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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Scientific Basis of National Progress + Including that of Morality + +Author: George Gore + +Release Date: December 28, 2010 [EBook #34771] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">OF</p> + +<h1>NATIONAL PROGRESS,</h1> + +<h2>INCLUDING THAT OF MORALITY.</h2> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>G. GORE, L.L.D., F.R.S.,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Author of "The Art of Scientific Discovery;"<br /> +"The Principles and Practice of Electro-deposition;"<br /> +"The Art of Electro-metallurgy;" &c.</i></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:10%;"> + <a href="images/sbnp_001.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/sbnp_001.png" + alt="Birmingham Arms with motto FORWARD" title="Birmingham Arms with motto FORWARD" /></a> + </div> +<p class="cenhead">NATIONS ADVANCE BY NEW KNOWLEDGE.</p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON;<br /> +<span class="sc">And</span> 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.<br /> +1882.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + + <p>To the President (the Rev. N. Watson, F.R.S.), the Vice Presidents, + the Council and Members of the Birmingham Philosophical Society, I + dedicate the following small treatise, in appreciation of the fact, that + although only a young Society, they have certified in a substantial + manner the views persistently advocated by me respecting the National + importance of Scientific Investigation, and have shown so intelligent an + example of devotion to public welfare by establishing a Fund for the + Endowment of original Scientific Research.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>GEORGE GORE.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>The Institute of Scientific Research,</i></p> + <p><i>Birmingham.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3><span class="sc">The Scientific Basis of National Progress.</span></h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents" title="Contents"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Preface.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Scientific Basis of Material Progress</span> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="2"> CHAPTER II.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Scientific Basis of Mental and Moral Progress</span> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> <a href="#page83">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">New Truth, and its general relation to Human Progress</span> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Promotion of Original Scientific Research</span> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> <a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3><span class="sc">The Scientific Basis of National Progress.</span></h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">NEW KNOWLEDGE IMPARTS NEW POWER.</p> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<h3>PREFACE.</h3> + + <p>As there exists at the present time in this country a considerable + degree of uneasiness in the public mind respecting our ability to + maintain our position in the race of progress, and as our future success + as a nation depends largely upon science, it is desirable to call + attention to the great public importance of <i>new</i> scientific + knowledge, and to the means of promoting its development.</p> + + <p>Although the illustrations given in this book of the importance of + such knowledge to mankind, constitute but a small fraction of the number + which might be adduced, they are sufficient to show that by the neglect + of scientific investigation, we are sacrificing our welfare as a nation + to an enormous extent.</p> + + <p>The greatest obstacle to the discovery of new knowledge in this + country, lies in a wide spread ignorance of the dependence of human + welfare upon scientific research. I propose therefore to show in a brief + manner, that the essential starting-point of human progress, lies in + scientific discovery; also that new truths are evolved by original + research made in accordance with scientific methods; and to illustrate + these statements by examples; also to point out how such research can be + encouraged.</p> + + <p>The book is divided into four chapters, viz.: <i>1st.</i> The + Scientific basis of Material progress: <i>2nd.</i> The Scientific basis + of Mental and Moral progress: <i>3rd.</i> New truth and its relation to + Human progress: and <i>4th.</i> The Promotion of original Scientific + Research. As the object of the book is only to call attention to the vast + importance of <i>new</i> truth, as as a fundamental source of advance, + and how to promote the discovery of it, the essay is written as briefly + as possible, and is not offered in any sense as a complete exposition of + the subject, especially the section relating to the Scientific basis of + Morality.</p> + + <p>The leading idea of the Book is that present knowledge only enables us + to maintain our present state, that national <i>progress</i> is the + result of <i>new</i> ideas, and that the chief source of new ideas is + original research.<a name="NtA1" href="#Nt1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> That as + <i>advance</i> has its origin in <i>new</i> knowledge; unless new + discoveries are made, new inventions and improvements must sooner or + later cease. Another prominent idea is, that truth is essentially the + same in all divisions of knowledge, and that the mental powers and + processes employed in detecting it are the same in all subjects.</p> + + <p>For reasons stated in the text, the influence of scientific discovery + upon mental and moral progress are treated together. Notwithstanding the + far greater importance of the mental and moral advantages of new truths, + the book treats chiefly of the pecuniary and material gains to mankind; + mainly because the latter are more easily understood and appreciated, the + chapter however on "The Scientific Basis of Mental and Moral progress," + indicates in a very brief and imperfect manner, the vast importance of + new scientific knowledge to mankind, as a source of mental and moral + advancement.</p> + + <p>The chief object of this book is to disseminate more correct ideas + respecting the importance of <i>new</i> positive knowledge, and the + duties of society in relation to it; and a further object is to assist in + maintaining Birmingham in the front rank of intellectual, social and + moral advance, in accordance with its motto "Forward."</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<h3><span class="sc">The Scientific Basis of Material Progress.</span></h3> + + <p>During the last one hundred years this nation has advanced with + unexampled speed. More wealth has been accumulated by Englishmen since + the commencement of the present century, than in all preceding time since + the period of Julius Cæsar; one of the causes of this has been the + discovery of new truths of science, and their subservience to useful + purposes by means of invention. The great manufacturing success of this + country has been largely due to those applications of science, which have + enabled us to utilise our abundant stores of coal and iron-ore, in steam + engines, machinery, and a multitude of mechanical, physical, and chemical + processes; also to the discovery of electro-magnetism and its application + in the electric-telegraph, etc. And had it not been for these and other + adaptations of scientific knowledge, we should have competed in vain with + the cheaper labour and longer days of toil of continental nations. Other + great causes, such as our insular position, suitable climate, freedom, + <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page2"></a>{2}</span>geographical position, etc., etc. have, + however, also contributed to the result. Commerce also in its turn has + done vast things for mankind.</p> + + <p>The purely scientific knowledge we possess was discovered almost + entirely by means of original research, and to only a small extent by + persons engaged in industrial occupations. Probably not two per cent. of + all the important discoveries in pure science were made in manufactories; + the scientific experiments which are made in such establishments are + usually of the nature of invention, not of discovery, and are not often + published, because it is a usual object with men of business to retain as + much as possible of the pecuniary benefit of their labours to themselves. + Whilst it is the object of a business man to monopolise special + knowledge; that of the scientific man is to diffuse it, in order that all + mankind may be benefited and helped to improve.</p> + + <p>Discoveries in science are, however, occasionally made by practical + men engaged in technical employments. The hydro-electric machine + originated in this way, a man at Newcastle was attending to a steam + boiler, and found that he received electric shocks when he touched the + boiler. This circumstance was investigated by his employer, Mr. + Armstrong, a scientific man, and led him to construct the hydro-electric + machine. The accumulation of electricity in submarine telegraph cables + was first observed at the Gutta-Percha Company's works <!-- Page 3 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span>London. It was + noticed on testing a cable by means of a voltaic battery (the cable being + submerged in water) that discharges of electricity flowed from the cable + after the battery was removed; this circumstance was investigated by + Faraday, and led to improvements in submarine telegraphy. In each of + these instances the same general method as that used by scientific + discoverers was however employed, viz., new experiments were made (though + not intentionally) by putting matter and its forces under new conditions, + and new results were observed.</p> + + <p>Nearly all great modern scientific discoveries have been made by + teachers of science and others, who spend a large portion of their lives + in experimental investigation, searching for new truths, and not by + persons who have hit upon them by accident. The greatest discoveries in + physics and chemistry in modern times, were made chiefly by such men as + Newton, Cavendish, Scheele, Priestley, Oersted, Volta, Davy and Faraday: + all great workers in science.</p> + + <p>It is either by observing matter and its forces under new conditions + or from a new aspect, that nearly all discoveries are made; thus + Priestley placed some oxide of mercury in an inverted glass vessel, and + heated it by means of the Sun's rays and a lens, and discovered Oxygen. + This substance was nearly discovered by Eck de Sulsbach three hundred + years before; he heated six pounds of an amalgam <!-- Page 4 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>{4}</span>of silver and mercury, and + converted the latter metal into a red oxide like cinnabar, and he + remarked, "a spirit is united with the metal, and what proves it is this, + that this artificial cinnabar submitted to distillation, disengages that + spirit." The "spirit" was evidently oxygen.</p> + + <p>Some discoveries are made by observing the phenomena of bodies placed + under special conditions by those operations of nature over which we have + little or no control. All our knowledge of Astronomy, and much of that of + geology and physiology, was acquired in this way.</p> + + <p>Nearly all modern discoveries of importance in physics or chemistry + require long and difficult investigations to be made in order to + completely establish their truth. When Crookes discovered Thallium, he + saw the first sign of its existence in a momentary flash of green light + in a spectroscope, but he had to expend upon the subject several years of + most difficult labour, and a considerable sum of money, in order to prove + the correctness of his suspicion that he had discovered a new metal. M. + Lecocq de Boisbaudran discovered the metal Gallium and Bunsen discovered + Rubidium and Caesium in a similar manner.</p> + + <p>Discoveries in science, are usually made, not by trying to obtain some + valuable commercial or technical result, but by making new, reliable, and + systematic investigations. By investigating the chemical action of + electricity upon saline bodies, <!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page5"></a>{5}</span>Sir Humphrey Davy isolated sodium and + magnesium, which has led to the establishment at Patricroft near + Manchester, of the manufactures of those metals. By the abstract + researches of Hofmann and others upon Coal-tar, many new compounds were + discovered, and the extremely profitable manufacture of the splendid + coal-tar dyes was originated.</p> + + <p>Scientific discovery is the most valuable in its ultimate practical + results when it is pursued from a love of truth as the ruling motive, and + any attempt to make it more directly and quickly remunerative by trying + to direct it to immediately practical objects, decreases the importance + of its results, diminishes the spirit of inquiry, and sooner or later + reduces it to the character of invention. The greatest practical + realities of this age had their origin in a search after important truths + entirely irrespective of what utilities they might lead to.</p> + + <p>I do not intend by these remarks to imply that any new trades or + improvements in manufactures have been or can be effected without the + labours of inventors and practical men, but that there should be a more + judicious division of labour: one man to discover new truths, another to + put them into the form of practical inventions, and the business man to + work them; because it is proved by experience, that in nearly all cases + these different kinds of labour require men of widely different habits of + mind, and <!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page6"></a>{6}</span>that the faculties of discovery, invention, + and practical working are very rarely united in one man.</p> + + <p>Scientific investigations however, made in a manufactory, for the + purpose of ascertaining the various sources of loss of materials, the + circumstances which affect the amount or quality of the product; or made + with the object of substituting cheaper or more suitable materials, or + for varying their proportions, or for many other kindred objects, have in + many cases resulted in great benefit to the manufacturer, and have formed + the basis of successful patents. Some of the large brewers, chemical + manufacturers, candle companies, and many others, constantly employ + scientific men in this way to examine their materials, processes and + products, and keep them acquainted with the progress of discovery and + invention in relation to their own particular trades.</p> + + <p>No art or manufacture is so perfect as to be exempt from the influence + of discovery and invention, and no man can produce so perfect an article + but that, by the aid of science, a better may be produced. Science and + trade are mutually dependent, without the assistance of science, trade + would be unable to supply our daily increasing wants, and without the + pecuniary support of trade, science would languish and decay.</p> + + <p>"As long as arts and manufactures are left to be directed and improved + by simple experience, their progress is extremely slow, but directly + scientific knowledge is successfully applied to them, they <!-- Page 7 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>{7}</span>bound forward with + astonishing speed." Look at the art of taking portraits; for hundreds of + years it remained entirely in the hands of oil and water-colour painters + with but little progress in rapidity of production, but directly science + was applied to it in the form of photography, its advance in this respect + became amazing. Fifty years ago photography was almost unknown, but + immediately Messrs. Daguerre and Talbot, in 1844, made known their + processes, the new art began to advance, and so rapid has been its + progress, that at the present time many thousand persons are employed in + its exercise, and millions of portraits have been taken with an accuracy + and at a cost quite beyond the reach of the old method.</p> + + <p>Many persons hardly know the difference between science and art; a + still greater number cannot readily distinguish between a concrete + science and a pure one; and nearly all persons confound discovery with + invention. A science may be conveniently defined as a collection of facts + and general principles which are to be learned; an art as a collection of + rules which are to be followed:—Art therefore is applied science; + and every art also has a basis in science, whether that basis has been + discovered or not. Scientific principles underlie not only manufacturing + processes, but also sculpture, music, poetry and painting.</p> + + <p>Discoveries differ also from inventions: a scientific discovery is a + newly found truth in science, which in the great majority of cases is not + in the form of <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page8"></a>{8}</span>applied knowledge. An invention is usually a + combination and application to some desired purpose, of scientific truths + which have been previously discovered. When Oersted first observed a + magnetic needle move by means of a current of electricity, he made a + scientific discovery; but when Wheatstone and Cooke applied Oersted's + discovery in their telegraph from Paddington to Slough, they made an + invention. The success of the electro-plating process was dependent upon + knowledge previously discovered. Mr. Wright, a surgeon in Birmingham, was + led to the invention of the use of cyanide of potassium in + electro-plating and gilding, by reading in Scheele's "Chemical Essay" + (p.p. 405 and 406), that "if after these calces" (<i>i.e.</i>, the + cyanides of gold and silver) "have been precipitated, a sufficient + quantity of precipitating liquor be added, in order to redissolve them, + the solution remains clear in the open air, and in this state the ærial + acid" (<i>i.e.</i>, carbonic acid of the air) "does not reprecipitate the + metallic calx."</p> + + <p>Immediately a discovery is effected it is made public, and is + afterwards incorporated in the ordinary text books of science, ready for + the use of inventors; and in this way such books have become filled with + valuable knowledge acquired by researches in past times. All this + knowledge (which has cost millions of pounds and a vast amount of + intellect and labour) has been given by its discoverers freely to the + nation. Some idea of the number of scientific <!-- Page 9 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span>researches which have been + made since the year 1800, may be obtained from the fact, that a mere list + of their titles, with the names of the authors, occupies eight large + quarto volumes, of about one thousand pages each, compiled and published + at a cost of about ten thousand pounds, by the British Government and the + Royal Society.</p> + + <p>In discovery we search for new phenomena, their causes and relations; + in invention we seek to produce new effects, or to produce known effects + in an improved manner. The objects of the scientific discoverer are, new + truth and greater accuracy; whereas those of the inventor, are increased + usefulness and economy of results. The ancients classed inventors with + the gods, because they considered them great benefactors to the human + race. Discoverers may properly be viewed as priests and prophets of + truth, because they both reveal new knowledge to mankind, and predict + with certainty coming events.</p> + + <p>A man cannot usually invent an improvement unless he possesses + scientific knowledge, and, for that knowledge he must in nearly all cases + resort to a scientific book or teacher. The great practical value of new + scientific knowledge is proved by the fact, that when scientific + discoveries are published, there are numerous inventors and practical + men, who immediately endeavour to apply them to useful purposes. Since + the first application of coal-tar to the production of dyes, every + discovery in that <!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page10"></a>{10}</span>branch of chemistry has been closely watched + for a similar purpose.</p> + + <p>A complete account of the growth and development of scientific + discoveries and inventions would form an extensive history, and would + include numerous instances of experiments attended by results which, + sooner or later, affected all mankind. Take that of phosphorus, for + example. The first evidence of the existence of that substance was + obtained by the Saracens in the eighth century. Achild Bechil distilled a + powdered mixture of charcoal, clay, lime, and dried extract of urine, and + obtained a substance which shone in the dark "like a good moon;" that + substance was phosphorus. The discovery contained in the results of that + little dirty and stinking experiment was the germ or seed of all the + subsequent developments and applications of phosphorus. About the year + 1669 Bechil's experiment was further developed by Brandt, a merchant of + Hamburg, and the publication of the wonderful properties of the substance + produced a great sensation in his fellow-citizens. "There was then cried + nothing but triumph and victory among the chymists. Those good people + erected already in their thoughts so many hospitals and poor-houses that + no beggar should more molest any man in the streets, made great legacies, + and pious causes, and what not else." "Besides, the other alchymists did + encourage him yet more, and desisted not to make him believe how this was + the same fiery ghost of <!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page11"></a>{11}</span>Moses that in the beginning moved upon the + water, yea, his splendid shining face: the fiery pillar in the desert, + that secret fire of the altar wherewith Moses burned the golden calf + before he strewed it upon the fire and made it potable."</p> + + <p>The experiment of Brandt was repeated by Kunckel before the courts of + Saxony and Brandenburg, although it was not a very delicate or agreeable + exhibition, "because the anctuous and daubing oyliness was not yet + accurately separated from it, and without doubt it was very stinking." + Brandt's process was further developed by Boyle, and published in the + Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, in the year 1692-3; and + phosphorus was afterwards obtained in larger quantity and in a purer + state by Hanckwitz, a chemist in Southampton Street, Strand, and sold by + him at three pounds sterling per ounce. Its price at present is less than + three shillings per pound.</p> + + <p>Margraaf, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Dr. Slare also extended our <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'knowwledge'.">knowledge</span> + of the substance; Gahn, in 1769, made the important discovery of + phosphorus in bones, and Scheele immediately devised the process now in + use by our manufacturers for extracting it from that substance. The + commencement of the use of phosphorus for the purpose of getting a light + occurred about the year 1803, but it was not until the year 1833 that the + invention of phosphorus matches became commercially successful. The use + of such matches is now universal, and it has <!-- Page 12 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span>been estimated that the + daily consumption of them in Great Britain alone amounts to two hundred + and fifty millions, or more than eight matches per day for each + individual in the kingdom.</p> + + <p>"There is nothing on the Earth so small that it may not produce great + things." The most abstract and apparently trivial experiments in original + research have in some cases led to inventions and results of national and + even world-wide importance. The contractions of a frog's leg in the + experiments of Galvani, and the movements of a magnetic needle in those + of Oersted, have already led to the expenditure of hundreds of millions + of pounds in laying telegraph wires all over the earth, and to an immense + extension of international intercourse. But the original experiment of + Oersted was not discovered without labour, it was only arrived at after + many years of research.</p> + + <p>The saying that "all great things have had small beginnings," is true, + not only of electric telegraphs, but also of the great trade of + electro-plating, and of the magneto-electric machine which is now largely + used instead of the voltaic battery. After Volta had made his small and + apparently unimportant experiments on the electricity produced by metals + and liquids, various persons tried the effect of that electricity upon + metallic solutions. Brugnatelli, in 1805, found that two silver medals + became gilded in a solution of gold by passing the electricity through + them. Mr. Henry Bessemer, in 1834, coated various <!-- Page 13 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>{13}</span>lead ornaments with + copper by using a solution of copper in a similar manner. And in 1836 Mr. + De la Rue found that copies might be taken in copper of engraved + copper-plates by the electro-depositing process. Faraday discovered + magneto-electricity in the year 1831, by rotating a disc of copper + between the poles of a magnet, and he has stated that the first + successful result he obtained was so small that he could hardly detect + it. This simple experiment was the origin of the magneto-electric + machine, and many of these machines are now used for producing the + electric light, and for depositing nickel, copper, silver, and gold, + instead of by the voltaic battery. These, and other engines, thermic, + magnetic, electric, &c, will probably, ere long, be constructed on as + large a scale, and as many in number, as the present steam engine.</p> + + <p>The discovery in olden times of the attractive properties of a + fragment of iron ore, was the basis of the invention of the mariner's + compass, which greatly improved navigation, and led to nearly all the + chief maritime discoveries which have since been made. The sciences of + magnetism and geometry form the basis of the art of navigation, and have + thus made our great foreign commerce possible. The discovery of magnetism + enabled sailing vessels to venture freely out of sight of land, and to + traverse the wide ocean with even greater safety than to sail near the + shore. By its means Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean and discovered + America. By its <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page14"></a>{14}</span>means also, Vasco de Gama sailed round the + Cape of Good Hope and discovered a new route to India; and in the year + 1500, another Portuguese Captain, Cabral, was driven across the Atlantic, + discovered Brazil, and was enabled by the aid of the magnet, to send back + a ship to Lisbon with news of the discovery. By its assistance also + Magellan discovered Patagonia and the South Pacific Ocean; and by the + completion of that voyage the Earth was first circumnavigated and proved + to be a globe.</p> + + <p>The geographical discoveries of the Portuguese, made by means of the + magnet, produced great national results; they profoundly changed the + balance of power and wealth among European nations, by changing the + direction of navigation and of the great streams of commerce between + Europe and the East. They gave a mortal blow to Italy and the cities of + the Mediterranean, by transferring Eastern commerce to Spain and + Portugal: and Egypt ceased to be the greatest route of commerce from + Europe to India.</p> + + <p>A singular contract relating to geographical research was made in the + fifteenth century, between King Alphonso, of Portugal, and Ferdinand + Gomez, of Lisbon, by which the latter engaged to navigate a ship and + explore the coast of Africa, and to discover not less than three hundred + miles of coast every year, the measurement to be made from Sierra Leone. + <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page15"></a>{15}</span></p> + + <p>Scientific discovery has in all ages been a most powerful agent of + civilization and human progress. The discovery of the black liquid which + a solution of nutgalls produces when mixed with green vitriol, led to the + invention of writing ink; and a knowledge of the properties of ink and + paper prepared the way for the invention of printing, by means of which + truth and learning have spread all over the earth.</p> + + <p>The apparently insignificant property possessed by amber, of + attracting feathers immediately after it has been rubbed, was known + twenty-four hundred years ago, and afterwards led to the discovery of + electricity. In later times, Dr. Franklin, by means of a kite, charged a + bottle with lightning, examined it, and proved lightning and electricity + to be identical. This knowledge, joined to the further discovery, that + electricity would pass freely through metals, led to the modern invention + of the lightning conductor, by means of which all our great buildings, + ships, lighthouses, arsenals, and powder magazines are protected from + lightning.</p> + + <p>"Coming events cast their shadows before them:" the discovery of the + instant transmission of electricity along wires by Stephen Gray and + Wheeler, about the year 1729, fore-shadowed the invention of the electric + telegraph. About the year 1819, Oersted, a Danish philosopher, after + fifteen years of study and experiment, to ascertain the relation of + electricity to magnetism, discovered that if a freely suspended magnetic + needle was supported parallel and near to <!-- Page 16 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>{16}</span>a wire, and an electric + current then passed through the wire, the needle moved and placed itself + at right angles to the current. This discovery, coupled with the previous + one of the electric conductivity of metals, formed the indispensable + basis of all our electric telegraphs.</p> + + <p>Original research is very productive of new industries and inventions. + The discoveries made by Volta, Faraday, and many other investigators, + have led to the process of electro-plating, the use of electric lights + for lighthouses, and for ocean steamships, and the great system of + telegraphs. Those of Davy, Wedgwood, and others, respecting the action of + light upon salts of silver, have resulted in the modern processes of + photography, which are now in use almost everywhere. The discovery of + zinc, by Paracelsus, has been followed by the use of that metal in + galvanic batteries, and the great use of "galvanized" iron for telegraph + wires, for roofing, and many other purposes. The discovery of nickel, by + Cronstedt, has led to the great modern use of that metal in + electro-plating, and to that of German silver in the construction of + electro-plated and other articles. The discovery of chlorine, by Scheele, + formed the basis of nearly all our modern processes of bleaching cotton + and other fabrics. The discovery of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine has + led to the use of those substances in blasting rocks and in warfare. The + discovery of oxygen, by Priestley, has enabled us to understand and + improve in a great number of <!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page17"></a>{17}</span>ways the numerous manufacturing, + agricultural, and other processes in which that substance operates. + Priestley made many experiments also on the absorption of gases by water, + and proposed the resulting liquids as beverages; and those apparently + trifling experiments have since expanded into the large manufactures of + aërated waters. The discoveries of gutta-percha and india-rubber were + indispensible to the great applications of those substances in telegraph + cables, and in a multitude of useful articles. The discovery of + chloroform and anæsthetics has led to their use for the purpose of + alleviating human suffering. The discovery, by Sir Isaac Newton, of the + decomposition of light by means of a prism, has led in recent times to + the invention of the spectroscope; to the use of that instrument in the + Bessemer steel process; to the discovery of a number of new metals, + thallium, rubidium, cæsium, indium, and several others, and to the most + wonderful discovery of the composition of the Sun and distant heavenly + bodies.</p> + + <p>Even the invention of the steam-engine was partly a consequence of + previous researches made by scientific discoverers. Watt, himself, stated + in his pamphlet, entitled "A plain Story," that he could not have + perfected his engine had not Dr. Black and others previously discovered + what amount of heat was rendered latent by the conversion of water into + steam. "Each mechanical advance in the steam-engine has been preceded by + and the result of the <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page18"></a>{18}</span>discovery of some physical law or property + of steam." "The first step in the invention of the steam-engine was the + experimental research and the discoveries of the properties of steam by + Hooke, Boyle, and Papin."<a name="NtA2" href="#Nt2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> + Had not the steam-engine been developed, it is clear that railways, + steamships, machinery, and all the other numerous uses to which that + instrument is now applied, would have been almost unknown. The + introduction of the steam-engine enabled abandoned Cornish mines to be + relieved of water, and to be worked to much greater depths. The + discoveries of nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, oil of vitriol, and + washing soda, by the alchemists and early chemists in their researches, + led to the erection of the numerous great manufactories of those + substances which now exist in England and in other civilized countries. + There is probably not an art, manufacture, or process, which is not + largely due to scientific discovery, and if we trace them back to their + source we nearly always find them originate in scientific research.</p> + + <p>So far has scientific discovery, and its practical applications to + human benefit by invention, now progressed, that every one considers this + to be, <i>par excellence</i>, the scientific age. And as discovery and + invention continue to progress with accelerated speed, we are encouraged + to hope, not only that scientific principles will ultimately be + universally recognised as <!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page19"></a>{19}</span>the regulators of all technical industry, + but also as a fundamental basis of morality.<a name="NtA3" + href="#Nt3"><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> + + <p>"It is true that some processes of manufacture have not been + consequences of abstract scientific discovery—that they originally + resulted from alterations made in the rudest appliances, and that they + have been directed and improved by the results of simple experience. For + ages past we derived the benefit of scientific principles without a + knowledge of their existence. We trod in the beaten paths of experience + ignorant of the truth that we were acting in unison with fixed and + certain laws. Numerous arts and processes were in extensive operation + long before the principles involved in them were at all understood. The + arts of enamelling and of iron smelting were known hundreds of years + before we were acquainted with the principles of chemistry. In some rare + instances also the recorded results of daily experience in practical + matters, tabulated and studied, have ultimately led to the discovery of + scientific laws; but all this is merely the making use of our ordinary + experience for the advancement of knowledge, instead of making <i>special + experiments</i> for the purpose."</p> + + <p>Many of our processes and manufactures, those of glass and copper for + example, are of such great antiquity, it is impossible to ascertain with + certainty the special circumstances under which they originated; but + after we have fully considered the ways in which <!-- Page 20 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>{20}</span>various modern trades and + manufactures have first arisen, we shall come to the conclusion that all + manufactures and improvements in manufacturing processes, must have been + first produced by the same general means, viz., new observations, + although the special circumstances connected with the origin of each were + different.</p> + + <p>Let us consider German-silver and its manufacture. That substance is + an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel; it owes its peculiar whiteness or + "silver-like" appearance to the latter metal, and cannot be made without + it; it is certain, therefore, that by whatever means that metal or the + alloy was discovered, the discovery was the origin of the German-silver + manufacture, and was essential to all manufactures, processes, or + appliances in which German-silver, nickel, or any of its compounds are + used. Nickel was discovered by Cronstedt during the year 1751, and its + compounds were chiefly investigated by English and foreign chemists. + Cronstedt found it as a peculiar metal in the mineral called + kupfernickel, whilst chemically examining the properties of that + substance. The general method by which he discovered it was careful + experiment, observation, and study of the properties of matter.</p> + + <p>It is stated that the Chinese and other nations made alloys of nickel + long before nickel itself was known to be a distinct metal; they had + found, by experiment, that when ores of copper and zinc were mixed with a + particular kind of mineral and smelted, <!-- Page 21 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>{21}</span>a white alloy was + obtained; but this also proves the general statement already made, that + the German-silver manufacture was originated by means of new + observations. It was by a more skilful, but similar mode of procedure + that Cronstedt isolated the metal itself, and thus laid a definite basis + of improvements in the manufacture of its alloys.</p> + + <p>No art is probably more antique, or remained longer exempt from the + influence of science, than that of match making and obtaining a light. + Many adult persons can remember the primitive and old-fashioned + tinder-box, which had passed, with its flint and steel, from one + generation to another without any material improvement. Phosphorus, it is + true, was definitely discovered at least as early as the year 1669, but + it was not applied to match making till about 1833. Since then the + progress of invention has been so rapid that there are now numerous + manufactories which produce many millions per day of phosphorus matches; + for instance, those of M. Pollak, at Vienna, and of M. Fürth, in Bohemia, + consume together more than 20 tons of phosphorus annually, and give + employment to about 6,000 persons, and as one pound of phosphorus + suffices for about one million German matches (or 600,000 English ones), + those two makers alone produce the astonishing number of 44,800 millions + of matches yearly.</p> + + <p>Judging by means of the experience already acquired, we cannot + reasonably expect that <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page22"></a>{22}</span>discoveries fraught with such momentous + consequences as those of magnetism or of galvanism and electro-magnetism, + will be made very often. The progress of scientific discovery is gradual; + we have at present but mere glimpses of the new world of truth which is + being revealed to us by means of research; we are only at the very + commencement of a knowledge of the inherent properties of matter and its + forces, and consequently the methods we employ to utilize them are + extremely imperfect. Matter has a general property of subdividing and + transmuting forces; if we apply one force to a substance or machine, it + produces many effects, not only those we want, but those also we do not + want; when we heat a piece of iron, the heat produces a number of + changes, mechanical, electric, magnetic, and chemical, and it is partly + by means of what is termed the "internal resistance" of bodies that these + effects are produced, and we know but little of that property. The + explosive action in a gas engine produces not only the mechanical force + we desire, but also a quantity of heat we do not want, and at a cost of a + portion of the gas. In a similar manner, in the steam-engine the largest + portion of the heat of the coal is converted into forces which are lost; + a large amount of it is uselessly expended in warming the machine itself + and the surrounding atmosphere; much also is lost by friction.</p> + + <p>That "knowledge is power" is an old maxim, but that <i>new knowledge + is new power</i> is a new maxim <!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page23"></a>{23}</span>which scientific discovery has impressed + upon us. By means of discoveries we have acquired new powers; by those of + electricity we have acquired the ability of conversing with each other at + unlimited distances, and by means of those in optics we are enabled to + analyse the composition, and perceive some of the physical changes of the + most distant heavenly bodies. As our ignorance is probably much greater + than our knowledge, more inventions also, and extensions of human power, + must ultimately result from discovering new qualities of bodies, than by + applying to useful purposes their already known properties.</p> + + <p>Experience in science has already shown that it is by means of + invention based upon <i>new</i> discoveries that the greatest utilities + are obtained, rather than by the exercise of invention upon knowledge + acquired long ago. The information obtained by research in former times + has been largely exhausted for the purposes of invention by modern + inventors, and what we very greatly require now is <i>new</i> knowledge. + Experience in science also leads us to believe that the extent of + possible discovery is as boundless as Nature, and that an immense amount + of new knowledge may yet be discovered. Every discoverer of repute could + supply a copious list of investigations yet to be made.</p> + + <p>An infinite number of questions in pure science remain to be decided + by means of research. Is Electricity decomposible like radiant heat or + light? <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page24"></a>{24}</span>Are the "elementary substances" really + compound bodies? Are they all compounds of Hydrogen? Are they all + decomposed by very high temperatures, as compound substances are + "disassociated" by less elevated temperatures? Under what conditions is + Fluorine isolated? Do gases transmit heat by conduction? Under what + circumstances is Light converted into Electricity? and into Magnetism? + What is the actual size of an atom of Hydrogen? Does Light (without heat) + expand bodies? What is the actual molecular arrangement of the atoms of + Hydrogen at 60 Fahrenheit? What is the cause of the absence of metalloids + in the Sun? What are the properties of Fluorine? What is the vapour + density of Cæsium? Under what circumstances is heat wholly converted into + mechanical power? &c., &c. All these discoveries when made, will + probably, sooner or later, be productive of practical benefits to + mankind.</p> + + <p>Nearly <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'ever'." + >every</span> manufacturer in this country is deriving, from scientific + discoveries, advantages for which there has been little or no payment + made to the discoverers. The makers of coal-tar-dyes, and dyers of wool + and silk, are using Mitscherlich's discovery of nitro-benzine. + Manufacturers of picric acid and "French purple" have enjoyed the fruits + of the labours of Dr. Stenhouse. Makers of chlorate of potash and cyanide + of potassium are profiting largely by the discoveries of Scheele, + Gay-Lussac, and others. All the percussion cap makers <!-- Page 25 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>{25}</span>are indebted to + Howard and Brugnatelli for fulminating silver. Railway-contractors, + quarry-proprietors, and others, use nitro-glycerine discovered by + Sobrero. Iron smelters are benefiting by the discovery of Bunsen, that 42 + per cent. of the heat of the fuel was lost as combustible + gases—these gases are now utilized. Telegraphists and + electro-platers are also indebted to him for his voltaic battery. The + producers of metallic magnesium owe the origin of their process to him as + being the first to convert it into wire and make known its great light + giving power. Multitudes of persons now use his well-known "Bunsen's + burner" for heating, cooking, and other operations. The various telegraph + companies, copper smelters, and makers of copper telegraph wire, are + using Dr. Matthiessen's discovery of the influence of impurities on the + electric conducting power of copper. Phosphorus-makers are reaping the + reward of the labours of Gahn and Scheele. The makers of electro-plate + and German silver are deriving profits from the labours of Faraday, who + investigated electrolysis; of Gay Lussac, who discovered cyanogen; and of + Cronstedt, who discovered nickel. Makers of Bessemer steel enjoy + advantages derived from the spectrum discoveries of Kirchoff. Iron and + copper smelters, metallurgists in general, dyers, calico printers, + bleachers, brewers, makers of vinegar, red lead, varnishes, colours, + soaps, green vitriol, phosphorus, oil-of-vitriol, and many others, are + deriving benefit from the discoveries of Priestley and <!