one of the most successful architectural efforts of
+the eighteenth century. The sculptured coats of arms on mean dwellings
+are perhaps the most notable distinction of Spanish houses. Traces of
+the influence of Moorish traditions may not unfrequently be observed. In
+the north, the cottages and farms of the Basques, with overhanging roofs
+and wooden galleries, recall in some degree those of Switzerland; in the
+south the iron bars or rails (rejas) before the<a name="page_204" id="page_204"></a> lower windows, and the
+lattices (celosias) in the upper stories tell of insecurity and of
+habits of almost Oriental seclusion of women.</p>
+
+<p>Finer even than the architecture and the exterior of the buildings is
+the church furniture in Spain. It is unsurpassed for beauty and
+interest. The carved and sculptured wood-work in some of the cathedrals
+is finer than even that of the Netherlands and of Germany. The storied
+screens and choir stalls at Toledo; the retablos of Gerona and
+Salamanca, of Avila and Seville; the choir fittings of Santiago, Zamora,
+and of Burgos; the lecterns and pulpits both of brass and wood; and the
+rails and gates and screens of noblest metal-work are often of simply
+grand proportion; nay, even the polychrome wooden statues in the
+churches will often be found to be of rarest beauty. The monuments
+erected to the memory of the dead are equal to anything which affection
+and piety have raised elsewhere, from that of Archbishop Maurice at
+Burgos, in the thirteenth century&mdash;of the tombs of the constable and of
+those of Juan II. and Isabel of Portugal, in the Cartuja de Miraflores,
+of the fifteenth century; and that of Prince Juan, the only son of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, at Avila, erected in 1497&mdash;down to the noble
+mausoleum of inlaid metal-work by Zuloaga, lately placed in the Church
+of the Atocha to the memory of Prim. In these and many more, Spain can
+show a sequence able to<a name="page_205" id="page_205"></a> vie with that of any other land. Hardly less
+beautiful are the minor accessories of Catholic worship; the gold and
+silver smiths' work of the chandeliers, the jewelled work of crosses,
+custodias or shrines, and sacred vessels is often worthy of admiration.
+In all such works of art, before the pillage of the French in the war of
+liberation, and the destruction of the convents, Spain was probably one
+of the richest of Christian lands. If we seem to insist too much on
+ecclesiastical art in Spain, it is because, as we shall see still more
+clearly in the case of painting, art has here concentrated its choicest
+effort on religious subjects, and in them has won its greatest triumphs.
+Except, perhaps, in arms and in porcelain, in portrait-painting and in
+furniture, all the masterpieces of Spanish art are in some sense
+ecclesiastical. Take away religion from her art, how poor would be the
+residue, for even Arabian and Moslem art in Spain were essentially
+religious.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Painting.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Though Spain cannot rival some other countries, Italy for example, in
+the number of her great painters; though she has founded no great
+technical school; yet is she worthy of greatest admiration; in one or
+two of her artists she has attained the very highest rank. As a
+religious painter,<a name="page_206" id="page_206"></a> especially in expressing in form and colour the
+heights of mystic ecstasy, Murillo stands unrivalled. As a
+portrait-painter of courtly grace and distinction, Velazquez has few
+equals. It is not in landscape, or as interpreters of the ever-varying
+beauty of external nature, that Spanish painters excel, but in the
+delineation of the human form, and especially in the rendering of those
+religious emotions which lead through asceticism to ecstasy. Not the
+glorification of merely sensuous beauty, but the triumphs of the spirit
+over the flesh are the conquests which they prefer to delineate.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish painters may be divided among three great provinces: the
+Valencian, Andalusian, and Castilian schools. Of these the Andalusian,
+and especially the school of Seville, has produced by far the greatest
+artists.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest specimens of Spanish painting are of the decorative kind,
+and are employed in subordination to architecture, to add colour to
+form, and to heighten and make more evident the details of sculpture in
+churches or convents. Much of this phase of art, in which they stand
+very high, they probably learned from the Moors. From these labours in
+churches and convents art in Spain received a religious imprint and
+direction which it has never lost, and from which it is only now turning
+in the present generation. Goya and Fortuny are perhaps the only
+considerable painters<a name="page_207" id="page_207"></a> of Spain in whose works religious subjects do not
+preponderate. Spanish art reflects in a peculiar degree the
+characteristic of Spanish theology. The mystic grace, the transport of
+love which seems almost too human and tender when fixed on the Divine,
+which moves us in the writings of St. Teresa, St. Juan de la Cruz,
+Xavier, and others, touches us no less in the pictures of Murillo. Stern
+and sombre, as these are lovely, are the paintings which remind us that
+we are in the land of the inquisition. Figures of martyrs serene in
+tortures, whose horrors are laid bare as by no other artists, figures of
+saints of primitive, mediæval, or of later times, who have carried
+asceticism to excess, portraits of men who were as severe to themselves
+as they were pitiless to others; such are the subjects which are
+faithfully rendered by the pencils of Ribalta, Ribera, Zurbaran, and
+many others. Later on, when the old constitutional liberties of Spain
+had almost utterly fallen, and when the worship of the king had begun
+almost to rival that of the Blessed Virgin, Velazquez and others give us
+portraits of the royal family of Spain. The fun and wit which really
+existed in Spanish life, and which her novelists have depicted with such
+relish in innumerable novels, is but poorly represented in Spanish art
+by any of her great masters. Murillo's beggar-boys are almost the only
+pictures which answer to the "picaresque"<a name="page_208" id="page_208"></a> side of Spanish literature
+till the advent of Goya and of Fortuny.</p>
+
+<p>The expressions of the plastic arts of Spain are neither so idealized as
+the Italian, nor so intellectual as the German, nor so sensuous as the
+Flemish, nor so realistic as those of the Dutch school; but they are far
+more powerful in colouring and truer and deeper in feeling than are
+those of the French school. The Spaniard painted the types and
+characters of his native land, but he delighted to throw around them the
+magic lights that never were on sea or land; through the intense
+darkness of his asceticism ever peers a ray of heavenly light; but the
+type of the figure is ever Spanish; never, in the best days of art, was
+inspiration sought from a reproduction of the forms of pagan classical
+ism, or from a mere eclecticism of beauty. Though the drawing is
+correct, we feel that it has not been learned from a mere study of
+ancient statuary or from anatomical preparations, but from the living
+type and figure. Here and there we find painters like Juande Joannes
+(Vicente Macip) and Domenico Theotocopuli (El Greco), who might have
+lived on Italian soil; but generally the tone of Spanish painters is
+local and unmistakable. Through all his styles&mdash;the <i>frio</i> (cold),
+<i>calido</i> (warm), and the <i>vaporoso</i> (mystic)&mdash;Murillo remained faithful
+to Spanish, nay, to Andalusian models; none can mistake his saints and
+virgins, his boys and beggars,<a name="page_209" id="page_209"></a> as belonging to any other race. He does
+not tell the wondrous story of the Incarnation with so grand an appeal
+to the intellect as do the Italian painters. The "woman blessed
+throughout all generations" does not look out to us from his canvas from
+the serene heights of perfect woman-hood which has found its crown in
+the mystery of the Motherhood of the Son of God, but in younger and more
+girlish forms he paints for us the maiden rapt in adoring ecstasy as she
+experiences the wonders of love divine, bathed in the golden light of a
+rapture which none but the very purest can ever feel, and which the very
+angels are represented as reverencing.</p>
+
+<p>Space forbids our giving even an approximate catalogue of Spanish
+painters; we can merely single out for mention the two or three of
+highest rank in their respective provinces. In Valencia we have Ribalta
+(1551-1628), Juan de Joames (Vicente Macip) (1523-79), and the great but
+gloomy Ribera (1588-1609). To this school also belong the artists of
+Catalonia and of the Balearic Isles. In Castile are Navarette (El Mudo)
+(1526-79), Morales (1509-86), Theotocopuli (El Greco) (died 1578), and
+the younger Herrera (died 1686). But the greatest painters are from
+Andalusia and from Seville. The well-known names of Herrera the Elder
+(1576-1656), Zurbaran (1598-1662), Murillo (1618-82), Velazquez
+(1623-60), suffice to<a name="page_210" id="page_210"></a> show its pre-eminence. The eighteenth century, in
+art as well as in literature, was a time of utter decadence; Goya
+(1746-1820), the caricaturist, is the only artist we need mention; but,
+like its literature, Spanish art is now at length rising from its long
+sleep. Fortuny (1838-74), has made himself a European reputation;
+though, through his early death, the pictures he has left give promise
+only of what his future might have been. Rosales (1840-73), though less
+known by foreigners, is of equal, if not of greater merit; like Fortuny,
+he died in his early prime. Madrazo, Jimenez, Fradilla, and others,
+though not of more than national reputation, yet prove that art is not
+extinct in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In what have been called the industrial arts Spain was formerly very
+rich, and, but for the wretched economical policy and administration of
+the Government since the seventeenth century, would probably have held
+her own against other countries. The gold and silver ornaments still
+worn by the peasantry in a few districts perpetuate designs and methods
+of workmanship originally derived from the Moors, and much of the church
+work is still of great excellence. No less beautiful is the iron-work,
+in which a grand effect is often produced by simply noble proportions in
+the gates, <i>rejas</i>, and screens of her cathedrals and churches; and in
+another sphere, in the manufacture of arms, and of<a name="page_211" id="page_211"></a> inlaying steel or
+iron with arabesque patterns of gold and silver, an art which has been
+lately revived with great success in Biscay and the Basque Provinces. In
+porcelain and pottery the majolica ware, made at Valencia, was renowned
+throughout Europe; and the Moorish glazed and lustred ware, the
+manufacture of which remained a secret till the present century, is
+greatly sought after by amateurs. The wine-jars (<i>tinajas</i> and
+<i>alpujarras</i>), the porous pottery (<i>bucaros</i>), the <i>azulejos</i> or
+decorated tiles, continue traditions originally derived through the
+Arabs from the East, but which had almost expired when the manufacture
+was faintly revived under royal patronage in the times of Charles III.,
+to start again on a stronger life with the aid of English capital in our
+own times. Spanish glass is sometimes curious, and much of the stained
+and painted windows in the cathedrals is excellent, especially that of
+Toledo and of Leon; but this art was undoubtedly learned from foreign
+workmen, and only became naturalized in Spain. Of carvings in wood and
+marble and ivory we have already sufficiently spoken. In textile fabrics
+and embroidery, especially in lace, Spain was formerly very rich. The
+mantillas of the ladies, the dresses of the sacred images, the copes of
+the clergy, gave full opportunity for the production of this fabric; but
+the chief effort is now directed to the manufacture of<a name="page_212" id="page_212"></a> the best foreign
+laces, all of which are most successfully imitated by hand-workers in
+Valencia and Murcia, where they can be produced at a lower cost than is
+possible in colder and more northern climes. Everything in Spain, even
+the common use of colour and of flowers by the Andalusian peasants,
+shows a natural feeling for art; and its production is hindered more by
+indolence, and by the mischievous economical conditions of almost all
+Spanish industry, than by any want of talent in the native workman or
+artisan.</p>
+
+<p>Though, perhaps, there is no country in Europe in which music is more
+appreciated or practised than in Spain, it is singular that she has
+produced no really great master. She has many composers of "zarzuelas,"
+a species of lighter opera; her traditional dance and ballad tunes are
+some of the most inspiriting possible; and her guitar playing is
+renowned, but more for the romantic sentiment of the words and the
+occasion on which it is used than for the music itself. Well-nigh the
+only name for which even Spaniards claim equality with the great
+European masters in serious music is that of Don Manuel Doyague, of
+Salamanca (1755-1842). His <i>Miserere</i>, <i>Te Deum</i>, and various <i>Masses</i>
+are said to equal those of any master of his time.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Literature.</i></h4>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to repeat here what has been<a name="page_213" id="page_213"></a> said above on the
+Spanish authors who wrote during the silver age of Latin literature, or
+to trace again the origin of the Spanish language. It is evident that
+all we can do is to give a very brief sketch of Spanish literature. This
+literature is, perhaps, the richest in Europe in ballads and romances,
+and these, which make one of its chief glories, are among its earliest
+monuments. While the "Chanson de Roland" and other "Chansons de Gestes"
+were being written in Northern France in the form of continuous epic
+poems, Spain was celebrating her hero&mdash;the Cid&mdash;in a series of ballads.
+These, if united, would tell almost the whole story of his life; but
+each could be sung or recited alone as a separate and complete poem.
+This form of verse continued for many ages to be the favourite
+literature of the common people, and attained a development in Spain
+beyond that which it did in any other land. For spontaneity, for
+movement, for grace of expression, for sudden turns from martial ardour
+to the most pathetic tenderness, the Spanish ballad is unrivalled. It
+embraces and handles with almost equal success the most varied subjects:
+war and chivalry and love, patriotism, wit, amusement, and religion,
+have all been treated of in these romances, and the collections of each
+kind would fill many volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The first prose works in the Spanish language seem to have been a
+translation of the Bible, under<a name="page_214" id="page_214"></a> Alphonse X., and of two codes of law,
+the "Fuero Juzgo" and "Las Siete Partidas," in the middle of the
+thirteenth century. It seems to have been almost by accident that
+Alfonzo wrote in the dialect of Leon and Castile in preference to that
+of Galicia and Portugal. Had he chosen the latter, probably Portuguese
+would have become the language of the whole Peninsula. Under his reign,
+too, may have been commenced the first history written in Spanish, "La
+Gran Conquista de Ultramar," telling the story of the Crusades, with
+many romantic episodes. The next production that calls for remark is the
+epic of Alexander the Great, by J. L. Segura, of the latter part of the
+same century. This poem gives the name "Alexandrine" to all European
+verse written in the same metre. In the early part of the fourteenth
+century we have a collection of tales, with morals attached, called "El
+Conde Lucanor," by Don Juan Manuel, nephew of Alphonse X. (1282-1347);
+and Alfonso XI. continues the list of royal authors with a "Libro de la
+Monteria,", or treatise on hunting. The arch-priest of Hita, Juan Ruiz
+(1330-43), about the same time took up the strain of love and war in a
+romance of mingled prose and verse, entitled "Guerras Civiles de
+Granada." In the latter half of the fifteenth century we meet with a
+remarkable production, the tragi-comedy of Celestina, which, in its
+two-fold<a name="page_215" id="page_215"></a> character of novel and of drama, has been the parent of a
+double offspring, both of the comedy and of the <i>picaresque</i> novel of
+Spain. The Spanish rogue, at least in fiction, has been said to be the
+only amusing rogue in Europe. The chief representations of him in
+literature are in the novel of "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554), by Hurtado
+de Mendoza; "Guzman de Alfarache" (1599), by Mateo Aleman; and "La
+Picara Justina" (1605), by the Dominican monk, Andreas Perez. The whole
+series of these works culminated in a masterpiece, "Gil Blas," written,
+not by a Spaniard, but by the Frenchman Lesage, in 1668; perhaps the
+most graphic description of the manners of another nation ever written
+by a foreigner.</p>
+
+<p>The serious drama in Spain arose, probably, like that of other European
+nations, from the mysteries and moralities of the Middle Ages, such as
+are still continued to be performed occasionally at Elche and in other
+districts. In the "Autos" of Calderon and others it bore clear marks of
+this origin to a later date than any other contemporary drama. The first
+plays of any consequence we hear of are those of Lope de Rueda
+(1544-67), who, both as actor and as author, was greatly admired by
+Cervantes. From him the Spanish drama, like the almost contemporary
+Elizabethan drama in England, sprang at once to its full height.
+Cervantes, in his tragedies "Los Baños de Argel," and in<a name="page_216" id="page_216"></a> "El trato de
+Argel" in which he described incidents in his own captivity, and in the
+"Numancia," telling the story of the siege by the Romans, imitated and
+surpassed his friend. In lighter pieces, comedies and <i>entremeses</i>, he
+was less successful. Almost coeval with Cervantes is Lope de Vega
+(1562-1635), perhaps the most prolific dramatic writer of any value that
+ever lived. His pieces are numbered at from 1500 to 2000, and the best
+of these are equal, if not superior, to those of Calderon in delineation
+of character and in plot, and are inferior only in poetical merit. We
+can only mention Tirso de Molina (1588-1648), Montahran (1602-38), and
+Ruiz de Alarcon (died 1639) as dramatists of merit, whose best pieces,
+especially those of the latter, approach very nearly to those of Lope
+and of Calderon. Calderon de la Barca (1600-81), with the German, Göthe,
+is the only dramatist of modern Europe who has been seriously put
+forward as a rival, or even superior, to Shakspere. This we think to be
+a mistake; in rich poetical imagery, in gorgeousness of fancy, in
+harmony of verse, in stately dignity, in depth of religions feeling, in
+knowledge of stage effect&mdash;in all these things he may be compared to our
+English master; but he is very far inferior to him in width of sympathy,
+in wit and rollicking fun, or in thoughtful humour; his comedy will not
+bear comparison with that of Shakspere; but he falls<a name="page_217" id="page_217"></a> most short in his
+delineation of individual character. In comparison with Shakspere's, his
+figures are but well-dressed puppets compared to living men and women;
+not one of them lingers in the memory like a person whom we have known.
+We remember Calderon's verses, we revel in his splendid poetry, but we
+utterly forget who it is that utters these dazzling strains. Calderon's
+dramas and comedies are reckoned at 120, and his Autos, religious or
+sacramental pieces, generally performed by religious or civil
+corporations in the open air, are numbered at about seventy. In these
+plays abstract qualities take the place of living personages, and it is
+perhaps the greatest proof of Calderon's genius that he has by his
+brilliant poetry and serene religious feeling made some of even these
+acceptable to a modern reader.</p>
+
+<p>But while the drama and comedy and the picaresque novel had been thus
+developing themselves, a whole literature of quite a different kind had
+sprung up into favour, flourished, and died away. This consisted of the
+prose books of chivalry, and of the pastoral romances both in prose and
+verse. They are remembered now chiefly through mention of them in the
+pages of the immortal work, the "Don Quixote," of Cervantes, which
+crushed them for ever. The most celebrated of them was the "Amadis de
+Gaul," written probably at the end of the fourteenth century. The<a name="page_218" id="page_218"></a>
+imitations of it were innumerable, each more wild, extravagant, more
+insipid, and in worse taste than the last. Of the pastoral romances the
+only one we need to note is the "Diana Enamorada," of Montemayor
+(1520-61), and perhaps the most successful after this is the "Galatea,"
+of Cervantes himself, who could never entirely shake off the influence
+of the writings he delighted to satirize, and of which he was the
+literary executioner. The one Spanish book which has become really
+European, in a degree which has been attained by no other purely secular
+work, is the "Don Quixote" of this author (1547-1616). Into this
+extraordinary production, under the guise of the adventures of his hero,
+the last of the knights-errant, with his squire, Sancho Panza&mdash;a story
+full of mirth, incident, and humour&mdash;Cervantes has put all the wisdom
+which, by his observation on mankind and literature, he had collected
+during a singularly varied life as writer, soldier, seaman, Algerine
+slave, poet, and man of business. Though hardly belonging to the school
+of the classical Renaissance, yet we see in Cervantes a specimen of the
+marked and distinguishing excellence of the men at that time&mdash;the width
+of their sympathies; so that each more eminent man seemed to contain in
+himself an epitome of the experience of mankind. It is, perhaps, to this
+many-sidedness of his experience, and of his culture, that is owing the
+genial<a name="page_219" id="page_219"></a> character, the pathetic humour, and the total absence of
+bitterness in this masterly satire. Thus Cervantes, while laughing down
+and extinguishing for ever the absurdities of the chivalrous and
+pastoral romances, yet retains his sympathy for all that was really
+noble, though exaggerated, in them. His "Don Quixote," though moving
+irrepressible laughter, will for ever remain one of the choicest
+representations of a brave, pure-minded, honourable gentleman, and tears
+of pity for him are not far distant from our smiles at his quaint
+insanities. Since the days of Cervantes one kind only of the chivalrous
+romances has really survived in literature, and that is the historical
+romance, of which the "Guerras Civiles de Granada" of the arch-priest
+Hita, mentioned above, is so good an example. Another satirist, less
+known than Cervantes, to whom his life bears some resemblance, Quevedo y
+Villegas (1580-1645), is even a more versatile writer. In prose and
+verse his writings are very numerous, but his style, learned and
+obscure, often laboured in the extreme, though pregnant with thought and
+wit, contrasts unfavourably with the clearness of Cervantes; he holds
+now in Spanish literature a place nearly analogous to that of Swift
+among British writers.</p>
+
+<p>But we must hurry on. With the downfall of Granada, the discovery of
+America, the consolidation of the kingdoms of the Peninsula into one<a name="page_220" id="page_220"></a>
+nation, real historical study began in Spain. Thus we have in quick
+succession many works of considerable merit, such as the "Annals of
+Aragon," by Zurita (1512-80); the "Comunidades of Castille," by Mejia
+(1549); the great "History of Spain," by the Jesuit Mariana (1536-1632);
+Herrera's "General History of the Indies" (1549-1625); the "Commentaries
+on Peru," by the Inca, Garcilasso de la Vega (1540-1616); the monographs
+of Hurtado de Mendoza on the "Wars of Granada" (1610); the "Expedition
+of the Catalans," by Moncada (1623); the "Wars of Catalonia," by Melo
+(1645); and, in literary form superior to all these, the "Conquest of
+Mexico," by Solis (1685).</p>
+
+<p>Of poetry, apart from the stage and from the romances, there is not much
+of real value to engage our attention. The grandest verses of early
+Spain are undoubtedly the "Coplas" of Manrique (1476), which have been
+often translated into English, and which form one of the finest elegies
+extant in any language. After Garcilassa de la Vega (1503-36), Spanish
+poets fell into an unworthy imitation of the Italian; and subsequently
+Gongora (1561-1627) set the example of a still more debased and stilted
+style, full of affected conceits and mistaken classicalism. The only
+tolerable epic poem which Spain has yet produced is the "Araucana" of
+Ercilla, which tells the story of the wars with<a name="page_221" id="page_221"></a> Indians of that name in
+Chili, and in which the author had personally taken part.</p>
+
+<p>From the close of the seventeenth and through the greater part of the
+eighteenth century, literature partook of the progressive decadence of
+all things in Spain. It withered and declined under the double censure
+and oppression of the king and of the inquisition. The theatre, which
+had striven hard in Spain to become the ally, or even the handmaid, of
+the Church, was contemptuously thrust aside by the latter, and within a
+century of Calderon's death, not even an Infanta could procure
+permission from the inquisition for a comedy in time of carnaval. No
+history of any value could be written under such conditions; the only
+outlet for literary skill lay in religious and mystic writings, which
+are of singular beauty. The classical and grammatical movement of the
+Renaissance which had begun so well under the patronage of Juan de
+Cisneros, Cardinal Ximenes, the great minister of Charles V., and the
+chief monument of which is the Complutensian Polyglot Bible of 1514-17,
+and its greatest scholar, Antonio de Nebrija, soon died away, and the
+Spanish universities, which for a while had been the admiration, became,
+in the eighteenth century, the laughing-stock of Europe. Of the earlier
+period we may mention among the religious writers Luis de Granada
+(1505-68), Santa Teresa (1515-82), the Jesuit, Ribadeneyra<a name="page_222" id="page_222"></a> (1527-1611),
+Juan de la Cruz (1542-91); but even this literature degenerated into
+casuistry and mere technical scholasticism. Spanish religious poetry is,
+however, far more copious and of greater excellence than is generally
+supposed. It has been studied and collected in our own day by the
+opposite schools of the Spanish Protestants, and by the champion of
+orthodoxy, Menendez Pelayo.</p>
+
+<p>There is little to notice in Spanish literature from this time until the
+rise of the doctrinaire and economical writers of the reign of Carlos
+III., who for the most part closely followed the contemporary school of
+French publicists and encyclopædists. Among these are Padre Benito
+Feyjoo, who was the first to protest against the absence of science and
+true learning in Spain; the Padre Isla (1703-81), decidedly one of the
+wittiest of Spanish writers and satirists; Jovellanos (1744-1811), the
+best statesman and political writer of his time, and in the purer walks
+of literature the two Moratins (1737-1828). One or two philological
+works, far in advance of their age, made now their appearance, such as
+the tracts of Padre Sarmiento (1692-1770) on the Spanish language; the
+works of the Jesuits Larramendi (1728-45) on the Basque, and of Hervas
+(1735-1805) on general philology. To this period also belongs the
+magnificent collection entitled, "La España Sagrada," commenced by<a name="page_223" id="page_223"></a>
+Florez (1754-1801), and, after many interruptions, completed only in
+1880.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the eighteenth century, however, a reaction set in
+against the French and so-called classical school, and the attention of
+Spanish writers was recalled to the masterpieces of their own earlier
+literature. The movement was accelerated by the course of political
+events, and the successes of the war of independence against the French.
+One of the earliest defenders of the romantic against the classical
+school was Bohl de Faber, a Hamburg merchant settled in Cadiz. He
+published in 1820-3, in his native town, selections from works of the
+early poets and dramatists of Spain; and his daughter, Cecilia, under
+the name of Fernan Caballero, has attained the highest rank among the
+lady novelists of Spain. The admission of Bohl de Faber into the ranks
+of the Spanish Academy, under Martinez de la Rosa, marks the definite
+triumph of the national school. At first it seemed as if the movement
+would produce simply a change of French for English and German models.
+Fiction became a stiff imitation of Sir Walter Scott. In poetry the
+influence of Byron reigned supreme. Espronceda (1810-42) has equalled
+his master in his cynical odes. "The Beggar," "The Executioner," "The
+last day of the Condemned," and "The Pirate," might almost have been
+penned by Byron; and "El Mundo Diablo"<a name="page_224" id="page_224"></a> will long live in Spanish
+literature. Zorilla, born in 1817, still living, has been more
+successful in his dramas than Espronceda, especially in "Don Juan
+Tenorio," but his poems are inferior in force, though rich in colouring
+and in the melody of his verse. Gustavo Becquer (1836-70) is another
+poet who fed his genius with the legends of the past, but his models
+were Edgar Poe and Hoffmann; some of his weird fantastic tales and poems
+are excellent examples of their kind. Of an opposite character are the
+realistic novels of Fernan Caballero above mentioned (1797-1877). These
+are exquisite rose-tinted photographs of Spanish life and character
+taken by one who sees everything Spanish with a favourable eye. Her
+writings are distinguished by a delicate aristocratic grace and
+tenderness which she throws over all subjects which she handles, whether
+of high or lowly life. As an artist her plots are inferior to those of
+many worse novelists; her descriptions of scenery are beautiful and
+exact; as a delineator of individual character she fails, but as a
+painter of type and class she is unrivalled. Her sketches abound in
+humour and in gentle melancholy; a deep and true religious feeling
+pervades every line, but she fails in strength and passion. Thus she can
+be classed only in the second rank of female novelists, and does not
+approach the genius of Georges Sand or of George Elliot. Trueba, in the
+north, essays to imitate her,<a name="page_225" id="page_225"></a> but he often sinks into puerility, nor
+are his studies marked by the conscientious regard for fact which
+distinguishes those of the lady writer. Pereda, who delineates the
+peasants of Santander, is a less prolific writer but of higher literary
+merit. Of living novelists we should place in the first rank Juan Valera
+with his powerful novels, "Pepita Jimenez," "El Doctor Faustino," and
+"Doña Luz." Next to him is, perhaps, Perez Galdos, who, in the series
+entitled "Episodios Nacionales," rivals the national romances of
+Erckmann-Chatrian in French. Pedro Alarcon has a greater fund of wit and
+humour, and his "Sombrero de tres picos" is a most mirth-provoking tale.
+Fernandez y Gonzalez, in the number, if not in the quality of his works,
+may almost compete with the elder Alexandre Dumas, whose semi-historical
+style he repeats. Feliz Pizcueta, a Valencian writer, has also written
+many novels, whose scenes are laid in his native province. Among
+dramatists now living, or lately dead, we may mention Hartzenbusch
+(1806-80), whose "Amantes de Teruel" is one of the most successful
+tragedies of the romantic school; Breton de los Herreros (1800-70);
+Gertrudis de Avellaneda, the first Spanish female dramatist, born in
+Cuba in 1816; Gutierrez, who, born in 1813, sought refuge, like Zorilla,
+in Spanish America; Lopez de Ayala; and lastly, J. Estebanez, whose best
+work is entitled "Un Drama Nuevo," and who<a name="page_226" id="page_226"></a> reaches a high level of
+dramatic art. Of more extravagant style, inferior to these, and already
+marking a decadence, is José Echegaray, a man of most versatile and
+opposite talents, and one of the first mathematicians of Spain, the best
+of whose plays is "Locura o Santidad." Of lyric poets we may mention
+Campoamor, an original but languid and graceful writer of minor verse,
+and Selgas, whose grace is seasoned with wit and satire, but whose prose
+is much superior to his verse. But by far the greatest of living Spanish
+poets, though like Tennyson he has failed comparatively on the stage, is
+Gaspar Nuñez de Arce. His "Gritos del Combate," and "La Ultima
+Lamentacion de Lord Byron," contain some noble verses. He writes in the
+spirit of purest patriotism, with a stern morality, and with severe and
+chastened art.</p>
+
+<p>But more important than in the movement of fiction and poetry has been
+the influence of the romantic school in history. The attention of
+Spaniards has been at length turned to the study of their original
+records, and especially to that of the early Arabic writers. The first
+to attempt this, but with insufficient means, was J. A. Condé
+(1757-1820) in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en España."
+This has since been superseded by the exacter learning of Don Pascual
+Gayangos, in the "Mohammedan Dynasties of<a name="page_227" id="page_227"></a> Spain," by many foreign
+writers, and by the labours of Fernandez y Gonzalez in "Los Mudejares de
+Castilla" (1866) and others. The labours of Don Modeste and Don Vicente
+Lafuente, the one in ecclesiastical, the other in civil history, must be
+mentioned with approval, and the works of Amador de los Rios, on the
+literature of Spain and on the history of the Jews in Spain, do honour
+to his country. Among other historians, we may mention F. Castro and
+Sales y Ferrer, whose works are the popular manuals in education.
+Fernandez Guerra in the ancient, and Coello in the modern, Geography of
+Spain, are authors of the highest class; nor must we omit the Englishman
+Bowles, who wrote on the Natural History of Spain in 1775. In Geology
+another English name, Macpherson, attains the highest rank, together
+with the surveyors employed on the "Comision de la Mapa Geologica" of
+Spain. On the history of property in Spain and Europe, are two
+remarkable essays by Cárdenas and de Azcárate. In theology, on the Roman
+Catholic side, are the writings of Balmés (1810-48); of Doñoso Cortes
+(1809-53), of the present Bishop of Cordova, Ceferino Gonzalez; and,
+still publishing, the remarkable production of Menendez Pelayo,
+"Historia de los Heterodoxos in España;" while in the Protestant
+theology, Usoz, assisted by B. Wiffen in England and Boehmer in Germany,
+has rescued from oblivion the works of the Spanish<a name="page_228" id="page_228"></a> reformers. In
+philology the Jesuit, Padre Fita y Colomé, worthily continues the
+traditions of Larramendi and of Hervas. Fernandez Guerra, and F. Tubino,
+and the Barcelona school pursue archæological studies with success. The
+influence of outside European thought is every day more evident in
+Spain. Ardent disciples of the school of Comte, of Darwin, and of
+Schopenhauer, are to be found among her publicists. In political economy
+Figuerola, G. Rodriguez, Colmeiro, Azcárate, and others, follow keenly
+the teaching of the English liberal school. Face to face in
+parliamentary eloquence and in politics stand Cánovas del Castello and
+Emilio Castelar; the latter distinguished by a florid oratory which is
+unsurpassed in Europe, but whose style is far more effective when spoken
+than when read; the former, with greater learning and a more cultivated
+taste, would undoubtedly be known as a writer but for his devotion to
+political life. The periodical and daily press of Spain, though not to
+compare with that of England, or of the United States, is almost on a
+par with that of most continental countries; the scientific and literary
+reviews and magazines are yearly increasing both in numbers and in
+value.</p>
+
+<p>This sketch, however brief, would be incomplete without a glance at what
+may be called the provincial literature of Spain. The publishers of<a name="page_229" id="page_229"></a>
+Barcelona, especially in illustrated works, vie with those of Madrid. It
+is not in the Castilian tongue alone that the awakening is apparent. In
+Catalonia and in Valencia the study of the native idiom and of their
+ancient authors has been taken up with zeal, and with happiest results
+in history and philology. Victor Balaguer, the Catalan poet and
+dramatist is equal to all contemporary Spanish poets save Nuñez de Arce.
+The dramas of Pablo Soler (Serafi Petarra) are received with an
+enthusiasm unknown to audiences in Madrid. Mila y Fontanals, Bofarull,
+and Sanpére y Miquel are investigating with success the language,
+history, and archæology of their country. A like, though necessarily a
+less important, movement is taking place in Andalusia, in the Basque
+Provinces, in the Asturias, and in Galicia; everywhere what is worth
+preserving in these dialects is being sought out, edited, and given to
+the press. The archives of Simancas are at length thrown open to the
+world, and guides and catalogues are being industriously prepared.
+Sevillian scholars are also studying the archives of the Indies, and the
+treasures of Hebrew and Arabian lore.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if Spain can at present boast no writer whom we can place
+undoubtedly and unreservedly in the very first rank, she shows an
+intellectual movement which, though confined at present to a
+comparatively small portion of her inhabitants,<a name="page_230" id="page_230"></a> may, if it spread and
+continue, place her again in her proud position of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, as one of the first of European nations, not
+perhaps in arms and power, but in literature, if not in science.<a name="page_231" id="page_231"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br /><br />
+EPILOGUE.</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">A <small>FEW</small> words in conclusion. Spain is far from being a worn-out country.
+On the contrary, both in the character and capacities of its varied
+populations, in the mineral riches of its soil, in its agricultural
+wealth, in industrial resources, and in the artistic taste of its
+workmen, it is capable of vast development.</p>
+
+<p>Two things hinder this, and will probably hinder it for some time. These
+are the political separation of Spain and Portugal, so ill-adapted to
+the geographical conformation of the Peninsula. The great rivers of
+Spain run westward, but the benefit of these fluvial highways is
+entirely lost to the country through the intercalation of Portugal into
+the western sea-board, thus making useless to Spain her natural system
+of river transport, and cutting her off from her best and most direct
+Atlantic ports. It is Lisbon, and not Madrid, which should be the
+capital of the whole Peninsula.<a name="page_232" id="page_232"></a> Scarcely less an evil to Spain is the
+possession of Gibraltar by the English, which, besides the expense of
+watching the fortress, and the loss to Spain of the advantage of the
+possession of the great port of call for the whole maritime traffic of
+the East, is a school of smuggling and contraband, and a focus of
+corruption for the whole of South-western Spain. Were the whole Atlantic
+and Mediterranean sea-board in sole possession of one nation, the
+expenses of the custom-house would be greatly lessened, while the
+smuggling on the Portuguese and British frontiers would wholly
+disappear. In no point was the effect of the narrow and jealous policy
+of Philip II. more disastrous, than in his failure even to attempt to
+attach the Portuguese to his rule when the kingdoms were temporarily
+united under his crown.</p>
+
+<p>The second evil, and one of still graver proportions, is that of the
+exceedingly corrupt administration of the central government, and of
+almost every branch of public employment. It is difficult to exaggerate
+this mischief. It is not bad external political government, it is not a
+faulty constitution, but it is an administration in which corruption has
+become a tradition and the rule, that is the real evil in Spain. It is
+this which baffles every ministry that tries to do real good. Only a
+ministry, or succession of ministries, composed of men of thorough
+honesty, of iron will, and of competence in financial administration,
+supported by strong majorities,<a name="page_233" id="page_233"></a> can hope to deal with this gigantic
+growth. Even then it must be a work of time. With an honest
+administration, and prudent and sagacious development of her resources,
+Spain would soon regain financial soundness and recover her place among
+the nations.</p>
+
+<p>The contest between the opposite commercial systems of protection and
+free trade is not yet concluded, nor is likely to be, in Spain. As long
+as England, which has the greatest interest of any foreign power in the
+establishment of the latter system, maintains a tariff which unduly
+favours the wines of France in comparison with those of Spain free trade
+is not likely to be popular. From the varied character of her products,
+Spain is of all European countries naturally the most self-sufficing.
+Her north-western provinces furnish her with cattle in abundance; no
+finer wheat is grown than that on the central plateau, and it could
+easily be produced in quantity more than sufficient for her wants; wine,
+oil, and fruits she possesses in superfluity; even sugar is not wanting
+in the south; cotton, indeed, she has not; but wool of excellent quality
+is the produce of her numerous flocks, and it needs only the
+establishment of efficient manufactories for Spanish cloth and woollen
+stuffs to regain their ancient renown. All the most useful minerals
+abound, and are of the finest quality, especially the iron, and the
+development of the working of the<a name="page_234" id="page_234"></a> Asturian and Andalusian coal-fields
+renders Spain yearly more and more independent of England in this
+respect. True it is that foreign capital is, and will for some time be
+necessary to assist in extracting this hidden wealth; but if the
+ordinary Spaniard of the educated classes, instead of seeking a bare,
+and too often a base, subsistence in petty government employment or in
+ill-paid professions&mdash;instead of seeking the barren honour of a
+university degree&mdash;would apply himself to scientific, industrial, or
+agricultural enterprise, he might soon obtain his legitimate share of
+the profits which now go mainly into the hands of foreign speculators
+and shareholders.</p>
+
+<p>Spaniards are commonly said to be cruel and bloodthirsty, with little
+regard for the sufferings of others or respect for human life; and
+undoubtedly there is some truth in this charge, but it does not apply to
+the whole Peninsula. Many of Spain's best writers deplore it, and
+inveigh strongly against it and against the bull-fights, which, in their
+present form, are not more than a century old. As a national sport, the
+modern bull-ring, with its professional torreadors and its hideous
+horse-slaughtering, differs from the pastime in which Charles V. and his
+nobles used to take part as much as a prizefight from a tournament. The
+appeals of Fernan Caballero to the clergy, the efforts of Tubino,
+Lastre, and others to arouse the public against<a name="page_235" id="page_235"></a> this wanton cruelty
+have hitherto been of no avail. We can only hope in the future. On the
+other hand, it is unjust to shut our eyes to the noble charities of
+Spain. She was the first to care for lunatics. Many of her hospitals and
+asylums for the aged were conducted with a tenderness and consideration
+unknown in other lands. Even a beggar is treated with respect, and is
+relieved without contumely. The treatment of her prisoners and the
+condition of her prisons, which was long so foul a blot, is now being
+efficiently removed; she is at least making an earnest effort to attain
+the level of European civilization in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>Intellectually, in science, and especially in literature, Spain is
+advancing rapidly. The historical treasures long buried in the archives
+of Simancas, and those of the Indies at Seville, are now thrown open to
+the world, and are eagerly consulted by native historians. Her literary
+and scientific men, though comparatively few in number, are full of zeal
+and intelligence. There needs only a larger and more appreciative
+audience to encourage them in their labours in order to bring the
+literature of Spain to a level with that of any European country of
+equal population.</p>
+
+<p><a name="page_236" id="page_236"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="page_237" id="page_237"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="APPENDIX_I" id="APPENDIX_I"></a>APPENDIX I.</h3>
+
+<p class="c">PROVINCES OF SPAIN AND THEIR POPULATION IN 1877.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>Provinces.</td><td align="center">Inhabitants.</td>
+<td rowspan="55">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td>
+<td align="center">Per square<br />
+Kilometer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alava</td><td align="right">93,191</td><td align="right">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albacéte</td><td align="right">219,122</td><td align="right">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alicante</td><td align="right">408,154</td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alméria</td><td align="right">349,854</td><td align="right">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Avila</td><td align="right">180,457</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Badajoz</td><td align="right">432,809</td><td align="right">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Barcelona</td><td align="right">835,306</td><td align="right">108</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Burgos</td><td align="right">332,461</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cacéres</td><td align="right">306,594</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cadiz</td><td align="right">430,158</td><td align="right">59</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Castellon</td><td align="right">283,961</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ciudad-Real</td><td align="right">260,641</td><td align="right">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cordova</td><td align="right">385,582</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Corunna</td><td align="right">595,585</td><td align="right">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cuenca</td><td align="right">237,497</td><td align="right">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gerona</td><td align="right">299,002</td><td align="right">51</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Granada</td><td align="right">477,719</td><td align="right">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guadalajara</td><td align="right">201,288</td><td align="right">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guipúzcoa</td><td align="right">167,207</td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Huelva</td><td align="right">210,641</td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Huesca</td><td align="right">252,165</td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Jaën</td><td align="right">422,972</td><td align="right">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Leon</td><td align="right">350,210</td><td align="right">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lerida</td><td align="right">285,297</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Logroño</td><td align="right">174,425</td><td align="right">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lugo</td><td align="right">410,387</td><td align="right">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Madrid</td><td align="right">593,775</td><td align="right">77</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Malaga</td><td align="right">500,231</td><td align="right">68</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Murcia</td><td align="right">451,611</td><td align="right">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Navarre</td><td align="right">304,184</td><td align="right">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Orense</td><td align="right">388,835</td><td align="right">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oviedo</td><td align="right">576,352</td><td align="right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Palencia</td><td align="right">180,785</td><td align="right">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pontevedra</td><td align="right">451,946</td><td align="right">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Salamanca</td><td align="right">285,500</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Santander</td><td align="right">235,299</td><td align="right">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Saragossa</td><td align="right">400,266</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Segovia</td><td align="right">149,961</td><td align="right">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Seville</td><td align="right">505,291</td><td align="right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Soria</td><td align="right">153,654</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tarragona</td><td align="right">330,105</td><td align="right">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Teruel</td><td align="right">242,296</td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Toledo</td><td align="right">334,744</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Valencia</td><td align="right">679,030</td><td align="right">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Valladolid</td><td align="right">247,453</td><td align="right">31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Vizcaya</td><td align="right">189,954</td><td align="right">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Zamora</td><td align="right">250,004</td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">16,053,961</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Balearic Isles</td><td align="right">289,035</td><td align="right">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Canaries</td><td align="right">280,388</td><td align="right">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">16,623,384</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" style="border-top:1px solid black;">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">In area of surface Spain ranks the</td>
+<td align="right">5th</td>
+<td align="center"> of European States.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">In number of population </td>
+<td align="right">7th</td>
+<td align="center">"</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">In density of population to the square mile</td>
+<td align="right">14th</td>
+<td align="center">"</td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">In extent of colonies </td>
+<td align="right">5th</td>
+<td align="center">"</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="4">Rates of women to men, 1044 to 1000.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">The infantile mortality is said to be 24&frac12; per cent. in first year.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Expectation of life at 2 years old is said to be 49 years; the average 41.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="page_239" id="page_239"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="APPENDIX_II" id="APPENDIX_II"></a>APPENDIX II.</h3>
+
+<p class="c">PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF SPANISH HISTORY.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><small>A.D.</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Visigoth kings rule from</td><td align="right">414 to 711</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Entry of Moors, battle of Guadelete, death of last Visigothic king</td><td align="right">31 July, 711</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Reconquest begun by Pelayo at Covadonga in the Asturias</td><td align="right">719</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Toledo captured by Alphonso VI.</td><td align="right">1085</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa</td><td align="right">1212</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Final union of Leon and Castile</td><td align="right">1230</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alphonso X. (Law Codes: The Fuero Real and Las Siete Partidas)</td><td align="right">1252</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Union of Aragon with Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella</td><td align="right">1474</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Inquisition established (first Auto de Fé, 1488)</td><td align="right">1484</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Conquest of Granada</td><td align="right">1492</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Discovery of America</td><td align="right">1492</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Expulsion of Moors from Castile, 1501; from Granada</td><td align="right">1502</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Conquest of Naples and Sicily</td><td align="right">1504</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Austrian Dynasty</i>:&mdash;Philip I. and Joanna</td><td align="right">1504</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Charles I. (Emperor of Germany, Charles V.)</td><td align="right">1516</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; War of Comunidades of Castile, Battle of Villalar</td><td align="right">1521</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Battle of Pavia, Francis I. prisoner</td><td align="right">1525</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Capture of Tunis</td><td align="right">1535</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Abdication of Charles I.</td><td align="right">1556</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp;Philip II.:&mdash;Greatest extension of Spanish monarchy, comprising<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia,<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Milan, Roussillon, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg,<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Franche-Comté, Tunis, Oran, the Canaries, Fernando<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Po, St. Helena, The Americas, Philippine Isles, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Insurrection of Low Countries</td><td align="right">1566</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; First rebellion and expulsion of Moriscos</td><td align="right">1568</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Battle of Lepanto</td><td align="right">1571</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; League of Provinces and independence of Holland,</td><td align="right">25 Jan., 1579</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Conquest of Portugal (1580-1640)</td><td align="right">1580</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Defeat of Armada</td><td align="right">1588</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Death of Philip II.</td><td align="right">1598</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Final expulsion of Moriscos</td><td align="right">1609</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Insurrection of Catalonia</td><td align="right">1640</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Loss of Portugal</td><td align="right">1640</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Battle of Rocroy</td><td align="right">1643</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Peace of the Pyrenees and marriage of Louis XIV.</td><td align="right">1659</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Death of Charles II., last of Austrian dynasty</td><td align="right">29 Oct., 1700</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Bourbon Dynasty</i>:&mdash;War of Succession between Archduke Charles and Philip V., 1701-13</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Loss of Gibraltar</td><td align="right">1704</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Treaty of Utrecht</td><td align="right">1713</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Salic Law voted in Cortes</td><td align="right">1713</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Abolition of Constitution of Catalonia</td><td align="right">1716</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp;Charles III.</td><td align="right">1759</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Family Pact</td><td align="right">1761</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Expulsion of Jesuits</td><td align="right">1767</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Siege of Gibraltar</td><td align="right">1782</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp;Charles IV.</td><td align="right">1788</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Godoy, Prince of Peace</td><td align="right">1795</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Battle of Trafalgar</td><td align="right">1805</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Abdication of Charles IV.</td><td align="right">1808</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp;Ferdinand VII., Renunciation at Bayonne</td><td align="right">1808</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Joseph Bonaparte, King (1808-14)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Uprising of Spain</td><td align="right">2 May, 1808</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Peninsular War, 1808-14</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Expulsion of French</td><td align="right">1814</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Cortés of Cadiz, suppression of Inquisition, of Feudal Rights, and establishment of Constitution</td><td align="right">1812</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Return of Ferdinand VII., Inquisition re-established, and Constitution abolished</td><td align="right">1814</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Insurrection of Riego, new Constitution (1820-23)</td><td align="right">1820</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Invasion of French, violation of Constitution</td><td align="right">1823</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Loss of American colonies.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Buenos Ayres</td><td align="left">1811</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Chili</td><td align="left">1818</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Columbia</td><td align="left">1819</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Mexico</td><td align="left">1821</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Peru</td><td align="left">1824</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Absolutism till death of Ferdinand VII. (1823-33).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Birth of Isabella II., abolition of Salic Law, expulsion of Don Carlos</td><td align="right">1830</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Death of Ferdinand VII.</td><td align="right">1833</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Regency of Christina, the queen-mother, 1833; expelled 1840</td><td align="right">1833</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; First Carlist War, 1833-39.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Majority of Isabella II.</td><td align="right">1844</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; War with Morocco</td><td align="right">1860</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Insurrection and expulsion of Isabella</td><td align="right">1868</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Provisional Government, 1868-70</td><td align="right">1868</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Amadeo I., November, 1870, to February, 1873</td><td align="right">1870</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Republic, Cantonalist insurrections</td><td align="right">1873</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Second Carlist War, 1873-76.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alphonso XII.</td><td align="right">Dec., 1874</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Don Carlos entered France, February, 1876</td><td align="right">1876</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Abolition of Basque Fueros</td><td align="right">1876</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Downfall of Cánovas del Castillo</td><td align="right">1881</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="page_241" id="page_241"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="APPENDIX_III" id="APPENDIX_III"></a>APPENDIX III.</h3>
+
+<p class="c">LIST OF BOOKS CHIEFLY MADE USE OF IN THE FOREGOING PAGES.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geography</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">La Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, par Elisée Reclus, series 5 and
+6. Hachette, Paris, 1876.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Spanien und die Balearen. Willkomm, Berlin, 1879.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The Balearic Isles, by T. Bidwell. London.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Boletin de la Sociedad Geográfica de Madrid, various years.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Introduccion à la Historia Natural y à la Geográfica Fisica de
+España, por Don Guillermo Bowles. Madrid, 1775.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Espagne, Algerie, et Tunisie, par P. de Tchikatchef. Paris, 1880.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Libro de Agricultura, por Abu Zaccaria. Spanish translation
+Seville, 1878.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Meteorology</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Reports of the Meteorological Society of Madrid, various years.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Revista Contemporanea, tomo xxx. 4. December, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Philology</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Grammaire des Langues Romaines, par F. Diez, 2nd German edition.