-- Page 26 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>{26}</span>Scheele. + Physicians and their patients are receiving the reward of the labours of + Soubeiran, Liebig, and Dumas, in the discovery of chloroform; of the + researches of Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Pelletier, and others, in the + discovery of quinine; and of many other chemists who discovered numerous + remedial substances. By means of the discoveries of Oersted and others, + embodied in the telegraph, manufacturers are enabled to anticipate the + state of the markets and of the weather, and editors are enabled to + obtain the earliest news.</p> + + <p>Suppose that Gay Lussac, in 1815, had not discovered cyanide of + potassium, and that it had never been discovered, it is highly probable + that the manufacturing returns of Birmingham and Sheffield would be much + less in amount at the present time than they are, simply because there is + no other known substance with which the electro-plating of base metals + with gold and silver can be satisfactorily effected. Or suppose that + sal-ammoniac, chloride of zinc, or other soldering agents had not been + discovered, the extensive and so-called "galvanizing" process could not + have been effected, because without those substances the iron articles + immersed in the melted zinc would not have received an adhesive metallic + coating.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, science has in various cases rendered obsolete some + manufactures and superseded old customs, comforts and conveniences. We + have ceased, or almost so, to use tinder-boxes, snuffers, <!-- Page 27 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>{27}</span>sulphur matches, + rush-lights, tallow candles, sedan chairs, stage coaches, the ancient + water-bucket and well, and even the comparatively modern pump; coal fires + also are gradually being superseded by fires of gas, and articles formed + of solid silver are now being replaced by those of electro-plate; canals + have also to some extent been supplanted by railways. But in all these + cases science has supplied us either with something better or more suited + to our present wants.</p> + + <p>The great pecuniary benefits arising from the applications of science + are generally reaped in the first instance by the great manufacturers, + agriculturists, merchants, and capitalists. Countless fortunes have been + made by means of processes and manufactures based upon scientific + discovery. The pecuniary benefits of calico printing, bleaching, dyeing; + of the great manufactures of cotton, iron, pottery, beer, sugar, glass, + spirits, vinegar, gutta-percha, india-rubber, gun cotton, the numerous + metals, machinery, electro-plate, washing soda, German silver, brass, + phosphorus, manures, the common acids, numerous chemicals, and a + multitude of other substances and articles, have been extremely great. + More than eighteen hundred million pounds of sulphuric acid alone are + manufactured in Europe yearly. The pecuniary advantages of the use of the + electric telegraph and railways to merchants, the gains of capitalists by + monies invested in railways, telegraphs, steam-ships, cotton-mills, + gas-works, <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page28"></a>{28}</span>iron shipbuilding, engineering, and other + great applications of science, have been enormous. The annual gas rental + of London alone amounts to more than two millions sterling; and even in + Birmingham the produce of gas is more than twenty-five hundred millions + of cubic feet yearly. The amount of capital expended in the construction + of railways only in this country, has been estimated at more than seven + hundred millions of pounds, and the total receipts upon British railways + has reached forty-three millions per annum. In the year 1875 our railways + carried 200 million tons of goods, and consumed ten million tons of coal; + the Great Northern Railway alone consumes 5,000 tons of coal each week. + In the year 1877 there existed in the entire world about 198,000 miles of + railway, the whole having been constructed since the year 1825. In the + year 1880 six hundred millions of journeys were made by passengers on + British railways; and the stock of those railways included 13,174 + locomotives; 369,694 waggons, 28,717 passenger carriages, and 22,712 + other vehicles. The London and North-Western Railway Company alone + possessed, in the year 1873, no less than 1,900 locomotive engines, each + of a value of nearly two thousand pounds; 4,000 carriages and 36,000 + waggons; and it has been estimated by competent authorities, that there + are in the world 200,000 steam-engines, having a total power of twelve + million horses, or 100 million men. The number of cotton spindles on the + whole Earth is <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>{29}</span>estimated at about 71Œ millions. In the + United States of America there are about five thousand telegraph + stations, and 75,000 miles of line, which transmit yearly about + 11,500,000 messages.—The telegrams of Great Britain number about + one-fourth of a million per week. The world's telegrams during the year + 1877 numbered nearly 130 millions; and the world's letters about 3,300 + millions, or 9Œ millions each day. Even the little phosphorus match is + being manufactured and consumed at a rate estimated at more than ten + thousand millions daily.</p> + + <p>Much of the wealth of this country, resulting from science, has been + very easily obtained by its possessors. That acquired by means of our + coal has especially been obtained without commensurate effort. The amount + of that substance raised in Great Britain during the year 1876 was 734 + millions of tons. To draw upon a great stock of that mineral is like + drawing money from a bank, because coal, unlike any other abundant + substance (except wood and petroline), contains in itself an immense + store of energy, which is evolved as heat during combustion, and may be + utilized. Each piece of coal contains sufficient energy to lift its own + weight twenty-three hundred miles, but it costs only a small proportion + of that power to extract and raise it from the mine. I do not mean by + these remarks to imply that the wealth accruing from this great store of + power in coal is derived chiefly by the owners of coal mines. <!-- Page + 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>{30}</span></p> + + <p>This acquisition of wealth without commensurate sacrifice is not an + unqualified advantage; it constitutes a debt to nature, which upon the + great principle of causation, and of equivalency of action and reaction, + must sooner or later be repaid. Judging from the infallibility of the + action of those laws, and the signs of the times, this nation is now + beginning to repay in the form of emigration of trade to other lands, and + of relatively less rapid national advance, the debt incurred by undue + pecuniary success. An excess of money or power obtained without + equivalent effort, fails to properly develop the intelligence of its + possessors, and nations have been hastened to ruin in this way. Our great + success in getting money has attracted many from the pursuit of + knowledge, and our love of knowledge has not increased as fast as our + wealth. The wealth of the upper classes has, by decoying from study + undisciplined young men at our old Universities, kept down the general + standard of scientific instruction throughout the country, and, by + leading to neglect of scientific research, is now retarding our progress + in arts, manufactures, commerce, and civilization. The consequent + relative poverty of the working classes is also producing similar effects + by retarding education, and contributing towards the great deficiency of + skilled labour, of which our inventors, manufacturers, and others so + strongly complain in the working of their scientific processes. Had a + just share of the great amount of money, gained by the application of + science to useful <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page31"></a>{31}</span>purposes, been applied to the payment and + maintenance of scientific discoverers and inventors, as it should have + been, the general standard of scientific education would have been + higher, the poor would have had more employment and money, and the + happiness and civilization of all would have been greater.</p> + + <p>In a usual way the greatest pecuniary benefits, arising from science, + sooner or later go to enrich the possessors of land. The demand created + for coal, iron, lime, building-stone, and all the metals, by the + industrial applications of science, has greatly increased the value of + land under which those substances lie. The value of cultivated land has + been everywhere increased by the discoveries of agricultural chemistry. + Land has also been required for railways in nearly all parts of the + kingdom, and has thereby been considerably raised in value. Discoveries + produce inventions, inventions give rise to processes and manufactures, + the employment of workmen and others, and the erection of workshops and + dwellings, and these have rapidly increased the value of building ground. + In Lancashire the value of such ground has been greatly increased by the + inventions of the steam-engine and machinery, the discovery of chlorine, + and their application to cotton manufacture. In all the great + manufacturing districts, and in all the chief centres of industry, a + similar result has occurred. Wherever a railway has been constructed, the + value of land has also increased in <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>{32}</span>consequence of the + increased facilities of communication. All these great additions to the + value of land are largely due to the unpaid labours of scientific + discoverers, and it may be said that this nation has largely gained its + wealth, and is still living in a great degree on the products of those + labours. Those great additions to the value of land are also permanent, + are continually increasing, and are largely independent of any exertions + on the part of the owners. That many other influences, besides that of + science, have contributed to the development of our manufacturing and + commercial prosperity is also true, but it would be foreign to the + subject of the present chapter to point them out.</p> + + <p>It is a fallacious argument to say that scientific discovery and + increased value of land are only remotely connected together, a cause as + certainly produces its effect, however many connections lie between them, + provided the connections are certain—the number of links in a chain + makes no difference in the transmission of motion from one end of it to + the other. Great causes are frequently distant and wide-spread in their + effects. Persons in general <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'ean'." + >can</span> easily understand that an acorn planted in the ground will in + the course of time become an oak, because it is a palpable and visible + effect; but they cannot so readily perceive that the benefits resulting + from a knowledge of science ramify through all our manufacturing, + artistic, and commercial occupations, our social and moral <!-- Page 33 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>{33}</span>relations, and + our every-day life, not because the dependence of our welfare upon + science is less real, but partly because the connection between the two + is less understood.</p> + + <p>Not only has science benefited manufacturers, but also operatives, + because the extension of science to manufacturing purposes has compelled + them to make themselves acquainted with intellectual subjects. "Instead + of remaining mere machines, mechanically performing the work set before + them, they are obliged to exercise the faculties of observation and + judgment in watching the results and directing the action of mechanical, + physical, and chemical powers. Instead of following the blind path of + experience, using unknown forces to accomplish some definite result, they + pursue their labours with the aid of known and certain laws." It is true + that in many cases artisans who have acquired a little knowledge of + science have thereby been rendered conceited and unfit for their special + employment, and this has made many manufacturers object to technical + scientific education for their servants; but this would not be so much + the case if scientific knowledge were more generally and equally + diffused. Arguments are not unfrequently adduced to support the opinion + that ignorance has its advantages; but, however great the advantages of + ignorance may be, those of knowledge are greater.</p> + + <p>In consequence of the labours of scientific discoverers and inventors, + the progress of science is <!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page34"></a>{34}</span>such that in a very few years a knowledge of + it will be indispensible to all persons engaged in superintending or + carrying out manufacturing operations, and in all arts, occupations and + appointments in which man is dealing with matter. Science is fast + penetrating into all our manufactures and occupations, and "those who are + unscientific will have much less employment and will be left behind in + the race of life." England also will be compelled, by the necessities of + human progress and the advance of foreign intellect, to determine and + recognize the proper value of scientific research as a basis of progress. + National superiority can only be maintained by being first in the race, + and not by buying inventions of other nations.</p> + + <p>The philosophy of matter is the foundation of all manufacturing arts + and artistic processes; technical education, or the relation of science + to manufactures, &c., can only be properly imparted upon the basis of + a sufficient knowledge of theoretical science. Science tends to + abbreviate mental and bodily labour. The use of our reason saves us the + labour of using our senses, because it enables us to know that under + certain conditions a certain effect must occur. The use of our reason and + senses also saves us using our hands.</p> + + <p>The properties of a single substance are so numerous that if a workman + was to thoroughly study the whole of them, he would become a scientific + authority in the subjects of heat, light, electricity, <!-- Page 35 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span>magnetism, and + chemistry. A blacksmith who knew all the physical and chemical properties + and relations of iron and steel would be quite a scientific + philosopher.</p> + + <p>No man has more occasion to bless the introduction of the + steam-engine, machinery, the galvanic battery, and science in general, + than the working mechanic, because it has mitigated his physical toil by + giving him the duty of simply directing the labour instead of actually + performing it; whilst it has deprived him of one kind of employment it + has provided him with something better. But a few years ago the + operatives in the silver-plating trade had to lay the silver on the + articles with their hands, with the aid of a soldering iron; now they + have simply to set their batteries in action and watch the electricity + doing it for them. In a similar manner the working engineer at his + metal-turning lathe has merely to direct the action of his tools whilst + the steam-engine performs the heavy labour of turning.</p> + + <p>There is not a man in this kingdom who has not derived some advantage, + in one way or another, from scientific research. The advantages of gas + light, electric light, rapid postal service and transmission of goods, + railway travelling, steam-ships for navigation, cotton apparel, + photography, cheap pottery, improved medicine and surgery, telegraphic + forecasts of weather, Australian preserved meats, &c., &c., have + been reaped more or less by everyone, even the very paupers. Not only has + travelling been <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page36"></a>{36}</span>considerably cheapened and immensely + increased, but also rendered more safe:—in travelling by diligence + in France the average number of persons injured was 1 to every 30,000 + carried; and killed, 1 in every 335,000; but by railway, notwithstanding + the average length of the journey has greatly increased, the former has + been diminished to 1 in 580,000, and the latter to one in five millions; + safety in travelling by sea has also been greatly increased by means of + improved lighthouses. By the rapid transmission of messages by telegraphs + and of commodities by steam-ships and railways, the horrors of famine + have been largely diminished; the health of this nation has also been + improved by greater variety of foods, and the increasing cost of meat has + been restrained. It is well known that in periods of famine, the great + loss of life has arisen, not from universal scarcity of food, but from + the loss of time in ordering and conveying it. Whilst also the + steam-engine has been the means of relieving hundreds of thousands of men + from mere animal toil; it has, with the aid of the printing-press, + supplied them with cheap daily intelligence.</p> + + <p>Science has also proved itself to be a great source of employment, as + well as wealth. By developing new processes it has given employment to + whole armies of workmen in numerous arts, manufactures, and occupations. + Some of those employments necessitating scientific training. About + 300,000 persons are employed on railways alone in Great <!-- Page 37 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>{37}</span>Britain, besides + those who were engaged in their construction; and in the postal + department alone of the telegraph service of this country more than + fifteen thousand operatives are employed. Chemical works also find + employment for twenty-six thousand, and gasworks for ten thousand work + people. The telegraphs of the United States of America alone, provide + employment for about 7,000 persons; and the railways of the world employ + about 1,900,000 men.</p> + + <p>It may be objected that the extension of science in this country, + instead of increasing employment for workmen has produced an opposite + effect, by so increasing the production of goods by machinery, and by + physical and chemical processes, that we have glutted the markets of the + world in years gone by, and are now suffering the results of + over-production. This is a very limited view of the case; over-production + is only true of particular manufactures, and is a result of ill-directed + commercial energy, to which manufacturing skill is only a servant. The + objection also contains its own reply;—that it is certainly much + greater to our advantage to have supplied other nations with manufactured + commodities, than that other nations should have supplied us, as they + would have done had they the manufacturing skill. At present, however, + continental nations are gradually supplanting us in manufactures; and + gradually supplying us with the goods which we <!-- Page 38 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>{38}</span>formerly supplied them, + and our fear is that this is largely a result of our neglect of + science.</p> + + <p>In many cases instead of superseding labour, science has changed its + kind, or its mode of distribution;—in the case of steam-ships, + instead of navigation being conducted entirely by nautical ability, it is + partly effected by the skill of the engineer; conveyance of goods by road + and canal has not been entirely supplanted, but partly supplemented by + conveyance by railways. The diminution of labour which sometimes occurs + in consequence of the progress of science is extremely small compared + with its increase. The number of waggoners and horses now employed, + merely to collect and deliver all the goods for railways, is actually + much greater than the whole of those employed for conveying all the goods + of the country before railways were constructed.</p> + + <p>It would be altogether a false argument to say that the practical + benefits derived from the labour of scientific discoverers by the + different classes of the community are uncertain or imaginary, because + the discoveries and the practical benefits are not in all cases + immediately connected. We know that the consumers of tea in this country + derive benefit from the grower of that herb in China through the hands of + a series of intervening agents, as certainly as if they received the tea + direct from his hands. Cause and effect are inseparable, and the remote + effect of a <!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page39"></a>{39}</span>series of connected causes is not less + certain than the immediate ones.</p> + + <p>It is a remarkable fact, that of the multitude of rich manufacturers, + merchants, capitalists, and land-owners in this country, who have derived + such great pecuniary benefits from original scientific research, there is + scarcely one who has ever given to a scientific society, institution, or + investigator, a single thousand pounds for the aid of pure research in + experimental physics or chemistry;<a name="NtA4" + href="#Nt4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> the nearest approach to exceptions are a + very few wealthy persons who have devoted <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'themselver'.">themselves</span> personally to + scientific discovery. Manufacturers have willingly reaped the advantages + of the labours of unpaid discoverers, but have not adequately sowed the + means of future progress. Many of those manufacturers and others would, + however, willingly give money towards such an object if they understood + the value and the necessity of scientific research.</p> + + <p>Whilst also many millions of pounds are annually expended in this + country upon religious, philanthropic and other good objects, there is + scarcely a scientific society or institution (with the exception of the + Royal Society and the British Association) which expends even the small + sum of five hundred pounds a year on pure experimental research in + physics or <!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page40"></a>{40}</span>chemistry. In the Royal Institution of Great + Britain, the average annual expenses relating to experimental research, + including salaries to assistants for research in the laboratory, from the + year 1867 to 1871, did not amount to two hundred and fifty pounds. On the + other hand, the "total net receipts" of the British and Foreign Bible + Society alone, amount to about £213,000 a year. These circumstances + strongly indicate extreme ignorance of the value and necessity of new + scientific knowledge, and an equally strong desire to aid any good object + which is understood. The money given to charitable and religious objects + is largely a result of the unpaid labours of scientific investigators in + the manner already described. The fact that verifiable truth is seriously + neglected, whilst millions of pounds are annually devoted in this country + to the support of dogmas and doctrines, proves that the English nation is + even now in a very imperfectly civilized state.</p> + + <p>Considering the multiplicity and variety of philanthropic institutions + and bequests in this country, and the great effect original scientific + research has in ameliorating the condition of mankind, and reducing the + amount of human misery, it is surprising that no wealthy philanthropic + individual has bequeathed funds for the endowment of an institution for + pure research in physics or chemistry.<a name="NtA5" + href="#Nt5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> In <!-- Page 41 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span>America, the Smithsonian + Institution was founded at Washington by benevolent and patriotic + persons,<a name="NtA6" href="#Nt6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> "for the increase + and diffusion of knowledge among men," and one of the objects of that + institution is "to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the + addition of new truths," and a portion of its plan is "to stimulate men + of talent to make original researches by offering suitable rewards for + memoirs containing new truths," and "to appropriate annually a portion of + the income for particular researches."</p> + + <p>What is the reason that scientific research is not sufficiently + encouraged in England? It is chiefly ignorance. There are very few good + and important subjects, understood by the public, which are not in this + country greatly assisted, nor many valuable public servants, whose + labours are understood, who do not receive liberal payment and reward; + and scientific research and discoverers therefore are neglected, not + wilfully, nor because persons are unwilling to encourage good objects, + but because scientific discovery and its great value to the nation are so + little known. Scarcely a member of our legislature, or of our + Universities, is fully acquainted with the national importance of + scientific discovery,<a name="NtA7" href="#Nt7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> and it + <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page42"></a>{42}</span>would probably be impossible to find a + subject of such great magnitude so little understood. Comparatively few + persons have clear ideas of the essential differences between scientific + instruction and research.</p> + + <p>Scientific research can only be successfully pursued by employing the + highest motive—viz., a love of truth in preference to all things; + and this is a condition which very few persons really understand, and a + principle which a still smaller number practise. Men in this country are + so accustomed to be actuated by the less noble motive of immediate + self-interest or of some apparent practical result, that they cannot + perceive that in scientific investigation the most valuable results can + only be obtained by employing the highest motive. However necessary and + effective the motive of immediate self-interest or of apparent practical + result may be in ordinary affairs of life, it will not enable a man to + make many discoveries, because it leads him away from those which are + possible to search for others which may or may not be possible. The + beginning of discoveries are often so very small, that it requires acute + senses and observation in order to perceive them; and if the mind is + preoccupied with a desire to discover some particular practical object, + new phenomena are overlooked. In discovery, man must follow where Nature + leads.</p> + + <p>Another cause of want of encouragement of research, is the natural + selfishness which exists, <!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page43"></a>{43}</span>though in very different degrees, in all + men. Many wealthy persons wish things to remain as they are. Some + manufacturers would not aid research unless they could monopolize its + advantages. Students also generally prefer those subjects which are best + rewarded, and do not sufficiently consider their intrinsic value. The + love of truth for truth's sake alone is very weak in most men, and but + few men make the greatest good their chief object in life.</p> + + <p>The extreme ignorance in this country of the value of scientific + research, is also largely due to the narrowness of the "practical" + character of the English mind; men cannot perceive the deep-seated and + universal sources of their wealth, and they prefer those occupations + which yield the most obviously remunerative results. It is also partly + due to scientific investigators themselves not having pleaded their own + cause; such men have been so absorbed in the more important occupation of + discovery, that they have, probably more than any other class of persons, + neglected to enforce the just claims of their own subject. It is, + however, chiefly caused by the influence of misapplied wealth, operating + through the old Universities and large public schools. The sons of the + wealthy are most of them educated at those institutions, and according to + evidence supplied by University authorities to Royal Commissioners, many + persons send their sons to those places for other purposes than to + acquire learning, and allow them too much money. The considerable wealth + of <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>{44}</span>these young men supplies them with + attractions which decoy them from industrious study, and the wishes of + the parents and students have been largely acquiesced in by the tutors + and college authorities. At our old Universities also, physical and + chemical knowledge is very much less rewarded than some other subjects, + though latterly a considerable improvement has been made in this respect, + but even now there is not a University in the kingdom in which a + knowledge in scientific research is necessary in order to obtain the + highest scientific honour.<a name="NtA8" href="#Nt8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> + In these various ways physical and chemical science has been kept very + low in our chief seats of learning; and scientific research is greatly + neglected by the governing authorities.</p> + + <p>It is reasonable to suppose that Universities should be fountains of + new theoretical scientific knowledge, as well as be the disseminators of + it, and that they (especially the old ones with their rich endowments) + would be certain to promote scientific research, as being especially a + part of their functions; but such is not the case. Our old Universities + have not established any professorships of original research; they make + no payment for such labour, nor reimburse any expenditure incurred in + such occupation, and afford but little facility for the prosecution of + pure scientific inquiry. Further, they discourage scientific discovery by + giving the greatest emoluments, and the <!-- Page 45 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span>highest honours in + science they have to bestow, to young men who have never made a single + original research, or discovered a new fact in science. The money paid in + the form of comparatively sinecure fellowships, or retiring pensions to + young men in Oxford alone, "now amounts to about eighty or ninety + thousand pounds a year." It may be objected that young men are not + capable of doing original research, but as they do it in German + Universities, they can also do it in England, if they are properly + disciplined, and are not decoyed from industry by the possession or + expectation of wealth. A man who has never made a scientific research is + not the most worthy recipient of the highest scientific honours, and in + Germany it would not be given to him; he is not properly disciplined in + the detection of error or the discernment of truth in matters of science; + he is deficient in accuracy of scientific judgment, and in the true + spirit of scientific inquiry.</p> + + <p>It is unnecessary to speak of what has been done during the last few + years at our old Universities and great public schools, in the erection + of laboratories, and in other ways for the promotion of science, because + it has been for the purposes of instruction, and not of original + research. No amount of ordinary instruction in science will remedy the + evils caused by want of original inquiry, because such instruction does + not produce new knowledge, but only disseminates that already possessed. + <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page46"></a>{46}</span></p> + + <p>Many persons in this country think that all scientific men are + investigators, and that a portion of the funds of scientific institutions + generally are expended upon investigation, but such is rarely the case. + Many also consider that those scientific men who are applying new + knowledge are discovering new truths. And nearly all persons look upon + inventors as the only really practical scientific men, and upon + discoverers as unpractical enthusiasts who spend their lives in pursuit + of vague theories. But whilst the inventor is a great and useful agent of + civilization, there is one behind him who is greater than he, viz., the + man who provides him with the new knowledge upon which all his inventions + must be based.</p> + + <p>The general aspect in which scientific research is viewed by many + persons in this country, is that of a refined intellectual pursuit, which + may be encouraged and honoured for the purpose of maintaining the tone of + society. The question, however, is not whether this nation shall + encourage research as a refined intellectual occupation, but whether it + will contribute towards its own welfare by aiding scientific + discovery.</p> + + <p>Many persons also look upon scientific research as a hobby or as + unpractical, and upon discoverers as mere accumulators of knowledge, but + this is simply in consequence of their ignorance of the subject; if + discoveries were commercial commodities, the practical character of + research would be within their <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47"></a>{47}</span>comprehension. A man who discovers knowledge + for the use of invention is quite as practical a person as he who + converts that knowledge into inventions fit for practical uses. The men + who thus lead practical men must be practical themselves. Scientific + discoverers may be considered the most practical men in existence, + because their labours give rise to greater and more numerous practical + results than those of any other persons. The discovery of a single + substance, such as oil-of-vitriol, or washing-soda, has led to the + formation of many valuable inventions, patented or otherwise, and to the + establishment of thousands of manufactories. It is well known also that + scientific discoverers are ardent lovers of truth, and are therefore very + willing to communicate their knowledge for the good of mankind, and that + manufacturers, men of business, and others, not unfrequently obtain from + them and from their published researches, information of great value to + themselves without even expecting to pay for it; forgetting that a + scientific man may communicate in a passing remark, information which + cost him years of labour to obtain.</p> + + <p>Some persons also think that science is changeable and + uncertain—that the discoveries of one generation are disproved by + those of another, because they occasionally see scientific theories + altered and superseded. But the real truth of the case is that the + changes in the aspect of science which we continually witness do not + often result from <i>alterations</i> in our <!-- Page 48 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span>stock of positive + knowledge, but from <i>additions</i> made to it. Demonstrable truth is + imperishable. It is true that many theories have been invented and + entertained for a while in the minds of scientific men, and have then + passed away, but we must remember that these are only the scaffolding of + science, and no part of its real fabric. They consist of ideas which, + whilst they assist us in understanding science, and in making + discoveries, form no real part of our positive knowledge.</p> + + <p>Other persons seem to think that the laws of matter are different in + the laboratory from what they are in the workshop; that the principles + which regulate a scientific experiment are different from those which + govern a large manufacturing process; but this is a wrong idea. The laws + of matter are universal, substances have nearly the same properties in + all places and in the hands of all men; water boils at the same + temperature whether in the retort of a chemist, the saucepan of a + kitchenmaid, or the pan of a soap-boiler; iron wire is as readily + deprived of its rust in a chemist's acid bottle as in a wire-drawer's + pickling tub; a piece of phosphorus will as readily ignite in the hands + of a chemist as in those of a match maker; a galvanic battery yields the + same quantity of electricity whether it be in the hands of an + experimentalist or in those of a working electro-plater.</p> + + <p>It is true that many things which have appeared very promising in + theory or in experiment, have <!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page49"></a>{49}</span>failed altogether in practice, but why is + this? it is not that the principles of nature operated in the one case + and did not operate in the other, but that we have imperfectly understood + them, that from some unforeseen circumstances we have been unable to + apply them; or that we have indolently abandoned them without sufficient + or proper trial. In many cases we are unable to obtain the same + conditions of success upon the large scale that we have upon the small + one. In other cases a process fails because of its too great expense; + many attempts have been made to supersede steam as a motive power by + means of electro-magnetism, and engines driven by that force have been + constructed of five or ten horse-power, but the cost of driving them has + been found to be at least ten times the amount of that of the + steam-engine of equal strength. And in other cases we fail because we + attempt <i>at once</i> to carry out upon a large scale that which has + only been the subject of limited experiment, instead of enlarging the + process by small degrees, and adapting the apparatus, the materials and + the treatment, to the size of the operation.</p> + + <p>That also which appears very simple in the hands of an + experimentalist, almost invariably becomes much more complex when carried + into practice in a manufactory, simply because there is then a greater + number of conditions to be fulfilled. Electro-plating a piece of steel + with silver is to a chemist a very simple matter, because it is of no + importance to him <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page50"></a>{50}</span>whether the silver adheres firmly, is of + good colour, or is deposited at a certain cost; but with a + <i>manufacturer</i> unless <i>all</i> these conditions are fulfilled, the + process is a failure. These matters, however, belong to invention and not + to original discovery.</p> + + <p>We should not condemn theoretical science because we are not able, + even with fair and persevering trial, to apply it to any useful purpose, + but wait patiently until circumstances ripen for its application. Many + inventions which are inapplicable in one state of knowledge become + applicable by the progress of scientific research. The idea of an + electric telegraph, attempted by Mr. Ronalds, in the year 1816, with the + aid of frictional electricity, had to wait the development of the + galvanic battery and the discovery of electro-magnetism before it could + be successfully applied.</p> + + <p>Many manufacturers seem to think that because some of their operations + are completely routine, and have been handed down to them by their + predecessors in nearly their present state, they are not at all indebted + to science; but there is no manufacture, especially among metals, which + has not in some degree been aided by scientific discovery.</p> + + <p>In addition to the great benefits accruing from original research to + all classes of society, our Governments have also derived immense + advantages from the same source. The revenues have been greatly increased + by the universal advantages conferred upon all kinds of industry and + commerce by <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page51"></a>{51}</span>scientific knowledge. The additional taxes + upon increased incomes from agriculture, arts, manufactures, mines; + increased value of land and rents; investments in railway, telegraph, + steam-ship and other companies, have been extremely great. From the sale + of patents alone, a surplus sum of nearly six hundred thousand pounds has + already accumulated. Our Governments are also indebted to original + research for the use of percussion-powder, gun-cotton, improvements in + cannon, projectiles, rifles, armour-plated ships, the ocean telegraph, + field telegraph, the telephone, rapid postal communication, the speedy + transport of troops and war-material, and a multitude of other + advantages. The value of science to Governments in the prevention of war + by means of more ready correspondence through telegraph is incalculable. + Mr. Sumner, of America, at the period when the Atlantic telegraph was + first employed, stated that the use of that telegraph averted a probable + rupture between Great Britain and America. There was a period when we did + not possess such evidence of the great value of science; but that time + has now passed away, and our governing men have had abundant proof of the + national importance of scientific discovery, and of the essential + dependence of the welfare of this country upon scientific research.</p> + + <p>Whilst vast sums of money are spent upon the applications of science + in military and naval affairs, research itself is neglected; the + superstructure is <!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page52"></a>{52}</span>attended to, but the foundations are left to + decay. A very small proportion of the money which is expended upon + military affairs would, if devoted to research, save a great deal of + expense in warfare:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Were half the power, that fills the world with terror,—</p> + <p class="i2">Were half the wealth, bestowed on camps and courts,</p> + <p>Given to redeem the human mind from error,</p> + <p class="i2">There were no need of arsenals nor forts."—<span class="sc">Longfellow.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Our Government has as yet made but little payment for the labour of + pure research in experimental physics or chemistry; it has, however, + given four thousand pounds a year for five years to be distributed by the + Royal Society among scientific investigators, partly as personal payment. + Income tax is deducted from these grants.</p> + + <p>Want of recognition of the value of science has been so general in + this country, that it is quite pleasing to quote a somewhat different + case from the <i>Illustrated London News</i>, January 4th, 1873, viz., + that of the late Archibald Smith, L.L.D., F.R.S. That gentleman was an + investigator in pure mathematical science, and devoted the latter part of + his life to the <i>application</i> of mathematics in the computation, + reduction, and discussion of the deviation of the mariners' compass in + wooden and in iron ships, and made practical deductions therefrom in the + construction of those vessels. He published those practical applications + of his scientific knowledge in the form of an Admiralty Manual, which was + afterwards reprinted in various languages. Her Majesty's Government <!-- + Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page53"></a>{53}</span>subsequently "requested his acceptance of a + gift of two thousand pounds, not as a reward, but as a mark of + appreciation of the value of his researches, and of the influence they + were exercising on the maritime interests of England and the world at + large." The kind of labour rewarded in this case was not scientific + discovery, but the practical application of previously existing + scientific knowledge.</p> + + <p>The case of the late Dr. Stenhouse, F.R.S., is one of rather an + opposite kind. That gentleman devoted his life throughout to pure + investigations in organic chemistry, and published several of his + researches in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.<a + name="NtA9" href="#Nt9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> His discoveries are very + numerous, and although not much applied to practical uses by himself, the + result of his researches on Lichens, and the yellow gum of Botany Bay, + have been applied extensively by other persons in the manufacture of + "French purple" and picric acid, and will doubtless continue to be + applied to valuable uses. He held the Government appointment of Assayer + to the Royal Mint, London, an office for several years unprofitable to + him, but of increasing remunerative value, and which would have been + subsequently worth £1,200 a year; but after the decease of his colleague, + Dr. Miller, in 1870, that office, which was then worth to him about £600 + a year, was abolished by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and he lost the + <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page54"></a>{54}</span>appointment, receiving, however, £500 as + compensation. An application was therefore made to the Government, and a + partial recompense to him was obtained, by Her Majesty granting him one + hundred pounds a year "for eminence in chemical attainments, and on + account of loss by suppression of office in the Mint." The only + difference in these two instances, was, that in the second there was a + very much greater amount of pure research and discovery, and a much + smaller degree of applied knowledge.</p> + + <p>These instances illustrate the statement, that however great an amount + of valuable knowledge in pure science a man may discover and publish, or + however freely he may provide others with the materials of invention and + wealth, if he never invents anything, nor applies his knowledge to useful + purposes, he is usually less rewarded even than an inventor. "The more + intrinsically valuable the labour, and the greater the degree of profound + original thought required to direct it, the less is it usually + appreciated by the governing men of a nation." Absorbed in exciting + questions relating to political emergencies, and national matters + requiring immediate attention, even men of great administrative ability + fail to appreciate the less direct though more fundamental sources of a + nation's happiness and wealth. In harmony with these instances also, we + find that it is not the pure sciences, but the concrete and applied ones, + such as meteorology, geology, natural history, &c., in the + Meteorological Department, the <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page55"></a>{55}</span>Geological Survey, the British and South + Kensington Museums, the Geological Museum, &c., and the National + Gallery of Art, which have received the greatest degree of support from + our Governments.