+French translation, Paris.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Études sur les Idiomes Pyrénéenes, par A. Luchaire. Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Various articles in Spanish Literary and Provincial Journals.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>History, General</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Dunham's History of Spain and Portugal, 5 vols. Lardner's Cabinet
+Encyclopaedia.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Resúmen de Historia de España, por F. de Castro, 12th edition.
+Madrid, 1878.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Compendio Razonado de História General, por Sales y Ferré, last
+edition, 4 vols. Madrid, 1880.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">History of Civilization, by Buckle, 3 vols. London.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Particular Histories</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Investigaciones sobre la História de España, por Dozy, Spanish
+translation, 2 vols. Seville, 1877.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Los Mudejares de Castillo, por Fernandez Gonzalez. Madrid, 1866.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Vida de la Princesa Eboli, by G. Muro, with introductory letter by
+Cánovas del Castillo. Madrid, 1877.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Text of various Fueros, and of the Constitutions since 1812.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Espagne Contemporaine, par F. Garrido. Bruxelles, 1865.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Ecclesiastical History</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Die Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, von P. B. Gams, 5 vols. Berlin,
+1879.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Historia de los Heterodoxos Españoles, por M. Menendez Pelayo,
+tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii. not yet published.) Madrid, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>History of Property, &amp;c.</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Ensayo sobre la História del derecho de Propiedad y su Estado
+actual en Europa, por G. de Azcárate. Tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii.
+not yet published.) Madrid, 1879-80.<a name="page_243" id="page_243"></a></p>
+
+<p class="hang">Estudios filosóficos y politicos, por G. de Azcárate. Madrid, 1877.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">La Constitucion Inglesa y la politica del Continente, por G. de
+Azcárate. Madrid, 1878.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Ensayo sobre la Propiedad Territorial en España, per Cardénas, 2
+vols. Madrid, 1875.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Art</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Street's Gothic Architecture in Spain. Murray, 1865.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">The Industrial Arts of Spain, by Juan F. Riaño. London 1879.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Discurso de Recepcion, by Juan F. Riaño. Madrid, 1880.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Numerous articles in Spanish Periodicals.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Literature</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature, 4 vols. London, 1845.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Sismondi's Literature of the South of Europe. Bohn, London, 1846.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Hubbard's Littérature Contemporaine en Espagne. Paris, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Guide-Books</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Ford's last edition, and O'Shea's Guide to Spain, with numerous
+Spanish general and local guides, and particular descriptions of
+towns, provinces, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Tourist Books in Spanish, German, French, and English. The only
+ones needing mention, as going out of the common round are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Untrodden Spain, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1875.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Among the Spanish People, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1877.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">Government and Consular reports too numerous to specify; but we
+must except Phipps' masterly Report on Spanish Finance to the close
+of 1876.</p></div>
+
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h3>
+<p class="nind">A<small>GRICULTURE</small>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>.<br />
+Alhambra, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br />
+Alphonso XII., <a href="#page_160">160</a>.<br />
+Amadeo I., <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br />
+Andorra, republic of, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br />
+Arabs, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br />
+Architecture, Roman, <a href="#page_194">194</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arab, <a href="#page_195">195</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mudejar, <a href="#page_200">200</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_202">202</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Churrigueresque, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.</span><br />
+Army, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<br />
+Art, Visigothic, <a href="#page_195">195</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabic, <a href="#page_196">196</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christian, <a href="#page_205">205</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial, <a href="#page_210">210</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+B<small>ALEARIC</small> I<small>SLES</small>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.<br />
+Bardeñas Reales, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>.<br />
+Basque language, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>.<br />
+Behetria, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.<br />
+Bidassoa, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.<br />
+Budgets, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br />
+Bulls and bull-fighting, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br />
+<br />
+C<small>ABALLERO</small>, Fernan, <a href="#page_223">223</a>.<br />
+Calderon, <a href="#page_216">216</a>.<br />
+Camel breeds in Spain, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>.<br />
+Cañada, La, pass of, <a href="#page_005">5</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>.<br />
+Canals, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>.<br />
+Cánovas del Castillo, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br />
+Carlists, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, 159.<br />
+Castelar, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br />
+Cerro de San Felipe, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>.<br />
+Cervantes, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>.<br />
+Charles I., <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>.<br />
+Charles III., <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>.<br />
+Chuetas of Balearic Isles, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br />
+Church, councils of, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">furniture and art, <a href="#page_205">205</a>.</span><br />
+Clergy, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.<br />
+Coal-mines, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br />
+Colleges, British, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.<br />
+Comunidades of Aragon, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br />
+Congress of deputies, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br />
+Constitutions of Spain, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br />
+Contrabandistas, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+Cortés, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.<br />
+Cordova, mosque of, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.<br />
+<br />
+D<small>EBT</small>, public, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.<br />
+Despeña-Perros, pass of, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br />
+Despoblados and Destierros, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_130">130</a>.<br />
+Douro, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+E<small>BRO</small>, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br />
+Escorial, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.<br />
+Esparto grass, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br />
+Exports and imports, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<a name="page_245" id="page_245"></a><br />
+<br />
+F<small>AUNA</small>, <a href="#page_052">52</a>.<br />
+Ferdinand VII., <a href="#page_153">153</a>.<br />
+Finance, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.<br />
+Fiords or Friths in Galicia, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>.<br />
+Fisheries, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br />
+Flora, greatly exotic, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">herbaceous aromatic, <a href="#page_045">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">African, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.</span><br />
+Fueros, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.<br />
+Funds, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.<br />
+<br />
+G<small>ATA</small>, Cabo de, <a href="#page_002">2</a>, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br />
+Gibraltar, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br />
+Guadalaviar and irrigation, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br />
+Guadalquiver and affluents, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br />
+Guadarrama, range of, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>, <a href="#page_135">135</a>.<br />
+Guadiana and affluents, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br />
+Guardias civiles, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br />
+Guisando, Toros de, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.<br />
+<br />
+H<small>ISTORICAL</small> school in Spain, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>.<br />
+Hospitals, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.<br />
+Hurdes, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+I<small>BERI</small>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br />
+Imports and exports, <a href="#page_177">177</a>.<br />
+Inquisition, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.<br />
+Irrigation of Llobregat, <a href="#page_026">26</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Esla, <a href="#page_017">17</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Henares, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Valencia and Murcia, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.</span><br />
+Isabella II., <a href="#page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+J<small>EWS</small> of Balearic Isles, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>.<br />
+Justice, administration of, <a href="#page_169">169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+K<small>ELT</small> and Keltiberi, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+L<small>ACE</small>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br />
+Lakes, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.<br />
+Laya, Basque tool, <a href="#page_040">40</a>.<br />
+Lead-mines, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.<br />
+Lemosin dialects, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.<br />
+Locusts, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.<br />
+Lunatic asylums, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.<br />
+<br />
+M<small>AJOLICA</small> ware, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br />
+Manufactures, cotton, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.<br />
+Maragatos, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br />
+Marismas of Guadalquiver, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br />
+Merino sheep, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.<br />
+Mesta, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>.<br />
+Mineral springs, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.<br />
+Minho, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.<br />
+Mining districts, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>.<br />
+Monkeys at Gibraltar, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br />
+Mudejar art, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.<br />
+Municipal administration, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br />
+Mules, <a href="#page_055">55</a>.<br />
+Murillo, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br />
+<br />
+N<small>AVY</small>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.<br />
+Nevada, Sierra, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<br />
+O<small>LIVES</small>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.<br />
+Orange cultivation, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>.<br />
+<br />
+P<small>AINTING</small>, schools of, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.<br />
+Palms, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>.<br />
+Passiegos of Bilbao, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+Philip II., <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>.<br />
+Population, census of, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diverse of Spain, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupations of, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br />
+Post and letters, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br />
+Pottery and porcelain, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>.<br />
+Prisons, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>.<br />
+Professors, salary of, <a href="#page_182">182</a>.<br />
+Property, distribution of, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Church, sale of, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>.</span><br />
+Provinces, administration of, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.<br />
+Provincial literature, <a href="#page_228">228</a>.<br />
+<br />
+R<small>AILWAYS</small>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.<br />
+Rainfall, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>.<br />
+Republic of Andora, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br />
+Rice cultivation, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.<br />
+Rivers, comparative table of, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.<br />
+Romans in Spain, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.<br />
+<br />
+S<small>ALINAS</small>, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br />
+Salt-mine, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br />
+Schools and schoolmasters, <a href="#page_184">184</a>.<br />
+Sea-board of Spain, <a href="#page_002">2</a>.<br />
+Seguro, sierra and rivers, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.<br />
+Silk, <a href="#page_017">17</a>.<br />
+Sugar, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<br />
+T<small>AGUS</small> and its affluents, <a href="#page_017">17</a>.<br />
+Taxes, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.<br />
+Telegraphs, <a href="#page_173">173</a>.<br />
+Tobacco factories, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.<br />
+Toleration, early religious, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.<br />
+<br />
+U<small>NIVERSITIES</small>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+V<small>ISIGOTHS</small>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+W<small>ATER</small>, names connected with, <a href="#page_027">27</a>.<br />
+
+Wines of Galicia, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Riojas, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Navarre and Aragon, <a href="#page_033">33</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Catalonia, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valencia, <a href="#page_104">104</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Mancha, <a href="#page_127">127</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malaga <a href="#page_116">116</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andalusia sherries, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c">LONDON:<br />
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,<br />
+ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;">
+<img src="images/back.jpg" width="388" height="550" alt="image of book&#39;s back cover" title="image of book&#39;s back cover" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Spain
+
+Author: Wentworth Webster
+
+Release Date: January 7, 2011 [EBook #34875]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, Michigan University Library and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SPAIN
+
+Edwd Weller]
+
+London, Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.]
+
+
+
+
+SPAIN
+
+BY THE
+REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER, M.A. OXON.
+
+WITH A CHAPTER BY AN ASSOCIATE OF THE SCHOOL OF MINES.
+
+_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+London:
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
+CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+1882.
+
+[_All rights reserved._]
+
+LONDON:
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+[etext transcriber's note:
+No attempt has been made to correct, normalize or de-anglicize
+the spelling of Spanish names or words.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+There is a difficulty in writing a book of this character on Spain,
+which does not exist, we think, to the same extent with any other
+European country. In most European nations the official returns and
+government reports may be accepted as trustworthy, and the compiler has
+little more to do than to copy them; but in Spain this is far from being
+always the case. In some instances, from nonchalance and habitual
+inexactitude, in others, and especially in all matters of finance and
+taxation, from designed misstatement, all such reports have to be
+received with caution and scrupulously examined. The reader must
+remember also that in Spain smuggling and contraband dealing in various
+forms is carried on to such a vast extent as seriously to vitiate all
+trade returns. Thus it is that Spanish statistics can be considered
+only as approximate truths.
+
+Another difficulty arises from the very varied character of the Spanish
+provinces. Hardly any statement can be made of one province which is not
+untrue of another. The ordinary descriptions of Spain present only one,
+or at most two, types, the Castling and Andalusian, and utterly neglect
+all the rest. The provinces of Spain have been well described as divided
+into "five Irelands" whose habits and modes of thought, political
+aspirations, and commercial interests and aptitudes, are often utterly
+opposed to those of the capital. A brief survey of the whole of Spain is
+attempted in the following pages.
+
+In a work of this kind one other obvious difficulty is to know what to
+omit. Some well-worn topics will be found to be absent from these pages.
+No references are made to the great Peninsular War. This can be easily
+studied in the admirable pages of Sir W. Napier in English, and of
+Toreno in Spanish, or in compendiums of these, which again are filtered
+down in every guide-book. For a like reason Prescott's brilliant works
+are not alluded to.
+
+For the chapter on Geology and Mining the reader is indebted to one of
+the most distinguished Associates of the School of Mines, who has been
+recently engaged in practical geological survey and mapping in Spain.
+
+Much also of the present work is due to private information most kindly
+furnished by Spanish friends of high position in the literary and
+political world, and with whom some of the subjects treated have been
+frequently discussed. To these the author offers his warmest and most
+grateful thanks.
+
+
+
+
+ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+
+    THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.
+
+                                                           PAGE
+
+    Boundaries of the Peninsula                               1
+    Area and Coast-line                                       2
+    Six divisions of Spain                                _ib._
+
+    _Mountain chains_:
+        Pyrenees                                              3
+        Cantabrian, Asturian, and Galician mountains          4
+        Leon                                              _ib._
+        Oca, Sierra Moncayo, and Idubeda chains               5
+        Central Plateau and its passes                    _ib._
+        Culminating water-shed of the Peninsula               6
+        Guadarrama range                                  _ib._
+        Toledan range                                         7
+        Sierra Morena and passes                          _ib._
+        Central ranges and river basins                       8
+        Sierra Nevada and offshoots                       _ib._
+        Minor ranges                                          9
+
+    _Rivers, river basins, and rainfall_:
+        Five great rivers                                    10
+        Rivers of Galicia and Asturias                       11
+        Basque Provinces                                     12
+        Ebro and its tributaries and canals                  12
+        Catalonia, streams of                                14
+        Douro and its tributaries                            15
+        Tagus     "       "                                  17
+        Guadiana  "       "       and lakes                  19
+        Guadalquiver, its tributaries, islands, and marismas 22
+        Segura and its irrigation                            24
+        Jucar     "        "                                 25
+        Guadalaviar or Turia                              _ib._
+    Lakes and Albuferas                                      26
+    Water toponymy                                           27
+    Comparative table of principal rivers                    28
+    Mineral springs and Salinas                            _ib._
+
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+
+    CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
+
+    Five climates of Spain                                   30
+    Temperature and rainfall of:
+        Galicia and the Asturias                             31
+        Santander and the Basque Provinces                   32
+        Aragon                                            _ib._
+        Catalonia                                         _ib._
+        Valencia                                             34
+        Alicante                                          _ib._
+        Murcia                                               35
+        Cartagena to Almeria                              _ib._
+        Malaga, Motril, Seville, and Cordova              _ib._
+        Granada                                              36
+        Cadiz, Gibraltar, &c                              _ib._
+        Elevation of Central Plateau                      _ib._
+    Temperature and rainfall of Madrid, Salamanca, and Soria 38
+    Agricultural products of:
+        Galicia and the Asturias                             39
+        Basque Provinces and basin of the Ebro               40
+    Moorish agriculture and exotic flora of Southern Spain   41
+    Products of Valencia and Murcia                          43
+    Palms at Elche                                           44
+    Aromatic mountain shrubs                                 45
+    Products and wines of Andalusia                          46
+    Products of the Central Plateau                        _ib._
+        Estremadura and law of the Mesta                     47
+        Locusts                                              48
+        Corn-lands of Castile and Sierras de Campos          50
+        Comparative Flora of Spain                           52
+
+    _Fauna_:
+        Monkeys of Gibraltar                               _ib._
+        Beasts and birds of prey                           _ib._
+        Game birds and African visitants                   _ib._
+        Noxious and useful insects                         _ib._
+        Merino sheep                                         54
+        Horses, cattle, and beasts of burden                 55
+        Fisheries                                            56
+    Estimated total production of Spain                      57
+
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+
+    GEOLOGY AND MINES.
+
+    Peculiar interest of Spanish geology                     58
+          Granite and Silurian rocks                      _ib._
+          Carboniferous formation                            59
+          Secondary formations                            _ib._
+          Upper Cretaceous                                _ib._
+          Eocene tertiary                                    60
+          Miocene fresh-water                             _ib._
+          Pliocene                                        _ib._
+    Influence of geology on populations                   _ib._
+    Statistics of Spanish geology                            61
+    Volcanoes, recent                                     _ib._
+
+    _Minerals of_:
+        Gneiss and crystalline schists                       62
+        Metamorphic rocks                                 _ib._
+        Cambrian formation                                _ib._
+        Silurian slates                                   _ib._
+        Devonian sandstones                               _ib._
+        Carboniferous series                              _ib._
+        Permian                                              63
+        Triassic conglomerates                            _ib._
+        Jurassic limestones and marl                      _ib._
+        Cretaceous formation                              _ib._
+        Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene                     _ib._
+    Production and export of six chief minerals           _ib._
+        Of argentiferous ore, cobalt, silver              _ib._
+        Coal                                                 65
+        Iron of the Bilbao district                       _ib._
+    Locality of principal mines                              66
+    Mining laws                                              67
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+
+    ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.
+
+    Pyrenees, no true boundary of                            69
+    Population of Spain, mixed                               70
+    Iberi, Kelt-Iberi, Basques, and Kelts                 _ib._
+    Foreign races in Spain                                   73
+    Visigoths, Arabs, and Moors                              75
+    Toponymy of Spain                                        76
+    Language of Spanish Jews                                 77
+    Existing dialects                                     _ib._
+    Statistics of the Spanish language                       78
+    Characteristics of   "       "                           79
+    Population of Spain                                      80
+        Density of                                        _ib._
+        Occupations of                                       81
+    Manufacturing and mining Provinces                       82
+    Clergy                                                _ib._
+    Distribution of property, great changes in               83
+        Abolition of Mesta and of feudal privileges       _ib._
+        Sale of Crown and Church property                    84
+        Actual distribution                               _ib._
+    Characteristics of the various populations               85
+        Galicians, Asturians, Basques, and Aragonese         86
+        Catalans, Valencians, and Murcians               86, 87
+        Andalusians                                          87
+        Manchegans, and Castilians                           89
+        Gipsies, Maragatos, Passiegos, Hurdes, Sayagos, &c.  90
+        Contrabandistas                                    _ib._
+
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+
+    DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.
+
+    Division of Kingdoms and Provinces                       91
+       Galicia and its provinces, Corunna, Lugo, Pontevedra,
+         and Orense                                          92
+       Asturias                                              94
+       Santander                                          _ib._
+       Basque Provinces, Biscay, Guipuzcoa, Alava            95
+       Navarre                                               96
+       Aragon and its provinces, Huesca, Saragossa, Teruel   97
+       Catalonia  "  Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida   100
+       Valencia   "  Castellon de la Plana, Valencia,
+         Alicante                                           103
+       Murcia     "  Murcia and Albacete                    107
+       Andalusia, Mediterranean Provinces, Almeria, Granada,
+         Malaga                                             109
+                  Atlantic: Cadiz, Huelva              117, 122
+                  Inland: Seville, Cordova, Jaen  120, 123, 125
+       Estremadura, Badajoz, Caceres                      _ib._
+    New Castile and La Mancha, Provinces--Ciud ad Real,
+      Toledo, Madrid, Cuenca, Guadalajara                   127
+    Old Castile--Avila, Segovia, Soria, Logrono, Burgos     133
+    Leon--Salamanca, Valladolid, Zamora, Palencia, Leon     137
+    Balearic Isles                                          141
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+
+    HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.
+
+    Early liberties, _behetria_, _fueros_                   145
+    Capitulations of Moors and Jews                         147
+    Conquest of the South and its results                   149
+    The _Santa Hermandad_                                 _ib._
+    The Austrian Dynasty                                    151
+    The Bourbon Dynasty                                     152
+    Modern Constitutional Spain                             153
+    Cortes of Cadiz                                       _ib._
+    Reign of Ferdinand VII., and loss of American colonies_ib._
+        "    Isabella II.                                   154
+        First Carlist War                                 _ib._
+        Ministry of Narvaez                                 156
+            "       O'Donnell                               157
+    Expulsion of Isabella II., and provisional government _ib._
+    Amadeo I.                                               158
+    Republic                                              _ib._
+    Second Carlist War                                      159
+    Cantonalist insurrection                              _ib._
+    Alphonso XII.                                           160
+    Ministry of Canovas del Castillo                        161
+
+    _Present Constitution and Administration of Spain_      162
+        Cortes, Senate, Congress                            163
+        Provincial administration                           164
+        Municipal       "                                 _ib._
+        Religion                                            165
+        Rights of persons, natives and foreigners         _ib._
+
+    _Military Administration_                               166
+        Army                                                167
+        Quality of Spanish soldiery, _pronunciamientos_,
+          &c.                                               168
+
+    _Naval Administration_                                  169
+        Royal Navy                                        _ib._
+        Mercantile Navy                                   _ib._
+
+    _Judicial Administration_                               169
+        Legal Procedure                                     170
+        Prisons                                           _ib._
+    Hospitals and lunatic asylums                           171
+    Railways                                                172
+    Telegraphs                                            _ib._
+    Letters and post                                      _ib._
+
+    _Finances of Spain._
+
+    Public debt                                             174
+    Increase of, since 1868                                 175
+    Deficit of budgets                                    _ib._
+    Sources of revenue                                      176
+    Expenditure                                           _ib._
+    Imports and exports                                     177
+    Foreign tariffs                                       _ib._
+    Protection and free trade                               178
+    Empleomania and its results                             179
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+
+    EDUCATION AND RELIGION.
+
+    Universities, number of students, salaries of
+      professors                                            181
+    Theological seminaries                                  182
+    Course of university study                              183
+    Provincial and special institutes                     _ib._
+    Secondary instruction, institutes and colleges          184
+    Number of students, and salary of masters               185
+    Course of instruction                                   186
+    University degrees                                    _ib._
+    Primary education                                       187
+
+    _Church and Religion._
+
+    Early Church Councils                                   188
+    Roman and Mazarabic liturgy                           _ib._
+    Inquisition                                           _ib._
+    Philip II., the Jesuits, and the Reformation            189
+    Expulsion of the Jesuits                                191
+    Concordat of 1851                                     _ib._
+    Archbishops, bishops, and clergy                      _ib._
+    Mode of appointment of bishops                          192
+    Spanish Protestants                                   _ib._
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+
+    LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.
+
+    Praehistoric art and architecture                        194
+    Roman and Visigothic                                  _ib._
+    Arabic                                                  195
+        Three periods of                                    196
+    Mudejar                                                 201
+    Christian                                             _ib._
+    Renaissance                                             202
+    Churrigueresque                                         203
+    Domestic architecture                                 _ib._
+    Church furniture and minor arts                         204
+
+    _Painting._
+
+    Characteristics of Spanish painting                     205
+    Local schools                                           206
+    Murillo                                                 208
+    Painters of Valencian school                            209
+      "    "    Castilian   "                             _ib._
+      "    "    Andalusian  "                             _ib._
+    Modern painters                                         210
+    Industrial arts, goldsmith's work, iron, porcelain,
+      glass, wood, lace                                     212
+    Music                                                 _ib._
+
+    _Literature._
+
+    Early Romances                                          213
+      "   Prose works                                       214
+    La Celistina and the _picaresque_ novels                215
+    Drama and _Autors_                                      216
+          Lope de Vega                                     _ib._
+          Calderon de la Barca                              217
+          Cervantes                                        _ib._
+          Quevedo                                           219
+    Historical writings                                     220
+    Poetry                                                 _ib._
+    Mystic writers                                          222
+    Classical and romantic schools                         _ib._
+    Modern writers: Poets--Espronceda, Zorilla, Becquer,
+      &c.                                                   224
+    Novelists--Fernan Caballero, J. Valera, &c.           _ib._
+    Dramatists--Hartzenbusch, Breton de los Herreros, &c.   225
+        Nunez de Arce                                       226
+    Historians--Conde Gayangos, De la Fuente, &c.         _ib._
+    Geographers--Fernandez Guerra, Coello, Bowles         _ib._
+    Geologists--Macpherson, &c.                           _ib._
+    Economists--Cardenas, Colmeiro, De Azcarate             227
+    Theologians--Balmes, Donoso Cortez, C. Gonzalez, &c.  _ib._
+    Philologists--F. Fita, &c.                            _ib._
+    Orators                                                 228
+    Provincial literature                                   229
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+
+    EPILOGUE.
+
+    Spain not a worn-out country                            231
+    Two hindrances to development                         _ib._
+    Protection and free trade                               233
+    Cruelty and charities of Spain                          234
+
+
+    Appendix I.--Census of Provinces                        237
+       "    II.--Chief historical events                    239
+       "   III.--Chief books used                           241
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                               PAGE
+
+Caballeros                                       86
+
+Dominique, the Espada                            88
+
+Gipsies at Granada                               90
+
+Leaning Tower of Saragossa                       98
+
+General View of Granada, with the Alhambra      110
+
+Alhambra Tower by Moonlight                     114
+
+Fountain of the Four Seasons, Madrid            130
+
+Port of Cadiz                                   153
+
+Vespers                                         190
+
+Giralda of Seville                              197
+
+Moorish Ornamentation                           199
+
+[Illustration:
+
+PHYSICAL MAP
+of
+SPAIN
+
+Edwd Weller
+
+London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.]
+
+
+
+
+SPAIN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPAIN.
+
+
+Spain, with the neighbouring kingdom of Portugal, constitutes the most
+westerly of the three southern peninsulas of Europe, and in Cape Tarifa,
+latitude 36 deg. 1', it attains the most southerly point of the whole
+continent. Separated from France and from the rest of Europe by the
+chain of the Pyrenees, and surrounded on all other sides by either the
+Mediterranean or the Atlantic, it presents at first sight the appearance
+of an exceedingly compact and homogeneous surface. It seems strange that
+this well-defined peninsula should contain two separate kingdoms, with
+peoples who speak languages allied, yet so distinct as to be mutually
+unintelligible to the uneducated classes.
+
+The peninsula lies between latitude 43 deg. 45' and 36 deg. 1' N., and between
+3 deg. 20' E. and 9 deg. 32' W. longitude. In shape it is thus nearly a square;
+a diagonal line from the N.E. Cape Creuz to the S.W. Cape St. Vincent
+measures 650 miles, while from Cape Ortegal, N.W., to Cape Gata, S.E.,
+would be 525 miles. The whole area of the peninsula contains 219,200
+square miles, of which 36,500 on the west belong to Portugal, and
+182,700 to Spain.
+
+The peninsular form of the country would lead us to expect that it would
+partake of all the characteristics of a maritime climate; but such is
+not the case. From the comparative evenness of the coast-line, unbroken
+and unindented by any deep inlets except on the extreme north-west, in
+Galicia, the coast-line bears a less proportion to the whole surface
+than that of many lands less surrounded by the sea. It counts only 1300
+miles, 700 of which are washed by the Mediterranean, and 600 by the
+Atlantic; that is, 1 mile of coast-line to 134 square miles of area;
+while Italy contains 1 to 75, and Greece 1 to 7. From the configuration
+of the coast, and from the character of the great central plateau, a
+large part of Spain has really an extreme continental climate.
+
+For while it is distinctly separated from the rest of Europe by the line
+of the Pyrenees, Spain is no less distinctly divided into different
+districts in the interior--districts which differ most widely in climate
+and elevation and products. Six of these are usually named: (1) The N.W.
+Atlantic coast, comprising Galicia, the coast of which presents a
+continuation of the Fiord system of Norway, and of the Firths of
+Scotland and Ireland; (2), the northern slope of the Cantabrian
+Mountains, and the narrow slip of land contained between them and the
+Bay of Biscay, comprising the Asturias, Santander, and the Basque
+Provinces; (3) the Valley of the Ebro, with Navarre, Aragon, and
+Catalonia; (4) the great Central Plateau--Leon, Old and New Castile,
+Estremadura, and La Mancha; (5) the Mediterranean Provinces, including
+Valencia, Murcia, and the parts of Andalusia between the Sierra Nevada
+and the Mediterranean; (6) the rest of Andalusia sloping towards the
+Atlantic.
+
+We will treat of these in order.
+
+
+_Mountain Chains._
+
+But first we must speak of the various mountain systems and river basins
+of Spain, without which it is impossible to understand either the
+physical conditions of the country, or the social and political state of
+the various populations which has resulted from them.
+
+First, on the north is the chain of the Pyrenees, a continuation of the
+great Alpine system of Central Europe, stretching from Cape Creuz, 3 deg.
+19' E., to the Bay of Biscay, 2 deg. 12' W., a distance of 320 miles, and
+prolonging itself westward in lower chains of different denominations
+until it finally sinks into the Atlantic at Cape Finisterre. The
+culminating points of the Pyrenees are towards the centre of the chain,
+in Mounts Maladetta, 11,150 feet, and the Pic de Posets and the Mount
+Perdu, each about 11,000 feet, whence the heights gradually descend, on
+the east to the Mediterranean and on the west to the Bay of Biscay. With
+the exception of the little Bidassoa, which in the lower part of its
+course forms the boundary between France and Spain, at the bottom of the
+Bay of Biscay, all the other waters of the Spanish side of the Pyrenees
+belong to the Ebro and to the Mediterranean. Parallel to the coast of
+the Bay of Biscay the Pyrenees are prolonged, first, by the Cantabrian
+Mountains, which run through the Basque Provinces, and the Province of
+Santandar; thence by the Picos de Europa, 8300 feet--from the
+south-eastern spurs of which the Ebro and Pisuerga take their rise--and
+the Asturian Mountains, to the Sierra de Penamarella, at the junction of
+the three Provinces of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. The chain here
+attains its greatest elevation, 9450 (?) feet, then descends to a
+plateau of about 4000 feet, whence it sinks rapidly to the Atlantic,
+forming the headlands of Ortegal, the extreme north-western, and of
+Finisterre, the extreme western, point of Northern Spain. The mountains
+of Leon form the western watershed, between the waters of the Ebro and
+those which fall into the Atlantic. The line is continued eastward by
+the Oca Mountains, the Sierra de Moncayo, and the Idubeda Mountains.
+These mountain chains divide the basin of the Ebro from that of the
+Douro. They also form the northern buttress of the great plateau of
+Central Spain, which attains an elevation of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The
+rise to the plateau from the Bay of Biscay is very abrupt. Within fifty
+miles of leaving the coast the railways from the north attain a height
+of 2000 feet, and reach the Central Plateau, at Quintanapalla, at an
+elevation of 3000 feet; while La Canada, the highest point on the line
+to Madrid, is nearly 4460 feet, or about sixty feet higher than the
+tunnel of the Mount Cenis. From the eastern side the rise is less
+abrupt, and the plateau is entered at the lower elevation of 2330 feet,
+on the line from Alicante to Madrid. The famous Pass of Somosierra, on
+the old northern coach-road from Madrid, is about 4700 feet above the
+level of the sea. From these figures it is easy to perceive how very
+different is the aspect of these buttress chains when seen from the
+plateau, and when looked at from the plain from which they rise. Thus
+the Sierra de Moncayo, 7700 feet, stands out with boldness from the
+Valley of the Ebro, but viewed from the plateau of Castile it is
+scarcely noticeable. From its summit, however, the finest view of the
+whole range of the Pyrenees to be found anywhere on the Spanish side of
+the chain, is to be obtained.
+
+Turning thence towards the south and south-east, these mountain
+chains--under the various names of the Sierras de Cuenca, de Molina, and
+Albarracin--divide the river basins of the Mediterranean from the far
+larger ones of the Atlantic. They have their culminating point in the
+Muela de San Juan and the Cerro de San Felipe, nearly 6000 feet, at the
+junction of the three provinces of Teruel, Cuenca, and Guadalaxara. From
+the sides of these mountains the waters fall with rapid course, on the
+north to join the Ebro, on the east and south to the Mediterranean;
+while with gentler slope, but in far greater volume, the Douro, the
+Tagus, and the Guadiana roll their waters to the Atlantic. From these
+Sierras the plateau tilts gradually westward and southward, but is
+intersected by mountain chains, peaks of which towards the west attain a
+higher elevation than those which form the real culmination of this part
+of the peninsula. The bare and bleak granite range of the Guadarrama,
+which divides the basin of the Douro from that of the Tagus, and from
+whose summits steals the icy wind so fatal to Madrid, attains in its
+highest summit, Pena Lara, 7800 feet, near Segovia; while in its western
+prolongation, the Sierras de Credos and de Gata, the Plaza del Moro
+reaches 8700 feet. The chains which divide the valley of the Tagus from
+that of the Guadiana are not nearly so well marked as are those more to
+the north, and rise to a much less elevation above the plateau.
+Beginning with a south-westerly prolongation of the Cerro de San Felipe,
+under the successive titles of Montes de Toledo, Sierras de Guadaloupe,
+Montanchez, and San Mamed, about 2000 feet, they reach the Portuguese
+frontier near Portalegre. The highest point seems to be in the mountains
+of Toledo at Villuercas, where a height of a little over 5000 feet is
+attained. The mountains which separate the basins of the Guadiana and
+the Guadalquiver, under the names of the Sierras de Alcaroz, Morena, de
+Cordova, Guadacanal, and Aroche, and which form the southern buttress of
+the central plateau, present a still greater difference than those of
+the northern buttress when viewed from the plateau and from the plains
+of Andalusia. From the former they appear only rolling undulations, and
+the traveller scarcely notices the rise till he finds himself descending
+one of the steep and savage gorges, like that of the Pass of
+Despena-Perroz, on the road and rail between La Mancha and Andalusia.
+The Col of Despena-Perroz is nearly 2500 feet above the sea, and but few
+summits along the ranges of the Sierra Morena and its prolongations
+attain a greater elevation, the general range being about 2000 feet,
+except towards the west and north of Seville, where the Sierra de
+Aracena reaches 5550 feet. Eastward of the Guadalquiver the ranges which
+divide its waters from those of the Segura, the Sierras de Segura, and
+Sagra, attain a greater height, the former 6500 feet, the latter to 7800
+feet.
+
+Thus as supports to the great plateau, or on it, we have the following
+successive ranges as we proceed from north to south. First, the Sierra
+de Moncayo and the Idubeda mountains, dividing the basin of the Ebro
+from that of the Douro; next the Guadarrama chain, with the Sierras de
+Credos and de Gata, separating the Douro from the Tagus; then the
+Mountains of Toledo, and the Sierra de San Mamed, between the Tagus and
+the Guadiana; and lastly, the southern buttress, the Sierra Morena,
+dividing the Guadiana from the Guadalquiver.
+
+But it is south of the last stream that the culminating points of the
+whole peninsula are to be found--in the mighty Sierra Nevada, which
+separates the lovely valley of Granada from the Mediterranean, shielding
+it from the scorching winds of Africa, and giving it its eternal
+freshness and verdure. The highest of its summits are Muley Hacen and
+Velate, lying to the south-east of Granada, the former attaining nearly
+11,670 feet, and the latter 11,400. The altitudes diminish rapidly east
+and west. Towards the east, outlying ranges, such as those of the
+Sierras de Filabres and of Gador, attain heights of 6000 and 7000 feet
+respectively; while in the westward prolongations, the Mesa de Ronda is
+only 5000; and the chain gradually drops till it reaches the sea at Cape
+Trafalgar, and the rock of Gibraltar, 1400 feet.
+
+But besides these greater chains of mountains Spain is traversed by
+numerous offshoots and lateral ranges, and a great portion of her
+territory is more or less of a mountainous character. In districts where
+rain is unfrequent these hills are absolutely bare of verdure for a
+great part of the year, and remain untenanted and uncultivated. Among
+the more elevated of these lesser chains are those of Monseni,
+Monserrat, and Montagut, in Catalonia, which attain respectively 5500,
+4000, and 3000 feet in height. On the borders of Leon and Galicia, and
+in the latter province, there are numerous mountains and smaller ranges,
+which vary from 3000 to 5000 feet. The whole frontier of Portugal is
+covered by lower ranges, connecting the great chains of which we have
+already spoken with hills of from 2000 to 3000 feet. From the great
+eastern buttress two spurs, or rolling plateaux, run down to the
+Mediterranean, and terminate in the different headlands--such as Cape
+Gata in the south-east, Cape Palos near Carthagena, Capes de la Nao and
+San Antonio near Denia, Peniscola, and others. Some of these smaller
+ranges are exceedingly rich in minerals, and as they approach the sea
+form sites of picturesque and enchanting beauty, such as can be
+surpassed only by the better-known and historic glories of the coasts of
+Italy or of Greece.
+
+
+_Rivers of Spain._
+
+Of the five great rivers of Spain only one, the Ebro, pours its waters
+into the Mediterranean; the other four, the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and
+Guadalquiver, discharge theirs into the Atlantic; but of these last the
+Guadalquiver alone is wholly a Spanish stream. In the lower and more
+valuable part of their course the Douro, Tagus, and Gaudiana, belong to
+Portugal--a fact which must always be remembered when treating of the
+internal commerce of Spain. But besides these larger streams there are
+several of slightly smaller dimensions, of which we will treat in order.
+
+Few countries present within so short a distance so great a difference
+in rainfall and moisture as does Spain. In some parts of the Asturias
+and Galicia the rainfall is probably as heavy as that of any part of
+Europe--as much as 147-1/2 inches are said to have been measured in a
+single year; and the average fall on the northern slopes of the
+Cantabrian mountains is said to be sixty inches annually. Yet the
+average of the whole basin of the Ebro--which rises from the southern
+slopes of the Picos de Europa, one of the most rainy of the rainy
+districts--is only eighteen inches annually, the last 300 miles of its
+course being through almost barren districts, where rain seldom falls.
+
+The principal river of Galicia is the Minho, with its tributary the Sil.
+Each of these rises, though at some distance apart, from the southern
+side of the Cantabrian mountains, much nearer to the waters of the Bay
+of Biscay than to those of the Atlantic, into which they flow. They take
+thence a southerly and south-westerly course, until they unite a few
+miles above Orense. The lower part of the united course, which bears the
+name of the Minho, forms from Melgaco to the sea the frontier between
+the kingdoms of Portugal and Spain. The remaining rivers of Galicia are
+numerous but of little importance: the Tambre is the largest of those
+which fall into the Atlantic on the west; while on the north the sources
+of the Eo and the Navia overlap those of the Minho, and take their rise
+from the mountains which border on Leon. The whole country is
+exceedingly well watered. Both in its agricultural character as a
+grazing country, and in its flora and fauna, it resembles the milder
+portions of southern Ireland and of Devonshire, but with occasional
+products of a warmer zone. The rivers of the Asturias, Santander, and of
+the Basque provinces, all partake of the same general character. In the
+upper part of their courses they are mere mountain torrents, their
+course is rapid but short, and they are of but little use for
+navigation, though occasionally small but insecure harbours are formed
+at their mouth. The only great exception to this is the Nervion, on
+which Bilbao is situated, and which is navigable for eight miles from
+its mouth. The waters of the Bidassoa, the Deva, and others, are,
+however, utilized for the transport of ore from the mines and ironworks
+along the course. The Bidassoa, for some ten miles before it enters the
+Bay of Biscay at Cape Figueras forms the boundary between France and
+Spain; about four miles from its issue, between Irun and Behobie, is the
+celebrated Isle des Faisans, where, in 1659, the marriage was arranged
+between Louis XIV. and the Infanta, which eventually placed the Bourbons
+on the throne of Spain. The Bidassoa is the last of the northern rivers
+of Spain which falls into the Atlantic.
+
+The Ebro has its rise from the source, Fontibre, in the province of
+Santander, and takes a south-easterly course of 466 miles, through the
+provinces of Santander, Burgos, Navarre, and Aragon, almost parallel
+with the Pyrenees, till it falls into the Mediterranean, through a sandy
+delta stretching some fifteen miles into the sea below Amposta. The
+descent for the first 200 miles of its course is exceedingly rapid, but
+after that the fall is gradual till it reaches the sea. In its course
+it receives the waters of many tributaries, both on the left from the
+Pyrenees, and on the right from the Idubeda mountains and the sierras of
+Southern Aragon. Were it not for these tributaries little of its waters
+would reach the Mediterranean, so dry and arid are the Bardenas of
+Navarre, and the Dehesas of Aragon, through which it flows. The
+Spaniards have a proverb that it is the Navarrese and Aragonese
+streams--the Arga, the Ega, and the Aragon--which make a man of the
+Ebro. Farther down, the Gallego runs in near Saragossa; while the united
+waters of the Cinca and the Segre at Mequinenza pour a far larger volume
+of water into the parent bed than it contains itself. From the right,
+the principal streams are the Xalon, with its tributary the Xiloca,
+which joins the Ebro between Tudela and Saragossa, the Marten, and the
+Guadalope near Caspe. The Ebro, notwithstanding its length, the number
+of its tributaries, and the extent of its basin, 25,000 square miles, is
+of little use for navigation. A magnificent canal--first projected and
+commenced by the Emperor Charles V. (I. of Spain) then after a lapse of
+more than two centuries taken in hand by Charles III., in 1770--runs
+from Tudela to Saragossa; thence to the sea it still remains in project
+only. The part already finished is falling into decay; and it is only
+the excellent quality of the masonry, and of the cement or mortar
+employed, that retards its utter ruin. The traffic is very small; and
+even as a means of irrigation its waters are allowed greatly to run to
+waste. At the apex of the delta from Amposta to San Carlos de la Rapita
+a canal of eight miles has been cut for purposes of navigation; but the
+formation of a bar, and the silting up of the bay, have rendered it
+almost useless. The other rivers which flow into the Mediterranean,
+between the lower course of the Ebro and the Pyrenees are the Fluvia,
+which flows into the gulf of Rosas, the Ter, which passes by Gerona, and
+the Llobregat near Barcelona. All are torrential streams, unfit for
+navigation; but their waters, if all utilized for irrigation like those
+of the Llobregat, would be sources of immense wealth to the country.
+
+From the fact that the lower part of the course of the great rivers of
+the plateau--the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana--flow through
+Portugal, their streams are hardly at all available as a means of
+communication or of navigation for Spain; and from the nature of the
+deeply cut beds which the waters have worn through the soil, flowing,
+especially as they approach the frontiers of Portugal, through gorges
+approaching in length and depth the canons of North America, the rivers
+are little available for irrigation, although far more use might be made
+of them for this purpose than is actually done. Owing to the prejudices
+of the Spanish husbandman, and to his reluctance to accept any change,
+however profitable, in his ancient routine, neither the little that has
+been done in the present century, nor the remains of a wiser agriculture
+in former times are used by the peasantry. In the province of Zamora,
+for instance, both the ancient "acequias" and the modern canal of the
+Esla are equally neglected. The rich results that have followed the
+employment of the waters in the few cases in which they have been
+intelligently directed, stirs no one up to follow the example. It is one
+of the many contrasts between different parts of Spain, that the value
+of irrigation should be so well understood in some parts and so utterly
+neglected and under-valued in others. But we shall have more to say of
+this when we treat of the eastern and southern streams: at present let
+us return to the Douro, and to the other rivers of the plateau.
+
+The Douro takes its rise in the Lago Negro, or Black Lake, on the
+southern flanks of the Mount Urbion, in the north-western angle of the
+province of Soria. It first runs eastward to the city of that name, the
+ancient Numantia, then turns almost directly south as far as Almazan,
+whence it runs westward to Portugal, receiving meanwhile the waters of
+the Esla, below Zamora; at the frontier, again it turns south, through
+deep gorges which form the boundary between Spain and Portugal, until
+it receives the waters of the Agueda, where it finally enters Portugal,
+and after a westerly course thence of about 100 miles, falls into the
+Atlantic below Oporto.
+
+The basin drained by the Douro is the most extensive of all those of the
+rivers in Spain. Including the portion in Portugal, it comprises 35,000
+square miles; the length of the river is about 500 miles; the average
+rainfall is stated at twenty inches. The chief affluents of the Douro
+descend from the north from the mountains of Burgos and the Cantabrian
+range. The largest are the Pisuerga, which rises not far from the
+sources of the Ebro among the Picos de Europa, and flows almost directly
+south by Palencia and Valladolid until it joins the Douro, some miles
+above Tordesilla; the Esla, which also rises from the western flanks of
+the same chain, not far from Covadonga, takes a somewhat more westerly
+direction, and after receiving several smaller streams unites with the
+Douro below Zamora. These two rivers supply water for two of the most
+successful canals in Spain, especially that along the Pisuerga, for over
+ninety miles from Alar del Rey to Valladolid. There is a considerable
+traffic on it, especially for passengers. It was planned in 1753 by
+Ensenada, but completed only in 1832. The canal of the Esla, for
+purposes of irrigation, begun by English engineers in 1864, and
+finished in 1869, has hardly been so successful. The latest report
+(June, 1880) states that the peasant proprietors, notwithstanding
+examples of the great utility of irrigation, obstinately refuse to use
+it. The principal affluents of the Douro on the west and south are the
+Tormes, which flows by Salamanca, and joins it about midway in its
+course as a frontier of Portugal; and the Agueda, which runs in just
+where it takes its final departure for the west.
+
+The Tagus, the central river of Spain, and which divides its territory
+into two nearly equal portions, rises from a fountain called the Fuente
+Garcia, or Pie, on the south side of the Muela de San Juan, between the
+Sierras de Molina, Albaracin, and San Felipe, the knot of mountains
+which, as we have indicated above, form the great watershed of the
+peninsula, whence the waters flow northwards to the Ebro, east and
+southwards to the Mediterranean, and westwards, in the Tagus and its
+tributaries, to the Atlantic. Were the whole peninsula of Spain and
+Portugal one kingdom, the Tagus would be perhaps the most important of
+its rivers; but in the divided state it is of far more value to Portugal
+than to Spain. Its swift and turbid current, flowing between steep
+banks, and in a bed broken into rapids and encumbered by rocks, is
+scarcely navigable above Abrantes. The basin of the Tagus contains an
+area of nearly 30,000 square miles, and its length is estimated at
+about 550. The rainfall is less than that of the Douro, being only
+sixteen inches annually. The river, moreover, runs by no means in the
+centre of its basin, but far to the southwards of a central dividing
+line, and consequently the tributaries which it receives from the north
+or left bank are of much greater importance than those which come from
+the south or right. After flowing a few miles in a north-westerly
+direction, the river gradually bends, first westerly, and then in a
+slightly south-westerly direction, in a deep channel, through a bare
+rolling country, where everything takes the prevailing colour of red
+dusty uplands, until it arrives at Aranjuez, situated at the confluence
+of the Jarama and the Tagus, a royal residence whose abundance of water
+and of shade make it a true oasis in a desert. The Jarama, which rises
+in the Guadarama, brings in also the waters of the Henares, and those of
+the Manzanares, on which Madrid is situated. These streams have been the
+subjects of many projects and attempts at canalization, either for
+irrigation or for supplying the metropolis with water. Most of these
+have failed, but a canal from Porcal to Aranjuez, of seventeen miles and
+a half, is in working order. The canal of Cabarrus brings the waters of
+the Lozoya to Madrid. But the great enterprise of the canal of
+irrigation from the Henares, constructed by the same English company
+which made the canal of the Esla, and which was to have been
+twenty-eight miles in length, and to have irrigated 30,000 acres, is
+suspended by lawsuits as to the ownership of the waters. The Alberche,
+which rises to the north of the Sierra de Gredos, enters the Tagus near
+Talavera de la Reyna. The Tietjar, and the Alagon, which joins the main
+stream just above Alcantara, beside the frontier stream, the Heyas, are
+the only Spanish waters of importance from the north before the Tagus
+enters Portugal; and from the south the Salor and the del Monte, both of
+which have their rise and course in the same province of Caceres alone
+need mention. In the upper part of its course, however, the smaller
+tributaries of both the Tagus and the Guadiana often overlap, and but a
+very few miles separate the Tagus itself from the waters which flow into
+the Guadiana.
+
+The exact source of the Guadiana has been a subject of much debate and
+of many fables. Its true origin seems to be in a series of lakes at the
+junction of the provinces of Ciudad Real and Albacete, near Montiel, in
+La Mancha. A picturesque stream, the Ruidosa, with many cascades and
+broken water, connects these lakes; but after running a few miles in a
+north-westerly direction, it disappears underground near Tomesillo, and
+is believed to rise to the surface after about twenty miles, in the Ojos
+(eyes) of the Guadiana, near Damiel. Very soon it receives from the
+right the united waters of the Zancara and the Giguela, streams whose
+contributions are much more scanty, especially in summer, than the
+length of their course on the map would lead one to suppose; thence the
+river flows in a westerly direction, passing near Ciudad Real, below
+which the Javalon enters from the left, coming from the Campo de
+Montiel; near Don Benito the Zuja, from the Sierra Morena, joins it, and
+some miles lower down the Matachet. Flowing past Medellin, five miles
+below Badajoz the river crosses the frontier of Portugal, changes its
+course from westerly to south-west, and afterwards south and south-east,
+till it again joins the frontier near San Lucar, and dividing the two
+countries till its mouth, falls into the Gulf of Cadiz at Ayamonte. In
+the lower part of its course the river, which before has been wide and
+shallow, and often almost dry in summer, narrows its course, and rushes
+with impetuosity through the rapids called the Salto del Lobo (the
+wolf's leap), near Serpa, in Portugal. The whole length of the Guadiana
+is estimated at 550 miles, and the area of its bed at 24,000 square
+miles. The rainfall is about fourteen inches.
+
+To the south of the rivers of the plateau the only considerable stream
+is the Guadalquiver, with its tributaries. The character of this river
+is entirely different to that of the former streams. Like the Ebro, it
+forms a true valley, instead of merely cutting its way through rocks,
+canons, and defiles. Its bed is on an average about 1200 feet below that
+of the Guadiana in the greater part of its course. It is also the only
+river in Spain of any utility for navigation; the tide is felt beyond
+Seville, and vessels of 200 to 300 tons ascend to that city. There are
+also several lines of steamboats trading thence directly with London,
+Marseilles, Bilbao, Cadiz, and Gibraltar. The Guadalquiver takes its
+rise from two sources--one, in the streams Guadalimar and Guadarmeno,
+rises in the Sierra Alcaraz, and not very far from the sources of the
+Guadiana; the other, which bears the name of the Guadalquiver, in the
+south-west of the Sierra Sagra; this latter branch is soon joined by the
+Guadiana Menor, coming down from the Sierra Nevada. The basin of the
+Guadalquiver presents this peculiarity, that its boundary is not formed
+by the line of the highest summits; on the contrary, many of its
+tributaries take their rise on the farther side of the Sierra Morena on
+the north, and of the Sierras de Granada and Nevada on the south, and
+have cut their way through these higher grounds to join the Guadalquiver
+in the plains of Andalusia. The upper part of its course is very rapid,
+and the junction of the two rivers Guadalimar and Guadalquiver, in the
+plains of Baeza, is about 5000 feet below the Punta de Almenara; but
+from thence to the sea the fall is very slight. After the junction the
+river passes by Andujar, Montoro, and Cordova, receiving on both banks
+the waters of many streams of but little importance; but between Cordova
+and Seville it is joined by its largest tributary, the Xenil, which
+rises in the Sierra Nevada, and flowing through the celebrated Vega of
+Granada, bursts through the Antequera mountains to enter the great plain
+of Andalusia, and loses itself in the Guadalquiver. From Seville
+downward the character of the stream is greatly changed; it wanders in
+large meanderings through low and marshy grounds for two or three
+leagues on each bank, mostly uninhabited, and used only for pasturing
+cattle. These low lands, which are called _Marismas_, in dry weather are
+covered with clouds of black dust, and in wet are an almost impassable
+slough of mud; mid these the river divides, and its winding beds form
+two islands--Isle Mayor and Menor, the former of which is wholly given
+to cattle, while the latter is inhabited and well cultivated; The river
+finally enters the Gulf of Cadiz, at San Lucar de Barameda, forcing its
+way with difficulty through low hills of sand, like those of the Landes
+in France. The marshes near the mouth are utilized as _Salinas_, for
+making excellent salt; and on the hills which overlook the _Marismas_
+some of the most renowned wines and fruits of Spain are produced. The
+whole course of the Guadalquiver is about 340 miles and the area of its
+basin 21,000: the rainfall is estimated at nineteen inches.
+
+The other streams which fall into the Gulf of Cadiz--the Rio Tinto,
+which runs into the Huelva basin, and the Guadalete at Cadiz--are of no
+utility for navigation. The little port of Palos, whence Columbus sailed
+to discover a new world, is almost entirely blocked up by sands brought
+down by the former torrent.
+
+The remaining rivers of Spain--those which, descending from the great
+plateau, flow eastward to the Mediterranean--though all useless for
+navigation, are among the most productive of all its streams. Flowing
+through a country whose temperature exceeds that of the opposite coast
+of Africa; where the rainfall is either scanty, or disastrous in
+quantity from rare but terrible storms; and through districts in which
+no rain falls for years together--the waters of these rivers, skilfully
+applied to irrigation, have rendered what would otherwise be a barren
+land one of fertility unparalleled in Europe. Unlike the peasants of
+Castile, the cultivators of Murcia and Valencia have learnt to value the
+use of water in agriculture; although even there, works which were first
+constructed by the Moors have been allowed to fall into ruin, and are
+yearly becoming of less utility. Of this we shall speak more at length
+below. The three great rivers we have yet to notice are the Murcian
+Segura, and the Jucar and Guadalaviar, in Valencia.
+
+The river Segura takes its rise in the Sierra de Segura, between the
+Sierras of Alcaraz and Sagra. The upper part of its course is that of a
+mountain torrent, leaping from terrace to terrace of the mountains as it
+descends, until after the junction of the Mundo, which rises from a
+cirque in the Sierra Alcaras, like the cirque of Gavarnie in the
+Pyrenees, and flows through a deep ravine from the north-east. Its
+waters are dammed up, cut into numberless channels, and almost wholly
+utilized for irrigation, so that only about ten per cent of them reaches
+the sea; the rest are dissipated in the huertas of Murcia, Orihuela, and
+part of Elche. Its tributary the Sangonera loses almost all its waters
+in the plains of Lorca. With the little Vinalapo, almost 15,000 acres
+are rendered productive by the waters of these streams in one of the
+driest districts of Spain. The wheat of Orihuela is some of the finest
+in Spain; and so certain is the crop as to give rise to the proverb,
+"Rain or no rain, there is always wheat in Orihuela." The Segura has a
+course of about 217 miles, and an area of about 850 square miles; the
+average rainfall is estimated at about twelve inches, but the difference
+is very great in different years, as the district is liable to rare but
+most heavy and destructive floods.
+
+The Jucar takes its rise not far from the sources of the Tagus, on the
+south side of the Muela de San Juan, which we have before mentioned as
+the culminating watershed of the peninsula. It flows first in a
+south-westerly direction as far as Cuenca, whence it gradually turns
+south and south-east, and at Jorquera, to the north-east of Albacete,
+strikes eastwards for the Mediterranean, which it finally enters at
+Cullera. Like the Segura and Guadalaviar, its waters are drained off for
+irrigation; but its basin is narrower, and it can boast of no fertility
+equal to the huertas of Murcia or Valencia. Its course is about 317
+miles, the area of its bed 580, and the rainfall some twelve and a half
+inches; the irrigated land is over 30,000 acres.
+
+The Guadalaviar, or Turia, rises on the north side of the Muela de San
+Juan, and descending rapidly, flows eastward past Albarracin and Teruel;
+at which latter town it turns abruptly southwards till it enters the
+province of Valencia, where it again takes a more easterly course,
+flowing with ever-diminished stream through the rich garden of Valencia,
+at which city it falls into the Mediterranean, with water which, except
+in time of flood, scarcely rises above the ankle. The length of its
+course is about 187 miles, the area of its basin 320 square miles; it
+irrigates over 25,000 acres near Valencia.
+
+Besides these larger rivers, there are on the Mediterranean slope
+innumerable smaller streams, whose waters, though of little geographical
+importance, are of the greatest utility to agriculture. In summer
+scarcely a drop of their waters reaches the sea; all is either employed
+for irrigation, or dissipated by evaporation; often they are dammed up
+to form reservoirs or _pantanos_, sometimes employed for rice culture.
+But small as these streams are, it is to them that this burning coast
+owes its beauty and fertility, its almost tropical vegetation and its
+rich products. The fair gardens of Castellon, of Gandia, of Murviedro
+would be barren and valueless without these waters. Still farther to the
+north the waters of the Llobregat, and the canal of Urgel in Catalonia,
+are used for the same purpose.
+
+The lakes of Spain are neither large nor numerous, but some are curious
+from a geographical point of view. On the high plateaux whence the
+Guadiana, the Guadalimar, the Segura, and the Jucar take their rise,
+either a dam or a trench would suffice to turn the waters either to the
+Atlantic or the Mediterranean; and here alone in Western Europe are
+found temporary lakes with no outlet, and consequently salt from excess
+of evaporation. For the same reason salt springs and brackish streams
+abound in these highlands. All around the coast, both on the Atlantic
+and Mediterranean, salinas, or salt-works for making salt, either from
+the sea or from the brackish water of lagoons and tidal marshes, abound;
+those of Cadiz, and of the coast between Cartagena and Alicante are
+celebrated for the excellence of their salt. Besides these are the five
+Albuferas, or lagoons, of Valencia, Alicante, Elche, Auna, and Oropesa.
+Of these that of Valencia is far the largest, and feeds enormous
+quantities of fish and of aquatic fowl of all kinds. The interior lakes,
+as that of Sanabria in Zamora, Gallocanta in Aragon, and those from
+which many of the rivers take their source, are noted only for their
+picturesque beauty. We can hardly show the value of water in Spain
+better than by directing the reader's attention to the number of places
+which take their name from water of some kind: thus there are forty-four
+villages or towns whose names are compounded of _Aguas_, waters; 238
+into which the word _Fuente_, fountain, enters; 144 _Rios_, rivers; 54
+_Arroyos_, brooks; 44 _Pozos_, wells; 30 _Salinas_, salt waters; 9 _Rio
+Secos_, dry rivers; and about 600 _Molinos_ or water-mills. The
+multiplicity of these last dates perhaps from the time when every
+seigneur had his own mill, and obliged his vassals to grind their corn
+there; but assuredly in a moister climate water would not have played so
+great a part in the nomenclature, or toponymy, of the country.
+
+We add the following table, deduced from Reclus' "Nouvelle Geographie
+Universelle," 6 deg. Serie, p. 886, compared with an article in "La Revista
+Contemporanea," December 30th, 1880:--
+
+                               Area of  Length of Mean      Outfall compared
+                  Rivers.      basin.   course.   rainfall.  with rainfall.
+                              Sq. miles. Miles.    Inches.    Per cent.
+
+  Northern       {Minho&Sil    10,000    190       47-1/2     50
+    Rivers.      {Ebro         25,000    466       18         20
+
+  Rivers of      {Douro        35,000    506       20         40
+    the          {Tagus        30,000    556       16         33
+    Central      {Guardiana &
+    Plateau.     {Zancara      24,000    553       14         20
+
+  Andulasia      Guadalquiver  21,000    340       19         30
+
+  Mediterranean  {Segura         8500    217       12         10
+    Rivers.      {Jucar          5800    317       12-1/2     15
+  E. & S.E.      {Guadalaviar    3200    187       --         12
+
+The mineral springs of Spain are very numerous, as might be expected in
+a mountainous country, at the junction of different strata in the
+metamorphic fissures, and in the neighbourhood of extinct volcanoes.
+Many of them were known and used by the Romans, and possibly by other
+races before their time. The Moors made use of many, more especially in
+the south. The majority of these springs are much neglected, and the
+bathing establishments in their roughness are a striking contrast to
+those of Germany and of France; there is, however, no reason to suppose
+that the waters themselves are less efficacious. The best known springs
+lie along the line of the Pyrenees, in Catalonia, Navarre, and
+especially in the Basque provinces and Santander. Another noted group
+are in the neighbourhood of Granada, and on the northern slopes of the
+Sierra Nevada. Those in the Guadarrama range are more frequented, from
+their vicinity to Madrid. Many of the Salados and Salinas in the higher
+parts of the eastern range, as well as the springs in the neighbourhood
+of Valencia, might be utilized with advantage. In this, as in many other
+things, Spain has not yet recovered the threads of a lost civilization,
+and in many points of material comfort and well-being is behind the
+Spain of Roman and of Moorish times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
+
+
+Spain may be roughly divided into five climates: (1) that of the north
+and of the Pyrenees, where rain is abundant; (2) the west or Atlantic
+climate, including Portugal; (3) the north-east or Mediterranean; (4)
+the east and south, or African climate; and (5) lastly, the climate of
+the great Central Plateau, or the Continental. All these are well
+marked, and differ greatly in their temperature, in elevation, in
+exposure, in rainfall, and in prevailing winds. To speak of an average
+temperature, or of an average rainfall in Spain, is only to mislead. The
+temperature of the south and south-east is higher than that of the
+opposite coast of Africa, while the winters in Castile recall those of
+Scandinavia in their bitterness. In some of the Asturian valleys there
+is, perhaps, the heaviest rainfall in Europe; while the lower valley of
+the Ebro is almost a desert, from want of rain; and in parts of Valencia
+and Murcia, and even in Andalusia, not a drop will fall for years; yet
+at times these provinces, and their driest portions, are visited--as in
+1802, 1879, and 1881--by overwhelming and destructive floods. To strike
+an average, then, even for the same spot, through several years, is
+often merely deceptive.
+
+We have remarked above on the similarity of the conformation of the
+western coasts of Galicia to those of Norway, Scotland, and Ireland.
+They partake also of the same Atlantic character in their climate and
+productions. Galicia and the Asturias are essentially grazing countries;
+and from the Galician ports, up to 1878, about 20,000 head of fatted
+cattle were annually sent to England. Except in the more sheltered
+valleys, where the productions of a warmer clime will flourish, the
+native flora is not unlike that of the milder parts of Ireland and of
+Devonshire. The average temperature of Santiago is about 55 deg. Fahr., with
+a maximum of 95 deg., and a minimum of 28 deg.; Oviedo is given as 54 deg. average,
+maximum 80 deg., and minimum 24 deg.; while the rainfall of the former is from
+58 to 68 inches, and that of the latter varies from 38 to 50 in ordinary
+years, but in 1858 it attained 80 inches. Proceeding eastward we meet
+the northern or Pyrenean climate, where the rainfall is not so great,
+and, except in the immediate vicinity of the highest mountains, lessens
+gradually as we either go eastward or descend into the plains. The
+moisture is condensed and wrung out of the clouds brought by the watery
+western winds, and precipitated on the mountains of the west and north.
+From the Picos de Europa, in the province of Santander, which may be
+considered as the meeting-point of the two climates, the waters descend
+on the one side by the Ebro to the Mediterranean, by the Pisuerga to the
+Douro and the Atlantic, and by the shorter northern streams to the Bay
+of Biscay. In the valley of the Cabuervega (Santander) the rainfall is
+57-1/2 inches. Passing eastward we find Bilbao and San Sebastian, with
+an average temperature of 56 deg. and 55 deg., a maximum of 93 deg., and minimum
+23 deg., while the rainfall has diminished from 55 to 48 inches. At Vergara,
+more inland, it is 52. At Huesca, in Aragon, notwithstanding its
+proximity to the mountains, the rainfall is only 25 inches; at Balaguer,
+in Catalonia, only 15-1/2. At Saragossa the climate becomes more
+extreme; the average is 60 deg., the maximum 96 deg., and the minimum 20 deg., while
+the rainfall descends to 14 inches. The equalizing influence of the
+neighbourhood of the sea is felt in the Mediterranean climate at
+Barcelona; for while the average is 63 deg., the maximum is only 88 deg., and
+the minimum 32 deg., and the rainfall ascends to 24 inches. The difference
+is still more marked if we compare the extreme oscillation between the
+maximum and minimum temperatures. At Saragossa this is from 120 deg. to
+130 deg.; at Barcelona from 90 deg. to 100 deg. Fahr.
+
+The productions of this northern zone vary greatly according to
+elevation and exposition. Those of the Basque Provinces still belong to
+the north temperate zone climate--cattle, corn, and cider, as well as
+wine. The olive, and the mulberry for silk, are almost unknown; but
+maize is largely grown. As we approach Catalonia these products give way
+to those of the Mediterranean region of Provence and of the Riviera--the
+olive, the grape, the mulberry. A powerful red wine is made on the lower
+southern spurs of the Pyrenees and of the Cantabrian Mountains, in the
+Riojas, in Navarre, and in Aragon. Much of it would be excellent if more
+attention were paid to the preparation, and especially to the conditions
+of transport. Great quantities are at present exported to France by sea
+from Bilbao and San Sebastian, and also by rail, for the purpose of
+mixing with the thinner and poorer clarets of Bordeaux, to fit them for
+the taste and market of England. In Catalonia the wine improves, and is
+less used for mixing. The chief kinds are a red wine, like Rousillon,
+and sweet, luscious wines, Rancio, somewhat like Muscat or Malaga. Of
+late the manufacture of effervescing wines like champagne has been
+carried on with considerable success. The wine made in Catalonia amounts
+to one-fifth of the whole produce of Spain. Already the orange and the
+palm appear.
+
+Proceeding southwards from Catalonia, we gradually advance into the
+south-eastern and southern climate of Spain, a climate which is rather
+African than European in its character, and both whose products and
+dryness have more relation to the African continent than to that of the
+rest of Europe. It is here that the date-palm ripens--which it does not
+on the opposite coast of Algeria--and the camel breeds, and can be used
+as a beast of burden equally as in Egypt and the East. Sheltered by the
+mountain ranges to the east and north from the cold winds which sweep
+the plateau of Castile, exposed by the slope of the country to the full
+influence of the southern sun and its powerful evaporation, the
+characteristics of the climate are warmth and dryness, while the
+vicinity of the Mediterranean partly tempers the extreme range of heat
+and cold which might be found in lands more remote from the sea. Thus
+the average temperature of Valencia is 65 deg., its maximum 102 deg., its
+minimum 41 deg., and extreme range 100 deg.. Alicante, still further south, has
+an average of 66 deg., a maximum of 100 deg., and a minimum of 35 deg.. The average
+rainfall at Valencia is stated at 17, and that of Alicante at 18 inches;
+but, as remarked above, in this south-eastern district of Spain averages
+of rainfall are quite deceptive. In some years the quantity marked is
+only a very few inches, 3 or 6, over the whole district, and there are
+considerable portions where rain does not fall for years. The country
+is rendered fertile and productive, not by its rains, but by irrigation
+from the rivers, fed by the winter snows on the mountains which border
+the great plateau. At times, however, as in 1802 and 1879, storms of
+rain descend on the high lands of Murcia and the eastern sierras, and
+floods rush down, sweeping away dams which have stood for centuries,
+washing away towns and villages, and spreading destruction far and wide.
+To compute the rainfall of such floods into an average is only to play
+with figures. Murcia has an average temperature of 64 deg., maximum 112 deg.,
+minimum 24 deg., and an extreme range of 120 deg.. The rainfall averages about
+12-1/2 inches on the coast, but varies greatly; at Albacete it is said
+to average 13 inches. The directly southern coast, from the Cabo de Gata
+to Gibraltar, has a milder and more equable climate than that of the
+south-eastern coast; but in the inland valley of the Guadalquiver the
+range is more extreme, both for heat and cold. The dryness in the
+eastern district still continues from Cartagena to Almeria; the rainfall
+is said to be only 12 inches. At Malaga, while the average temperature
+is 66 deg., about the same as that at Valencia and Alicante, the maximum is
+said to be only 78 deg., and the minimum 53 deg.. At Motril, between Malaga and
+Almeria, the maximum is 77 deg., and the minimum 52 deg.. In Seville on the
+other hand, the average is 68 deg., with a maximum Of 118 deg., and a minimum of
+30 deg.. Cordova, somewhat colder, has a maximum of 93 deg., and a minimum of
+27 deg.. The rainfall is also more moderate at Malaga, 15-1/2 inches, and 23
+at Seville. Granada, in its upland but sheltered valley, at an elevation
+of 2681 feet, defended from the east and south by the snowy range of the
+Sierra Nevada, and by the mountains of Granada to the north, has still
+an average of 65 deg., with a maximum of 97 deg., and a minimum of 42 deg.. The
+rainfall varies considerably in different years, and various geographers
+give its average as 23-1/2 33-1/2, and the latest (Reclus) 48-1/2. Cadiz
+has an Atlantic climate, which in temperature and greater rainfall, 37
+inches, closely approximates to that of Madeira. Moving westward it
+decreases, at Gibraltar, 34-1/2, San Fernando, 27; while at Huelva and
+Tarifa, where the moisture of the north-west gales is intercepted by the
+Portuguese mountains, it descends to 24-1/2. We have now only to treat
+of the climate of the great central elevation, the plateau, which ranges
+at an average height of some 2000 feet above the sea. Thus, Madrid is
+2148, Segovia 2299, Burgos 2873, Soria 3504, and the Escorial, 3683 feet
+above the sea-level. But even these altitudes do not wholly account for
+the rigour of the climate in the latitude of Naples, Rome, and
+Constantinople. We have seen how excellent is the climate of Granada at
+a nearly equal elevation, only three degrees further south. The extremes
+of heat and cold felt at Valladolid and Madrid are due more to the
+uncovered mountain ranges to the north, the treeless, waterless plains,
+over which the wind sweeps unchecked, than to mere elevation. The want
+of rain is greatly owing to the ranges of mountains parallel to the
+frontier and to the Atlantic in Portugal, which condense and wring all
+the moisture from the rain-clouds of the Atlantic, and distribute it
+almost wholly on the western slope. Thus at Lisbon the fall is 29, at
+Coimbra 35, at Oporto 63, in the mountains of Beira and Tras os Montes
+from 68 to 100 inches; while on the eastern slope, at Salamanca it is 9,
+Valladolid 12, at Badajoz 12-1/2, Ciudad Real 14. From the bare granite
+range of the Guadarrama steals down the treacherous icy wind so fatal in
+Madrid--not sufficiently strong to extinguish a candle, but quite enough
+to destroy human life. It is the dislike of the Castilian peasant to
+trees, which would overshadow so much of his small property, the
+destruction of the mountain forests, and the want of good agriculture,
+which has embittered the climate of these plateaux. Were the hill-sides
+clothed with wood, the country dotted with farms, the wide and bare
+plains covered throughout the year with varied agricultural produce, the
+climate would soon be modified and become sensibly warmer, and no
+longer, as it at present is, an obstacle to civilization and to
+improvement. In spite of all neglect these plains grow some of the
+finest wheat in Europe, and the lower mountain ranges supply pasture in
+the summer for the immense flocks which return to winter in the plains
+of Estremadura. The average temperature of Madrid is 59 deg., its maximum
+104 deg. to 107 deg., and its minimum only 7 deg.. That of Salamanca is said to be
+57 deg., with a maximum of 97 deg., and a minimum of 12 deg.. The average rainfall
+of Madrid is only from 9 to 14 inches, that of Salamanca 9, while Soria,
+nearer to the mountains, in some years reaches 25 inches.
+
+From the above sketch of the climate the reader will expect to find the
+productions vary greatly in the different districts. The north and
+north-west are the lands of cattle and of pasture. In Galicia and in the
+Asturias the products are almost like those of the warmer parts of the
+south-west of England and of Ireland, save that in the more sheltered
+valleys the orange, citron, and pomegranate flourish; a palm is even now
+and then to be seen; and the wine, especially on the confines of
+Portugal, is excellent, and needs only more care in preparation to be a
+rival to the famous Port of the neighbouring country. In the eighteenth
+century, that of Ribadavia was considered to be the finest wine in all
+Spain. Maize, too, is freely grown; but on account of their extreme
+poverty, rye and spelt often replace both it and wheat as food for the
+peasantry. The upland plateaux afford excellent pasture, especially for
+cattle and horses; the hardy and sure-footed hacks of Galicia and the
+Asturias are celebrated. The mountains here are often clothed with wood;
+oaks of various kinds, and the edible chestnut, and the hazel-nut--of
+which over 1000 tons, value 23,000_l._, are annually exported from
+Gijon--grow on the lower spurs, giving food to herds of swine; beech,
+and pine, and fir appear as we approach the tops. In the lower woods the
+arbutus especially flourishes, and the young wild boars in autumn are
+said to become half stupefied with its narcotic berries. As we proceed
+eastward from Galicia to the Asturias the climate becomes sensibly
+colder--the valleys face the north instead of the west; the orange is
+less known, the mulberry will not flourish sufficiently well to pay for
+silk cultivation, the olive will not grow, and the cork does not pay for
+cultivation; the wines lose somewhat of their strength and lusciousness;
+and cider, made from the excellent apples of the country, rivals the
+juice of the grape in popularity. The mountains are covered with heath,
+and fern, and furze, but the aromatic plants are fewer than in Galicia.
+This description applies to the northern slope of the Cantabrian chain
+and to the rolling hills and plateaux of the Basque provinces; but the
+southern slopes of the chain, towards the Ebro, are again a land of vine
+and olive, and of maize, which is everywhere the staple. In the Basque
+provinces the plough is replaced by the ancient "laya," an instrument
+as old, at least, as Roman times. It is a heavy two-pronged steel or
+iron fork, with prongs one and a half to two feet long. A strong man
+will work two of them at once, one in each hand, driving them into the
+ground to their full depth, then with a backward strain turning up the
+deep soil. Usually, four or five men work together, and raise their
+arms, plunge the fork downwards, and heave, in perfect time. The
+cultivation thus effected is excellent, but the expenditure of labour is
+immense The productions do not vary greatly along the slopes of the
+Pyrenees from those above described until we reach Catalonia; but in the
+lower valley of the Ebro, where rain is rare, in the Bardenas reales of
+Navarre, and in the monegros, or despoblados of Aragon, we meet with a
+phenomenon only too frequent in Spain--tracts of almost utter
+barrenness. The Bardenas reales are low spurs of the Pyrenees, with
+table-lands, bluffs, and deep gorges, and these could scarcely be
+brought under cultivation; but the "despoblados" (dispeopled lands) of
+Aragon might be irrigated, either by the Ebro or by its tributaries, if
+the water of the canal of Charles V. were but economically applied. The
+sterility of some parts seems to have been the slow result of an
+oppressive land tenure; for as Don Vicente de la Fuente has remarked,
+the lands which belonged to the ancient senors (the feudal lords) lie
+barren, while the lands of the comunidades, the free districts, are
+still fertile. In treating, of the cultivation and the products of
+eastern and southern Spain two facts become evident at once--how many of
+the products are exotic, and how much of the cultivation is still
+Arabian. We shall see in another chapter how deep a mark the Moor or
+Arab has left on the population and toponymy of Spain; and the
+agriculture of the greater part of central and southern Spain is still
+Arabian. The methods of the Spanish peasant are almost all Arabian;
+often he uses the Arabian hoe in preference to the Roman plough. The
+_noria_, or water-wheel; the _sha'doof_, or swipe, the pole and bucket
+for lifting water; the huge dams and reservoirs, the canals and ditches
+(_acequias_), the regulations for the fair distribution of the
+water,--all these, and even the very superstitions as to times of
+sowing, the rotation of crops, the treatment of his animals--for all
+these the Spanish peasant of the South is indebted to the Moors. The
+treatise of Abu Zaccaria, with its traditions of Nabathean agriculture,
+is still one of the manuals of agriculture in Spain. It is the Moors,
+too, who first made the winter gardens in the sands near San Lucarde
+Barameda, at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, and which supply Cadiz and
+Seville with the earliest and latest vegetables. The Roman, with his
+lofty aqueducts, brought water to the towns; but it was the Moor who
+gave that blessing to the thirsty soil of the country districts of
+Spain. And not only the methods of agriculture, but many of its fruits
+and products were introduced by the Arab from the East, and some of
+these are now the very staple of Spanish produce. It is they who brought
+into Spain the cotton plant, rice, and the sugar-cane; mulberries, both
+for fruit and for silk culture; sesame, the caper, the locust bean, the
+castor-oil plant, alfalfa (lucerne), the pomegranate, almond, the walnut
+and filbert, the chestnut and the ever-green oak, the wild olive, the
+jujube, the pistacchio nut, the palm, several kinds of roses, the
+wall-flower, with many another garden herb or flower. It was they who
+improved the Andalusian steed into one of the most excellent in Europe
+for riding, and the strain may still be traced even in the ponies of the
+north. But the cultivated vegetation of the south which meets the
+stranger's eye is perhaps still more indebted to the Americas.[1] It
+needs an effort now to picture what Spanish agriculture and what Spanish
+life was before the time of Columbus, when maize, and the potato, and
+sweet potato, were unknown; when not a cigar was smoked or cigarette
+made, or leaf of tobacco grown in Spain; when only garlic was known, and
+those indispensable condiments of every dish, the tomato, and the
+pimentos had not yet entered a Spanish kitchen, and chocolate had not
+yet been sipped by Spanish ladies; when the hedges were bare of aloes,
+and the prickly pear gave the beggar no fruit. And besides these common
+gifts, there are the more luxurious ones of pine apples, grenadines (the
+fruit of the passion-flower), abocado pears, chirimoyas, guavas,
+earth-nuts, bananas, and many others, while the gardens are enriched
+with magnolias and passion-flowers, and a wealth of creepers of all
+kinds. The Australian eucalypti, also, are highly valued in Spain, both
+as a febrifuge and for their prophylactic qualities in prevention of
+malaria in marshy ground; and a decoction from their leaves has quite
+passed into the popular pharmacopeia.
+
+  [1] For the converse of this, the plants and fruits introduced by the
+  Spaniards into America, see Markham's "Peru," in this series, p. 120.
+
+The most common plant on the sun-dried hills of Valencia and Murcia, the
+esparto-grass (_Stipe tenacissima_), after having been long used in
+various native manufactures, has since 1856 become an article of
+exportation, and an important addition to the wealth of Spain; but the
+cultivation of the barilla plant for soda has much decreased. It is from
+Valencia that the oranges come which are such favourites in Paris. The
+tree is so valuable, both for fruit and flowers, that an acre will
+sometimes give 600_l._ worth of produce. The dried raisins and almonds
+so familiar in England, so eagerly looked for at Christmas time, and
+the green preserved grapes, come from the districts of which we are now
+speaking, the coast-lands from Valencia to Almeira and Malaga. The wines
+are equally celebrated, from the strong red wines of Benicarlo, near the
+frontiers of Catalonia, to the sweet wines of Alicante and of Malaga,
+which are preferred by Continental taste to the drier and more fiery
+sherries, wines of the Guadalquiver valley, which please the English
+palate. Near the coast on the lower grounds, wherever there is
+sufficient water, rice is grown; but, on account of the unhealthy
+character of the cultivation, its culture is forbidden in the
+neighbourhood of towns. Sugar-cane is extending on the southern coast.
+In Andalusia alone more than 7000 acres are devoted to this culture, and
+the total yield of the sugar-cane in Spain is estimated at nearly 20,000
+tons. Palms are grown as an ornament and garden-tree from Barcelona to
+Malaga, but in Murcia, and especially at Elche, they are planted for
+production. Though the number seems declining, there are still some
+40,000 palms together in the neighbourhood of Elche; in the last century
+they are said to have numbered from 50,000 to 70,000. It is not for the
+fruit alone, the date, but for the leaves (the so-called palm-branches)
+that the trees are grown. In the winter these are tied into a close
+bundle to exclude the rays of the sun, in order that they may become
+white, and they are then exported to Rome and Italy, for use in the
+Easter ceremonies of Palm Sunday. Oils and essences, extracted from many
+plants and flowers, are also products of this region. The
+liquorice-root, and many another flower, or fruit, or root of medicinal
+value grows wild on the hills. The slopes of the eastern mountains are
+covered with aromatic herbs, thyme, myrtle, box, rosemary,
+southern-wood, mint, lavender, marjoram, nearly all the sweet-scented
+herbs which were once carefully cultivated in the gardens of our
+ancestors, are natives of these hills; and the flocks of goats returning
+from their pastures bring the sweet odours into the tainted towns and
+villages, and the first draught of milk from them is highly flavoured
+thereby. On these treeless hills, and the warmer parts of the higher
+plateaux, these aromatic herbs are often the only fuel which the peasant
+can employ. The wealth of this portion of the Spanish soil, the variety
+and beauty of its products, can be best seen in a visit to a fruit or
+flower market in any of the towns of the south and east. The richness of
+colour, the size and beauty of form, are amazing to the stranger; but
+the quantity and the cheapness, the way in which these fruits and exotic
+vegetables enter into the diet of the poor, is that which most
+astonishes those from less generous climes. We have not space to
+enumerate in detail a tithe of these productions; this must be sought in
+more special treatises.
+
+Almost equal in agricultural and garden wealth to that of the
+coast-line, and superior to it as regards the culture of the vine, is
+the valley of the Guadalquiver. The oranges of Seville (the civil
+oranges of our forefathers, the main ingredient of marmalade), sack, and
+sherry, are known in every English home of the middle and upper classes.
+It is in the valley of the Guadalquiver, from San Lucar de Barameda to
+above Cordova, that the finest sherries are produced. From San Lucar
+comes the pleasant Manzanilla, the lightest and most wholesome of all
+the sherries, but with a peculiar bitter taste and bouquet, like that of
+the wild camomile-flower. In the neighbourhood of Jerez de la Frontera
+the best sherries are produced, both brown and golden; the Amontillado,
+the nutty-flavoured wine so much sought after, comes from Montilla, to
+the south of Cordova. Several other kinds are manufactured, and have a
+great local reputation. Comparatively very little of these strong and
+fiery wines is consumed in Spain. Spaniards take them only as a liqueur,
+not as the usual accompaniment of a meal or desert. Sherry, though grown
+in Spain, is the foreigner's, and especially the Englishman's wine. The
+red Valdepenas, from the northern slope of the Sierra Morena, replaces
+it at the Spaniard's table. For the modes of preparation of the various
+sherries, we must refer our readers to special treatises; of its
+statistics as an article of commerce we shall speak in another chapter.
+The first palm-tree introduced into Spain is said to have been planted
+near Cordova. The olives of this district are considered the finest in
+Spain. Comparatively little of the oil is exported, but the home
+consumption is enormous. The cork forests, too, are abundant; their bark
+forms an important article of commerce.
+
+We have now only to speak of the great central plateau, the Continental
+climate of Spain, and its productions. This is peculiarly the
+corn-growing district of Spain, the land of wheat and maize, especially
+in the Castiles. Estremadura and Leon are rather pastoral districts. It
+is in these provinces that the laws of the _Mesta_, for the protection
+of the celebrated merino sheep, ruled supreme, and which, though
+modified at the close of the last century, and some of their worst
+abuses done away with, were finally repealed only in 1835. By these laws
+the sheep and cattle which fed in the winter in the plains of
+Estremadura, and in the summer on the mountains of Leon, were privileged
+to enter almost any property on their line of march, to feed or to pass
+the night there. A space of ninety yards wide was reserved on each side
+of the highways for their accommodation; no land, especially no
+corn-field, was allowed to be enclosed; and right of forcible entrance
+was given to all orchards and vineyards where pasturage might be found.
+Wherever the flocks had once fed, the land could not be sold or
+alienated to any other purpose. The shepherds who tended these flocks
+became almost as savage and ignorant as the beasts they looked after;
+their privileges produced in them a contempt and hatred of all kinds of
+fixed property, and they were ever trying to extend their oppressive
+right at the expense of the more settled and agricultural portion of the
+community. Under the influence of these laws Estremadura, which, in the
+time of the Romans and Moors had been one of the richest provinces of
+Spain, became under their Christian conquerors not only one of the
+poorest and most thinly peopled districts, but also a curse and source
+of destruction to the rest. Not only were all the evils of the old Roman
+"latifundia" reproduced in this mediaeval system, but the locust, which
+never breeds in cultivated lands, or where the plough passes, was
+enabled to make its home in the wilds and pastures of Estremadura,
+whence it periodically sallied out to devastate the fairest and richest
+portions of the land. In the years 1754 to 1757 it desolated the whole
+of the provinces between Estremadura and the Mediterranean. In 1686 and
+the following year it reached the principality of Barcelona, and, in
+spite of exorcisms, ravaged the country till there was nothing more to
+destroy. The provinces nearer to Estremadura are much more frequent
+sufferers, and in recent years (in 1876 the crops in Ciudad Real were
+utterly destroyed) a division of the army has been more than once
+employed to destroy or to check them on their march. The only plant they
+spare is the tomata, which they will not touch. Besides flocks,
+Estremadura maintains huge herds of swine, which feed on the sweet
+acorns and chestnuts of its woods, and whose flesh is renowned through
+Spain. Owing to its situation on the borders of Andalusia, in which
+province the Moors retained their powers long after they had lost the
+rest of Spain, Estremadura was exposed to their frequent incursions;
+every flock and herd was liable to be carried off, every fruit-tree to
+be cut down, the farms burnt and crops destroyed; and in their
+retaliation the Christian knights were almost as fatal as the Arab
+horsemen. The country was never thoroughly peopled after the reconquest,
+and the sense of insecurity remained long after the cause of it had been
+removed. The laws of the Mesta and the emigration to the Americas (both
+Cortes and Pizarro were Extramenos) finished the work of depopulation,
+and left the province, as it has since remained, naturally one of the
+richest, actually one of the poorest in Spain. The products, besides
+those above mentioned, are cork, oak-bark and acorns for tanning,
+honey, nuts, and chestnuts.
+
+The bare plains of the Castiles are now the great corn-producing country
+of Spain. But they have little or nothing of the beauty and variety of
+cultivated land in other countries. There is no succession of crops, no
+mixed husbandry, no scattered farm-houses, neither tree nor fence to
+break the bare monotony. The hill-sides and mountains are given up to
+pasture, the plains to wheat and maize. The husbandmen live in villages,
+and ride out on donkeys in early morn to their distant fields, and
+return home at night. A sense of insecurity seems still to brood over
+the land, as if the peasant dared not trust himself outside the walls of
+village or town. Only at harvest-time, in the warm summer and autumn
+nights, he camps out among his crops, to thresh them on the spot, and
+bring the produce home, a habit which often produces fever and ague.
+Year after year the process is repeated; no improvement is ever made; if
+rain falls the harvest is plentiful--so plentiful sometimes that the
+lazy peasant will not reap his most distant fields, or procure new skins
+or barrels for the over-abundant wine, though with the extension of
+railways this evil is fast disappearing. There is hardly a greater
+contrast than between the habits of the Castilian peasants and those of
+the peasant-proprietors in the Basque provinces and in those of north
+and north-west. In the Basque provinces the farms are scattered all
+over the country, and travellers from other districts of Spain speak of
+the whole district as if it were one city. The farm-house stands in the
+midst of its grounds, with orchard, garden, trees and fences, meadow and
+corn-land round it. To Englishmen this description is almost a matter of
+course, and one must read the narrative of travellers from Castile fully
+to appreciate the force of the contrast. There is, moreover, no natural
+impediment whatever to a similar course of life in many districts of the
+Castiles. Barren and dreary as they look, the plains called the "Sierras
+de Campos," and some others, are watered by a kind of natural capillary
+attraction; dry as the surface appears, water is always to be found at a
+few inches below the surface, and the roots of the wheat and other
+cereal crops penetrate to it. It is only the mixture of pride and
+laziness and ignorance of the Castilian peasant, his senseless disdain
+of all improvement, his want of ambition for anything better, that
+prevents progress in this part of Spain. He refused to make use of the
+machinery invented for him in the last century, nor will he avail
+himself of the means of irrigation and the still better machines
+provided for him now. Yet there is no agricultural country in which
+machinery could be introduced to greater advantage.
+
+Perhaps no better idea can be given of the productions of Spain, and of
+the diversity of its climates and fruits, than by comparing those of
+Murcia with those of the north-west and the centre. In January the bean
+is in flower in Murcia, in April in Madrid; the vine and the wheat
+flower in April in Murcia, but not till May or June in the province of
+Madrid. The climate of Galicia, with its almost continual rain, and
+Murcia with its droughts, are perhaps the most opposite climates of
+Spain. The one is a land of pasture and of flax cultivation; its fruits
+are the apple, the pear, the peach, strawberries, currants, and nuts of
+all kinds; the predominant plant on the hill-sides is the furze, in
+Murcia it is the Esparto grass. The fruits there cultivated in the
+gardens are exotic, and have almost wholly replaced the indigenous
+flora; the "huertas," the gardens or cultivated plains, are there almost
+like oases in a desert.
+
+The fauna of Spain--except in one particular, the monkeys (_Macacus
+Innuus_) which inhabit the rock of Gibraltar, and which are the only
+animals of their kind wild in Europe--does not greatly differ from that
+of the rest of Southern Europe. In the highest part of the Pyrenees, in
+the Sierra de Credos, and in the Sierra Nevada, the izard or chamois
+still exists in considerable numbers. Whether the bouquetin is really
+extinct, or still survives in the Spanish Pyrenees, is a disputed point.
+In the forests which clothe the lower spurs, roe and fallow deer, wild
+goats and wild boars, and in some districts red deer, are still to be
+found. The beasts of prey are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the fox,
+wild cat, marten, ferret, weasel, &c.; and these are assisted by the no
+less rapacious birds of prey--the vultures, eagles, hawks, falcons,
+kites, harriers, pies, and jays. The game birds and animals are the
+pheasant, now very rare, partridges of both kinds, bustards, both large
+and small, sand-grouse, quails, which come in immense quantities to the
+vineyards and maize-fields in the summer and autumn, woodcock, snipe;
+wild duck, geese, all kinds of water-birds and waders, visit the marshes
+of the rivers and the lagoons of the coast in winter; and on the
+southern shores meet the flamingoes, pelicans, spoonbills, and other
+birds from the African coast. From the same quarter come numerous and
+brighter-plumaged birds of passage; orioles, bee-eaters, hoopoes, and
+other natives of a warmer zone, are brought over by the hot south wind
+so irritating to the nerves and temper of a southern Spaniard. It is
+then that the shores of the Mediterranean are lined with sportsmen, when
+the moon is near full, to take heavy toll of these winged travellers.