</p> + + <p>That discoverers are not treated by us as we treat other valuable + members of the community is quite clear; either a physician, a judge, + divine, lawyer, or railway superintendent of high ability, obtain from + one to many thousand pounds a year, but a discoverer in pure physics or + chemistry is, in scarcely any case, paid anything for his labour. That + most eminent discoverer, Faraday, received for his scientific lectures at + the Royal Institution of Great Britain, only £200 a year and apartments, + during many years, and absolutely nothing for his great discoveries; and + during the remainder of his life he only received a few hundred pounds + per annum, including a pension of £300 pounds a year from Government. In + contrast with this, the general manager of the Midland Railway has £4,000 + a year. A General of our army receives £2,000, and a Field Marshal £4,000 + a year (See "Whitaker's Almanack," 1873, pp. 121 and 138). A Head Master + of either of the great public schools obtains from £3,000 a year upwards. + An Archbishop of Canterbury receives £15,000 a year, besides a great + amount of influence and power in the form of patronage to 183 livings, a + palatial residence, and a seat in the House of Peers. A Bishop of London + has £10,000, the patronage of 98 livings, and a seat in the House of + Lords. I do not, <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page56"></a>{56}</span>however, mean to imply that these large + emoluments are not deserved. Whilst also there are nearly 13,000 church + benefices in England (See the "Clergy List," also "Whitaker's Almanack," + 1873, pp. 153 and 155, and "Walford's County Families," 1872, pp. 173 and + 610), there is scarcely a single appointment entirely devoted to + scientific discovery, nor a single professorship in original research in + science. I leave my readers to judge to what extent these instances + illustrate the statement that discoverers are not treated by us as we + treat other valuable members of the community. Partly in consequence of + the foregoing neglect, the proportion of persons wholly devoted to + scientific research in this country probably does not much exceed one in + one million of the population.</p> + + <p>It is scarcely credible that in a wealthy and civilized country, + whilst the non-productive classes are protected in the enjoyment of + titles and material wealth which in many cases they have not earned, the + greatest scientific benefactors of the nation are constrained to live in + straitened circumstances whilst working for the pecuniary and other + advantages of those classes, and of manufacturers, capitalists, + land-owners, and the nation in general. By these remarks it is not + intended to imply that discoverers are intentionally neglected; but that + the injustice they suffer is a disgrace to this country, and reflects + discredit upon the governing classes, and especially upon those who reap + the greatest advantage. <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page57"></a>{57}</span></p> + + <p>The men who are rewarded highly in this country are not always those + who yield the greatest service to the nation, but frequently those who + render the most immediate or most apparent benefit; to stop short at this + cannot produce the greatest degree of success. The national services of a + great discoverer are probably not equalled by those of any man. Who can + estimate the value of the commercial, social, moral, political, and other + great advantages to the world, of Oersted's discovery of the principle of + electro-magnetism, which enabled the invention of the electric telegraph + to be made? The men we reward the highest are not those who discover + knowledge, but those who use or apply it; physicians, judges, bishops, + lawyers, railway managers, military and naval officers, and head masters + of schools, all of them gentlemen who render great services to the + nation, by using, diffusing, and applying knowledge already + possessed.</p> + + <p>It requires less rare ability to apply knowledge to new purposes by + means of invention, than to discover it; it is still less difficult to + diffuse it by means of tuition and lectures, because the labours of a + teacher consist largely of a repitition of other men's discoveries and + inventions; and to use scientific knowledge in the ordinary business of + every-day life, requires a still more common degree of ability.</p> + + <p>A chief reason why ordinary business capacity is paid for whilst + original research is not, is the fact that research is not considered a + necessity; many <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>{58}</span>persons do not perceive its immense future + value. Men perform those duties first which they feel they must: they are + also willing to pay for the performance of those duties which press most + urgently upon them, and defer all other kinds of labour that they + consider will bear postponement. Most men act upon this rule, until they + acquire a habit of sacrificing the future to the present, of neglecting + more important matters in order to attend to less, and of living too much + for money, without sufficient regard for the more valuable condition, + viz., individual and national improvement. These circumstances also + largely explain the fact that it requires more pressure to induce + individuals or governing bodies to aid original research than to assist + any other good object. Other chief reasons why persons in general cannot + perceive the great practical value of new scientific truth are, because + the perception of it requires a scientifically trained mind. The greatest + truths are frequently the least obvious, and are therefore valued the + least.</p> + + <p>It may be objected that research is not aided, because it sometimes + takes a long time to acquire a practical shape and make it pay. We do not + omit to plant an acorn because it requires many years to become an oak; + we do not neglect to rear a child because he may not live to become a + man; but we leave scientific discovery to take care of itself. The + intense desire which exists in this country for "quick returns" has shewn + itself in the much greater readiness to aid technical education than to + promote <!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page59"></a>{59}</span>permanent progress by means of original + research. But the discoveries made in such a place as the Royal + Institution of Great Britain have had a vastly greater beneficial effect + upon civilization than that of any technical institution which has ever + existed.</p> + + <p>In a letter received by me from the Duke of Somerset, and which I have + permission to publish, the true state of things in this country in + relation to pure research is stated with remarkable accuracy and + brevity:—</p> + + <p>"The hindrances to scientific studies in this country are very many. + The gentry are almost invariably educated by the clergy, and the clergy + have seldom had time or opportunities for any scientific study. They + usually take pupils or become tutors as soon as they have taken their + degrees, and can only teach the Latin and Greek which they have + themselves learned. The commercial classes value what they call practical + science; this means some application of science for the purpose of making + money. Competitive examinations may promote a superficial acquaintance + with the elements of science, but are unfavourable to the development of + scientific culture. The scientific associations tend to degrade science + by exhibiting scientific men as candidates for applause from assemblies + which seek amusement and startling results from lectures and experiments. + The advancement of science, is therefore, left to comparatively few men, + who are unregarded and unrewarded." <!-- Page 60 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span></p> + + <p>To remedy this state of things we require a general encouragement of + pure scientific inquiry by the State and Universities. It is thought by + some persons who have given special attention to the subject, that the + State ought to encourage such research and science in general, by + appointing a Minister of Science possessing scientific knowledge and good + administrative ability; a Scientific Council to advise our Governments in + all important matters relating to science; and by establishing State + laboratories for pure scientific inquiry, with discoverers of repute in + them wholly engaged in research in their respective subjects.</p> + + <p>There are also many new experiments, investigations, and explorations, + which neither private individuals, nor even corporate bodies, such as the + Royal Society, the British Association, Geographical Society, can + effectually make, and which only a Government can carry out, such as + Arctic expeditions, trigonometrical surveys, deep sea dredging + operations, magnetic observations, determinations of longitude, + meteorological and astronomical observations, researches on tides, + observations of earthquakes, determinations of the height of mountains + and the density of the crust of the earth, experiments on the best form + of ships, geographical explorations, and many others.</p> + + <p>It is clear from the enormous advantages which this nation has already + derived from scientific discovery in physics and chemistry, pursued with + only <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page61"></a>{61}</span>the aid of the very limited means of private + persons, that had research in those subjects been sufficiently supported, + the manufactures, arts, commerce, wealth, and civilization of this + country would have been much greater than they are; emigration also of + the industrious classes, disease, pauperism, crime, the evil effects of + famine, etc., would have been much less. The amount of knowledge and + riches obtainable by means of research and invention is practically + unlimited, and it is astonishing that this immense source of industry and + wealth in a nation should have been so neglected by our Governments. The + practical value of new scientific knowledge is vastly greater than that + of all our goldfields or even of our coal supply, because it would not + only enable us to obtain from coal several times the amount of available + heat and mechanical power we now secure, but also to apply to our wants + the numerous other materials composing the crust of our globe and the + contents of our oceans; also all <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'terrestial'." + >terrestrial</span> forces, the internal heat, the tidal energy and + atmospheric currents, and the immense amount of power this Earth is + continually receiving from the Sun. Whilst at present vast amounts of + materials and energy remain unutilized, nearly all those terrestrial + substances and forces might probably be rendered of service to us if we + possessed sufficient knowledge.</p> + + <p>That scientific research is a far greater source of wealth and + wellbeing than our stores of coal is easily proved. At present we obtain + in our best <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page62"></a>{62}</span>steam-engines only about one-seventh (or + less) of the mechanical power producible by the combustion of the coal, + the remainder being lost in various ways. And this occurs simply because + we have not yet discovered a method of wholly converting heat into + mechanical power. In some other instances we are able to convert one + force wholly into another without loss, as for example: the chemical + action of a voltaic cell into electricity; and by means of research we + shall probably be enabled to effect a similar complete conversion of + other powers into each other. The effect of converting heat wholly into + mechanical power would be equal to increasing our stock of coals for that + purpose to seven times its present amount. This instance is only one of + the many thousand possible ways in which research may yet prove of value + to mankind.</p> + + <p>It is true that a very large amount of original research in physics + and chemistry has been done in this country; the contents of our + scientific journals and of the publications of our various Learned + Societies prove this. It is also true that the English nation has been + pre-eminently active in applying scientific knowledge to practical uses + by means of inventions, and has been generally the first in carrying out + inventions on a large scale. We have been either the first, or nearly so, + in developing steam-engines, railways, locomotives, rapid trains, gas + works, flour mills, blast-furnaces, cotton machinery, cheap postage, + light-houses, electro-plating, lucifer-matches, <!-- Page 63 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>{63}</span>electric-telegraphs, + submarine electric cables, great engineering establishments, iron + ship-building, and many other important enterprises. Three out of four of + all the great ocean steamers, and three-fourths of all the locomotives of + the world were constructed in this country.<a name="NtA10" + href="#Nt10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> By means of our enterprise and capital + also, the first railways, telegraphs, gas works, cotton mills, modern + water works, suspension bridges, water wheels, harbours, lighthouses, + &c., &c., in nearly all parts of the world were constructed; and + foreign nations have been inducted into the practical methods of working + our great manufacturing and technical applications of science.</p> + + <p>By means of English enterprise and skill the cities of + Aix-la-Chapelle, Altona, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Berlin, Bordeaux, Brussels, + Cologne, Frankfort-on-Maine, Ghent, Haarlem, Hanover, Lille, Rotterdam, + Stolberg, Toulouse, Vienna, and others were lighted with gas. We formed + Water Companies or Waterworks in Amsterdam, Berlin, and other cities, and + drained Naples. We utilized the falls of the Rhone at Bellegarde, and + thus obtained 10,000 horse-power for the use of the French manufacturers. + We also sent the first steam-boat to Coblentz in 1817, and the first to + America. We laid the first Atlantic cables. And as a general truth, we + have been foremost in invention, application and enterprise.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>{64}</span></p> + + <p>Recent International Exhibitions however, and the migration of various + branches of our trade to the Continent and America, have shown that the + degree of our relative superiority in manufacturing skill is diminishing. + Other nations, especially the German and American, perceiving the + dependence of invention upon research, and the enormous pecuniary and + other advantages gained by us, by the application of scientific knowledge + to manufacturing and other purposes, have within the last few years + aroused themselves, and are now pursuing pure science much more + energetically than ourselves. A few years ago the relative number of + original researches made per annum in England, France, and Germany were + in the proportion 127, 245, and 777. Many of those made in Germany were + valuable ones, and were made by Students in order to obtain a degree. + Other nations are rapidly gaining upon us in the application of science + to industrial purposes, and have even surpassed us in the extent of some + of their manufacturing and technical operations. Many persons who have + visited Europe and America at intervals during the last twenty years have + testified to this.</p> + + <p>The Vielle Montagne Zinc Company in Belgium employ 6,500 workmen, and + produce annually 32,000 tons of zinc. The John Cockerill Company, + engine-builders, Seraing, near Liege, employ nearly 8,000 men. Krupp, the + great engineer at Essen, near Dusseldorf, employs about 10,000 workmen; + his works at Essen alone cover 450 acres, and 1,000 tons <!-- Page 65 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>{65}</span>of coal are + consumed in them daily. The Anzin Company (Valenciennes) "is the largest + coal company in the world, producing no less than 1,200,000 tons per + annum, and employs 8,000 hands." The Chatillon and Commentry Iron and + Coal Company (France), produce annually from 300,000 to 350,000 tons of + coal and coke, nearly 70,000 tons of iron and steel, and employ nearly + 9,000 workmen. At the Creuzot Ironworks (France), "the mineral + concessions cover an area of nearly six square miles, the coal-fields + nearly twenty-five square miles, the building 296 acres. There are nearly + forty-five miles of railway between various parts of the works, upon + which are generally running sixteen locomotives. The galleries in the + mines are more than twenty miles long." 10,000 persons are employed in + the works and the annual amount of wages paid equals £400,000.<a + name="NtA11" href="#Nt11"><sup>[11]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Our practice with regard to original science has been very different + from the plan carried out in Germany. Within the last few years great + laboratories have been erected in Berlin, Leipzig, Aix la Chapelle, Bonn, + Carlsruhe, Stuttgardt, and other places, at the expense of the State, and + special provision has been made in them for original scientific research. + A glance at the frequently published list of scientific investigations + made in different countries will shew us that the Germans have been + making a far greater number of discoveries in science than ourselves.</p> + + <p>Sir R. B. C. Brodie, Professor of Chemistry at <!-- Page 66 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>Oxford, speaking of his + experience when a student at Geissen, in Germany, states: "I say that the + enthusiasm and earnestness of the young men in the laboratory was quite + unparalleled in my experience at Oxford. The dilettante sort of way in + which things go on there is very inferior indeed to the way the German + students study. At Heidelberg, I have been told, there are about eighty + professors, and amongst those professors are some of the most eminent men + in Europe, so that they have a staff quite unsurpassed."</p> + + <p>The industry of the Germans in scientific research is quite + remarkable, they are availing themselves of the great fountain of + knowledge to a much greater extent than ourselves, and are already + beginning to reap the reward. Within the last few years they have + succeeded, by means of researches, in making alizarine, the colouring + principle of madder. "England produces immense quantities of benzene, the + greatest part of which goes to Germany, there to be converted into + aniline dyes, a considerable quantity of which goes back to England. No + other country is so far advanced in the manufacture of the coal-tar + colours as Germany. The quantity of alizarine manufactured by the German + makers far surpasses the English production." (See "Alizarine, Natural + and Artificial," by F. Versmann, New York, 1873). Statements of this kind + are frequently published, and made by our manufacturers and others, of + the departure of branch after branch of our manufactures to the + Continent, and of continually increasing importation of foreign-made + articles. <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page67"></a>{67}</span></p> + + <p>Some persons, having become aware of the cosmopolitan nature of + scientific research, have suggested that it is a matter of no importance + to us as a nation whether we make researches or not, as foreigners would + make them, and we could apply them. But no honourable man would, after + reflection, seriously maintain such a proposition, because it implies a + willingness to obtain from the labours of other persons, advantages + without paying for them. It is partly this absence of a desire to pay for + the labour of investigation, which is now damaging the manufacturing and + commercial prosperity of this country. It is also certain that however + much we may have hitherto succeeded commercially, without making payment + for research, we should have succeeded much better had we properly + assisted investigators in pure science. Our success has hitherto been + obtained, not in consequence, but in spite of the disadvantageous + circumstances under which discoverers have laboured.</p> + + <p>The commercial argument in favour of encouraging research, although + the most effective with the great mass of persons, and therefore much + dwelt upon in this chapter, is however quite a secondary one; the + encouragement of truth for the sake of its own intrinsic worth, in + preference to the material or extrinsic value of its results, should be + the foundation of all aid to discovery. Justice, also, ought to come + before all minor considerations, and no upright man would wish for a + moment that anyone, and much less the greatest scientific intellects in + the country, should work for his benefit without being remunerated. <!-- + Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span></p> + + <p>It has been objected that Continental nations, the Germans in + particular, have pirated our patents, infringed our designs, imitated our + labels, used our names, and taken our improvements wholesale, and this + may be true. But we still have had by far the largest portion of the + reward of our greater energy and inventive skill; we have had the great + advantage of being first in the markets of the world; and that advantage + can only be retained by our being the first in the pursuit of original + research, as we have so long been in the application of science to + industrial arts, and not by purchasing foreign inventions, nor by + accepting gifts of unrecompensed researches.</p> + + <p>Nations as well as individuals are apt to push to an extreme the means + by which they have succeeded in gaining either riches or power. We have + devoted ourselves relatively too much to the pursuit of money and too + little to the pursuit of knowledge. The desire for wealth is in this + country so great, that probably nothing but a loss of that wealth will + ever make us properly encourage the pursuit of new knowledge.</p> + + <p>Whilst research is being neglected, manufacturers and others in all + directions are asking for improvements in their machines and processes; + employers of steam engines want to obtain more power from the coals; + makers of washing soda wish to recover their lost sulphur; copper + smelters, want to utilize the copper smoke; glass makers wish to prevent + bad colour in their glass; iron puddlers want to economise heat; gas + companies are desirous of diminishing the <!-- Page 69 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>{69}</span>leakage of gas; iron + smelters wish to avoid the evil effects of impurities in the iron; + manufacturers in general want to utilise their waste products and prevent + their polluting our streams and atmosphere; and so on without end. And + inventors are continually trying to supply these demands, by exercising + their skill in every possible way, with the aid of scientific information + contained in books; but after putting manufacturers and themselves to + great expense, they very frequently fail, not always through want of + inventive skill, but often through want of <i>new</i> knowledge + attainable only by means of pure research. Judging from the vast amount + of inventive skill already expended upon the steam engine, and the small + proportion of available mechanical power yet obtained from the coals + consumed in it, it is highly probable that a machine for completely + converting heat into mechanical force cannot be invented until more + scientific knowledge is discovered.</p> + + <p>It must not be supposed from these remarks, that discoveries which + will enable a man to make any particular invention, can be produced to + order; that is only true to a very limited extent. Men are beggars of + nature, and must not expect to be permitted to choose her gifts, or + dictate what secrets shall be disclosed. We may however be certain that + if we acquire a very much greater supply of new scientific knowledge, we + shall then be able to perfect many good inventions, though not always of + the kind we wish, or in the way we expect. The great sewage question <!-- + Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>{70}</span>may + perhaps be solved in quite an unexpected way, possibly by the discovery + of some substance capable of precipitating ammonia and organic matter + from their solutions.</p> + + <p>Nearly all our manufacturing processes are full of imperfections; thus + the loss of gas by a single large provincial gas company, after that + substance has left the works, amounts to nearly one hundred and fifty + millions of cubic feet per annum, and to a value of about £18,000; and + the soil of all our large cities and towns is permeated and rendered + fœtid by coal gas. And it has been stated by an eminent authority + in such matters that we might save 500,000 tons of coal a year by + economizing the waste heat of furnaces, by purifying the coal, coking it, + etc. In a single chemical manufactory, out of about two thousand tons of + hydrochloric acid used per annum, about eight hundred tons have been + allowed to flow away as a polluting substance, because it was not + possible to utilise it. The loss of material from a single large glass + works equals fourteen hundred tons per annum, and a value of £8,000. + Similar grave defects might be pointed out in nearly all our large + manufactures, by those acquainted with the subject.</p> + + <p>Inventions are wanted for quickening the process of vinegar making, + and diminishing the percentage of loss of the acid. For bleaching + discoloured fats. For quickening the process of converting cast iron into + malleable iron. To easily separate nitrogen from the oxygen of the + atmosphere. To economically convert <!-- Page 71 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>{71}</span>the nitrogen of the air + into valuable products, such as nitric acid and ammonia. To find uses for + the immense quantities of minerals which abound all over the earth; to + utilise wolfram and find applications for tungstic acid; to apply titanic + acid to great industrial purposes; to produce aluminium on the large + scale, as we now produce iron. To tan leather more quickly, and without + detriment to its quality. To prevent the rusting of iron. To more + perfectly prevent smoke. To collect and use the sulphuric acid of the + salt cake consumed in the glass manufacture. To make window glass by + means of common salt. To deodorise offensive substances. To find larger + uses for phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, and common salt. To remove + phosphorus and sulphur from iron ores, and sulphur from coal and coke. To + obtain a good white alloy as a cheaper substitute for German silver. To + convert white phosphorus into the red variety by a less dangerous process + than the present one. To prevent the putrefaction of "peltries" in glue + making. To obtain better and cheaper materials for colouring glass. To + more perfectly prevent animal food from change. To obviate or prevent + explosions in mines. To perfectly purify ordinary red lead for making + flint glass. A cheaper process for converting common salt into washing + soda; and so on without end.</p> + + <p>We also very badly require a method of recording our thoughts in + readable forms upon paper, without the slow and laborious process of + writing. An incalculable amount of brains and of intellect, especially of + <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span>the + greatest thinkers, would be saved by such a discovery. The curative arts + also are permeated with empiricism, and thousands of lives of persons of + all classes of society, are annually lost in this country through want of + a more perfect scientific basis of medicine, attainable only by means of + experiment and observation.</p> + + <p>In this country, such great practical results have been obtained by + means of invention, that many persons suppose a sufficiency of inventive + skill will enable us to effect every possible scientific object, and are + surprised that no one can invent a plan of utilising the entire heat of + coals, or a mode of overcoming the sewage difficulty, or prevent the + great leakage of coal gas, or arrest epidemics, or produce a steam engine + which shall work without waste of power. The progress of invention + however depends upon that of discovery, and these various inventions, + etc., wanted by manufacturers and others probably cannot be perfected + until suitable <i>new</i> knowledge is found. Every new invention has its + own appropriate discoveries, by means of which alone it can be perfected; + it was not possible to perfect the idea of an electric telegraph before + the discoveries of Volta and Oersted were made. According to scientific + laws, out of everything proceeds everything, and out of nothing, nothing + can come, even ideas are not created. An unlimited number of inventions + cannot be made by means of a limited amount of scientific knowledge; and + our present stock of such information applicable to <!-- Page 73 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>{73}</span>invention, is very + insufficient. One great reason why only a small portion of patents are of + practical value; and so many useless ones are taken out is, that in + consequence of our so-called "practical" spirit, we overestimate the + power of invention and under-value the discovery of new abstract truths; + because also invention has done so much, we think it will continue to do + so, but the latter depends upon a continued supply of discoveries.</p> + + <p>Nearly every manufacturer is aware by painful experience of the great + and almost incessant variation that occurs in the quality and properties + of the materials used in his trade, and the frequent risk of failure of + his process. In the manufacture of iron, for example, the presence of + much phosphorus, sulphur, or silicon in the ore is liable to be very + detrimental to the quality of the iron produced from it; in the + manufacture of glass, the least quantity of iron in the materials will + seriously injure the colour of the product; in the selection of copper + for telegraph wire, if it contains the least trace of arsenic, the wire + will not conduct the electricity properly. The difficulties experienced + in procuring suitable materials for a manufacturing process are in some + cases very great; and when they are procured, additional difficulties + arise from the inability of the manufacturer or his manager to analyse + them.</p> + + <p>Every manufacturer is also aware that the difficulties encountered in + manufactures are not limited to the substances employed, but extend to + all the different <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page74"></a>{74}</span>processes and stages of processes through + which these substances have to pass, and to all the forces, tools, + machinery, and appliances employed in those processes; in the manufacture + of glass, for example, the greatest care has to be exercised in the + making and gradual heating of the pots in which the glass is melted, the + proportions of the materials, the construction of the furnaces, the + management of the heat, and a whole host of minor conditions too numerous + to mention, all of which must be attended to with the greatest care. In + the manufacture of iron and steel, the smelting of copper, the refining + of nickel, the preparation and baking of porcelain, and in many other + trades, innumerable difficulties, all having their origin in the + properties of matter and forces, continually beset the manufacturers. In + some cases difficulties occur which perplex both the workman and the + scientific man called in to his aid, and so far from an unscientific + workman being able to overcome them, even with the aid of the scientific + man, he is unable to do so.</p> + + <p>The hidden difficulties which beset a manufacturer are not + unfrequently so inscrutable that the present state of knowledge in + science fails to explain them. Who can tell why it is that wire-work of + brass or German silver becomes gradually brittle by lapse of time? Or why + varnish made in the open country has different properties from that made + in a town? Or why silk dyed in Lyons should possess a finer colour than + the same silk dyed by the same process in Coventry? <!-- Page 75 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span>With our present + extremely imperfect knowledge of Physical and Chemical science, we can + perhaps hardly form an idea of the amount of knowledge yet to be + discovered respecting the phenomena which manufactures present.</p> + + <p>One of the inevitable results of these difficulties in manufacturing + processes and of deficiency of knowledge, is the production of a large + amount of goods of an inferior quality; and useless goods, technically + called "wasters," the cost of which has to be laid upon the saleable + ones, and thus the price of the latter is enhanced to the consumer. For + instance, flint glass discoloured by iron has sometimes to be sold at a + loss for making common enamel; waste window glass has to be sold as + "rockery" for ornamenting gardens, and defective articles of glass or + metal have to be re-melted.</p> + + <p>In consequence of this want of new knowledge, manufacturers continue + to suffer losses which might be avoided; high prices of useful articles + are maintained; defects in their quality are not improved; preventable + accidents still continue to happen; the health of workmen continues to + suffer; many means of curing diseases remain unknown; medical practice + remains full of empiricism, &c., &c.</p> + + <p>The great sewage question is apparently in this predicament; we are + probably trying to solve it without first discovering the requisite + knowledge; inventors, engineers, and consulting chemists have racked + their brains, and have not been able to devise a satisfactory <!-- Page + 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>{76}</span>remedy, and + meanwhile the health of the entire population of this country is + suffering. If we so neglect the fundamental means of ameliorating our + condition we deserve to suffer. One would suppose that cholera, + contagious diseases, colliery accidents, pollution of air and water, + enormous waste of heat from fires, and a multitude of other evils which + depend upon physical and chemical conditions, are of but little + importance, that we should so neglect one of the most effectual means of + preventing them; and it is perfectly clear that by neglecting to aid + research, those who gain so much money and advantage from original + science, and render no return, are unwittingly sacrificing national + interests upon a large scale to personal benefit.</p> + + <p>The practice of some manufacturers using and deriving great profit + from new knowledge evolved by research, without recompensing the + discoverers, sometimes causes injury to the public welfare by preventing + the publication of discoveries which have an immediate practical + application. Experience of this kind has constrained me to postpone the + publication of a method I have found of readily and quickly converting + lumps of white phosphorus into the red variety in a state of powder + without protracted heat or grinding.</p> + + <p>"What will be the next chapter of British enterprise and invention, + and who and where the men to perform the chief part in it? As to the work + to be done, there can be no doubt or mystery, for not a day passes <!-- + Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>{77}</span>without + loud complaints, indignant remonstrances, fatal oversights, sad + mis-calculations, terrible shortcomings, social or material evils to be + remedied if possible, whole masses of people, indeed whole classes to be + succoured and lifted out of the slough, and enormous difficulties placed + by nature in our way evidently that we may exercise our wit and our + virtues in the attempt to overcome them. Here, from all these Isles, + there arises a despairing cry from agriculture, as if it had really + reached the end of its tether, and had found itself landed in utter + helplessness and insolvency—a bad speculation altogether. Here are + countless problems, and at the same time countless discoveries, which if + they lead to nothing else, prove the inexhaustible nature of our dominion + over the elements. Then, for the sea, with its terrible average of wreck + and total loss running on without intermission and with but rare + abatement, who shall say there is here no work for the discoverer and + inventor who will give his heart and soul and mind to it?"</p> + + <p>It is indeed high time, that by means of discoveries which will enable + us to predict with certainty the nature of coming seasons, we shall be + better enabled to cope with adversities in agriculture; also, that the + numerous wrecks, and the thousands of lives lost with them every year on + our coasts, should be diminished. But these desirable results cannot be + effected by invention based upon insufficient knowledge; invention must + be preceded by general as well as special research, because the former + often discloses important <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page78"></a>{78}</span>truths which we cannot predict. Our present + electric lights in light-houses and on large ocean steamers, had their + origin, not in direct inventions or special researches for the purpose, + but in abstract researches on apparently remote subjects.</p> + + <p>It is nothing less than a national crime that proper provision has not + yet been made for investigating scientifically the causes of famine and + pestilence, also physiology and pathology, and the discovery of the laws + which regulate diseases and epidemics. What can be more painful to behold + than a mother and father deprived of a whole family of five or six + children in rapid succession by scarlatina or other contagious disease, + and both the parents and medical men utterly unable to save them; and + this is a common occurrence. Persons who are ignorant of science look + with an abject feeling of helplessness upon great national calamities, + and even upon private afflictions, such as a local epidemic, as if there + was absolutely no remedy, whilst scientific men believe that by extension + of knowledge, such evils might be largely avoided or prevented.</p> + + <p>Many persons however, actuated by the very kindest of motives, but + insufficiently acquainted with the necessity, conditions, results, and + advantages of experiments, unwittingly obstruct the discovery of new + knowledge in physiology and pathology, by attempting to prevent + experiments being made upon animals.</p> + + <p>We should not strain at a gnat and swallow a camel. Nearly every step + in life involves a choice <!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page79"></a>{79}</span>between two alternatives, and this is the + case with experiments upon living creatures, either such experiments must + be made, or the wholesale slaughter of men and other animals, by + pestilences, epidemics, small-pox, foot and mouth disease, &c., must + continue. Many of the properties of living bodies, like those of dead + ones, can only be ascertained by means of experiments, no other course is + possible; and the knowledge so obtained enables us not only to prolong + the lives but also to alleviate the sufferings of all kinds of living + creatures. Nearly all our medical and surgical knowledge has been + obtained by observation and study, either of the results of experiments + made by ourselves, or by the course of nature for us; and the former is + often attended by immeasurably less pain and expence than the latter. No + one who has ever made in a proper manner new experiments, would venture + to assert that valuable knowledge is not gained by them; and this + statement is as correct of experiments in physiology as in all the other + sciences.</p> + + <p>The total amount of pain inflicted upon animals by vivisection + experiments in this country is infinitesimally small—because, + firstly, the proportion of experimentalists in so-called "vivisection," + does not amount to one person in one million of our + inhabitants:—secondly, students cannot be induced to enter upon + scientific research in physiology, because such labour is unrewarded, + either by enabling them to obtain certificates, degrees, or money. + Whatever pain also, <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page80"></a>{80}</span>is inflicted in such experiments, is by men + of the highest eminence in physiology, and therefore by the most + competent persons.</p> + + <p>Experimental research is an occupation requiring an exceptional kind + of ability and experience; and persons who have never made experiments, + nor studied their relation to human welfare, are largely incompetent to + determine when and how they should be made, the real effects of them, or + the value of the knowledge they afford. To persons inexperienced in + scientific research, many experiments appear useless, which have great + practical value, either immediately or at a later period. Our greatest + curse is ignorance; and knowledge, by enabling us to avoid the fatal + effects of pestilences, and epidemics, is as necessary as food to + mankind. The "Anti-vivisection" movement however is but one of the phases + of the ever-existing conflict between the advancing and retarding + sections of mankind.</p> + + <p>Greater sympathy with suffering accompanies greater civilization. The + increased humanity of the present age over that of previous ones, is + largely due to the discovery and extension of new scientific knowledge. + Science, by showing more clearly to man his true position in nature and + in relation to his fellow-men and other animals, has rendered more + evident the concrete fact, that the happiness of each depends upon the + happiness of all, and the happiness and welfare of all upon that of each + individual. It has also operated in a more apparent, though less <!-- + Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page81"></a>{81}</span>important way, by inculcating better systems + of <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'hygeine'." + >hygiene</span>, improved sanitary arrangements, &c, &c. It is + not to the zeal of "anti-vivisectionists," but to the well-directed + labours of experimental medical men, that mankind are indebted for the + discovery and invention of nearly every known method of preventing and + alleviating animal suffering and of prolonging human life. This statement + is true of vaccination, the use of chloroform in general surgery, + dentistry, and midwifery, of carbolic acid spray in surgical operations; + the abolition of the practice of searing amputated limbs with a red-hot + iron; and many other improvements. Ferrier's comparatively recent + vivisection experiments have already enabled medical men to treat more + successfully those formidable diseases, epilepsy and abcess of the + brain.</p> + + <p>What this nation badly requires, is not less experimental research, + but more. When famines result from insufficiency of Solar heat, instead + of investigating the conditions of the Sun's surface to enable us to + predict their occurrence and provide accordingly, we allow them to come + upon us in our unprepared state and produce their fearful effects. When + contagious disease overtakes us, what do we do? Instead of previously + employing and paying scientific investigators to make experiments in + physiological and chemical science, to enable us to combat it + successfully, we vainly attempt to apply our present stock of chemical + and physiological knowledge to ward off the difficulty. When high price + of fuel intervenes, instead <!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page82"></a>{82}</span>of previously giving discoverers the means + of finding new principles relating to heat, and to chemical, and + electrical action, we ineffectually endeavour by means of invention, to + economise fuel. These are the pottering, short-sighted, and ignorant ways + in which "the great English nation" temporises with great evils, and + permits national welfare to be sacrificed to private gain, instead of + employing for the discovery of new knowledge some of that superfluous + wealth which in many instances is a curse to its possessors.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>{83}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<h3><span class="sc">The Scientific Basis of Mental and Moral Progress.</span><a name="NtA12" href="#Nt12"><sup>[12]</sup></a></h3> + + <p>It is not highly necessary after what has been already said in these + pages, to adduce much evidence to show that scientific discoveries, + either directly or through the medium of the inventions based upon them, + have been a great cause of mental and moral progress. As however there + are many persons who do not perceive the dependence of such progress, and + especially of moral advance, upon science, a few of the chief relations + of those subjects to each other may be pointed out.</p> + + <p>The dependence of mental progress upon science may be rendered + manifest in several ways:—1st. By showing that new scientific + knowledge is continually extending and modifying our views of existing + things. 2nd. That inventions based upon scientific discoveries have aided + and extended our mental powers:—3rd. That mental phenomena may be + made the subject of experiment, observation, analysis, and <!-- Page 84 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page84"></a>{84}</span>inference:—4th. That the criteria of + truth, and the mental powers and processes employed for discovering and + detecting truth, are the same in mental as in physical science, and, 5th. + That mental action is subject to the great principles and laws of + science. And moral progress may be proved to have a scientific + basis:—1st. By shewing that moral actions are a class of mental + actions, and therefore subject to the same fundamental laws and + influences:—2nd. That the discovery of new scientific knowledge, + and the use of inventions based upon it, often conduce to + morality:—3rd. That moral phenomena may be made the subject of + experiment, observation, analysis, and inference:—4th. That the + criteria of truth, and the mental faculties and processes employed, in + discovering truth, are the same in moral as in physical + science:—5th. That the fundamental rules of morality are subject to + the great principles of science:—6th. That moral improvement + follows in the wake of scientific advance:—and 7th. By showing the + moral influence of experimental research in imparting "the scientific + spirit;" promoting a love of truth; dispelling ignorance and + superstition; detecting error; imparting certainty and accuracy to our + knowledge; inculcating obedience to law; producing uniformity of belief; + aiding economy and cleanliness, promoting humanity, &c, &c. Each + of these will be treated with extreme brevity.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">MENTAL PROGRESS.</p> + + <p>The chief object of this chapter is only to shew <!-- Page 85 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span>that mental action is + largely consistent with the great principles of science; not that in our + present state of knowledge, mental phenomena can be entirely explained by + them, or that mental actions involve nothing more than physical and + chemical processes.</p> + + <p>That mental progress is advanced by scientific discovery is a common + circumstance. Our ideas of facts, our knowledge of general principles, + our views of man, of nature, and of the Universe; and even our modes of + thought, have been gradually and profoundly changed by the new knowledge + acquired by means of scientific research. This truth is capable of being + most extensively illustrated by a multitude of facts in the whole of the + sciences, and in the arts, manufactures, and other subjects dependent + upon science. For example, in astronomy, great changes, produced by the + results of scientific discovery have taken place in our ideas respecting + the magnitude of Space and of the Heavenly bodies, the constitution, + form, and motion of the Earth, the functions of the Sun and Moon, the + distances of the Sun and fixed Stars, the nature of eclipses and comets; + and a great many other matters. In terrestrial physics, the mental + advances have been equally great in our ideas respecting the causes of + tides and of winds, the pressure of the atmosphere, the existence and + course of the Gulf Stream, the physical conditions of the Equator and + Poles, the conditions upon which day and night, summer and winter depend, + the depth of the ocean, the height of the atmosphere, the cause of + rainbows, of <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page86"></a>{86}</span>rain, hail, snow, mist and dew, of thunder + and lightning, the composition of air, water, mineral, and organic + substances, and other most numerous and varied phenomena. In the subjects + of heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemistry, vegetable and animal + physiology, psychology and morality, and the more concrete subjects + depending upon them, such as politics, trade, commerce, government, + &c., our ideas have equally advanced, in consequence of scientific + research; and to fully describe the mental progress resulting from + discovery in nearly all branches of human knowledge would require a + series of books to be written on the History of all the Sciences.</p> + + <p>Other causes also, which I need hardly mention, besides scientific + discovery, have of course contributed to the mental progress of mankind. + We arrive at true ideas, not only by the more certain and systematic + process employed in scientific research, but largely also by the + uncertain method of trusting to instinct and habit, by adopting dogmatic + opinions, and by the semi-scientific plan of following empirical + rules.</p> + + <p>Dogma and empiricism, in nearly all subjects, has rendered immense + service to mankind. Contemporaneously with the progress produced by new + knowledge, the mental condition of man has been maintained and prevented + from receding, by the combined influence of hereditary mental proclivity, + acquired habit, promulgation of dogmatic opinions and empirical rules, + and by previously known verified truth. Religious <!-- Page 87 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span>belief has thus been the + forerunner of Science. Dogma and empiricism are indispensable agents of + civilization; they cannot be dispensed with by the great mass of mankind, + who have not the time at command, nor possess the other means, necessary + for acquiring verified knowledge. They afford rough and ready guides and + useful "rule of thumb" methods, though less certain and less accurate + than those afforded by verified and definite science.</p> + + <p>That various inventions, based upon scientific discoveries, have + greatly aided and extended our mental powers is quite certain. The + discovery of the properties of a mixture of solution of nutgalls and + green vitriol, has, through the invention of ink, exercised an immense + influence in promoting the mental developement of mankind; and the + discovery of the properties of esparto grass and other materials for + making paper has contributed to this result. Every discovery also + resulting in inventions which facilitated the transmission of + intelligence has had a similar effect. Amongst these are magnetism, + which, in the mariner's compass greatly assisted navigation and the + conveyance of letters by sea; and the steam engine which facilitated the + transmission of letters by land and by water; the electric telegraph, the + telephone, and other contrivances for transmitting ideas, have also + greatly promoted mental advance. The steam engine, by largely abolishing + physical drudgery, gave time for study and mental and moral improvement. + It has been said that "it is impossible to lay down a <!-- Page 88 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span>railway without + creating an improved intellectual influence. It is probable that Watt and + Stephenson will eventually modify the opinions of mankind, almost as + profoundly as Luther and Voltaire." Photography has exercised an immense + intellectual influence of an improved kind, by making common to all + mankind views of the beautiful scenery of all parts of our globe, and + portraits of individuals of all nations and of all classes of society. + Processes of printing from electrotype plates, pictures and letter-press, + upon the paper wrappers used by grocers and other tradesmen, have also + carried into the homes of millions of poor persons truthful ideas and an + improved intellectual influence. The invention of steel pens, of which a + thousand millions are made yearly in Birmingham alone, must also have + considerably aided intellectual progress. The various calculating + machines used by merchants, the copying presses, papyrographs, and the + numerous inventions for copying and multiplying letters and circulars and + for domestic printing, have saved intellectual toil, and promoted the + diffusion of intelligence. These are only a few of the numerous ways in + which inventions based upon scientific discoveries, have resulted in + mental progress.</p> + + <p>Less perhaps has been done in the way of actual definite scientific + experiments upon mental actions and processes than in almost any other + department of science, and this is partly accounted for by the fact that + the other sciences require to be largely advanced before we can use them + to examine mental action, <!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page89"></a>{89}</span>and partly also because (as occasionally + happens) the latter has been a neglected subject of research. During the + past few years however, various experimental investigations have been + made, especially by Donders in Holland, and Mosso in Turin, for the + purpose of elucidating the physical conditions of mental action; and it + has been found that instead of an act of thought being instantaneous, as + was formerly believed, it requires a variable time.<a name="NtA13" + href="#Nt13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> Numerous desultory experiments made upon + dreamers, and with drugs, alcohol, &c., upon persons in the waking + state, also prove that mental phenomena are amenable to scientific + research. F. Galton has even proposed experiments and methods for + measuring the mental faculties of different persons.<a name="NtA14" + href="#Nt14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> The effects of exciting different parts + of the brain of animals by means of electric currents, and the + localization of the functions of the brain effected by the experiments of + Ferrier, Hirtzig and others, also tend to throw further light upon mental + phenomena. The fact alone that mental actions and conditions may be made + the subject of experiment, and consequently of observation, comparison, + analysis and inference, proves that they may be rendered sources of new + facts and principles, and are therefore within the domain of science. As + the dependence of mental phenomena upon physical conditions has been + clearly demonstrated, an extensive reduction of them to scientific laws + is only a question of time and labour.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span></p> + + <p>The principles of nature and the modes of mental action are the same + for all men. It necessarily follows from the essential nature of truth + and the invariability of the chief methods of detecting it, that the + criteria of truth in mental science, and the mental powers and processes + by which truth is arrived at and detected in that science, are + essentially the same as in the physiological, chemical, and physical + ones. In each of these subjects, we first, either with or without the aid + of experiment, make observations, record facts, compare them, and draw + conclusions from our comparisons; we also group the facts, and the + conclusions, in every possible way, and then draw other conclusions; we + also analyse, combine, and permutate the various truths arrived at, and + cross examine the evidence in every possible manner in order to extract + from it the greatest amount of new knowledge. And in each case we employ + as the criteria of truth, the test of consistency with the whole of the + evidence bearing upon the case, and especially with the great principles + of science. We determine what is true, chiefly by comparison with those + principles, because they are the most firmly established true ones and + the most universal. There is no royal road to truth, and no special + mental faculty for detecting it in any subject; and it is in consequence + of our mental faculties being so very finite that we have no easier way + of arriving at truth.</p> + + <p>No dogmatic teaching can ever, except by accident, fully explain to + man the true nature of mind; and <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page91"></a>{91}</span>only in proportion as man becomes + enlightened by extension of new scientific knowledge, especially in + physiology, will he be able to view himself in a true aspect apart from + his consciousness. Science penetrates deeper than metaphysical + speculation, into the nature of mental action, chiefly because + metaphysics deals only with old ideas, whilst science furnishes us with + new experience and therefore with new conceptions and wider evidence.</p> + + <p>Fallacies are very prevalent, every subject of human study is liable + to a very large class of errors arising from the extremely imperfect + state of our knowledge, and in very few subjects is our ignorance as + great as in that of mental and moral phenomena. Every different subject + of study also, has, in consequence of its special peculiarities, its own + peculiar class of fallacies, into which the student of it is likely to be + led, unless he is previously guarded against them. In accordance with + this truth, the study of man's nature, especially the mental and moral + portions, is particularly liable to a class of errors arising from the + circumstance, that the phenomena to be observed and the observing power + are intimately connected together, each influencing and disturbing the + other. The obstacles to our arriving at truth in the study of mental and + moral actions, are greater and more frequent, the more nearly and + intimately related the phenomena to be observed and contemplated, are to + the observing and contemplating faculty, or rather to the contemplative + action. When the two mental <!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page92"></a>{92}</span>actions are extremely intimate, as when + attention is directed to the action of will (which is itself a conscious + act of attention) undisturbed thought becomes very difficult; and when + further, the contemplative faculty attempts to contemplate itself, as + when consciousness attempts to observe consciousness, in order to define + it, the attempt results in almost complete failure, probably because the + two actions (observing and being observed) being opposite in kind, cannot + coexist at the same time in the same structure. Knowledge of the exact + nature of consciousness therefore, will probably only be arrived at by + indirect means, when physiological and other knowledge is sufficiently + advanced.</p> + + <p>Consciousness, when uncorrected by sufficient knowledge and inference, + is a great source of error. That which we feel, we think exists whether + it does or not, until the subject is correctly explained to us. The + incessant and irresistible obtrusion of consciousness exercises dominion + over every mind, even of our greatest thinkers, and causes disturbance + and interruption in nearly every train of thought. It is largely the + cause of some of our most general ideas and emotions and insensibly + influences our views of man and nature. It produces true impressions as + well as erroneous ones. It is a cause of the feeling that an occult + spirit exists within us independent of our material structure. Combined + with the almost equally persistent impression of the uniformity of + nature, it largely produces the idea that the spirit within us, <!-- Page + 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span>will live and + be active for ever. And by uniting with the frequent impressions of + failure of our efforts and desire for more perfect enjoyment, it largely + originates the idea of everlasting happiness.</p> + + <p>It is in accordance with modern scientific knowledge, to view the + mind, not as a collection of distinct faculties, but rather as a single + kind of power, like each of the physical forces, having several different + modes of action; and as that which perceives, thinks, and wills. Its + oneness is shewn by its inability to be simultaneously occupied by + several diverse feelings, thoughts, or volitions, and by our incapacity + to think of many varied ideas at once; the more ideas also or objects we + attempt to perceive at once, the less we realize of each. In proportion + as the mind is engaged upon one idea, so is it also unable to be occupied + with another. Strong feelings exclude intellectual action. The mind can + only execute several actions at a time, provided they have been rendered + more or less automatic by habit, &c., but as all mental acts are in + different degrees imperfectly automatic, and require more or less + attention, and each individual mind is limited in its power, every such + act withdraws a portion of attention from the more engrossing ideas. + Power of mind and power of maintaining attention are nearly + synonymous.</p> + + <p>The recognised fundamental elements of mind are Receptivity and + Perception of impression: Retentiveness of impression: Perception of + agreement (or similarity) of impression: and Perception of difference + <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>{94}</span>of + impression. All purely mental acts appear to be resolvable into + these.</p> + + <p>Many persons still entertain the idea that mental actions are largely + independent of the natural conditions to which physiological, chemical, + and physical phenomena are subject. The unscientific mind is readily + beguiled by easy schemes of mental action, or simple systems of mental + and moral philosophy, unaware that great abstract truths often require + deep thought to discover them, or even to perceive them when discovered + and published. "A false notion, which is clear and precise, will always + meet a greater number of adherents in the world than a true principle + which is obscure." It is not until unscientific persons have become used + to advanced scientific ideas and nomenclature, and knowledge as so far + progressed as to enable thinking men to illustrate those ideas freely in + familiar language, that great abstract truths are believed by the public. + The ordinary and simple theory of the operations of the human mind is, + that they often arise without any cause, and are frequently not obedient + to ordinary influences, and this idea is still entertained and + promulgated even by some of our most popular ministers of truth. It is + therefore necessary in order to further prove that new scientific + knowledge is really a basis of mental progress, to point out a few of the + chief ways in which mental action essentially depends on scientific + principles, and to adduce a few instances in which other substances than + brain exhibit essentially similar phenomena. To <!-- Page 95 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>{95}</span>shew this however in a + more satisfactory manner would require a large treatise to be written + upon the subject.</p> + + <p>The human brain and mind are evidently subject to the ordinary laws of + matter and energy. Receptivity and retentiveness of impression is not + only a property of brain, but of all solid matter without exception. + Moser's pictures, and Chinese mirrors, the impressions on each being + reproducible by warm breath, are examples of this. And as these two + properties are fundamental elements of mind, they must be present in and + essential to, every mental action.</p> + + <p>All phenomena require time and all matter occupies space; thought and + brain are no exception to this. Whilst all persons say "I must have time + to think," many believe that thought is instantaneous. Time is a + necessary condition of all thought, and therefore of all comparison, + inference, imagination, and mental analysis; it takes time even to form + an idea, or draw an inference from it, and the two cannot be formed + simultaneously. Professor Donders, of Utrecht, has invented what he terms + a Noëmatachograph for registering the amount of time occupied in mental + processes, and by the aid of that instrument has ascertained that the + time required by a man of middle age to perform a single act of simple + thought is about one twenty-fifth part of a second. It has also been + ascertained that the time required is longer in some persons than in + others; and longer if the <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page96"></a>{96}</span>subject of thought is one with which the + thinker is not familiar. Mosso, by means of an instrument which he calls + a Plethysmograph, has shewn, that during mental action, either in the + waking state, or in dreaming, there is a greater amount of blood + determined to the brain, and more during difficult than during easy + mental action. These are instances of scientific research casting a light + upon mental processes.</p> + + <p>Coexistence of matter and energy is another great truth which appears + to be applicable to all nature; wherever there is matter, there is either + active or stored up power; and as particular forms of energy are in some + cases most exhibited by particular kinds of substance, (as magnetism by + iron), so mind is associated with living brain. As also we never see the + physical powers exhibited except by material substance, so have we never + yet observed mental action in a space devoid of material. The most + perfect vacuum yet produced contains many millions of particles of + substance in each cubic inch. Of all the countless number of scientific + phenomena observed since men have been able to reliably investigate, not + one has afforded us conclusive evidence of mental action entirely + independent of these conditions. In accordance also with the usual truth + in science, that complicated action requires complex structures; mind, + being the most intricate action, is manifested by the most complicated + body.</p> + + <p>Mind, like each of the physical forces may be <!-- Page 97 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>{97}</span>viewed as a mode of + energy; it is essentially dynamic; activity or change, within or without + us, appears to be the original source of all our mental impressions, and + the cause of their re-excitement in an act of memory. A man's mind, being + continually excited by circumstances, must be active whether he will or + no, and if it does not possess sufficient truthful ideas entirely to + occupy it, it must be more or less occupied with erroneous ones. "We can + neither feel, nor know, without a transition or change of state—and + every cognition, must be viewed as in relation to some other feeling, or + cognition," (Bain. Mental and Moral Science, p. 83); <i>i.e.</i> the + mental effect of impressions upon us depends upon our immediately + previous mental state; consciousness and perception appear to be based + upon cerebral change or activity; after strong excitement of + consciousness an increased amount of acid products is found in the + secretions. "It is a general law of the mental constitution, more or less + recognised by inquirers into the human mind, that change of impression is + essential to consciousness in every form," (Bain. Emotions and Will, 3rd + edi. p. 550). A sufficient degree also of such change is a necessary + condition of conscious perception; it is the stronger or more rapid only + of mental changes that excite our consciousness.</p> + + <p>We perceive nearly all things by means of a difference of impression + which they make upon us; by contrast. That which makes no such difference + of impression, such as the great uniformities of time and <!-- Page 98 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span>space, makes no + immediate impression upon us. We only know of the existence of those + uniformities by inference from our perceptions of sequences or of + relative difference. Although the Earth moves at the rate of 62,000 miles + an hour in its orbit, consciousness does not perceive it. If also there + was no error, we should be less immediately able to discern truth, + without pain we should lose much of the enjoyment of pleasure. Without + the contrast of imperfection we could not directly appreciate + perfection.</p> + + <p>This principle of "relativity," or of change of impression, operates + both in the phenomena of dead and living matter and in those of mind; the + selenium in a photophone is kept in a state of motion or activity, not by + a beam of uniform light, but only by one which changes; electrical action + is excited by a relative difference of friction, of temperature, of + chemical action, &c.; chemical action also often results from a + relative difference of property of two bodies. That the most inscrutable + phenomenon of mind, viz., consciousness, is largely dependent upon + relative physical and chemical conditions, is proved by the powerful + influence which alcohol, chloroform, opium, haschish, and other + substances, have in exciting or depressing it. These facts prove that + excitement of consciousness or mental action depends upon precisely the + same general condition, viz.: change of impression, as the excitement of + some of the physical forces; and that mind possesses a similar property + to the physical forces of being changed by inequality of impression. <!-- + Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>{99}</span>Whilst + copious evidence is available to shew that the mind is excitable by + physical causes, no more conclusive proof exists that a mental impression + arises without a natural cause, than that a physical one, such as a + photographic impression, arises in that way. Abundant evidence of + non-creation of ideas out of nothing might be adduced; even imagination + and invention are subject to this limit, because an unlimited number of + new conceptions cannot be formed from a limited number of previous + ideas.</p> + + <p>The dependence of the mind (like any other mode of energy) upon + physical conditions, is further proved by the fact that the mental and + moral states of a man are largely governed by sensation; if the latter is + unhealthy it makes the mind so, and it makes some difference what the + part of the body is in which the sensation exists; most commonly it is + the viscera. The mind is also intimately dependent upon the physical + condition of the brain, and is largely affected by the quantity and + quality of the blood in that organ.</p> + + <p>The most fundamental principle which pervades every one of the + sciences, and agrees with the actions of every natural form of energy + without exception, including mind, is, that of consistency or + non-contradiction. No machine or scientific apparatus of any kind can + perform two contradictory acts at the same time. It is both a + physiological and psychological fact, that we cannot experience two + contradictory sensations, nor perceive two contradictory ideas at the + <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>{100}</span>same instant. We can neither feel, + perceive, nor observe, one thing, whilst we are feeling, perceiving, or + observing, one of a contradictory nature; nor can we perform any two + contradictory acts of comparison, inference, imagination, or volition, + simultaneously. As also two mental actions are often not exactly alike, + or entirely harmonious, they must so far as they are really + contradictory, be mutually exclusive; and one of them must partly prevent + the other, the strongest one prevailing, and this general truth is + commonly though not explicitly, recognised in the maxim, that to do + anything well, we must do only one thing at a time. In accordance with + the universal truth, that contradictions cannot co-exist, it is + well-known that one disease frequently expels another from our frame, and + the action of counter-irritants is based upon the same principle. The + fortitude of martyrs may probably be explained by this power of one set + of ideas and feelings to exclude another, and the facts of mental + physiology afford plenty of other examples.</p> + + <p>It is probably because we cannot simultaneously perform two + contradictory actions, that we cannot contemplate consciousness, or think + of an idea and at the same time think of that act of thought. In + accordance with this, even Newton, and other great geniuses, have been + unable to accurately describe the mental processes by means of which they + arrived at their most difficult results. In consequence also of this, we + cannot define consciousness, and are often <!-- Page 101 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>{101}</span>unable to directly + observe or analyse our mental actions, especially those of a very + abstruse or complex kind. Much of the knowledge of the operations of our + mind, we are therefore obliged to obtain by indirect means; by analogies, + and inferences from the phenomena of nature, &c., and in this way our + knowledge of mental action largely depends upon our acquaintance with + physical and chemical science, and can only advance as it advances. To + clearly understand one subject we are often obliged to study several + others. Ignorance of science in general, and of cerebral physiology in + particular, is the chief obstacle to our acquiring a more accurate + knowledge of mind.</p> + + <p>Next to consistency, the great principle of causation constitutes the + most essential part of all natural truth, and to deny the operation of + this principle in particular cases of mental action, simply because we, + with our very finite powers, cannot in the extremely imperfect state of + our knowledge, yet fully explain some of the most difficult, complex, + transient, and ever-changing phenomena of will and consciousness, is + contrary to the most weighty evidence. "The Will" is a conscious mental + effort to effect an object, the idea of which is already in the mind, and + being a mental "effort" it absorbs the mind and thereby incapacitates it + at the moment from observing its own action.</p> + + <p>If any phenomenon (such as mental action) is essentially dependent + upon another, it must be connected <!-- Page 102 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>{102}</span>with it in a + never-failing or indissoluble manner, so that when the one occurs the + other is always present, otherwise it would not be essentially dependent. + The only known connections of this kind are those causation and + continuity of phenomena, according to which every phenomenon has a cause, + and all phenomena are indissolubly connected in endless series. The + evidence of the truth of these principles is so vast, that even all + mankind thinking through all ages, and after having made an almost + infinite number of definite experiments and observations, have never yet + met with a single well verified instance of their failure; and we are + therefore justified in inferring that they are universal. There are + however instances in the physical and chemical sciences, as well as in + mental action, where the dependence of phenomena upon those principles is + not very apparent, and has not yet been sufficiently proved, but it is + probably in consequence of our imperfect knowledge and limited faculties, + that we are unable as yet to fully trace such dependence. The history of + science, abundantly proves that we should not assume that a phenomenon + arises without a natural cause, simply for the reason that it is very + difficult to trace its origin, but wait patiently for more knowledge + respecting it. It is unphilosophic and contrary to reason to attribute to + occult agencies, effects which may be explicable by ordinary causes, or + to refuse to believe in more abstruse causes where the assumption of + simple ones is contradicted by some of the evidence. <!-- Page 103 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>{103}</span></p> + + <p>The principle of causation forms the basis of many minor ones, such as + selection, evolution, differentiation, &c. Plurality of causes also + is a very common circumstance in all the sciences, and especially in + concrete phenomena, and in the complex ones of animal life; the arrival + of a ship for example at a distant port, is a result of many conditions. + Similarly with most of our mental actions, they are compounds of feeling + and intellect, and produced by many causes, such as hereditary tendency, + acquired habit, internal and external mental excitants, dogmatic belief, + knowledge of empirical rules, and occasionally of verified principles. + Several of these causes also frequently conspire to produce a single idea + or decision.</p> + + <p>Various general principles of lesser magnitude arise from the combined + action of two or more of the greater ones, and these also appear to + operate in mental actions as well as in physical ones. Thus by the + combined influence of causation and of the principle that every + phenomenon occupies time, "effects often lag behind their causes;" and in + some cases during a long period. The greatest heat of summer for example + usually occurs several weeks after mid-summer. The mental effects of + early mistakes are often not fully experienced until old age. The decline + of a nation also follows a long time behind the period of action of the + chief causes which produce it.</p> + + <p>Although effects are indissolubly connected with their causes, they + frequently do not occur in an active form until a long period after them. + In such cases <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page104"></a>{104}</span>they are stored up in what is termed a + potential or latent state, ready for liberation at a future occasion, + when the suitable conditions are present; the storage of chemical power + in gunpowder, of solar heat in coal, and its subsequent liberation in our + fires, are suitable examples. The principle of deferred activity and + storing up of power, occurs also in vital and mental phenomena; potential + heat is stored up in our food, and is afterwards evolved by oxidation in + our tissues. Muscular power is stored up during sleep, ready to be + evolved during labour. The storage also of cerebral impressions, and + cerebral energy, ready to call forth ideas, and thereby powerful + emotions, by the exciting action of memory, may also be viewed as an + instance of similar kind belonging to mental phenomena. A new and + striking instance of the storage of energy has been shewn in Faure's + improved form of secondary voltaic battery, in which the most powerful + voltaic current may be (at least practically) stored up (in a box + containing lead plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid) and conveyed to + a distance with little loss, and then liberated.</p> + + <p>Exciting causes operate very extensively in mental actions as well as + in physical ones, a mere look or word from an eloquent speaker will + excite the passions and liberate the muscular power of a multitude. Every + part of the human body, especially the muscles and nerve centres, is a + store-house of power always ready to be set free by the slightest + suitable causes; this is strongly illustrated in the irrepressible + activity <!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page105"></a>{105}</span>of children, and in the excitable passions + of young men and women. The more immediate cause of this power is the + oxidation of assimilated food; and the source of power in the food is the + heat of the Sun stored up in the plants and animals they have eaten.</p> + + <p>The subsequent liberation of power under the influence, often of very + slight causes, long after the original cause has ceased to act, has led + us to conclude erroneously that causes are not always proportional to + effects. Proportionality of effect to cause appears to be universal; it + probably operates in mental as well as in physical actions, our faith in + education as a means of intelligence is based upon this; the more + complete the education of a particular individual, the greater usually is + his degree of intelligence. Proportionality of cause to effect is + apparently disobeyed not only in physical but also in mental phenomena. + Throughout the whole realm of nature, minute circumstances often act as + exciting, deflecting, and guiding causes, and contribute to the + production of apparently disproportionate effects. Thus a spark will + discharge the largest cannon; a touch determine the most distant electric + signal; a word or look, excite the strongest emotions; the little change + of position of a railway point will direct a train either to distant + North or South; the minute change of contact of the telegraph switch, + will determine the signal to places wide asunder; one false idea also at + a critical moment will often lead a man or woman to ruin; and in all + these classes of cases, <!-- Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page106"></a>{106}</span>whilst trifling causes <i>appear</i> to + produce great effects; the real causes are the stored up latent powers + set free or directed. It is astonishing how small a circumstance will + excite an idea, and deflect the entire current of our thoughts; and it is + equally surprising what great physical and chemical effects are often + started by most minute exciting or deflecting conditions; the explosion + of seven tons of dynamite at Hell-gate, near New York, by the pressure of + a child's finger closing an electric circuit is a suitable example.</p> + + <p>Every phenomenon therefore whether physical or mental, is probably + connected in an indissoluble manner with some preceding phenomenon, + either immediately in point of time, or remotely through some static + condition, usually that of stored up power. In this sense the great + principle of continuity of phenomena appears to be universal, and the + present state of the Universe is said to implicitly or potentially + contain all the future states of the Universe. Mind also in this way, + like each of the physical forces, often acts as a link in an endless + chain of causes and effects, and is connected with non-mental phenomena + in accordance with the great principles of science.</p> + + <p>Science has demonstrated what has been termed the "Convertibility of + Forces," or, that when one form of energy disappears, another form (or + forms) of energy, and in precisely equivalent amount, is produced in its + stead, either in a latent or active state. The equivalent quantities of + the various forms of <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page107"></a>{107}</span>energy have also been discovered by actual + experiment and measurement. A pound weight falling through 772 feet gives + forth as much energy as would (in the form of heat) raise the temperature + of one pound of water one Fahrenheit degree. We know that so much + mechanical power is equal also to so much electric current, chemical + action, &c., and a large amount of evidence exists to show that these + transformations of energy occur in all the organs of living creatures, + and in obedience to the law of their equivalents. How far mental power is + a "mode of energy" transformable, and obedient to the laws of + equivalence, are interesting questions for future research.</p> + + <p>The mechanical principle of action and reaction is another which can + be traced in mental as well as in physical phenomena. Mental excitement + is often succeeded by mental depression, "after pleasure follows pain." + The power of mental self-guidance and self-education is largely dependent + upon the two well known scientific principles of latent energy, and + action and reaction. We are able to liberate energy, not only in cases + where it will influence inanimate matter but also ourselves. The + principle of self-guidance is not restricted to living creatures, nor is + self-regulation limited to mental power. The principle of self-regulation + operates in clocks, watches, musical boxes, the governors of steam + engines, water regulators, gas regulators, &c., &c., and upon an + immense scale in the movements of the heavenly <!-- Page 108 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span>bodies. With the + electric locomotive, the greater the load it has to draw, or the steeper + the incline it has to ascend, the more strongly does it exert its + strength, up to the full limits of its power. Neither in physical nor in + mental actions can a body or force usually act directly upon itself to + change its state whether of activity or rest. In both classes of cases + however we meet with plenty of instances where, a body by an almost + imperceptible expenditure of energy on its own part either alters some + surrounding conditions, or excites a powerful liberation of energy in + another body which then reacts upon it to change its state. In this way + the action of clock-work in the self-exploding apparatus of a torpedo + liberates at a particular moment a spring, and causes an explosion which + destroys the apparatus. Similarly, whilst a man, in many cases, is unable + to <i>directly</i> alter his mental state, to increase or diminish his + mental activity, to cause sleep, &c., he is able <i>indirectly</i> to + change his mental condition by drinking stimulants or by adopting means + of self-education; and to induce sleep by means of opium, suitable + exercise, &c.</p> + + <p>The principles of indestructibility or conservation of matter and + energy, flow from the preceding ones, and are exhibited in mental actions + as well as in physical ones. Whilst the universal experience of mankind + has not yet afforded us a single well verified instance of actual + creation or destruction of matter or energy, it has supplied us with + plenty of examples of apparent destruction and creation of each of them. + <!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page109"></a>{109}</span>But scientific knowledge corrects the + uncertain testimony of consciousness; whilst we see coal burn and be + apparently destroyed, science proves to us that the elements composing it + remain undiminished. We observe also that the heat of the fire dissipates + and is apparently lost for ever; but science again proves that it is + either stored up in the latent state, ready to be again liberated at a + future time, or else converted into other forms of energy. A given atom + of matter or a portion of energy, therefore, to the best of our + knowledge, continues and persists for ever. As we cannot either create or + destroy matter so also can we not create or annihilate energy, and this + truth probably holds good with regard to mental as well as to physical + and chemical power. Great changes of state in bodies (as in the + combustion of wood &c.) have led us to erroneously think that the + substances are destroyed; and great apparent differences of property, + such as those of diamond and charcoal, have led us similarly to conclude + that they are entirely distinct and independent of each other when they + are not.</p> + + <p>As the cerebrum of man is composed of matter, and during excitement, + its parts are active, we might confidently predict that its particles + obey the First law of Motion, viz.: that a body in a state of rest or + motion will continue in that state of rest or motion until some cause + arise to prevent it. So it has been found that the action of the vital + and mental forces have a degree of persistence, like the physical ones. + It has been experimentally found that portions of <!-- Page 110 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>{110}</span>living bone + transplanted to fleshy parts of animals where there was no bone, + continued to grow for a time by a life of their own, and increased by + formation of additional bone, like a crystal grows in its medium; but + after a time they diminished and disappeared. In a similar manner we are + all of us aware of the persistency of ideas, even in opposition to the + will, after the cause of them has been removed. Sometimes we cannot + retain an idea because of the persistence of others; and at other times + we cannot get rid of one, for a similar reason. Our mental habits also + have often very great persistence.</p> + + <p>The principle of heredity may be viewed as a result of the First law + of Motion, and appears as Persistency of state, either of structure, + form, or mode of action. It appears both in inanimate bodies, living + structures, and in mental phenomena; in the latter, as hereditary mental + peculiarities. The principle of Persistency of structure and Heredity of + form and property, during repeated or even continual dissolution and + aggregation of a material substance, is more or less manifest nearly + throughout the whole of nature. In the formation of crystals it is + clearly seen; each crystallizable substance will only grow into its own + shape or shapes; each particle of common salt, during an endless series + of successive solutions and aggregations into the solid state, always + forms a more or less perfect cube; that of silica a hexagon; and so on + throughout the entire series of thousands of different crystalline + bodies. As each <!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page111"></a>{111}</span>form of crystal only produces crystals of + like form and property (or at most in certain cases a limited number of + modified forms, as in the instance of calcic carbonate, &c.) so also + each seed, both of animals and vegetables, only produces its own + particular essential shape and collection of functions. The same + principle shews itself in the transmission of particular types of + disease, and of eccentricities of organization, from one generation to + another of animals. Peculiar malformations of body and characteristics of + mind often persist in families from generation to generation. This + persistency or heredity of structure and of property is not limited to + solid bodies, but exists also in liquids: "The effect of vaccine virus + upon the liquid blood, in producing a permanent and organic change in its + constitution and character, which continues to exercise a protective + influence against small-pox, in the great mass of cases, through a long + life, during which time the blood must have undergone, many thousands, if + not millions of changes and modifications." (F. Winslow. "Obscure + diseases of Brain and Mind," page 432). The same persistency of structure + and property of structure, has even been detected in vapours; the vapour + of red iodide of mercury for example, deposits only crystals of red + iodide, whilst that of the yellow deposits only yellow (see Gmelin's + Handbook of Chemistry, vol. 1, p. 100.)</p> + + <p>We often appear to mentally select when we only yield to causes acting + upon us, <i>i.e.