+The entomology of Spain is probably very rich. We have spoken of the
+locusts of Estremadura; and in the wilds where they breed--mere
+solitudes in summer, when the flocks are absent in their northern
+pastures--many a rare species of butterfly, cicada, and insect is
+doubtless to be found. The insects of Spain, however, are not all
+noxious or without value. Silk-worms are largely bred in the coast
+provinces of the east and south, not only for their silk, but also for
+the gut so precious to all trout and salmon fishermen. The cochineal
+insect, which feeds on the leaves of the prickly pear, is cultivated for
+its brilliant dye.
+
+Of useful and domesticated animals, the sheep of Spain have always been
+celebrated; the very name, "merinos," has been given to the softest kind
+of wool or woolly tissue. It is said that the breed attained its
+excellence through a present of English South Down rams by Edward I. to
+the father of his Castilian bride, and that the wool has improved under
+climatic influences. However this may be, the superiority has hardly
+been maintained, and careless shepherding has sadly deteriorated the
+breed; still the half-bred Spanish merinos are the favourite flocks
+throughout the north of Spain and Southern France, and they are slowly
+superseding the coarser native and local breeds. The Spanish cattle from
+Galicia are well known in the English market, but they are not the
+choicest of their kind. The bulls that are bred for the bull-fights are
+reared chiefly along the marshy banks of the Guadalquiver, which, like
+the delta of the Rhone, supports herds of half-wild cattle and
+buffaloes. Cow's milk is little known or used in many districts of
+Spain, and butter still less. Sheep or goat's milk supplies the place
+of the former, and the olive-oil, excellent were it not too often kept
+till rancid, that of the latter. Cheese and various kinds of curdled
+milk or whey are also made from the milk of sheep. Since the advent of
+the Arabs the Andalusian steed has been much celebrated. It is now
+scarcely equal to its former fame, but, like many a horse of warmer
+climes, its performances are better than its looks; hardy, sure-footed,
+swift, and docile, if not over-weighted it will do more than one of many
+a finer-looking but less enduring breed. The horse, however, is not the
+true beast of burden in Spain; he is the charger, or the luxury of the
+rich. The real work of the country is done by the humble mule or ass,
+or, in some districts, by the ox. The fine Spanish mules are now seldom
+bred in the country, but are procured from Poitou, or from the south of
+France, where great attention is paid to their production, and where the
+average price of a mule of six months old is higher than that of a horse
+of the same age. For long journeys, and for carrying produce over the
+mountain paths, or along the bad roads of the interior, the mule and
+pack-saddle is still generally used. In fact, in some districts no other
+mode of conveyance is possible; but the loss to commerce from want of
+better communications is immense. It is this mode of carriage which
+necessitates and continues the use of the tarred wine-skin, by which so
+much excellent wine is rendered unsalable and almost undrinkable. It is
+hard to recognize the delicious wine when tasted at the vineyard, in the
+pitch-flavoured, half-fermented liquor which has travelled for days in a
+skin exposed to the sun's heat by day, and the closeness and fetid
+odours of the inns by night. Besides these, the camel, buffalo, and
+llama, and vicuna have been introduced successfully as an experiment for
+breeding, but not in sufficient numbers to affect the means of transport
+in the peninsula.
+
+The fisheries in Galicia and along the north-west Atlantic coast, and
+also at Huelva and at Cadiz, are very valuable. Not only are they an
+abundant means of support to the inhabitants of the coast and of Leon
+and Northern Castile, but the fishermen engaged in them furnish the best
+sailors to the Spanish navy. The chief kinds of fish are sardines and
+pilchards, of which great numbers are preserved in oil, the tunny, and
+the sea-bream, of which enormous quantities are annually taken. The
+rivers, from the Minho to the Bidassoa, furnish trout and salmon. In the
+Mediterranean, tunny, and the anchovies which replace the sardines, are
+the chief fisheries, but many Spaniards are also engaged in the
+coral-fishing off the coasts of Catalonia, of Algiers, and of Tunis.
+
+The total production of Spain has been approximately valued at
+
+    Agriculture        L80,000,000
+    Mines                6,271,000
+    Manufactures        63,480,000
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINES.
+
+
+Even in geological features Spain is a land apart. Divided from the rest
+of Europe by the regular Palaeozoic band of the Pyrenees, the rocks of
+the Peninsula are only susceptible of separate study. Hence no
+consistent geological history can be deduced from the fragmentary and
+superficial observations that as yet form the basis of the geological
+map of Spain. A few striking features and geological statistics may
+however be presented; and the recently-published map of Botella, as well
+as the mass of valuable matter already collected by the _Comision del
+Mapa geologico de Espana_, are an earnest that Spanish geology will soon
+occupy a place corresponding to its peculiar interest.
+
+A mass of Granitic, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks forms the central
+plateau of Spain, extending in a south-easterly direction from Galicia
+to the valley of the Guadalquiver, and spreading to the north-east, as
+shown by the chains of the Guadarrama and the mountains of Toledo, to
+terminate in the Celtiberian range, running nearly parallel to the Ebro
+by Soria and the Moncayo. In this mass the main folds of the strata
+appear to run in a south-easterly, the main fractures in a
+north-easterly, direction; whence the gridiron arrangement of the
+mountain chains and river valleys, directed by these leading features of
+the rocky structure. Great buttresses of the Carboniferous formation
+occupy the corners of the central mass, to the north and south-west, and
+occasional patches of its upper and coal-bearing beds are scattered over
+the interior. The whole valley of the Ebro occupies a trough of
+Secondary rocks, which extend in a south-easterly direction from the Bay
+of Biscay to the Mediterranean, forming a wide boundary to the older
+central mass, and running along the north coast towards Oviedo. The
+Secondary formations of the Ebro sweep over the chain of the Moncayo on
+to the central plateau by Burgos, Soria, and Calatayud; and their latest
+member--the Upper Cretaceous--advances in two long tongues on to the
+granite of the Guadarrama, and far to the east of Madrid, it being
+probable that at least this member formerly extended over the central
+plateau. Another wide band of Secondary rocks, running in a
+north-easterly direction, forms the long strip of Andalusia south of
+the Guadalquiver; and by Valencia and Cuenca this band is widely
+prolonged to the Ebro basin; otherwise, a narrow and interrupted strip
+along the south coast, and a bay-like expanse from the Atlantic, between
+Lisbon and Oporto, are the only Secondary tracts of the Peninsula. These
+Secondary rocks are however in great part concealed by Eocene Tertiary
+beds, formed in marine gulfs in the valley of the Ebro and the
+Guadalquiver, and overlaid by Eocene and Miocene fresh-water deposits;
+the latter being also represented by vast lacustrine sheets, which
+contemporaneously accumulated, and conceal the crystalline and palaeozoic
+formations in the elevated river basins of the central primary plateau.
+Patches of Pliocene sands and clays along the Mediterranean coast,
+sheets of diluvial gravels below the mountains, and alluvial sands along
+the larger rivers represent the local and most recent effects of water
+and ice.
+
+The consequences of this general structure are apparent on every hand.
+The population of Galicia is in many respects similar to that of the
+Portuguese mountaineers, who occupy the same band of naked granitic and
+primary rocks. The inhabitants of the varied and fertile Secondary band
+of Andalusia and Valencia have many traits in common. The Biscayans are
+a race apart, like the labyrinth of Cretaceous precipices and green
+rainy valleys which they inhabit. All are distinct from the Castilians,
+whose monotonous and isolated existence on the vast treeless steppes of
+crumbling Tertiary sands and marls that carpet the primary plateau 2000
+feet above the sea has deeply influenced their character. Finally, the
+inhabitants of the Ebro basin, a region where the dry Tertiary soil of
+Castile is combined with many characteristics of the Secondary tracts,
+afford a curious mixture of Castilian with Basque or Valencian traits.
+The inhabitants of the greater Spanish cities are of course products of
+civilization, not of the soil.
+
+Of the visible surface of Spain 37 per cent. is occupied by Crystalline
+and Palaeozoic rocks, 34 per cent. by Tertiary, 19 per cent. by
+Secondary, and 10 per cent. by Quaternary deposits. The Palaeozoic rocks
+are greatly contorted and fractured, the Secondary scarcely less so, the
+older Tertiary are crumpled up against the flanks of the mountain
+chains, and even upturned Pliocene deposits testify in some places to
+the late continuance of the movements that have contributed to the
+production of the peculiar elevated character of the Peninsula. The
+remains of undoubted volcanoes are confined to the insignificant groups
+of Olot, Cabo de Gata, and Ciudad Real, but innumerable dykes and bosses
+of igneous rock are scattered over the primitive plateau where
+unconcealed by Tertiary sheets, and are also frequent in the Secondary
+tracts. This abundance of igneous injections is intimately connected
+with the exceptionally metalliferous character of Spain, while the
+fractured and contorted condition of even the latest rocky formations
+has contributed to a general diffusion of mineral wealth.
+
+The granite and other igneous rocks form rounded bosses or prominent
+pinnacles, according as they are more or less subject to atmospheric
+decomposition; the pine and the Spanish chestnut flourish on their
+slopes; iron, lead, copper, tin, graphite, phosphorite, kaolin,
+steatite, and serpentine are among the products of these crystalline
+masses. The gneiss and crystalline schists that in part probably
+represent the Laurentian formation, contain silver, bismuth, molybdenum,
+and tin; while metamorphic rocks of unknown age are amongst the richest
+in mines, affording iron, lead, silver, copper, zinc, mercury,
+manganese, and graphite. The Cambrian formation, a mass of lustrous
+fissile slate, traversed by white quartz veins, furnishes lead, silver,
+phosphorite, and gold. The Silurian slates and quartzites yield iron,
+lead, silver, copper, mercury, manganese, antimony, cobalt, nickel,
+anthracite, and gold. A few limited patches of Devonian sandstones,
+quartzites, slates, marls, and limestones, afford iron, zinc,
+phosphorite, cobalt, and nickel. The Carboniferous series, occupying
+two per cent. of the surface, includes valuable coal-fields, the immense
+masses of iron and copper pyrites of the Rio Tinto, Tharsis, and other
+mines in the province of Huelva, besides iron, zinc, mercury, manganese,
+antimony, cobalt, nickel, and phosphorite in other districts. The
+silver-bearing metamorphic rocks of Cartagena, and a portion of the
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada are classed in the Permian formation. The
+Triassic conglomerates, sandstones, and variegated marls, which form the
+usual base of the Secondary rocks, are rich in salt, gypsum, and iron,
+and afford some copper and zinc. The Jurassic limestones and marls
+contain asphalte and bituminous slate. The Cretaceous--mainly Neocomian
+in the south, the Upper Cretaceous predominating in the north--contains
+the immense iron deposits of Bilbao; valuable beds of lignite resembling
+coal; lead, zinc, and asphalte mines in the northern provinces, and gold
+in Granada. In the Eocene formation, which includes the Nummulitic
+limestone that forms some of the highest summits of the Pyrenees, the
+celebrated salt-mine of Cardona, in Catalonia, is usually classed. The
+Miocene beds contain valuable sulphur deposits along the southern coast,
+and great accumulations of sulphate of soda on the arid steppes of
+Madrid and other provinces; while gypsum, in which Spain is probably
+richer than the whole remainder of Europe, is abundant in this
+formation. Lastly, some native silver is found in the Pliocene deposits
+of Almeria, and in the Tertiary clays of Guadalajara, while the later
+gravels of Galicia afford stream tin and gold, the last similarly
+occurring in Leon and Caceres.
+
+The quantity of mineral contained in the rocks of Spain is no less
+remarkable than the exceptional variety of its distribution; but owing
+to a series of adverse circumstances, the industrial production affords
+a most inadequate idea of the capabilities of the mines, if developed by
+a fair amount of capital and skill. The following figures, showing the
+production in 1875, are derived from the last official reports issued by
+the Spanish Government, and are certainly below the truth:--
+
+                   Tons of ore       Tons of metal
+                    exported.      produced in Spain.
+
+    Iron             336,000           37,000
+    Lead              10,000          119,000
+    Copper           362,000            6,620
+    Zinc              43,000            3,820
+    Manganese         14,000
+    Mercury                             1,425
+
+These figures do not include the bar iron produced directly from ore in
+Spain, nor 160 tons of argentiferous copper ore, 89 tons of cobalt ore,
+and 440 tons of nickel ore. The silver extracted in Spain amounted to
+more than 16,000 lbs. troy, while four times that amount was contained
+in exported argentiferous lead. The coal extracted amounted to 666,000
+tons, lignite above 27,000, sulphur above 3000, and phosphorite above
+12,000 tons. The year 1875 was, however, peculiarly unfavourable to
+Spanish mining, and the working of the Bilbao mines, which now produce
+nearly 2,000,000 tons yearly of excellent iron ore, was then practically
+suspended by the Carlist war. All disadvantages cannot, however, arrest
+the steady increase of mineral production in Spain, although under more
+normal political circumstances the above figures would have been greatly
+exceeded.
+
+The chief coal district is that of Oviedo, Palencia, Leon, and
+Santander. The coal-field of Oviedo, occupying an extent of 230 square
+miles, and including a large number of workable beds, is of excellent
+quality, but as yet little developed, owing to high railway tariffs, bad
+condition of ports, traditional prejudices, want of skill and capital,
+and of a local market for inferior qualities. These obstacles will
+probably soon be overcome, and the development of the associated iron
+ores afford an important field of enterprise.
+
+The coal-field of Palencia, a continuation of that of Oviedo, is in
+course of development by the Northern Railway Company. Smaller
+coal-fields of great local importance exist in the provinces of Cordova,
+Seville, Gerona, Burgos, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Ciudad Real; that of
+Gerona, although of small extent and very friable quality, has already
+occasioned the construction of a railway of considerable length. Iron is
+mainly obtained from Biscay, Oviedo, Murcia, and Almeria, but is
+abundant in other provinces. Lead is worked chiefly in Murcia, Jaen,
+Almeria, Badajoz, and Ciudad Real; the presence of antimony or of a
+predominating admixture of blende is very common, but Spain is on the
+whole the most important lead-producing country in Europe. Copper is
+obtained mainly from the Rio Tinto mines and others in Huelva; also from
+Seville, Palencia, Almeria, and Santander; but many other districts
+contain veins yielding more or less of copper ore. Zinc has been chiefly
+procured from superficial pockets of calamine in Santander and the
+neighbouring districts; but in the form of blende it is widely
+distributed in association with lead. Silver ores are worked in Almeria
+and Guadalajara. The immense impregnation of cinnabar of Almaden, in
+Ciudad Real, affords nearly all the mercury, but a little is obtained
+from other mines in the same province and in Oviedo, Granada, and
+Almeria. Manganese is obtained from Huelva, Oviedo, Teruel, Almeria,
+Murcia, and Zamora. Nickel ore is worked in Malaga; cobalt in Oviedo and
+Castellon. Tin occurs in a number of small veins in Galicia; and in the
+rocks of Salamanca, Murcia, and Almeria, as well as in diluvial gravels.
+The Spanish side of the Pyrenees contains numerous veins of
+argentiferous lead, many of copper, and some of cobalt, nickel,
+argentiferous copper, pyrolusite, &c., few of which are worked. The
+lead-mines on the border between Catalonia and Aragon supplied the
+Carlists with ammunition during the late civil war. The fact that more
+than 12,000 concessions of mines already exist in Spain, while a large
+number of lapsed concessions may be found, affords a better idea of the
+mineral wealth of the country than the enumeration of the mines actually
+worked.
+
+That such enormous mineral resources should have as yet yielded no
+greater results is easily explained. The Roman and Moorish workings,
+although traditionally of fabulous yield, are of small depth, owing to
+insufficient machinery for pumping. Till the present century, the
+working of mines was forbidden by the Spanish Government, with the
+object of favouring the development of the American colonies. The mining
+laws of 1825 and 1849, suddenly placing the acquirement of mines within
+the reach of every substantial peasant, produced a fever of speculation,
+and a recklessness in the application of unskilled labour, which
+naturally conduced to the discouragement of mining enterprise, while the
+recurring civil wars excluded foreign capital and skill. Spaniards have
+a mania for erecting smelting-works on the mines, a practice
+occasionally justified by difficulties of transport, but which has
+caused much loss of capital through inherent difficulties and want of
+metallurgical skill. Endless litigation, arising from the defects of the
+first mining laws, and the inexperience of the surveying engineers,
+contributed to ruin the small capitalists who had attempted to work the
+mines. Foreign capital is now the chief requirement. The existing mining
+law, greatly improved since 1868, is the simplest in Europe; the expense
+of a concession is almost nominal, and the royalties on ore are
+extremely moderate. Large mining adventures in Spain rapidly develope
+industrial conditions and profoundly affect the habits of the
+population. Even in times of civil war a _modus vivendi_ between the
+conflicting parties can be more easily secured than might be expected.
+The development of means of transport, already considerable before the
+last Carlist war, is being seriously resumed under the present
+Government. The Spanish peasantry, when suitably treated, will be found
+a fair-dealing, intelligent, and industrious class. It must, however, be
+remembered that in the peculiar physical, political, municipal, and
+fiscal conditions of Spain, no mining enterprise can safely be
+undertaken without thorough investigation of all the external
+circumstances, claims, and prospects concerned; since more mining
+speculations have failed from inattention to such matters than from any
+disappointment as regards the quality or quantity of ore.
+
+P. W. S. M.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ETHNOLOGY, LANGUAGE, AND POPULATION.
+
+
+On the first glance at a map of Spain and Portugal we are apt to think
+that few countries could have so well-defined a frontier as that formed
+by the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic. In so compact a
+country, and one so distinct and so shut off from the rest of Europe, we
+should expect to find a more unmixed and a more homogeneous population
+than in any of those states whose frontiers are more open and
+conventional. But such is very far from being the case. Even at the
+present time the Pyrenees are no boundary throughout their whole course,
+either as to race or language. The Basque overlaps them at one end, and
+the Provencal at the other. Moreover, they have been a political
+boundary throughout their whole length only since the middle of the
+seventeenth century. Navarre was united to the Spanish crown in 1515,
+and Rousillon to France only in 1659. Ecclesiastically, both the
+dioceses of Bayonne and of Narbonne advanced far into Spain. So far
+from the population of Spain being unmixed and pure, the contrary is far
+nearer the truth. As Senor Tubino has well observed, from its position
+at the south-western angle of Europe, and the most westerly of
+Mediterranean lands, beyond which lay only the impassable ocean, it must
+early have become a very eddy of nations, where all the tribes and races
+who have successively held command of the Mediterranean must necessarily
+have halted, over which and in which all invaders who have crossed the
+Pyrenees from Northern Europe, or have passed the Straits of Gibraltar
+from Africa, must have surged in almost ceaseless conflict. To think of
+Spain as ever having been at any given time occupied solely by any
+single race or people is to lose the clue to her whole history. Of this
+not only the social and political condition of the country, but the
+toponymy and nomenclature of her map afford decisive proof.
+
+We first hear of Spain in history about the sixth century before Christ,
+as then inhabited by the "Iberi" and "Kelt-Iberi," with here and there
+colonies of more unmingled Kelts. It is more than probable that both of
+these races succeeded anterior ones, the existence of which we trace
+only through the remains of praehistoric archaeology, in the flint, stone,
+and bronze instruments, similar to those found elsewhere in Europe;
+these were also probably followed by races whose remains we find in the
+sculptors of the so-called "Toros" (bulls) of Guisando, and in the
+builders of the Megalithic monuments, the dolmens, menhirs, and circles
+which are found from Algeria to the Orkneys. For all purposes of history
+we must take the "Iberi" and the "Kelts," with their mixed tribes, as
+our starting-point. These we find scattered in much confusion throughout
+the Peninsula. Either the tribes were constantly shifting their ground,
+owing to petty wars and tribal dissensions or to unknown economic
+conditions, or the successive Greek and Latin writers from whom we get
+our information have not themselves been clear as to the distinction of
+these races. Speaking loosely, we may say that the more purely Keltic
+tribes held their ground in the north-west and west, in Galicia and
+Portugal, with a few scattered colonies further south. Andalusia, parts
+of the centre, the north and north-east were inhabited by the "Iberi;"
+while the Kelt-Iberian tribes lay chiefly in the centre and on the
+eastward slope. Both of these great races have left clear traces on the
+maps of ancient Spain. There can be no reasonable doubt that the
+"Illiberris" which we find in classical maps is a transcription of the
+Basque "Iriberri," which we still find in the French Basque country and
+in Navarre, meaning "New-Town," or more exactly, "Town-new;" that when
+the Romans called a town which they built in Galicia "Iria-Flavia," in
+honour of their then empress, they really used the Basque word "Iri," a
+town or city, just as the colonists of the United States and Canada used
+the French "ville" or English "town," and named a new city Louisville,
+Charleston, Georgetown, in the North American colonies. So, too, any one
+who compares the name "Pena," given to mountains and mountain-chains on
+the map of Spain, together with the river names, "Tamaris," "Deva," and
+the town and district of "Britonia" or "Britannia" in the north-west,
+can hardly doubt that these names were given by the same Keltic race who
+have left us so many "Pens" and "Bens" in Northern Britain, who gave the
+names "Tamar" and "Dee" to Devonshire and Cheshire streams, and called
+our own island Britannia, and themselves Britons. Which of these races
+is the older? the Iberi, i.e. Basque, or the Keltic? How can we decide
+this? Language is a deceitful tool as regards race. A people may utterly
+forget their original language, and adopt that of their conquerors or of
+some superior race with whom they have come in contact. Of this we have
+not only numerous examples in the past, as in the Latin and romance
+tongues superseding many a more ancient idiom, but we can see the same
+change actually going on in our colonies and dependencies in our own
+day. Still there is a certain rough chronology in language. A
+monosyllabic language we may presume, in default of evidence to the
+contrary, to have preceded one whose characteristic is agglutination;
+and again, a language which agglutinates or incorporates its members is
+presumably prior to an inflexional or analytic one. Now the Basque, the
+modern form of some one of those tongues which the Greeks and Romans
+called Iberian, belongs to the second of these classes, and the Keltic
+to the third. Another mode of investigating the antiquity of a language
+is to study the original names of the most necessary objects of daily
+life, and see if they can reveal to us anything about the state of
+civilization of those who used them before the language took a literary
+shape or any books were written in it. A language in which we find all
+the words expressing articles of greater civilization to be borrowed
+from other tongues we may presumably deem older than the languages from
+which it has borrowed them. Now in the Basque, Escuara, the undoubtedly
+native words for cutting instruments seem all to have their root from
+words signifying stone, or rock, and all such words which imply the use
+of metal seem to be borrowed. The language as it were represents the
+"stone" age, before the use of metals was known. It is also singularly
+poor in collective and general terms; thus, while many of the names for
+separate kinds of trees are native, the most common collective term
+_arbola_, "the tree," is clearly borrowed from the Latin. Although the
+arguments from anthropology, the form of the skull, &c., as compared
+with other races, are of still more dubious value than those derived
+from language, yet they all tend to the same conclusion. We may then
+hold from these convergent lines of reasoning, at least as a provisional
+hypothesis, that the Iberian or Basque race is older in Spain than the
+Keltic, and consequently that in the representatives of the former we
+have the remains of the oldest historical people of which we have any
+record in the country.
+
+We said above that, from its geographical position, the Peninsula would
+necessarily be the final-halting-place in ancient times of all the
+masters of the Mediterranean as they pushed westward. There we should
+find their farthest outposts. Thus in Spain we have, at first dimly
+seen, successive colonies of Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Greeks. There
+it was that Carthaginians and Romans met to dispute the supremacy of the
+Mediterranean and of the civilized world. When, after a long occupation,
+during which it Latinized Spain more completely than any other country
+except Italy, the Roman Empire fell, successive waves of barbarian
+destroyers swept across the land, Sueves, Alans, Vandals, Visigoths, in
+wild confusion and internecine strife, wrecked the civilization which
+they could neither appreciate nor understand. The last of these races,
+the Visigoths, who ruled the longest, strove hard to found an empire
+from 450 to 710, but without success. The real power which held society
+together then, and which wrought what little order and law still
+existed, was the Church, and not the State. The Councils of the Church
+were the true legislative assemblies, and the real representatives of
+the people in those times. Yet, with all the power of the Church to
+uphold it, the Visigothic Empire remained so weak that it fell at the
+first shock of the Mohammedan Arabs. The Moors or Arabs landed in Spain
+in the year 711. In ten years they had conquered all of the Peninsula
+that they cared to hold; in eleven years more, 732, they had been
+defeated at Poictiers by Charles Martel, and had withdrawn for ever from
+France, except from the district of Narbonne. This rich province they
+held for many years, and it would seem to them to be more than an
+equivalent for the bare and humid mountains of Galicia and the Asturias,
+or the higher Pyrenees, which alone in the Peninsula were exempt from
+their sway. The Arabs and the Moors of Barbary are the last great race
+that has occupied Spain. Jews and a few Gipsies are the only peoples
+that have entered since. A few remnants of Berber tribes, isolated from
+their countrymen by the rapid advance of the Christian army in the tenth
+and eleventh centuries, like the Maragatos of Astorga, have remained in
+North-Western Spain, and doubtful remains of other peoples are found
+here and there, but none of these are in sufficient numbers to influence
+the nation as a whole. No country was more completely Romanized than
+Spain. In fact, after the Augustan age we might almost say that the best
+Latin writers were Spaniards born; Seneca, Quintilian, Lucian, and
+Martial were all natives of Spain. Hosius, the champion of Latin
+Christianity in the early part of the fourth century, was a Spaniard.
+The names of many of the towns are still Roman. Yet the Arabs have left
+almost a deeper mark upon the toponymy of the country. Look at the map
+of Spain, and we see, even up to the Pyrenees, how many Arabic names
+there are, especially of rivers and mountains, upon the map of Spain.
+Only in Galicia and the Asturias the Keltic and the Latin, in the Basque
+Provinces the Basque, and in Catalonia the Romance names have held their
+own. In all the rest the Roman names would have probably died away, but
+that the language of the Church was Latin, and preserved the Roman names
+of cities, monasteries, and shrines. Down even to the twelfth century it
+might seem doubtful which language would prevail, so many Arabs wrote in
+Spanish, and Spaniards in Arabic, or wrote Spanish in Arabic characters.
+The struggle was decided by the sword; the expulsion of the Arabs was
+also the expulsion of their tongue. Yet the Arabs have left far more
+traces on Spanish than Spanish has done on Arabic. The Spanish Jews,
+however, had forgotten their Semitic tongue, and to this day the sacred
+language of the Jews of the Balkan Peninsula, and of many of the Syrian
+Jews, even of those at Jerusalem, is not Hebrew but Spanish; their
+liturgical works are written in that tongue, and they use it always in
+the synagogue.
+
+In spite, however, of all this mixture of races and of languages, Spain
+and the Spanish language has perhaps fewer dialects than any other
+European speech. From the Central Pyrenees to the Straits of Gibraltar
+only one dialect is used, the Spanish or Castilian, the purest and
+noblest of those which sprang from the decaying Latin. At the inner
+angle of the Bay of Biscay Basque is still spoken by a population of
+about 400,000 souls. The Galician dialect is far more closely allied to
+the Portuguese than to the Spanish, and should be considered as
+belonging to the former tongue. Between Galicia and the Basque Provinces
+are the many Patois, or Bables, of Asturia, which alone of the Romance
+tongues in the Peninsula have kept the three distinct genders, the
+masculine, feminine, and neuter terminations of the Latin adjective. The
+speech of Leon, too, may be classed as a separate dialect. In Catalonia,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Isles a Provencal or Romance dialect is
+spoken, the _Lemosin_ as it was called in mediaeval times, and which
+stretched from the Loire to the frontiers of Murcia, and from the
+western coast of the Bay of Biscay, with few interruptions, almost to
+the Black Sea. In the thirteenth century the Catalan dialect more
+resembled that of the Gascon Bearnais, or the Western Languedocian, than
+of the neighbouring Provence, but centuries of intercourse have since
+modified it, and the three dialects of Catalonia, Valencia, and the
+Balearic Isles must now be classed as a Provencal speech.
+
+The tongues of all these successive occupiers of the soil have doubtless
+left traces in the noble Spanish language, but in very unequal
+proportions. A very few words belong to the old Iberian speech, but it
+is to that, perhaps, that Spanish owes the purity and the paucity of its
+vowel sounds, as from the Arabic it has gained the gutturals which have
+prevented its sinking to the effeminate softness of the Italian, and it
+still preserves the lofty sonority of the Latin. Some few of the
+elements of its vocabulary may be traced to the Keltic, less to the
+Teutonic languages. From Arabic it has taken more, and those words of
+more important character. But the bulk of the language still remains
+Latin. It is essentially one of the Romance dialects which sprang from
+the "lingua rustica," the country speech of the decaying Roman Empire.
+It has been calculated that six-tenths of its words are Latin, a tenth
+Gothic or Teutonic, one-tenth liturgical and Greek, one-tenth American
+or modern borrowings, and one-tenth Arabic. But as to this last, we must
+not forget that the different parts of the vocabulary of a language have
+a very different value. Some could be well dispensed with, some are of
+first necessity. There are words which we only see in print, and seldom
+or never hear spoken; there are words which belong only to science or to
+pedantry; but there are others which are in daily and hourly use, and
+whose employment is many times more frequent than the whole number of
+words in all the rest of the language put together. It is thus that the
+contribution of Arabic to Spanish vocabulary is of far more importance
+than is apparent by its numerical proportion; many of the most common
+terms, especially of those used in the south of Spain, are of Arabic
+origin.
+
+Thus has been formed the noble Spanish tongue, the richest and most
+dignified of all that have sprung from the decay of Latin. Marvellously
+adapted to oratory and to verse, most incisive and mordant in the
+tongues of the lowest class, stately and sonorous almost to a fault, it
+is yet unequalled in grace and tenderness in the old romances and in the
+mouths of women and of children. Italian is its only rival. While
+reading its stately sentences, and marking the majestic rhythm of Scio's
+grand translation of the Bible and of its other religious literature, we
+can well understand why Spain's greatest emperor, the lord of many lands
+and of many tongues, spoke Spanish only to his God. It is rare to find a
+foreigner who has mastered Spanish, who does not ever afterwards delight
+in its use above all other tongues except his own.
+
+The population of Spain, according to the census of 1877, is 16,625,000,
+including the Balearic and Canary Islands, and the North African
+possessions. The number of inhabitants in Spain has fluctuated much at
+different periods, according as war, emigration, or bad government have
+affected the condition of the people. In the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries the population, according to the only estimates procurable,
+was about 9,000,000; in 1621, at the close of Philip III.'s reign, it
+had sunk to 6,000,000, the lowest point on record; it gradually rose
+from 7,500,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 10,500,000 at
+the close of the eighteenth. The wars of Napoleon then lowered it by
+500,000, but in 1821 it had recovered, and reached 11,600,000. A more
+rapid increase then took place till 1832, when the population numbered
+14,600,000. The Carlist and civil wars which marked the beginning of the
+reign of Isabella II. reduced it by more than 2,000,000, if the returns
+are exact. In 1837 and in 1846 it stood at 12,200,000. In 1857 at
+15,500,000, whence it mounted rapidly to 16,800,000 in 1870, a total
+which the late Carlist war and that in Cuba has reduced by some 200,000;
+and at the last census, 1877, as said above, the returns were
+16,625,000.
+
+The number of inhabitants to the square mile is 90, just half that of
+France, about a third that of Great Britain, and a fifth that of
+Belgium. This comparative scarcity is easily accounted for when we
+consider that nearly one-half (46 per cent.) of the territory still
+remains uncultivated; and although a considerable portion of this
+consists of mountain or of naturally sterile soil, a still larger
+portion of it is susceptible of some kind of cultivation, and even the
+portion under cultivation would under good husbandry, support a much
+larger population than it actually does.
+
+More than two-thirds (66.75 per cent.) of the whole working population
+of Spain are engaged in agriculture, and the total produce, including
+cereals and cattle of all kinds, wine and fruits, cork, woods, esparto
+grass, &c., after supplying the demand for home consumption, leaves a
+surplus of agricultural produce for exportation of the value of
+14,000,000_l_. sterling. Those engaged in manufacturing industry and in
+commerce are reckoned at 10-1/2 per cent, of the working population; but
+in Spain, as elsewhere, the relative numbers are slowly changing,
+following the conditions of modern European life; a greater
+proportionate number are annually withdrawn from agriculture, and are
+being added to the population of the great towns, and to the
+manufacturing industries. Thus, until the last census the highest
+population of Spain per square kilometre was to be found, not in the
+manufacturing provinces of Barcelona and Valencia, nor in the great
+mining provinces, but in the fishing and agricultural province of
+Pontevedra, in Galicia. In 1870 Pontevedra numbered 107, Barcelona 98
+inhabitants to the square kilometre. In 1877 it is Barcelona that
+numbers 108, and Pontevedra 100 only. Next after these provinces come
+the two Basque ones of Guipuzcoa 88, and Biscay 87. The one almost
+wholly agricultural, the other mining and agricultural. The nearest
+after them is the province of Madrid, with only 77 per square kilometre,
+and Corunna and Alicante with 75. These figures will, we think,
+sufficiently indicate the character of Spanish industry.
+
+The chief centres of manufacturing industry are Catalonia and Valencia,
+in which provinces nearly all the textile goods of Spain are produced.
+The chief mining districts are those round Carthagena in Alicante,
+Linares in Jaen, the Rio Tinto in Huelva, Somorrostro in Biscay, and of
+quicksilver at Almaden in the province of Ciudad Rodrigo; but valuable
+mines, as detailed in a former chapter, are found in many other
+provinces of Spain. In fact, there is scarcely one without a mine of
+more or less importance.
+
+Those engaged in professions of all kinds--lawyers, doctors, artists,
+journalists--are only about 10-1/2 per cent. of the whole working
+population. The clergy, who once numbered, it is said, one-third of the
+whole population, have greatly diminished during the present century,
+and are still gradually declining. Including religious orders of all
+kinds, inquisitors, and the secular clergy, they still numbered, at the
+close of the last century, nearly 250,000, out of a population of
+10,500,000. In 1826 they had sunk to about 60,000, in 1858 to 44,000, in
+1862 to 40,000, and their present numbers are probably about 35,000.
+
+Immense changes have taken place in recent times, and more particularly
+in the present century, with regard to the distribution of land in
+Spain. The large amount of property held by the Crown, the religious
+orders, the clergy, and various municipal bodies, and the restrictions
+imposed by the laws of the Mesta on the enclosure of land, rendered the
+number of private proprietors formerly very few. Even in 1800 their
+number was only 273,760. In 1764 it was estimated that the clergy
+possessed one-sixth of the real property, and one-third of the movable
+property of all Spain, and the property of the Church paid scarcely any
+taxes, or none at all. From the beginning of the sixteenth century
+protests were continually being made against abuses of Church property,
+but only towards the end of the eighteenth century were measures of
+reform seriously undertaken. Little, however, was really effected till
+the Cortes of Cadiz in 1812-13, when the feudal dues on land, of
+whatever nature, regal, ecclesiastical, or seignorial, were abolished.
+The religious orders were also suppressed. In 1820 a law was passed
+forbidding the Church to acquire any more real property. Tithes, of
+which the clergy possessed 60 per cent, and the laity 40, were
+diminished by half in 1821, and wholly suppressed in 1837. In 1836 the
+possessions of the clergy were declared to be national property, and the
+sale of them was begun. This, with various interruptions, according as a
+liberal or reactionary Government has been in power, has been continued
+to the present time. The Crown and municipal property had been sold at
+an earlier period, from 1813 to 1855. The Mesta was totally abolished in
+1837 as to its privileged rights on property, and in 1851 became merely
+an agricultural association for the improvement of the breed of cattle.
+The serfs in Galicia were declared to have become proprietors of their
+land by prescription in 1763.
+
+The result of these successive measures, and of these immense sales of
+territorial property, has been to throw the land into the hands of a
+much greater number of small landed proprietors, who now number
+3,426,083, so that, in spite of some large estates still existing,
+especially in Andalusia, the average quantity of land held in Spain by
+each proprietor would seem to be only about some 30 acres. Yet in
+Galicia alone does there seem to have been any suffering caused by a too
+great subdivision of land, and this perhaps was caused more by the
+perpetuation of habits acquired while the land was burdened with
+seignorial dues, when the occupier could neither quit his land nor sell
+it. In this district the people are still miserably poor, their food and
+houses are equally wretched, and nothing but the large emigration that
+has taken and is now taking place will restore the province to any real
+prosperity.
+
+From what has been said in the preceding pages as to their ethnology,
+the reader will not be surprised to learn that the different populations
+of Spain have very different characteristics. The Galicians and
+Asturians are the hewers of wood and drawers of water in Spain. They are
+often fine, stalwart men, brave, and make excellent sailors. It is they
+who reap the harvests for the more lazy Castilians and gather the
+vintage of Oporto; it is they who do nearly all the hard work in all the
+chief towns, not of Spain only, but also of Portugal. They are
+proverbially honest and trustworthy as servants, though slow and
+somewhat lacking in intelligence. Abroad, and as emigrants, they are
+trusted as men of no other race are: in the countries of La Plata in
+South America, the town-house, during the summer absence of the
+proprietor and his family, is given over to a Gallego, as it stands, to
+be taken care of, and rarely indeed is an article missing. The Asturian
+partakes of the same general characteristics as the Galician, though in
+a less marked degree. In the Montaneses, the inhabitants of the province
+of Santander, we have the favourite nurses and female servants of
+Madrid. The Asturias and Santander are remarkable for the number of
+statesmen and economists they have produced in proportion to the
+population. In the Basque Provinces we find an entirely different race,
+not perhaps of so muscular a build, but active, and capable of great
+endurance. Intelligent and proud of their ancient race and liberties,
+they almost always retain their self-respect, and are for the most part
+free from that cruelty towards animals which is so disfiguring a trait
+in the character of other Spaniards. The Basques are generally found
+among the upper and more trusted servants in civil life, in the army and
+navy they make excellent petty officers; as seamen they are among the
+best of Spain; as soldiers they are brave, enduring, capital marchers,
+and as light infantry second to none of any nation. The Aragonese, like
+the Galicians, count among the hard workers of Spain; generally of
+shorter build, and very thick-set, but somewhat dull and very obstinate,
+they are employed in the heaviest work. In literature they are known as
+jurisconsults and historians. In Catalonia and Valencia we have the
+bright Provencal race. A race apt for commerce and for manufacturing
+industries; pushing, energetic, they gather to themselves the greater
+part of the commerce, manufactures, and shopkeeping of all kinds, as far
+as these are done by Spaniards, throughout the kingdom. Fiery in temper,
+and not to be implicitly trusted, especially in Valencia, their
+weapon is the knife, which they use sometimes on slight provocation; the
+hired assassins and bandits of Spain have always been recruited thence.
+Socialists and Federalists in politics, they have ever been disaffected
+towards the central government. In Catalonia this may be the result of
+memories of former independence; but it is curious to remark that
+Barcelona and the cities of the Mediterranean, as compared with Cadiz
+and Ferrol on the Atlantic, have played analogous parts in Spanish
+history to those of Marseilles and Bordeaux in French; the Mediterranean
+in each case being the home of the ultra-democrat and the man of the
+"Montagne," and the Atlantic of the constitutionalists and the
+Girondins. More to the south we find undoubtedly a greater mixture of
+Moorish blood. The Andalusian is almost oriental in character, he is
+fond of song and dance and colour, yet lazy withal, and disliking
+sustained labour. He delights to deck himself with finery, and his women
+with flowers; and his taste though glowing is never utterly debasing.
+Excelling in wit and repartee, the Andalusian _gamin_ is the most
+amusing rogue in Europe. He has a wild, fierce, momentary energy, and is
+courteous and gracious in speech; his proverbs and songs are
+innumerable, and sparkle with a peculiar wit and charm; but he
+altogether lacks the more solid qualities of the men of the north.
+Philosophers, orators, and poets rather than men of industry and science
+are the product of these provinces. The Andalusian barely keeps up the
+works which the more highly civilized Moors had done for him in
+agriculture and in vineyard, but he does not improve upon them; and both
+in mining and in wine cultivation, in manufactures, and in coasting
+shipping, he allows nearly the whole of the trade and commerce of the
+south to pass into the hands of foreigners or of Catalans. The men of
+central Spain, except in the towns, the men of Leon, of the Castiles,
+and of La Mancha, and in a less degree the men of Estremadura, have
+changed but little for the last few centuries. They are Spaniards of the
+type generally conceived by foreigners as applying to the whole nation.
+Grave and slow of speech, exceedingly courteous unless their prejudices
+are offended, fond of formality and proud of it; they are bigoted (but
+less so than formerly), prejudiced, ignorant to an extreme, each
+thinking his own town or village the _elite_ of the universe; content
+with few comforts and preferring semi-starvation to exertion, the
+Castilian is half ashamed of honest labour, but by no means averse to
+corruption in any shape, and sees no disgrace in beggary. Cruel in the
+extreme, when his passions are aroused, it is one of the misfortunes of
+Spain that from the advantage of their elevated central physical
+position, the Castilians, as warriors and statesmen, at all times among
+the least civilized of her people, have been able to rule and control
+the more civilized and more advanced (especially in political freedom
+and administration) communities of the sea-board. It is a want of
+discernment of this fact which makes so many of the picturesque
+histories of Spain utterly fail in explaining the origin and the
+progressive causes of her present condition. There are a few other
+tribes in Spain which it may be worth while to notice, such as the
+Gipsies, who seem still to keep themselves tolerably distinct in
+Andalusia and in the south, but who in more than one instance have
+completely coalesced with the Basques in the north. The Maragatos, the
+trusted _Arrieros_ or muleteers of Leon, a remnant apparently of a wild
+Berber tribe, left behind when the more civilized Moors retreated
+southwards before the advance of the Christian conquerors; the Passiegos
+near Bilbao, the men of the Sayago, the Hurdes of the Batuecas, the
+Chuetas of Majorca, these and several minor tribes, remnants, perhaps,
+of older populations whose ethnic affinities have never been made out,
+are too few in numbers to affect the general population; but are of
+interest to the ethnologist from the survivals of ancient laws and
+customs which are still observed among them. One class, not a tribe, the
+wretched commercial policy of Spain has developed to a greater extent
+than in any other country, that of the smuggler or contrabandista. He
+differs greatly in different districts, and even on the same line of
+frontier. In some parts contrabandista is almost synonymous with bandit,
+in others he is honest in his illegal trade, and more to be trusted with
+immense sums than the officials who arrest him. In a small way he is a
+type of the many contradictions of Spanish character and of "the things
+of Spain."
+
+[Illustration: CABALLEROS.
+
+_Page 86._]
+
+[Illustration: DOMINIQUE, THE ESPADA.]
+
+[Illustration: GIPSIES AT GRANADA.
+
+_Page 90._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+DESCRIPTION OF PROVINCES.
+
+
+Spain was formerly divided into some fourteen separate provinces or
+kingdoms, once ruled by distinct and independent sovereigns, and under
+very different political conditions. It was not until the taking of
+Granada, in 1492, that the whole nation became, even nominally, subject
+to the joint sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella; and for long afterwards
+Aragon and Catalonia preserved a semi-independence, while, even to our
+own day, the Basque Provinces and Navarre were really an independent
+republic united to the Spanish crown.
+
+Since 1841, however, the whole country has been divided for
+administrative purposes into forty-eight provinces, including the
+Balearic Isles.
+
+We shall now hastily sketch the chief features of the old kingdoms, with
+the modern provinces included in each. Beginning from the north-west,
+we have the kingdom of GALICIA, with its four provinces, _Corunna_,
+_Lugo_, _Pontevedra_, and _Orense_. We have before remarked on the Frith
+or Fiord-like character of the western coast of Galicia, a conformation
+which gives it by far the finest harbours of the whole Spanish coast.
+Thus, in the province of Corunna there are the harbour and city (33,000
+inhabitants) of the same name, so well known by our forefathers under
+the title of "the Groyne," and the scene of many a gallant fight both by
+land and sea from the days of Queen Elizabeth to the fall of Sir J.
+Moore, but now the chief port of the cattle-trade with England. Its port
+is frequented by about 130,000 tons of British shipping annually; and
+about 20,000 bullocks are exported annually, mostly in small schooners.
+It has also a tobacco factory. A little to the north-east Ferrol
+(23,000) has a still better harbour, and is one of the principal naval
+establishments of Spain. It is capacious enough to almost contain the
+united fleets of Europe; and its only drawback, a singular one in so
+humid a climate, is the want of good water. But the most famous city in
+the province, and indeed, in all Galicia, the pilgrim-town of Santiago
+(St. James) de Compostella (24,000) owes its magnitude to devotion
+rather than to commerce. The legend of the voyage of St. James to Spain,
+the finding his body at Compostella, and his subsequent appearances in
+battle as the champion of Spain, made this the most celebrated shrine
+in Europe. Roads led to it from every land, and one of the popular names
+of the "Milky Way" was "The road to Compostella." The wealth both of the
+military order of Compostella and of the cathedral and chapter was
+immense. Even now, after all its spoiling, the cathedral is rich in
+precious goldsmiths' work, in architectural, and in literary treasures.
+Pontevedra (8000) is the capital of the thickly-populated province of
+the same name, whose inhabitants reap a harvest both from sea and land.
+Vigo (6000) has an excellent harbour and roadstead, but its commerce has
+greatly fallen off in comparison with that of Corunna. It was formerly
+the port at which the galleons disembarked their treasures for Northern
+Spain. The total tonnage of the harbour in 1878 was 208,000. _Orense_,
+an inland province east of Pontevedra, has a capital of the same name
+(11,000) on the banks of the Minho. It is the head of an agricultural
+and pastoral district, and in it are produced some wines which were
+considered in the eighteenth century the finest of all Spain. Here, too,
+is one of the grand bridges of Western Spain, possibly of Roman
+construction. _Lugo_, with its city (8000), faces north instead of west,
+and has its harbours, Vivero and Rivadeo, on the Bay of Biscay; but the
+near neighbourhood of Ferrol and of Corunna deprive them of all but
+coasting trade.