</i>, to the strongest influence or motive. That + "self-preservation is the <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page112"></a>{112}</span>first law of nature," is not only true of + living creatures, but largely also of dead substances. Inanimate as well + as animate matter, appears to usually select what is good for itself. + Apparent selection, which is manifested in the phenomena of instinct, is + exhibited not only by brain, but by all material substances. Acids appear + to select bases, North magnetism rejects North and prefers South + magnetism. Also if a piece of zinc is put into a mixed solution of the + nitrates of silver, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, lithium, + sodium, potassium, and rubidium, it will select the silver only with + which to form a "metallic tree," and reject all the other metals. + Everything which aggregates or grows to a definite shape, appears to + select its material; if a crystal of a particular salt is placed in a + mixture of saturated solutions of different salts, it will only select + and assimilate to itself suitable material, either particles of the same + composition as itself, or those which are isomorphous with it, + <i>i.e.</i> belonging to the same crystalline system. In living bodies + also, the same principle operates; Living tissues, whether of animals or + vegetables, usually select from their nutrient fluids, and assimilate, + particles only of those kinds of matter which are suitable for their + structure; in this way, a bone assimilates lime and phosphoric acid from + the multitude of different substances conveyed to it by the blood. And in + all these cases, the selecting material appears to act as if it possessed + the powers of instinct, perception, comparison, judgment, and <!-- Page + 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span>volition. + The act of self-repair is clearly connected with this, and is not limited + to living structures; Sir David Brewster observed that if a portion of + the surface of a perfect crystal of alum is very slightly abraded by + dissolving a film from it, and the crystal be then immersed during a very + brief period in a saturated solution of alum, the abraded portion repairs + itself. The subjects of "malformation of crystals," and "diseases of + crystals" have been scientifically investigated. The power of selection + (or rather of apparent selection) is no doubt a result of the combined + action of causation and of the inherent properties of bodies, and + depends, like consciousness, upon difference of impression, the strongest + suitable influence determining. If apparent selection can thus be + performed by inanimate matter, we should not, except for a very + sufficient reason, assume the existence in living creatures, of a special + occult power to perform the same function. In the selection of ideas also + the intellect acts according to the purely scientific method.</p> + + <p>We frequently appear to mentally adapt ourselves to particular + circumstances when we are really determined by causes; and this apparent + adaptation is also seen in ordinary physical and chemical phenomena. The + course of a river for instance, adapts itself to the configuration of the + country through which it flows, and if it cannot pass wholly by one + channel, as in seasons of flood, or on occasions of accidental + obstruction, it travels through several; and a similar result <!-- Page + 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"></a>{114}</span>occurs + with the flow of the blood when an artery is tied or becomes obstructed. + A plant when growing in a dark recess, bends itself towards the light as + if it preferred light; and its roots adapt themselves to the forms of + existing obstacles. A decapitated frog jumps away from a source of + irritation, as if he still possessed sensation, volition, and choice. A + man seeking his way through a crowd avoids the course in which <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'the the' across line break." + >the</span> throng is densest. The human mind also, chooses as it were, + the easiest way of solving a problem, and usually adapts itself to + altered circumstances.</p> + + <p>The principle of evolution also operates both in physical and mental + actions, and is a result of that of causation. Complexity of structure + and function is evolved out of simplicity of composition and property by + plurality of causes and conditions. For instance, many complex forms of + crystals of ice are produced from water. Calcspar crystallizes in more + than one hundred varieties of form, (all derived from an obtuse + rhombohedron) under the influence of a number of slightly different + conditions of temperature, impurities in the solution, &c. The most + complex bodies are evolved out of the simplest, the bodily frame of man + himself (and that of other animals) is constructed of less than twenty of + the elementary substances. The same simple substances are capable of + yielding very different and more complex bodies under different + conditions; thousands of different chemical <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'compouuds'.">compounds</span> are composed of + hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon only. In the development of <!-- Page 115 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span>living forms + from ova, the ultimate form produced does not exist in the germ, any more + than a crystal exists in its solution, but is a natural consequence of + the forces acting in and upon the germ, like the cubical form of a + crystal of common salt is a result of the forces acting in its + constituents under the conditions of its environment, especially those of + pressure and temperature. The extent to, and manner in which, the force + and principle operate, depend upon the material substance, and its + conditions internal and external.</p> + + <p>It is a common circumstance, both in physical, mental, and moral + subjects, for the apparent to be the very opposite of the real. This + general truth has been repeatedly illustrated in an incidental manner in + this book, and need not be much further elucidated. Phenomena are none + the less real, however, because they are not readily manifest; our earth + is as much tied to the sun by the invisible power of gravity, as if it + was attached to it by visible material chains. Mistaking the apparent for + the real, largely explains the persistency of certain beliefs, and why it + is that persons unacquainted with science, cling to self-deception, and + resist some of the most firmly established truths. The more evident but + untrue explanation is believed, whilst the less apparent but true one is + rejected. It is the chief cause of the belief that "the will is a + supernatural power." To a scientific man however, apparent contradictions + are not unfrequently a sign of truth; too accurate results sometimes <!-- + Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page116"></a>{116}</span>indicate that they have been artificially + made to appear correct.</p> + + <p>Sympathetic action or propagation of similar influence by immediate + impulse, is a property of all the natural forms of energy, as well as of + mind. Similar actions are propagated thus in all kinds of dead + substances, as well as in the living brain. Matter is sympathetic to + sound in the phenomena of singing-flames, and a vibrating string responds + to a particular note in obedience to well-known laws. Iodide of nitrogen + may be caused to explode by the influence of a particular note from a + fiddle. In the phenomena of light, with a spectroscope, a luminous gas is + sympathetic with, and emits and <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'aborbs'." + >absorbs</span>, only particular kinds of luminous rays. In chemical + action also, combustion excites combustion, ferment excites ferment, + infection communicates infection, and the similar chemical change is + transmitted from molecule to molecule. Mental excitement and disease in + one person, often excite similar phenomena in another, as is seen in + "religious revivals," and well-known epidemics, such as the "dancing + mania," "preaching epidemics," the "leaping ague," the "mewing + contagion," etc., etc., (See "Epidemics of the Middle Ages," by Hecker; + Sydenham Society publications; also Carpenter's Mental Physiology, p. + 312.) Like excites like in the actions of each of the forces of nature; + both in physical, chemical, and mental action, the kind of impulse + transmitted is similar, unless conditions exist which transmute it. + Dynamite, <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page117"></a>{117}</span>started into combustion by a flame, burns + slowly away; but when started by a detonating substance, detonates + violently. Guthrie has also discovered that if a melted cryohydrate + (<i>e. g.</i> a chilled saturated aqueous solution of a solid salt) is + cooled to a certain greater extent, it will not solidify—nothing + separates out, although the solution is four or five degrees below its + proper solidifying point. If a little crystal of ice be then thrown into + it, nothing separates but ice, which comes to the surface. If we throw in + a little anhydrous salt, nothing but the anhydrous salt separates out, + and that sinks to the bottom. But if we throw into it a crystal of a + previous crop of cryohydrate, then nothing but the cryohydrate separates. + In this case also, like evidently excites like only, in obedience to + physical laws. (Addresses, Science Conferences; South Kensington Museum, + 1876; Vol. 2, p. 108). Even two clocks, when hung near each other, + against a board or surface which readily transmits vibrations, have been + known to exhibit, by synchronous action, an apparent sympathy, which + changed their rate of going.</p> + + <p>Periodical phenomena, also, brought about by definite causes, occur in + mental, as well as in physical phenomena. In the former we have the + phenomena of sleep, and in the latter, definite causes produce summer and + winter, day and night, the tides, cycles of solar spots, maxima and + minima of magnetic intensity, etc., etc.</p> + + <p>Conversely to the manifestation of the principles of <!-- Page 118 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>{118}</span>inanimate + matter by living bodies and in mental action, so have modern inventions + demonstrated the possibility of the performance by inanimate substances + and apparatuses, of the functions, not only of our bodily organs, (as of + locomotion by the steam engine,) but also of our senses and intellect, + and in some cases, to a degree far surpassing unaided human power. + Apparatus, sensitive to sound, have been constructed, as in the + microphone and singing-flames; others capable of reproducing articulate + speech, as in the phonograph, telephone, etc.; others again sensitive to + light, as in the production of visible images by photography, and + reproducing them at a distance through wires by means of the photophone; + the power of indicating or foretelling future events has also been + embodied in instruments called "tide predictors," and that of evolving + inferences has been shewn in Jevon's "Logical machine."</p> + + <p>The various facts mentioned in this chapter prove that mind agrees + with the various forms of physical energy in many essential points, and + obeys many of the same laws or principles. Examine whatever general + phenomena of the mind we may, we can always detect some apparent or real + connection of them with the great principles of inorganic nature; and in + order to prove the dependence of them upon the great principles of + science it is not necessary to show that all such actions are subject to + those principles. Until the whole is explained however, there will always + remain mysterious phenomena to cavil about. <!-- Page 119 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>{119}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">MORAL PROGRESS.</p> + + <p>At the present time few competent persons have largely investigated + the fundamental relations of morality to Physical Science, consequently + moral actions are usually considered not to have a scientific basis, and + the doctrine is still extensively taught that some moral phenomena are + essentially supernatural.</p> + + <p>As new scientific knowledge has increased, belief in witchcraft, + sorcery, demonology, exorcism, evil influences and omens, unseen spirits, + a God of evil, supernatural and occult powers, supernatural sources of + strange diseases, evil presages from comets and eclipses, fetishism, + worship of images and of the Sun, a belief that the Earth is the chief + body in the Universe, that man is the "Lord of Creation," &c, &c. + have largely passed away, and beliefs more consistent with facts and with + true inferences drawn from them, have taken their place. Belief in the + supernatural nature of the human will however is still largely retained. + A writer on morality, says—"In every genuine <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'volitition'.">volition</span> + we have a phenomenon not law-determined, law-regulated, and + law-explained."<a name="NtA15" href="#Nt15"><sup>[15]</sup></a> A popular + expositor of religion says—"The phenomena of the human soul are + essentially different from the phenomena with which the student of + science is most familiar, and must be investigated on other principles + and by other methods." "The voluntary activity of man lies beyond the + limits of science." "Every language man has ever spoken—no matter + how <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page120"></a>{120}</span>perfect or how rude—the literature + of the ancient and the modern world, the indestructible instincts of the + human soul, the testimony of consciousness, unite to affirm that the + human will is independent of natural law." "The will is a supernatural + power." "I myself am not under the dominion of natural law;" "my moral + life is essentially a supernatural thing." "As soon as you approach the + intellectual and moral life of man, you enter a region in which you have + to do with a new order of facts." &c.<a name="NtA16" + href="#Nt16"><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Morality, the subject of duty, or of right and wrong-doing in + conscious creatures, is usually considered to relate only to those + actions over which a man has or might have had control, and which it was + his duty either to perform or avoid, and not to those which are entirely + beyond his influence, it is therefore essentially dependent upon the + power of selection or choosing. As then all moral actions require + voluntary choice between right and wrong, and every act of choice is a + mental one of comparison of two or more things, all moral actions are + mental ones. We cannot compare things which have not made any mental + impression upon us. We know further, and the evidence already given + proves, that mental actions are intimately dependent upon the principles + of nature operating within and around us. If then all acts of morality + (or immorality) are mental ones, and if all mental actions are intimately + dependent upon the great principles of nature; then all acts of morality + <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page121"></a>{121}</span>are dependent upon those principles. + Morality also cannot be properly understood without a knowledge of + various sciences, especially biology, because it relates to human + creatures, all of whom are morally affected by the various forces and + substances belonging to the physical and chemical sciences.</p> + + <p>Having shown that moral actions are mental ones, and adduced evidence + to prove that mental actions are largely subject to scientific + principles;—it follows as a necessary consequence, that moral + actions also largely obey those principles, and I need not repeat that + evidence.</p> + + <p>The extension of scientific knowledge conduces in a very general way + to moral progress, by diffusing the "scientific spirit," increasing our + love of truth, facilitating the attainment of greater certainty and + accuracy, enabling us to more perfectly avoid error, reducing our + ignorance, dispelling superstition, inculcating obedience to law, + diminishing difference of opinion and thereby lessening strife, conducing + to humility, to greater economy of means, to increased cleanliness, + &c, &c. Scientific research also, by disclosing to man his true + position in nature, enables him to act in harmony therewith, and thus + increase his morality and general happiness.</p> + + <p>Knowledge is as free as the air, once diffused it becomes impressed + upon the brains of men and cannot be easily destroyed or restrained; and + the greatest moral effects of science are cosmopolitan ones. Inventions + based upon new scientific truths are gradually <!-- Page 122 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>{122}</span>breaking down the + barriers between the various nations of the Earth, and infusing common + interests amongst all mankind. Nothing is uniting the sympathies of + different nations, increasing the friendly feelings between them, and + diminishing the probability of war, more than the increasing facilities + of communication brought about in a great measure by the developments of + science and art; more particularly by ocean steam navigation, rapid + postal communication and the telegraph, (see p. <a + href="#page51">51</a>). At the present time there are about six Atlantic + telegraph cables in use, and an almost daily service of passenger steam + ships across that ocean. The use of inventions based upon scientific + discovery has aided moral progress in various ways. All inventions are + made with the object of supplying some real or supposed want, and nearly + everything which supplies a common want, conduces to contentment and + happiness and the general progress of mankind. No one can possibly + measure or estimate the advantage of the inventions of writing and + printing, in helping men to avoid quarrels, to settle differences of + opinion, to sympathise with suffering, to give advice: &c. Similar + moral functions are also performed by the electric telegraph, and a few + specimens of some of the messages sent through the wire would clearly + illustrate this fact. Great moral progress has also resulted from cheap + daily intelligence, collected largely with the aid of the telegraph; and + of cheap books produced by means of the steam engine. It is estimated + that 250 millions <!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page123"></a>{123}</span>of copies of newspapers are yearly + published in Great Britain. The Bible and Religious Tract Societies could + hardly have existed had not the properties of the ingredients of ink been + discovered. The present multiplicity of testaments, prayer-books, + hymn-books, &c., has also been rendered possible by the invention of + printing. As darkness is favourable to crime, so the invention of + gaslight has conduced to morality. The numerous sources of intellectual + and moral enjoyment, developed by inventions based upon scientific + discovery, have attracted mankind from more sensual and less moral + amusements, and the invention of the piano-forte has operated largely in + a similar manner.</p> + + <p>In many respects, the poor man of to-day can command social comforts, + conveniences, and pleasures, which an emperor could not in former times. + Who can estimate the amount of beneficial moral influences of an indirect + kind obtained by means of modern science? The relief from pain by + chloroform and other new medicines, the diminution of domestic toil by + the sewing machine; the increased health and pleasure obtained by access + to the country and seaside by means of railways; the diminution of + anxiety resulting from more speedy conveyance of letters, and especially + of messages by telegraphs, the increased pleasure of life resulting from + being surrounded by objects of beauty multiplied cheaply by means of + scientific processes, such as photography?</p> + + <p>The human mind cannot greatly resist impression, the various effects + of scientific research necessarily <!-- Page 124 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>{124}</span>produce an influence + upon it. Whilst great deep-seated truths make a powerful impression on + the minds of philosophers, the great practical effects of science in + inventions, &c., profoundly impress the mass of mankind. One of the + chief influences of the discovery of important scientific truths and of + their practical application in some wonderful way, such as in the + telescope and microscope, phosphorus matches, photography, + electro-plating, the electric light, the spectroscope, microphone, + telephone, &c., is to produce a profound and wide-spread impression + of the existence of a great and mysterious influence, which produces (or + enables us to produce) such striking effects.</p> + + <p>Whilst also the novelty of the practical effects of new scientific + truths in inventions, astonish persons in general; the definiteness of + scientific phenomena, and the certainty with which they may be reproduced + convince all competent persons who examine them, that they are rigidly + subject to definite laws. In this way the antique belief that natural + phenomena are produced by supernatural agencies, is gradually being + abandoned, and the more moral conviction of the omnipresence and + universality of law has been largely established in its stead. Every new + scientific fact and invention thus becomes a new proof of the + universality of law. Belief in the supernatural has diminished in + proportion as scientific knowledge has advanced; instead of natural + phenomena being erroneously ascribed to demons, spirits, supernatural + <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page125"></a>{125}</span>powers, and occult causes, they have been + proved to be results of natural powers, acting in accordance with known + principles. Assertions which have been made, that "the will is a + supernatural power, independent of natural law" &c., are not + supported by evidence at all equal in cogency to that in proof of the + statement, that our mental and moral powers as a whole act in accordance + with the great principles of science.</p> + + <p>That moral phenomena, like those of the physical sciences, are capable + of being made the subject of experiment, observation, comparison, + analysis, and inference, is very manifest. Every case of bribery may be + viewed as an experiment in morality. The very common case where an + employer tests the honesty of a servant by some contrivance, is also a + trial of a similar kind. The dependence of the moral powers upon + scientific conditions, is clearly seen in the influences of intoxicating + drinks. A mere natural substance could not possibly overcome the + influence of a power which exists entirely independent of it; + <i>i.e.</i>, a "supernatural" one. Even the greatest believer in the + "supernatural" power of the human will, deplores the serious injury which + the abuse of alcoholic liquors produces upon mankind, rendering the will + powerless, and debasing the moral sentiments. The effects of opium, + haschisch, &c., are other examples. A vast number of experiments + remain to be made of the effects of drugs and organic compounds, both + solid, liquid and gaseous, upon moral actions; <!-- Page 126 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>{126}</span>which will probably + prove a still greater degree of dependence of those actions upon purely + <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'physicial'." + >physical</span> and chemical conditions.</p> + + <p>The "order of facts" in the subject of morality requires precisely + similar mental treatment to those to which scientific investigation has + been already applied with such great success, and which include all + phenomena admitting of observation, comparison, analysis and inference; + and not only those in which we are able, but also those in which we are + not able to produce by means of experiment, the phenomena to be observed, + such as those of astronomy and geology. Different subjects also are + experimental in different degrees, physical science is more experimental, + physiology is more observational; morality is partly experimental, and + therefore capable of reduction to scientific system by means of our + intellectual powers.</p> + + <p>In consequence of the essential nature of truth being the same in all + subjects, and of the fundamental processes of mental action in the + determination of truth being also alike in all, the essential modes of + arriving at and detecting moral truth are the same as those employed in + research in the physical sciences. We possess therefore no special + faculty, call it "conscience," or what we may, by which we are enabled to + infallibly arrive at truth in moral questions. What is right and good, + and what is wrong and evil, are determined by precisely the same general + means as what is true; our much vaunted consciousness alone does not + infallibly tell us; reason alone, <!-- Page 127 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span>acting upon the + evidence, is the final arbiter in any doubtful or disputed case. The + truth of moral questions must be examined and tested by precisely the + same mental faculties and processes as those employed in physical + science, viz:—by the faculties of perception, observation, + comparison, and inference, acting upon the whole of the evidence; and by + the processes of observing facts, comparing them, inferring conclusions; + by analysing and cross-examining the evidence in every possible way, and + extracting from it the largest amount of consistent knowledge.</p> + + <p>Although we cannot detect moral truth by any other than intellectual + processes, we may however arrive at correct moral conduct in two ways, + viz:—either blindly or intelligently. We arrive at it blindly or + automatically by the process of trusting to our inherited and acquire + tendencies and dogmatic beliefs; and intelligently by the conscious use + of our knowledge and intellectual powers; and each of these methods has + its advantages. The former process being an empirical one, is very + uncertain and cannot be employed for the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'judical'.">judicial</span> detection of truth, or + the certain discrimination of it from error, it has however to be trusted + to in all cases where we are deficient in knowledge, or have not time for + investigation. Truthful ideas and correct conduct also, which at first + require the exercise of considerable intellect and much self-discipline, + in order to arrive at them, become by habit so <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'completly'.">completely</span> converted into + acquired <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'tendences'." + >tendencies</span> as to be automatic. It is not improbable <!-- Page 128 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>{128}</span>that many of + our truthful ideas and correct tendencies were originally arrived at by + intellectual processes; and have become incorporated into our mental and + physical structure by habit, education, and inheritance.</p> + + <p>The scientific basis of morality is further shewn and essentially + proved by the fact that the fundamental rules of morality are dependent + upon scientific principles. According to Dr. Clarke, the two fundamental + "rules of righteousness" which regulate our moral conduct are, first, + that we should do unto another what we would, under like circumstances, + have him do unto us; and second, that we should constantly endeavour to + promote to the utmost of our power, the welfare and happiness of all men + (to the latter might well be added, the welfare of all sentient + creatures). The first of these rules is essentially dependent upon the + scientific principle of causation, viz:—that the same cause, acting + under the same circumstances, always produces the same effect, if what we + did for another person under like circumstances might produce a different + effect to what it would when done for ourself, the rule could not be + depended upon and would be of no use. The second also agrees with the + great principles of science, for the more we obey those principles, the + more do we really "promote the happiness and welfare of all men." The + first of these rules however in the form usually stated, is incomplete, + because it does not provide for the circumstance, that many persons + desire to have done unto themselves, not that which <!-- Page 129 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span>is most right, + and really most for their welfare and that of mankind in general, but + that which would most please them. The desire of immediate pleasure or + consolation is greater than the love of truth in nearly all men, and this + is connected with another fact, viz:—that persons unacquainted with + the great principles of science, have not the advantage of the moral + sustaining power of those principles, and are compelled in circumstances + of trial to seek extraneous mental relief.</p> + + <p>The desire to do right is not the primary source of morality; there + must be a cause for that desire, and this fact also shews that moral + phenomena are dependent upon the scientific principle of causation. We + can also much better understand a subject, especially a complex one like + that of morals, when we can co ordinate its facts in a scientific manner, + by referring them to some general principle which governs or includes + them. Referring moral actions to a verified scientific principle, is more + satisfactory than referring them to a less definite source such as + "conscience"; the "testimony of consciousness"; or "the indestructible + instincts of the human soul," because a principle affords a more + consistent explanation than a dogmatic idea. The fact also that the + discoveries of science usually precede the developments of the moral + advantages of science to mankind, is in harmony with the general truth + that effects follow their causes, and with the conclusion that moral + rules and moral progress have a scientific basis. <!-- Page 130 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span></p> + + <p>In a general way, the influence of science upon moral progress is + connected with what has been termed, "the scientific spirit." This + characteristic consists mainly of an intense love of truth, a desire to + acquire new knowledge, to arrive at certainty and accuracy; also an + obedience to law in general, and a consequent philosophic resignation to + inevitable ills. Science inculcates these qualities, and it is well known + that scientific discoverers have usually been highly moral persons, + truthful, accurate, law abiding, patient, persevering, temperate, &c. + On the other hand, the most lawless persons are usually those who are + most ignorant of the great laws which govern their actions, who + over-estimate human power and ability, and are impelled by ill-regulated + enthusiasm or feeling.</p> + + <p>Belief in and obedience to law, being a fundamental moral quality, is + in its turn the source of other moral qualities of less importance; for + instance, it tends to produce calmness, resignation, contentment, + patience, submission to the inevitable, &c. No man can be highly + moral who disobeys the great principles of nature. We may however obey + those laws either intelligently, by acquiring a scientific knowledge of + them; empirically, by obeying rules framed in accordance with them; or + blindly, by obeying dogmas which happen to agree with them. Those who do + not understand laws cannot of course intelligently obey them, and those + who most disobey them, consist nearly wholly of those who do not + understand them. <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page131"></a>{131}</span>Superstition, ignorance of natural law, + and a belief in occult powers, encourages lawlessness, injures the moral + sentiments, and is often attended by bigotry, associated with strife, + schism, and sectarian dispute.</p> + + <p>Probably the greatest influence which scientific discovery has had + upon the moral progress of mankind, has been by inculcating an + intelligent love of truth on account of its own intrinsic goodness; in + this respect it stands pre-eminent. Love of truth is a fundamental virtue + because it is the basis of many smaller ones. It is more virtuous, also, + to pursue truth on account of its own intrinsic and unqualified goodness + in all respects, than for any narrow extrinsic quality, such as the + personal pleasure or utility it may afford, or on account of any personal + gain or loss, reward or punishment, which may result from pursuing or + neglecting it. In the present imperfect state of civilization however, + the great bulk of mankind unavoidably employ less noble, as well as the + noblest motives, as a means of improvement. Most men can only be moved to + do right by means of inferior motives, one of the most effectual of which + in a commercial nation is "small investments, large profits, and quick + returns;" an expectation of great reward in return for small + self-sacrifice.</p> + + <p>The discovery and dissemination of verified scientific knowledge is a + purer kind of occupation than the promulgation of any kind of dogma, + because the statements of verified science are usually capable of + demonstration, whilst those of doctrine, being often <!-- Page 132 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span>contradictory, + may, or may not be true; mere affirmation also, when not based upon + proof, is often dangerous to morality. In dogmatic subjects a man may + tell untruths with impunity, because no one can disprove or convict him; + but in demonstrable ones, a man dare not utter falsehoods, because others + will prove his statements to be erroneous. It is demonstration rather + than doctrine that is of divine origin. A man also who practises + scientific research is largely compelled to adopt the most truthful views + of nature, in order to enable him to make discoveries.</p> + + <p>Real science is largely independent of opinion or faith. Whether we + believe or not that a piece of clean iron immersed in a mixture of oil of + vitriol and water, evolves hydrogen gas, the fact itself remains + unaltered. It is a great and glorious circumstance for mankind, that + human progress depends essentially upon a knowledge of new verified + truth. As verified experimental knowledge can only come from the great + source of all that is good, to doubt the value of new demonstrable truth, + is practical atheism. Those also who systematically investigate sources + of verifiable truth, are much more likely to ultimately arrive at the + fountain of all truth, than those who employ unsystematic methods, or + prefer unproved beliefs to verified knowledge.</p> + + <p>Another of the most powerful ways in which scientific discovery has + promoted moral progress has been an indirect one, viz., by diminishing + ignorance. Deficiency of knowledge is the parent of a vast <!-- Page 133 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page133"></a>{133}</span>amount of evil + and failure. "There is no instance on record of an active ignorant man, + who, having good intentions, and supreme power to enforce them, has not + done far more evil than good." (Buckle, "History of Civilization," vol. + 1, p. 167). Ignorance largely precludes happiness, and intelligence is an + indispensable condition of the highest morality. There are plenty of + difficult positions in life in which the desire to do right is not alone + sufficient, we must intelligently know what is the right course to + pursue. We are all of us ignorant in different degrees, and must be + content in many matters to walk by faith until we can walk by sight, and + to act according to rule and precept until we have discovered general + principles to guide us:—blind dogmatic morality and "rule of thumb" + method is vastly better than none, and has rendered great services to + mankind. Whether comforting doctrines are true or not, the great bulk of + mankind prefer them because they afford immediate relief; and whether + they be erroneous or truthful, men will be benefited by them and continue + to believe in them, until their minds are sufficiently advanced to + receive a knowledge of verified principles. Rules of morality however, + when presented to us with a basis of demonstrable truth, come with a + degree of divine authority, and possess greater claim to our observance, + than the same rules presented to us as empirical or dogmatic statements + only.</p> + + <p>In proportion to our ignorance the more we dislike to be apprised of + our defects and the more inclined are <!-- Page 134 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span>we to continue + uninformed; because the less intelligent we are the less are we able to + perceive the evil effects of our blindness or the advantages of + knowledge. As also the present state of <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'civilzation'.">civilization</span> is very + imperfect, and unsolved problems exist in all directions, ignorance and + all its evil consequences are extremely prevalent. It causes the great + mass of mankind to neglect better objects for the sake of money. It + indirectly constrains lawyers to neglect moral evidence. It induces + medical men to <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'withold'." + >withhold</span> truth from ignorant patients. It causes ministers of + religion to prefer doctrine to demonstration. It would therefore be + comparatively easy to compose lists of our moral <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'deficiences'.">deficiencies</span>, and of + improvements urgently needed in morality, far more extensive than the + very incomplete ones of our material shortcomings already given (see pp. + <a href="#page68">68</a> to <a href="#page78">78</a>). To enumerate + however the imperfections in the moral conduct of mankind, the frauds in + trades, the undue advantage taken of the defenceless, the deceit and + empiricism in professions, the professional trading on human weakness, + the cruelty of field sports, the hollow motives of social, political, and + religious life, the propagating as infallible truth, doctrines which may + be fallacious, is not the object of this Chapter; but rather to make + clear the fact, that the extension of the domain of verified truth by + means of scientific research is highly conducive to moral progress.</p> + + <p>The extension of new scientific knowledge is influencing morality and + gradually reducing the selfishness <!-- Page 135 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span>of mankind, by proving + that <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'their'." + >there</span> exist no royal roads to happiness, and that the greatest + amount of individual and national success can only be secured by a + genuine pursuit of truth, as an individual and cosmopolitan duty. + Increased knowledge is gradually proving to mankind that the purest + happiness is to be obtained by intelligent and virtuous conduct. By + shewing Man the unreasonable character of some of his fears and hopes, + and substituting for them a greater variety and extent of intellectual + pleasures, science is slowly making him more satisfied with his lot on + this Earth. Meanwhile the great mass of mankind are still pursuing the + ever retreating phantom of an easy way to happiness; the great laws of + nature however cannot be evaded, the avoidance of evil and the attainment + of good can only be secured by obeying all the great laws which govern + our nature.</p> + + <p>Progress in morality is largely dependent upon the diffusion of belief + in the universality of scientific laws. When men understand those laws, + know that their action is irresistible, and that they have no alternative + but to obey them or suffer, they acquire a habit of obeying them. + Universality of law in moral actions is often considered to be + incompatible with the existence of freedom of the will in selecting + ideas, and choosing courses of conduct; but we are free or not, according + to circumstances, both to think and to act. All things are free to be + active or not, in accordance with their properties and surrounding + conditions, but not in <!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page136"></a>{136}</span>contradiction to them; and the human will + is no exception to this statement. The "will" is only free within certain + limits; it cannot act in opposition to its strongest motives or causes of + action. We believe ourselves to be much more free than we are, because we + often do not know the causes which determine us, and we frequently fail + to detect those influences, because we cannot think, and at the same time + clearly observe our act of thought and its motives. Freedom of the will + does not enable us to set aside laws: entire freedom from law in any + instance is probably only apparent. This limited degree of freedom of the + will indicates the dependence of volition upon scientific laws, because a + supernatural power, being entirely independent of natural law, could not + be limited by it. To affirm without proof that the human will is a + "supernatural power" is to implicitly deny the universality and constancy + of natural laws. New knowledge developed by Science, imparts to us + liberty, but not license; and, so far from diminishing the freedom of the + will, increases it by showing us what conditions we must fulfil and obey + in order to effect our objects. We acquire power by being first obedient; + and this is in accordance with the principles and facts of science; we + must obey nature before we can make nature obey us; the elementary + bodies, also, usually acquire the free state, latent power, and the + ability to evolve heat and electric energy, only by being first subjected + in their crude state to a process of reduction and purification. <!-- + Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span></p> + + <p>Few circumstances connected with the discovery of new truths of + science, have had a greater moral effect, than the very high degree of + certainty of such truths. The moral result of this is a corresponding + degree of confidence in the statements of science. Trustworthiness is a + great moral quality. Uncertainty is a continual hindrance to action and + enjoyment; and many persons are driven to believe in error, and hence to + commit sin, rather than remain in suspense. Contradictions of doctrine, + and the consequent uncertainty of belief, in any subject, are fertile + sources of strife. Science consists, not merely of opinions and words, + but also of the tangible realities which those opinions and words + represent, the forces, substances and phenomena of the material Universe. + Some persons however fancy that the results of science are as uncertain + as those of the undemonstrable subjects with which they are familiar.</p> + + <p>Another way in which science has contributed to moral progress, has + been by requiring greater accuracy in nearly all human actions, and + thereby diffusing greater exactitude of language and of conduct, which + has spread itself throughout all civilised society. Previous to the use + of watches and clocks, persons were no doubt much less exact in + fulfilling their appointments; the establishment also in our chief towns, + of electric time-keepers regulated from Greenwich Observatory, is + increasing exactitude in our large communities. Since the introduction of + railways, millions of persons have been compelled to be more <!-- Page + 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>{138}</span>exact in + their movements, by the risk they incur of missing their train. Numerous + inventions and processes based upon scientific discoveries could not be + worked at all unless men possessed habits of greater accuracy than + formerly. Workmen now require higher moral and intellectual education, + and their duties require more intelligence and involve greater + responsibility.</p> + + <p>Science diminishes error, and the avoidance of error is a large step + towards the attainment of truth. There is no tyranny equal to that of + false ideas. Error often produces immoral acts, and every act of + immorality is a mental error. "The ignorant justice-loving man, enamoured + of the right, is blinded by the speciousness of wrong." "Inaccuracy of + thought is the cause not only of the errors we meet with in the sciences, + but also of the majority of the offences which are committed in civil + life,—of unjust quarrels, unfounded law suits, rash counsel, and + ill-arranged undertakings. There are few of those which have not their + origin in some error, and in some fault of judgment, so that there is no + defect which it more concerns us to correct."<a name="NtA17" + href="#Nt17"><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Our senses and consciousness are often great deceivers, and unless + corrected by sufficient knowledge, are frequently as great a source of + error in moral questions as in mental ones.<a name="NtA18" + href="#Nt18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> Their incessant influence is a cause of + selfishness, and of the fallacious tendency existing in nearly every man, + to exaggerate the importance of himself and of everything relating to + him. <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page139"></a>{139}</span>It has led man to consider himself "the + Lord of Creation";—to believe that his volitions are not subject to + natural laws &c.:—and has given rise to the comparatively + narrow-minded idea "the study of mankind is man." The fact that + consciousness frequently misleads men of energetic temperament who feel + their energy, indicates its connection with a physical basis.