+
+The ASTURIAS, the home of the Spanish monarchy, and the only ancient
+kingdom of which no part was subdued by the Moors (though they raided
+once to Oviedo), contains but one province, called after its chief town
+_Oviedo_ (34,000), with a cathedral, university, and a most pleasant
+situation. In this province is Covadonga, where the Visigoth Pelayo, in
+719, repulsed the Moors, and thus took the first step towards the
+recovery of Spain. The whole country slopes rapidly from its southern
+frontier, the summit of the Cantabrian Mountains, towards the Bay of
+Biscay. Cangas de Tineo (22,000) is the centre of a mining district.
+Owing to the great development of mining operations in this province
+within the last ten years the small towns of Siero, Tineo, Grado, and
+Villaviciosa have suddenly sprung into importance, and each now contains
+over 20,000 inhabitants. The chief port is Gijon (30,000), of which the
+chief trade is in hazel-nuts for England, of which over 1000 tons are
+annually exported, to the value of 23,000 _l._ Here is one of the seven
+government tobacco manufactories, and also important glass-works,
+conducted chiefly by Swiss and French artisans; but it is far
+outstripped in commercial importance by SANTANDER (41,000), the capital
+of the neighbouring province, and the great port of outlet for the
+agricultural riches of Leon and of the Castiles. Santander has also a
+great trade with Cuba and Porto Rico, and possesses almost a monopoly
+of the supply of cereals to those islands. A port of equal natural
+excellence is Santona, which the first Napoleon would have made the
+Gibraltar of Northern Spain, but which is now frequented only as a
+bathing-place by the inhabitants of the interior. The mountain scenery
+of these two provinces is most picturesque, both along the sea-board and
+in the interior, where the snow sometimes lies on the Picos de Europa
+until July or August. The coal-mines of the Asturias are rapidly
+assuming importance. The output was, in 1878, 400,000 tons, at a cost on
+board ship of 13_s._ per ton. The extent of the bed is estimated at
+667,200 acres.
+
+The BASQUE PROVINCES (Las Provincias Vascongadas) are _Biscay_,
+_Guipuzcoa_, and _Alava_. The union of the three is often represented by
+a symbol like the heraldic bearings of the Isle of Man; and they are,
+with Navarre and the French Pays Basque, the home of the Basque race,
+but only one province, Guipuzcoa, is _wholly_ inhabited by them.
+_Biscay_ has for its chief town the busy mining city of Bilbao (32,000)
+on the Nervion, with a commerce of over 2,000,000_l._ annual value,
+notwithstanding an inferior harbour, exceeding that of Santander. The
+chief mines, iron, are in the Somorrostro district, a few miles to the
+east of the city, and they are worked mainly by English, French, or
+German companies. In 1879 the exports from Bilbao amounted to 1,160,248
+tons of iron minerals, while the imports included 72,196 tons of English
+coke and coal, chiefly for the use of the mines. In this province is the
+Oak of Guernica, where the Spanish sovereigns swore to observe the
+constitutional privileges or _fueros_ of the Basques. The chief city of
+_Guipuzcoa_ is San Sebastian (21,000), a sea-port with a strong citadel.
+Of less commercial importance than Bilbao, it is much frequented in
+summer as a city of pleasure; the town has been almost wholly rebuilt
+since the siege of 1813. The province, though almost wholly
+agricultural, and famous for its cider and apple orchards, contains also
+some mines, and a few manufactures grouped round its old capital, Tolosa
+(8000). Eibar and Plasencia, two small manufacturing towns on the Deva,
+have preserved the art of inlaying iron with gold and silver, and are
+noted for their manufacture of fire-arms. _Alava_ has but one town of
+importance, Vitoria (25,000), a picturesque city at the foot of the
+Cantabrian Mountains and the head of the fertile plains of the Upper
+Rioja. These two districts, the Riojas, divided by the Ebro, are noted
+for their wines, which need only more careful preparation to become an
+important article of commerce; at present they are chiefly exported to
+Bordeaux, for mixing with inferior French wines, to be re-exported as
+claret to England. NAVARRE, the only other province where Basque is
+spoken, once formed part of a petty kingdom which stretched on both
+sides of the Pyrenees, and of which the Spanish portion was definitely
+secured to Spain by the Duke of Alva in the reign of Ferdinand the
+Catholic, in 1512, has Pampeluna (25,000), a fortified city of Roman
+origin, for its capital. The upper part of Navarre is extremely
+mountainous, but it contains some useful iron-mines, and a Government
+foundry at Orbaiceta. The southern parts, along the banks of the Arga,
+and in the valley of the Ebro, are extremely fertile; but at the
+south-eastern corner in the Bardenas Reales, we encounter a series of
+bare, stony hills, scored with deep ravines, and on which nothing will
+grow, the first of the desert tracks so common in Spain. Tudela (9000)
+on the opposite side of the Ebro, is united to the rest of the province
+by a fine bridge; it is here the traveller first sees in operation the
+_norias_ or water-wheels of the East.
+
+The kingdom of ARAGON contains three provinces, _Huesca_, _Saragossa_,
+and _Teruel_. The kingdom is almost bisected by the Ebro, towards which
+it slopes on both sides, from the highest summits of the Central
+Pyrenees on the north, and from the Idubeda Mountains and the Molina de
+Aragon on the south. Aragon divides with the Asturias the honour of
+having been one of the cradles of the Spanish monarchy. In 795 Don Asnar
+defeated the Moors near Jaca, in the province of Huesca. But the
+progress of the reconquest was very slow; from 714 to 1118 the Moors
+held possession of the town and kingdom of Saragossa, and it is from
+this occupation of four centuries that the traveller first meets here
+distinct remains of Moorish architecture. A still more lasting note of
+their sway is found in the nomenclature of the country. The rivers
+Guaticalema, Alcanadre, Guadalope, the names of the sierras, Alcubiere,
+and of many of the lesser towns and villages, sufficiently attest the
+former presence of the race who gave those names.
+
+_Huesca_ (10,000), the capital of the province of the same name, is an
+episcopal and university town, the bishop's palace being on the site of
+an old mosque. The upper part of this province is exceedingly
+mountainous, and is entered from France by the Central Pyrenean road,
+that of Somport, originally constructed by the Romans. The only other
+towns are Barbastro (7000), Monzon (4000), and Jaca (3500), nearer the
+mountains. _Saragossa_ (84,000), on the Ebro, formerly the Caesar Augusta
+of the Romans, then for four centuries the capital of a Moorish kingdom,
+rivals Santiago de Compostella as a place of pilgrimage to the shrine of
+the Virgen del Pilar. The worship has, however, much declined of late
+years, and her devotees are not now a tithe of those who frequent the
+more recent shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes on the other side of the
+Pyrenees. The art treasures of the cathedral were sold in 1870, when
+many fine examples of jewellery and art were acquired for the Kensington
+Museum. Saragossa, though now fallen as a place of commerce, must again
+become important if the railway project is carried into effect, which
+will place it on the most direct line between Paris and Madrid. The
+Ebro, from its shallowness, is of no service for navigation; and, from
+neglect, the canals of Charles V. and of Tauste do not render the
+services they might, either for transport or for irrigation. Hence the
+despoblados and desiertos in the valley of the Ebro, both above and
+below the town. _Calayatud_ (12,000) was one of the four _comunidades_
+of Aragon, and is in the midst of a mineral district, the wealth of
+which seems at present almost wholly undeveloped. _Teruel_ (7000) is the
+capital of a very mountainous province which slopes towards the
+north-west from the Sierras de Molina and Albarracin, the mountain
+ranges which form the eastern boundary of the great watershed of the
+peninsula. Excepting the mines in these sierras, the province is almost
+wholly agricultural, but with no towns of importance. The historian Don
+Vicente de la Fuente has remarked that while the lands of the
+_comunidades_, the four free towns of Aragon, Calayatud, Teruel, Daroca,
+and Albarracin, have remained fertile under their more liberal
+government, the lands of the Seigneurs in the valley of the Ebro, where,
+almost alone in Spain, feudalism received its full development, have
+been for centuries barren and _despoblados_.
+
+[Illustration: LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA.
+
+_Page 98._]
+
+CATALONIA.--The ancient principality of Catalonia is now separated into
+four provinces, named after their chief towns, _Gerona_, _Barcelona_,
+_Tarragona_, and _Lerida_. The first three lie along the shores of the
+Mediterranean--the last, inland, and stretches from the Ebro to the
+Pyrenees. To the north of Lerida, and buried in the mountains, is the
+so-called republic of Andorra, which owes its practical independence to
+the singular fact of a double _seigneurie_. Both the Counts of Foix, in
+France, and the Prince-Bishops of Urgel, in Spain, were supreme Lords of
+Andorra. On paper its constitution is by no means so free as that of
+several other Pyrenean communities; but by skilfully playing off the
+jealousies and rivalries of its two lords, and preventing either from
+getting absolute power, this little state of twenty-eight miles by
+twenty has remained unsubdued, and unattached to either nationality. The
+chief trade of the republic may be said to be smuggling. _Lerida_,
+except in the valley of the Segre, is extremely mountainous, and like
+all the hill country of Catalonia is rich in minerals, especially in
+salt, near Solsona. The rest of its products are chiefly agricultural.
+The province is but thinly peopled; its chief town contains 20,000
+inhabitants. Balaguer (5000), Urgel (3000), Solsona (2500), are the most
+populous of the remaining. With _Gerona_ we enter the Mediterranean or
+Provencal region and climate, and come in contact not only with
+picturesque and glowing scenery, with a gorgeous variety of natural
+productions, but also with traditions and remains of the great works of
+all the races that have dominated this inland sea. From the Pyrenees to
+Carthagena the names of the chief towns recall classic reminiscences,
+and bring before us the struggles of ancient nations, contending on her
+soil for a far mightier empire than that of Spain. The province of
+Gerona contains Cape Creuz, the extreme north-easterly point of the
+peninsula, not far from the old Greek cities of Rosas and Emporium
+(Ampurias). Of its towns, Gerona, on the Ter, and Figueras have each
+8000, but are surpassed by Olot, 10,000, around which town are grouped
+the most recently extinct volcanoes in Spain. Coal is found in San Juan
+de las Abadesas. Here the Spanish gravity is mingled with the fire and
+dash of the Provencals, and the inhabitants both of Gerona and
+Barcelona, are more Provencal than Spanish, in language, political
+character, and in commercial and industrial aptitudes. The natural
+productions, and the flora too, are almost identical with those of the
+more sheltered parts of Provence and of the Riviera. Palm trees are seen
+as common ornaments in gardens and public squares, oranges and olives
+flourish, the mulberry is cultivated and silkworms are reared, and all
+announces a warmer zone than any that we have hitherto traversed.
+_Barcelona_ (250,000) the first industrial and commercial city of Spain,
+and the second in point of population, is also the capital of the most
+thickly inhabited province. The greater part of the trade and navigation
+of the whole Spanish sea-board from Catalonia to Cadiz, or even to
+Seville, is in the hands of its merchants. The cotton industry of
+Catalonia employed in 1870 a capital of 6,000,000_l._, and 104,000
+workmen, distributed in 700 factories. The chief of the other
+manufacturing towns are Gracia (33,000), and St. Martin de Provensals
+(24,000). The annual commercial movement of Barcelona is estimated at
+about 11,000,000_l._ sterling. The British imports, chiefly of coal and
+iron, amount to nearly 1,000,000_l._ sterling; but the exports are a
+mere trifle, 10,000_l._, most of the ships returning in ballast; while
+on the contrary, the exports of Tarragona, Palamos, Mataro, and
+Villamena, and the smaller ports amount to nearly 1,000,000_l._, chiefly
+in wine, and the imports are only half that amount. Irrigation is
+successfully carried on in the valley of the Llobregat. _Tarragona_
+(23,000) is rich in Roman remains, in the picturesque beauty of its
+site, in its Gothic architecture, in the mildness of its climate, and in
+the goodness of its wines; but it is surpassed both in wealth and
+population by the neighbouring manufacturing city of Reus (27,000), and
+also by Tortosa (24,000) on the Ebro, to which town all the river
+transport converges. The Ebro below Tortosa forms a sandy delta, and its
+channels are continually silting up. The canal of San Carlos, to connect
+Amposta with the sea by the port of Alfaques, has had but little
+success.
+
+VALENCIA includes the three provinces of _Castellon de la Plana_,
+_Valencia_, and _Alicante_, all three lying along the Mediterranean, and
+facing east and southwards from the mighty buttress sierras which form
+the eastern wall of the great central plateau. It is in these provinces
+that we gradually pass from the Mediterranean climate to the "_Tierra
+caliente_," the warm lands and African products of south-eastern Spain.
+Here too we meet with the finest Roman remains; and Moorish architecture
+begins to form a prominent feature in the characteristics of each city.
+The speech is still a dialect of the Provencal, and the fiery Provencal
+nature is still apparent in the political history of the cities of
+Valencia. The hill-sides, bare of trees, are covered either with the
+esparto grass or with strongly aromatic herbs and shrubs. The rainfall
+gradually lessens; the streams all assume a torrential character, nearly
+dry in summer, swollen with rapid floods in winter; but they are greatly
+utilized for irrigation. By this means are formed the "_huertas_,"
+gardens, and "_vegas_," plains, oases of beauty and fertility lying in
+the bosom of the barren hills, which serve as frames to pictures as
+valuable for their productiveness as they are enchanting in their
+beauty. The chief towns in the province of _Castellon_ are Castellon de
+la Plana (23,000), Vinaroz (9000), Villareal (8000), both near the
+Mediterranean; Segorbe on the Palancia, and numerous smaller towns in
+the interior. Benicarlo and Vinaroz, on the coast to the north of the
+province, are noted for their excellent red wines, quantities of which
+are exported to France for mixing with inferior French vintages, whence
+they find their way to England as Rousillon or Bordeaux. _Valencia_, a
+city of 143,000 inhabitants, and with a fine artificial harbour called
+the "_grao_," is the third city in population in Spain; but its commerce
+is little more than that of Santander and Bilbao, cities only one fourth
+of its size. The value of British imports, chiefly of coal, cod-fish,
+guano, and petroleum, in 1878, was 136,450_l_., and of exports, chiefly
+of fruits to Britain, 524,984_l_. The "_huerta_" of Valencia, with its
+canals for irrigation, its "_acequias_," "_norias_," and other devices
+to draw the waters of the Guadalaviar, is one of the most successful
+examples in Spain of regulated application of water to agriculture. The
+quantity of water allotted to each property, the hour of opening or
+closing the sluices, are regulated according to laws and customs
+descended from Moorish times. So great is the drain upon the streams
+that the waters of some of the smaller rivers are entirely absorbed in
+the summer, and even of the Guadalaviar but little then reaches the sea.
+It is from the _huerta_ of Valencia that the oranges come which form the
+delight of the population of Paris at the new year; hence are the
+raisins and the almonds and candied fruits equally dear to the British
+housekeeper. Rice is successfully cultivated on some of the lower
+grounds near the coast, and fruits and vegetables of every kind abound;
+but the Spaniards complain that they lack the richness and lusciousness
+of flavour belonging to those grown in other parts. "In Valencia," say
+they, "grass is like water, meat like grass, men like women, and the
+women worth nothing." The district was formerly noted for its
+silk-growing and stuffs of silk; also for the fine pottery known as
+Majolica ware from its carriers to the Italian ports, the sailors of
+Majorca and the Balearic Isles. It was also the earliest place of
+printing in Spain, and celebrated as a school of poetry and the arts;
+but nearly all this ancient fame is lost. To the south of Valencia is
+the large lake or lagoon of Albufera, the most extensive of the many
+lagoons along the Mediterranean coast, about nine miles long and
+twenty-seven miles round; it is full of fish, and frequented by wild
+fowls, and its varied inhabitants recall those of the Nile rather than
+those of any part of Europe. In the north of the province is Murviedro
+(7000), the ancient Saguntum, with its port almost entirely blocked up.
+Considerable remains of the older city still exist, with inscriptions in
+idioms yet unknown, and are a treasure to archaeologists. The largest of
+the other cities are Alcira (13,000) on the Jucar, and Jativa (14,000).
+The southern coasts of Valencia and the neighbouring districts of
+Alicante abound in sites of picturesque beauty, and the position of many
+of the ruined monasteries, built generally on the hills with a distant
+prospect of the sea, can hardly be excelled.
+
+_Alicante_, whose _huertas_ and _vegas_ with their appliances for
+irrigation rival those of Valencia, has but 34,000 inhabitants.
+Orihuela, in its rich wheat-growing district of never-failing harvest,
+has 21,000, and Alcoy 32,000. The smaller towns are numerous, and from
+the little ports in the north of the province, round Cape Nao, a good
+deal of coasting trade is done with the neighbouring Balearic Isles.
+From Denia, Tabea, and Altea, nearly 100,000 tons of raisins are shipped
+every year, chiefly for Great Britain. At Elche (20,000) is the
+celebrated forest of palms of which we have before spoken, and the
+leaves of which are sent to Rome for the ceremonies of Easter week. The
+number of the trees is gradually declining, as the produce hardly repays
+the great amount of labour required. In the church at Elche religious
+plays or mysteries are occasionally performed, with an enthusiasm and
+solemnity both of actors and spectators equal to that of the
+Passionspiel of Ober-Ammergau.
+
+MURCIA contains the two provinces, _Murcia_ and _Albacete_. The first
+faces the Mediterranean; the second, besides comprising the Sierras of
+Alcazar and Segura, climbs those boundary mountains, and advances far
+into the plateau of La Mancha, and thus contains within its limits the
+sources of the Guadiana as well as those of the Mundo and the Segura.
+_Murcia_, in its higher parts, is very thinly peopled, and in spite of
+the fertile plains in the lower course of the Segura and the Sangonera,
+and the rich mining district round Cartagena, has only two-thirds as
+many inhabitants to the square mile as Valencia. Murcia is perhaps the
+driest province of Spain, and the one in which the want of water is the
+most generally felt, yet it is in this province that the floods are the
+most pernicious and destructive. Year by year the irrigation works
+become less effective. Ancient dams broken down by the floods are not
+restored. Since 1856, however, a new source of wealth has been opened to
+this province by the export of the esparto grass, which grows on all the
+low hills, and which, in addition to its use in the country for numerous
+native fabrics, is now largely exported for paper-making. The export
+began only in 1856. In 1873 it had reached 67,000 tons for England
+alone; in 1875 the money value of the whole export was 400,000_l._, but
+it declined to 30,000_l._ in 1877, and 284,000_l._ in 1878, since which
+date it has gradually lessened. Murcia, the chief city, is an irrigated
+plain on the Segura, has a population of 91,000. It is one of the chief
+seats of silk cultivation in Spain. Lorca (52,000), on the Sangonera,
+offers another example of the extreme fertility that can be obtained by
+irrigation in a suitable climate. Cartagena (75,000), with its grand
+harbour and docks, is one of the three naval arsenals in Spain; but has
+greatly fallen from its ancient wealth and importance. Like Barcelona
+and Valencia it has distinguished itself by its extreme democratic and
+cantonalist opinions, and has revolted against the republic equally as
+against the monarchy. In its neighbourhood are some of the richest lead
+and silver mines in Spain, and which have been worked since Carthaginian
+and Roman times. The coal imported from England for smelting purposes
+amounts to 80,000 tons yearly. The tonnage of British vessels employed
+was over 200,000 in 1877. Along the coast are various lagoons and
+salt-lakes (salinas), where salt is made on a considerable scale; it is
+exported chiefly to the Baltic. The Barilla plant, for making soda, is
+also cultivated along the coast; and, of the plants in the salinas, it
+is computed that at least one-sixth of the species are African.
+_Albacete_ (16,000), situated at the junction both of road and railway
+from Murcia and Valencia to Madrid, is chiefly celebrated for its trade
+in common cutlery. It is here that the large stabbing knives (navajas)
+are made, and for the use of which both Valencians and Murcians have an
+unenviable notoriety. On the plateau of this province (Albacete) are
+found (Salinas) salt-lakes formed by evaporation, the only examples of
+this kind in Western Europe. The only other town of any importance in
+the province is Almanza (9000), on the edge of the plateau before making
+the descent into Valencia. The numerous names compounded of "pozo,"
+well, and "fuente," fountain, in this province, attest its arid
+character, where fresh water is scarce enough to make its presence a
+distinguishing mark to any spot.
+
+ANDALUSIA embraces the whole of southern Spain from Murcia to the
+frontier of Portugal. Its seaboard includes both the Mediterranean and
+the Atlantic. In Cabo de Gata, 2 deg.10' W., it has the extreme
+south-easterly point of Spain; and in Cabo de Tarifa, 36 deg.2' N., the
+extreme southerly point, not only of Spain, but of Europe. One chain of
+its mountains, the Sierra de Nevada, contains the highest summits of the
+peninsula; and its river, the Guadalquiver, from Seville to the ocean is
+the only stream of real service for navigation in the whole of Spain.
+Its wines and olives, its grapes and oranges, and fruits of all kinds,
+are the finest, its horses and its cattle are the best, its bulls are
+the fiercest, of all Spain. The sites of its cities rival in their
+entrancing beauty those of any other European land; while, wanting
+though they may be in deeper qualities, its sons and daughters yield not
+in wit or attractive grace or beauty to those of any other race. The
+Moor has left a deeper mark here than elsewhere, even as he kept his
+favourite realm of Granada for centuries after he had lost the rest of
+Spain. And when the sun of Moorish glory set, it was from Andalusia that
+the vision of the New World rose upon astonished Europe. The year of the
+conquest of Granada (1492) was also that of the discovery of America.
+All things take an air of unwonted beauty and of picturesque grace in
+this land of sun and light; even the gipsy race, avoided and abhorred in
+other countries of Europe, at Granada, as at Moscow, becomes one of the
+attractions of the tourist. The province is not entirely of one type. It
+unites many kinds of beauty; even in Andalusia are "_despoblados_" and
+"_destierros_," dispeopled and deserted wastes, under Christian hands,
+but once fertile and inhabited under Moorish rule. Savage wildness and
+barrenness reign in its lofty mountain chains as much as softer beauty
+does in the "_huertas_" and "_vegas_." But from the minerals the one
+district is equally valuable as the other. The province possesses the
+richest mines, as well as the richest fruits and wines, of the whole of
+Spain. ANDALUSIA, is divided into the provinces of _Almeria_, _Granada_,
+_Malaga_, on the Mediterranean; _Cadiz_, _Seville_, _Huelva_, on the
+Atlantic coast; and _Cordova_ and _Jaen_ inland, along the upper waters
+of the Guadalquiver.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF GRANADA, WITH THE ALHAMBRA.
+
+_Page 110._]
+
+In _Almeria_ (40,000) the flat-roofed houses are built round a central
+court, the "_patio_," wherein is often a fountain, and palm and vine for
+shade; while oranges, myrtles, passion-flowers, and other gay or
+odoriferous shrubs or flowers, add their colour and perfume. The type
+and the manners of the inhabitants tell us that we are already in the
+land of the Moors. Almeria has declined from what it was when one of the
+chief ports of transit between the Moors of Africa and their brethren of
+south-eastern Spain; but from the growing importance of the Spanish
+colony in Oran, its trade is now fast reviving. The exports are lead and
+silver ore from the mines of the neighbourhood, fruits of all kinds, and
+a little wine. The tonnage of British shipping employed at Almeria was,
+in 1875, 117,123 tons; 1876, 85,840 tons; 1877, 89,988 tons. The chief
+exports in 1877 were about 10,000 tons of esparto grass, 280,000 barrels
+of grapes, 10,000 tons of minerals, and nearly 10,000 of calamine. The
+sugar-cane is also grown here. The whole province is mountainous,
+covered with the spurs and offshoots of the mighty Sierra Nevada, the
+Sierras de Gador, de Filabres, de Cabrera, de Aljamilla, all which have
+their terminations in headlands which run into the Mediterranean. The
+basins of the rivers of the region are often cleft by these smaller
+ranges, and thus they receive their waters from both the northern and
+southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The only other towns of importance
+are Cuevas de Vera (20,000), and Velez-Rubio (13,000), in the north of
+the province on the road between Murcia and Granada, where some
+lead-mines have been lately opened. The ports, except Almeria, are all
+small; Dalias, on the confines of Granada, is noted for the magnificent
+grapes and raisins shipped there.
+
+_Granada_ (76,000) is one of the most celebrated spots of Europe, a city
+of enchantment and of romance. It is one of the few places of renown,
+the sight of which does not disappoint the traveller. The natural
+advantages of its position would be sufficient to mark it as a city of
+unusual beauty, were there no masterpieces of art and of architecture,
+or storied memories, connected with it. It is situated in an upland
+valley, at an elevation of 2200 feet above the sea level--sufficiently
+high in that climate to prevent the summer's heat from being
+oppressively exhausting, and not too high to hinder the choicest
+semi-tropical fruits and flowers from growing in the open
+air--surrounded, yet not too closely, by mountain ranges, of which those
+to the east are the very highest in Spain--Mulhacen (11,700), Alcazaba
+(11,600), and Veleta (11,400). The ice and snow on their summits not
+only cool the hot winds which blow over them from Africa, but provide
+the means of making the iced water which is the Spaniard's greatest
+luxury. Its climate is second in its equable range only to that of its
+coast towns, Motril and Malaga. It is watered by the united streams of
+the Darro and the Jenil, which meet within the city, both hurrying from
+their mountain home to join the Guadalquiver between Cordova and
+Seville; and with their fertilizing waters dispersed in irrigation they
+make the "Vega," or plain, of Granada one of the noted gardens of the
+world. Granada is worth all the praise that has been sung or written of
+it. On an isolated hill to the east, cut off from the town and from the
+Generalife by the ravine through which the Darro flows, and enclosed
+with a wall flanked by twelve towers, stands the celebrated group of
+buildings known by the name of the Alhambra, perhaps the fairest palace
+and fortress at once ever inhabited by a Moslem monarch. Almost
+unrivalled in the beauty of its site, it outstrips all rivals in the
+beauty of its Arab architecture. The mosque of Cordova is grander, and
+the tombs of the Caliphs at Cairo may be in a purer style, but they lack
+the variety and richness of these diverse buildings. The Alhambra hill
+is to Arabic what the Acropolis of Athens was to Hellenic art; only to
+the attractions of the plastic arts were added in the case of the
+Alhambra the triumphs of the gardener's skill. Shrubs and flowers
+delighted the eyes with colour, or gratified the sense of smell with
+sweetest odours, while water, skilfully conducted from the neighbouring
+hills, purled among the beds, or leaped in fountains, or filled the
+baths with purest streams. Thus every sense and taste was gratified, and
+Granada was indeed an earthly paradise to the Moor. Even in its decay,
+and seen in fragments only, it is one of the world's wonders, a
+treasure and delight to pilgrims of art from every land. But we must not
+waste our space in detailing the beauties of Granada; its trade, sadly
+diminished from what it was formerly, is chiefly in fruits and silk and
+leather stuffs. Next to Granada, the chief city in the province is Loja
+(15,000), near the Jenil, and the little port of Motril (13,500),
+sheltered under the highest summits of the Sierra Nevada, is said to
+possess the most equable climate of the Spanish Mediterranean ports. It
+is here, in the extensive alluvial plain stretching from Motril to the
+sea, that the sugar-cane is most extensively cultivated, producing in
+1877, 113,636 tons of cane. Far inland, and separated from Motril by the
+mountain mass, is Baza (13,500). The mineral riches of the Sierra Nevada
+have never been adequately explored; from specimens used in the
+construction of Granada, it must possess marbles of rare beauty; metals,
+too, abound, but few of its mines are worked. In picturesque beauty,
+when seen near at hand, these mountains are not nearly equal to the
+Pyrenees and to many minor chains; with rounded summits, they are bare
+and denuded of wood, and are entirely without the glacier forms, and the
+lakes and rushing streams, which delight us in the Alps.
+
+[Illustration: ALHAMBRA TOWER BY MOONLIGHT.]
+
+_Malaga._--The greater part of this province lies in an amphitheatre of
+mountains, stretching from the Sierra de Almijarras on the east to
+those of De la Nieve and of Ronda to the west. It faces the full
+southern sun, but is watered and irrigated by torrential streams from
+the mountains, at times almost dry, at others, as in December, 1880,
+rushing down in most destructive floods. The city, with over 110,000
+inhabitants, boasts not only the finest climate in Spain, on which
+account it is greatly frequented by invalids in the winter, but its
+commerce is second in value to that of Barcelona. Its wealth and exports
+are almost wholly agricultural, consisting of luscious wines--which,
+however, have a greater reputation on the continent than in
+England--oil, fruits, and especially dried raisins; oranges, olives,
+figs, sugar, and sweet potatoes. Bananas, and all other tropical and
+semi-tropical products of Spain are here found in perfection. Upwards of
+2,000,000 boxes of raisins, 3,000,000 gallons of oil, and 1,100,100
+gallons of wine, besides other fruits, esparto grass, and minerals
+(chiefly lead), are annually exported. The tonnage of British vessels in
+1878 was about 158,000 tons. It has been a city and port from great
+antiquity; but though a favourite residence of the Moors, they have left
+fewer remains here than at Granada, Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and many a
+place of lesser note. Antequerra (25,000), on the Guadaljorce, on the
+northern slope of the sierras, guards the defile leading to Malaga, and
+was formerly of great military importance. The Cueva del Menjal, in the
+neighbourhood, is a fine dolmen. Ronda (20,000), the chief town of the
+sierra of the same name, is remarkable for its position on both sides of
+an enormous fissure (el Tajo) from 300 to 600 feet deep, and which is
+spanned by a magnificent bridge, constructed by the architect Archidone,
+in 1761. Velez Malaga (24,000) is a small sheltered port to the east of
+Malaga, with a trade in fruits and wines.
+
+_Cadiz_, the most southerly province of Spain, includes the capes of
+Trafalgar and Tarifa, and the Punta de Europa, or the English Rock of
+Gibraltar. This province is also the principal seat of the great sherry
+trade. The town (65,000) and port have greatly fallen from their former
+importance, when Spain possessed nearly all the Americas south of
+California, and but for the Transatlantic steamers to Cuba and the West
+Indies, and to the Philippine Islands in the East Indies, would probably
+decline still more. The application of steam, allowing ocean vessels to
+ascend the Guadalquiver rapidly to Seville, has arrested there a great
+deal of the produce which formerly came to Cadiz, but which is now
+shipped at the former town. The total tonnage of the port is now about
+800,000; the imports over 2,000,000_l._, of which about one-sixth is
+British; but of the exports, which are about the same in value, fully
+two-thirds go to Great Britain. Cadiz itself is undoubtedly one of the
+oldest ports of Western Europe, and is situated on a narrow promontory,
+formed into an island by the channel of San Pedro. Unlike most of the
+southern cities of Spain, its houses are of great height and of several
+stories, the contracted space of its site having occasioned this
+architectural modification. The city is excellently supplied with fish;
+the market is noted both for the quantity and the variety of its supply,
+which amounts to nearly 900 tons annually. Round the Bay of Cadiz are
+situated towns and harbours of considerable size, whose united commerce
+is almost equal to that of Cadiz itself. Of these, Puerto de St. Maria
+(22,000), on the northern side of the bay, is the great harbour for the
+shipment of sherry wines. Immense quantities of salt are made, chiefly
+for exportation, in the Salinas between Puerto Real and San Fernando
+(26,000), and Chiclana (20,000), on the San Pedro canal, which cuts off
+the Isle of Leon from the mainland. The export of wine from the whole
+Bay was, in
+
+                         Gallons.     Butts.
+
+    1858                3,600,000, or 33,028
+    1862                5,600,000, "  51,376
+    1871                8,300,000, "  77,064
+    1876                           "  61,609
+    1877                           "  68,246
+
+Xeres de la Frontera (64,000), situated about thirty miles from Cadiz,
+surrounded by vineyards, is a city of Bodegas, or wine-cellars, the
+principal of which, as well as of the vineyards, are in the hands of
+foreigners. It is one of the busiest of Spanish commercial towns, and,
+like Barcelona, is on that account less peculiarly Spanish than many
+others. The exportation of sherry wines from the district, and those
+shipped at Port St. Mary, amounted, in 1873, to 98,924 butts; 1874,
+65,365 butts; from Jerez alone, in 1875, 43,727 butts; 1876, 42,272
+butts; 1877, 41,660 butts; 87 per cent, of which goes to Great Britain
+and her colonies. The decrease in later years is probably caused by the
+greater amount of lighter French wines now consumed in England. San
+Lucar de Barrameda (22,000), at the mouth of the Guadalquiver, is noted
+for its winter-gardens, which are said to date from Moorish times, and
+which supply Cadiz and Seville with their earliest fruits and
+vegetables. From its vineyards, too, comes the stomachic Manzanilla
+sherry, flavoured with the wild camomile, which grows abundantly in its
+vineyards. Arcos (12,000), on the Guadalete, is the only other Spanish
+town of importance in the province; but to the south lies the isolated
+rock and fortress of Gibraltar (25,000), captured by the Earl of
+Peterborough in 1704. Though held only as an English garrison (5000),
+and made almost impregnable as a fortress, it is yet of considerable
+commerce from its position as a port of call for vessels passing the
+Straits of Gibraltar, and also from its contraband trade with Spain,
+which is a source of constant irritation between the two nations. In
+natural history, it is remarkable for its apes (_macacus inuus_), as the
+only spot in Europe where any species of monkey lives, and it is
+doubtful whether even these would survive without the aid of occasional
+importations from Morocco.
+
+_Seville_ is the typical province of Andalusia, and its city of 133,000
+ranks fourth in population of the cities of Spain. The Moors have left
+deeper outward traces at Granada, but here they have fused more
+thoroughly with the population, and have given it the Oriental grace and
+culture which is lacking in the former place; their wit belongs to
+themselves. Seville is peculiarly the home of Spanish art; the greatest
+of her painters, Murillo and Velasquez, were born there, and Zurbaran
+painted his best pieces to adorn her walls. Her writers are scarcely
+less noted. The most celebrated novelist of modern Spain, Cecilia Bohl
+de Faber (Fernan Caballero), had her home there. There Amador de los
+Rios composed his chief works. The Becquers--both the painter and the
+novelist--were born there. It is a city of predilection for all of
+artistic tastes. The Giralda, a tower of Moorish architecture, rivals,
+if it does not surpass, in its exquisite proportions the _campanille_
+of Italian art. The Alcazar is a home of beauty. The _patios_, or inner
+courts, of many of the houses have remains of Moorish decoration. The
+Cathedral shows that Christian lags not far behind Moslem architecture.
+But Seville, on the Guadalquiver, is not a mere city of pleasure. Like
+Paris, its gay exterior contains a great deal of real work and commerce
+within. Since the invention of steam, allowing sea-going vessels to
+breast with ease the current of the Guadalquiver, it has drawn to itself
+a great deal of the traffic which formerly passed through the harbours
+of the Bay of Cadiz. The tonnage of its shipping amounts to about
+120,000 tons, and the value of its imports to over 2,000,000_l_., and of
+its exports to 1,750,000_l_., one-half of which belongs to Great
+Britain. Among its manufactories, one of porcelain, carried on by a
+British company, but employing Spanish methods, is celebrated; and its
+tobacco manufactory, with its 1000 women workers, is the largest
+government establishment of the kind in Spain. The city long enjoyed
+almost a monopoly of West Indian and of Manilla productions; the wealth
+brought by the galleons was deposited here, and here are still preserved
+the "Archivos de las Indias." It possesses both a university and a mint.
+The lower part of the Guadalquiver runs through marshy lands, which in
+places present almost impenetrable jungles. In these are bred the bulls
+which supply the bull-fights with their victims, and which make Seville
+the great school of _tauromachia_ in Spain. The finest Andalusian horses
+are also produced in this province, and the wines, though not equal to
+those of the neighbouring provinces of Cadiz and Cordova, are still
+highly esteemed. Besides Seville, the chief towns are Ecija (24,000) on
+the Jenil, a place of large trade; Carmona (18,000); Ossuna (16,000).
+Utrera, Lebriga, and Marchena would be considerable towns in other
+provinces, but we can only indicate them here. From the absence of
+mountains Seville has not the mineral wealth of some other provinces,
+but coal is worked at Villanueva del Rio, and the copper-mines at
+Arnalcollar yield 20,000 tons of ore; other outlying deposits of the
+Huelva beds are found in this province, and a great part of the lead
+from the Linares mines is shipped here.
+
+_Huelva_, the last maritime province of Spain, conterminous with
+Portugal on the west and with Seville on the east, with its capital of
+10,000, is one of the richest mining districts in Europe. Worked in
+prehistoric times, and in the mythical dawn of history, by Iberians,
+Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, the mines of Tharsis and of
+the Rio Tinto were strangely neglected by the Spaniards until purchased
+by an Anglo-German company in 1873 for 3,850,000_l_., but with the
+certainty of a rich return. There are now over 7000 men employed by
+this company, and 906,600 tons of copper ore were extracted in 1879 from
+the south lode only; about 10,000 tons of hematite iron were also sold.
+The mines contain sulphur, copper, iron, and silver. In fact, the
+mountains round the source of the Tinto seem to be almost one mass of
+mineral ore. From the working of these mines the development of the
+riches of this province has been most rapid of late years, and the
+tonnage of shipping from the port of Huelva will probably soon rival, if
+not surpass, that of Cadiz: in 1873 the foreign shipping was 180,000
+tons; this had ascended to over 300,000 tons in 1877. The imports were
+valued in 1873 at 168,000_l_., of which 112,000_l_. were British; and in
+1877 to over 300,000, of which not quite one-half was British. The
+exports are of far greater importance, ranging from 750,000_l_. in 1873,
+of which 667,000_l_. were British, to 1,236,243_l_. in 1877, of which
+1,132,782_l_. went to Great Britain. Except in minerals, the province is
+not rich; but a trade which will probably increase, has lately sprung up
+in wines, fruits, and cork. The frontier stream the Guadiana is of
+little use to Spain, and the little port of Palos, whence Columbus set
+out to give a new world to Spain, is now completely silted up.
+
+_Cordova._--The interior provinces of Andalusia are _Cordova_ and
+_Jaen_, both on the Guadalquiver, the latter embracing the sources and
+upper part of the course, the former the central portion before it
+enters the province of Seville. The northern part of the province of
+Cordova is covered by parallel ranges of low mountains running east and
+west--the Sierras de Cordova and de Pedroches within the province, and
+the Sierras de Almaden and Morena, which form the boundary of Castile.
+_Cordova_, the capital, contains now but 49,000 inhabitants in place of
+the 1,000,000 who dwelt there when it was the seat of the western
+khalifat. Its mosque, almost the sole remnant of its former splendour,
+with its 1200 columns, is to Islam what the temple of Karnac at Thebes,
+and that of Karnac in Brittany, with their 100 pillars, are to the
+religions of Egypt and of prehistoric Europe. It is perhaps the grandest
+building for worship ever raised by Moslem hands; its materials were
+pillaged without scruple from shrines of older civilizations, but were
+wrought into new and fairer forms of beauty by the magic of Arabian art.
+As a Christian city, Cordova is of only second rank. It is chiefly noted
+for its leather work, and for its commerce in wines and fruits. It is to
+Cordova that the Amontillada sherry--the most prized of Spanish
+wines--comes, from the vineyards round Montilla (15,000). The only other
+town of importance in the province is Lucena (16,000), to the south.
+
+_Jaen_, like Huelva, at the opposite extremity of Andalusia, is a mining
+province, and like those of Huelva its mines are chiefly in the hands of
+Englishmen and of foreigners. Linares (36,000), north of the
+Guadalquiver, is the centre of the mining district, and is far the most
+populous town in the province. Nearly 11,000 men, women, and boys were
+employed in the lead-mines in 1877, and the ore raised amounted to
+70,000 tons. It has been calculated that the production of the world is
+about 300,000 tons of lead, of which Spain furnishes 100,000 tons and
+the United Kingdom 100,000 tons. The capital, Jaen, south of the great
+river, has only 24,000 inhabitants; Ubeda and Baza, close together, a
+little south of Jaen, have each 15,000. Andujar (11,000), with its old
+bridge over the Guadalquiver, is noted for its porous pottery, the
+cooling water-jars used throughout the whole of Southern Spain. In the
+north of this province is the celebrated Pass of Despena-perros, through
+the Sierra Morena, one of the wildest gorges through which the traveller
+passes in any part of Europe; a few miles to the south of it is Las
+Navas de Tolosa, the field of the battle in 1212 which first proved how
+fast the power of the Moors was waning in Southern Spain.
+
+ESTREMADURA, conterminous on the west with Portugal and on the south
+with Huelva, is the wildest and least peopled of all the provinces of
+Spain, and has been almost sufficiently described in a former chapter.
+It is divided into the two modern provinces of _Badajoz_ and _Caceres_,
+through which run respectively the two rivers, the Guadiana and the
+Tagus. Desolate as it is now, the numerous Roman remains at Merida
+(6000) and Trajan's mighty bridge at Alcantara tell what it was in Roman
+times; but in Moorish days it suffered more from war than any other
+province, and the curse, the "_mesta_," the only means the Christian
+conquerors had of utilizing their vast and thinly-peopled properties,
+has ever since rested upon it. Besides its flocks and herds its chief
+wealth consists in acorns and bark for tanning, and cork for other
+purposes. The rivers run in deep gorges, almost canons, and are useless
+for either navigation or for irrigation. Badajoz (22,000), on the
+Guadiana, one of the frontier fortresses of Spain towards Portugal, is
+by far the largest city. Higher up the river are Merida and Medellin,
+but Don Benito (15,000) is of greater commercial importance than either.
+
+_Caceres_, a province still more thinly peopled than Badajoz, having
+only fifteen inhabitants instead of nineteen to the square kilometre,
+has 12,000 for its chief town; Plasencia, on the Xerte, an affluent of
+the Alagon, has only half that number. In the north-east of this
+province, on the southern spurs of the lofty Sierra de Gredos, stands
+the monastery San Juste, to which the Emperor Charles V. retired on his
+resignation of his many crowns. The shepherds of Estremadura,
+notwithstanding the scanty population, gave numbers of emigrants to the
+New World; Cortez and Pizarro were swineherds, the one of Medellin, the
+other of Truxillo. The town of Alcantara gives its name to one of the
+three great military orders of Spain.
+
+NEW CASTILE and LA MANCHA comprise the five modern provinces of _Ciudad
+Real_, _Toledo_, _Madrid_, _Cuenca_, and _Guadalajara_, which all take
+their names from their chief towns. The province of _Ciudad Real_, which
+lies between the Sierra de Morena and the mountains of Toledo, is
+traversed by the Guadiana. It is the most thinly populated of all the
+provinces of Spain, having only thirteen inhabitants to the square
+kilometre; but it is by no means the least wealthy. It contains within
+it the quicksilver-mines of Almaden (9000), the richest deposit in the
+world before the late discoveries in California. They were a source of
+revenue to the Spanish crown for centuries, with an annual rent of over
+a quarter of a million. They were however mortgaged by the Government
+for thirty years in order to raise a loan of 2,318,000_l._ at five per
+cent., to be extinguished in 1900. The average annual extract is
+estimated at 12,000 tons of mercury. The vineyards round Valdepenas
+(11,000) supply the red wine which is the favourite beverage of the
+Spaniards throughout the centre and the south, and the home consumption
+of which is far beyond that of the sherries. Almagro (14,000) is known
+for its lace manufacture; but Ciudad-Real, the capital (12,000), is
+fallen from its ancient importance. Damiel (13,000) and Manzanares
+(9000) are the only other towns that need mention.
+
+_Toledo_ (21,000), watered by the Tagus, was for centuries the most
+important city of Spain. It is here that the great councils which really
+regulated the civil as well as the ecclesiastical administration of
+Spain, from the fourth to the eighth centuries were held. Here too was
+one of the centres of Arabic civilization: the waterworks, clocks, and
+observatory of Toledo were among the wonders of the world from the tenth
+to the twelfth centuries, and even after its capture by the Christians,
+in 1085, the conqueror seemed for a while to have fallen under the same
+spell. The court of Alfonso X., the Wise, was a semi-Moorish court, and
+his tolerance excited the indignant wonder of travellers from other
+parts of Europe. Moorish and Christian architecture is still most
+strangely blended in many of its buildings, and Moorish architects were
+long employed to keep in repair not only the structures which their
+ancestors had raised, but even the Christian churches. The skill of its
+ironworkers and the temper of its sword-blades were renowned throughout
+Europe. The superiority of its steel was said to be due to some peculiar
+virtue of the water of the Tagus used in tempering; but the best of the
+iron was taken from the mines of Mondragon, in Guipuzcoa. The
+manufactory has greatly fallen from its ancient splendour, but some good
+weapons are still made, though they cannot compete in price with British
+or foreign goods. The insurrection of its inhabitants under the
+"Comuneros" in 1520, in defence of the ancient constitutional liberties
+of Castille probably determined the selection of the more obsequious
+town of Madrid as the capital of Spain by the Emperor Charles V. Toledo,
+with its narrow streets and semi-Moorish houses, is emphatically the
+city of Old Spain; the purest Spanish is said still to be spoken there,
+and for native poets and romancers it seems to have an attraction beyond
+that of any of the cities of Andalusia. The only other town of
+importance in the province is Talavera, with its fifteenth-century
+bridge of nearly a quarter of a mile in length.