</p> + + <p>Consciousness is also an essential condition of what we term evil. If + we define evil as that which produces pain or discomfort in sentient + creatures, then evil is that influence only which unpleasantly affects + consciousness. And if we admit this, then all evil is relative, and there + is no absolute evil; because, if there were no sentient creatures, there + would be no evil. It is manifest also, that if the existence of evil is + dependent upon that of sentient creatures, and if the existence of such + creatures depends upon physical conditions, and upon the operations of + the great principles of science, then the existence of evil must itself + depend to that extent upon those conditions and principles. What we term + Evil, is caused, not only by the actions of man, but also on a large + scale by the operation of the simplest forces of matter, in earth-quakes, + storms, volcanic outbursts, droughts and famines, pestilences, etc. Evil + (as well as good) may therefore be viewed as a result, to some extent, of + the operation of the laws of the Universe; and here again we are + compelled to recognise a scientific basis of morality. <!-- Page 140 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>{140}</span></p> + + <p>That the same causes, acting under different conditions, produce + different and even opposite effects, is a well-known scientific truth. + The same heat of summer which causes our foods to decay, promotes the + growth of plants in the soil; the same cold of winter which increases the + pain of bronchial affections, and cuts short the lives of aged and infirm + persons, acts as a stimulant and a source of pleasure to the young and + healthy. We need not therefore be surprised, that the same physical + conditions and principles of nature, act as causes or conditions both of + what we term evil and what we term good. If, also the theory of + relativity in physical and mental action is true, that change of + impression is a necessary cause or condition of consciousness, and that + previous experience of pain increases the perception of pleasure, we + possess in that theory, as one of the general ideas of science, a partial + basis of morality. All these remarks tend to shew, that in order to + obtain a truly scientific view of the nature of man, and of man's + position and duties in the Universe, we must avoid the errors caused by + uncorrected consciousness.</p> + + <p>Another great moral effect of the continual discovery of new truth in + science, is the gradual production and diffusion of uniformity of belief, + first amongst scientific men, and then amongst the mass of mankind. This + uniformity of belief is a necessary result of the invariability of fact + and law; it does not extend to scientific opinions, hypotheses or + theories, because they are not necessarily facts, and may be <!-- Page + 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span>erroneous. + A knowledge of science tends to remove differences of opinion between man + and man, because it enables every honest examiner to obtain essentially + similar results. Scientific research will gradually disclose what is true + and what is untrue in doctrine and empirical rules; and what is true will + be retained. A universal religion or a scientific philosophy which is + composed of contradictory creeds cannot be wholly true. Science is + gradually superseding unreasonable beliefs, and inaugurating a true + universal gospel in which all men will eventually think alike in + fundamental matters. The continued discovery of new truth must of + necessity sooner or later lead mankind to the source of all truth and to + universal satisfaction and happiness. It has been frequently stated that + science is antagonistic to religion; it is evident however that as + science is so conducive to morality, it cannot be opposed to true + religion, but only to false or unfounded beliefs. Nothing shews more + plainly a weakness of moral confidence and a deficiency of faith in an + over-ruling power, than a fear that the pursuit of scientific truth will + lead to results injurious to mankind. What we most need to fear is, not + that our most cherished doctrinal beliefs may be proved to be mistakes, + but that we through deficiency of knowledge may be led to do wrong.</p> + + <p>There are plenty of questions, especially in matters of theory and + doctrine in concrete subjects, which science cannot directly and + absolutely decide either one way or the other, but respecting which, by + the <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page142"></a>{142}</span>aid of new knowledge and of inference + based upon it, science gradually accumulates so large a preponderence of + evidence as conclusively settles them to the conviction of every + unprejudiced and reasonable person. Many of the most deeply interesting + questions in mental science and morality are of this kind; and will + probably be settled in this manner. It is well-known also to scientific + men that the indirect conclusions of the intellect and reasoning power + are often more certain than the direct evidence of the senses and + consciousness; we are more certain for instance that the Earth is a + sphere than that it is a plane, although the former conclusion is arrived + at largely by inference, whilst the latter is the direct testimony of + uneducated consciousness. Whilst our senses and consciousness inform us + that the Earth is a fixed body, inference proves to us that it is rushing + through space at an immense velocity. Sense and consciousness are not + intellect, although they are often treated as such. Their functions are + to perceive and observe, to act as witnesses, to supply evidence to the + judgment, and not to usurp the reasoning power. Even the universal + consciousness of all mankind is insufficient to overthrow the final + decisions of the intellect, or to decide what is true or false, because + the senses and consciousness cannot compare or infer. As it is the force + and repitition, and not the truthfulness of mental impressions, which + largely determines belief, we are capable of believing error as well as + truth, and we believe much that is erroneous until the <!-- Page 143 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>{143}</span>corrections of + the intellect are applied to the evidence of the senses and feelings. The + correctness or otherwise of our present beliefs will be tested in the + future as others have been in the past, and the new experiences requisite + for the purpose will probably be obtained by means of original research. + It is a great mistake to suppose that the warrantable inferences deduced + from scientific knowledge will not sooner or later profoundly influence + questions relating to the highest hopes and aspirations of the human + race, such as the independent existence and immortality of the human + soul; that of a personal Ruler of the Universe; freedom of the will; the + origin of evil; future reward and punishment; &c. By extension of + knowledge a scientific system of morality will be formed. The great + principles which govern the phenomena of all bodies are gradually being + discovered, and when found we deductively apply them to ourselves, and + thus arrive at a knowledge of our true position in nature, our duties, + our proper course of conduct, &c. Science also by disclosing to us + the true relations of matter to mind in the human brain, will probably + not only make known to us the true limits of our mental powers and of the + knowable, but also help to solve the problems of the relations of the + Universe and of Man to an intelligent Creator. It will decide such + questions, largely by shewing us whether or not the ideas we entertain + respecting them are consistent with the more extensive knowledge evolved + by research. A part of the data from which we may <!-- Page 144 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>{144}</span>safely predict that + science will in the future exercise so great a moral influence over + mankind, is the fact that its chief principles are fundamental guides and + regulators of human action.</p> + + <p>Probably nothing has a greater effect in making a man humble and + reverent than a thorough knowledge of science. By the inventions of the + telescope, microscope, spectroscope, telegraph, microphone, telephone, + &c., the extremely finite extent of all our faculties has been + abundantly demonstrated. Whilst the wonders of the telescope have + developed an intelligent sentiment of reverence, by revealing to us a + portion of the vast amount of the Universe of matter and energy, those of + the microscope have strengthened that sentiment by affording us an + insight into the almost endless complexity of minute creatures, + substances and actions. Whilst also these and other scientific + instruments and appliances have proved the excessively limited extent of + our senses; the inscrutable character and immense number and variety of + problems of nature yet unsolved, equally demonstrate the extreme + feebleness of our mental powers. To obtain an accurate acquaintance with + science also, and especially to discover new scientific truths, it is + absolutely necessary to set aside human pride, and approach the subject + like a little child; no other course is possible.</p> + + <p>A knowledge of geology and astronomy also makes a man humble and + reverent. The fact that this globe must have existed myriads of years; + and is always moving at the immense velocity of more than 62,000 <!-- + Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>{145}</span>miles + an hour in its orbit, is sufficient to convince any unprejudiced person + of his own transient physical existence and his comparative physical + feebleness and insignificance. Hitherto, man has largely been accustomed, + through the influence of uncorrected impressions and other causes, to + view all nature as having been expressly provided for him, but science + informs us that whilst this Earth is suitable for his abode, and Nature + ministers to his necessities and pleasures, it is only on condition that + he first obeys the great laws of matter and energy, and adapts himself to + their requirements. The operation of those laws often ruthlessly destroys + thousands of men by pestilence, famine, drought, and other great + calamities, and man can do nothing which is incompatible with them + without suffering a penalty. Science shews that man is but one out of at + least 320,000 different species of animals; it also discloses the fact + that the entire human population of this globe constitute only about one + 50,575,785 millionth part of the Earth, and proves to us that the Earth + itself is but a speck in the Universe, one out of at least 75 millions of + worlds; and that not only is it merely a planet revolving round the Sun, + but that the Sun is only one of a multitude of Suns, and is itself, with + all its planets, revolving round a still more distant centre in + space.</p> + + <p>There is scarcely a faculty man possesses, which is not immeasurably + limited in comparison with the powers and capabilities of inanimate + nature. His physical energy, when compared with that of the <!-- Page 146 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>{146}</span>momentum of + this Earth, is so exceedingly small that it can hardly be conveyed to our + minds by means of figures; even the steam engine, excessively wasteful as + it is of power, far surpasses him in strength. The duration of his + existence is to that of the world he inhabits, as nothing to infinity. + His power and speed of locomotion are also very limited; the globe to + which he is fixed by gravity, moves in one hour through a distance + greater than he could walk in twenty years. Practically, by + circumstances, he is almost rooted like a vegetable to the locality where + he exists; comparatively few men have walked even a hundred miles from + their homes, or have been conveyed round this little globe by the aid of + all our improved means of transport. A balloon can ascend in the air, but + a man cannot; without the aid of that apparatus he is absolutely fixed to + the surface of the Earth, and with the assistance of all the appliances + of science, he cannot yet ascend even ten miles into the atmosphere, nor + dive more than a few fathoms into the sea. His senses are equally + contracted; his perceptions of touch and sound are far less delicate than + that of the microphone; a photographic surface will detect vibrations of + light which he cannot at all perceive, and record images more quickly + than his brain; and for the detection of magnetism and the chemical rays + of light he possesses no sense whatever:—electrometers and + galvanometers can detect thousands of times smaller quantities of + electricity than he can perceive:—whilst a bolometer renders + manifest a one <!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page147"></a>{147}</span>hundred-thousandth of a Centigrade degree + change of temperature, he can hardly detect a difference of an entire + degree; and whilst carbon and platinum may be heated to whiteness without + material change, a rise or fall of about five Fahrenheit degrees in his + temperature endangers his life. His mental and intellectual powers are as + limited as his senses; he can hardly reckon without making an error even + a single million, nor can he conceive an adequate idea of a billion; a + million miles or a millionth of an inch are each quite beyond his + immediate perception; an extremely minute circumstance also is capable of + disturbing and entirely diverting his train of thought. He cannot create + or destroy even a particle of dust, nor form out of nothing a single + idea. The velocity of transmission of his nervous power, and the speed of + his execution of will, are also extremely slow in comparison with that of + an electric current in a copper wire. Every person is aware that he can + only very slowly receive and understand a new idea. His mental advance is + as tardy as his locomotion, a sixth part of his life is spent in + acquiring the merest rudiments of universal knowledge. Whilst his + reasoning power, when applied to actual and truthfully stated experience, + is truly "the great guide" of his life, it only renders explicit what was + already contained in that experience; for when he draws an inference, he + usually only states in one form of words, what he has already implicitly + included in the propositions; and if the inference contains more than + this it is <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148"></a>{148}</span>unwarranted. His mental helplessness in + the absence of knowledge, is equal to his physical incapacity in the + absence of light. Nearly every problem of nature also is so complex, and + affected by so many conditions, that his reasoning power only enables him + to advance a very minute step at a time in the discovery of new + knowledge; he is then obliged to halt, and have recourse to new + experiences obtained either by means of experiment and observation, or by + the latter alone.</p> + + <p>Man's moral actions are largely the effect of circumstances; his + thoughts and actions are probably the whole of them limited by law. He is + never free from the influence of causation. His mental and moral freedom + are limited by the epoch in which he lives, by the customs of his nation, + by the individuals by whom he is immediately surrounded, by the alcoholic + stimulants of which he partakes, and by his own physical and mental + constitution, his degree of intelligence, &c., &c. Whether he is + willing or not, he is incessantly compelled to receive sensuous and + mental impressions, and be influenced by an almost infinite number and + variety of agencies acting upon him both from within and + without:—To be mentally and physically active, and perform all the + bodily functions and acts necessary to his existence:—To live on + this globe in presence of all its phenomena, and be carried through space + at an immense velocity:—To undergo through a long series of + generations a progressive existence and development of civilization, + &c., &c. <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page149"></a>{149}</span>He is more subject to the laws of the + Universe than those laws are subject to him; and he can only exercise his + will successfully and become their master by first obeying them.</p> + + <p>Under the influence of the light and heat of the Sun, the entire + population of this planet (about fifteen hundred millions) are renewed + out of the crust of the Earth every few years, by breathing the air, + drinking the water, feeding upon plants which take their constituents + from the Earth, water and air; or by eating animals which have lived upon + plants; and if that heat and light, or that supply of food and air, were + to cease, all those human beings would die, and all the moral phenomena + of man on this globe would terminate. Whilst man cannot exist without the + support of inanimate nature and the operation of its laws, inanimate + nature and its laws can exist without him. That also which is naturally + ordained by Creative power to be dependent, cannot be essentially more + important than that upon which it depends for its existence. The + essential importance of man in relation to the Universe, exists only in + his own imagination.</p> + + <p>These facts shew that the principles of science, and the physical and + chemical properties of substances, lie at the very basis of man's + existence and activity and it would therefore be incorrect to say that + the physical system of the Universe is unimportant in comparison with the + moral phenomena of mankind.</p> + + <p>That science conduces to humanity by preventing <!-- Page 150 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>{150}</span>and alleviating animal + suffering has been already alluded to (p. <a href="#page80">80</a>-<a + href="#page81">81</a>). True humanity consists not in the abolition of + experiments upon living creatures, but in the judicious employment of + them. Instead of barbarously treating our suffering fellow creatures by + indolently and ignorantly allowing causes of disease and pain to + continually occur and take their course, it urgently enforces upon us the + duty of extending our knowledge of physiology by means of new + experiments, observations and study. It would be untruthful to say that + experiments purposely made upon men and other animals do not yield new + and valuable information;—Pharmacopœias and Materia-Medicæs + are full of descriptions of the properties of curative agents discovered + by these and other scientific methods.</p> + + <p>Amongst the lesser virtues which have been greatly promoted by means + of scientific research is that of cleanliness. The origin of soap was the + discovery of the detergent properties of a boiled mixture of fat and + alkali. The numerous inventions which have cheapened the most important + soap-producing material, viz., washing soda, and those which have + cheapened oil of vitriol, the chief substance consumed in making + washing-soda, have all contributed to the cleanliness of mankind; and it + has been stated that the degree of civilization of a nation might be + ascertained by the amounts consumed of those substances.</p> + + <p>Even the minor virtue of economy has been greatly promoted by the + results of scientific research. New <!-- Page 151 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page151"></a>{151}</span>scientific truth has + through inventions taught us how to obtain greater effects with less + expenditure of space, of time, of materials, and forces. It has enabled + us to effect our objects quicker and with a <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'dimunition'.">diminution</span> of waste. In the + sugar manufacture for example, by means of the centrifugal machine, the + sugar is deprived as perfectly of molasses in three minutes, as it was + previously in three days, and the necessary manufacturing apparatus has + been so much reduced in magnitude as not to require more than one half + the space. The process of bleaching linen, which formerly required weeks, + has by the discovery of chlorine been reduced to hours. Journeys which at + one time occupied weeks now only require days. Messages are now + transmitted in hours which formerly required months. Multitudes of + instances might be adduced of the diminished cost of the comforts and + conveniences of life, resulting in consequence of discovery of new + scientific knowledge. Ultramarine for example, which at one time cost + from ten to twenty pounds an ounce, has by means of chemical research + been reduced in price to a few pence per pound; phosphorus, which + formerly cost several guineas an ounce, now costs only as many pence.</p> + + <p>Numerous substances which were formerly thrown away, destroyed, or + neglected, are now utilized. Coal tar and gas-water, which were at one + time waste products in the making of gas, and which when thrown away were + the causes of costly litigation to gas-companies, by polluting streams + and wells, &c., <!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page152"></a>{152}</span>are now sources of very large income to + those companies. Those substances yield great quantities of salts of + ammonia, the beautiful aniline dyes, paraffin, benzene, napthaline, + alizarine, and other valuable products. Glycerine also, which formerly + was a most offensive waste product in soap-making, is now purified and + used, to an extent of twenty millions of pounds <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'anually'.">annually</span>, for a great number of + purposes; as an emollient for the skin; as a source of nitro-glycerine + and dynamite, used in blasting rocks, in warfare, &c. The immense + beds of native sulphide of iron also, notably those of Tharsis and Rio + Tinto in Spain, and of many other places, are now utilized, literally in + millions of tons, for the production of sulphur, copper, oxide of iron, + &c. A long list of instances of this class might be adduced if it + were necessary, some of them of very great importance.<a name="NtA19" + href="#Nt19"><sup>[19]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The promotion of morality by enabling us to detect crime, is one of + the smaller influences of scientific research, and may be referred to as + a set-off against the bad uses sometimes made of scientific knowledge. + The telegraph is very commonly employed to assist in tracking and + capturing criminals. Photography is also largely used in our <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'goals'.">gaols</span> as a + means of recognising offenders.</p> + + <p>Knowledge of science conduces also to self-discipline and + self-mastery, it tends to bridle our vicious passions by making known to + us the penalties which must be paid for their indulgence; it limits our + self-will by shewing us that we must respect and obey the <!-- Page 153 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"></a>{153}</span>laws of nature + whether we are willing or not, no man can improperly manipulate dangerous + substances or forces with impunity; it moderates our bigotry by + exhibiting to us the great uncertainty of unproved opinions; it restrains + undue credulity in men's assertions, by shewing us their frequent + fallacy; it gives us confidence in the laws of nature, by proving to us + their uniformity; it withdraws us from self-deception by compelling us to + accept the truths of nature as they exist ready made for us, whether they + harmonise with our preconceived ideas or not; men cannot argue with + nature, as they can with their fellow-men, but must submit to the + influence of verified truth. It supplies us with principles instead of + empirical "rule of thumb" methods as guides of morality. Whilst it + liberates us from the terror of irrational fears, it cautions us against + entertaining unreasonable hopes. It substitutes for ignorant wonder and + awe, an intelligent appreciation of created things; and when fully + developed it will probably satisfy all the reasonable instincts and + desires of men.</p> + + <p>Whilst law, medicine and divinity, direct man's attention almost + exclusively to matters concerning himself, and thus tend to limit his + sphere of perception and knowledge, and unconsciously impress him with + the idea that all other existences are less important than himself, + science not only enlightens him respecting all the departments of his own + nature, but extends his mental vision in all directions by exciting his + mind to observe and reflect upon all other bodies <!-- Page 154 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>{154}</span>and actions throughout + the Universe. Whilst also music, painting, sculpture, poetry and the + drama, afford excitement and pleasure to his senses, feelings and + sentiments, and are largely personal; science not only constitutes the + basis of those arts, but shews the relations of them to Man and to the + external Universe, and thus more largely cultivates the intellect and + corrects and refines the senses, feelings and sentiments.</p> + + <p>New scientific knowledge affords advantages to all classes of men; to + the minister of religion, by supplying him with new illustrations of + Creative power, in the greatness, smallness, and vast variety of nature; + to the physician, by explaining to him more perfectly the structure and + phenomena of the human body, and by providing him with new remedies; to + the statesman and politician, by making known to him the great and + increasing relations of science to national progress, by its influence + upon wages, capital, the employment of workmen, the art of war, the means + of communication with foreign countries, &c.; to the philanthropist, + as an endless source of employment for poor persons, by the development + of new discoveries, inventions, and improvements in arts and + manufactories; to the military man, by affording him new engines and + materials for warfare and defence; to the inventor, by supplying him with + new discoveries upon which to found inventions; to the merchant and man + of trade, by the influence of new products and processes upon the prices + of his commodities; to the manufacturer, as a means of improving his + materials, <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page155"></a>{155}</span>apparatus, and processes; and to the + investor of money, by assisting him to judge what new technical schemes + are likely to succeed.</p> + + <p>As the domain of rational enjoyment afforded by means of science + gradually enlarges, that derivable from less intellectual sources will + probably be modified; indeed this change is already progressing, and is + manifested in the alterations occurring in theological views, and in the + extensive adoption of scientific entertainments by religious bodies. The + recognition of science by professors of religion is also shewn by the + already extensive use of railways on Sundays as a means of conveyance to + churches and chapels; also by the publication by the Society for + Promoting Christian Knowledge, of Manuals of Electricity, Astronomy, + Botany, Chemistry, Crystallography, Geology, Physiology, Zoology, Matter + and Motion, the Spectroscope, &c.</p> + + <p>Having shewn some of the chief modes in which new scientific truth is + a basis of mental and moral progress, it is not necessary to say much + respecting the evil uses sometimes made of science, because every good + thing is liable to be abused by ignorant or ill-intentioned persons. The + abuses of scientific knowledge do not arise from the true spirit of + research, viz., a desire for new knowledge on account of its intrinsic + goodness and value to man, but from an absence of that sentiment. The + Bremerhaven explosion, the assassination of the Czar, the uses of + photography to forge letters of credit, and of the <!-- Page 156 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>{156}</span>telegraph in swindling + operations, the employment of electro-gilding and silvering in coining + base money, &c., &c., are all attributable to motives other than + a love of science.</p> + + <p>All the facts mentioned in this chapter, and the various points of + essential similarity between physical, physiological, and mental + phenomena, justify the conclusion that both moral and other mental + actions, like physical and chemical ones, are obedient to the great + principles of science. And from the evidence here adduced and alluded to, + it is certain that those principles influence human progress, not only in + a few conspicuous direct ways, but in a multitude of varied, deep-seated, + and indirect ones.</p> + + <p>If the statements made in this Chapter are true, that the innate + properties of matter really are motive powers of the human organism, and + the principles of science are regulators of mental and moral action; that + Man is a feeble epitome of the principles and powers of inorganic matter; + that the laws of Nature operate in utter disregard of his erroneous + beliefs; that nearly all man's sins and sufferings are traceable to his + ignorance and limited powers; that in proportion to his ignorance of + science so is he unable to foresee the more remote consequences of his + thoughts and acts; and if new knowledge does correct erroneous beliefs + and purify human thought and action, it behoves teachers of morality to + make themselves adequately acquainted with the principles and newest + developments of science.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"></a>{157}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<h3><span class="sc">New Truth, and its General Relation to Human Progress.</span></h3> + + <p>The great source of the success of applying science to trade, and of + the beneficent effect of science upon human welfare in general, is simply + the influence of demonstrable truth. We know that if we have once + discovered all the principles, laws, and conditions of some scientific + phenomenon, or of some improved process or result in a manufacture, the + reproduction of exactly the same conditions will hereafter enable us to + invariably produce the same result. In this respect science differs from + dogma, the truth or falsity of which cannot be demonstrated; it also + differs from empiricism, because when empirically working a process we + are ignorant of the principles or laws which are operating, whilst with a + scientific knowledge we understand those laws, and can direct them to our + particular purposes. In the process of electro-plating for example, we + understand the laws of the phenomena, and can direct them so as to obtain + silver of a hard or soft quality, brittle or tough, crystalline silver, + &c., according to our wish; but if we had only an empirical knowledge + of the subject we could not thus vary the process. <!-- Page 158 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page158"></a>{158}</span></p> + + <p>The highest test of truth is verified prediction; if we calculate + beforehand that an eclipse of the Sun will occur at a certain hour and + minute, and that eclipse occurs accurately at the predicted moment, we + may rest assured that our knowledge upon that point is true and complete. + If we say that a piece of clean iron, immersed in a solution of blue + vitriol, will become covered with a layer of metallic copper, and we find + upon trial that this result invariably occurs when we fulfil those + conditions, we may be certain that our knowledge of this phenomenon and + its conditions is also of a definite and certain character. Similarly, + when we become able to predict with certainty the conditions of the Sun's + surface, we shall probably also be able to predict severe winters, + famines, &c., and therefore be prepared to suggest precautions to be + taken against them. Even now the new truth necessary for this purpose is + beginning to be evolved by means of scientific research.<a name="NtA20" + href="#Nt20"><sup>[20]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Amongst the great axioms and principles of science, possessing great + certainty, and which enable us to predict, are, <i>1st.</i> the general + truth known as the Principle of Causation, that every effect has a cause; + that the same cause, acting under the same <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'conitions'.">conditions</span>, always produces + the same effect; and that causation acts through all time and all + space:—<i>2nd.</i> the great truth, that every phenomenon <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'requiries'.">requires</span> + time; and every substance occupies space:—<i>3rd.</i> the + Principles of Conservation and Persistency of Matter <!-- Page 159 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page159"></a>{159}</span>and Energy; + that out of nothing, nothing comes; and out of everything, everything + proceeds; that all the future states of the Universe are implicitly + contained in and will be evolved out of the present state of the + Universe; that we have no experience and possess no verified knowledge + either of creation or annihilation of Matter or Energy; that we cannot + absolutely create or destroy even an idea;<a name="NtA21" + href="#Nt21"><sup>[21]</sup></a> and that Matter and Energy appear to be + eternal:—<i>4th.</i> the Principle of Convertibility and + Equivalency of the different forms of Energy, according to which the + various forces known as mechanical power, heat, light, electricity, + magnetism, chemical action, &c., being modes of motion, are + convertible into each other in equivalent quantities and without addition + or loss. These and other great principles constitute the basis of + physical and chemical science, by obeying which, we have been enabled to + evolve all the wonderful practical realities of science of the present + day.<a name="NtA22" href="#Nt22"><sup>[22]</sup></a> To these great + principles may be added the more concrete truth called the "Law of + Progress," the essential idea of which is time, a time-rate; which + regulates the speed of increase of civilization, and is evidently + connected with the great truth that every phenomenon occupies time.</p> + + <p>The Principle of Gravitation, demonstrated by Newton, explains a vast + number of facts relating to the motions of the Heavenly bodies:—the + <!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page160"></a>{160}</span>Undulatory Theory of Light, largely + developed by the labours of Fresnel, renders equally clear and systematic + an almost endless number and variety of optical phenomena; Oersted's law + of Electro-magnetism similarly explains and renders consistent a + multitude of facts respecting the movements of magnets and electric + conductors, which would otherwise be confusing to remember and impossible + to satisfactorily explain. And the great mental value of these + comprehensive ideas to mankind, consists largely in relieving the memory + and diminishing mental confusion, by co-ordinating a large number of + different facts and apparently inconsistent phenomena by means of a + general conception which embraces the whole of them. Thus a knowledge of + the Principle of Gravitation informs us that both the ascent of a balloon + in the air, and the descent of a stone in water, are alike due to the + same force of gravity; and that of Chemical Affinity proves to us that + the apparently unlike phenomena of slow rusting of iron and vivid + combustion of phosphorus are essentially alike and due to the same + cause.</p> + + <p>All bodies, whether living or dead, and all forms of energy, appear to + be absolutely subject to the great laws of Causation, Progress, + Conservation, &c., no one can escape them; the man who transgresses + the Law of Progress by being too much in advance of his epoch, is + punished as certainly as he who lags behind it; all must advance + together, and at approximately the prescribed rates. <!-- Page 161 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161"></a>{161}</span></p> + + <p>The real source of all that is good in new scientific knowledge arises + from its verified and verifiable character, its high degree of certainty, + and its capacity of withstanding all the tests which can be applied to + it. By the term "scientific knowledge" in this case I mean that only that + which has been verified, and I purposely exclude all matters of + hypothesis, mere opinion or belief. Scientific research is the chief + basis of national progress, not only because it is continually disclosing + new truths to us, but also because the truths it reveals are frequently + of the most definite kind.</p> + + <p>As the term "verified truth" may appear vague, the questions may well + be asked, what is truth? And how may we best detect it? And especially + what is new truth? and how may it best be recognised? Truth may be + conveniently defined as universal consistency; or that which perfectly + conforms to facts, and agrees with the widest experience, when tested by + means of all our intellectual powers, the reasoning faculty in + particular. The usual modern criterion of it, is consistency with the + fundamental axioms of logic, and with all the great principles of nature + as established by means of scientific research, such as the universality + of causation, the continuity of phenomena, the indestructibility of + matter and energy, the convertibility and equivalency of forces, &c. + All truth whatever is one in character by possessing the inseparable + attribute of complete consistency. The truthfulness of scientific + knowledge is proved by its agreement with universal experience and with + the <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page162"></a>{162}</span>fundamental logical axioms:—a thing + either is or is not:—a thing cannot both be and not be:—a + thing must either be or not be:—things equal to the same are equal + to each other; &c. It is chiefly by means of knowledge of these + axioms and of the above principles of science, and of their varied and + numerous modes of operation and application, that the man of science + "explains" the multitudinous phenomena of nature, predicts future events, + and is enabled to discover new truths and develope new inventions in the + arts. Unlike other persons; when he sees a new effect, or hears of a new + phenomenon, he at once refers it to these principles, in order to test + its correctness or to explain it.</p> + + <p>With regard to the detection of truth, that is often a difficult and + complex process. There exists no royal or easy method; usually it can + only be recognised by means of laborious and critical examination of the + whole of the evidence obtainable in the case; and even then we are often + obliged to be satisfied with only an approximation, or it may be with + even a mere probability. Frequently also the truthfulness or otherwise of + a statement cannot be decided in any degree in consequence of the absence + of suitable or sufficient evidence, and for that we may have to wait for + ages. We are now waiting for evidence necessary to decide many questions + respecting the human mind.</p> + + <p>With regard to the question, what is new truth?; that also is a + difficult one to solve. The forms in which different truths appear are so + various, and those <!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page163"></a>{163}</span>also in which even the same truth may shew + itself are so diverse, that it is often impossible to discriminate new + truth from old ideas clothed in a new form of words. The newness of an + idea is entirely a question of evidence, and to determine it, usually + requires a complete knowledge of all the circumstances affecting the + particular case.</p> + + <p>New truth appears to be usually derived from new physical or mental + experiences of phenomena external to our perceiving faculty; either by + observing matter or its forces under new conditions or from a new aspect; + and the knowledge comes to us either through the avenues of our feelings + and senses, or by means of direct observations, by comparison of such + impressions, or by inferences drawn from them. From the results of such + mental operations, additional new truths are evolved by the more complex + process of analysis, combination and permutation of ideas. New truths are + also evolved from old ones by each of these latter methods; but sooner or + later the implicit contents of our stock of old knowledge becomes + exhausted when used for such a purpose, and we are then obliged to seek + new experience.</p> + + <p>As new truths may be acquired in the more direct manner, by + acquisition of new experience; and less directly, by mental operations + upon old ideas, other subjects of less fundamental and more concrete + nature than the simple sciences, such as sociology, &c., are also + sources of progress, when treated in these ways. <!-- Page 164 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page164"></a>{164}</span></p> + + <p>Of all subjects, the simple sciences of physics and chemistry, are at + the present time, apparently making the most rapid advance, and the chief + reasons for this probably are, <i>1st.</i> they treat of facts and + principles which can be verified, and <i>2nd.</i> because the more + complex sciences, together with the arts and manufactures based upon + them, can only improve in proportion as they are developed. All the + essentially human subjects, such as sociology, politics, morality, + religious worship, &c., are in this position, and are probably + results partly of the operation of the great principles of nature acting + through the body and mind of man.</p> + + <p>The chief method of discovering new truth is that of observation, + experiment, and study, and further mental treatment of the results. The + most systematic methods also of evolving new truths are those employed by + scientific men in making discoveries, and when any person arrives at a + new idea, he usually (either consciously or unconsciously) employs + them.</p> + + <p>The acquisition of new knowledge must of necessity precede its + diffusion. Immediately a new truth, especially an important one, is + discovered, its influence begins to permeate the existing mass of + knowledge in various directions, causing us to view many of our old ideas + in a new aspect; giving rise also by comparison and inference, and by + processes of combination, permutation and analysis of ideas, to a + multitude of other new truths, usually less important ones, which + themselves also affect previous knowledge in similar ways, <!-- Page 165 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page165"></a>{165}</span>and by + analogous treatment give rise to additional new conceptions.</p> + + <p>But although we evolve truthful new conceptions from previous ones by + these purely mental methods, there is a limit to the number capable of + being evolved from a limited stock of ideas, because the number of + combinations and permutations of such a stock, though usually large, are + themselves limited. The number however is large in proportion to the + degree of essential importance of the ideas, and is greatest when we + employ those of the fundamental principles of nature, already referred + to; for instance a greater number of new ideas have been evolved by means + of appropriate mental processes from the law of gravitation and from that + of electro-magnetism than from any minor truth in science. Persons + therefore who are the least familiar with great demonstrable principles + are usually the least able to conceive new truthful ideas of intrinsic + importance, or to draw new verifiable inferences of much theoretical + value.</p> + + <p>Every inventor and student knows that he continually requires new + materials of thought, and if he does not obtain them, an obstacle, like a + wall of adamant, rises before his mind in all directions, and prevents + his forming new ideas. That also which is true of each individual is true + of the collection of individuals, mankind; if new truths are not + obtained, the thoughts of men flow in circles, and mental progress + ceases. The mental characteristics of sequestered communities in remote + isolated districts, are examples of this <!-- Page 166 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page166"></a>{166}</span>fact. The influence of + printing, railways, telegraphs, postal communication and other scientific + developments, in aiding mental progress, afford other illustrations. A + multitude of facts of this kind, and many others, leads us to the + conclusion that each new idea requires a cause to produce it, and that + human knowledge is subject to the great law of causation; also that the + creation of an idea out of nothing would be a miracle, a phenomenon + without a cause. Our present knowledge was not created by us, but was + originated by previous knowledge and experience, including of course + inherited impressions. Even in what is termed the "noblest effort of the + mind," an act of reasoning or inference, we do not create an idea, but + only render explicit in a new form of words, ideas already implicitly + contained in the words of the propositions employed, as may easily be + rendered manifest by mechanical means in Jevons's "Logical Machine;" a + proper inference never contains more than its data. In the so-called + "creation" of ideas by the imagination also, the new ideas are evolved + from old ones, and rendered explicit by mental processes of analysis, + combination, permutation, &c. Our scientific inventions also, being + mental conceptions, an unlimited number of them cannot be made by means + of a limited stock of old knowledge. It was in consequence of this limit, + viz., the impossibility of actually creating ideas out of nothing, that + human knowledge was not more advanced by metaphysical speculations until + science with its experiments and <!