+
+_Madrid._--The province of Madrid lies between the Sierra de Guadarrama
+on the north and the Tagus on the south. The city, which now contains
+almost 400,000 inhabitants, was a third or fourth-rate town until
+Charles V., and after him Philip II., chose it for the capital of Spain,
+in place of either Toledo or Valladolid. Its recommendations seem to
+have been its central position, and the absence of any strong traditions
+of ancient constitutional liberties, such as might hamper the sovereign
+in developing his new despotism. A city which owed its creation
+entirely to the sovereign, and its riches to to the presence of his
+court, would be certain to be obedient to its rulers. If Charles V. and
+Philip II. did not make it the centre of a free and constitutional
+government, they at least enriched it with all the treasures of art
+which the rulers of the greater part of Europe could collect from the
+various parts of their vast dominions. It is at the museum of Madrid,
+which owes its existence to Ferdinand VII., that not only Spanish, but
+also many of the Flemish and some of the Italian painters can be best
+studied; and by a happy chance the royal palace, built in the eighteenth
+century, is one of the least faulty and most impressive structures of
+that age. At the west end of the city, on the banks of the Manzanares,
+are the royal gardens; at the opposite extremity the promenades of the
+Prado and the gardens of the Buen Retiro. These artificial parks and
+walks in some way compensate for the dreary and almost desert aspect of
+the country round Madrid; for there are "_despoblados_" and
+"_destierros_" almost within sight of the greatest city of Spain. It is
+now approached by rail from all sides, and the convergence of these iron
+roads and of the highways will probably secure its future position as
+the capital of the nation; but until the present century, contrary to
+that of most European capitals, the approach to Madrid seemed to be
+an approach from civilization to barbarism. As the traveller neared the
+capital, whether from the north or from the east and south, the inns
+grew worse, the roads more impassable, and the difficulty of procuring
+food greater in the neighbourhood of the capital than elsewhere; the
+contrast of magnificence and meanness, of dirt and discomfort and formal
+etiquette in the city itself, until the time of Charles III., is the
+theme of every visitor. Of late its character has much changed; the
+increase of its population has not been caused by the natural growth of
+its inhabitants, but by the migration thither of Catalans, Gallegos,
+Asturians, Basques, and especially of Andalusians; and thus the Puerta
+del Sol, the heart of Madrid, has become, as it were, the heart of
+Spain, and almost every political and social movement which stirs the
+nation has its origin there. Though not quite to the extent with which
+Paris absorbs France, still Madrid collects to itself the greater part
+of the intellectual and literary life of the nation. It is Madrid that
+supplies most of the daily journals, the scientific periodicals,
+reviews, and literature to the rest of Spain. Here is the seat of the
+learned academies and of the chief literary, educational, and scientific
+institutions. The universities, the national and the free, the Ateneo,
+the great public libraries of Madrid, are the best in Spain. It is here
+that Cortes meets, here that the elections are arranged, all the lines
+of Spanish administration converge hither, and it is here that the
+intrigues for place or power are principally conducted, and unhappily we
+must add it is thus that Madrid is also the focus and example of
+administrative corruption for the rest of Spain.
+
+[Illustration: FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR SEASONS, MADRID.
+
+_Page 130._]
+
+Besides Madrid, the province contains two other royal residencies,
+Aranjuez to the south, at the junction of the Tagus with the Jarama, and
+the Escorial to the north, at the foot of the Guadarrama. The chief
+attractions of the former consist in its abundant supply of water, in
+its fountains and running streams, and in the avenues and groves of
+lofty trees, whose roots are fed by these waters. The Escorial is of an
+entirely opposite character. This vast and extraordinary structure was
+raised by Philip II., in pursuance of a vow made at the battle of St.
+Quentin, August 10 (St. Lawrence's Day), 1557; the ground-plan is that
+of a mighty gridiron, to recall that on which the martyr suffered. The
+central piece of architecture is a chapel, impressive from its grand
+simplicity; and however faulty the general design of the vast edifice,
+several details, and especially the frescoes of the ceilings and some of
+the paintings, are of great beauty. The whole fabric, in its severe and
+sombre majesty, harmonizes well with the bare and wind-swept granite
+mountains near which it is placed. Like most of the other
+treasure-houses of Spain, it suffered severely from pillage during the
+French invasion. _Acala de Henares_ (8000) was celebrated in the
+sixteenth century as a university under the patronage of the Cardinal
+Ximenes, and here the celebrated Complutensian Polyglot Bible was
+printed. It was also the birthplace of Cervantes. The canal of Henares
+is described above, pp. 18, 19.
+
+_Cuenca_, one of the most thinly populated as well as one of the most
+mountainous provinces of Spain, stretches on two sides of the chief
+watershed, and the waters of the streams which rise in this province
+from different slopes of the Cerro de San Felipe flow to the Atlantic
+and to the Mediterranean. Cuenca (7000), the capital, is still untouched
+by railway routes, and slumbers on its lofty cliff, and emerged into
+temporary notoriety by its capture and sack by Alphonso, the brother of
+Don Carlos, in 1874.
+
+_Guadalajara_ (6500), on the Henares, though on the line of railway
+between Saragossa and Madrid, is scarcely more lively than Cuenca, but
+it contains the school for military engineers, the most distinguished
+corps in the Spanish army, and which has never stained its character by
+political intrigue. The province supports a slightly higher population
+than that of Cuenca.
+
+OLD CASTILE was with Leon for several centuries the chief of the rising
+kingdoms of Spain, and the one into which all the rest gradually merged.
+It now contains five provinces, _Avila_, _Segovia_, _Soria_, _Logrono_,
+and _Burgos_. Avila (7000), still surrounded by its mediaeval walls in
+excellent preservation, is one of the most picturesque cities in Spain,
+at an altitude of nearly 3500 feet above the sea-level. The province is
+remarkable as the one in which the rudely-sculptured stone monuments of
+boars and bulls, the "Toros de Guisando," are chiefly found. They are
+the art remains of a population whose name, age, and ethnic affinities
+are totally unknown. The southern half of this province is traversed by
+the lofty Sierra de Gredos, and hiding in its secluded valleys are some
+of the most primitive peoples of Spain. There are no other large towns
+in the province.
+
+_Segovia_ (7000), another of the picturesque cities of Spain, contains
+fine specimens of Roman, Moorish, and Christian mediaeval architecture in
+its wondrous aqueduct, cathedral, the Alcazar, and castle. It was
+formerly a place of great commercial as well as of political importance,
+and was the centre of a trade in woollen goods which employed 34,000
+workmen, and made the cloth of Segovia celebrated throughout Europe.
+This commerce has now utterly departed, both from it and from the other
+cities, such as Avila, Medina del Campo, which shared its reputation. It
+is now visited by the lover of the picturesque, whose taste will be
+here abundantly gratified. Not far from Segovia, under the Penalarra
+(7800 feet), on the northern slope of the Guadarrama range, are La
+Granja and San Ildefonso. At a height of 4000 feet above the level of
+the sea, this is the most agreeable of all the inland royal residences
+of Spain. Built in French taste by Philip V., it is redeemed from
+banality by its pleasant surroundings. But retired and peaceful as it
+looks, La Granja has been the scene of some of the most important
+political events in the modern history of Spain. The celebrated passes
+of Somosierra (4700 feet), and that of the Col de Guadarrama (5000),
+lead from this province to Madrid; the railway, too, attains at La
+Canada a height of 4457 feet above the level of the sea.
+
+_Soria_, on the north-eastern edge of the great plateau, is one of the
+poorest provinces of Spain. Leaning on the Sierra de Moncayo, the whole
+of the northern and central part of the province slopes gradually to the
+west, and is watered by the Douro, which takes its rise in the Sierra de
+Moncayo. The southern angle of the province contains also the sources of
+the Jalon, which, flowing through a break in the Idubeda range, finds
+its way to the Ebro, and thence to the Mediterranean, the upper courses
+of the two rivers completely overlapping. In spite of these two
+river-valleys the province is very unproductive. Soria, near the site of
+the Keltiberean Numantia, which held out for twenty-nine years against
+the Romans, contains but 6000 inhabitants. Osma, on the Douro, has
+barely 1000, and Agreda (4000) is celebrated only for the visions of a
+nun in the sixteenth century.
+
+The province of _Burgos_ overlaps the plateau, and in its northern and
+southern extremities embraces the valleys both of the Ebro and the
+Douro, with their respective towns, Miranda del Ebro and Aranda del
+Douro. The basins of these two rivers are separated by the Oca or
+Idubeda mountains, which cross the centre of the province. The
+difference of the elevation of the two valleys may be seen in the fact
+that while Miranda del Ebro is 1600 feet above the sea-level, Burgos is
+more than 2800. Burgos (29,000) and Aranda del Douro were formerly towns
+of considerable commerce, and the former had at one time a claim to be
+considered the chief city of Northern Spain. It has now greatly fallen,
+but will always be visited for the noble remains of Gothic architecture
+in the city and its suburbs. Miranda del Ebro (3000), when the river
+formed the customs line for all commerce passing from the Basque
+Provinces into Spain, was of great consequence, and is now the point of
+junction for the northern lines of railway from Bilbao and from Irun. In
+this province, too, is the pass of Pancorbo, through which both road and
+railway wind; for savage wildness it is inferior only to that of the
+above-mentioned Despena-perros in the Sierra Morena.
+
+The whole province of _Logrono_ lies in the southern half of the valley
+of the Ebro, and leans against the mountains which form the supports of
+the great plateau. The Ebro forms its northern boundary, and its chief
+towns, Logrono (12,000) and Calahorra (7000), are both on the river.
+Here the traveller from the north first sees the Noria or Moorish
+water-wheel at work. The province is noted chiefly for its strong, rough
+wines, and for its agricultural products. Navarete is known in English
+history as the spot where the Black Prince and Bertrand du Guesclin
+fought out their mightiest duel, the one as the partisan of Pedro the
+Cruel, and the other of Henry of Trastamare.
+
+The kingdom of LEON is divided into five provinces, _Salamanca_,
+_Valladolid_, _Zamora_, _Palencia_, _Leon_. _Salamanca_ lies along the
+Portuguese frontier, which is here formed by the Rivers Douro and
+Agueda. The city (15,000) was famous throughout the early part of the
+Middle Ages for its university and for its Arabic and Hebrew learning.
+It thus became in popular estimation the home of magic and of the black
+arts, and as such its name is found in the folk-lore tales of many parts
+of Europe; its students, poor, riotous, and witty, made it the
+birthplace of the peculiar, picaresque romance literature of Spain, from
+Lazarillo de Tormes to Gil Blas. Like all the Spanish provincial
+universities, it is but the shadow of its former self, nor does the city
+preserve any of the older features which still make Toledo a delight to
+the tourist. Its old bridge over the Tormes is said to date from Roman
+times. Bejar (8000) does a fair trade as a manufactory of cloth. Ciudad
+Rodrigo (5000) is one of the strongest fortresses of Spain, and guards,
+with Badajoz, the frontier against Portugal. The provinces of Salamanca
+and Zamora contain some of the most peculiar and picturesque peasantry
+yet remaining in Spain; even around Salamanca the festal dresses of the
+Charros and Charras are rich with gold and silver ornaments of Moorish
+type. In the valley of the Batuecas, amid the Sierra de Gata, the
+Hurdes, and to the west of Zamora, the Sayagos, and again, the
+Maragatos, to the north-west of the province, in the mountains of Leon,
+are all remnants of ancient races, preserving habits and tribal customs
+and laws, differing from their neighbours, and well worthy of the study,
+as survivals, of the comparative ethnologist. The contrabandistas of the
+province are among the boldest in Spain; they cross the Douro and its
+deep ravine, sometimes on rafts or on inflated skins; at others, when
+the river is in flood, in baskets suspended from ropes flung across the
+whole ravine.
+
+_Zamora_ (10,000), formerly a strong walled city on the Douro, in a
+rich country, notwithstanding the rail which unites it to the Medina del
+Campo, still remains one of the decaying towns of Spain. Toro (9000),
+higher up the stream, is a busier town. A great impulse will probably be
+given to all this district, now one of the most behindhand in Spain, by
+the completion of the Portuguese lines of Beira-alta, connecting Lisbon
+and Oporto with Paris by the North Spanish lines. Benavente (5000), on
+the Esla, is the only other town we have to notice.
+
+_Leon_, which gave its name to one of the old kingdoms of Spain before
+the re-conquest of the Castiles, is full of towns which recall the
+glories of the past, but which are of little importance in modern times.
+The capital (9000) is noted for its cathedral and churches, which are
+perhaps the purest specimens of Gothic, unmixed with Arabian art, to be
+found in Spain. The province is generally mountainous, especially to the
+north and west, and the higher lands afford excellent summer pasture for
+flocks from the plains, and even from Estremadura. The valley of the
+Esla is extremely fertile. Astorga (5000) may be considered as the
+Capital of the Maragatos, of whom we have spoken above; like Sahagun
+(3000), it is a town of ancient consequence now dwindling to
+insignificance. The "_fuero_" or charter of Sahagun, 1085, was the model
+of the "_fueros_" or constitutional privileges of the Castiles, which
+were eventually lost in the war of the _comuneros_ in the time of
+Charles V.
+
+_Palencia._--Through this province passes the canal of Castile from Alar
+del Rey to Valladolid, borrowing its waters from the Pisuerga, and is
+the most useful for transport of all the canals of Spain. This waterway
+is less needed now, owing to the railway of the north from Valladolid to
+Santander, to Bilbao, and to San Sebastian, which runs parallel to it;
+but it will be always available for local traffic. The capital is a
+walled city on the banks of the Carrion, a little above its junction
+with the Pisuerga, an affluent of the Douro; its cathedral is remarkable
+for its size and simplicity, but is otherwise inferior to Leon. The
+valleys, watered by these rivers are very rich in cereals, which find
+their outlet for exportation at Santander. The great coal-field of the
+Asturias extends into the north of this province, and at Barruelo de
+Santillana is largely worked by the Northern Railway Company, and
+supplies Madrid with a yearly increasing quantity of coal. The villages
+near the mines are fast becoming populous towns.
+
+_Valladolid_ (52,000) was till the middle of the sixteenth century the
+capital of Spain, and is likely to become of great importance in the
+near future as the point of junction of all the Spanish and Portuguese
+railways of the north and west. The Douro flows through the centre of
+the province, and the plains of Valladolid are perhaps the most fertile
+of all those in North-western Spain. It is a great centre for the
+corn-trade of the Castiles, and the smoke from its tall chimneys tells
+also of manufacturing industry. There are here two colleges for Scotch
+and Irish students for the Roman Catholic priesthood. They were
+established at the time of the persecutions in England, but are much
+less frequented now than formerly. Medina del Campo (4500) an ancient
+commercial city, was ruined in the wars of the _comuneros_, but may
+recover somewhat of its former traffic as a junction of railways. A town
+of similar name and standing, Medina de Rio Seco (4500), is in the north
+of the province; both are situated in rich corn-growing plains.
+Tordesillas (3500), on the Douro, owes its existence to the junction of
+roads which cross the river by its noble bridge. In this province is the
+Castle of Simancas, wherein are deposited the archives of Spain, as
+those of the Indies are at Seville. Long closed to the world, they are
+now open to the researches of scholars, and guides and inventories in
+aid are being published during the present year.
+
+
+_The Balearic Isles._
+
+These islands are geologically a submarine continuation of the Valencian
+mountains which sink into the sea at Cape Nao. They are divided into
+two groups: (1) Minorca, Majorca, Cabrera, and a few islets; the nearest
+point of which to the mainland is Soller on Majorca, ninety-three miles
+distant; (2) Iviza and Formentera, with some smaller satellites, are
+within sixty miles of the Spanish coast. The whole superficies of the
+islands is nearly two thousand square miles. The inhabitants number
+about 290,000. The climate is equable but exceedingly variable within
+somewhat narrow limits; the average both for Minorca and Majorca being
+sixty-four, the highest temperature ninety, and the lowest forty-four.
+The average rainfall is nearly twenty inches. Majorca, the largest of
+the islands is about sixty miles from east to west, and fifty from north
+to south. The surface is very broken, but with a few fertile plains; the
+greatest elevation is 5000 feet. Minorca, twenty and a half miles to the
+east of Majorca, is twenty miles long by six broad. Iviza, the largest
+island of the western group is only four miles by four. The highest
+points of these two islands are about 1000 feet; but Iviza retains
+traces of volcanic action which seem to connect it geologically with the
+extinct Catalan volcanoes, by way of the Columbretes rocks, and the
+Point de la Bana at the mouth of the Ebro. Majorca and Minorca are
+remarkable for erections called "Talayots," similar to the "Nuraghies"
+of Sardinia; they are the work of one of the many prehistoric, or at
+least unrecorded races whose blood mingles in the veins of the present
+inhabitants, and the origin of them has given rise to almost as many
+theories as those of the round towers of Ireland and Scotland. In the
+west of Majorca is the remarkable and extensive cavern of Arta. The
+language of the islanders is one of the purest dialects of the Provencal
+speech. The only separate race now in the islands is that of the
+"_Chuetas_" or converted Jews, who still keep apart notwithstanding
+their nominal Christianity. The population is mostly engaged in
+agriculture, and the islands export fruits, oil, leather, and a few
+cattle, to an annual value altogether of 350,000_l>_, while the imports
+amount to 210,000_l>_. The land is cultivated mostly by peasant
+proprietors and metayers in small holdings, and by reason of steady
+emigration those who remain are fairly prosperous. The people show
+strong aesthetic tastes, and the art school of Palma is one of the most
+flourishing of the whole of Spain. The chief towns on Majorca are Palma,
+on the east coast, of 58,000 inhabitants; Manacor, in the centre, of
+12,500; Felanitz, 10,000; and Llummayor, Soller, Inca, and Pollensa, of
+about 8000 each. Minorca has only two towns of importance, Port Mahon,
+22,000, and Ciudella, 7000, at opposite extremities of the island. Port
+Mahon is perhaps the finest harbour in the Mediterranean, and is also
+one of its strongest fortresses; during the English occupation the town
+attained great prosperity. Iviza has only one town, of the same name as
+the island, containing 5500 inhabitants. We have noticed before that the
+majolica ware was not made in these islands, but at Valencia, and that
+it acquired the name from Balearic vessels being used for its export to
+Italy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+HISTORY AND POLITICAL CONSTITUTION.
+
+
+In order to understand the present constitution, the political
+condition, and the aspirations of the Spanish nation, it is absolutely
+necessary to have some slight acquaintance with its previous history.
+This we propose to give as briefly as possible.
+
+In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there is no doubt that the
+inhabitants of Northern Spain, under some of the petty kings, enjoyed
+more constitutional liberty than any other people in Europe; that their
+institutions generally, and especially their municipal privileges, were
+more in accordance with the ideas of modern freedom and self-government
+than those of any other nation at that date. The feudal system never
+attained in Northern Spain, except in parts of Catalonia, the systematic
+development, and the organized oppression of the lower classes, which it
+reached in many other parts of Europe. The peculiar institution of
+"_behetria_," which prevailed in Leon and the Castiles, and by which a
+serf was free to go whither he would "from sea to sea," with all his
+goods, and to put himself under any lord he chose, was of itself an
+almost sufficient check to excessive tyranny by the nobles. The old
+Roman municipal organization, of the towns had been preserved by
+tradition throughout the whole of the Visigothic times down to 711, nor
+had the practical working completely died out at the epoch of the early
+reconquest of the north. Hence many of the charters or "_fueros_"
+granted to the towns and cities by the kings are evidently founded on a
+recollection of former institutions, modified according to the
+necessities of the times. Thus the charter of Leon (1020) expressly
+allows exemption from all arbitrary exactions, and grants the free
+election of the _Alcalde_, and of the municipal council, with only the
+appointment of the judges by the king. By the _fuero_ of Arganzon (1191)
+it is expressly stated that if these royal officers overpassed their
+duties, it would be lawful to kill them without incurring any
+responsibility. Similar but still more strongly-worded clauses are found
+in all the Basque _fueros_, and in the coronation oath of Aragon.
+
+The representatives of the burgesses, "el estado llano," the low estate
+in the "Cortes" or parliaments, began much earlier in Spain than in
+other countries. Burgesses sat in the Cortes at Leon certainly in 1188,
+if not in that of Burgos in 1169. In Aragon they were present still
+earlier, in 1134, in Navarre in 1194, in Catalonia, where feudalism was
+more developed than elsewhere, in 1218. These dates are simply those of
+the first mention of the fact, not necessarily that of its first
+institution; the records rather imply their presence at former sessions.
+We find also early protests against judicial and administrative abuses
+which prevailed long afterwards in other parts of Europe. In the _fuero_
+of Arganzon (1191) the inhabitants claim exemption from the ordeal of
+iron, hot-water, or battle. In 1152, the _fuero_ of Molina demands that
+justice be done to all, and truth spoken without favour or bribery of
+any kind whatever. The original capitulations granted to the Moors and
+Mudejares of Castile, and especially to those of Aragon, breathe the
+same liberal spirit. They are granted full liberty in the exercise of
+their own religion, and to live under their own laws in their own
+quarters, subject only to some fixed tribute and service. The spirit of
+bigotry and of hatred between the two races commenced with the foreign
+monks, with the semi-religious military orders, and with the legal
+classes; afterwards it spread to the common people through envy at the
+better use which the Jews, Mudejares, and Moriscos made of the
+privileges granted to them, and the consequent superiority of their
+condition compared with that of the serfs and lower classes of the
+Christians. It is this fact which explains the rising of the population
+at Saragossa in favour of the inquisition against the Mudejares and
+Jews. Travellers in Spain, even to the middle of the fifteenth century,
+were scandalized at the toleration of the Moors by the king and the
+court. Theologians, lawyers (except the royal judges), medical men, and
+traders were they who called for oppression of the Moors; the two last
+classes evidently through jealousy of the superior skill and industry of
+Moors and Jews as doctors and merchants; the literary class, the poets,
+nobles, and kings were in favour of toleration. Afterwards indeed, in
+the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the ravages of the
+pirate ships of Algiers and Tunis roused an indignation and excited a
+far more intense abhorrence than had existed in earlier times, when
+Christian and Moslem knights met in fair and equal warfare.
+
+The development of these early liberties, and the progress of the cause
+of toleration and of true civilization in Spain, were checked by
+circumstances which would assuredly have acted in a similar way in any
+other nation. The establishment of the military orders, the conquest of
+the south, especially the last campaign against Granada, put forces into
+the hand of the king greater than those possessed at that time by any
+other monarch. The richest half of Spain, the newly-conquered Mussulman
+provinces, had not only no liberties of their own except those granted
+in their respective capitulations, and which were speedily revoked, but
+had neither knowledge of, nor any interest in the liberties of the
+north. They were entirely at the mercy of their conquerors, Ferdinand
+and Isabella, who had the control of the finest army of Christendom. The
+mastership of all the great semi-monastic military orders, which had
+hitherto been elective, was now granted to Ferdinand by Pope Innocent
+VIII. (1492), and they were incorporated with the crown by a bull of
+Adrian VI. (1523). An almost equally powerful engine in the royal hands
+was the secret police of the Santa Hermandad (1476), founded to restrain
+the excesses of the nobles and the practice of private war. The success
+of this institution in the cause of order explains both the institution
+and the popularity of the inquisition. It is easy to see what a leverage
+was thus put into the royal hands to destroy the liberties of the north
+of Spain. Add to this that the separate kingdoms, Navarre, Aragon,
+Valencia, the Castiles, and the Basque Provinces had not yet been united
+under a single head, nor had learned to work together, except in war,
+for a single purpose. Catalonia and Aragon had indeed some sympathy with
+each other, but they had none with Leon and Castile; their peculiar
+language and habits isolated the Basque Provinces and Navarre from any
+of the rest. A century of free representation and debate in a national
+Cortes might have changed all this, but the opportunity was not given.
+The discovery and the conquest of America, and the subsequent emigration
+of the bolder spirits, turned men's thoughts away from internal reform
+and the home constitution. Next the fatal election to the empire of
+Charles V. threw into his hands fitting agents, in his foreign and
+ecclesiastical ministers and governors, wherewith to crush any rising of
+the people. Cardinal Ximenes was the only minister in Europe who at that
+date could have pointed to a standing army with the proud words, "With
+these I govern Castile; and with these I will govern it, until the king,
+your master and mine, takes possession of his kingdom."
+
+Yet even to the end of the seventeenth century the king swore to
+preserve the ancient privileges of Aragon and Catalonia. The "_fueros_"
+of Navarre were intact until 1840, and those of the Basque Provinces
+till 1874. The wonder is, not that the Spanish liberties were crushed,
+but that the memory of them should have continued so long, and after so
+many ages of repression should yet be a living force with which every
+statesman and ruler of Spain has still to make his account.
+
+The suppression of Spanish liberty had already begun under the reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, but the death of Francis I. and the retreat of
+Charles V. into the cloister of San Juste definitely closes both the
+period of chivalry and of such liberties as existed through the Middle
+Ages in Europe. With Philip II. begins the era of statesmanship and of
+bureaucratic centralization, when nations were really ruled from the
+closet and with the pen, not with the sovereign's sword or by his
+presence in the field. It is difficult for an Englishman to sympathize
+with the view, but the period of Philip II. is still looked upon by the
+majority of Spaniards as the golden era of the external position of
+Spain. His absolutism, and his concentration in his own person of all
+civil and religious rights, are condoned in their eyes by the glory of
+his having made Spain the arbiter of Europe and the champion of
+Catholicism. But with his successor set in that strange and progressive
+decadence of intellectual power in the sovereigns of the Austrian
+dynasty in Spain, which ended in the almost idiotcy of the childless
+Charles II. Spain, which in the reign of Philip II. had all but imposed
+the sovereign of her choice in France, in the reign of Charles II. was
+ruled according to the intrigues and caprice of the court of Versailles.
+Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV., though vastly superior to the
+late Austrian sovereigns, could never thoroughly emancipate himself from
+the tutelage of the country to whose armies he owed his crown; and the
+family degeneracy, which had shown itself in the Austrian sovereigns,
+again appeared in the Bourbon family, and communicated itself to the
+whole nation. The military and naval greatness of Spain disappeared, the
+very wish for constitutional liberty died out, commerce and literature
+were almost extinct, the population was declining in numbers and
+increasing in misery, the country was daily growing poorer, and its
+wealth was ebbing slowly away to other lands. The noble aristocracy of
+Spain, once so full of loyal self-respect in the age of the Cid,
+grovelled at the sovereign's feet, jealous only for precedence in
+matters of court etiquette, or clamorous for posts in the colonies as a
+means of corruption, and of enriching themselves by the plunder of the
+provinces they administered. The only king who showed some royal talent,
+and who intelligently endeavoured to effect the improvement of Spain,
+was Charles III. (1759--1788). Unfortunately both he and his able
+ministers, instead of basing their reforms on the native liberties and
+constitutions of Spain, imitated almost wholly the spurious liberalism
+of the encyclopaedists and doctrinaires of France. Hence few of their
+reforms took root. Those that were not immediately done away with did
+not grow or develope. The successors of Charles III. were still more
+feeble than his immediate predecessors, and the condition of the royal
+family was such that Napoleon had no difficulty in forcing them to
+abdicate, and to crown his brother Joseph king of Spain; but the nation,
+unlike the royal family, refused to acquiesce in this usurpation of
+their rights, and rose as one man to avenge the burning wrong.
+
+[Illustration: PORT OF CADIZ.
+
+_Page 153._]
+
+The modern history of Spain begins naturally with that of the War of
+Liberation, May 2nd, 1808, and politically with the Cortes of Cadiz,
+1812, and with the constitution then promulgated. This declares: That
+the Spanish nation is not the patrimony of any family or person; that
+the sovereignty resides essentially in the nation, which is the
+conservator of its own liberties and rights. The sole religion is and
+shall always be the Apostolic Roman. The legislative power resides in
+the Cortes with the king. The suffrage was universal, and one deputy was
+to be elected for every 70,000 souls. Entails and feudal privileges had
+been abolished by a law of August 6th, 1811, the liberty of the press
+was voted, and in 1813 the inquisition was suppressed. The French had
+been expelled, chiefly through the assistance of England, and the king
+had returned from captivity; all looked well for the new era. But in
+1814 Ferdinand VII. violated the oath which he had sworn to observe the
+constitution; the inquisition was re-established; the feudal exactions
+on real property were restored; and the fatal policy of violent reaction
+and of ruthless vengeance on political opponents was inaugurated which
+has wrought such deadly harm to the cause of progress in Spain. After an
+absolute government of six years, Riego raised the standard of revolt at
+Cadiz, and again Ferdinand swore to observe the constitution of 1812:
+further reforms were established. In 1820, tithes were partially
+suppressed, and the Church was forbidden to acquire any more real
+property. A law of May 3rd, 1823, affirmed in stronger terms the law of
+1813 on the abolition of entail: the religious orders were done away
+with. But in the same year, with the assistance of a French army under
+the Duc d'Angouleme, Ferdinand conquered the liberals and again violated
+his oath to observe the constitution. Every act of the Cortes for the
+last four years was annulled. Riego, with other chiefs of the liberal
+party, was put to death under circumstances of atrocious cruelty, others
+were banished, and a crafty and tenacious system of persecution was
+directed against every liberal for the rest of the reign. During this
+reign, too, through denial of all reform or suppression of any abuse,
+the whole of the vast colonial empire of Spain on the continent of the
+Americas was totally lost.
+
+On the death of Ferdinand VII., June 29, 1833, another element of
+discord was introduced. The first Bourbon king, Philip V., in defiance
+of ancient Spanish precedents to the contrary, had introduced the Salic
+law from France, and had procured its solemn promulgation by Cortes.
+Ferdinand VII., with the consent of Cortes, abrogated this law, and left
+the crown to his only child, Isabella II., an infant of less than three
+years old, with her mother, Christina of Naples, as regent. His
+brother, Don Carlos, who, since the king's last marriage, had been
+intriguing against him with the ultra-conservative party, claimed the
+throne under the law of Philip V. Henceforth a dynastic question was
+added to the standing constitutional one.
+
+The Carlists declared themselves the champions of legitimacy, the divine
+right, and of absolutism; and thus forced the party of Isabella, the
+Christinos, to appeal for support to the liberal and constitutional
+party, though they had no more real attachment to the cause, and no more
+intelligent appreciation of its benefits than had their opponents. A
+blunder of the liberal party in hesitating to confirm the "_fueros_" of
+the Basques, the last vestige still intact of the ancient constitutional
+and municipal liberties of Spain, greatly strengthened their opponents,
+who at once seized the opportunity and loudly confirmed them. A war of
+seven years followed, in which the older liberal generals lost all their
+former military prestige against Zumalacarregui in the Basque Provinces,
+and against Cabrera in Aragon. But the assistance of England, and still
+more the incapacity of Don Carlos, at length enabled Espartero to finish
+the war by the convention of Vergara, August 30, 1839, by which _fueros_
+were confirmed to the Basques on their laying down arms. Cabrera
+continued the war in Aragon and Catalonia, but two years afterwards was
+forced with his followers to take refuge in France. During this period
+constitutional liberty had apparently made great progress in Spain, and
+several useful reforms had been set on foot. But its course had been
+marred by deeds of atrocious violence, such as the massacre of the monks
+and the destruction of the convents in 1835, when valuable treasures,
+both in art and literature, which had been spared in the great
+Peninsular War, were finally lost. All ecclesiastical and church
+property had been declared national, and the sale of it had been
+commenced, tithes were wholly suppressed, the _mesta_ was
+abolished--with results as to the division of property detailed in a
+former chapter. From the regency of Christina dates, in a great degree,
+the shameless corruption, the selfish intrigues, the abuses of all kinds
+among the upper _employes_, which with rare exceptions have marked every
+subsequent government of Spain. A reaction set in in 1843, with Narvaez
+as its real chief. To his stern administration, however, are due the
+establishment of the normal and technical schools, the foundation of the
+present educational system in Spain, and the institution of the
+_guardias civiles_, a kind of police after the model of the French
+gendarmerie or the Irish constabulary, and which has proved itself the
+most trustworthy body in Spain in defence of law and order under all
+changes of government. It would be a weariness to the reader to recount
+all the changes from liberalism to absolutism which followed during the
+reign of Isabella II. No administration succeeded in impressing on the
+bulk of the nation the fact that it was honest and capable; none won
+respect abroad. Perhaps that of O'Donnell (1858-63), during which
+occurred the successful campaign in Morocco, was the least corrupt and
+inefficient; but the indignation of the country at the shame and
+corruption of both court and government broke forth at last, and a
+movement, headed by Admiral Topete and the fleet at Cadiz, in 1868
+overthrew the Government, forced Isabella to fly, and declared the
+Bourbons incapable of ruling in Spain.
+
+On the abdication of Isabella II. in favour of her son, and her
+retirement into France, a provisional government was formed with
+Serrano, Topete, and Prim as chief members, to hold the reins of power
+until Cortes should elect a new sovereign. The choice proved far more
+difficult than was expected. Topete and others favoured the claims of
+the Duc de Montpensier, the brother-in-law of the late queen, but the
+objection to any of the Bourbon family was at that time too strong;
+others desired to seize the opportunity of uniting Spain and Portugal
+under one head by electing a member of the Portuguese royal family; but
+this was rejected by the princes of Portugal. Two years were spent in
+these debates, but at last the choice of Prim prevailed, and Amadeo,
+the second son of Victor Emmanuel II. of Italy, was elected sovereign,
+16th November, 1870. The murder of his chief supporter, Prim, before he
+reached Madrid, deprived him of the only support which might have
+consolidated his dynasty. Had it not been for the deeply-rooted dislike
+of all Spaniards to a foreign ruler, Amadeo would have proved by far the
+best sovereign that had sat upon the throne for many generations. He
+honestly respected the constitution. His court was pure and incorrupt.
+He was intelligently devoted to the best interests of Spain; but he
+found all his efforts at improvement and reform utterly thwarted by the
+intrigues of the nobility and of the upper _employes_ of every kind, and
+after a trial of two years he resigned a post which he could no longer
+maintain with true dignity and self-respect, and retired to Portugal,
+February 11th, 1873. Thereupon a republic was proclaimed by Cortes, with
+Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall as chief ministers. But the events
+of the last few years, the weakening of the central authority, the
+attention which the Carlist rising in the north had drawn to the ancient
+"_fueros_" or constitutional privileges of Spain, on the one side, and
+the incidents of the war with the Paris Commune in France, together with
+the influence of those of the communists who had found refuge in the
+industrial cities of the east and south, on the other, produced constant
+revolts in favour of a federal or cantonalist government of the
+separate provinces. On July 15th, 1873, Don Carlos (Carlos VII.) the
+grandson of the Don Carlos (Carlos V.) of the seven years' war, although
+both his uncles and his father had solemnly renounced their rights to
+the throne, re-entered the Basque Provinces, from which he had been
+quickly driven by General Moriones at Oroquieta in a former attempt, and
+raised the standard of legitimacy and divine right. On the other hand,
+one after the other, Alcoy, Malaga, Seville, Cadiz, and, a few months
+later, Cartagena and Valencia, revolted in a communistic or cantonalist
+conspiracy which threatened the dismemberment of Spain, and the
+destruction of her armaments. It was only after severe fighting, which
+strained the resources of the Government to the utmost, that these
+cities were subdued. Meanwhile Don Carlos had established himself firmly
+in the Basque Provinces, and his brother Alfonso headed considerable
+forces in Aragon and Catalonia. Fortunately Barcelona held aloof from
+the cantonalist and _intransigente_ movement of Cartagena and Valencia.
+
+These events, however, had shown the necessity of tightening the reins
+of discipline in the army. Salmeron, who was now at the head of the
+ministry, exerted himself to restore order, and endeavoured to work the
+republic in a conservative sense. A year or two after, at the
+instigation of Castelar, the penalty of death for mutiny was again
+enforced. After Moriones and Serrano in the north had both failed in
+their attempts to raise the seige of Bilbao, Concha at last succeeded,
+May 2, 1874; and Martinez Campos, who had crushed the insurrection in
+Valencia, was making way against the Carlists in Aragon and Catalonia.
+Between these generals, with Pavia and others, a conspiracy was formed
+to restore the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII., son of Isabella.
+Serrano offered only a doubtful resistance, and Castelar, opposed by the
+_intransigente_ party, found himself almost alone in upholding a
+conservative republic. The death of Concha, before Estella, in Navarre,
+June 27, 1874, delayed for some months the proclamation of Alphonso, but
+at length it took place, on December 30, 1874, and the republic fell
+without a struggle. Alphonso XII. landed at Barcelona in the first days
+of 1875, and entered Madrid on January 14th. In spite of some checks,
+caused by the incapacity of his generals, his power was quickly
+augmented. Many who, through hatred of the republic and of the
+cantonalist excesses, had joined the Carlist ranks, abandoned the cause
+when monarchy was restored. Don Carlos had proved to be as incapable as
+his grandfather had been, and much less reputable in his private life.
+By the end of August, Martinez Campos had taken Urgel, in Catalonia, and
+by the close of the year he was free to assist Quesada in the Basque
+Provinces. The united armies were successful, and on February 28, 1876,
+Don Carlos entered France, leaving his followers and the Basque
+Provinces entirely at the mercy of the conquerors. The consequence to
+them has been the partial loss of their _fueros_, the incorporation of
+the Basque conscripts with the rest of the army, and the annexation of
+the provinces for the first time to the crown of Spain.
+
+With Alphonso XII. entered Spain, as his chief adviser, Canovas del
+Castillo. Whether nominally prime minister, or out of office, he has
+really held the reins of power--with the exception of the nine months'
+ministry of Martinez Campos in 1879--from 1875 to February, 1881. On the
+whole his exertions have been beneficial to Spain. By an arrangement
+dated January 1, 1877, and by lowering the rate of interest, he saved
+the public credit, which was on the verge of utter bankruptcy.
+Insensibly he has detached himself from the progressive liberal
+movement, and his rule has become more and more conservative. The decree
+for toleration of religion, passed in the first months of the republic
+of 1868, has been greatly modified, and interpreted in a sense more and
+more unfavourable to religious freedom: But he has not succeeded in
+breaking down the many abuses of the administration, or in putting an
+end to the corruption of the upper _employes_, or in insuring freedom
+and purity of parliamentary election; and until this is effected the
+future of Spain must still be doubtful.
+
+
+_Present Constitution and Administration of Spain._
+
+It would be tedious and little instructive to our readers to detail the
+various constitutions under which Spain has been governed since 1812. We
+will give a sketch, as far as we are able, of the last only. By a
+comparison of this with the constitution of Cadiz, it will be seen that,
+in spite of all reactions, Spain has really progressed in the way of
+freedom and good government.
+
+The constitution of the Spanish monarchy, June 30, 1876, declares
+Alphonso XII. de Bourbon to be the legitimate King of Spain. His person
+is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and all his orders
+must be countersigned by a minister. The legislative power resides in
+the Cortes with the king. The Cortes is composed of two legislative
+bodies, equal in power--the Senate and the Congress of Deputies.
+
+The Senate is composed (1) of senators by their own right, who are--sons
+of the kings, grandees of Spain with 3000_l._ yearly income, the
+Captain-General of the Forces, the Admiral-in-Chief, the Patriarch of
+the Indies, the Archbishops, the Presidents of the Council of State, of
+the Supreme Tribunal, of the National Accounts, of the Council of War,
+and of Marine, after two years' service; (2) of life senators, named by
+the crown; (3) of senators elected by the corporations of the State, or
+the richest citizens--half of these must be renewed every five years.
+All senators must be thirty-five years of age, and the number of classes
+(1) and (2) together must not exceed that of the elected senators, which
+is fixed at 180.
+
+The Congress of Deputies is returned by the electoral Juntas, one deputy
+being elected for every 50,000 souls. Deputies are elected by universal
+suffrage, and for a period of five years. The Congress meets every year
+at the summons of the king, who has power to suspend or close the
+session; but in the latter case, a new Congress must meet within three
+months. The president and vice-presidents of the Senate are nominated by
+the king, those of the Congress are elected from its own body. The
+initiation of the laws belongs to the king, and to both legislative
+bodies; but the budget, and all financial matters, must be first
+presented every year to the Congress of Deputies. No one can be
+compelled to pay any tax not voted by Congress, or by the legally
+appointed corporations. The sittings are public, and the person of
+deputies is inviolable. Ministers may be impeached by the deputies, but
+are judged by the Senate.
+
+Justice is administered in the king's name, and judges and magistrates
+are immovable.
+
+The provinces are administered (1) by a governor, who, with his
+immediate subordinates, is nominated by the Government; (2) by a
+Provincial Deputation, elected by the householders of the province. All
+members must be natives of, or residents in, the province; their number
+varies according to the population. (3) Five members elected from the
+Provincial Deputation form a Provincial Commission to conduct business
+when the deputation is not sitting. These authorities and bodies answer
+nearly to the prefects and general councils of the French departments.
+They are of much greater political importance in those provinces which
+have preserved some of their ancient rights than in others.
+
+Below the provincial are the municipal authorities, the Alcaldes
+(mayors), Ayuntamientos (municipal councils), and the Juntas
+Municipales. The internal administration of every parish is entrusted to
+an Ayuntamiento or municipal council, elected by the residents, and
+composed of the Alcalde or mayor, the Tenientes or assistants, the
+Regidores or councillors. The Junta Municipal is composed of all the
+councillors of the Ayuntamiento, and an assembly of three times their
+number, and by them the municipal accounts are to be audited and
+revised. The number of the Ayuntamiento varies according to the
+population; one Alcalde, one Teniente, six Regidores, for 1000; and one
+Alcalde, ten Tenientes, thirty-three Regidores, for 100,000. The real
+independence and free action of these bodies varies much in different
+provinces and in different circumstances. The smaller bodies are quite
+under the thumb of the central government; the larger ones in the great
+towns and in the more independent provinces are much less easily
+influenced.
+
+The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman is declared to be the religion of the
+State, and the nation is bound to maintain its worship and its
+ministers. "But no one shall be molested on Spanish ground for his
+religious opinions, nor for the exercise of his respective worship,
+except it be against Christian morals. Nevertheless, no other ceremonies
+or public manifestations shall be permitted than those of the religion
+of the State." These last two articles are evidently equivocal, and
+subject to great diversity of interpretation and of application.
+
+All foreigners are free to settle in Spanish territory, and to exercise
+therein their respective trades and professions, with the exception of
+those which require special titles. The expression of opinion, the
+press, the right of public meeting, of association, and of petition,
+except from armed bodies, are respectively free. No Spaniard or
+foreigner can be arrested or detained illegally. He must either be set
+at liberty or be brought before a judge within twenty-four hours of his
+arrest. No Spaniard can be arrested without a judge's warrant, and the
+case must then be heard within seventy-two hours after his arrest;
+otherwise he must be set at liberty on his own petition or on that of
+any other Spaniard. Domicile is inviolable. Such are the principal
+articles of the present Spanish Constitution. In spite of the excess of
+some republican governments and the reaction of others, real progress
+has been made, excepting only in the equivocal law on religion, and that
+on marriages between Catholics and Protestants.
+
+
+_Administrative Spain._
+
+For military purposes, Spain is mapped out into five "capitanias
+generales," conferring the rank of field-marshal on the possessors of
+that office. The number of marshals, generals, and superior officers of
+the special corps in active service is over 500. The number of the army
+on a peace footing is fixed at 90,000, the infantry numbering 60,000,
+the cavalry 16,000, artillery 10,000, and engineers 4000. Universal
+conscription is nominally obligatory, but with the power of purchasing a
+substitute for a fixed sum of 80_l._ The time of service is eight years,
+four of which are spent in the active army and four in the reserve. In
+the colonies the time is four years only, the whole of which must be
+spent in active service. Besides the regular army in Spain are the corps
+and garrisons in the Philippine Islands, in Porto Rico, and in Cuba,
+where the mortality is so great that the troops need constant renewal.
+In addition to the above must be reckoned the militia of the Canary
+Islands, the "guardias civiles," a kind of constabulary like that of
+Ireland or the gendarmerie of France. These are about 15,000 men, and
+are some of the best and most trustworthy troops in Spain; the
+carabineros or custom-house officers, who guard the frontiers, form
+another corps of about 12,000. Towards the close of the late Carlist and
+Cuban wars the actual army was far above these numbers, and it is
+probable that 150,000 men were under arms on the side of the Government
+in the Basque Provinces alone. The Spanish soldier is one of the best in
+Europe, if properly commanded. He is sober, and has great powers of
+endurance; is an excellent marcher, and a trustworthy sentinel;
+persistent both in attack and defence, he still retains the steadiness
+of the old Spanish "tercios," which were once the terror and admiration
+of Europe. The Basques under Zumalacarregui in the first Carlist war,
+and the Catalans under Martinez Campos in the last, earned high praise
+from all foreign officers who saw them. But too often these fine
+qualities of the private have been rendered of no avail, owing to the
+utter want of skill and competency in the officers and commanders, and
+still more by reckless corruption and mismanagement in all things
+relating to the commissariat and supplies. Another element of
+deterioration has been the use of the soldiery as mere tools of
+political intrigue in the frequent revolts and _pronunciamientos_ of
+ambitious generals. The scientific corps, however, the artillery and
+engineers, have always stood aloof from sedition. It was an attempt to
+corrupt the former and to assimilate it in this respect to the rest of
+the army, which led to the abdication of King Amadeo. The generals who
+have achieved the greatest reputation in the Spanish army are Quesada
+and Martinez Campos. Moriones, who distinguished himself in the Basque
+Provinces during the last Carlist war, has lately died. Blanco and
+Jovellar acquired distinction in Cuba, and Loma as a good brigadier in
+the Carlist war. Serrano, Pavia, and others are better known in the
+field of politics than in that of military action.
+
+For naval purposes the coast of Spain is divided into three
+departments--Ferrol, Cadiz, and Cartagena, at each of which ports is a
+naval arsenal. The jurisdiction of the marine extends as far as the tide
+and seventy feet beyond. The three departments, are divided into
+_tercios navales_, _partidos maritimos_, and districts. The Spanish navy
+consists of 121 ships, five of which are armoured vessels of the first
+class, and eleven unarmoured; eighteen belong to the second class, and
+fifty-six to the third, some of which are monitors and armoured
+gunboats. There are also thirty-one smaller vessels, and a few ships
+employed for training and for harbour services. The whole fleet mounts
+525 guns, and is over 20,000 horse-power. The sailors number 14,000,
+with 504 officers of all ranks, and the marine infantry 7000, with 374
+officers. The old fame of Spanish ship-building, except for small
+vessels, has almost entirely passed away. In the great war at the
+beginning of the century, the finest vessels of our navy were prizes
+taken from Spain. Spanish navigators, too, have long lost their old
+renown, though the Basques are still esteemed as mariners. The ironclad
+frigates and monitors of modern Spain have been almost all constructed
+in foreign dockyards. The armoured gunboats, however, built in Spain are
+a good and useful model.
+
+The merchant marine consists of 226 ocean-going steamers and 1578 ocean
+sailing-vessels measuring altogether 460,000 tons. Smaller vessels make
+up a total of 3000 merchant-ships, less than one-fifth of the number of
+those of Great Britain.
+
+For the administration of justice the country is divided into Audiencias
+Territoriales, Provincias, and Partidos Judiciales. The Audiencias, or
+courts of appeal, are fifteen, with 373 judges or procureurs. There are
+also 500 judges of first instance, and there is also a justice of peace
+or alcalde in each town or municipality. All pleadings are still
+conducted in writing in Spain; there is no verbal examination or
+cross-examination in public. Suits both civil and criminal are thus
+dragged out to an inordinate length. Judges are still suspected of being
+open to bribery, and confidence in the just administration of the law is
+as a consequence severely shaken. It is not uncommon for witnesses to be
+summoned to testify to facts which happened many years before, and it
+not unfrequently happens that either the principal witnesses or the
+criminal himself is dead before the case is decided. As a conspicuous
+instance, we may remind our readers that General Prim was assassinated
+in open day in Madrid in 1870, and the case has not yet been adjudged.
+The discipline of the prisons is in general extremely lax, and many
+crimes, especially forgeries, are there concocted with impunity. There
+is, however, a great difference in the treatment of the prisoners in
+different prisons. Up to 1840 the office of Alcaide, or governor of a
+prison, was sold by the Government to the highest bidder, and the
+purchasers made the most they could out of the wretched prisoners by
+starving them or by accepting bribes for illicit indulgences, and for
+furnishing what they were bound to provide, so that it was commonly said
+"that the _bagnios_ of Algiers were less terrible than the prisons of
+Spain." Perhaps the worst of them all, up to the year 1833, was the old
+prison of the city of Madrid, one dark dungeon of which was termed "El
+Infierno"--Hell. Almost as bad was the Prison de Corte and the famous
+Saladero. There was no classification, no cleanliness, and in some of
+the cells neither light nor ventilation. In some of the country prisons
+the cells were like the dens of a menagerie, and the starving prisoners
+thrust their hands through the bars to beg food of passers-by. At last
+has arisen an ardent band of philanthropists, of whom Senors Lastres and
+Vilalva are at the head, and the first stone of a new prison in Madrid,
+arranged on modern principles, was laid by the king in February, 1877.
+
+Hospitals, lunatic asylums, and asylums for the sick and aged poor, and
+other charitable establishments are of very varied descriptions in
+Spain. Some of them, like the famous establishments of Cadiz, Seville,
+Madrid, Cartagena, Valencia, and Cordova, are admirably managed, and
+yield in practical benefit to none of other lands. The first lunatic
+asylum ever founded was that at Valencia by Padre Jofre Gilanext, in
+1409; three others, at Saragossa, Toledo, and Seville were founded in
+the fifteenth century. That of Barcelona is said to be now the best
+public lunatic asylum in Spain. Many others are nearly as good, while
+one or two of the private asylums near Madrid are excellent; but in
+some provinces these establishments, both public and private, are still
+in a very wretched state.
+
+Since 1848 there have been a little over 4000 miles of railway laid down
+in Spain. The principal lines are the two which run from the extreme
+ends of the French Pyrenees to the capital, connecting Spain with the
+great European communications. Next in importance are those from the
+Mediterranean ports Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena, to Madrid; Malaga and
+Granada are connected with the metropolis by the line from Cadiz. A
+rather circuitous route by Badajoz, Ciudad Real, and Toledo is the only
+line at present open to Lisbon, but a more direct one is in course of
+construction. The communications with the extreme north-west are not yet
+completed, but the branch of the Great Northern Company from Santander,
+which brings the products of the Asturian coal-fields to Madrid, is of
+great importance. Other valuable lines are those of the valley of the
+Ebro, from Miranda del Ebro by Saragossa to Barcelona. Should any of the
+schemes projected for a direct route from Paris to Madrid, by any of the
+central passes of the Pyrenees, through Saragossa, be carried into
+effect, the line from the latter place to Madrid will be one of
+considerable traffic. The coast-line from Barcelona to Valencia is of
+great value to one of the richest wine and fruit districts of Spain.
+Shorter lines, which may have a considerable influence on the welfare
+of the country, are those which connect the great mineral fields with
+the chief lines of transport or with the nearest port. It has been
+remarked that hitherto, with some exceptions, Spanish railways have had
+less influence in developing local traffic than those of any other
+European country. The Great Northern lines, too, have suffered seriously
+from interruptions caused by civil war, by floods, and other accidents
+since 1868.
+
+The total length of the telegraph lines is nearly 10,000 miles. The
+number of public offices is 324, of private, 12; the telegrams
+despatched amounted in 1877 to 2,023,579, of which about half were
+private despatches for the interior. The expenses of working were
+165,076_l._, and the receipts 156,950_l._, leaving a deficit of 8126_l._
+
+The number of post-offices in 1877 was 2530, of letters 78,446,000;
+postal cards, 1,040,000; newspapers, 38,479,000; books and samples,
+5,767,000. To Great Britain were despatched, in 1879: Letters and postal
+cards, 1,083,000; books, &c., 317,900; total, 1,400,900. From Great
+Britain: Letters and postal cards, 931,100; books, &c., 646,100; total,
+1,577,200. The receipts from the post-office in 1877 were 361,704_l._,
+while the expenditure was 297,412_l._, leaving a surplus of 64,292_l._
+
+
+_The Finances of Spain._
+
+The most prominent circumstance in the financial condition of Spain is
+the startling increase of the public debt since the revolution of 1868.
+The capital of the debt was then 212,443,600_l._, the interest of which
+was 5,580,000_l._ The funds, three per cents, were then at 33. In 1880
+the capital of the debt amounted to 515,000,000_l._ Since 1870, by abuse
+of credit, the interest of the debt had been paid from the capital; then
+one-third of the interest was paid in paper, with a promise to pay the
+remaining two-thirds in coin; this engagement was soon broken, but the
+paper was punctually paid until 1874, when the interest of the debt was
+erased from the budget. In face of the evident bankruptcy of the
+country, an arrangement was made in 1876 between the Government and the
+principal foreign fund-holders, by which, from January 1, 1877, to June
+30, 1881, inclusive, the interest to be paid on the three per cents was
+reduced to one per cent., and that on the six per cents to two per cent.
+From June 30, 1881, to June 30, 1882, one and a quarter per cent. will
+be paid, and arrangements as to future payments are to be made before
+the last-mentioned date, and a return to a full interest of three and
+six per cent. is to follow at fixed periods. The success of the scheme
+is shown by the fact that in 1876 the three per cents, still nominally
+paying three per cent. interest, were at 11-1/2; in January, 1881,
+paying only one per cent. interest, they were quoted at 22; and the six
+per cents, paying only two per cent. interest, were at 42.
+
+From the above statement we may gather some idea of what the civil wars
+of the republic, the cantonal, Carlist, and Cuban insurrections, joined
+to the expensive experiments of well-intentioned but inexperienced
+financiers, in remitting taxes while the public burdens were increasing,
+have cost the nation. A calm observer, Mr. Phipps, in his official
+report to the British Government, calculates that from 1868 to 1876 the
+addition to the debt from these causes amounted to at least
+260,000,000_l._, considerably more than the total debt of Spain in 1868.
+
+Notwithstanding the plausible balance-sheets annually submitted to
+Congress, the revenue and expenditure of Spain are still far from being
+in a satisfactory condition. The writer above quoted states that
+"enormous deficits in the budgets (however nominally balanced) have been
+the invariable rule in Spain during a long course of years, under every
+sort of _regime_ and under all circumstances." In the last budget,
+1879-80, the revenue is stated at 32,494,552_l._, and the expenditure at
+33,129,484_l._ Supposing these figures to be correct, the deficit,
+634,932_l._, would be far less than for many years past.
+
+The principal sources of Spanish revenue are, in round numbers:--
+
+    Direct Taxes                      L10,500,000
+    Indirect ditto                      5,500,000
+    Customs                             4,500,000
+    Stamps and Government Monopolies    9,000,000
+    National Property                   1,750,000
+    Miscellaneous.                      1,000,000
+                                       ----------
+                                      L32,250,000
+
+Of these the items most foreign to an Englishman's notion of taxation
+are the produce of the seven great tobacco factories, Seville, Madrid,
+Santander, Gijon, Corunna, Valencia, and Alicante, of which the net
+revenue is over 2,500,000_l._, the lotteries, which bring in
+5000,000_l._ net, the consumo tax, a kind of octroi, and the territorial
+tax, which together furnish the largest contribution to the revenue. The
+national property comprises the Almaden quicksilver-mines, valued at
+over 250,000_l._ per annum, the Linares mines, leased at 20,000_l._, and
+other sources about 30,000_l._ annually.
+
+The heaviest item in the expenditure is the interest on the national
+debt, over 11,500,000_l._; the ministry of war and the navy exceeds
+6,000,000_l._, while pensions absorb 1,750,000_l._, public works over
+3,000,000_l._, finance over 5,000,000_l._, administration of justice
+more than 2,000,000_l._; the ministry of the interior, Cortes, the
+civil list, &c., make up the remainder.
+
+The total imports and exports of Spain were:--
+
+             Imports.       Exports.
+    In 1877, L16,340,672  L18,175,140
+    In 1878,  15,910,016   17,172,596
+    In 1879,  17,730,756   20,155,964
+
+But of this increased prosperity far more than her share has fallen to
+France, owing chiefly to its being put in the same category with
+Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Austria, as _most favoured_ nations, who
+import their goods under the customs tariff of July 17, 1877, while
+England and the United States continue-under the old tariff, as
+_favoured_ nations only. This disproportion will probably be still more
+marked, owing to the immense importation of Spanish wines into France
+required to make up for losses by the phylloxera disease; while the
+exportation of sherry to England has been gradually lessening for some
+years, and now we take only some 4 per cent, of the quantity, and 12 per
+cent in value, of the wine exported from Spain. One of our chief imports
+into Spain, coal, is likely also to diminish, owing to the development
+of the native coal-fields in the Asturias and in Andalusia. Our other
+chief exports from Spain in fruits and minerals largely increase. The
+present wine tariff of England, by which she virtually refuses to
+purchase the bulk of Spanish wines in their natural state, while
+importing them largely when mixed with inferior French white wines, and
+treated as clarets, &c., is felt by Spaniards to be so unfair that,
+until this system is modified there is little hope of obtaining a better
+tariff for English manufactures; while the making Gibraltar an immense
+depot for a contraband trade is a wrong that rankles in the mind of all
+southern Spaniards. The decline of the English import trade into Spain
+would be much more marked but for the immense amount of English capital
+employed in the larger mining and industrial enterprises.
+
+The battle between protection and free trade is not yet fought out in
+Spain. The manufacturing districts of Catalonia and the east coast
+clamour loudly for protection, while the mining and agricultural and
+wine-growing interests demand free trade. It is impossible to say on
+which side the balance may turn. A conservative Government would
+probably favour the former, while a liberal ministry might venture upon
+the latter system.
+
+Heavy as the public debt of Spain undoubtedly is, and serious as are the
+charges imposed upon her by the still unsettled political condition of
+the country and of its principal colony--Cuba, she might more than pay
+the interest of her debts at the present rate of interest, and balance
+the expenditure, but for the administrative corruption and utter want
+of political morality, the fruit of long years of financial abuses, and
+which has become almost a fixed habit amongst all classes of the
+inhabitants. The Government seems to be a mark for fraud to every class,
+from millionaire bankers and the largest landed proprietors down to the
+ill-paid _employe_ who ekes out his scanty salary by accepting petty
+bribes, and the labourer or fisherman on the frontier who never misses
+the occasion of smuggling. It is easy to prove the truth of these
+assertions. In 1877, in an official report, Mr. Phipps writes: "A few
+English, French, and Spanish bankers advance money to Spain, with safe
+security, on conditions as disastrous to the treasury as they are
+discreditable to themselves." The territorial tax, which forms
+one-fourth of the whole internal revenue is notoriously levied on only
+54 per cent, of the whole area of the country. In some provinces not
+two-thirds of the whole is returned at all, and much land that is
+productive is returned as uncultivated. From the extent of the
+contraband trade and the corruption of the custom-house officers, the
+amount levied on imports and exports can hardly be above two-thirds of
+their proper value. In fact, what Spain needs above everything at
+present is an honest and impartial administration. The causes of her
+poverty lie not so much in bad laws or a faulty constitution, but in a
+corrupt and negligent administration. The system of empleomania,
+whereby nearly every ill-paid _employe_ is almost forced to pillage,
+the preference of this ill-paid idleness and of professional poverty to
+honest toil in trade or agriculture--these are the true foes to the
+prosperity of Spain. For party and political purposes, taxes are relaxed
+for those who should bear their equal share of the burden, only to fall
+with crushing weight on the honest workers, unconnected with, or who
+refuse to bribe the administration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+EDUCATION AND RELIGION.
+
+
+The fame of the Spanish universities has greatly fallen from what it was
+in the early Middle Ages, when Salamanca ranked with Bologna, Paris, and
+Oxford, as one of the four great universities in Europe; when its halls
+were thronged with thousands of eager though needy scholars, and it was
+the centre whence Semitic learning and civilization spread to the rest
+of Europe. Even in a later day, in the sixteenth century, under the
+patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, the university of Alcala de Henares
+(Complutum) flashed into sudden fame as one of the great offshoots of
+the Renaissance, with its 7800 students, and its noble production of the
+first great Polyglot Bible since primitive times. In the eighteenth
+century, however, this learning had all but disappeared from Spain, and
+the education given in its universities was all but worthless. Little
+was effected towards any true revival or improvement until 1845, though
+something had been attempted before this in secondary education by the
+successive reforms of 1771, 1807, and especially of 1824 and 1836.
+
+The universities of Spain are now ten: Madrid, with 6672 students;
+Barcelona with 2459; Valencia, 2118; Seville, 1382; Granada, 1225;
+Valladolid, 880; Santiago de Compostella, 779; Saragossa, 771;
+Salamanca, 372; and Oviedo with 216: making a total of 16,874 university
+students. The number of regular professors is 415, with 240
+supernumeraries and assistants, making a total of 655; that is, one
+professor to every 26 students. The salary of the professors varies from
+120_l._ to 260_l._ per annum, except in Madrid, where it is from 160_l._
+to 300_l._ The budget of the whole universities is a little over
+1,000,000_l._, and the expenditure slightly in excess, leaving a deficit
+in 1879 of 4600_l._. The average cost of each student to the university
+is a little over 6_l._.
+
+Though the above institutions are all classed as universities by the
+State, yet the course of instruction is by no means the same in all. At
+Madrid alone the whole programme of university education is followed
+out. This comprises the faculties of civil, canon, and administrative
+law, of philosophy and literature, of science, of medicine, and of
+pharmacy. Since 1868 theology is no longer studied in the universities,
+but in the seminaries, of which there is one in each diocese, under the
+direction of the bishop. The total number of pupils studying in these
+institutions is 8562. At Valladolid are two theological colleges for
+English, Scotch, and Irish students, established, one at the close of
+the sixteenth, the other by the Jesuits at the close of the eighteenth
+century.
+
+Law is studied in all the Spanish universities, and medicine in all but
+one--Oviedo; Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, and Compostella have faculties
+of pharmacy, under which head a certain amount of natural science is
+taught; of the exact sciences there are chairs only at Madrid,
+Barcelona, and Salamanca; philosophy and literature are studied in
+Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Salamanca, Seville, and Saragossa. In
+Oviedo, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, only the first year's or
+preparatory course of law is read, this consists of Latin, general
+literature, and universal history.
+
+Besides these State universities, there are several institutions
+supported by the provincial deputations; for instance, there is a
+faculty of medicine in Seville supported by the province, another in
+Salamanca at the joint expense of the province and of the municipality.
+In addition to these there are technical schools for the study of
+special branches of industry or of administration, such as those of
+roads, canals, and harbours, of mines, and of forests, in Madrid and
+Villa Viciosa. A school of industrial engineering, and of the
+application of chemistry and mechanics, is working at Barcelona. There
+are technical schools of commerce at Madrid and at Barcelona. Schools or
+colleges of veterinary science are to be found in Madrid, Saragossa,
+Cordova, and Leon. Naval schools are established in Santa Cruz
+(Teneriffe), in Palma (Majorca), in Masnou (Barcelona), in San
+Sebastian, supported by the funds of the provinces; there is also one at
+Gijon, in the Asturias, founded by Jovellanos; two other private
+foundations also exist at Lequeito and Santurce in Biscay. In Madrid
+there is a special school of architecture, and also one of painting,
+sculpture, and engraving. Excellent schools of the fine arts exist in
+Barcelona, Cadiz, Corunna, Granada, Malaga, Oviedo, Seville, Valencia,
+Valladolid, Saragossa, and at Palma in the Balearic Isles; this last is
+remarkable for the number of its pupils and its generally flourishing
+condition.
+
+In each of the forty-nine provinces of Spain are institutions of
+superior or secondary education. With the exception of the institutes of
+Cardinal Cisneros and of San Isidro at Madrid, which depend on the
+Government, and which hold the first and third rank as to the number of
+their pupils, these institutions are supported by the funds of the
+provinces or municipalities, but the professors are nominated by the
+Government; besides those in the capital of each province, there are
+also 11 others in various large towns in Spain. There are also 356
+colleges of secondary education affiliated to the institutes, 58 of
+which are under religious corporations, making a total of 417
+establishments of secondary education, with 2730 professors who have all
+taken degrees in science or literature.
+
+The institutes give instruction to 14,872 pupils, and the colleges to
+almost the same number, 14,290; home or private education absorbs 4476;
+making a total in 1880 of 33,638; more than three times the number in
+1848, and, including the episcopal seminaries, giving one pupil to every
+398 inhabitants. All these pupils are admitted to the official
+examinations, and take their degrees equally on passing them. It is
+found that 13 per cent of the candidates are rejected at the
+examinations, 43.8 per cent. simply pass, and 43.1 gain honours of
+various kinds; while 9 per cent. take the degree of Bachelor from the
+colleges, and 37.2 proceed to take it from the universities.
+
+The salary of the masters is from 120_l._ to 180_l._ (except in Madrid
+where it is from 160_l._ to 220_l._), with a right to a portion of the
+fees for matriculation and degrees. The supernumerary masters receive
+60_l._ in Madrid and 40_l._ in the provinces; auxiliary masters are
+unpaid. Pensions of 20_l._ are sometimes given to poor but distinguished
+pupils. The cost of all the institutes is 118,935_l._, the income,
+44,818_l._, leaving a deficit of 74,117_l._ to be supplied either by the
+State, the provinces, or the municipalities.
+
+The course of instruction is two-fold, general and special. The general
+comprises: Spanish and Latin grammar, two courses; rhetoric and poetry,
+geography, history of Spain, universal history, psychology, logic and
+ethics, arithmetic and algebra, geometry and trigonometry, physics and
+the elements of chemistry, natural history, physiology and hygiene, and
+elementary agriculture. The special courses are those of agriculture,
+the fine arts, manufactures and commerce.
+
+Of public schools of primary instruction there are about 23,000 of all
+grades and classes, 1308 are infant schools and 1400 are for male and
+100 for female adults.
+
+The great drawback in the higher education of Spain is the
+disproportionate number of students in law, medicine, or pharmacy, in
+comparison with the few who cultivate the special branches of
+agriculture, industrial or commercial science. Hence the former
+professions are overstocked, with results productive of far-reaching
+evils to the country and to the administration. Notwithstanding its far
+inferior population the number of students in Spain who take their
+degrees in law and medicine is almost treble that of France and of
+Germany, while the total of degrees conferred in all the faculties of
+Spain is equal to that of France, which has double the population.
+Nothing more plainly shows the character of the people, and the mischief
+of "_empleomania_" than such a fact in a country whose natural riches
+in agriculture and mining are so great and so little developed, where
+there is so large a field for industrial enterprises of many kinds, and
+where the fruits of all these are at present almost wholly reaped by
+foreigners.
+
+The primary education of Spain, though nominally everywhere alike, is
+really so very varied as to defy any average description. A few of her
+infant schools are equal to the best of those of other countries. Where
+the provincial deputations or the municipalities take an interest in
+education the primary schools are very fair, but in other parts the
+education is little more than nominal, and the schoolmaster's
+appointment is well-nigh a sinecure both in pay and labour; and probably
+at the present moment, notwithstanding the great improvements of late
+years, two-thirds of the people can still neither read nor write.
+
+
+_Church and Religion._
+
+From the time of the OEcumenical Council of Nicea, A.D. 325, with the
+brief exception of the reigns of the Arian Visigoth kings, Spain has
+been the champion of orthodoxy in religion. From early times too the
+demarcation between Church and State has been less marked, or rather the
+influence of the former over the latter has been more constant and more
+powerful, than in perhaps any other European kingdom. The great councils
+of Toledo were scarcely more ecclesiastical than civil assemblies. The
+recognition of the sovereign, the order of succession, the validity of
+the laws, were either settled or sanctioned therein. Later, in the great
+struggle with the Moors, through the antagonism of exclusive beliefs,
+the war assumed the character of a religious crusade. The semi-monastic
+Spanish military orders, the preaching of the monks, the sanction and
+the bulls of the Popes--auxiliaries which the kings of Spain were forced
+to summon to their aid--gave a complexion to the conquest and to the
+national character quite different to what might have been the case had
+the contest been fought out by the sovereign, the lay warriors, and the
+civil power alone. Thus the triumph of the Christian over the Moor
+became in some sort also the triumph of the Roman over the national
+Spanish Church. The Mozarabic liturgy gave way to that of Rome. The
+peculiar institution of the inquisition, following on that of the Santa
+Hermandad in civil matters, developed in Spain a degree of power to
+which it never attained in other lands. The certainty and the secrecy of
+its proceedings, the mingled pomp and horror of its "autos de fe," the
+whispers and the shudder with which men told of the tortures of its
+hidden processes, deeply impressed and captivated the imagination of a
+people singularly greedy of, and susceptible to, strong and vivid
+emotions. The chivalrous respect for women, heightened by the reserve
+and half-seclusion which the Spanish knights had learned from the Moors,
+was transformed in the sphere of religion into an almost ardent passion
+of devotion to the Blessed Virgin. Centuries before the doctrine of the
+Immaculate Conception was proclaimed by Pius IX. the cry of the Spanish
+beggar heard at every door throughout her vast dominions was, "Ave Maria
+purisima, sin pecado concebida." Spain had been the champion of
+Christendom against the Jews and against the Moors; she had without
+remorse violated every compact she had sworn with the latter, and she
+became equally the champion of Roman Catholicism against the
+Reformation. Though Philip II. failed in his great armed struggle with
+the northern powers, and wasted and destroyed therein all the real
+resources of Spain, yet Spanish theologians were among the most eloquent
+and the most learned in the Council of Trent; and it was the Jesuits of
+Spain who headed the reaction of the seventeenth century, and who won
+back all but the Teutonic and Scandinavian races to the allegiance of
+Rome. This glory of Catholicism is never absent from the heart of a
+Spaniard. His whole literature is steeped in it; it inspires Spain's
+greatest painters. It is this deep but unconscious feeling that
+Protestanism is un-Spanish which is the real stronghold of Catholicism
+in Spain, and which, in spite of spoliation and political subjection,
+still gives the clerical party there a greater power than they possess
+in other countries. Yet the few Spaniards who embraced the reformed
+doctrines in the sixteenth century were not inferior to those of other
+lands in earnestness, in learning, in eloquence, or in high position,
+both in Church and State. There was just a moment when the court of
+Charles V. hovered on the verge of protest against Rome. When, as before
+related, the liberties of Spain fell beneath the iron rule of the
+Austrian sovereigns, it was the Church, by the hand of one of its
+greatest ornaments, Cardinal Ximenes, which became the willing
+instrument of despotism. In return for the servility of the court, and
+the presence and the sanction of the sovereign at the "autos," the
+inquisition lent its aid to the monarchy, and its assistance was called
+in to suppress the trade in horses, so senselessly forbidden, on the
+northern frontier. In the seventeenth century, however, the Spanish
+court fell under the influence of the French encyclopaedists. The Jesuits
+were banished in 1767. We need not detail again the various vicissitudes
+of the abolition and re-establishment of the inquisition, of the
+suppression of tithes, of the sale of Church property, the destruction
+of the monasteries, and the exile of the monks, the effects of which
+have been sufficiently indicated above.
+
+[Illustration: VESPERS.]
+
+Since the Concordat of 1851, Spain is ruled ecclesiastically by nine
+archbishops; those of Toledo (the primate of all Spain), Burgos,
+Saragossa, Tarragona, Valencia, Granada, Seville, Valladolid, and
+Compostella, under whom are forty-six bishops, with their chapters, and
+about 35,000 clergy. The mode of episcopal appointment is this: the
+king presents three names to the Pope, of which his Holiness selects
+one, who is forthwith nominated to the vacant see. Since 1868,
+theological education is entirely under the hands of the bishops, who
+have a seminary in each diocese. The clergy are paid by the State; but
+the stipends of the country priests are said to be frequently in arrear.
+In some parts of Spain, as in the manufacturing towns of Barcelona,
+religion has to a great extent lost its hold upon the people; in other
+parts, as in the Basque Provinces, the majority are still devout. Since
+1871 a reaction from extremes of scepticism and advanced socialistic
+views is manifest in many of the most popular writers. A small but
+increasing body of Protestants has been established since 1868; but the
+vicissitudes of revolution and reaction, and the present ambiguous state
+of the law have acted unfavourably on the movement. The pastors have
+honourably distinguished themselves by their zeal for the education of
+the classes utterly neglected by the dominant Church. On the whole, the
+clerical party in Spain, considered as a political body, seems gradually
+sinking into a like condition to that of France. It is powerful enough
+to thwart and check the policy of its opponents, but impotent to carry
+out its own measures. The extreme Ultramontane party, for whom the Comte
+de Chambord is too liberal and Pope Leo XIII. too comprehensive, has
+lately adopted the banner of the Carlists. Whatever the future of Spain
+may be, it is not probable that the Church will ever attain again the
+political influence and the exclusive control of education which it
+possessed in the past, in spite of the undoubted talents and virtues of
+many of its upholders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+LITERATURE AND THE ARTS.
+
+
+Though one of the most interesting countries of Europe with regard to
+architecture, Spain can lay claim to no style peculiar to itself, or
+that originated wholly within the Peninsula. It contains, however, noble
+specimens of art and architecture of very varied epochs and character,
+from the work of the unknown sculptors who carved the so-called "toros"
+of Guisando and erected the huge dolmens and other megalithic monuments
+so thickly strewed over its soil, to the architects and artists of the
+present day. Almost all the races which have trodden the land have left
+monuments upon it--the Carthaginians, perhaps, the fewest. Scarcely
+anywhere else does the solid, practical character of Roman architecture
+appear more fully than in the amphitheatres, aqueducts, and especially
+in the bridges of Spain. The amphitheatres, temples, and walls of
+Murviedro (Saguntum), Tarragona, Toledo, Coria, Plasencia; the aqueducts
+of Merida, Seville, and Segovia; the bridges of Tuy over the Minho, of
+Zamora over the Douro, Salamanca over the Tormes, of Alcantara,
+Garrovillas de Alconetar, and Puente del Arzobispo over the Tagus, of
+Merida and Medellin over the Guadiana, of Seville, Cordova, and Ubeda
+over the Guadalquiver, and of Lerida over the Segre, are noble relics of
+Roman work. Of the period when Roman art was gradually modified under
+Christian influences, and the basilica was transformed into the
+Christian church, very few remains exist. To the Vandal and Gothic
+conquerors belong part of the walls of Toledo, and a few chapels and
+small churches in the north and north-west may belong in part to this
+date (417-717); but the most peculiar artistic remains of this period
+are the jewellers' and goldsmiths' work, preserved in the metal crowns
+and treasure of Guarrazar (624-672), of a style which, though probably
+derived from the East through Byzantium, continued to influence Spanish
+goldsmiths' work down to the eleventh century.
+
+[Illustration: GIRALDA OF SEVILLE.
+
+_Page 197._]
+
+The architecture and art of the race that succeeded to the Visigoths is
+of much more notable character. The civil and religious architecture of
+the Spanish Arabs is well worthy of most careful study, and is a grand
+example of the artistic talent of a race which, though debarred by its
+religious faith from the reproduction of human, or even of animal form,
+and delighting neither in the scenes of the theatre or the circus, has
+yet left masterpieces of architectural beauty in lands so wide apart as
+Spain, Egypt, Persia, and Hindostan. The architecture of the Arabs in
+Spain may be roughly divided into three periods: The first, from the
+eighth to the tenth century, tells most clearly of its origin as an
+imitation or modification of the Byzantine style; its masterpiece is the
+Mosque of Cordova. The second period, from the tenth to the thirteenth
+centuries, shows the architects seeking their real style--it is a period
+of transition; its finest erection is the Giralda of Seville. The third
+period is when the Moorish style acquired its fullest development in the
+glorious Alhambra, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries.
+Contemporary with the last period is the Mudejar style, the modification
+which Arabic art underwent in the hands of the Christian conquerors. To
+this belong the Alcazar of Seville, 1353; the Mudejar gates of Toledo
+and Saragossa, and the Chapel of St. James in Alcala de Henares. In
+their domestic architecture the Arabs alone have almost solved the
+problem how to unite ventilation and ornament by means of currents of
+air of different temperatures. The pendulous stucco fretwork by which
+they conceal the angles of their apartments serves not only for ornament
+but to equalize the temperature and to admit of concealed openings
+whereby air can penetrate without draught or chill. The sense of true
+harmony of colour seems to be an intuitional gift of Oriental races, and
+is practically understood by them as it never has been by any other. The
+Mosaics of Greece and Rome, and those of mediaeval Italy, in their
+storied designs, appeal more to the intellect; but those of Arabic art
+rest and charm the eye by the purity and harmonious blending of tone as
+do none other. In spite of some apparent exceptions, and those of the
+earliest date, as the Mosque of Cordova (788), and the cloisters of
+Tayloon at Cairo (879), Arabic architecture, like Grecian, depended for
+its effect more on the exquisite symmetry and exact proportion of all
+details to a consummate whole, than to impressions of awe derived from
+vast size or immense solidity. It is thus that the massive Roman arch
+became moulded into the light horse-shoe shape, peculiar to the Spanish
+Arabs from the eighth to the tenth centuries. The originality of this
+architecture is not, however, so great as appears at first sight. The
+influence of Byzantine architecture and of that of the Christian
+churches with which the Arabs had become acquainted during their
+conquests, and of constant accessions from Oriental art, can be clearly
+traced therein. But in Spain there is perhaps a juster proportion, a
+greater variety and richness of ornamentation and colour than is to be
+found elsewhere. The grandest of Moorish buildings in Spain is
+undoubtedly one of the earliest, the great Mosque of Cordova, with its
+forest of 1200 columns, its fifty-seven naves, nineteen gates, and
+upwards of 4000 lamps, recalling the impression produced by the Egyptian
+hall of Karnac at Thebes,--an impression so vivid that even the
+iconoclast emperor, Charles V., whose own palace mars the beauty of the
+Alhambra, rebuked the Archbishop of Cordova for destroying what he never
+could replace, when he cut away some of the columns to make room for a
+Christian chapel. Not less beautiful in their graceful proportions than
+the Campanile of Italy are the minarets and towers of Arabian art in
+Spain, as the Giralda of Seville and others; even the quaintness of the
+leaning tower of Pisa finds its counterpart in the leaning tower of
+Saragossa. The Moorish gates of Toledo, of Seville, and the Alcazar of
+Segovia show how castellated strength may be wedded to artistic
+elegance; but the most perfect union at once of fortress and of palace
+is to be found in the noble group of buildings known as the Alhambra, on
+the hill of Granada. Though trembling on the verge of debasement when
+the severer forms of Arabian art were beginning to admit the
+representation of animal shapes, whose rude sculpture forms a contrast
+to the exquisite correctness of the alphabetic and geometrical designs
+which ornament the walls, these buildings may yet be regarded as marking
+the culmination of Moorish art. The fertility of decorative design, the
+exquisite use made of Arabic lettering, and the simple yet subtle forms
+of geometrical interlacing--apparently most fantastic, yet really ever
+subordinated to a just proportion with the whole--these are a theme of
+wondering admiration to every student. A whole grammar of ornament might
+be illustrated by examples taken from these buildings alone. The
+architecture of the houses of the Moorish aristocracy which still remain
+in Seville, Granada, Toledo, and Saragossa is wonderfully adapted both
+to the necessities of the climate and to domestic ornament. In the more
+northern examples the open galleries, in the more southern the flat
+roof, of the apartments surrounding the inner quadrangle make a
+delightful resort in the cool of the day; while the court or _patio_
+itself, with its fountains and shade, its flowers and creepers and
+odoriferous shrubs, its mingled play of light and colour, through which
+the delicate grace of ornament is seen uninjured by the dust and contact
+with the outside traffic, appears to the northern tourist almost like
+one of the fairy homes of which his ancestors dreamed, and which have
+been described to him in many a legend, as a thing too lovely to be
+gazed upon by mortal eyes unless unsealed.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH ORNAMENTATION.]
+
+The influence and the impress of Arabian art was not confined in Spain
+to mosques or to buildings consecrated to the use of Mohammedans alone.
+Some of the most beautiful specimens of this architecture were erected
+for Christians or for Jews. Arabic inscriptions used as ornaments are
+still to be seen on the altar of the Cathedral of Gerona, in the Shrine
+of San Isidore at Leon; Arabic architecture is seen in the palace of the
+archbishops of Toledo, in a chapel in Alcala de Henares, and in more
+than one synagogue of the Jews. Christian bishops used as episcopal
+seals rings on which were engraved the praises of Allah. Long after the
+conquest of the great cities of the centre and of the south, Moorish and
+Mudejar architects were retained in the pay of Christian monarchs to
+keep in repair the cathedrals and palaces, the beauty of whose
+architecture the Christians could appreciate but could not imitate, much
+less surpass. It is this fact, and the mingling of style and ideas
+consequent thereon, which gives its sole peculiar characteristic to
+Spanish art.
+
+Meanwhile, contemporaneously with the flourishing period of Arabian art
+in the south, a Christian architecture, strikingly in contrast from its
+poverty of style and of invention, was slowly being reconstructed in the
+north. Of the eighth century we have the crypt of the Church of Santa
+Cruz, at Cangas in the Asturias, and some remains in parts of the
+churches of Oviedo. To the tenth century belong parts of the Church of
+San Pablo at Barcelona, and other Catalan churches, with here and there
+a chapel in the Western Pyrenees. During the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries the more important churches of Northern Spain were almost
+reproductions of those of Southern France; the Cathedral of Santiago de
+Compostella is almost a copy of the Church of St. Sernin at Toulouse;
+but the Romanesque (semi-Byzantine) style lingered somewhat longer in
+Spain than in the neighbouring country, and especially in North-eastern
+Spain. In the twelfth century edifices of real beauty are beginning to
+be built; such are the cloisters of Tarragona and the cathedrals of
+Lerida and of Tudela. The cathedrals of Avila and Siguenza are of more
+native Spanish character; while those of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon show
+the influence of French artists in their general plan, but with an added
+ornamentation derived from the richer and more florid fancy of the
+south. Of these perhaps Leon is the noblest and Burgos the richest
+example in Spain. Segovia, Salamanca, and Seville, of the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries, are the latest of the great Gothic churches of
+Spain, before the rise of the Renaissance.
+
+Nowhere had the classical revival in architecture more influence than in
+Spain. The almost exclusive type of church which, both in Spain and in
+her vast colonies, is pointed out as the Spanish church, is that either
+of the Renaissance or of the styles which have sprung from it. This soon
+became fashionable, but its semi-pagan additions frequently harmonize
+but ill with the deeper religious feeling of the preceding styles. Still
+it has many fine examples; the works of Berruguete and Herrera are well
+worthy of study. The Escorial, the work of the latter, is redeemed from
+ugliness or meanness by the noble proportions of its central chapel and
+pantheon. But to this semi-classical style succeeded, in the eighteenth
+century, the Churrigueresque, the most debased of all styles, wherein
+plaster took the place of sculpture, sham that of reality, and masses of
+gilding and an incongruous medley of meaningless ornament concealed the
+blunders in proportion and poverty of idea. The adoption of this style
+by the Jesuits procured its prevalence in many districts of Spain and of
+her colonies; occasionally the size of the buildings constructed gives a
+certain grandeur and hides the debasement of the methods.
+
+The domestic, palatial, and castellated architecture of Spain has little
+peculiar beyond what has been already indicated. The royal palace at
+Madrid, however, is one of the most successful architectural efforts of
+the eighteenth century. The sculptured coats of arms on mean dwellings
+are perhaps the most notable distinction of Spanish houses. Traces of
+the influence of Moorish traditions may not unfrequently be observed. In
+the north, the cottages and farms of the Basques, with overhanging roofs
+and wooden galleries, recall in some degree those of Switzerland; in the
+south the iron bars or rails (rejas) before the lower windows, and the
+lattices (celosias) in the upper stories tell of insecurity and of
+habits of almost Oriental seclusion of women.
+
+Finer even than the architecture and the exterior of the buildings is
+the church furniture in Spain. It is unsurpassed for beauty and
+interest. The carved and sculptured wood-work in some of the cathedrals
+is finer than even that of the Netherlands and of Germany. The storied
+screens and choir stalls at Toledo; the retablos of Gerona and
+Salamanca, of Avila and Seville; the choir fittings of Santiago, Zamora,
+and of Burgos; the lecterns and pulpits both of brass and wood; and the
+rails and gates and screens of noblest metal-work are often of simply
+grand proportion; nay, even the polychrome wooden statues in the
+churches will often be found to be of rarest beauty. The monuments
+erected to the memory of the dead are equal to anything which affection
+and piety have raised elsewhere, from that of Archbishop Maurice at
+Burgos, in the thirteenth century--of the tombs of the constable and of
+those of Juan II. and Isabel of Portugal, in the Cartuja de Miraflores,
+of the fifteenth century; and that of Prince Juan, the only son of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, at Avila, erected in 1497--down to the noble
+mausoleum of inlaid metal-work by Zuloaga, lately placed in the Church
+of the Atocha to the memory of Prim. In these and many more, Spain can
+show a sequence able to vie with that of any other land. Hardly less
+beautiful are the minor accessories of Catholic worship; the gold and
+silver smiths' work of the chandeliers, the jewelled work of crosses,
+custodias or shrines, and sacred vessels is often worthy of admiration.
+In all such works of art, before the pillage of the French in the war of
+liberation, and the destruction of the convents, Spain was probably one
+of the richest of Christian lands. If we seem to insist too much on
+ecclesiastical art in Spain, it is because, as we shall see still more
+clearly in the case of painting, art has here concentrated its choicest
+effort on religious subjects, and in them has won its greatest triumphs.
+Except, perhaps, in arms and in porcelain, in portrait-painting and in
+furniture, all the masterpieces of Spanish art are in some sense
+ecclesiastical. Take away religion from her art, how poor would be the
+residue, for even Arabian and Moslem art in Spain were essentially
+religious.
+
+
+_Painting._
+
+Though Spain cannot rival some other countries, Italy for example, in
+the number of her great painters; though she has founded no great
+technical school; yet is she worthy of greatest admiration; in one or
+two of her artists she has attained the very highest rank. As a
+religious painter, especially in expressing in form and colour the
+heights of mystic ecstasy, Murillo stands unrivalled. As a
+portrait-painter of courtly grace and distinction, Velazquez has few
+equals. It is not in landscape, or as interpreters of the ever-varying
+beauty of external nature, that Spanish painters excel, but in the
+delineation of the human form, and especially in the rendering of those
+religious emotions which lead through asceticism to ecstasy. Not the
+glorification of merely sensuous beauty, but the triumphs of the spirit
+over the flesh are the conquests which they prefer to delineate.
+
+Spanish painters may be divided among three great provinces: the
+Valencian, Andalusian, and Castilian schools. Of these the Andalusian,
+and especially the school of Seville, has produced by far the greatest
+artists.
+
+The earliest specimens of Spanish painting are of the decorative kind,
+and are employed in subordination to architecture, to add colour to
+form, and to heighten and make more evident the details of sculpture in
+churches or convents. Much of this phase of art, in which they stand
+very high, they probably learned from the Moors. From these labours in
+churches and convents art in Spain received a religious imprint and
+direction which it has never lost, and from which it is only now turning
+in the present generation. Goya and Fortuny are perhaps the only
+considerable painters of Spain in whose works religious subjects do not
+preponderate. Spanish art reflects in a peculiar degree the
+characteristic of Spanish theology. The mystic grace, the transport of
+love which seems almost too human and tender when fixed on the Divine,
+which moves us in the writings of St. Teresa, St. Juan de la Cruz,
+Xavier, and others, touches us no less in the pictures of Murillo. Stern
+and sombre, as these are lovely, are the paintings which remind us that
+we are in the land of the inquisition. Figures of martyrs serene in
+tortures, whose horrors are laid bare as by no other artists, figures of
+saints of primitive, mediaeval, or of later times, who have carried
+asceticism to excess, portraits of men who were as severe to themselves
+as they were pitiless to others; such are the subjects which are
+faithfully rendered by the pencils of Ribalta, Ribera, Zurbaran, and
+many others. Later on, when the old constitutional liberties of Spain
+had almost utterly fallen, and when the worship of the king had begun
+almost to rival that of the Blessed Virgin, Velazquez and others give us
+portraits of the royal family of Spain. The fun and wit which really
+existed in Spanish life, and which her novelists have depicted with such
+relish in innumerable novels, is but poorly represented in Spanish art
+by any of her great masters. Murillo's beggar-boys are almost the only
+pictures which answer to the "picaresque" side of Spanish literature
+till the advent of Goya and of Fortuny.
+
+The expressions of the plastic arts of Spain are neither so idealized as
+the Italian, nor so intellectual as the German, nor so sensuous as the
+Flemish, nor so realistic as those of the Dutch school; but they are far
+more powerful in colouring and truer and deeper in feeling than are
+those of the French school. The Spaniard painted the types and
+characters of his native land, but he delighted to throw around them the
+magic lights that never were on sea or land; through the intense
+darkness of his asceticism ever peers a ray of heavenly light; but the
+type of the figure is ever Spanish; never, in the best days of art, was
+inspiration sought from a reproduction of the forms of pagan classical
+ism, or from a mere eclecticism of beauty. Though the drawing is
+correct, we feel that it has not been learned from a mere study of
+ancient statuary or from anatomical preparations, but from the living
+type and figure. Here and there we find painters like Juande Joannes
+(Vicente Macip) and Domenico Theotocopuli (El Greco), who might have
+lived on Italian soil; but generally the tone of Spanish painters is
+local and unmistakable. Through all his styles--the _frio_ (cold),
+_calido_ (warm), and the _vaporoso_ (mystic)--Murillo remained faithful
+to Spanish, nay, to Andalusian models; none can mistake his saints and
+virgins, his boys and beggars, as belonging to any other race. He does
+not tell the wondrous story of the Incarnation with so grand an appeal
+to the intellect as do the Italian painters. The "woman blessed
+throughout all generations" does not look out to us from his canvas from
+the serene heights of perfect woman-hood which has found its crown in
+the mystery of the Motherhood of the Son of God, but in younger and more
+girlish forms he paints for us the maiden rapt in adoring ecstasy as she
+experiences the wonders of love divine, bathed in the golden light of a
+rapture which none but the very purest can ever feel, and which the very
+angels are represented as reverencing.
+
+Space forbids our giving even an approximate catalogue of Spanish
+painters; we can merely single out for mention the two or three of
+highest rank in their respective provinces. In Valencia we have Ribalta
+(1551-1628), Juan de Joames (Vicente Macip) (1523-79), and the great but
+gloomy Ribera (1588-1609). To this school also belong the artists of
+Catalonia and of the Balearic Isles. In Castile are Navarette (El Mudo)
+(1526-79), Morales (1509-86), Theotocopuli (El Greco) (died 1578), and
+the younger Herrera (died 1686). But the greatest painters are from
+Andalusia and from Seville. The well-known names of Herrera the Elder
+(1576-1656), Zurbaran (1598-1662), Murillo (1618-82), Velazquez
+(1623-60), suffice to show its pre-eminence. The eighteenth century, in
+art as well as in literature, was a time of utter decadence; Goya
+(1746-1820), the caricaturist, is the only artist we need mention; but,
+like its literature, Spanish art is now at length rising from its long
+sleep. Fortuny (1838-74), has made himself a European reputation;
+though, through his early death, the pictures he has left give promise
+only of what his future might have been. Rosales (1840-73), though less
+known by foreigners, is of equal, if not of greater merit; like Fortuny,
+he died in his early prime. Madrazo, Jimenez, Fradilla, and others,
+though not of more than national reputation, yet prove that art is not
+extinct in Spain.