-- Page 167 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page167"></a>{167}</span>observations came to + its assistance. These various facts prove the statement made in the + Preface of this book, that present knowledge only enables mankind to + maintain its present state.</p> + + <p>Not only the mental, but also the physical advance of mankind is + essentially dependent upon the discovery of new truths. Men's physical + actions are determined not alone by their inherited and acquired + tendencies and the influence of external nature upon them, but also by + their ideas; as a man thinks, so also to a large extent does he act. + Nations who do not adopt new ideas do not either mentally or physically + advance, but change only so far as their immediate surroundings change; + the Chinese are a remarkable example of this; even the tendencies which + men inherit, were largely produced in their ancestors by the influence of + ideas. The great fact of the essential dependence of human progress upon + new knowledge, is a truth, the importance of which to man cannot be + over-estimated, and is one which statesmen, ministers of religion, and + philanthropists should seriously study.</p> + + <p>Much of the apparent advance of this nation however is not real. The + great bulk of our newly published knowledge, even that which is + scientific, and considered by the public to be new, consists, not of new + truths, but of old ones dressed in new forms of expression:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"The tale repeated o'er and o'er,</p> + <p>With change of place and change of name.</p> + <p>Disguised, transformed, and yet the same</p> + <p>We've heard a hundred times before."—<i>Longfellow.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"></a>{168}</span></p> + + <p>It falls to the lot of but comparatively few men to discover or evolve + important new truths. The great majority of learned men also, have + through all historic time been occupied, and are still, not in evolving + new ideas, but in re-expressing old ones in different forms of words; the + literary spirit, is in civilised nations, almost universal. In ordinary + writings it is a rare circumstance to meet with an important and really + new idea; it is usually in books written by men who are acquainted or + imbued with the great principles and truths of science, that the newest + demonstrable ideas are most frequently found. The difference between + evolving new ideas, and re-expressing and permutating old ones; largely + characterises the dissimilarity of the scientific and the literary and + theological minds. All however are necessary to the welfare of mankind, + the former to advance and the other to maintain the condition of man. If + all were not necessary they would probably not exist.</p> + + <p>There are two great artificial divisions of scientific knowledge also, + upon the development of which national progress largely depends, viz., + knowledge of inanimate matter and knowledge of man; the latter we have + largely cultivated but the former we have greatly neglected:—and + even our study of man has been largely one-sided and literary. It is far + less important to know what is man, than to know what are the great + principles which underlie the actions of all living creatures, and in + obedience to which man is compelled to work out his destiny in the + Universe and the infinite future. <!-- Page 169 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page169"></a>{169}</span></p> + + <p>It is evident from this, that much of the mental activity around us is + not progress, but rather a process of maintaining present state, a + prevention of decline, a continually going round and round in + conventional varied step, a kind of intellectual mill. Under these + circumstances it is not the original discoverer, but he who in this + occupation, can best express old ideas, in the most varied forms and + choicest language, who is most generally considered to be the greatest + intellectual chief.</p> + + <p>Although originality even in literature and art is very imperfectly + encouraged in this country, both art and literature are much more readily + understood and appreciated than scientific research, and treated as if + they were more important. Whilst most persons can understand and + appreciate the gift of a work of art to a public art collection, few can + understand or properly value the discovery and gift of a new scientific + truth of far greater intrinsic value to the public stock of knowledge; + the treatment received by Priestley and other discoverers in comparison + with that of local donors, sufficiently illustrates this. Even publishers + of lucrative newspapers prefer to give prizes and pay liberally for + sensational tales, than to pay for articles on the public advantages of + new scientific knowledge.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"></a>{170}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<h3>———</h3> + +<h3><span class="sc">The Promotion of Scientific Research.</span></h3> + + <p>Nearly the whole of the most distinguished mathematicians, physicists, + chemists, biologists, and physiologists of Great Britain, also the Earl + of Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, Sir Stafford Northcote and many other + eminent men, have given evidence before the Royal Commissioners on + "Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science"<a name="NtA23" + href="#Nt23"><sup>[23]</sup></a> to the following + effect:—<i>1st.</i> That the promotion of original scientific + research is neglected in this country. <i>2nd.</i> That such research is + encouraged more by the State in Germany than here. And <i>3rd</i>. That + much greater encouragement of it by our Government, by the Universities + and the Public, is highly necessary to our commercial prosperity. They + have also stated in evidence their opinions as to the best ways in which + they consider it may be assisted. The additional fact that all the + greatest scientific men who have ever existed have pursued research, and + sacrificed much for it, is a practical proof that they also approved of + its encouragement.</p> + + <p>That research should be promoted is further the opinion of many men + learned in politics, literature, art, and science. The views expressed in + numerous letters on the subject, received by me from Members <!-- Page + 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page171"></a>{171}</span>of the + Privy Council, and of both Houses of Parliament, and from other eminent + persons, confirm this. It has also been adopted as a chief part of the + programme of the "Association for the Organization of Academical + Study."<a name="NtA24" href="#Nt24"><sup>[24]</sup></a></p> + + <p>"M. de Candolle, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Science, + Paris, is a strong advocate for the encouragement of a class of + sinecurists like the non-working Fellows of our Colleges, who should have + leisure to investigate and not be pestered by the petty mechanical work + of continued teaching and examining." "The modern ideas of democracy are + adverse to places to which definite work is not attached, and from which + definite results do not flow. This principle is a wise one for the mass + of mankind; but is utterly misplaced when applied to those who have the + zeal for investigation, and who work best when left quite alone."</p> + + <p>The correctness of the principle of promoting research is also + recognised by our Governments in their yearly grants of money to the + Royal Society, and to the Royal Irish Academy<a name="NtA25" + href="#Nt25"><sup>[25]</sup></a> to aid research, also by the Council of + the Chemical Society, which has established a fund for the same purpose; + and by the British Association in their annual grants for the promotion + of scientific enquiry. The Fishmonger's Company also presented to Mr. W. + R. Parker, F.R.S., the sum of £50, followed by an annual gift of £20 for + <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page172"></a>{172}</span>the three years, to assist him in bearing + the expenses of his researches on the skulls of vertebrate animals. And + the British Pharmaceutical Conference voted the sum of £80 from the Bell + and Hills fund, during the period of three years, in aid of research in + connection with pharmaceutical science. A small fund for the purpose of + research exists also at the Royal Institution. Fellowships also with a + similar object have been founded at the Victoria University. Dr. + Priestley also was aided in his researches by contributions from a small + circle of friends. In recognition of the same principle, nearly all of + the most eminent scientific men on the Continent have been assisted by + their respective Governments. The total amount of aid to research in this + country is however very small, and to one acquainted with the great + commercial and other any valuable results of such labour, it is simply + astounding that we have not systematically organized a powerful means of + promoting discovery.</p> + + <p>A few scientific persons however still continue to oppose aid to + research; quite recently, scientific investigators have been spoken of as + a class of "men amusing themselves without any result whatever."<a + name="NtA26" href="#Nt26"><sup>[26]</sup></a> That idea however + abundantly refuted in the foregoing pages. It has also been remarked<a + name="NtA27" href="#Nt27"><sup>[27]</sup></a> that "practically, + endowment of research comes to the creation of positions where there is + payment without corresponding labour." "In England above all countries in + the world, there will always be plenty of <!-- Page 173 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page173"></a>{173}</span>amateurs ready and + willing to assist in research, and it is notorious that in England, + almost without exception, all the great advances in science have been + made by such amateurs. Therefore I do not think it at all desirable that + the British tax-payer should be required to put his hand in his pocket to + provide salaries for gentlemen who might be working rightly or wrongly. + He could not control them, and while there are such a body of amateurs in + the country, I think the researches may be very well left to them."</p> + + <p>The first of these statements is not correct; the endowment of + research does not amount to "payment without corresponding labour." + Scientific discoverers have always been distinguished as a body of men + intensely devoted to their labours, and willing to perform much work for + small payment. Most of the great advances in science also in England, + have been made not by "amateurs," but by men of great experience, such as + Newton, Herschel, Priestley, Davy, Faraday, Graham, and many others. + Endowment of research is not desired for wealthy amateurs, but for + investigators of proved ability and small pecuniary means and who require + assistance. Such men, although not infallible, are the least likely to + "work wrongly," and much less likely to do so than amateurs. Many + scientific investigators also of repute, object to give their services + wholly to a wealthy nation, because they cannot afford to do so, and + because it is only just that the nation should make them some pecuniary + return for their skill and labour. The great evils <!-- Page 174 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page174"></a>{174}</span>in this country + requiring new knowledge to remedy them<a name="NtA28" + href="#Nt28"><sup>[28]</sup></a> also prove that there are not "plenty of + amateurs ready and willing to assist in research here," or that "the + researches may be very well left to them."</p> + + <p>Whilst some investigators have had abundant means to carry on + research, and have excelled in that occupation, many of the most eminent + have been persons of limited circumstances; and their insufficient + pecuniary means has often restricted their degree of success. The + argument also that insufficiency of means stimulates research, is only + employed by persons who are not making investigations under such a + condition.</p> + + <p>The President of the Royal Society, Dr. Spottiswoode, in his recent + address<a name="NtA29" href="#Nt29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> also + remarked:—"The question has been raised whether it be wise, even in + the interests of science, to encourage any one not yet of independent + income, to interrupt the main business of his life. It is too often + assumed that a profession or a business may be worked at half speed, or + may be laid down and taken up again, whenever we like. But this is not + so, and a profession temporarily, or even partially laid aside, may prove + irrecoverable, and the temptation to diverge from the dull and laborious + path of business may prove to have been a snare." Each of these remarks + appears to be made upon the assumption that it is still a doubtful + question whether persons qualified for research should be encouraged or + not to abandon occupations they reluctantly follow, and for which they + are less fitted, in order to become scientific <!-- Page 175 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page175"></a>{175}</span>discoverers. As it is a + fact that the welfare of this country is suffering through deficiency of + encouragement of research, it is certainly desirable to encourage, by + every proper means, qualified persons to occupy themselves in such + labour. Some of the greatest discoveries have been made by men "not yet + of independent income," for instance, those made by Scheele, Priestley, + Dalton, Faraday, W. Herschel, and many others.</p> + + <p>The late Astronomer Royal, also,<a name="NtA30" + href="#Nt30"><sup>[30]</sup></a> who has made many researches, and was a + scientific official paid by the State, says:—"I think that + successful researches have in nearly every instance originated with + private persons, or with persons whose positions were so nearly private + that the investigators acted under private influence, without incurring + the danger attending connection with the State. Certainly I do not + consider a Government is justified in endeavouring to force, at public + expense, investigations of undefined character, and, at best, of doubtful + utility; and I think it probable that any such attempt will lead to + consequences disreputable to science. The very utmost, in my opinion, to + which the State should be expected to contribute, is exhibited in the + large grants intrusted to the Royal Society. The world, I think, is not + unanimous in believing that they have been useful." He then enumerates + what he considers "the proper foundations of claims upon the State," + which he illustrates, and substantially includes in and <!-- Page 176 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>{176}</span>limits by, the + kinds of scientific research done under his direction at the Royal + Observatory. He further adds—"The Royal Observatory was founded + expressly for a definite utilitarian purpose (the promotion of + navigation) necessarily connected with the highest science. And this + utilitarian purpose has been steadily kept in view for two centuries, and + is now followed with greater vigour than ever before. To its original + plan have also been added—but still in the utilitarian + sense—the publication of time, the broader observation of + terrestrial magnetism, and local meteorology." His views therefore appear + to be, that State aid to research should be limited to utilitarian + objects; and that it is with propriety given to his own department, which + is connected with the State. It has however been abundantly proved that + nearly all the great scientific utilities of every-day life, had their + origin in the pursuit, not of utilities, but of pure truth, and that + immediate usefulness is neither the most successful nor the highest + motive in scientific research, nor should research be limited by so + narrow a condition. The investigations also made by the aid of Government + Grants possess the usual degree of definiteness and of utility of such + labours, and it cannot be reasonably expected that the world would be + unanimous respecting any measure, especially respecting a subject so + little understood by the public as the Endowment of Research.</p> + + <p>If investigators were to limit their researches to utilities, or what + appeared to be such, scarcely any <!-- Page 177 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page177"></a>{177}</span>essentially new + experiments or new discoveries of importance would be made. No attempts + would be made to discover essentially novel facts, nor would many trials + be made to test fundamental abstract questions which affect the very + basis of scientific knowledge. The principles of electro-magnetism, of + magneto-electric action, and of the magnetic rotation of polarized light, + were each discovered by means of perfectly novel experiments, in which + immediate utility was not the motive.</p> + + <p>It is worthy of notice that of the very small proportion of scientific + investigators who disapprove of State aid to Research, nearly every one + already possesses sufficient pecuniary means to carry on investigations, + and therefore cannot adequately appreciate the position and necessities + of investigators having only small incomes. In some cases also the + objections to aid investigators come from scientific men who have + attempted to make discoveries but have not succeeded.</p> + + <p>Dr. Robinson of Armagh, a well-known investigator, has very properly + pointed out<a name="NtA31" href="#Nt31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> what has been + done in this country towards giving assistance to those engaged in the + pursuit of science, and mentions the Observatories maintained by the + Universities and by the Nation. He says also that if anything more were + to be done in increasing the amount of grants of money to assist + scientific work, he thinks "it might be best applied in establishing in + the great commercial <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page178"></a>{178}</span>centres of the realm, physical and + chemical laboratories such as that which the Duke of Devonshire has + established at Cambridge, provided with the most refined apparatus, and + accessible to all who are considered privileged by a competent tribunal." + He also says "when there is found a man so far surpassing his fellows in + any department of science that he may be expected to do work beyond their + power, he ought to be made independent of any other pursuit, so that none + of his time and energy may be lost, such a case is exceptional, and when + it occurs it should be exceptionally provided for."</p> + + <p>Original research will for a long time to come, be opposed by a large + section of the non-scientific public:—by the numerous persons whose + source of income depends upon the ignorance of their fellow-men:—by + those who are deficient of faith in demonstrable truth, and fear that + their most cherished beliefs are endangered by it:—and by many of + those who are insufficiently acquainted with it to perceive its great + value to mankind.</p> + + <p>With regard to the fears of many objectors that the Endowment of + Research would lead to jobbery and abuses, and thus retard the progress + of discovery instead of promoting it; it is evident that such a risk is + an inseparable concomitant of every remunerated office and is not + peculiar to that of research, and must therefore be accepted as + unavoidable and be provided against in the usual ways. It does not + however appear probable that the risk in this respect is at all greater + <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page179"></a>{179}</span>than that already existing and provided + against in many other appointments.</p> + + <p>Many persons, not clearly perceiving the difference between pure + research and other scientific occupations, suppose that because science + is encouraged in various ways in this country; and because sums of money + are occasionally given to scientific institutions, and some scientific + men are evidently receiving good incomes, that discoverers are + remunerated, but this is a great mistake; there is probably not a + scientific man in the kingdom who is wholly employed in such work in + abstract physics or chemistry, and paid for his entire skill, time, and + labour. Wherever payment is made for scientific labour, it is nearly + always for that performed with a view to some immediate practical + application. Inventors and expositors are remunerated, but discoverers + are not.</p> + + <p>At the present time in this country scientific men are paid for + teaching, lecturing, writing popular scientific articles, compiling + scientific books, editing scientific journals, making chemical analyses + and experiments for manufacturers, companies, and others, for practical + purposes, or to obtain evidence for legal cases, giving evidence on + scientific subjects in courts of law, with consultations and advice to + manufacturers and others, superintending scientific commercial + undertakings, &c. Some also unfortunately obtain an income and cheap + publicity by the empirical contrivance of selling to tradesmen, their + scientific opinions in the form of testimonials which are extensively + <!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page180"></a>{180}</span>advertised at the cost of the purchasers. + But not one of these occupations constitutes pure research, or is an + immediate source of new discoveries. Payment is made for all kinds of + scientific labour which will immediately benefit individuals or + corporations, but very little for pure investigation, and nearly every + inducement exists to attract men of science from pursuing such + labour.</p> + + <p>It might be supposed that investigators would patent or sell their + discoveries; but discoveries in pure science cannot usually be patented + or sold, because they have not been converted by invention into + commercial commodities. New scientific truth is utterly unsaleable; no + one will purchase it. Whilst the real or intrinsic value of it is great, + its extrinsic value is small and is the sum of money it will sell for in + the market. No one would have purchased Oersted's great discovery of + electro-magnetism. It would also be less to public advantage if + investigators were to neglect discovering new knowledge in order to apply + that knowledge to practical uses. It requires a different training of + mental power to discover new truths, than to utilize them by means of + invention, teaching or lecturing; and men who can invent and instruct are + far more numerous than those who are able to discover. Discoveries are + also generally much more valuable than inventions, because a single + discovery (that of gutta percha for example) not unfrequently forms the + basis of many inventions. Discoverers not unfrequently meet with new + facts <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page181"></a>{181}</span>which they perceive might be applied to + valuable technical uses, but they hesitate to patent them because the + process of invention, taking out a patent, seeking a manufacturer to work + it, and protecting their patent from piracy, would occupy a large portion + of their time, and take them away from research. Sir D. Brewster got no + money by patenting his kaleidoscope because the patent was instantly + pirated in all directions.</p> + + <p>Some persons have suggested that scientific men should keep their + discoveries secret, but this would usually be a greater disadvantage to + the investigator even than publishing them, and no one would then derive + any benefit; discoveries also, being often capable of numerous + applications, and not being in a saleable shape, cannot usually be + monopolised by any one. New scientific knowledge is like a powerful + light, it cannot be hidden. Discoveries are eminently national knowledge, + and research should therefore be national employment.</p> + + <p>Other persons suppose that investigators should be satisfied with the + fame of their discoveries, and not require any payment; but this is a + most unfair supposition, because no man can live without means, and every + useful person deserves to be paid for his labour. Ought the late Duke of + Wellington to have been satisfied with the fame alone of his exploits, + without being paid any salary? Ought a Bishop to be content with the + renown of his eloquence, without receiving any payment for his services? + Genius alone is <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page182"></a>{182}</span>appropriately rewarded by fame, but time, + unusual skill, labour and expenditure, should be repaid by money.</p> + + <p>It has been suggested that an investigator, if he is a man of + practical ability, is very often put into an office, the duties of which + he can efficiently discharge, and yet have leisure for original research, + as in the case of the late Dr. Graham, the eminent Master of the Mint,<a + name="NtA32" href="#Nt32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> our Astronomers Royal, + &c., and thus obtain his reward. But this is a very imperfect plan, + because research is very difficult, and to be carried out <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'effectualy'." + >effectually</span>, requires the whole of a man's time and attention; + the investigator would also be taken from more important work to do that + which is of less value to the nation, and which might be performed by a + more suitable person; appointments also of the kind referred to are much + too few in number. Such a plan as this, of relegating important national + work to odd hours spared from official duties, is a makeshift, and quite + unworthy of this nation. Entire occupation in research, combined with + efficient publication of the results, is the only satisfactory plan of + procedure.</p> + + <p>Probably one of the most satisfactory ways of rewarding scientific + discoverers and serving national interests at the same time, would be to + create salaried professorships of original research, and appoint + discoverers of repute to fill them.</p> + + <p>The time is near at hand when this nation will be compelled by the + injurious consequences arising from its neglect of scientific research, + to acquire a <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183"></a>{183}</span>knowledge of the relations of science to + national existence and welfare, and to adopt some means of encouraging + discovery. The greatest difficulty, probably, which has to be overcome, + is not so much how to obtain funds for the purpose, as how to employ them + successfully, and especially how to prevent their getting into the hands + of unsuitable persons. But, as methods have been found of remunerating + all other classes of persons, ways may be devised of remunerating + scientific investigators. It is only because the case is novel that it + seems difficult; it is probably no more intrinsically difficult to + establish a professorship of research than to found an ecclesiastical + benefice.</p> + + <p>The great difficulty of determining from what source discoverers + should be paid for their labours, arises from the fact that all classes + of the community share in the benefit. It is evident they should in some + measure be paid from a source towards which all classes either directly + or indirectly contribute, and therefore from some public fund. The + persons who first use scientific knowledge are the compilers of + scientific books, and teachers of science; but these only disseminate the + knowledge, and do not derive from it any great pecuniary advantage, they + are only the agents for supplying the knowledge to others. The persons + who first convert such knowledge into valuable commercial commodities are + inventors and manufacturers who have received scientific education or + advice; but those who derive the greatest pecuniary benefit from it, and + who should therefore either <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page184"></a>{184}</span>directly or indirectly pay in the largest + degree for it, are the great manufacturers, capitalists, and landowners. + Whilst the question is being settled as to what class of persons shall + primarily bear the expense of research, discoverers themselves are + suffering great injustice, and our manufactures and commerce are passing + into the hands of foreign nations. What the amount of loss and + disadvantage suffered by this nation, through want of encouragement of + scientific enquiry is, cannot be estimated, but it is certainly enormous. + Had even a very moderate amount of payment been made for such labour, and + the expenses out of pocket paid in full, the amount of research performed + would have been greatly increased.</p> + + <p>Under present circumstances, many promising young men, fitted to + become good investigators, have been driven out of science <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'althogether'." + >altogether</span>. I have found by long experience and persistent + enquiry, that there are many young men distributed over this country, who + are very desirous of engaging in scientific research, and likely to make + good investigators, but are entirely prevented by the non-remunerative + character of the labour, every one wishes to know "what will it lead to"? + Even amongst our most able discoverers, scarcely one who has not + possessed private means has continued research beyond the middle age of + life, because such labour enables no provision to be made for old age; + and all those who have left have devoted themselves to less important but + more lucrative occupations. Most of these gentlemen have been <!-- Page + 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page185"></a>{185}</span>obliged to + abandon research at a period of life when their faculties were in the + most perfect state for continuing it.</p> + + <p>Where one young beginner in science meets with the fortunate + circumstance of a helping hand, as Scheele did in Bergmann, and Faraday + in Davy, many are crushed out. The want of encouragement to scientific + discovery in this country is so very great that extremely few men are + able to struggle through it, and this is one reason why we have had so + few discoveries. Some persons have argued that the very difficulties and + discouragements offered are an advantage to science by producing only men + of the very highest eminence in discovery; but it is manifest that + however great the amount of ability may be that is developed by + discouragement, that amount would probably be still greater by judicious + assistance. Moreover, progress in the developement of the national + scientific intellect is not so much to be reckoned by the few great + successes which have occurred in spite of all obstacles, but rather by + the much more numerous ones which would have resulted from proper + encouragement. The advocates of such an argument can have no idea of the + heart-sickening feeling of long deferred hope experienced by the young + beginner in science; or the disgust gradually engendered in his mind at + the injustice of other men taking all the profits of his labours and + leaving him without means of support; or they would never adduce it. In + this country the success of the few <!-- Page 186 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page186"></a>{186}</span>eminent men of science + has resulted from the accidental combination of a few more or less <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'fortuitious'." + >fortuitous</span> circumstances, and their own great natural + determination, and not from legitimate and just support. How many + investigators we have lost from the above causes it is impossible to + tell. The encouragement also of unusual ability should not be left to + accident.</p> + + <p>As scientific research has proved itself to be of such great value to + this nation, the question naturally arises, how can it best be promoted? + A number of plans have been proposed. Amongst these may be mentioned. + <i>1st.</i> By founding State Laboratories, in which discoverers of + established repute, supplied with every aid and appliance, should be + wholly engaged in research in their respective subjects, and be paid by + the State. <i>2nd.</i> By founding colleges or Professorships of original + research in each of the Universities, and appointing professors + similarly. <i>3rd.</i> By founding provincial colleges or Professorships + of research, the funds being raised locally by means of subscriptions, + donations, and endowments, with or without State assistance. <i>4th.</i> + By State or Local aid, in the form of additional salary, to Professors in + colleges, to enable them to pursue research. <i>5th.</i> By an extension + of the present Government grants distributed by the Royal Society. + <i>6th.</i> By making it a condition at each of our Universities that + every student entering for a degree in science, should previously make an + original research. <i>7th.</i> By the formation by learned societies, of + Endowment of <!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page187"></a>{187}</span>Research Funds, and making grants of money + therefrom to recognised investigators. <i>8th.</i> By aid to local + scientific investigators by Municipal bodies out of the rates. And + <i>9th.</i> The support of Institutes of Scientific Research by private + munificence. Aid to research, in Germany, has been chiefly been made by + the State, by affording means to the Professors in the Universities; in + America, more by munificence of wealthy individuals; and in this country, + chiefly in the form of Government grants of money to investigators. The + greatest difficulty to be surmounted in carrying out any of these + schemes, is the very general ignorance in this country of the value and + necessity of research; and this can only be overcome by scientific men + themselves performing their duty of enlightening the public on the + subject.</p> + + <p><i>1st.</i> <i>By founding State Laboratories.</i> One of the first + duties of a Government is to protect its subjects in the enjoyment of + their property; but as no law reserves to discoverers the fruits of their + ability, it is clearly a duty of the State to protect them in other ways. + It is believed to be a duty of the State to provide and pay for pure + scientific research, for the following reasons:—because research is + eminently national work; because the results of such labour are + indispensable to national welfare and progress, and are of immense value + to the nation, and especially to the Government; because nearly the whole + pecuniary benefit of it goes to the nation, and scarcely any to the + discoverer; because research is not sufficiently <!-- Page 188 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page188"></a>{188}</span>provided for by means + of voluntary effort, nor can its benefits be restricted to a locality; + and because there appears to be scarcely any other way (except by + application of University revenues) in which discoverers can be + satisfactorily recompenced for their labour. Also "Government should for + its own sake honour the men who do honour and service to the country." + (Faraday.)</p> + + <p>The founding of State laboratories for original research was proposed + and advocated by the late Lieutenant-Colonel Strange, F.R.S., in + communications read before the British Association, and in evidence given + before the Royal Commissioners.<a name="NtA33" + href="#Nt33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> As the erection and maintenance of State + laboratories would require a large sum of money, and as all classes of + the community would share in the benefit, it is reasonable to suggest + that the money should come from some source towards which all classes of + the community, either directly or indirectly contribute, and therefore + from some national fund.</p> + + <p>In national improvements, expense is quite a secondary consideration; + the funds however for providing State laboratories already exist; the sum + of nearly £600,000 has accumulated in the form of fees received by + Government for the granting of patents for inventions; and as the + discoveries made by scientific men form the materials by means of which + those inventions were made, the money thus accumulated may be justly + claimed by scientific discoverers as a suitable <!-- Page 189 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page189"></a>{189}</span>source from which their + labours should be <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'remuerated'." + >remunerated</span> by the State.</p> + + <p>Strong arguments might be adduced both against and in favour of the + application of this money for the purpose. Inventors are a great + wealth-producing class of the community; they are at present very highly + taxed, and receive but little advantage in return; to tax them without + giving them equivalent advantages, strikes very near to the root of + commercial prosperity, by diminishing improvements in arts and + manufactures. If an inventor is poor and his patent is valuable, he is + also frequently harassed out of it by litigation. Inventors are usually + poor, and but little able to pay taxes on patents at all; their pecuniary + position in this country is not greatly better than that of discoverers; + they are largely at the mercy of manufacturers and capitalists; and the + injustice to which they are sometimes subjected is notorious and + disgraceful. On the other hand, the fund already exists; inventors also + receive an equivalent from investigators, discovery is the indispensable + basis of nearly all invention; patented inventions are formed by means of + the knowledge obtained by pure scientific research. The poverty of a man + does not justify his taking the fruits of the labours of another man + without paying for them. If also the patent fees were thus applied, the + cost of research would then be paid for by all classes of the community, + somewhat in proportion to the benefit derived, because the cost of + patents in general ultimately falls upon the public at <!-- Page 190 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190"></a>{190}</span>large, in the + shape of an increased price put upon the commodity, in order to pay the + cost of the patent, like the grower of wheat is paid by the consumers of + bread, through the medium of the baker, the miller, and corn + merchant.</p> + + <p>Whilst the benefits derived from the labours of discoverers, flows + chiefly in the form of money into the hands of wealthy manufacturers, and + finally gets locked up in the possession of capitalists and landowners, + it is hardly to be expected that the Government will be in possession of + funds necessary to promote research unless some such plan as this is + adopted. Should the wealthy and governing classes however become + sufficiently acquainted with the value of research, and of the essential + and permanent dependence of their material prosperity upon it, there will + then be some hope that they will be willing to contribute in a more + direct manner their just share towards paying the expenses. There is, + however, but little prospect of this whilst the influence of wealth so + depresses the scientific education of those classes at the + Universities.</p> + + <p>The fundamental object in founding State laboratories should be to + keep a staff of the most competent men wholly engaged in original + research in pure science, and a secondary object might be to train + assistants to become investigators. Such laboratories would doubtless be + located in London, and be on a scale of magnitude creditable to science + and the nation. They might very suitably include <!-- Page 191 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page191"></a>{191}</span>departments for the + simpler pure sciences and even for biology.</p> + + <p>It is manifest that the arguments which support the proposition for + professorships of original research in those sciences apply in a greater + or less degree to other sciences; and it has been stated that "there is + no ground upon which the scheme can be limited to the subject of natural + philosophy." In reference to this remark, (which, like most objections, + contains some truth), it must be remembered that there is a natural order + of dependence of the sciences upon each other, in which order also they + are being evolved. It is a general truth that the physical sciences of + light and heat are based upon mechanical conditions of the particles of + matter; that the science of chemistry is founded upon physics; that + biological phenomena are dependent upon physical and chemical conditions; + that psychological subjects are based upon biology; and that biological + science cannot progress excepting in proportion to the advance of the + sciences on which it is based. In addition to this general order of + precedence of evolution in point of time, the various sciences are so + mutually related that all must advance together, the simple ones taking + the lead, and the concrete and more complex sciences, with their + attendant arts, following behind.</p> + + <p>As this natural order of dependence and development of the sciences is + a great fact of nature, over which we have little or no control, and as a + scheme for the simultaneous establishment of professorships of research + in all the sciences, simple, complex, and <!-- Page 192 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page192"></a>{192}</span>concrete, would + probably be too great an undertaking, the most proper course would be to + commence with the simpler ones, such as those of mathematics, mechanics, + physics, and chemistry, and perhaps biology. If it be argued that it + would be unadvisable to commence with the simple and purely experimental + sciences, it would be still more unadvisable to commence with the + concrete subjects of "natural history, medicine, civil history, law, and + theology," or with the arts which also depend upon science.</p> + + <p>The number of investigators in such an institution would not be large, + because few of high repute could be obtained, many of our ablest ones + abandon research for remunerative pursuits. In order to make the plan + succeed, the conditions of the appointments should be such as to limit + the election to the most competent persons. In the selection of such + gentlemen, the verdict of opinion of scientific men generally, upon the + published researches of the candidates, would have previously determined + who were qualified for the office. Any man who had published reliable + papers in the Transactions of the Royal Society, might very properly be + considered a fit candidate, and the selection and appointment might be + made by the Government, with the advice of the Council of the Royal + Society.</p> + + <p>Probably there exists no class of persons upon whom the country might + more rely for industry in office than eminent investigators, because they + have pursued truth for its good effects alone. Men who had <!-- Page 193 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page193"></a>{193}</span>previously + exercised the degree of self-sacrifice necessary to make a number of long + and difficult experimental researches, with only very limited pecuniary + means, must necessarily be possessed of great enthusiasm in their + calling, and would therefore be extremely unlikely persons to become idle + by being supplied with a sufficiency only of means to carry on their + labours. Further, such men might at present obtain a much larger income + than they would receive in such a post, by abandoning research and + devoting themselves to the various profitable engagements which are open + to every man of scientific ability who is willing to devote himself to + applied science. The actual work of research is much too arduous and + difficult to permit such an office to become an object of desire to a + place-seeking or idle person. But in order to exclude with certainty + those who might devote themselves to research solely or primarily for the + purpose of subsequently obtaining a well paid appointment, (as persons + sometimes devote themselves to learning, with the object of getting an + "idle Fellowship,") and to ensure in all cases a reasonable continuance + of industry, it would be necessary, that whilst the salaries paid should + be sufficient to render the professors free from care, if expended with a + reasonable degree of economy, they should not be so large as to conduce + to idleness. The professors should undertake not to engage in any other + remunerative employment, and provision should be made, that in case a + professor persistently failed to make, complete, or publish his <!-- Page + 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page194"></a>{194}</span>researches, or devoted less than the + stipulated amount of time to such labour in the Institution, without + reasonable cause, he should be removed.</p> + + <p>Many persons fancy that "it must be very nice to be always making + experiments," and that they "should be delighted with such an occupation" + if they "could only spare the time." But such an idea is only another + illustration of the general ignorance of the subject, and it is only + expressed by those who have never made a laborious and difficult + research. Pure research is by far the most difficult of all scientific + occupations, and this is another chief reason why discoverers are few, + and why they will probably remain so.</p> + + <p>To succeed in research, a man must set aside all human pride, and + approach the subject with perfect humility; and this is not an easy task, + men cannot so readily abandon preconceived and cherished notions. Many + researches are moreover extremely dangerous. Thilorier was killed by the + explosion of a vessel of liquefied carbonic anhydride; Dulong lost an eye + and finger, and Sir Humphrey Davy was wounded by an explosion of chloride + of nitrogen. Faraday was near being blinded by an experiment with oxygen. + Nicklès of Nancy, and Louyet of Brussels, lost their lives, and two other + chemists were seriously injured in health by exposure to the excessively + dangerous fumes of hydrofluoric acid. Bunsen lost the sight of an eye and + was nearly poisoned by an explosion whilst analysing cyanide of + cacodyl.<a name="NtA34" href="#Nt34"><sup>[34]</sup></a> Hennel was + killed by an <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page195"></a>{195}</span>explosion of fulminate of silver, and + Chapman by one of nitrate of methyl; and nearly every chemical + investigator could tell of some narrow escape of life in his own + experience. Any one who wishes to know whether it is "very nice to be + always making experiments" should attempt the isolation of fluorine, the + chemical examination of some offensive substance, or the determination of + some difficult physical, or chemical problem.</p> + + <p>That a professorship of original research would "involve substantial + work" does not admit of doubt, and therefore "there would be some + security that it would be worthily bestowed." It would not become an + "ornamental sinecure," in which "there is pay but no work," unless, by + assigning to it too large a stipend, inducement was held out to that + numerous class of persons whose love of money is stronger than their love + of truth, to seek the office; to say the utmost, it could hardly become + so largely a sinecure as many offices now held by ecclesiastics. Jobbery + and abuse of patronage would be still further prevented by making the + duties sufficiently heavy.</p> + + <p>The appointment, and remuneration by salary, of professor of research, + would not lessen the independence of scientific men if the office was not + placed under the superintendence of active and interfering officials + ignorant of science. Although the professors might not be highly paid, + the appointment would increase their independence because it would be one + of the most honourable to which scientific men could <!-- Page 196 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page196"></a>{196}</span>attain, and + because they would thereby be put into a sphere in which they could + exercise their talents to the fullest extent, and render the greatest + service and honour to the nation. If also the salaries offered were not + too great, those persons only would become candidates who at present have + insufficient means to defray the considerable cost of experiments.</p> + + <p>It would be necessary to appoint only persons who would undertake to + devote their time solely to the discovery of new facts and principles in + science, and the determination of purely scientific questions, and not to + the making of inventions; because discovery is of far greater national + value than invention; and because inventions would immediately on their + publication be seized, modified, and patented by individuals for their + own personal benefit. Discoveries, on the other hand, would require a + large additional amount of labour expended upon them by inventors before + they could be converted into saleable commodities.</p> + + <p>Each professor should be allowed perfect freedom to choose his own + special subjects of research in the sciences he had been accustomed to + study, because each investigator is usually the best judge of what + researches are the most likely to yield him important results. No + discoverer of repute would be very likely to trespass on another man's + sphere of research, because he would usually have an abundance of good + subjects of his own; and every honourable man would purposely avoid doing + so; and we find this practically to be the case at the present time. + Separate sets of <!-- Page 197 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page197"></a>{197}</span>rooms would be necessary for each + investigator in order to keep the researches private and distinct.</p> + + <p>The whole of the new knowledge obtained by research should be treated + as national property, and all of it worthy of publication should be made + known without the least reserve, it would also be desirable to publish + the results at reasonable intervals of time. The publication might take + place, as at present, in the journals of the learned Societies, or in the + leading scientific magazines, and the value of the work would be largely + guaranteed by such a mode of publication. The professors should also + engage not to sell, patent, or prematurely disclose any of the knowledge + obtained. By electing to such offices only discoverers of repute, the + nation might reasonably depend for the results upon the known ability and + industry of the men. That the results obtained would, many of them, be + highly valuable, does not admit of doubt, because long experience has + uniformly proved it; but no discoverer can tell beforehand what results + he will obtain, otherwise research would hardly be needed.</p> + + <p>An objection has been made that no one can tell how long it will be + after a discovery is made before the nation will derive the chief + benefit. The length of time which elapses between the publication of + discoveries and their practical fruits is very variable. Usually benefit + commences at once and gradually widens; directly discoveries are + published they begin to be used by compilers of scientific books, and by + teachers and lecturers in science, and are thus diffused <!-- Page 198 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page198"></a>{198}</span>amongst the + public in general, and begin to produce beneficial effects. Inventors, + manufacturers, medical men, and others, also begin to apply them to their + respective purposes. In some cases striking applications are immediately + made of them, and public attention is thus directed to the useful result; + but in many cases the beneficial effects are small, numerous, and + indirect, and it is difficult to trace and describe them. The objection + also is deficient in force, because expenditure in any other occupation, + and receipt of the profit upon it, are rarely simultaneous. Many of the + wisest reforms in this country have been a long time in producing their + results. We must therefore be content, as in all ordinary cases of + investment, with the conviction that the expenditure will be profitable, + and we must wait patiently for the certain harvest. In research, as in + many other human enterprises, a man who will not move until he is + absolutely certain that what he intends to do will at at once succeed, + must sit still and perish.</p> + + <p>Suggestions have also been made to appoint a Government Committee, or + Council, whose function should be to value scientific discoveries, and + make corresponding amounts of reward to the discoverers. But this appears + to be a less feasible plan, because no man can, at the period of + discovery, determine what amount of practical result a discovery will + ultimately produce. Who could have foretold with certainty at the date of + Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, that this discovery would + result in <!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page199"></a>{199}</span>the expenditure of hundreds of millions of + pounds upon telegraphs alone?<a name="NtA35" + href="#Nt35"><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Objections have been made to definite payment for labour in research, + on the ground of indefiniteness of the results, and the impossibility of + measuring their value. Can we expect to buy new scientific knowledge at + so much a pound, or to retail discovery by the pint? The work of + discoverers is as definite as that of many other persons who are paid. + Who can measure the value of the cure of souls, of the duties of a judge, + or of those of a field-marshal? Instead of paying for the labour of + research in a definite way, we have adopted unsatisfactory makeshifts. + Exceptional gifts, and semi-charitable pensions, have been with + difficulty obtained in a few cases for scientific men; most often for + those who applied scientific knowledge to practical uses than for those + who discovered that knowledge. In this country, neither lawyers, medical + men, military persons, nor clergymen are paid definitely by results, but + by time and labour, in accordance with the reputation of the man, and + there is no sufficient reason why investigators should not be <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'similarily'.">similarly</span> + remunerated. The differences in the cases are only ones of degree.</p> + + <p>The time has arrived when this great evil should be made known and + remedied, and men of science should press upon our Government, as a + matter of justice to themselves, and necessary for the nation's welfare, + that the accumulated fees from patents should be applied to the + establishment of a Scientific <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page200"></a>{200}</span>department of the State, the erection of + State laboratories, and the payment of discoverers for the national work + of research.</p> + + <p><i>2nd.</i> <i>Professorships of Research at the Universities.</i> + Most of the remarks already made respecting the appointment and + maintenance of professors of research in State laboratories, would apply + equally to those proposed in connection with the Universities. Amongst + the reasons which may be adduced in favour of the establishment of such + professorships the following may be selected. Because the advancement of + learning is peculiarly the function of a University, and one of the chief + objects for which such institutions were founded. The word University + implies a seat of universal knowledge, and it is reasonable to assume + that Universities should act as fountains of new theoretical knowledge, + as well as perform the function of diffusing it; such an addition would + also raise their intellectual position, and make them much more + respected, both at home and abroad.</p> + + <p>With regard to such professorships, the "Association for the + Organization of Academical Study," consisting of a number of learned men + belonging to the Universities, the Royal Society, and other learned + bodies, adopted the following resolutions:—</p> + + <p>"That the chief end to be kept in view in any redistribution of the + revenues of Oxford and Cambridge is the adequate maintenance of Mature + Study and Scientific Research, as well for their own sake as with the + view of bringing the higher education within the <!-- Page 201 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page201"></a>{201}</span>reach of all who are + desirous of profiting by it." "That to have a class of men whose lives + are devoted to research is a national object." "That it is desirable, in + the interest of national progress and education, that Professorships and + special institutions shall be founded in the Universities for the + promotion of Scientific Research." "That the present mode of awarding + Fellowships as prizes, has been unsuccessful as a means of promoting + Mature Study and Original Research, and that it is therefore desirable + that it should be discontinued."</p> + + <p>With regard to the funds necessary:—It has been estimated that + the money paid in the form of sinecure fellowships or retiring pensions, + to young men in Oxford alone now amounts to about £80,000 or £90,000 a + year; and it has been suggested that this money be applied to the + purpose. These funds were originally intended for promoting knowledge, + but vested interests prevent their being used for discovering new + truths.</p> + + <p>The chief object of such professorships would be the same as that in + the proposed State laboratories, viz.—to keep a staff of the most + competent men wholly engaged upon research in pure science. The + professors of physical and chemical research might be selected in + accordance with the suggestions already made, and be appointed by the + Senate or other governing body, with the advice of the Council of the + Royal Society. All the precautions which have been already suggested + under the head of "State laboratories," would <!-- Page 202 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page202"></a>{202}</span>have to be taken in + order to exclude unsuitable persons, and to secure industry in the + professors. The remarks also, already made respecting the limitation of + the duties of the professors to research in pure science, the exclusion + of invention, the publication of results, the class of sciences with + which a commencement might best be made, etc., apply equally in this + case. I do not however mean by these remarks to suggest the disendowment + of research in the more complex or concrete subjects, in order to make a + commencement with the simpler sciences.</p> + + <p>The existence within the Universities of offices in which the + faculties of scientific men might be developed to their fullest extent, + would induce those engaged in the work of scientific instruction in those + institutions to devote more time to research, in order that they might + improve their scientific talents, and in their turn become fitted to + occupy such posts.</p> + + <p>It has been suggested that discoverers should teach as well as + investigate; but this would be an imperfect plan, and would largely + convert the position of a professor into that of one at an ordinary + college. Every person who has had much experience in experimental + investigation also knows, that to carry it out effectually, requires the + whole of his time and attention. If, therefore, teaching or lecturing + constitutes a part of the duties, a portion of the professor's time must + be taken from the more important occupation of research, and the + fundamental object of the institution will be frustrated. Research + evolves new knowledge; <!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page203"></a>{203}</span>teaching simply distributes it. The + labours of a scientific teacher or lecturer consist <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'esssentially'." + >essentially</span> of a continued series of repetitions of other men's + discoveries. For each single man who can discover, there exist many who + can teach. With teaching in addition to research, all the usual + educational machinery, lecture theatres and apparatus, diagrams, + audiences, pupils, registration of students, receipt of fees, + examinations, marking of papers, valuing of answers, attending annual + meetings, etc., would be brought into requisition, and the result would + probably be, as it is at present, the duties of teaching would, in nearly + all cases, swallow up the time, and prevent the freedom from interruption + necessary for successful research Under present circumstances, it is the + testimony of nearly every teacher and lecturer in science, that he "has + no time for research." If teaching is also carried on, the Research + laboratories will compete with educational institutions, established and + carried on by private enterprize, and place them at a disadvantage, and + thus discourage voluntary effort in the diffusion of science; but by + limiting the functions of the professors entirely to pure research, there + will be no competition with any private interests, because no persons + gain a livelihood entirely by means of such occupation.</p> + + <p>That the practice of teaching is however of very great use in + preparing the mind of a scientific man for research is quite certain, + because it compels him to study all parts of his subject, and whilst + doing so, many questions for investigation occur to his mind. <!-- Page + 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page204"></a>{204}</span>Many of + our most eminent discoverers have also been teachers. But teaching is not + a necessary condition of success in research, nor even a necessary + preparation for it; the examples of various able discoverers prove this. + In some cases discoverers have devoted themselves to teaching, only after + having attained high repute in research; in others they have not been + teachers at all. Original research itself usually suggests plenty of new + subjects of investigation, without the additional ones suggested by + teaching.</p> + + <p>In order that self improvement in a man of science might never + stagnate, there should exist a continuous and complete series of steps of + preferment, by which the merest beginners in scientific knowledge, might + be enabled to attain to the highest scientific position; and finally + become wholly occupied in that kind of labour by which their scientific + faculties would be developed to their fullest extent, but this last step + is wanting. By the proposed plan however a student would become a + teacher; the teacher develope into a professor; and a professor might + employ for a period a portion of his time in research, and thus become + qualified for entire devotion to original investigation and + discovery.</p> + + <p>After a scientific teacher has acquired a thorough knowledge of his + subjects, and a high position in his profession, his occupation becomes + to him a species of intellectual routine, in which he is continually + going through the same courses of lectures and examinations over and over + again, and his personal improvement stagnates. But if there was + remuneration for research, <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page205"></a>{205}</span>or there existed some post or employment, + to which those who had acquired the ability to investigate might be + appointed, there would be an inducement to continued intellectual + improvement, and a sphere in which the most valuable faculties of + scientific men might be developed for national benefit to their fullest + extent.</p> + + <p><i>3rd.</i> <i>Provincial Colleges of Research.</i>—The success + of this plan would depend essentially upon the diffusion of a knowledge + of the importance of scientific research amongst the richer classes. + There are at present a very few wealthy persons in this country who + perceive to some extent the value of such research, and the dependence of + their wealth upon it, who would be willing to contribute to a fund for + the purpose; and there are many more who would assist if the importance + of the subject was properly explained to them. The chief argument in + favour of provincial colleges of research is, that it is a duty of + wealthy persons to aid research, because they have derived, and are + continually deriving great benefits from it, for which they make no + payment. The ways in which some of those benefits have been derived have + been already briefly stated. As the large manufacturers and capitalists + are generally the persons who derive great pecuniary benefit from the + progress of science, it might be reasonably urged that they should + contribute freely towards its advancement.</p> + + <p>Such an institution might be located in each of the <!-- Page 206 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page206"></a>{206}</span>largest + centres of industry. The objects of the institution; the branches of + science to be investigated in it; the number of professors, the mode of + selecting them, and of excluding unsuitable candidates for the office; + the means by which industry might be secured and jobbery prevented; the + exclusion of invention, and of teaching and lecturing; the publication of + results, removal of professors, etc., have already been treated of under + the head of "State laboratories." The chief difficulties to be overcome + in this, as in all other plans of aiding research, are to find a + sufficient number of influential persons acquainted with the subject to + practically carry out the plan; to secure investigators of high ability; + and to prevent the offices being filled by incompetent persons.</p> + + <p><i>4th.</i> <i>Aid to Professors of Science in + Colleges.</i>—Another way by which research might be promoted, + would be by giving assistance in the form of a definite amount of + additional salary, for the purpose of pure research, to professors and + teachers in colleges and institutions; the money being supplied by the + State or from the funds of the Institution. In carrying out this plan, it + would be necessary to assist only those persons who had already published + a good research, and thus proved their ability; and who would engage to + devote a definite portion of their time to the labour as a part of their + duty. The selection of suitable men might be made with the advice of the + Council of the Royal Society. <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page207"></a>{207}</span>The additional salary should be entirely + in the form of remuneration for labour, time, and materials, etc., + expended upon research in pure science, and not in effecting inventions. + The knowledge obtained should be treated as public property, and be + published in the usual manner, and the investigator should not be + permitted to sell or patent it. It would be necessary to provide that in + case the investigator failed to make or publish a reasonable amount of + good research, the additional salary should cease. Publication in the + journals of the Royal Society, or in a leading scientific magazine, might + be considered a sufficient proof of the satisfactory quality of the + labour.</p> + + <p>It is very desirable that all the higher teachers and professors of + science in our educational institution should devote a portion of their + time to original research. It would make their lectures more reliable, + because research yields experience in the detection of error; whilst + there is usually only one way of succeeding in making an experiment, + there are always many ways of failing, and in the directions given in + books, the latter are usually omitted. It would also induce the students + to take a greater interest in the subject, and feel more respect for the + teacher. The special excellence of the German system of teaching consists + in the union of teaching and original research. This plan of aiding + research would induce some of our teachers of science who have not yet + made researches, to attempt such labour, it would also develope a + superior class of scientific teachers generally; and produce a supply of + candidates for professorships of research. <!-- Page 208 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page208"></a>{208}</span></p> + + <p>A great obstacle to the carrying out of this plan lies in the fact + that in consequence of the ignorance of the value of original research by + the founders of such Institutions, no definite provision usually exists + in the Trust deeds to authorise the Trustees to devote any of the funds + to such a purpose.</p> + + <p><i>5th.</i> <i>Extension of the Government Grant + System.</i>—During a number of years the British Government has + entrusted to the Royal Society the annual sum of £1,000 for the purpose + of aiding science; and that sum has been given in varying portions to + different investigators who have applied for grants in aid of their + expenses in making investigations.</p> + + <p>Although the total amount to be disbursed annually was not large, very + few persons, qualified to make good researches, usually applied for its + assistance, and it was difficult to dispose of the whole. The chief + causes of this difficulty were:—a grant from the fund was an + unprofitable gift to accept, because it was only sufficient to partly pay + the expenses out of pocket for chemicals and apparatus, and allowed + nothing for the skill, time, or labour, nor for payments made to + assistants. Further, "By order of the Council, all instruments, + apparatus, and drawings, made or obtained by aid of the Government + Grants, shall, after serving the purpose for which they were procured, + and in the absence of any specific understanding to the contrary, be + delivered into the custody of the Royal Society."</p> + + <p>By far the greater part of the expense of an investigation in physics + or chemistry is the exceedingly large <!-- Page 209 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page209"></a>{209}</span>amount of time it + occupies. Many necessary preliminary experiments have to be made, which + yield either negative, unsuccessful, or incomplete results, and make the + undertaking expensive. A good investigation in chemistry also not + unfrequently costs the investigator a sovereign a day if he is wholly + employed upon it. In some cases, for each £100 received as a grant, at + least a £1,000, was directly and indirectly expended. Any person + therefore who undertook a research became a loser, and aid from the + Government Grant fund did not entirely cover his loss. Only scientific + men who had other sources of income were able to avail themselves of the + grants. The existence of the grants also was not widely known. The + advantages of the plan were, it diminished the loss to the investigator, + and the fact of being allotted a sum from the fund was considered highly + creditable to the recipient.</p> + + <p>In consequence largely of the evidence collected from eminent men of + science from all parts of Great Britain, and the recommendations based + upon it, by the Royal Commission for the Advancement of Science, the + Grant system has been extended; our Government recently placed an + additional amount of £4,000 a year, for five years, to be distributed in + sums at the recommendation of the Royal Society to suitable applicants, + and the five years have now elapsed.</p> + + <p>This extension of the Grant system has been an <!-- Page 210 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page210"></a>{210}</span>improvement. It has + resulted both in a large increase in the number of applicants and of + researches; and has shown that there exists in this country a large + amount of scientific ability in need of encouragement. The amounts + granted were increased in magnitude so as to cover in some cases payments + made to assistants and the entire outlay made for experiments, also a + small payment for a portion of the time occupied in actual research. The + plan of awarding the grants has been for work proposed by the applicants + to be done, and not for that already performed. How far a retrospective + method might be worthy of trial, is difficult to decide. It has been + objected to it that the claims of scientific investigators for researches + already made, would be so great and so convincing that it would be + impossible to resist them, and the funds required to satisfy those claims + would be so large as to render the plan quite impracticable; if however + the retrospective period was limited to a short time, a year for example, + the difficulty would be lessened. There would still however remain the + great difficulty of valuing the results. This might probably be overcome + by regulating the money payment according to the time, labour, pecuniary + expenditure, and scientific status of the particular investigator, and + leaving genius to be rewarded by the fame and honour of the results.</p> + + <p>No system of aid however can place scientific investigation in a + satisfactory position in this country, which does not include certain + remuneration for time, <!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page211"></a>{211}</span>money and labour expended; and no sound + argument can be adduced why investigators should not be adequately + recompenced. The genius alone of a discoverer should be rewarded by fame, + and his time, labour, and expenditure, in accordance with his + professional reputation, be repaid by money, as in all other intellectual + occupations. The same amount of time and labour expended in any ordinary + profession, requiring an equal, or even less amount of preparatory + education and experience, and less rare ability, would yield an income of + several thousand pounds a year. Although the lives of a few eminent + discoverers have proved that it has been possible for them to do a + considerable amount of research under the conditions which have existed, + that is no reason why they should not be remunerated. Previous success in + research has been due to the unusually great perseverance, industry, and + self-denial of the men, and but little to any pecuniary encouragement + received. The fewness of such men, supports this view of the case. The + plan of aiding research by grants which include no certain payment for + time or labour, is quite incommensurate with the importance of the + subject and entirely unworthy of the reputation of a great nation.</p> + + <p><i>6th.</i> <i>Students pursuing Research at the Universities.</i> In + the German Universities each student is required to make an original + research before he can obtain a degree in Science, and the plan has + worked successfully; also in the Victoria University, Manchester, <!-- + Page 212 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page212"></a>{212}</span>several Fellowships have recently been + established for the encouragement of students in original + investigation.</p> + + <p>If this plan could be carried out in our old Universities it would + produce most valuable results, because the governing, wealthy, and + influential classes of this nation are chiefly educated at those + institutions, and they would then acquire habits of more accurate + scientific thought, and some knowledge of the nature and importance of + scientific research, and of the essential dependence of national welfare + upon it.</p> + + <p>But a great and probably insuperable obstacle exists to the carrying + out of such a plan, viz., the wealth possessed by the parents of + students. An original research cannot be made without considerable + industry, and the greatest opponent of industry, especially with young + men, is the possession or expectation of wealth. According to college + tutors at our old Universities, there is no large class of industrious + students at those institutions. The greatest cause of the idleness of the + students is parental neglect and the habits of wealthy society. Many + parents allow their sons too much money, and over-look too readily their + idleness and frivolity; the young men also know their parents are rich, + and act accordingly. Many persons send their sons to those places chiefly + to form aristocratic acquaintances, and for other purposes than those of + educational discipline and learning. The college authorities have also + largely acquiesced in the wishes of the parents and students. And in this + way <!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page213"></a>{213}</span>scientific research has been almost + entirely excluded from our old Universities. If the present tutors and + governing bodies of those Institutions cannot induce students generally + to be industrious, by what means can it be expected that these young men + can be persuaded to exercise the still greater degree of industry and + intelligence requisite to prosecute research, whilst they are decoyed + from it by the attractions of wealth? In Germany the conditions are very + different, the students in the Universities of that country have much + less money at their disposal. Nearly the whole of the educational courses + also at the Grammar schools and other educational institutions in this + country, are formed upon the plan of sending all the superior scholars to + our Universities, and thus the defective state of scientific training at + the Universities operates through our whole scholastic system, and + depresses the entire scientific instruction of the nation. It is evident + that in this way the undue wealth of this country largely retards + national progress.</p> + + <p><i>7th.</i> <i>Local Endowment of Research Funds.</i> In addition to + the foregoing means, local efforts might be made to encourage research in + each great centre of industry; through the medium of the local scientific + societies. Nearly as early as the year 1660, Cowley in a treatise, + proposed a Philosophical Society to be established near London, with + liberal salaries to learned men to make experiments; but he could not get + the money raised. A plan of this kind is in operation in Birmingham and + carried out by the <!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page214"></a>{214}</span>Council of the Birmingham Philosophical + Society in accordance with the following:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"<span class="sc">Scheme for Establishing and Administering A Fund for + the Endowment of Research in Birmingham.</span>"</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>"The Council are of opinion that this Society would be omitting a + principal means of the advancement of Science—the end for which all + such associations exist—if it neglected the question of the + Endowment of Research. To maintain a successful investigator in his + labours, even though no results of immediate or obvious utility can be + shown to spring out of them, is of interest to the community at large. + Indeed, it is just because the practical usefulness of such work is not + immediate or obvious that it becomes necessary to give it special + support, for otherwise it would have its own market value, and endowment + would be superfluous. But the proper and effectual administration of an + Endowment Fund is perceived to be so beset with difficulty, as often to + deter even those who recognise the principle from advocating it in + practice. Most of the dangers usually foreseen would, however, as a rule + be avoided, simply by the distribution of such funds from local centres, + under such a scheme as is now proposed. The Council, are therefore, + anxious to establish a Fund, in connection at once with the Society and + the Town, for the direct Endowment of Scientific Research."<a + name="NtA36" href="#Nt36"><sup>[36]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 215 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page215"></a>{215}</span></p> + + <p><i>8th.</i> <i>Local Laboratories of Research.</i> Another plan would + be for local scientific societies to raise money by soliciting + subscriptions and donations for the support of local laboratories; a + prospectus of the following kind being issued:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><span class="sc">Proposal to Found A Laboratory of Pure Scientific + Research in ——.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>"As the manufacturers, merchants, capitalists, land-owners, and the + public generally, of this town and district, have derived and are still + deriving great pecuniary and other benefits from the discovery of new + knowledge by means of pure research in the sciences of Physics and + Chemistry; and as in consequence of the great neglect of such research in + this country, and the increased cultivation of it in other lands, our + commerce is suffering, and a great many evils in manufacturing and other + operations, in sanitary and many other matters dependant upon physical + and chemical conditions, remain unremedied; it is proposed to found a + Local Laboratory of original research in those sciences, with every + suitable appliance in it; and to employ one or more investigators of + repute, with assistants, who shall be wholly engaged in such labour in + their respective sciences."</p> + + <p>As it is largely the custom in this country to effect great objects by + means of individual liberality and corporate enterprise, instead of + trusting to State assistance, it is not improbable that when the great + importance of scientific research and its claims <!-- Page 216 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page216"></a>{216}</span>to encouragement have + become more generally known, that aid which has hitherto been with-held + from it will be rendered by private generosity; and local institutions, + wholly for the purpose of original scientific research will be + established and supported by public-spirited wealthy persons. An + institution of this kind upon a small scale, and called "The Institute of + Scientific Research" has already been established in Birmingham, (see <a + href="#Nt5">Note</a> p. 40). By founding local institutions of this kind + there exist opportunities for wealthy persons to do great good to + mankind, and acquire renown as philanthropists by the action.</p> + + <p>And <i>9th</i>. In consequence of the great benefit derived from + scientific research by the inhabitants of each locality, it has become a + duty of each large community to promote it, and local Town Councils might + with advantage and perfect justice to the public, devote a portion of + municipal funds to the purpose of aiding local scientific research. To + this plan it may be objected, that as the results of research are + cosmopolitan, diffusing themselves everywhere, and this diffusion cannot + be prevented; the benefits arising from research cannot be restricted + even to a large community. In reply to this:—As knowledge and its + advantages are cosmopolitan, the duty of promoting research must be + equally extensive. There is also a real return received by the public for + expenditure of money in research, in the free liberty to use all new + knowledge developed everywhere by such labour, and although the money + expended by a <!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page217"></a>{217}</span>community upon particular researches or + upon an individual investigator, does not directly produce an immediate + return; practically an immediate and direct benefit is received by that + community, because new scientific knowledge for the use of teachers and + popular lecturers, and new inventions based upon it, <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'of of'.">of</span> local value + to that society, continually become public. Every civilized community has + also received beforehand such benefits to an enormous extent; and each + investigator may reasonably claim public support on the ground that he + contributes to the general stock of new knowledge. Some persons however, + who have not fully considered the subject, wish to receive not only the + advantages accruing from the common stock of knowledge, but also to + reserve to themselves the entire benefit arising from their own special + contributions.</p> + + <p>Experience alone will prove which of the foregoing schemes is the most + suitable in this country, or in particular cases. At present the plan + largest in operation is the system of Government Grants, next in + magnitude are the other funds distributed by the Royal Society, the + British Association, the Chemical Society, the Royal Institution, the + Birmingham Philosophical Society, and those provided by the munificence + of private individuals. It is greatly to be hoped that the liberal spirit + of private individuals will yet further remove the great blot which lies + upon the reputation of the wealthy manufacturers, capitalists, and + land-owners, who have derived such great profits from <!-- Page 218 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page218"></a>{218}</span>scientific + research and have scarcely aided it at all in return. It is also to be + desired that the Corporations of manufacturing towns will recognise the + value of original scientific enquiry to their fellow townsmen, and will + undertake the responsibility of voting money from municipal funds to + promote it.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>Notes</h3> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Nt1" href="#NtA1">[1]</a> See p.p. <a href="#page165">165</a> + to <a href="#page167">167</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt2" href="#NtA2">[2]</a> Essays and Addresses, Owen's + College, 1874, pp. 172-182.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt3" href="#NtA3">[3]</a> See Chapter 2, Section B.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt4" href="#NtA4">[4]</a> In the year 1870, a gentleman of + the name of Davis bequeathed £2,000 to the Royal Institution, London, to + aid original scientific research.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt5" href="#NtA5">[5]</a> As a notable exception to the above + statement:—"Scientific research has now an Institute of its own in + Birmingham, without being indebted to the public funds. A fund has + already been collected for carrying on the work. The building is called + 'The Institute of Scientific Research.'" See <i>Nature</i>, January 7th, + 1881, p. 366; the <i>Athenæum</i>, February 5th, 1881, p. 204; the + <i>English Mechanic</i>, p. 537, February 11th, 1881.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt6" href="#NtA6">[6]</a> Professor Bache left 50,000 + dollars, and Smithson bequeathed 541,000 dollars to this Institution.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt7" href="#NtA7">[7]</a> Respecting the Members of our + Houses of Legislature, a former Postmaster-General remarked to me, that a + dose of scientific research would be too much for them.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt8" href="#NtA8">[8]</a> The Victoria University has + recently become a partial exception to this statement.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt9" href="#NtA9">[9]</a> See "Royal Society Catalogue of + Scientific Papers," vol. 5, pp. 719 and 890; and vol. 8, p. 1,010.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt10" href="#NtA10">[10]</a> See <i>Nature</i>, April 24th + and May 1st, 1873, pp. 485 and 13; also <i>Work and Wages</i>, by + Brassey, pp. 170 and 178.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt11" href="#NtA11">[11]</a> <span + class="sc">Note</span>.—See "Work and Wages," by Brassey, p.p. + 15-131 and 132; also the "Laboratory," vol. 1, p.p. 313-316, 378 and + 380.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt12" href="#NtA12">[12]</a> <span + class="sc">Note.</span>—The whole of this chapter, especially the + Moral Section, is capable of great amplification and much more copious + illustration.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt13" href="#NtA13">[13]</a> <span + class="sc">Note.</span>—See also p. <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt14" href="#NtA14">[14]</a> <span + class="sc">Note.</span>—Athenæum, Aug. 3, 1877. p. 242.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt15" href="#NtA15">[15]</a> "Wish and Will," by L. Turner, + M.A.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt16" href="#NtA16">[16]</a> "The Mutual Relations of + Physical Science and Religious Faith."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt17" href="#NtA17">[17]</a> Port Royal Logic, Discourse + 1.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt18" href="#NtA18">[18]</a> See p. <a + href="#page91">91</a>-<a href="#page92">92</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt19" href="#NtA19">[19]</a> See "Waste Products and + Undeveloped Substances," by P. W. Simmonds.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt20" href="#NtA20">[20]</a> See "Barometer Cycles," by + Balfour Stewart, F.R.S.—<i>Nature</i>, Jan. 13, 1881, p. 237.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt21" href="#NtA21">[21]</a> See p. <a + href="#page165">165</a>, et seq.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt22" href="#NtA22">[22]</a> It would I consider be an + improvement in our educational arrangements, if a Professorial chair, + solely devoted to teaching those laws and principles, existed in each + Scientific College.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt23" href="#NtA23">[23]</a> See vols. 1 (1872) 2 (1874) of + the Reports of that Commission.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt24" href="#NtA24">[24]</a> See pages 100 and 101.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt25" href="#NtA25">[25]</a> "<i>Nature</i>," April 3rd, + 1873. p. 431.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt26" href="#NtA26">[26]</a> Sir Edmund Beckett, "<i>English + Mechanic</i>", 1881, No. 830, p. 560.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt27" href="#NtA27">[27]</a> The Earl of Craufurd, + "<i>English Mechanic</i>," 1881, No. 830, p. 560.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt28" href="#NtA28">[28]</a> See page <a + href="#page68">68</a>, et seq. p. <a href="#page134">134</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt29" href="#NtA29">[29]</a> See "<i>Nature</i>," Dec. 2nd, + 1880, p. 112.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt30" href="#NtA30">[30]</a> "<i>English Mechanic</i>," 1881, + No. 831, pp. 586, 587.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt31" href="#NtA31">[31]</a> "<i>English Mechanic</i>," + August 17th, 1881, p. 83.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt32" href="#NtA32">[32]</a> The Mastership of the Mint is no + longer given to scientific men.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt33" href="#NtA33">[33]</a> See Reports of Royal Commission + on Scientific Instruction and Advancement of Science, Vol 2, pp. + 75-92.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt34" href="#NtA34">[34]</a> See "<i>Nature</i>" No. 600, p. + 597, April 28th, 1881.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt35" href="#NtA35">[35]</a> A fleet of thirty ships, varying + in size from 500 to 5000 tons each, is employed in laying and repairing + telegraph cables, and 25 millions of pounds have already been invested in + submarine cable enterprises.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt36" href="#NtA36">[36]</a> See "<i>Nature</i>," vol. XXII, + page 203.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Scientific Basis of National +Progress, by George Gore + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS *** + +***** This file should be named 34771-h.htm or 34771-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/7/7/34771/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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