+
+In what have been called the industrial arts Spain was formerly very
+rich, and, but for the wretched economical policy and administration of
+the Government since the seventeenth century, would probably have held
+her own against other countries. The gold and silver ornaments still
+worn by the peasantry in a few districts perpetuate designs and methods
+of workmanship originally derived from the Moors, and much of the church
+work is still of great excellence. No less beautiful is the iron-work,
+in which a grand effect is often produced by simply noble proportions in
+the gates, _rejas_, and screens of her cathedrals and churches; and in
+another sphere, in the manufacture of arms, and of inlaying steel or
+iron with arabesque patterns of gold and silver, an art which has been
+lately revived with great success in Biscay and the Basque Provinces. In
+porcelain and pottery the majolica ware, made at Valencia, was renowned
+throughout Europe; and the Moorish glazed and lustred ware, the
+manufacture of which remained a secret till the present century, is
+greatly sought after by amateurs. The wine-jars (_tinajas_ and
+_alpujarras_), the porous pottery (_bucaros_), the _azulejos_ or
+decorated tiles, continue traditions originally derived through the
+Arabs from the East, but which had almost expired when the manufacture
+was faintly revived under royal patronage in the times of Charles III.,
+to start again on a stronger life with the aid of English capital in our
+own times. Spanish glass is sometimes curious, and much of the stained
+and painted windows in the cathedrals is excellent, especially that of
+Toledo and of Leon; but this art was undoubtedly learned from foreign
+workmen, and only became naturalized in Spain. Of carvings in wood and
+marble and ivory we have already sufficiently spoken. In textile fabrics
+and embroidery, especially in lace, Spain was formerly very rich. The
+mantillas of the ladies, the dresses of the sacred images, the copes of
+the clergy, gave full opportunity for the production of this fabric; but
+the chief effort is now directed to the manufacture of the best foreign
+laces, all of which are most successfully imitated by hand-workers in
+Valencia and Murcia, where they can be produced at a lower cost than is
+possible in colder and more northern climes. Everything in Spain, even
+the common use of colour and of flowers by the Andalusian peasants,
+shows a natural feeling for art; and its production is hindered more by
+indolence, and by the mischievous economical conditions of almost all
+Spanish industry, than by any want of talent in the native workman or
+artisan.
+
+Though, perhaps, there is no country in Europe in which music is more
+appreciated or practised than in Spain, it is singular that she has
+produced no really great master. She has many composers of "zarzuelas,"
+a species of lighter opera; her traditional dance and ballad tunes are
+some of the most inspiriting possible; and her guitar playing is
+renowned, but more for the romantic sentiment of the words and the
+occasion on which it is used than for the music itself. Well-nigh the
+only name for which even Spaniards claim equality with the great
+European masters in serious music is that of Don Manuel Doyague, of
+Salamanca (1755-1842). His _Miserere_, _Te Deum_, and various _Masses_
+are said to equal those of any master of his time.
+
+
+_Literature._
+
+It is not necessary to repeat here what has been said above on the
+Spanish authors who wrote during the silver age of Latin literature, or
+to trace again the origin of the Spanish language. It is evident that
+all we can do is to give a very brief sketch of Spanish literature. This
+literature is, perhaps, the richest in Europe in ballads and romances,
+and these, which make one of its chief glories, are among its earliest
+monuments. While the "Chanson de Roland" and other "Chansons de Gestes"
+were being written in Northern France in the form of continuous epic
+poems, Spain was celebrating her hero--the Cid--in a series of ballads.
+These, if united, would tell almost the whole story of his life; but
+each could be sung or recited alone as a separate and complete poem.
+This form of verse continued for many ages to be the favourite
+literature of the common people, and attained a development in Spain
+beyond that which it did in any other land. For spontaneity, for
+movement, for grace of expression, for sudden turns from martial ardour
+to the most pathetic tenderness, the Spanish ballad is unrivalled. It
+embraces and handles with almost equal success the most varied subjects:
+war and chivalry and love, patriotism, wit, amusement, and religion,
+have all been treated of in these romances, and the collections of each
+kind would fill many volumes.
+
+The first prose works in the Spanish language seem to have been a
+translation of the Bible, under Alphonse X., and of two codes of law,
+the "Fuero Juzgo" and "Las Siete Partidas," in the middle of the
+thirteenth century. It seems to have been almost by accident that
+Alfonzo wrote in the dialect of Leon and Castile in preference to that
+of Galicia and Portugal. Had he chosen the latter, probably Portuguese
+would have become the language of the whole Peninsula. Under his reign,
+too, may have been commenced the first history written in Spanish, "La
+Gran Conquista de Ultramar," telling the story of the Crusades, with
+many romantic episodes. The next production that calls for remark is the
+epic of Alexander the Great, by J. L. Segura, of the latter part of the
+same century. This poem gives the name "Alexandrine" to all European
+verse written in the same metre. In the early part of the fourteenth
+century we have a collection of tales, with morals attached, called "El
+Conde Lucanor," by Don Juan Manuel, nephew of Alphonse X. (1282-1347);
+and Alfonso XI. continues the list of royal authors with a "Libro de la
+Monteria,", or treatise on hunting. The arch-priest of Hita, Juan Ruiz
+(1330-43), about the same time took up the strain of love and war in a
+romance of mingled prose and verse, entitled "Guerras Civiles de
+Granada." In the latter half of the fifteenth century we meet with a
+remarkable production, the tragi-comedy of Celestina, which, in its
+two-fold character of novel and of drama, has been the parent of a
+double offspring, both of the comedy and of the _picaresque_ novel of
+Spain. The Spanish rogue, at least in fiction, has been said to be the
+only amusing rogue in Europe. The chief representations of him in
+literature are in the novel of "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554), by Hurtado
+de Mendoza; "Guzman de Alfarache" (1599), by Mateo Aleman; and "La
+Picara Justina" (1605), by the Dominican monk, Andreas Perez. The whole
+series of these works culminated in a masterpiece, "Gil Blas," written,
+not by a Spaniard, but by the Frenchman Lesage, in 1668; perhaps the
+most graphic description of the manners of another nation ever written
+by a foreigner.
+
+The serious drama in Spain arose, probably, like that of other European
+nations, from the mysteries and moralities of the Middle Ages, such as
+are still continued to be performed occasionally at Elche and in other
+districts. In the "Autos" of Calderon and others it bore clear marks of
+this origin to a later date than any other contemporary drama. The first
+plays of any consequence we hear of are those of Lope de Rueda
+(1544-67), who, both as actor and as author, was greatly admired by
+Cervantes. From him the Spanish drama, like the almost contemporary
+Elizabethan drama in England, sprang at once to its full height.
+Cervantes, in his tragedies "Los Banos de Argel," and in "El trato de
+Argel" in which he described incidents in his own captivity, and in the
+"Numancia," telling the story of the siege by the Romans, imitated and
+surpassed his friend. In lighter pieces, comedies and _entremeses_, he
+was less successful. Almost coeval with Cervantes is Lope de Vega
+(1562-1635), perhaps the most prolific dramatic writer of any value that
+ever lived. His pieces are numbered at from 1500 to 2000, and the best
+of these are equal, if not superior, to those of Calderon in delineation
+of character and in plot, and are inferior only in poetical merit. We
+can only mention Tirso de Molina (1588-1648), Montahran (1602-38), and
+Ruiz de Alarcon (died 1639) as dramatists of merit, whose best pieces,
+especially those of the latter, approach very nearly to those of Lope
+and of Calderon. Calderon de la Barca (1600-81), with the German, Goethe,
+is the only dramatist of modern Europe who has been seriously put
+forward as a rival, or even superior, to Shakspere. This we think to be
+a mistake; in rich poetical imagery, in gorgeousness of fancy, in
+harmony of verse, in stately dignity, in depth of religions feeling, in
+knowledge of stage effect--in all these things he may be compared to our
+English master; but he is very far inferior to him in width of sympathy,
+in wit and rollicking fun, or in thoughtful humour; his comedy will not
+bear comparison with that of Shakspere; but he falls most short in his
+delineation of individual character. In comparison with Shakspere's, his
+figures are but well-dressed puppets compared to living men and women;
+not one of them lingers in the memory like a person whom we have known.
+We remember Calderon's verses, we revel in his splendid poetry, but we
+utterly forget who it is that utters these dazzling strains. Calderon's
+dramas and comedies are reckoned at 120, and his Autos, religious or
+sacramental pieces, generally performed by religious or civil
+corporations in the open air, are numbered at about seventy. In these
+plays abstract qualities take the place of living personages, and it is
+perhaps the greatest proof of Calderon's genius that he has by his
+brilliant poetry and serene religious feeling made some of even these
+acceptable to a modern reader.
+
+But while the drama and comedy and the picaresque novel had been thus
+developing themselves, a whole literature of quite a different kind had
+sprung up into favour, flourished, and died away. This consisted of the
+prose books of chivalry, and of the pastoral romances both in prose and
+verse. They are remembered now chiefly through mention of them in the
+pages of the immortal work, the "Don Quixote," of Cervantes, which
+crushed them for ever. The most celebrated of them was the "Amadis de
+Gaul," written probably at the end of the fourteenth century. The
+imitations of it were innumerable, each more wild, extravagant, more
+insipid, and in worse taste than the last. Of the pastoral romances the
+only one we need to note is the "Diana Enamorada," of Montemayor
+(1520-61), and perhaps the most successful after this is the "Galatea,"
+of Cervantes himself, who could never entirely shake off the influence
+of the writings he delighted to satirize, and of which he was the
+literary executioner. The one Spanish book which has become really
+European, in a degree which has been attained by no other purely secular
+work, is the "Don Quixote" of this author (1547-1616). Into this
+extraordinary production, under the guise of the adventures of his hero,
+the last of the knights-errant, with his squire, Sancho Panza--a story
+full of mirth, incident, and humour--Cervantes has put all the wisdom
+which, by his observation on mankind and literature, he had collected
+during a singularly varied life as writer, soldier, seaman, Algerine
+slave, poet, and man of business. Though hardly belonging to the school
+of the classical Renaissance, yet we see in Cervantes a specimen of the
+marked and distinguishing excellence of the men at that time--the width
+of their sympathies; so that each more eminent man seemed to contain in
+himself an epitome of the experience of mankind. It is, perhaps, to this
+many-sidedness of his experience, and of his culture, that is owing the
+genial character, the pathetic humour, and the total absence of
+bitterness in this masterly satire. Thus Cervantes, while laughing down
+and extinguishing for ever the absurdities of the chivalrous and
+pastoral romances, yet retains his sympathy for all that was really
+noble, though exaggerated, in them. His "Don Quixote," though moving
+irrepressible laughter, will for ever remain one of the choicest
+representations of a brave, pure-minded, honourable gentleman, and tears
+of pity for him are not far distant from our smiles at his quaint
+insanities. Since the days of Cervantes one kind only of the chivalrous
+romances has really survived in literature, and that is the historical
+romance, of which the "Guerras Civiles de Granada" of the arch-priest
+Hita, mentioned above, is so good an example. Another satirist, less
+known than Cervantes, to whom his life bears some resemblance, Quevedo y
+Villegas (1580-1645), is even a more versatile writer. In prose and
+verse his writings are very numerous, but his style, learned and
+obscure, often laboured in the extreme, though pregnant with thought and
+wit, contrasts unfavourably with the clearness of Cervantes; he holds
+now in Spanish literature a place nearly analogous to that of Swift
+among British writers.
+
+But we must hurry on. With the downfall of Granada, the discovery of
+America, the consolidation of the kingdoms of the Peninsula into one
+nation, real historical study began in Spain. Thus we have in quick
+succession many works of considerable merit, such as the "Annals of
+Aragon," by Zurita (1512-80); the "Comunidades of Castille," by Mejia
+(1549); the great "History of Spain," by the Jesuit Mariana (1536-1632);
+Herrera's "General History of the Indies" (1549-1625); the "Commentaries
+on Peru," by the Inca, Garcilasso de la Vega (1540-1616); the monographs
+of Hurtado de Mendoza on the "Wars of Granada" (1610); the "Expedition
+of the Catalans," by Moncada (1623); the "Wars of Catalonia," by Melo
+(1645); and, in literary form superior to all these, the "Conquest of
+Mexico," by Solis (1685).
+
+Of poetry, apart from the stage and from the romances, there is not much
+of real value to engage our attention. The grandest verses of early
+Spain are undoubtedly the "Coplas" of Manrique (1476), which have been
+often translated into English, and which form one of the finest elegies
+extant in any language. After Garcilassa de la Vega (1503-36), Spanish
+poets fell into an unworthy imitation of the Italian; and subsequently
+Gongora (1561-1627) set the example of a still more debased and stilted
+style, full of affected conceits and mistaken classicalism. The only
+tolerable epic poem which Spain has yet produced is the "Araucana" of
+Ercilla, which tells the story of the wars with Indians of that name in
+Chili, and in which the author had personally taken part.
+
+From the close of the seventeenth and through the greater part of the
+eighteenth century, literature partook of the progressive decadence of
+all things in Spain. It withered and declined under the double censure
+and oppression of the king and of the inquisition. The theatre, which
+had striven hard in Spain to become the ally, or even the handmaid, of
+the Church, was contemptuously thrust aside by the latter, and within a
+century of Calderon's death, not even an Infanta could procure
+permission from the inquisition for a comedy in time of carnaval. No
+history of any value could be written under such conditions; the only
+outlet for literary skill lay in religious and mystic writings, which
+are of singular beauty. The classical and grammatical movement of the
+Renaissance which had begun so well under the patronage of Juan de
+Cisneros, Cardinal Ximenes, the great minister of Charles V., and the
+chief monument of which is the Complutensian Polyglot Bible of 1514-17,
+and its greatest scholar, Antonio de Nebrija, soon died away, and the
+Spanish universities, which for a while had been the admiration, became,
+in the eighteenth century, the laughing-stock of Europe. Of the earlier
+period we may mention among the religious writers Luis de Granada
+(1505-68), Santa Teresa (1515-82), the Jesuit, Ribadeneyra (1527-1611),
+Juan de la Cruz (1542-91); but even this literature degenerated into
+casuistry and mere technical scholasticism. Spanish religious poetry is,
+however, far more copious and of greater excellence than is generally
+supposed. It has been studied and collected in our own day by the
+opposite schools of the Spanish Protestants, and by the champion of
+orthodoxy, Menendez Pelayo.
+
+There is little to notice in Spanish literature from this time until the
+rise of the doctrinaire and economical writers of the reign of Carlos
+III., who for the most part closely followed the contemporary school of
+French publicists and encyclopaedists. Among these are Padre Benito
+Feyjoo, who was the first to protest against the absence of science and
+true learning in Spain; the Padre Isla (1703-81), decidedly one of the
+wittiest of Spanish writers and satirists; Jovellanos (1744-1811), the
+best statesman and political writer of his time, and in the purer walks
+of literature the two Moratins (1737-1828). One or two philological
+works, far in advance of their age, made now their appearance, such as
+the tracts of Padre Sarmiento (1692-1770) on the Spanish language; the
+works of the Jesuits Larramendi (1728-45) on the Basque, and of Hervas
+(1735-1805) on general philology. To this period also belongs the
+magnificent collection entitled, "La Espana Sagrada," commenced by
+Florez (1754-1801), and, after many interruptions, completed only in
+1880.
+
+Towards the close of the eighteenth century, however, a reaction set in
+against the French and so-called classical school, and the attention of
+Spanish writers was recalled to the masterpieces of their own earlier
+literature. The movement was accelerated by the course of political
+events, and the successes of the war of independence against the French.
+One of the earliest defenders of the romantic against the classical
+school was Bohl de Faber, a Hamburg merchant settled in Cadiz. He
+published in 1820-3, in his native town, selections from works of the
+early poets and dramatists of Spain; and his daughter, Cecilia, under
+the name of Fernan Caballero, has attained the highest rank among the
+lady novelists of Spain. The admission of Bohl de Faber into the ranks
+of the Spanish Academy, under Martinez de la Rosa, marks the definite
+triumph of the national school. At first it seemed as if the movement
+would produce simply a change of French for English and German models.
+Fiction became a stiff imitation of Sir Walter Scott. In poetry the
+influence of Byron reigned supreme. Espronceda (1810-42) has equalled
+his master in his cynical odes. "The Beggar," "The Executioner," "The
+last day of the Condemned," and "The Pirate," might almost have been
+penned by Byron; and "El Mundo Diablo" will long live in Spanish
+literature. Zorilla, born in 1817, still living, has been more
+successful in his dramas than Espronceda, especially in "Don Juan
+Tenorio," but his poems are inferior in force, though rich in colouring
+and in the melody of his verse. Gustavo Becquer (1836-70) is another
+poet who fed his genius with the legends of the past, but his models
+were Edgar Poe and Hoffmann; some of his weird fantastic tales and poems
+are excellent examples of their kind. Of an opposite character are the
+realistic novels of Fernan Caballero above mentioned (1797-1877). These
+are exquisite rose-tinted photographs of Spanish life and character
+taken by one who sees everything Spanish with a favourable eye. Her
+writings are distinguished by a delicate aristocratic grace and
+tenderness which she throws over all subjects which she handles, whether
+of high or lowly life. As an artist her plots are inferior to those of
+many worse novelists; her descriptions of scenery are beautiful and
+exact; as a delineator of individual character she fails, but as a
+painter of type and class she is unrivalled. Her sketches abound in
+humour and in gentle melancholy; a deep and true religious feeling
+pervades every line, but she fails in strength and passion. Thus she can
+be classed only in the second rank of female novelists, and does not
+approach the genius of Georges Sand or of George Elliot. Trueba, in the
+north, essays to imitate her, but he often sinks into puerility, nor
+are his studies marked by the conscientious regard for fact which
+distinguishes those of the lady writer. Pereda, who delineates the
+peasants of Santander, is a less prolific writer but of higher literary
+merit. Of living novelists we should place in the first rank Juan Valera
+with his powerful novels, "Pepita Jimenez," "El Doctor Faustino," and
+"Dona Luz." Next to him is, perhaps, Perez Galdos, who, in the series
+entitled "Episodios Nacionales," rivals the national romances of
+Erckmann-Chatrian in French. Pedro Alarcon has a greater fund of wit and
+humour, and his "Sombrero de tres picos" is a most mirth-provoking tale.
+Fernandez y Gonzalez, in the number, if not in the quality of his works,
+may almost compete with the elder Alexandre Dumas, whose semi-historical
+style he repeats. Feliz Pizcueta, a Valencian writer, has also written
+many novels, whose scenes are laid in his native province. Among
+dramatists now living, or lately dead, we may mention Hartzenbusch
+(1806-80), whose "Amantes de Teruel" is one of the most successful
+tragedies of the romantic school; Breton de los Herreros (1800-70);
+Gertrudis de Avellaneda, the first Spanish female dramatist, born in
+Cuba in 1816; Gutierrez, who, born in 1813, sought refuge, like Zorilla,
+in Spanish America; Lopez de Ayala; and lastly, J. Estebanez, whose best
+work is entitled "Un Drama Nuevo," and who reaches a high level of
+dramatic art. Of more extravagant style, inferior to these, and already
+marking a decadence, is Jose Echegaray, a man of most versatile and
+opposite talents, and one of the first mathematicians of Spain, the best
+of whose plays is "Locura o Santidad." Of lyric poets we may mention
+Campoamor, an original but languid and graceful writer of minor verse,
+and Selgas, whose grace is seasoned with wit and satire, but whose prose
+is much superior to his verse. But by far the greatest of living Spanish
+poets, though like Tennyson he has failed comparatively on the stage, is
+Gaspar Nunez de Arce. His "Gritos del Combate," and "La Ultima
+Lamentacion de Lord Byron," contain some noble verses. He writes in the
+spirit of purest patriotism, with a stern morality, and with severe and
+chastened art.
+
+But more important than in the movement of fiction and poetry has been
+the influence of the romantic school in history. The attention of
+Spaniards has been at length turned to the study of their original
+records, and especially to that of the early Arabic writers. The first
+to attempt this, but with insufficient means, was J. A. Conde
+(1757-1820) in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana."
+This has since been superseded by the exacter learning of Don Pascual
+Gayangos, in the "Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," by many foreign
+writers, and by the labours of Fernandez y Gonzalez in "Los Mudejares de
+Castilla" (1866) and others. The labours of Don Modeste and Don Vicente
+Lafuente, the one in ecclesiastical, the other in civil history, must be
+mentioned with approval, and the works of Amador de los Rios, on the
+literature of Spain and on the history of the Jews in Spain, do honour
+to his country. Among other historians, we may mention F. Castro and
+Sales y Ferrer, whose works are the popular manuals in education.
+Fernandez Guerra in the ancient, and Coello in the modern, Geography of
+Spain, are authors of the highest class; nor must we omit the Englishman
+Bowles, who wrote on the Natural History of Spain in 1775. In Geology
+another English name, Macpherson, attains the highest rank, together
+with the surveyors employed on the "Comision de la Mapa Geologica" of
+Spain. On the history of property in Spain and Europe, are two
+remarkable essays by Cardenas and de Azcarate. In theology, on the Roman
+Catholic side, are the writings of Balmes (1810-48); of Donoso Cortes
+(1809-53), of the present Bishop of Cordova, Ceferino Gonzalez; and,
+still publishing, the remarkable production of Menendez Pelayo,
+"Historia de los Heterodoxos in Espana;" while in the Protestant
+theology, Usoz, assisted by B. Wiffen in England and Boehmer in Germany,
+has rescued from oblivion the works of the Spanish reformers. In
+philology the Jesuit, Padre Fita y Colome, worthily continues the
+traditions of Larramendi and of Hervas. Fernandez Guerra, and F. Tubino,
+and the Barcelona school pursue archaeological studies with success. The
+influence of outside European thought is every day more evident in
+Spain. Ardent disciples of the school of Comte, of Darwin, and of
+Schopenhauer, are to be found among her publicists. In political economy
+Figuerola, G. Rodriguez, Colmeiro, Azcarate, and others, follow keenly
+the teaching of the English liberal school. Face to face in
+parliamentary eloquence and in politics stand Canovas del Castello and
+Emilio Castelar; the latter distinguished by a florid oratory which is
+unsurpassed in Europe, but whose style is far more effective when spoken
+than when read; the former, with greater learning and a more cultivated
+taste, would undoubtedly be known as a writer but for his devotion to
+political life. The periodical and daily press of Spain, though not to
+compare with that of England, or of the United States, is almost on a
+par with that of most continental countries; the scientific and literary
+reviews and magazines are yearly increasing both in numbers and in
+value.
+
+This sketch, however brief, would be incomplete without a glance at what
+may be called the provincial literature of Spain. The publishers of
+Barcelona, especially in illustrated works, vie with those of Madrid. It
+is not in the Castilian tongue alone that the awakening is apparent. In
+Catalonia and in Valencia the study of the native idiom and of their
+ancient authors has been taken up with zeal, and with happiest results
+in history and philology. Victor Balaguer, the Catalan poet and
+dramatist is equal to all contemporary Spanish poets save Nunez de Arce.
+The dramas of Pablo Soler (Serafi Petarra) are received with an
+enthusiasm unknown to audiences in Madrid. Mila y Fontanals, Bofarull,
+and Sanpere y Miquel are investigating with success the language,
+history, and archaeology of their country. A like, though necessarily a
+less important, movement is taking place in Andalusia, in the Basque
+Provinces, in the Asturias, and in Galicia; everywhere what is worth
+preserving in these dialects is being sought out, edited, and given to
+the press. The archives of Simancas are at length thrown open to the
+world, and guides and catalogues are being industriously prepared.
+Sevillian scholars are also studying the archives of the Indies, and the
+treasures of Hebrew and Arabian lore.
+
+Thus, if Spain can at present boast no writer whom we can place
+undoubtedly and unreservedly in the very first rank, she shows an
+intellectual movement which, though confined at present to a
+comparatively small portion of her inhabitants, may, if it spread and
+continue, place her again in her proud position of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, as one of the first of European nations, not
+perhaps in arms and power, but in literature, if not in science.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+EPILOGUE.
+
+
+A few words in conclusion. Spain is far from being a worn-out country.
+On the contrary, both in the character and capacities of its varied
+populations, in the mineral riches of its soil, in its agricultural
+wealth, in industrial resources, and in the artistic taste of its
+workmen, it is capable of vast development.
+
+Two things hinder this, and will probably hinder it for some time. These
+are the political separation of Spain and Portugal, so ill-adapted to
+the geographical conformation of the Peninsula. The great rivers of
+Spain run westward, but the benefit of these fluvial highways is
+entirely lost to the country through the intercalation of Portugal into
+the western sea-board, thus making useless to Spain her natural system
+of river transport, and cutting her off from her best and most direct
+Atlantic ports. It is Lisbon, and not Madrid, which should be the
+capital of the whole Peninsula. Scarcely less an evil to Spain is the
+possession of Gibraltar by the English, which, besides the expense of
+watching the fortress, and the loss to Spain of the advantage of the
+possession of the great port of call for the whole maritime traffic of
+the East, is a school of smuggling and contraband, and a focus of
+corruption for the whole of South-western Spain. Were the whole Atlantic
+and Mediterranean sea-board in sole possession of one nation, the
+expenses of the custom-house would be greatly lessened, while the
+smuggling on the Portuguese and British frontiers would wholly
+disappear. In no point was the effect of the narrow and jealous policy
+of Philip II. more disastrous, than in his failure even to attempt to
+attach the Portuguese to his rule when the kingdoms were temporarily
+united under his crown.
+
+The second evil, and one of still graver proportions, is that of the
+exceedingly corrupt administration of the central government, and of
+almost every branch of public employment. It is difficult to exaggerate
+this mischief. It is not bad external political government, it is not a
+faulty constitution, but it is an administration in which corruption has
+become a tradition and the rule, that is the real evil in Spain. It is
+this which baffles every ministry that tries to do real good. Only a
+ministry, or succession of ministries, composed of men of thorough
+honesty, of iron will, and of competence in financial administration,
+supported by strong majorities, can hope to deal with this gigantic
+growth. Even then it must be a work of time. With an honest
+administration, and prudent and sagacious development of her resources,
+Spain would soon regain financial soundness and recover her place among
+the nations.
+
+The contest between the opposite commercial systems of protection and
+free trade is not yet concluded, nor is likely to be, in Spain. As long
+as England, which has the greatest interest of any foreign power in the
+establishment of the latter system, maintains a tariff which unduly
+favours the wines of France in comparison with those of Spain free trade
+is not likely to be popular. From the varied character of her products,
+Spain is of all European countries naturally the most self-sufficing.
+Her north-western provinces furnish her with cattle in abundance; no
+finer wheat is grown than that on the central plateau, and it could
+easily be produced in quantity more than sufficient for her wants; wine,
+oil, and fruits she possesses in superfluity; even sugar is not wanting
+in the south; cotton, indeed, she has not; but wool of excellent quality
+is the produce of her numerous flocks, and it needs only the
+establishment of efficient manufactories for Spanish cloth and woollen
+stuffs to regain their ancient renown. All the most useful minerals
+abound, and are of the finest quality, especially the iron, and the
+development of the working of the Asturian and Andalusian coal-fields
+renders Spain yearly more and more independent of England in this
+respect. True it is that foreign capital is, and will for some time be
+necessary to assist in extracting this hidden wealth; but if the
+ordinary Spaniard of the educated classes, instead of seeking a bare,
+and too often a base, subsistence in petty government employment or in
+ill-paid professions--instead of seeking the barren honour of a
+university degree--would apply himself to scientific, industrial, or
+agricultural enterprise, he might soon obtain his legitimate share of
+the profits which now go mainly into the hands of foreign speculators
+and shareholders.
+
+Spaniards are commonly said to be cruel and bloodthirsty, with little
+regard for the sufferings of others or respect for human life; and
+undoubtedly there is some truth in this charge, but it does not apply to
+the whole Peninsula. Many of Spain's best writers deplore it, and
+inveigh strongly against it and against the bull-fights, which, in their
+present form, are not more than a century old. As a national sport, the
+modern bull-ring, with its professional torreadors and its hideous
+horse-slaughtering, differs from the pastime in which Charles V. and his
+nobles used to take part as much as a prizefight from a tournament. The
+appeals of Fernan Caballero to the clergy, the efforts of Tubino,
+Lastre, and others to arouse the public against this wanton cruelty
+have hitherto been of no avail. We can only hope in the future. On the
+other hand, it is unjust to shut our eyes to the noble charities of
+Spain. She was the first to care for lunatics. Many of her hospitals and
+asylums for the aged were conducted with a tenderness and consideration
+unknown in other lands. Even a beggar is treated with respect, and is
+relieved without contumely. The treatment of her prisoners and the
+condition of her prisons, which was long so foul a blot, is now being
+efficiently removed; she is at least making an earnest effort to attain
+the level of European civilization in this respect.
+
+Intellectually, in science, and especially in literature, Spain is
+advancing rapidly. The historical treasures long buried in the archives
+of Simancas, and those of the Indies at Seville, are now thrown open to
+the world, and are eagerly consulted by native historians. Her literary
+and scientific men, though comparatively few in number, are full of zeal
+and intelligence. There needs only a larger and more appreciative
+audience to encourage them in their labours in order to bring the
+literature of Spain to a level with that of any European country of
+equal population.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I.
+
+PROVINCES OF SPAIN AND THEIR POPULATION IN 1877.
+
+
+                                      Per square
+    Provinces.      Inhabitants.      Kilometer.
+
+    Alava              93,191           30
+    Albacete          219,122           14
+    Alicante          408,154           75
+    Almeria           349,854           41
+    Avila             180,457           23
+    Badajoz           432,809           19
+    Barcelona         835,306          108
+    Burgos            332,461           23
+    Caceres           306,594           15
+    Cadiz             430,158           59
+    Castellon         283,961           45
+    Ciudad-Real       260,641           13
+    Cordova           385,582           28
+    Corunna           595,585           75
+    Cuenca            237,497           14
+    Gerona            299,002           51
+    Granada           477,719           37
+    Guadalajara       201,288           16
+    Guipuzcoa         167,207           88
+    Huelva            210,641           20
+    Huesca            252,165           17
+    Jaen              422,972           32
+    Leon              350,210           22
+    Lerida            285,297           23
+    Logrono           174,425           34
+    Lugo              410,387           42
+    Madrid            593,775           77
+    Malaga            500,231           68
+    Murcia            451,611           39
+    Navarre           304,184           29
+    Orense            388,835           55
+    Oviedo            576,352           54
+    Palencia          180,785           22
+    Pontevedra        451,946          100
+    Salamanca         285,500           23
+    Santander         235,299           44
+    Saragossa         400,266           23
+    Segovia           149,961           21
+    Seville           505,291           36
+    Soria             153,654           15
+    Tarragona         330,105           52
+    Teruel            242,296           17
+    Toledo            334,744           23
+    Valencia          679,030           60
+    Valladolid        247,453           31
+    Vizcaya           189,954           86
+    Zamora            250,004           23
+                   ----------           --
+                   16,053,961           32
+    Balearic Isles    289,035           60
+    Canaries          280,388           37
+                   ----------           --
+                   16,623,384           33
+                   ----------           --
+
+    In area of surface Spain ranks the           5th of European States.
+    In number of population                      7th        "
+    In density of population to the square mile 14th        "
+    In extent of colonies                        5th        "
+    Rates of women to men, 1044 to 1000.
+    The infantile mortality is said to be 24-1/2 per cent. in first year.
+    Expectation of life at 2 years old is said to be 49 years;
+      the average 41.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+
+PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF SPANISH HISTORY.
+
+                                                                    A.D.
+
+  Visigoth kings rule from                                414   to   711
+  Entry of Moors, battle of Guadelete, death of last
+      Visigothic king                                       31 July, 711
+  Reconquest begun by Pelayo at Covadonga in the Asturias            719
+  Toledo captured by Alphonso VI.                                   1085
+  Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa                                     1212
+  Final union of Leon and Castile                                   1230
+  Alphonso X. (Law Codes: The Fuero Real and Las Siete
+      Partidas)                                                     1252
+  Union of Aragon with Castile under Ferdinand and
+        Isabella                                                    1474
+      Inquisition established (first Auto de Fe, 1488)              1484
+      Conquest of Granada                                           1492
+      Discovery of America                                          1492
+      Expulsion of Moors from Castile, 1501; from Granada           1502
+      Conquest of Naples and Sicily                                 1504
+  _Austrian Dynasty_:--Philip I. and Joanna                         1504
+    Charles I. (Emperor of Germany, Charles V.)                     1516
+      War of Comunidades of Castile, Battle of Villalar             1521
+      Battle of Pavia, Francis I. prisoner                          1525
+      Capture of Tunis                                              1535
+      Abdication of Charles I.                                      1556
+    Philip II.:--Greatest extension of Spanish monarchy, comprising
+        Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia,
+        Milan, Roussillon, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg,
+        Franche-Comte, Tunis, Oran, the Canaries, Fernando
+        Po, St. Helena, The Americas, Philippine Isles, &c.
+    Insurrection of Low Countries                                   1566
+    First rebellion and expulsion of Moriscos                       1568
+    Battle of Lepanto                                               1571
+    League of Provinces and independence of Holland,       25 Jan., 1579
+    Conquest of Portugal (1580-1640)                                1580
+      Defeat of Armada                                              1588
+      Death of Philip II.                                           1598
+    Final expulsion of Moriscos                                     1609
+    Insurrection of Catalonia                                       1640
+    Loss of Portugal                                                1640
+    Battle of Rocroy                                                1643
+    Peace of the Pyrenees and marriage of Louis XIV.                1659
+    Death of Charles II., last of Austrian dynasty         29 Oct., 1700
+
+  _Bourbon Dynasty_:--War of Succession between Archduke
+        Charles and Philip V., 1701-13
+      Loss of Gibraltar                                             1704
+      Treaty of Utrecht                                             1713
+      Salic Law voted in Cortes                                     1713
+      Abolition of Constitution of Catalonia                        1716
+    Charles III.                                                    1759
+      Family Pact                                                   1761
+      Expulsion of Jesuits                                          1767
+      Siege of Gibraltar                                            1782
+    Charles IV.                                                     1788
+      Godoy, Prince of Peace                                        1795
+      Battle of Trafalgar                                           1805
+      Abdication of Charles IV.                                     1808
+    Ferdinand VII., Renunciation at Bayonne                         1808
+      Joseph Bonaparte, King (1808-14)
+      Uprising of Spain                                      2 May, 1808
+      Peninsular War, 1808-14
+      Expulsion of French                                           1814
+      Cortes of Cadiz, suppression of Inquisition, of
+        Feudal Rights, and establishment of Constitution            1812
+      Return of Ferdinand VII., Inquisition re-established,
+        and Constitution abolished                                  1814
+      Insurrection of Riego, new Constitution (1820-23)             1820
+      Invasion of French, violation of Constitution                 1823
+      Loss of American colonies. Buenos Ayres 1811
+                                 Chili        1818
+                                 Columbia     1819
+                                 Mexico       1821
+                                 Peru         1824
+  Absolutism till death of Ferdinand VII. (1823-33).
+  Birth of Isabella II., abolition of Salic Law, expulsion
+      of Don Carlos                                                 1830
+  Death of Ferdinand VII.                                           1833
+  Regency of Christina, the queen-mother, 1833; expelled
+      1840                                                          1833
+    First Carlist War, 1833-39.
+  Majority of Isabella II.                                          1844
+    War with Morocco                                                1860
+    Insurrection and expulsion of Isabella                          1868
+  Provisional Government, 1868-70                                   1868
+  Amadeo I., November, 1870, to February, 1873                      1870
+  Republic, Cantonalist insurrections                               1873
+    Second Carlist War, 1873-76.
+  Alphonso XII.                                               Dec., 1874
+    Don Carlos entered France, February, 1876                       1876
+    Abolition of Basque Fueros                                      1876
+    Downfall of Canovas del Castillo                                1881
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX III.
+
+
+LIST OF BOOKS CHIEFLY MADE USE OF IN THE FOREGOING PAGES.
+
+_Geography_:--
+
+     La Nouvelle Geographie Universelle, par Elisee Reclus, series 5 and
+     6. Hachette, Paris, 1876.
+
+     Spanien und die Balearen. Willkomm, Berlin, 1879.
+
+     The Balearic Isles, by T. Bidwell. London.
+
+     Boletin de la Sociedad Geografica de Madrid, various years.
+
+     Introduccion a la Historia Natural y a la Geografica Fisica de
+     Espana, por Don Guillermo Bowles. Madrid, 1775.
+
+     Espagne, Algerie, et Tunisie, par P. de Tchikatchef. Paris, 1880.
+
+     Libro de Agricultura, por Abu Zaccaria. Spanish translation
+     Seville, 1878.
+
+_Meteorology_:--
+
+     Reports of the Meteorological Society of Madrid, various years.
+
+     Revista Contemporanea, tomo xxx. 4. December, 1880.
+
+_Philology_:--
+
+     Grammaire des Langues Romaines, par F. Diez, 2nd German edition.
+     French translation, Paris.
+
+     Etudes sur les Idiomes Pyreneenes, par A. Luchaire. Paris, 1879.
+
+     Various articles in Spanish Literary and Provincial Journals.
+
+_History, General_:--
+
+     Dunham's History of Spain and Portugal, 5 vols. Lardner's Cabinet
+     Encyclopaedia.
+
+     Resumen de Historia de Espana, por F. de Castro, 12th edition.
+     Madrid, 1878.
+
+     Compendio Razonado de Historia General, por Sales y Ferre, last
+     edition, 4 vols. Madrid, 1880.
+
+     History of Civilization, by Buckle, 3 vols. London.
+
+_Particular Histories_:--
+
+     Investigaciones sobre la Historia de Espana, por Dozy, Spanish
+     translation, 2 vols. Seville, 1877.
+
+     Los Mudejares de Castillo, por Fernandez Gonzalez. Madrid, 1866.
+
+     Vida de la Princesa Eboli, by G. Muro, with introductory letter by
+     Canovas del Castillo. Madrid, 1877.
+
+     Text of various Fueros, and of the Constitutions since 1812.
+
+     Espagne Contemporaine, par F. Garrido. Bruxelles, 1865.
+
+_Ecclesiastical History_:--
+
+     Die Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, von P. B. Gams, 5 vols. Berlin,
+     1879.
+
+     Historia de los Heterodoxos Espanoles, por M. Menendez Pelayo,
+     tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii. not yet published.) Madrid, 1880.
+
+_History of Property, &c._:--
+
+     Ensayo sobre la Historia del derecho de Propiedad y su Estado
+     actual en Europa, por G. de Azcarate. Tomos i. and ii. (Tomo iii.
+     not yet published.) Madrid, 1879-80.
+
+     Estudios filosoficos y politicos, por G. de Azcarate. Madrid, 1877.
+
+     La Constitucion Inglesa y la politica del Continente, por G. de
+     Azcarate. Madrid, 1878.
+
+     Ensayo sobre la Propiedad Territorial en Espana, per Cardenas, 2
+     vols. Madrid, 1875.
+
+_Art_:--
+
+     Street's Gothic Architecture in Spain. Murray, 1865.
+
+     The Industrial Arts of Spain, by Juan F. Riano. London 1879.
+
+     Discurso de Recepcion, by Juan F. Riano. Madrid, 1880.
+
+     Numerous articles in Spanish Periodicals.
+
+_Literature_:--
+
+     Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature, 4 vols. London, 1845.
+
+     Sismondi's Literature of the South of Europe. Bohn, London, 1846.
+
+     Hubbard's Litterature Contemporaine en Espagne. Paris, 1876.
+
+_Guide-Books_:--
+
+     Ford's last edition, and O'Shea's Guide to Spain, with numerous
+     Spanish general and local guides, and particular descriptions of
+     towns, provinces, &c.
+
+     Tourist Books in Spanish, German, French, and English. The only
+     ones needing mention, as going out of the common round are--
+
+     Untrodden Spain, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1875.
+
+     Among the Spanish People, by J. H. Rose. Bentley, 1877.
+
+     Government and Consular reports too numerous to specify; but we
+     must except Phipps' masterly Report on Spanish Finance to the close
+     of 1876.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+    AGRICULTURE, 41.
+
+    Alhambra, 113, 198.
+
+    Alphonso XII., 160.
+
+    Amadeo I., 138, 168.
+
+    Andorra, republic of, 100.
+
+    Arabs, 75.
+
+    Architecture, Roman, 194;
+      Arab, 195;
+      Mudejar, 200;
+      Renaissance, 202;
+      Churrigueresque, 203.
+
+    Army, 167.
+
+    Art, Visigothic, 195;
+      Arabic, 196;
+      Christian, 205;
+      industrial, 210.
+
+
+    BALEARIC ISLES, 141.
+
+    Bardenas Reales, 13, 97.
+
+    Basque language, 71, 77, 78.
+
+    Behetria, 145.
+
+    Bidassoa, 12, 56.
+
+    Budgets, 175.
+
+    Bulls and bull-fighting, 121, 234.
+
+
+    CABALLERO, Fernan, 223.
+
+    Calderon, 216.
+
+    Camel breeds in Spain, 34, 65.
+
+    Canada, La, pass of, 5, 135.
+
+    Canals, 13, 16, 18, 133.
+
+    Canovas del Castillo, 161, 228.
+
+    Carlists, 155, 159.
+
+    Castelar, 158, 159, 228.
+
+    Cerro de San Felipe, 6, 133.
+
+    Cervantes, 215, 217.
+
+    Charles I., 13, 150.
+
+    Charles III., 13, 152.
+
+    Chuetas of Balearic Isles, 90, 143.
+
+    Church, councils of, 75, 187;
+      furniture and art, 205.
+
+    Clergy, 82, 191.
+
+    Coal-mines, 65, 94, 101, 122, 234.
+
+    Colleges, British, 141, 183.
+
+    Comunidades of Aragon, 40, 99.
+
+    Congress of deputies, 162.
+
+    Constitutions of Spain, 153, 162.
+
+    Contrabandistas, 90.
+
+    Cortes, 146, 162.
+
+    Cordova, mosque of, 124, 196, 198.
+
+
+    DEBT, public, 174.
+
+    Despena-Perros, pass of, 3, 125.
+
+    Despoblados and Destierros, 7, 111, 130.
+
+    Douro, 15, 139.
+
+
+    EBRO, 12, 97, 99.
+
+    Escorial, 36, 132, 203.
+
+    Esparto grass, 43, 107, 111.
+
+    Exports and imports, 177.
+
+
+    FAUNA, 52.
+
+    Ferdinand VII., 153.
+
+    Finance, 174.
+
+    Fiords or Friths in Galicia, 3, 31, 92.
+
+    Fisheries, 56, 93, 118.
+
+    Flora, greatly exotic, 41, 42;
+      herbaceous aromatic, 45;
+      African, 108.
+
+    Fueros, 146, 147, 150, 158, 161.
+
+    Funds, 175.
+
+
+    GATA, Cabo de, 2, 9, 109.
+
+    Gibraltar, 9, 119.
+
+    Guadalaviar and irrigation, 24, 104.
+
+    Guadalquiver and affluents, 20, 109.
+
+    Guadarrama, range of, 6, 129, 135.
+
+    Guadiana and affluents, 19.
+
+    Guardias civiles, 156.
+
+    Guisando, Toros de, 71, 134, 194.
+
+
+    HISTORICAL school in Spain, 220, 226.
+
+    Hospitals, 171.
+
+    Hurdes, 90, 138.
+
+
+    IBERI, 70.
+
+    Imports and exports, 177.
+
+    Inquisition, 149, 188.
+
+    Irrigation of Llobregat, 26;
+      Esla, 17;
+      Henares, 18, 19, 193;
+      in Valencia and Murcia, 24, 25, 104, 106, 107.
+
+    Isabella II., 154.
+
+
+    JEWS of Balearic Isles, 77, 143.
+
+    Justice, administration of, 169.
+
+
+    KELT and Keltiberi, 70, 76.
+
+
+    LACE, 211.
+
+    Lakes, 19, 26, 105, 108.
+
+    Laya, Basque tool, 40.
+
+    Lead-mines, 64, 125.
+
+    Lemosin dialects, 77.
+
+    Locusts, 48, 53.
+
+    Lunatic asylums, 171, 235.
+
+
+    MAJOLICA ware, 105, 144, 211.
+
+    Manufactures, cotton, 81, 82, 102.
+
+    Maragatos, 105, 144, 211.
+
+    Marismas of Guadalquiver, 22, 121.
+
+    Merino sheep, 54.
+
+    Mesta, 47, 83, 84, 156.
+
+    Mineral springs, 28.
+
+    Minho, 11, 93.
+
+    Mining districts, 64, 94, 95, 102, 107, 110, 111, 122, 125, 140.
+
+    Monkeys at Gibraltar, 52, 120.
+
+    Mudejar art, 201.
+
+    Municipal administration, 164.
+
+    Mules, 55.
+
+    Murillo, 120, 206, 207, 209.
+
+
+    NAVY, 168.
+
+    Nevada, Sierra, 8, 109, 115.
+
+
+    OLIVES, 33, 47, 59, 101, 109, 116.
+
+    Orange cultivation, 39, 43, 46, 105, 109.
+
+
+    PAINTING, schools of, 206, 209.
+
+    Palms, 33, 44, 106.
+
+    Passiegos of Bilbao, 90.
+
+    Philip II., 132, 232.
+
+    Population, census of, 80, 82;
+      diverse of Spain, 69, 85;
+      occupations of, 81.
+
+    Post and letters, 172.
+
+    Pottery and porcelain, 105, 144, 211.
+
+    Prisons, 170, 234.
+
+    Professors, salary of, 182.
+
+    Property, distribution of, 83, 153;
+      Church, sale of, 83, 154, 191.
+
+    Provinces, administration of, 164.
+
+    Provincial literature, 228.
+
+
+    RAILWAYS, 172.
+
+    Rainfall, 10, 28, 31.
+
+    Republic of Andora, 100.
+
+    Rice cultivation, 42, 44, 105.
+
+    Rivers, comparative table of, 28.
+
+    Romans in Spain, 17, 41, 76, 93, 102, 108, 194.
+
+
+    SALINAS, 22, 26, 29, 108, 109, 118.
+
+    Salt-mine, 63, 100.
+
+    Schools and schoolmasters, 184.
+
+    Sea-board of Spain, 2.
+
+    Seguro, sierra and rivers, 8, 24, 107.
+
+    Silk, 17.
+
+    Sugar, 42, 44, 115.
+
+
+    TAGUS and its affluents, 17.
+
+    Taxes, 176.
+
+    Telegraphs, 173.
+
+    Tobacco factories, 121, 176.
+
+    Toleration, early religious, 147, 165, 188.
+
+
+    UNIVERSITIES, 182.
+
+
+    VISIGOTHS, 74, 187, 195.
+
+
+    WATER, names connected with, 27.
+
+    Wines of Galicia, 38, 93;
+      Riojas, 33, 96;
+      Navarre and Aragon, 33;
+      Catalonia, 33, 102;
+      Valencia, 104;
+      La Mancha, 127;
+      Malaga 116;
+      Andalusia sherries, 118, 119, 124.
+
+
+LONDON:
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Spain, by Wentworth Webster
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